326 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/671e6b0b652a9a3ad5f175d260fee5b7.pdf 3fe4fcfea473349bc74d4db95c6629b9 PDF Text Text ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY – SPANISH MEETS CROATIAN Maša Musulin University of Zagreb Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The phoneme is conceived as a mental image that is stored in our mind and then represented by sounds in speech and graphemes in writing for phonologically based alphabets. The acquisition of L2 phonology includes two very important skills – reading and writing. The information stored in the mind of a speaker interferes with new information produced by the L2 (Robinson, Ellis 2008; Nathan, 2008). What is similar or equal in the target language to one's native language is, while unknown, incorporated one way or another into an existing model, based on prototypicality (Pompeian, 2004, Moreno Fernández, 2010). The process of teaching the sounds, letters and alphabet to foreign students is much shorter than for native speakers because to a foreign student must be given a tool for writing as soon as possible as they have to write what they are learning and memorize new language units (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). This paper discusses one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face when they are introduced to phonology through letters which represent Croatian sounds in order to display the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts. The subjects are ten students from Spain and Latin America. Their task was to read a group of words containing sounds that were predictably hard for them, minimal pairs and a short text. Keywords: phoneme, grapheme, letter, phonological awareness, foreign language �1. INTRODUCTION As literacy has a big impact on phonological awareness in languages with phonological writing, the graphemes that represent the phonemes, including letters, make an integral part of their mental image. This relation is rather complex because language skills also play an important role in the process of L2 phonology acquisition. Foreign students do not perceive only different L2 phonemes as strange, but also those who are equal in speech to their mother tongue but different in writing (Jelaska, Gulešić Machata 2006). Although the alphabet is very useful for looking for words in the dictionary at the beginning of learning, it has a strong impact on phonological awareness, and the mental image of the phoneme (Jelaska 2004, Jelaska, Gulešić Machata 2014). As reading and writing are incorporated in the class at the beginning of every language course, foreign language students often had not had the opportunity to encounter the sound representations of the phonological system of Croatian or any other target language. Therefore, teaching the letters of the alphabet to foreigners in their introductory L2 classes is not advisable without presenting them the sound system of the target language first (Jelaska, Musulin 2014). Some research has been conducted on the influence of the L1 phonological system in reading and writing of Croatian as L2: recognizing the pronunciation of American speakers (NovakMilić 2005), evaluating the pronunciation of various foreign Croatian learners (Šafarić, Ćalušić, Mildner 2006), or assessing orthographic competence (B1 level) which includes the writing of Croatian sounds (Udier, Grgić 2012). This paper will focus on one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face at the very beginning of the course: reading words and texts written with a different spelling system. Those are the results of the complicated relation between the phonemes and graphemes of the L2 language being studied, the mother tongue of the students, and their mutual influences (v. Jelaska, Musulin 2011, Musulin 2011).When students are introduced to phonology through letters that represent Croatian sounds, the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts can be observed. As the letters that represent particular sounds are the result of phonological analysis, the same sound may appear different in the mental image of the speakers, not based on the sounds themselves but on the basis of writing (which causes variety of written words forms with the same or very similar phonological units in different languages). In contact with L2, writing and reading the rules of L1 are transferred to it, causing positive or negative transfer. In early foreign language classes, or the main pages of the manual for beginners, sounds and letters are the first grammatical concepts. Although something similar happens with native speakers, the process of teaching sounds, letters and alphabet for foreign students takes much less time because foreign students must be given a tool to write down, as soon as possible, what they have learned and to memorize the new language units. This approach has traditionally been present for centuries (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). However, little attention has been given to the writing and reading in the initial teaching of foreign language, unlike the teaching of writing in the mother tongue. 2. COMPARATIVE APPROACH The comparisons of phonological systems of two languages reveal that it is necessary to compare several levels: the sounds that are different in listening and in writing, the �graphemes that are differently presented in writing and reading, but also the letters that occur in writing (Musulin 2014). Namely, some phonemes coincide in both languages in speaking, but on the graphemic level they do not have to correspond, which is just one of the problems. This paper will focus on Spanish language for two reasons. One is that in the Spanish speaking countries of South America there is a large Croatian community which consists of 200 000 to 500 000 Croats (Antić, 2002), mostly emigrants coming at the beginning of 20 th century and after the Second World War. They are now 4th or 5th generation and their mother tongue is Spanish. Every year some of them come to Croatia to learn Croatian. Some of them are heritage speakers (Valdes 2000), i.e. students raised in a home where Croatian is spoken in their household and able to speak or at least understand, which means they are bilingual, at least up to a certain point. Talking about the motivation to learn the heritage language, according to one’s origin and identity, Z. Jelaska (Jelaska 2005; Jelaska, Hržica, 2005) advises to differentiate between the two terms, in Croatian and English: nasljedni govornici 'heritage speakers' and predački govornici 'ancestral speakers'. According to her, in accordance with Valdes, a heritage speaker is a person who has at least one communication language skill, understanding, but typically speaking as well. The ancestral speakers by her definition are classroom learners linguistically similar to other foreign language students, and the only difference may be familiarity with their ancestors' culture and affective attitude. The Anglo-Saxon tradition continues to use the term 'heritage speaker(s)' for both categories - the term was discussed in detail by Beaudrie and Fairclough (2012). 2.1. SPANISH AND CROATIAN PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM As the phoneme is realized by a letter and a sound, it is indispensable to look at both in a phonological comparison. The Spanish alphabet has 27 letters and Croatian has 30. The Spanish alphabet is shown in (a) and the Croatian one in (b), with different letters in bold. (a) (b) abcdefghijklmnñopqrstuvwxyz a b c č ć d đ dž e f g h i j k l lj m n nj o p r s š t u v z ž As can be seen in (c), there are 22 identical letters, 4 special letters in Spanish, 8 Croatian letters that do not exist in Spanish, but among the same letters 6 are read differently, i.e. represent different sounds. Those 6 and 8 letters that do not exist in Spanish could make difficulties for Spanish learners of Croatian as L2. (c) i. ii. iii. iv. identical letters abcdefghijklmnoprstuvz letters that exist only in Spanish ñqwxy letters that exist only in Croatian č ć đ š ž lj nj identical letters representing different sounds cghjvz dž Croatian digraphs lj and nj represent sounds found in Spanish: [ʎ] and [ŋ], which means that lj is Croatian equivalent of Spanish ll and nj of Spanish ñ, as in (d.i) and (d.ii). Croatian letter č is an equivalent of Spanish digraph ch, letter ć represents a very similar sound, as in (d.iii). The distinction was not considered important in this paper because some Croatians, mostly from the capital city and north Croatia, as native speakers, do not make this distinction. The same could be said for letters and sounds dž and đ. �(d) i. sound [ʎ] ii. sound [ŋ] iii. sound [tʃ ] / [ʨ] Croatian lj Spanish Croatian nj Spanish ñ Croatian č / ć Spanish ch ll Sounds represented by Croatian letters š, ž and đ, as well as digraph dž, listed in (e), do not have Spanish equivalents. (e) letter š sound [ʃ] ž [ʒ] đ [ʥ] dž [ʤ] Croatian letters c g h j v z represent Croatian sounds found in (f), while in Spanish they represent sounds listed in (g). (f) letter c sound [ts] g [g] h [x] j [ɩ] v [ʋ] z [z] (g) letter c sound [θ] g [g] h [-] j [x] v [b] z [θ] It should be noted that some of these letters are conditioned by the surrounding letters or their distribution in the syllable. For example sounds [ʎ] and [ŋ], pronounced the same in both languages, are conditioned in Spanish by their place in the syllable. They could never stand at the end of the word in Spanish, while in Croatian they could. 3. DATA ANALYSIS Ten students of Croaticum1 at the University of Zagreb were tested. They were between 21 and 37 years old, male and female, 5 were coming from Spanish speaking countries in America (2 from Argentina, 2 from Chile and 1 from Mexico) and 5 from Spain. All of those students had never before participated in formal learning of Croatian. The students from South America were ancestral learners; the students from Spain were foreign language learners. Their reading skill of Croatian words was tested before they had started their formal classes. Students were not instructed about Croatian alphabet or phonological system. All readings were recorded. The students were given three types of texts; one with words in which (by author’s prediction) the difficult sounds and letters occur, one with minimal pairs of words and one text with the letters that differentiate in both languages. In Table 1, for easier overview, the students are presented by countries from where they originate and are coded with numbers. The age and gender did not show any prevalence on the result so they are excluded from the Table 1. Only those Croatian letters that were different in both languages, either as forms of letters or by reading are presented in the table 1. The letters that are correctly read, i.e. pronounced in Croatian, are marked with (+). Although some sounds, for example [s] and [c], have a somewhat different pronunciation, phonological intelligibility was the distinguishing factor. Therefore, if a sound produced in reading was 1 Center for teaching Croatian as foreign language at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb. �phonologically recognizable, it was considered well read. Subsequently, the letters that were not pronounced correctly (as recognizable Croatian sounds) are marked with (-). For example, word konj 'horse' was always pronounced like [koni] instead of [koŋ] (presumably because Spanish does not tolerate palatals at the end of word). Croatian letters that were sometimes pronounced correctly and sometimes not, mostly depending on letter distribution in the word, are marked with (+/-). Table 1: Croatian letters and Spanish learners’ success in reading them by country. Lettres č/ć s c š ž d/ v z h g lj dž Participants Argentina1 - +/ + + + +/+ + Argentina2 - +/ + + + +/+ + Chile +/+/+/ + + + + Chile +/+/ + + + + + + Mexico - +/ +/- +/ + + + +/Spain1 - - +/ + + + + Spain2 - - + + + +/- +/ Spain3 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Spain4 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Spain5 - - +/ +/- +/ + + Correct 10 Distribution dependent 0 (correct / incorrect) Incorrect 0 Total 10 nj j +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ - +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ +/ - 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 0 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 4 6 10 10 8 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 9 10 10 5 1 0 5 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 2 10 3.1. Successful reading Two (three) letters all informants pronounced correctly: letter s and letters č/ć. Letter s exists in Spanish, although it is more apical in Peninsular Spanish, and it was pronounced intelligibly in reading – this is an example of positive transfer. The distinction č/ć (prepalatal / palatal affricate) was not considered important because many Croatians, mostly from the capital city and north Croatia, also do not make this distinction. The success in reading could be explained by cultural knowledge of Spanish learners who �must have met letter ć as typical and frequent letter in Croatian surnames (for example Kovačić). 3.2. Unsuccessful reading Letters c, š and ž were not read (pronounced) as Croatian letters should be even once. Letter c was never pronounced correctly, but as [k] or [s], depending on distribution. Letter c is read (pronounced) differently in Spanish; hence this is an instance of negative transfer. Letters š and ž do not have Spanish equivalents and Croatian L2 learners simply could not read them. The letter š was pronounced as [tʃ], and ž as [ʃ]. It was hard for learners to make a distinction between these letters because they have no equivalent in Spanish (in later investigation where their listening skill was tested, they also had difficulties hearing those sounds). Letters đ and dž were pronounced correctly only by one student. 3.3. Partially successful reading Some letters were read more or less successfully because they represent sounds that exist in both languages but are written differently or vice versa. Letters lj and nj were pronounced correctly in the cases where the letter distribution corresponds in both languages by all participants. This is due to the fact that, although not as graphemes, those phonemes exist as sounds. Therefore they were pronounced correctly except at the end of the word (unacceptable in Spanish letter distribution). Letter g was pronounced as Croatian [g] when it was preceding back and low vowels (o, u, a), which is a case of positive transfer. Negative transfer caused pronunciation [x] before e and i, as in Spanish. Letter h and j were pronounced correctly in cases where the letter distribution corresponds in both languages. Letter h is not pronounced in Spanish but it is always pronounced as [x] in Croatian. Letter j is pronounced as [x] in Spanish and as [j] in Croatian. Letters v and z were pronounced correctly by Hispano-American students only. These could be attributed to the fact that in South and Central America, due to greater exposure to the different languages (immigrants), v is sometimes pronounced as [v] and z [z], while in Spain v is always [b] and z is always [θ]. These are the only two letters where a difference on the diatopic level was shown. However, Hispano-American students pronounced v correctly all the time, while they pronounced z correctly depending on distribution. 4. CONCLUSION The findings mostly confirm previous research that the same letters which are similarly pronounced in L1 and L2 were easy for the students to read, enabling positive transfer. Letters that do not exist in Spanish and those that exist in Spanish but are read differently in Croatian may or may not cause problems in the initial reading of L2, as different factors may play a role: distribution in L1, grapheme representation, possible transfer from other L2 letter-sound relationships, or cultural knowledge. Therefore, some special Croatian letters, as �well as the same letters representing different sounds were simply mispronounced, but some were pronounced as Croatian phonemes. It shows that the initial reading of L2 letters and words is a more complex language skill as is often perceived when a L2 alphabet is being presented at the introduction of a beginners class. As this short study deals with the initial knowledge of phonological systems in reading, future studies should, on one hand, deal with Spanish learners of the Croatian pronunciation of allophones, and on the other hand on pronunciation of sounds on the basis of hearing. The findings could be useful for letter and reading teaching of other languages as well. References: 1. Antić, LJ. (2002) Hrvati i Amerika [Croats and America], Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada - Hrvatska matica iseljenika, Zagreb, 2002 2. Celce-Murcia, M.; Brinton, D. M.; Goodwin, J. M. (1996) Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Jelaska, Z. (2005) Materinski, drugi, strani i ostali jezici u Jelaska et all. Hrvatski kao drugi i strani jezik, Zagreb, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, (págs. 24-37). 4. Jelaska, Z.; Gulešić-Machata, M. (2005) Prototypicality and the Concept of Phonem, Glossos 6 (págs. 1-13) 5. Jelaska, Z.; Hržica, G. (2005) In search for a missing part: identification and generational motivation in learning the L2, EUROSLA, Dubrovnik, 13-17 september (poster) 6. Jelaska, Z., Musulin, M. (2012) Slovo i slovopis španjolskoga i hrvatskoga jezika, Lahor, 2, 12 (págs. 211-239) 7. Jelaska, Z., Musulin, M. (2014) La enseñanza inicial de la composición fonológica en la segunda o lengua extranjera: los fonemas y el alfabeto, SRAZ, Zagreb (in print) 8. Valdés, G. (2000) Teaching Heritage Languages: An Introduction for SlavicLanguage-Teaching Professionals in Olga Kagan and Benjamin Rifkin, eds. Learning and Teaching of Slavic Languages and Cultures: Toward the 21st Century. Bloomington, Indiana, Slavica Publishers. Curriculum vitae Born on 1976 in Zagreb. In 2002 she got a degree in Croatian language and literature and Spanish language and literature at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy. In 2000/01 she spent six months in Rosario, Argentina, where she taught Croatian in the Croatian cultural center, and in 2002/03 she worked as a foreign instructor at the University of Alcalá, Spain. Since 1998, she has been working as an associate of University School of Croatian Language and Literature, and since 2013 she has been working as an instructor of ecourses of Croatian language HIT and HEJ. Since 2011 she has been working on the Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Spanish language where she teaches Spanish linguistics. She is an author or co-author of scientific and professional papers, one Croatian-Spanish and Spanish-Croatian dictionary, one book chapter and she presented her work at many international scientific conferences in Croatia and Europe. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2960 Title A name given to the resource ACQUISITION OF L2 PHONOLOGY – SPANISH MEETS CROATIAN Author Author Musulin, Maša Abstract A summary of the resource. The phoneme is conceived as a mental image that is stored in our mind and then represented by sounds in speech and graphemes in writing for phonologically based alphabets. The acquisition of L2 phonology includes two very important skills – reading and writing. The information stored in the mind of a speaker interferes with new information produced by the L2 (Robinson, Ellis 2008; Nathan, 2008). What is similar or equal in the target language to one's native language is, while unknown, incorporated one way or another into an existing model, based on prototypicality (Pompeian, 2004, Moreno Fernández, 2010). The process of teaching the sounds, letters and alphabet to foreign students is much shorter than for native speakers because to a foreign student must be given a tool for writing as soon as possible as they have to write what they are learning and memorize new language units (Celce-Murcia, Brinton, Goodwin, 1996). This paper discusses one type of difficulties Spanish learners of Croatian as L2 face when they are introduced to phonology through letters which represent Croatian sounds in order to display the influence of their preexisting phonological concepts. The subjects are ten students from Spain and Latin America. Their task was to read a group of words containing sounds that were predictably hard for them, minimal pairs and a short text. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PC Romance languages,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/777ca86e7720a4b794bd1ddf720e549c.pdf 570aa45eb6c503aeeac0e421336a2983 PDF Text Text ASSESSING PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE OF L2 LEARNERS Marija Kusevska & Tatjana Ulanska & Biljana Ivanovska & Nina Daskalovska & Liljana Mitkovska University Goce Delchev-Stip & FON University Article History: Submitted: 08.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to explore the components of pragmatic competence for L2 learners. Developing pragmatic competence in a second/foreign language has been addressed in many articles and publications on cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics (BardoviHarlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. Their stance is that communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 123). Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based test of pragmatic competence: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Research on interlanguage pragmatics often focuses on speech acts, politeness, use of formulaic expressions, mitigation, etc. In determining L2 learner’s pragmatic competence we face two major problems: 1. what components of learner’s interlanguage to measure; and 2. how to measure them. In this paper, we first define interlanguage pragmatics. Then we refer to issues referring to pragmatic competence and components that are relevant for its development. Finally, we discuss instruments and methods of testing interlanguage pragmatic competence. Keywords: interlanguage, speech acts, pragmatic competence, L2 learners �INTRODUCTION The main focus of this paper is on the components of pragmatic competence of L2 learners and their assessment. It resulted from a research related to the project “The role of explicit instruction in developing pragmatic competence in learning English and German as a foreign language.” The participants in the project are students of English and German at the Faculty of Philology at Goce Delcev University in Stip, Republic of Macedonia. The project was motivated by the importance of pragmatic knowledge, which allows learners to adequately communicate in the target language. The main goals of teaching foreign languages have long been preparing learners to communicate effectively in the language they are learning. Followers of the Communicative Method for decades have been highlighting the fact that knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical structures is not enough for successful communication in the target language. Learners need to be trained to choose the right linguistic means with reference to their interlocutors and their relationship with them. Having in mind this goal of language instruction, we may expect pragmatics to have the leading role in language learning and teaching. Unfortunately, it remains on the margins of foreign language teaching. In language learning textbooks it is represented only as much as it is necessary so that authors are not blamed for not following the modern approaches to language learning and still holding firmly to the traditional way in which grammar is most important, vocabulary is second, and there is a miscellaneous mixture of other areas, including pragmatics. LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING INTERLANGUGE PRAGMATICS There is a long tradition of research into cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics in which researchers address the issue of developing pragmatic competence in a foreign/second language (Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). Interlanguage pragmatics has been perceived and defined in various ways by researchers. The learner’s pragmatic ability according to Kasper and Blum-Kulka (1993, p.3) is seen as ‘a non-native speaker’s use and acquisition of linguistic action patterns in a second language’. Kasper and Schmidt (1996) claim that it has been modeled on cross-cultural pragmatics. There is a long list of researchers that have done cross-sectional or longitudinal studies on interlanguage pragmatics attempting to explain and define it but it was Kathleen Bardovi-Harling (1999) who showed her doubts that explaining and defining it makes it an acquisitional endeavor. Following this issue Barron (2003) in her book ‘Acquisition in Interlanguage Pragmatics’ presented valuable information for the process of acquisition of pragmatic competence as well as the �development of pragmatic competence, which is an area of research neglected in interlanguage pragmatics. Crystal (1985, p. 240) provides us with a broad definition that “pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, especially of the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication.” According to Crystal’s definition it is not only speech acts that are crucial for the successful communication but also the social context of discourse such as power and politeness, use of metaphor and irony, etc. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. In the CEFR the communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. The CEFR identifies the following matters as sociolinguistic competences: linguistic markers of social relations, politeness conventions, expressions of folk-wisdom, register differences, and dialect and accent. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p.123). INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS ISSUES The significance of pragmatic competence has been addressed by many researchers in the field of second/foreign language acquisition, but it is evident that the awareness level of the practitioners in language teaching is still on a critical low level. Studies have shown (Thomas, 1983, p. 97) that native speakers consider grammatical and lexical mistakes normal and expected but they tend to assume that learners possess the same pragmatic norms and respond in the same way as they would. The main pragmatic issues that often occur are misunderstandings between the speakers, participating in a conversation as a listener (backchannelling), understanding metalanguage and metapragmatics, understanding the unsaid and assessing the unsaid, avoiding a speech act to accommodate a target culture norm, nonverbal behavior. COMPONENTS FOR TESTING INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATICS In order to collect data and test the pragmatic competence a methodological method is required to be set. A probably most accurate and ideal method to test the pragmatic competence of L2 learners is to compare their comprehension and production to the one of native speakers. Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based language pragmatics test: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Numerous cross-cultural pragmatic studies have been conducted for empirical research purposes to study speech acts such as requests, apologies, refusals, complaints and suggestions, among many others (Beebe et al., 1990; Blum-Kulka, 1982; Cohen et al., 1986; �Gass & Neu, 1996; House & Kasper, 1987; Ikoma, 1993; Kasper, 1989; Olshtain & Weinbach, 1987; Takahashi & Beebe, 1987, 1993; Trosborg, 1995). Test development for interlanguage pragmatic assessment Pragmatic competence is understood as “the knowledge of the linguistic resources available in a given language for realizing particular illocutions, knowledge of the sequential aspects of speech acts, and finally, knowledge of the appropriate contextual use of the particular language’s linguistic resources” (Barron, 2003 p.10). Thus defined, pragmatic competence includes the ability to perform language functions and the knowledge of socially appropriate language use. Although it may seem that conversation, in which speech acts are embedded, is unsystematic, it is rule-governed by social and cultural rules. Social and cultural rules dictate the strategies and the linguistic means used in the given context. Yet, there are a number of tests that focus on one or the other (Hudson et al., 1995; Roever, 2005, 2006b; Bouton, 1988, 1994, 1999). As McNamara (2006) put it, we have to “keep it social, but practical.” Given that pragmatics is a fairly broad area, it is difficult to design a single test that assesses the entirety of a learner’s pragmatic competence. Again, in analogy to testing in general, it is possible to attain broader content coverage and test an appreciable chunk of pragmatic competence by using a test battery, but testing pragmatic competence as a whole is just as complex, time-consuming, and impractical as it would be to test language competence as a whole. Depending on the purpose of the test, different aspects of pragmatic competence can be tested. (McNamara, 2006, p. 65) However, because pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics are closely related, it is difficult to design a test that tests exclusively pragmalinguistics or sociopragmatics. Our view is that assessment of pragmatic competence must include both. In the process of preparing the testing of the speech acts there are several points that have normally become essential in the process of preparation of testing the pragmatic competence. The power of the speaker and the listener, the social distance between the speaker and the listener with respect to familiarity and solidarity, and the degree of imposition caused by the speech act situation are the three sociocultural variables of concern. INSTRUMENTS FOR ASSESSING INTERLANGUAGE PRAGMATIC ABILITY There are several instrument widely accepted and used by researchers for testing pragmatic competence, such as Discourse Completion Task (DCT), roleplays, interviews, multiple choice questionnaires, corpus data. In this section of our paper we discuss the instruments and methods that we used for assessing the pragmatic competence of English and German language learners. Since assessment of L2 pragmatics has tended to focus on speech acts, for the purpose of our research project, we also limit ourselves to speech acts. We will refer to 1. some instruments used to measure pragmatic competence, 2. context parameters, i.e. the �setting in which the speech act takes place, 3. the importance of authenticity and 4. the importance of retrospection. The studies that we have looked at have most often used DCTs, oral or written, and role plays, for assessing learners’ pragmatic competence. Native-speaker performance is the benchmark against which we are judging nonnative speech act performance. The very fact that the field of language pragmatics continues to develop means that paradigms continue to shift and consequently language assessment measures must be constructed consistent with the newly emerging patterns. So, the question remains as to whether it is possible to construct a language assessment measure that accurately determines success at performance of speech acts. And in a truly sociolinguistic fashion, we would have to respond, “It depends” (Boxer & Cohen, 2004, p.323). The responses will be rated for: (1) ability to use the correct speech act; (2) typicality of expressions; (3) appropriateness of amount of speech and information given; (4) level of formality; (5) directness; and (6) politeness Discourse Completion Task (DCT) DCTs are the most criticized, but the most frequently used type of instrument for measuring pragmatic competence. DCTs are attractive because they “elicit something akin to real-world speech act performance and because they are still somewhat practical despite the need for rating at least they can be administered to large numbers of test takers at the same time.” (McNamara, 2006, p.65) Although there are many claims that DCTs do not replicate reality, and people do not use DCT responses in the same way that they use language in real-life communication, there are certain aspects that can be assessed with this instrument. McNamara (2006, p.67) points out that “although DCTs (and most multiple choice measures) measure knowledge and do not allow direct predictions of real-world performance, they can be thought of as measuring potential for performance, as knowledge is arguably a necessary precondition for performance.” The DCT that we used for assessing our language learners’ pragmatic competence consists of three parts referring to the three distinct speech acts: requests, apologies and complaints. In constructing the section on requests, we referred to the studies of Blum-Kulka, & Olshtain (1984), Economidou-Kogetsidis & Woodfield (2012), and Olshtain & Cohen (1990); for apologies we referred to Blum-Kulka, & Olshtain (1984), Ogiermann (2009), and Trosborg (1995); while for complaints we referred to Trosborg (1995). In order to eliminate any weaknesses the DCT was piloted with 20 students. After doing the DCT, the students were asked to provide Yes/No responses to the following statements: 1. The information provided in the situation is sufficient (enough). 2. The situation and the roles of the participants in the conversation are clear. 3. The situations reflect possible everyday situations. 4. The context of the situation is appropriate for Macedonian students. �5. The following situations should be removed from the list: apologies - /requests - /complaints 6. The following situations need improvement: apologies - /requests - /complaints On the basis of the students’ remarks we concluded that: - some of the situations needed further clarification about the relationship between the speaker and the hearer, e.g. if they are friends, how close they are; if they are acquaintances how well they know each other; - the instructions required students to say something in each of the situations. However, they felt that in some of the situations which were supposed to trigger complaints or apologies they would just opt out; - there were a few problems with vocabulary, e.g. dent in the fender; - there were two situations that many of the students did not understand and had to be rephrased. Role plays In comparison with DCTs, role plays are more similar to real life speech situations. As in real conversation “there is a distributed responsibility among interlocutors for the creation of sequential coherence, identities, meaning, and events.” (McNamara, 2006, p. 46). The context that they provide is more detailed, there are two interlocutors and their roles are described more precisely. There is also a moment of surprise. Although a great deal of the talk is predicted, the hearer cannot be sure what strategies, formulaic expressions and other linguistic means the speaker will use. The hearer may also be surprised by the attitude projected by the speaker and may need to adapt and modify its own responses in compliance with it. Interlocutors have to apply conversational strategies such as language planning, asking for clarification, conversation management, etc. All these characteristics make conversations look more like conversations in real life. Still, it cannot establish context as in real world. There is nothing at stake, the face of the speaker and the hearer is not really threatened, speakers may be bolder and risk more than in real life. There are, however, a few drawbacks in the realization of the role plays. It is more difficult to organize and manage the process of data collection. It is difficult to keep track of a large number of students and ensure that students doing a role play are of the same level of proficiency. It is also time consuming and difficult to transcribe the conversations. Most of the students found the role plays interesting. Yet, there were some who found it stressful. In our research, we used nine role plays, three for each of the speech acts. It would be interesting to compare the results from the DCT with the results from the role plays. In the following stages of our project it is intended to do so. Retrospective verbal report Kasper & Dahl (1991) called attention to the usefulness of retrospective verbal report for better determining the nature of possible transfer from L1 norms of speech behavior in nonnative �L2 speech act performance. The aim of such interview is to check if the students are aware of the norms of interaction in a given context: power, social distance and severity of offence/degree of imposition. Additionally we can check if the students are aware of the norms of interaction in the English and Macedonian culture (positive politeness/negative politeness; directness/indirectness) as well as how the actual environment influences their behavior (classroom, not natural environment). We made the following list of questions for this retrospective interview which immediately followed the role plays: 1. Are you happy with how you formulated your speech act? What were you influenced by? (setting, description of the situation, perceived relationship, perceived power/social distance/ degree of imposition/offence, classroom environment, pressure of being taped, your interlocutor’s behavior, what you thought you were expected to say, etc.) 2. Do you think you might want to alter what you have said? Why? 3. Would you say the same if your interlocutor’s role was different (professor/friend/neighbor/ mother/brother/sister)? What would you say in that case? Why? 4. Do you think if you were speaking to a native speaker of English you would say something different? Why? 5. Do you think a native speaker would formulate their request/apology/complaint in the same way? How would it be different? Why would s/he formulate it that way? 6. What would you say if you were speaking to a Macedonian speaker? How different is it from what you said to an English speaker? What is the difference a result of? 7. Which speech act do you find the easiest/most difficult to produce? Why? This kind of data can be instrumental in better understanding the products of such elicitation techniques. We may learn how the respondents actually perceived each situation (e.g. how they perceived the role status of the interlocutors, the imposition, seriousness of the offence, etc.), and how their perceptions influenced their responses, what they wanted to say vs. what they actually said, how they planned out their responses, and what they thought of going through the tasks altogether. CONCLUSION In this paper we discussed pragmatic competence, components relevant for its development, and some instruments for pragmatic competence assessment. In particular, we focused on speech acts. We described the battery of tasks that we developed for our project as well as their advantages and drawbacks. In the next stage of the project, we will proceed to comparing learners’ to native speakers’ performance and compiling a syllabus for speech act acquisition. The project referred to in this paper was motivated by the lack of valid data on communicative competences of Macedonian learners of English and German as well as by the need of tracing effective methods for reinforcing communication skills. The research will include contrastive analysis of speech acts, design of instruments for pragmatic competence assessment �and design of learning modules for developing pragmatic competence. The project anticipates placement of the learning modules on the Internet, thus making them available for the learners. The analysis of learners’ pragmatic competence after studying the modules will show to what extent explicit instruction can reinforce their communication ability. We believe that with this the project will make great contribution to the development of language learners’ communication skills. REFERENCES Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bardovi-Harlig, K. (1999). Exploring the interlanguage of interlanguage pragmatics: A research agenda for acquisitional pragmatics. Language Learning 49, 677-713. Barron, A. (2003). Acquisition in interlanguage pragmatics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics 11 (2), 131-146. Blum-Kulka, S. (1992). The metapragmatics of politeness in Israeli society. In R. J. Watts, S. Ide, & K. Ehlich, Politeness in language: Studies in its history, theory and practice (pp. 255-280). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: requests and apologies. Norwood: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Boxer, D., & Cohen, A. D. (2004). Studying speaking to inform second language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Cohen, A. D. (2004). Assessing speech acts in a second language. In D. Boxer, & A. D. Cohen, Studying speaking to inform second language learning (pp. 302-327). Clevedon/Buffalo/Toronto: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD. Cohen, A. D., & Ishihara, N. (2005). A web-based approach to strategic learning of speech acts. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition, University of Minnesota. Cohen, A. D., & Ishihara, N. (2005). Strategies for learning and performing L2 speech acts. Intercultural Pragmatics 2 (3), 275-301. Coulmas, F. (1981). Poison to your soul: Thanks and apologies contrastively viewed. In Conversational Routine (pp. 69-91). The Hague: Mouton. �Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (1985). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. 2nd edition. New York: Basil Blackwell. Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman. Fraser, B. (2010). Pragmatic competence: The case of hedging. In G. Kaltenböck, W. Mihatsch, & S. Schneider, New Approaches to Hedging (pp. 15-34). Bingley: Emerald. Hinkel, E. (2011). Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning. New York, NY: Routledge. Holmes, J. (1990). Apologies in New Zeland English. Language in Society, Vol. 19, No. 2, 155199. Ishihara, N., & Cohen, A. (2010). Teaching and learning pragmatics: Where language and culture meet. London: Longman. Kusevska, M. (1997). Speech acts: The act of complaining in English and Macedonian. MATESL thesis. Tempe, AZ, USA: Arizona State University. Liu, J. (2004). Measuring interlanguage pragmatic knowledge of Chinese EFL learners. PhD dissertation. City University of Hong Kong. McConachy, T., & Hata, K. (2013). Addressing textbook representations of pragmatics and culture. ELT Journal 67 (3), 294-301. McNamara, T. F., & Roever, C. (2006). Language testing: The social dimension. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell. O'Keeffe, A., Clancy, B., & Adolphs, S. (2011). Introducing pragmatics in use. London/New York: Routledge. Olshtain, E., & Blum-Kulka, S. (1985). Cross-cultural pragmatics and the testing of communicative competence. Language Testing 2 (1), 16-30. Roever, C. (2005). "That's not fair!" Fairness, bias, and differential item functioning in language testing. University of Hawaii. Ross, S., & Kasper, G. (2013). Assessing second language pragmatics. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics 4 (2), 91-112. Trosborg, A. (2010). Pragmatics across languages and cultures. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG. Wigglesworth, G., & Yates, L. (2007). Mitigating difficult requests in the workplace: What learners and teachers need to know. TESOL Quarterly 41, 791-803. �Yamashita, S. (2008). Investigating interlanguage pragmatic ability: What are we testing? In E. Soler, & A. Martinez-Flor, Investigating pragmatics in foreign language learning, teaching and testing (pp. 201-223). Bristol/Buffalo/Toronto: MULTILINGUAL MATTERS. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2959 Title A name given to the resource ASSESSING PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE OF L2 LEARNERS Author Author Kusevska, Marija Ulanska, Tatjana Ivanovska, Biljana Daskalovska, Nina Mitkovska, Ljiljana Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to explore the components of pragmatic competence for L2 learners. Developing pragmatic competence in a second/foreign language has been addressed in many articles and publications on cross-cultural and interlanguage pragmatics (Bardovi-Harlig, 1999; Barron, 2003; Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper, 1989; Cohen & Ishihara, 2005; Ishihara & Cohen, 2010; Kasper & Blum-Kulka, 1993; McConachy & Hata, 2013; Trosborg, 2010; Wigglesworth & Yates, 2007; etc.). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001) also addresses this issue. Their stance is that communicative language competences include linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. Pragmatic competence itself includes learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are: a. organized, structured and arranged (discourse competence); b. used to perform communicative functions (functional competence); c. sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (design competence) (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 123). Roever (2005) chose three components for his web-based test of pragmatic competence: speech acts, implicatures and routines. Research on interlanguage pragmatics often focuses on speech acts, politeness, use of formulaic expressions, mitigation, etc. In determining L2 learner’s pragmatic competence we face two major problems: 1. what components of learner’s interlanguage to measure; and 2. how to measure them. In this paper, we first define interlanguage pragmatics. Then we refer to issues referring to pragmatic competence and components that are relevant for its development. Finally, we discuss instruments and methods of testing interlanguage pragmatic competence. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c41a51f25e3e091c9dc9896d6f247c73.pdf ee4003994c37f67336d9acd105894099 PDF Text Text INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Margarita Kulagina Language Studio “4U” Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Keywords: globalization, intercultural education, modern educational courses. �Nowadays we live in the world of fast and easy communication, dealing with people of various cultures and backgrounds. Economic, political and historical changes have created new forms of intercultural interaction in the process of globalization. Stanley Fischer (2001) in his speech The Challenge of Globalization in Africa pointed out that globalization is a multi-faceted concept, containing many important social, political, environmental, cultural and religious dimensions, which affect every human being in this or that way. As Henry Teune (2002) explains globalization has changed the world enough to demand serious rethinking about comparative social research in our era of globalization. As a result of globalization world society is becoming more multicultural. It makes us recognize, respect and value diversity. The terms cultural diversity and multiculturalism have already become a part of our life. In this regard, the interest of researchers from all over the world towards successful interaction between the representatives of various groups is constantly growing. Communication that lacks appropriate cultural content can become the source of misunderstanding and communication failure that can lead to negative effect. Therefore, one of the most important skills of nowadays is the ability to develop communicative competence in order to take part in the life of multicultural communities and changing society. The interaction of representatives of different nationalities has been made more commonplace by the fluidity of the political and economic conditions in many countries (Kasatkina, 2010). This process continues to occur as individuals keep on feeling compelled to take extraordinary attempts to uproot themselves from their familiar cultural and linguistic groups and immigrate to different cultural and linguistic communities. This can be achieved thanks to intercultural education. First of all, it is necessary to define the term of intercultural education itself. As Harry H. Giles, Victor E. Pitkin and Thelma Ingram (1946) notice this expression didn’t appear in the Education Index until after 1941 and it only came out in Reader’s Guide to Periodical Literature in 1943. They give the following definition: Intercultural education is education to improve understandings and practices of good human relations between individuals of the many culture groups. It is also interesting to look at the work of historian Nicholas Montalto, who made a research A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941, where he shows the routes of intercultural education in the USA. It appeared as a response to the changes that took place in the society which were caused by the new coming immigrants from southern and northern Europe. During the first two decades of the 20th century there was a foreign language movement in American libraries, providing the new members of society with the literature in their native languages. It was an attempt to fulfill successful communication between the representatives of different nations and to create positive intercultural dialogue. Active discussion about the necessity of intercultural education was connected with the growth of immigrants coming to Western Europe, especially to France, Benelux, Germany, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. Different approaches were introduced and the most widely-spread were immigrant education, intercultural education, multicultural education and anti-racist education. The main accent was made on successful assimilation with the main focus on language learning mainly. The followers of immigrant education organized special classes for newcomers where they studied together with other migrants outside of the majority group. It was absolutely evident that this approach didn’t work well �and educators had to look for new methods. Later in 1980-1990 researchers in many European countries started active developing of multicultural education with the main concentration on integration rather than assimilation. The focus was on tolerance and different cultures. In many schools there were organized special cultural events on different theme days. However, this approach led to even bigger separation underlining the division into “ours-others” concept. Educators came to a conclusion that intercultural education should become an integral part of learning process without subdivision of students into minority and majority groups. Nowadays, the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) (2005) define intercultural education as an …education which respects, celebrates and recognises the normality of diversity in all areas of human life. It sensitises the learner to the idea that humans have naturally developed a range of different ways of life, customs and worldviews, and that this breadth of human life enriches us all. It is education, which promotes equality and human rights, challenges unfair discrimination, and promotes the values upon which equality is built. According to the INTO (2002) it is also about “…respecting cultural difference and promoting anti-racism, it is not simply the knowledge of a variety of cultures. It aims to counter misconceptions and negative stereotyping of different cultures, religions and nationalities and seeks to develop an appreciation of other cultures in the context of a critical appreciation of local/Irish cultures. Intercultural education celebrates the positive aspects to cultural diversity as well as drawing attention to the power differences between groups and societies”. The UNESCO Guidelines on intercultural education published in 2007 identifies the key issues and challenges related to education and multiculturalism such as culture, culture and education, culture and language, culture and religion, but also cultural diversity and majority or minority cultures, multiculturalism and interculturalism. It also defines the role and objectives of intercultural education as learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. The guideline presents the legal framework to which intercultural education can make reference: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, international treaties and conventions, covenants, declarations and recommendations. Also the outcomes of the main international conferences are given and allow the educators to use them in forming the programme and developing new educational concepts. Finally three main principles that frame these guidelines are presented and followed by indications on how to achieve them. The general issues are the following: Principle I: Intercultural Education respects the cultural identity of the learner through the provision of culturally appropriate and responsive quality education for all. Principle II: Intercultural Education provides every learner with the cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills necessary to achieve active and full participation in society. Principle III: Intercultural Education provides all learners with cultural knowledge, attitudes and skills that enable them to contribute to respect, understanding and solidarity among individuals, ethnic, social, cultural and religious groups and nations. Intercultural education has been actively discussed by world leading politicians, researchers, educators and scientists for about four decades. The European Commission has �created a strong legal basis on which action for intercultural dialogue and against discrimination can also be developed in the education sector. These are the related documents that can be used while working over the curriculum:  Racial equality directive (2000/43/EC);  Employment framework directive (2000/78/EC);  Directive COM(2008) 426;  Renewed social agenda;  Intercultural dialogue support through EU programmes. Educators have come to a conclusion that modern learning process should be oriented at getting new skills, especially communicative ones, rather than gathering information and remembering facts. Teachers’ aim is to prepare students for real life in diverse society, saving learners’ own identity and respecting the others. The number of immigrants is constantly growing and newcomers are actively taking part in the life of communities they are coming to. Learners’ backgrounds differ in terms of religion, socio-economic status, parents’ education, values, attitudes, lifestyles and abilities. All these factors accentuate social and cultural pluralism. In Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools (2002), the Department of Education and Science explains the main points of intercultural education for children that can successfully be referred to any modern learning process, aiming to foster conditions conducive to pluralism in society. Intercultural education raises awareness of learners’ own culture and attunes them to the fact that there are other ways of behaving and value systems. It helps to develop respect for lifestyles different from their own so that learners can understand and appreciate each other. In view of the intense spread of English in the world, its teaching becomes global. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the Englishspeaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. One of the tasks today is often to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistics reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, wrong understanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. According to professor Claire Kramsch (1993), culture is always in the background, right from day one, ready to unsettle the good language learners when they expect it least, making evident the limitations of their hard-won communicative competence, challenging their ability to make sense of the world around them. Wilga Rivers (1981) points out that we must focus on both appropriate content and activities that enable students to assimilate that content. Activities should encourage them to go beyond fact, so that they begin to perceive and experience vicariously the deeper levels of the culture of the speakers of the language. Language Policy Division of the Council of Europe has presented the detailed guide for the development and implementation of curricula for plurilingual and intercultural education useful for both educators and those who are responsible for curriculum planning. The European Centre for Modern Languages (ECML) of the Council of Europe designed a programme of learning through languages aiming at developing plurilingual and intercultural pedagogic approaches. Educators understand the importance of intercultural education and developing cognitive skills and abilities in their students in order to make them successful in changing �multinational and multicultural world. At the same time intercultural education is aimed at recognizing socio-cultural and linguistic diversity, as well as respecting and understanding different groups in the same society. Undoubtedly, modern technologies for the creation of educational next-generation products will improve the efficiency of formation of linguistic and intercultural competence of the learner and help to lead a successful dialogue between the representatives of various cultures. References Fisher, S. The Challenge of Globalization in Africa. Yaoundé, Cameroon, 2001. Giles, H. Review of Educational Research Vol.16, No.1, Social Foundations of Education (Feb.1946), pp.39-45. Guidelines on Traveller Education in Primary Schools. Dublin, 2002. Kasatkina, N. Analyzing Language Choice among Russian-Speaking Immigrants to the United States. The University of Arizona, 2010. Kramsch, C. Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Montalto, N. A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924-1941. New York: Garland, 1982. Rivers, W. Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981. Teune, H. Is Globalization An American Ideology? XV World Congress, International Sociology Association, Brisbane, Australia, 2002. INTERNET RESOURCES https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Source2010_ForumGeneva/GuideEPI201 0_EN.pdf http://www.ecml.at/Portals/1/mtp4/broschure-mtp4-EN-web.pdf https://www.education.ie/en/Schools-Colleges/Information/Intercultural-EducationStrategy/mig_intercultural_education_strategy.pdf http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/publications/intercultural.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001478/147878e.pdf � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2957 Title A name given to the resource INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF MODERN LEARNING PROCESS Author Author Kulagina, Margarita Abstract A summary of the resource. The process of the world globalization leads to the enlargement of intercultural and interlingual connections among the representatives of different countries, nations, religions and cultures. Herewith, there is a special interest towards the study of intercultural communication and its reflection in the educational sphere. That is why the problem of including cultural information into modern educational programmes and compilation of cutting edge teaching materials has acquired great importance. Modern methodical complexes acquaint students with the changing realities of the English-speaking countries and fixed expressions that describe various aspects of life. The main task is to avoid misunderstanding, caused not only by purely linguistic reasons but also by lack of cultural knowledge, misunderstanding or simply unfamiliarity with the key concept of the culture being studied. Taking into consideration the changing status of foreign languages as a source of intercommunication and mutual understanding, methodology underlines the necessity of intensification of pragmatic aspects of the language acquisition. Nowadays, the main purpose of the educational process is to get acquainted with the foreign language as a whole unit, including grammar and lexical data, as well as cross-cultural information. It helps to understand natural, historical and social realia, spiritual values and assists in the formation of the linguistic consciousness. At the present stage educational courses solve the problem of a textbook, as well as a reference resource, highlighting all the lexical, grammatical and cultural information, and meeting the students’ needs. These directories support effective lesson and make it possible to get deeper into the culture of the foreign language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4cd650fda53e2ebf21cbb133112a27ba.pdf 81a0ffca63908a94c5c7abb27f2da714 PDF Text Text THE ASPECTS OF PERRY-LORD FOR POPULAR BALLADS, CONCERNING THREEANGLO-SAXON BALLADS (SIR PATRICK SPENS, LORD RANDAL, THE WIFE OF USHER’S WELL) Fatmire Isaki State University of Tetovo, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 02.08.2015 Abstract: The purpose of this paper is through properly selected examples to prove that Millman Parry and Albert Lord’s aspects of the theory of the popular ballad can be applied in the English ballads too. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous popular ballads of the Balkans and traditions, could be transmitted through many generations by oral route and why have appeared formulaic principles in the way they are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show the same principles on an analysis of three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. This theory suggests that the more phrases the singer knows, the higher is the chance to improvise and structure strings of verses. Ballads Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well will be analyzed starting from their metric system, rhyme, and as well as locating stylistic figures used in these ballads. The paper will have a comparative approach to find similarities and differences between ballads of Balkans posed by Perry and Lord, and three Anglo-Saxon ballads. Also, this paper will analyze the themes treated in these ballads. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper will try to come to the conclusion that no matter that they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, themes encountered in them if not identical, then many are very similar. Key words: ballad theory, structure, oral-formulaic, metric system �INTRODUCTION Ballads have great value in literature, in this case in English literature. It is impossible not to notice so many valuable ballads in English literature, which motivate the reader and make more curious in searching different ballads. Every good reader knows the importance of ballads especially of the old English ballads, which use very clear language attracting the reader to read more and more. A ballad is “a folk song or orally transmitted poem telling in a direct and dramatic manner some popular story usually derived from a tragic incident in local history or legend. The story is told simply, impersonally, and often with vivid dialogue.”(The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms, 2008:32). What Goethe says about ballads is that the value of these songs of the simple people is in the fact to be found that their motifs are drawn completely from nature. He added that in the art of saying things capably, uneducated men have greater skill than those who are educated. Ballads deal with historical events, local traditions, with personal adventures or achievements. We can say that they are totally objective. However, today’s poetry is completely subjective which deals with the study of the subjective conditions rather than objective realities. Accordingly, old ballads are of great value because of the spontaneity. They present subject mattered lyrics where in general they show the unconsciousness or also called naïveté. In some cases, the naïveté is presented with soft and acceptable humor, which attracts the spirit of the man (reader) with its real, sincere and beautiful description of different human experience. The old ballads are related to the popular epic, which deal with historical or real events. The old ballads are told by ordinary people and written by authors, but they are valued by their simplicity because they are presented just as the people told them. The popular ballads are so different from the contemporary ones that all the people of each culture must appreciate the unwritten literature such as, popular ballads, or stories and proverbs because they deal with originality. Even though nowadays literature is seen as if it is understood only by professional people and that only few people can write poetry or other forms of literature, in fact it is not like that at all. There are many people of each nation who can produce real impressive songs or poems which may seem original, clear and objective. Time has shown that every nation with its own language and tradition can produce really impressive songs that speak clearly and objectively for their uniqueness, but also for the cultural communication with other nations. Simplicity is the element to which is always given importance in this type of work, in which people have pointed out the necessity of communication as an essential means by which this works are successfully transmitted from generation to generation, from era to era and have survived through the millenniums. Oral literature should be further investigated in order to discover its stylistic and structural elements that provide its existence and still make it current, i.e. “alive” literature. Such is the case, of course with the English and Scottish ballads, but firstly let us see how much are ballads investigated in these regions. �The interest in folklore in Balkans began in the 19th century as part of the Enlightenment and Renaissance activities of intellectuals from the region, not only for cultural interest, but also for nationalist interests. Despite numerous research projects in recent years, we can say that relatively little has been explored in our region at the time when the research interest in folklore in the UK and the USA during the first half of the 20th century was on upswing. The American folklorists Millman Parry and Albert Lord are they who did a research on ballads of Balkans. Albert Lord discusses the oral tradition through his theory of literary composition and applied on Homeric epic and medieval epic. The theory set by Millman Parry and later elaborated and expanded by Albert Lord, concentrates on the oral- formulaic composition of these epics and ballads that were transmitted orally through the centuries before finally being enrolled. The analysis is made of the ways by which the performers recite these ballads and transform those ballads from oral form into written form. The development of their theory suggests that folk singers use formulaic statements to recall long passages that make up these ballads. The theory of oral-formulaic composition is based on the key idea that poets have available various "formulas" in the process of composition and with their use and connectivity they can quickly compose a number of verses. But what is meant by the term "formula"? Millman Perry offers the following definition: "a group of words that are regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea."(Lord, 2003:30). The theory of oral-formulaic structure elaborated by Millman Parry and Albert Lord can be traced, recorded and applied not only on the ballads of Balkans but also the Anglo-Saxon ballads. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous folk ballads in the Balkans and traditions could be transmitted through many generations orally and why such formulaic principles have appeared in the way these ballads are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show these principles on an analysis of the three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. Millman and Perry treated this theory in the ballads of Balkans, so for us it is of great interest to examine whether the same theory can be treated in the ballads originating from the Anglo-Saxon regions and traditions. Of course, until ballads are not written in paper, the ballad cannot have a unified text. This allows many singers of folk ballads and songs to improvise in their own words, i.e. with their formulaic strategies and thus produce varieties and invariant of the same ballad. Perry and Lord in the beginning give us a general introduction on the history of oral formulaic composition. Furthermore, they continue to research the training of the singers of these folk songs and the process of their performance. Much effort has been given to reveal who are these people who have so much control over the performance of folk ballads, traveling from one place to another in order to perform folk songs. The authors conclude that singers, who sing long passages of ballads, do not tell the same story for the second time with the same words. Lord and Perry indicate three stages in the preparation. In the first phase the man who is trained to be a performer of folk songs is passive and his job is to listen to the songs in order to get acquainted �with the themes and the general structure of the ballad. In the second stage he tries to put in context the story that he knows, according to certain metrics of poetic verses. In the third phase, he tries to recite a ballad for the first time and compose his first full song. In the chapter titled "The Formula", Lord expresses his belief that there is a classical oral formula and thus provides the definition of Perry, who thinks that the formulas are mathematical in nature and defined as "a group of words that are regularly employed under the same metrical conditions to express a given essential idea." (Lord, 2003:30 ) His analysis focuses more on the metric system and the repetition rather than content. In the chapter titled "Theme", Lord and Perry concentrates on the content of the ballad. Perry says that the same subject can be expressed with the help of many different formulas and give a few examples of such ballads from the Balkans. "Songs and the Songs" is the chapter where precisely is given the difference between a traditional singer of folk songs and modern or contemporary scientist and his views on oral formulaic composition in a song as a text which is subject of change from one to another singing. Lord tells us that traditional singers of folk songs think of them as "flexible plan of themes."(Lord, 2003:99) As a result, a folk song or ballad goes through changes because over time the memories begin to change and show new ways. Furthermore, Albert Lord speaks of oral tradition and writing in a culture, exploring the transition from oral to written tradition. While writing in a culture can affect its oral tradition and while writing replaces the oral tradition, as a result we get the disappearance of the oral tradition. Further, Lord applies the theory of oral formulaic composition on Homer's works Iliad, the Odyssey and the medieval epic, and thus tells us that the modern reader treats Homer as oralformulaic composer. To prove that the above theory of Parry and Lord may be applied on the English ballads, we will argue and apply their views on appropriate examples. As a first example, we can enumerate the analysis of one of the Anglo-Saxon ballads titled Sir Patrick Spens. The ballad Sir Patrick Spens is a historical ballad written in 11 stanzas. The ballad has a typical ballad stanza with four lines - a structure that helps singers as easy as possible to remember it. In ballad describes the tragic event of the thirteenth century. The ballad tells the story of the knight-sailor Sir Patrick Spence who goes in the sea on a mission for the King. Sir Patrick should bring the King’s daughter and he needs to sail with her to Scotland. Sir Patrick has to fulfill this mission in the winter, but he has the feeling that an accident is forthcoming that actually occurs. The narrator tells the story "in medias res" ("in the middle of things"), without any comment on the events. It remains to the readers to discover the reasons of sailing and to decide whether this trip was a wise decision or not. But in the end of the ballad we understand that Sir Patrick and his crew die in this journey. The rhyme of each stanza of this ballad is A B C B. For example: Up and spake an eldern knicht, A Sat at the King's richt kne: B �"Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor C That sailed upon the se." (Witham, 1903&1904:38)B Almost all ballads have stanzas that consist of four or six lines, and use one of the two main meters 4-3-4-3 or 4-4-4-4. The ballad Sir Patrick Spens uses 4-3-4-3 metric. There are no other variants of Sir Patrick Spens and all lines have the same rhythm and rhyme scheme. The first and third verse of each stanza, have four accents, while the second and fourth verse have three accents. Their accents form a rhythm that is iambic and ballads have musicality when reading, indicating that they were sung during the performance. An example of the first four verses of Sir Patrick Spens: The king sits in Dumfermline toune. / / / / Drinking the blude-red wine: / / / 'O whar will I get gnid skipper, / / / / To sail this schip of mine?' (Sargent, 1904:103) / / / We can also say that in this ballad is used much alliteration, i.e. repeating the same consonant at the beginning of some consecutive words: For I brought as much white money As will gane my men and me. (Sargent, 1904:105) In the ninth and tenth stanza is used repetition, repeating the same word: 9. They hadna been a week, a week, In Noroway but twae, 10. "Ye lie, ye lie, ye liars loud! Sae loud’s I hear ye lie. (Bates, 2012:535) In Sir Patrick Spens are included several topics. The ballad treats more topics such as suffering, lost, loyalty, conflict between conviction and obedience to authority, dangers at sea and death. The Anglo-Saxon folk ballad Lord Randall which comes from the folk tradition is written in 10 stanzas of four lines and is based on the tragedy of a young man who was poisoned by his �beloved. Contrary to popular song Sir Patrick Spens where 4-3-4-3 metric system is used, in this folk song the metric system which is used is 4-4-4-4. For example: Oh where ha you been, Lord Randall, my son? / / / / And where ha you been, my handsome young man? / / / / I ha been at the greenwood: mother, mak my bed soon, / / / / For I'm wearied wi hunting and I fain wad lie down. (Sargent, 1904:22) / / / / The rhyme in Lord Randall may be unusual for us. We note that all stanzas have the same last four words: 'son', 'man', 'soon', and 'down'. We can say that this song is written in rhyming couplets. The words of his mother always end with 'son' and 'man'. Even though the words 'son' and 'man' are not identical while reading, they are heard similar but not identical and therefore the rhyme is not perfect ("imperfect rhyme" or "week rhyme"). The same can be said about these two verses in which the accented word 'down' is read as 'doon'. So the rhyme in the ballad Lord Randall is AABB. Lord Randall 10 “What d’ ye leave to your true-love, Lord Randal, my son? What d’ ye leave to your true-love, my handsome young man?” “I leave her hell and fire; mother, mak my bed soon, For I’m sick at the heart, and I fain wad lie down.” (Sargent, 1904:23) As one of the most used stylistic figure in Lord Randall is repetition. In any line, in the second part of each statement the same words are repeated. Whenever Randall answers the questions posed by his mother, he ended his answer with the same words. Throughout these questions and answers, we gradually learn more about the story and in the end, we learn what happened to Lord Randall. This dialogical method built into the narrative is common in ballads and it achieves greater dramatic tension in the singing of the ballad. 2 “An wha met ye there, Lord Randal, my son? An wha met you there, my handsome young man?” “O I met wi my true-love; mother, mak my bed soon, For I’m wearied wi huntin, and fain wad lie down.” (Sargent, 1904:22) The main theme treated in this folk sing is Randall’s sincere love and betrayal or cheating of the beloved one. Poisoning in this song is used metaphorically, meaning the dearly loved �didn’t poison him with poison, but the love he felt for her was actually the poison. This means that love is a symbol of death and the bed is a symbol of the tomb. Also, as a subtopic treated in the suffering of the mother for her son. Our third and final folk ballad for analysis is The Wife of Usher's Well which dates from the 17th century. The ballad has a tragic story: the death of three sons and sufferings of their mother. This song is written in 12 stanzas of four verses with rhyme ABCB. This ballad begins "in medias res", i.e. no previous introduction to the events that led to the tragedy of three sons. The Wife of Usher's Well THERE lived a wife at Usher's well, And a wealthy wife was she; She had three stout and stalwart sons, And sent them o'er the sea. They hadna been a week from her, A week but barely ane, When word came to the carline wife 5 That her three sons were gane. (Sargent, 1904:168) The Wife of Usher's Well is written in the typical form of folk ballad, in 12 stanzas of four lines with alternating 4-3-4-3 metric system. For example: They hadna been a week from her, / / / / A week but barely ane, / / / Whan word came to the carline wife, / / / / That her three sons were gane. (Sargent, 1904:168) / / / The ballad has a refrain that is repeated to separate segments of the story. Many ballads also have partial repetition in which a phrase is repeated with slight differences such as the story progresses. �"Fare ye weel, my mother dear! Fareweel to barn and byre! And fare ye weel, the bonny lass That kindles my mother's fire!" (Sargent, 1904:168) Alliteration is significantly present in this ballad with an aim to achieve an impressive sound effect. In the second line, for example, And a wealthy wife was she or third She had three stout and stalwart sons. Another stylistic figure used in this song is synecdoche (part of something that is whole or vice versa). For example: It fell about Martinmass, When nights are lang and mirk, The carlin wife’s three sons came hame And their hats were of birk. (Sargent, 1904:168) In line their hats were o the birk, "birk" is the name of birch that grows in front of the gates of paradise. Also "birk" is used metaphorically as a symbol of death. One of the themes treated in this ballad is supernatural. Mother uses magic to return her sons, but they can return only as spirits and have to disappear early in the morning. Other themes are: tragic death, medieval religion / superstition and magic of culture, the relationship between the mother and her sons and suffering. CONCLUSION From the above discussion of the three Anglo-Saxon ballads we can conclude that, like many Balkan ballads analyzed by Parry and Lord, Anglo-Saxon ballads also can be transferred to generations orally because most of them follow the same characteristics as ballads of these regions. This means that these characteristics have universal scope and application. The people who sang these songs and folk ballads were illiterate people with simple, dramatic and powerful language. These simple people managed to play a major role in their dissemination and transfer from one generation to another and from one culture to another. Preferred structural model of the ballad is stanza because almost by definition ballads were composed in stanzas with four rhymed verses ABCB with 8 + 6 + 8 + 6 syllables, as in ballads Sir Patrick Spens and The Wife of Usher's Well. However, there are other models such as the rhyming couplets with parallel AABB rhyme, as we saw in the case of folk ballad Lord Randall. The rhyme in the ballads is simple, but often irregular or "poor", often depends on the phonological features of the respective dialects in which the ballad occurred. They use the same "formulaic" words, phrases or expressions because they give musicality to the song. On a narrative level, in these songs are used repetition, symbol, alliteration, metaphor etc. The themes of the Anglo-Saxon ballads and ballads of the region are numerous and very similar. They treat themes of sincere love, the supernatural, often transferred �to dialogic form (mother and son, brother, sister, etc.), betrayal, suffering, sacrifice and the like. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper comes to the conclusion that no matter what they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, the structure, the style and the themes that can be found in them if not identical, then in large part very similar. References      Baldick, Chris (2008). The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Oxford University Press. Bates, Katharine L. (December 31, 2012). Ballad Book. retrieved 10.06.2015, from www.gutenberg.org Web Site: www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7935/pg7935.html Lord, Albert B. (1960). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge: HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS. Lord, Albert B. (2003). The Singer of Tales. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England: HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS R. Adelaide, Witham (1903&1904). The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin & Company. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2949 Title A name given to the resource THE ASPECTS OF PERRY-LORD FOR POPULAR BALLADS, CONCERNING THREEANGLO-SAXON BALLADS (SIR PATRICK SPENS, LORD RANDAL, THE WIFE OF USHER’S WELL) Author Author Isaki, Fatmire Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is through properly selected examples to prove that Millman Parry and Albert Lord’s aspects of the theory of the popular ballad can be applied in the English ballads too. Perry and Lord explained how the Homeric epic and numerous popular ballads of the Balkans and traditions, could be transmitted through many generations by oral route and why have appeared formulaic principles in the way they are created and presented. Following the same procedure, we will try to show the same principles on an analysis of three Anglo-Saxon ballads: Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well. Ballads will be treated according to the theory of oral-formulaic structure of the ballad. This theory suggests that the more phrases the singer knows, the higher is the chance to improvise and structure strings of verses. Ballads Sir Patrick Spens, Lord Randal, and The Wife of Usher's Well will be analyzed starting from their metric system, rhyme, and as well as locating stylistic figures used in these ballads. The paper will have a comparative approach to find similarities and differences between ballads of Balkans posed by Perry and Lord, and three Anglo-Saxon ballads. Also, this paper will analyze the themes treated in these ballads. Given that these ballads are located in two different regions with different history and culture, this paper will try to come to the conclusion that no matter that they belonged to two different traditions, histories and cultures, themes encountered in them if not identical, then many are very similar. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0997f3f751a1b8891b1c16ab1787f640.pdf f588d7c61a1be305e6b323357fe62189 PDF Text Text READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA Galina Gordishevsky & Ira Slabodar Ashkelon Academic College, Israel Article History: Submitted: 18.06.2015 Accepted: 11.08.2015 Abstract: The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner. The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length and structure/complexity. The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms. Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students' metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. Keywords: EAP/ESP; reading comprehension strategies; L1 in L2 classroom. �EAP REQUIREMENTS IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA In Israel, all students in higher education are obliged to reach an exemption level of English. This can be achieved by means of either a psychometric test or by studying English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses in college. Students in Israeli colleges are native speakers of Hebrew, Arabic and Amharic (the language spoken in Ethiopia) - all Semitic languages, as well as native speakers of Russian and French. Hebrew is the lingua franca - the main official language of the country, and students usually exhibit high mastery of it. The students’ level of English at the entrance level is usually low, and students have to take three annual courses to reach the exemption level: beginners, intermediate, advanced. At the exemption level, students are expected to answer questions following an academic text in English which is 3,000 words long. Thus, the ultimate goal of EAP courses in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension (RC) strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE Proficient vs. Non-proficient Readers Before we outline the different types of RC strategies, let us discuss their relevance for successful coping with academic texts. It is well established that proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading comprehension strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005, to mention just a few, and Brantmeier, 2002, for a comprehensive review of earlier research). What distinguishes more proficient readers from less proficient ones is the ability of the former to use appropriate strategies in a given context and to “orchestrate” the use of various strategies rather than using one at a time (Anderson, 1991; Carrell, 1998). “Novice readers, by contrast, often focus on decoding single words, fail to adjust their reading for different texts or purposes, and seldom look ahead or back in text to monitor and improve comprehension. Such cognitive limitations are characteristic of young novices as well as of older, unskilled readers” (Carrell, 1998). McNeil (2011) argues that low proficiency is due to, among other things, deficiencies in lexical and syntactic knowledge. This brings us to the need to teach lexical and syntactic strategies explicitly, along with higher-order strategies, including paragraphand text-level ones. The latter are supposed to bootstrap the weak lexical and syntactic knowledge. Numerous studies on the topic point out that reading comprehension strategies can be taught and their successful application will improve reading comprehension (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Rraku, 2013; Singhal, 2001; Song, 1998). �Let us now outline the groups of reading comprehension strategies that we teach in our classes throughout the academic year, lead by the belief that these are necessary for student success. RC Strategies - an Outline For the ease of categorization, we divide all the strategies into four subcategories:     Word-level strategies: parts of speech, suffixes and prefixes, specific terminology, vocabulary enrichment, synonyms and paraphrasing, guessing from context; Sentence-level strategies: sentence structure, including phrase structure (which differs in English vs. Semitic languages), noun phrases, verb tenses, active vs. passive, compound and complex sentences, reference words, connectors; Paragraph-level strategies: paragraph structure, topic sentence, connectors, main ideas vs. supporting details, inference, prediction; Text-level strategies: topic, main idea, introduction, subheadings, development of the argument, author's opinion, conclusion, types of texts, background knowledge. Given the necessity of mastery over a great deal of reading comprehension techniques, we devote a prominent portion of our classes to teaching and practicing reading strategies of all levels. How a Strategy is Taught Winograd & Hare (1988) outline five key elements in teacher’s explanation for successful strategy training, as follows:      What the strategy is Why the strategy should be learned How to use the strategy When and where the strategy should be used How to evaluate use of the strategy Our course books comprise a comprehensive collection of reading strategies of different levels (i.e. from word-level to text-level), followed by extensive practice at all levels. Our course book explanations usually follow the same pattern. First of all, a strategy is briefly explained and examples are provided. The explanation and example �are followed by practice exercises of rising levels of complexity: first, the strategy is practiced on a sentence level using sentences corresponding to the course level, followed by practice on a paragraph level, with paragraphs taken from authentic academic texts, and finally on a text level - when the relevant strategy is encountered in an academic text, it is pointed out by the teacher and practiced within its context. This way we ensure maximum exposure to the strategy taught with maximum training provided. THE USE OF MOTHER TONGUE IN EAP CLASSROOMS The need to teach and train students in the different text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 (target language, in this case English) vs. L1 (students' mother tongue or dominant language) in our EAP classrooms. As teaching involves not only presentation of the strategies, but also making them part of the students' metacognitive knowledge (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Singhal, 2001; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), the importance of the students' understanding of the teacher's explanations should be stressed. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in teachers' explanations gains higher importance. The students’ L1 Part of the uniqueness of Israel is that we have a high rate of immigrants. The majority of our students speak Hebrew as their mother tongue, but there are also native speakers of other Semitic languages, such as Arabic and Amharic (language spoken in Ethiopia), as well as speakers of other languages, such as Russian and French. Hebrew, the dominant language of the country, is the lingua franca for all and one and the students are usually fluent at it. Technically Hebrew should be called the students’ DL (dominant language), and English - their TL (target language). For convenience, we will continue referring to English as L2 and to Hebrew - as L1. Native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom The "native language (L1) versus English only (L2) in an EAP classroom" debate is not new. For the past thirty years, language teachers and researchers have been gaining insights into the importance and unavoidability of L1 in the classroom. The somewhat “purist” L2 approach to language teaching has given way to the use of L1 both by students and teachers. In order to understand the need of L1, we first need to understand why and when students use their L1 in the classroom. The Use of L1 by Students and Teachers �Why A number of possible reasons for L1 use in the classroom have been outlined. First and foremost, the L1 is ever present in the minds of our L2 learners, whether we want it to be there or not (Cook (1992) in Seng & Hashim, 2006). Translation into L1, both conscious and unconscious, is a powerful technique which is widely preferred by the students themselves (Atkinson, 1987; Harbord, 1992; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). Moreover, L1 is part of the students’ culture and identity and gives them a sense of security (Schweers, 1999). When Numerous advocates of the use of L1 in EAP classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of possible occasions for the use of mother tongue:          Eliciting language Checking comprehension Giving complex instructions Co-operation among students Discussions of classroom methodology Presentation of language structures Checking for sense via translation Testing Development of useful learning strategies (Adapted from Atkinson (1987)) We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, L1 is an invaluable resource. The use of the students‘ L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of the various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. The latter possibility will be outlined in the concluding part of this paper. The Uses of Hebrew in an EAP Classroom Our observations show that Hebrew is used in our EAP classrooms mostly for:     Classroom management Revoking background knowledge Presentation of grammar rules Presentation of RC techniques �  Assessment of comprehension Group and pair work Whereas the uses outlined above are self-explanatory, we would like to discuss two of them in the context of teaching reading comprehension strategies, i.e.:   Presentation of grammar rules Presentation of RC techniques Grammar Rules and RC Techniques The students’ L1 is crucial in presentation of word-level and sentence-level reading strategies, both in terms of deeper comprehension and comparison between languages. Language and grammar points can serve as points of comparison and contrast between the learners’ L1 (mother tongue) and L2 (target language). In this connection, Harbord (1992: 354-5) writes about using L1 to facilitate learning of L2: This final category will be concerned principally with the evaluation of strategies which aim specifically at aiding L2 acquisition through comparison with L1. These strategies have two purposes: the first is to make students aware of the dangers of translation and teach them to exercise a conscious check on the validity of their unconscious translation; and the second is to teach them ways of working towards what Danchev (1982: 55) calls 'functional translation' (i.e. transferring meaning into L2) rather than the wordfor-word translation that occurs when the learner's unconscious need to make assumptions and correlations between languages is ignored. Similarities and Differences Between Languages Points of similarity and divergence between languages are numerous. Rather ignoring these points, we decided to teach them explicitly, employing the students' L1. In what follows, we provide a number of examples.  Connectors - similarity between languages: One point of similarity among different languages is connectors. Every language has ways to indicate transitions such as cause-and-effect, exemplification, addition, similarity, contrast, etc. We first try to elicit as many connectors as possible in the students’ mother tongue, before moving on to teaching them in English.  Sentence structure – similarity & difference: Sentence structure is another issue at point. Whereas the basic sentence structure - �i.e. subject-verb order - is generally similar among the languages spoken in our classrooms, phrase structure presents a point of divergence and thus deserves special attention and explanation. One example of such divergence are noun phrases.  Noun phrases: structure & comprehension Consider the following noun phrase (and a title of one of the academic texts we teach): Bilingual children’s mother tongue In English, the head word (the main word of the noun phrase) comes last, whereas in Hebrew it comes first. So, translation of noun phrases into Hebrew should be done backwards: starting with the last word and moving to the first one: 4 3 2 1 Bilingual children’s mother tongue  Vocabulary Homonyms: Same sound, different meaning, often different parts of speech - can be exemplified using translation into the students’ mother tongue. Examples: present (n.), present (adj.), present (v.); abstract (adj.), abstract (n.), abstract (v.) Another point of divergence between languages that should be stressed are so-called “false cognates” or “false friends” (Laufer, 1997): False cognates (“false friends”): words that sound similar/the same in different languages, but have a different meaning in each language. Example: factor in academic texts in English usually means “cause”; faktor in Hebrew is usually used as a mathematical function, e.g. adding bonus points to a test grade. Example: effect in academic texts in English usually means “influence”; efekt (pl. efektim) in Hebrew is usually used to describe special features, e.g. in a movie. Other examples of “false friends” would be: Sympathetic in English - simpati (‘nice’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997) Tramp in English - tremp (‘lift’) in Hebrew (Laufer, 1997) Severe in English - savir (‘reasonable, plausible’) in Hebrew Actually in English - aktuali (‘relevant, topical’) in Hebrew These differences are pointed out and repeatedly stressed in our EAP classrooms, using comparison between the students' dominant language and the class' target �language. TEACHING STRATEGIES VIA AN ACADEMIC TEXT IN HEBREW To conclude, instead of avoiding L1 in the classroom, trying to direct our students solely to L2 - a mission destined to failure - we adopted a hands-on approach and decided to face the L1 issue. The first class in our courses at all levels starts with an analysis of an authentic academic text in Hebrew. It’s usually a short text, one page long, which follows the rules and structure of academic writing and has academic vocabulary. Lead by the belief that text-coping techniques are stronger in the student’s dominant language, we demonstrate how these can be used with an academic text in their L1/DL. References Anderson, N. J. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in second language reading and testing. Modern Language Journal, 75(3), 460-472. Anderson, N. J.(2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757-771). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Atkinson, D. (1987). The mother tongue in the classroom: A neglected resource? ETL Journal, 41(4), 241-247. doi: 10.1093/elt/41.4.241 Auerbach, E. (1993). Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 27(1), 9-32. doi: 10.2307/3586949 Block, E. (1986). The comprehension strategies of second language readers. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 463-494. Block, E. (1992). See how they read: Comprehension monitoring of L1 and L2 readers. TESOL Quarterly, 26(2), 319-343. Brantmeier, C. (2002). Second Language Reading Strategy Research at the Secondary and University Levels: Variations, Dispartities and Generalizability. The Reading Matrix 2(3). http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/brantmeier/article.pdf Carrell, P. L. (1998). Can Reading Strategies be Successfully Taught? The Language Teacher Online 22(3). http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/issues/199803_22.3 �Cook, V. (2001). Using the First Language in the Classroom. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3), 402-423. doi: 10.3138/cmlr.57.3.402 Farrell, T. S. C. (2001). Teaching reading strategies: "It takes time!" Reading in a Foreign Language, 13, 631-646. Harbord, J. (1992). The use of the mother tongue in the classroom. ELT Journal 46(4), 350-355. doi: 10.1093/elt/46.4.350 Hock, M., & Mellard, D..(2005).Reading comprehension strategies for adult literacy outcomes. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy,49(3),192-200. Laufer, B. (1997). The lexical plight in second language reading: Words you don't know, words you think you know, and words you can't guess. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 20-34). New York: Cambridge University Press. McNeil, L. (2011). Investigating the contributions of background knowledge and reading comprehension strategies to L2 reading comprehension: an exploratory study. Reading and Writing, 24(8), 883-902. Raftari, S., Seyyedi, K., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2012). Reading strategy research around the world. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention ISSN (Online), 1(1), 24-30. www.ijhssi.org Rraku,V. (2013).The effect of reading strategies on the improvement of the reading skills of students. Social and Natural Sciences Journal (Online), 7(2). http://ojs.journals.cz/index.php/SNSJ/article/view/418/408 Schweers, W. Jr. (1999).Using L1 in the L2 classroom. English Teaching Forum, 37 (2), 6-13. Seng, G. H., & Hashim, F. (2006). Use of L1 in L2 reading comprehension among tertiary ESL learners. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 29-54. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Singhal, M. (2001). Reading Proficiency, Reading Strategies, Metacognitive Awareness And L2 Readers. The Reading Matrix, 1(1). http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/singhal/ Song, M. (1998).Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54. �Winograd, P., & Hare, V. C. (1988). Direct instruction of reading comprehension strategies: The nature of teacher explanation. In C. E. Weinstein, E. T. Goetz, & P. A. Alexander (Eds.), Learning and study strategies: Issues in assessment instruction and evaluation (pp. 121-139). San Diego: Academic Press. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2950 Title A name given to the resource READING COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES & MOTHER TONGUE USE IN EAP COURSES IN ISRAELI ACADEMIA Author Author Gordishevsky, Galina Slabodar, Ira Abstract A summary of the resource. The goal of this paper is two-fold. First, we outline the various reading comprehension strategies employed in teaching EAP courses in Israel, and discuss challenges faced by students- native speakers of various Semitic languages (Hebrew, Arabic, and Amharic). Second, we advocate the use of L1 in our L2 classrooms and explore the contexts in which this practice is most beneficial for the learner. The ultimate goal of an EAP course in Israeli academia is to equip students with tools for coping with academic texts in English, thus rendering a central role to teaching a wide array of reading comprehension strategies (cf. Raftari, Seyyedi, & Ismail, 2012; Rraku, 2013 for similar views). Proficient readers need to employ a variety of reading strategies (Anderson, 1991, 2005; Block, 1986, 1992; Carrell, 1998; Hock & Mellard, 2005), including word-, sentence-, paragraph-, and text-level strategies. In order to achieve high level of proficiency, reading strategies are explicitly taught and practiced by means of authentic academic texts of varying length and structure/complexity. The need to teach and train students in the various text-coping techniques brings us to the second challenge: the use of L2 vs. L1 in our EAP classrooms. Efficient teaching involves imprinting reading strategies in the students' metacognition (Carrell, 1998; Farrell, 2001; McNeil, 2011; Song, 1998; Winograd & Hare, 1988), hence the importance of students' understanding of the teacher's explanations. In this context, the use of the students' mother tongue (L1) in EAP instruction gains higher importance. Numerous advocates of L1 in ESL/EFL classrooms have outlined a comprehensive list of efficient uses of L1 (Atkinson, 1987; Auerbach, 1993; Cook, 2001; Schweers, 1999). We strongly believe that, especially in the case of weaker students, the use of L1 will facilitate their understanding and internalization of various reading comprehension strategies. To this end, we advocate presentation of (some of) text-coping techniques using the students' L1, as well as initial exemplification of these techniques using an authentic academic text in the students' mother tongue. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be91b9102576d7875fcd784bde60a2f9.pdf e27cbb0b18bfc5f29d8926c1640f4f49 PDF Text Text ALBANIAN OBSERVATION PHRASEOLOGY WITH THAT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE FORMED BY METAPHORS Shpresa Gjergji University of History and Philology, Tiranë Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 11.08.2015 Abstract: In today’s communication in schools, workplaces and communities has increased significantly being intermingled and involved with English language. Albanian and English languages have many phraseology units. They are formed by the transformation of the syntagm with two or more denominator units (noun, adjective, verb, adverb, etc). This figurative transformation is realized with comparison, hyperbola, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, etc. Both languages use all these means of communication. Our thesis focuses particularly on the formation of phraseology units with metaphors and aims to analyze how they are formed in four steps of transformation using the structure of: a)- free syntagm (phrase), (or free phrase). b)- syntagm (phrase) with comparison (with connectors: as, like ). c)- syntagm (phrase) with metaphor (connector falls). d)- formation of phraseology units. This process is similar in both languages, but there isn’t compliance and equality in their formation. By juxtaposing the phrases units in both languages, we aim at shedding some light on the main similarities and differences which seem to bring the languages closer but also create a gap between them, pointing out the common or universal features as well as the originality and the unique character of each language. If we analyze some phrasal units taken out from the dictionary (Phraseology English- Albanian dictionary by I. Stefanllari 1998) we notice that the units of English language are formed differently from the Albanian ones. This can prove the occurrence of linguistic relativism. Key words: phrase, metaphor phrases, structure, syntagm, similarities and differences, function. �1. INTRODUCTION Within human communication, the language remains as a whole system, which acts as an intermediary between the people and the social world that they represent with their language and culture. ''Language is one of the ways that takes form to the thinking and the integrity of our knowledge ''. 1) Through language and its system, through words and categories that they create, the information and its use through the language, lead to the dynamic development for all mankind. Facing the Albanian language with English language, the phraseology formed in those languages, seen under the light of a comparative analysis, is really an interesting job. On the one hand we have a language like Albanian, proving relatively late, as written (somewhere by the XV century), and on the other hand, a language like English with a rich literary and linguistic tradition, in the very early, and now ubiquitous in all spheres of life. English speakers are much more numerous and can notice a big impact of this language in Albanian, not only borrowing the words for the fact of technology, which is inevitable, but also of phraseology units. The phraseology is one of the greatest assets of the language, with special strength and exciting expression. Everyday speaking and artistic literature cannot be imagined without this subject of Albanian language. In the tradition of comparative linguistics in the center of it, stands a comparative description and in our case the comparison of the function of: a)- Free syntagms (free phrases) b)- Syntagms with comparison c)- Syntagms with metaphor d)- Formed by phraseology units In both languages, Albanian and English, we aim to find out the value, features, and characteristics they have in common as well as differences between them. In this context, a detailed and comparative survey between phraseologies of Albanian language, formed by metaphor, with that of the English language, presenting a research goal and not just theoretical value, but it would be very welcomed in explaining all the situations in practical use, where both languages are put so close, or mixed used in the daily routine and different social, communicative situations. Saussure - pays particular attention to the rapport language-thought. The thought, without language is like a fog, something vague, undefined. Only the intervention of language makes, the thought is materialized. With the rapport language-thought, Saussure tends to see the meaning as a content and the language as form. The thought does not exist without the language as well as the language �without the thought can not exist. By means of language, the thoughts are delivered from the speaker to the interlocutor, thus is creating a mutual relationship Speaker Message Interlocutor Language in use (fig.1) Breal sees language as a concept of validity of use and as a promoter of the dynamic of speaking.2) While Saussure, the concept of validity, degrades with the trinomial: a) - systematic validity (language as a system) b) - the validity of use (the language as a communication tool) c) - the validity of performance (the language as conductor of the message) Language System value Using Using value Meaning Realised value (Fig.2) Breal is the same opinion with Wittgenstein: '' The meaning of expression depends entirely on how we go on using it '’.3) So we claim that man is equipped with language, in which represents its experience and reflects it onto – others. Linguistic system and its function, semantic transformations activate potential utterance as a complicated process, connected with the rules of language, with the semantic background, with the needs of the vivid utterance.4) So, it is obvious that the Albanian language is not alone in the use of phraseology, and phraseology units, that we find it in English and other languages as well. For instance : ‘’like a fish out of the water’’--- (embarrassment) ‘’as a cat’s paw’’--- (used as a tool) ‘’like a bull in china shop’’--- (clumsy) ‘’to fit like a glove’’--- ( perfect match) �‘’to sleep like a log’’--- (deep, good sleep) ‘’to smoke like a chimney--- (smoke too much) ‘’as fit as a fiddle’’--- (to be healthy ) ‘’as hard as steel’’--- (very strong) Even in Italian, and if you take to analyze other languages, we'll be faced with similar phenomena. For instance: ‘’lavorare come un mulo’’--- ( working like a dog) ‘’dormire come un angeletto--- (sleep like an angle) ‘’dormire come un morto’’---(sleep as a dead person) ‘’muto come un pesce’’---(dumb as a fish) ‘’come un cane bastonato’’---(like a salvish person) As well as uses in the Albanian phraseology : For instance: ‘’si yll i bukur’’--- (cute and beautiful) ‘’si dritë e diellit’’--- (very appreciate) ‘’si qen i rrahur’’--- (a salvish person) ‘’si kali në lëmë’’--- (comes round) ‘’si i rrjedhur nga trutë’’---(unconscious) ‘’si motor i prishur’’--- (without sense) ‘’si vaji ne lakra’’--- (delivered quickly) ‘’sikur i ka ngrënë gomari bukën’’---(bored) ‘’me turi të varur’’--- (upset) ‘’shpëtoi në fije të perit’’(in danger situation, litote) ‘’ me një kembë në varr’’---(very sick, metonymy) ‘’i’u hodh për fyti’’---(react sharply), etc.. Figurative uses of phraseology, can bring the semantic-linguistic developments, colorful figuration : simile, metaphor, hyperbole, litotes, metonymy, synecdoche, etc., find out expressing and marking values of phraseology units. 2. THE LANGUAGE AND METAPHORICAL PHRASEOLOGY Languages have similarities and differences. Phrases / Syntagms raise up on indicators related to the spiritual world, material, psychological, etc., of the spoken language members. The appropriation of the world, people face with natural phenomena, with objects or issues that are known or are identical or similar to the people belonging to different geographical areas and languages. �eg. Let's show here, things, objects, phenomena, which have particularly features and characteristics, over which is built the semantic and structural meaning of phraseology unit. (scholar J. Thomas, uses the term '' vatër semantike''). Mention here the word as: blackberry, sea, river, mountain, rock, mud, moon, sun, etc., which are elements of nature, but with particular features, whether in different countries and different peoples and that build the phraseology related to them. The borrowings are related to the world of art, technology, literature, mythology, etc. e. g. - '' Pandora's box '' - from Greek mythology, where inside the box, left only the hope. - 'The thread of Arianna' '- from Greek mythology, the symbol of the' thread of life '' - '' The horse of Troy '' - from Greek mythology, the symbolism of trickery. - '' Spectrum of Zeus' - from Greek mythology, with very broad sense. - '' The Coliseum of Rome '' - from the Roman period, with the idea that has seen many things that have happened during a long period. - 'Shed tears as crocodile' '- expressions that borrowed from Australia, where there are crocodiles. (there aren’t living crocodiles in Albania, the phrase comes from Australia). - '' Hidden as an ostrich '' - as a comparison with irony sense, borrowed from the Australian continent. - '' In the pocket like a kangaroo, '' - to the protection of babies, a phrase that comes from the Australian Continent, etc. Let see also the metaphorical transformations, as a gradual change, step by step passing in a long period of time. Initially, there is firstly, a comparison based on this process: e.g. - ‘’iu bë zemra sa një mal’’/ ’’iu bë zemra mal’’ - ‘’u bë si bishë e tërbuar’’/ ‘’u be bishë’’ -‘’dallon si dele e zezë’’/’’dele e zezë’’ Metaphors as a process and the literary trope build figurative meanings, the linguistic trope process, create figurative meanings. Such that the phraseology with a comparison on base, that we can say the metaphor is a missing comparison, with a fallen connector, or an abstract comparison, where is the gray part and function of thought. The abstractism of metaphor, ahead to concrete situations to extend the communication in function of communication. Abstraction is closely related to the figurative use of words in speech, and meaningful use of trope (not literally), of a syntagm (phrase, or sentence), as an intermediate marking unit. �According to Prof. Valter Memisha ‘‘metaphors first, takes stylistic figure, and then the semantic the unity pales and weak''.5).This process is different for all languages, in the same way its tools are different. This process can come with linguistic tropes (metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, formations with simile, hyperbole, analogy, symbolic, etc.). e.g. shes domate, ngeli ne baltë, ha dru, var buzët, i laj duart, i jap dorën, të lan e të lyen, etc., where the phraseology phrase and use is free, the word within a phrase, and then begins the rigid use, (which comes from the frequency of the usage on time , in a relatively long period), which leads to the birth of the figurative phraseological units. e.g. -shes perime/shes mend, ( be selfish) -ngeli ne baltë/e la ne baltë, (without help, without support) -vari buztë/i vari buzet,(is upset) -laj duart/i laj duart,(rejected) -të jep dorën/ të jep doren,(help him/her) -ska fytyrë, ( dishonist ) -në grykë të pushkës (under the crosshair, threatened) The phraseology is the figurative transformation of the syntagm or the phrase with two or more limbs, with marking words, in the context of extremely long time, equal in meaning of a single word, which performs syntax function as a single word. Just in our paper we shall see the phraseology as: a)- Free syntagm ‘’i kthehu krahun’’ ( concret meaning)/’’i kthehu krahet’’( phraseological unit,to ignore someone), ‘’hene e plote,( concret meaning), hene e plot, (phraseological unit, round face, cute) b)- Syntagm with comparison (using like ,as, simile) ‘’i ra si bombe’’simile/’’ i ra bomba’’(metaphor,very difficult situation). ‘’si mali me bore’’,(metaphor, sth. full) c)- Syntagm with metaphor, …iu be zemra mal,(satisfied)/ vras mendjen,(thinking) /u be derr, (bored) /‘’ia hodhi larg e larg’’, (said everything carefully) /i vune hekurat,(arrested) /u be helm,(was upset) etc. which have on their constructed base a simile with a fallen connecter, or an analogy, or abstraction. d)-A form with phraseology unit. …‘’shes perime’’----‘’shes mend’’( be selfish)---metaphor. …luaj me letra’’---‘’luaj me leke’’8a lot of money)---metaphor ...’’i jap dicka’’---‘’i jap doren’’(help him/her)---metaphor ....’’hap deren’’---‘’hap letrat’’(tell the truth)---metaphor �Albanian Phraseology I kthehu krahun Sikur i ra qielli mbi koke Free syntagm Syntagm with Comparison Metaphor I ktheu krahet I ra qielli mbi koke Mu be ferr Syntagm with Mu be ferr Shes perime Phraseology Units Shes mend (Fig. 3) Let we see now phraseology/syntagm related to phenomena of nature, and many similarities between Albanian-English language, as well as other languages. The phraseology with metaphor related to nature’s elements: - M’u bë zemra mal./Happy as a lark. Midis dy zjarreve/Between the devil and the deep blue sea. Kerkon hënën/ Ask for the moon/. Fjala gdhen gurin./Written in stone. Njëherë në hënë/sene./Once in a blue moon. Një pikë në oqean/A drop in the ocean. Ia solli era(the rumors,)./ Get wind off. Turbullon ujërat./Muddy the waters. Shkoi si vetëtime./Like greased lightning. Ne fije të perit./Skate on thin ice. - The phraseology with metaphor related to the parts of body: - Më rreh (më troket) zemra./One’s heart is in one’s mouth. Ngul kembë ne tënden./ Stick to your own guns. Ngul kembë si mushka./Stubborn as a mule. �- Me bie ndër mend./Come to mind. I kthehu krahët./ Cold shoulders. I ra pushim zemre./ Die of a broken heart. Vrapon me të katra./Fleet of foot. Ballë për ballë./Eyeball to eyeball. Paguajnë te tjerët./Foot the bill. Gjej/ndjek me nuhatje./Follow one’s nose. Ta ka ngrënë macja gjuhën?/ Cat got your tongue? E ka gjuhen brisk./Sharp tongue. The phraseology with metaphor or simile related to the animals and poultry: - Ha si kalë./Eat like a horse. Ha si mizë./Eat like a bird. Skile e vjetër./Dirty dog. C’farë belaje?!/Fine kettle of fish. Te hedhësh një sy./Bird’s eye view. Shpërtheu mizë dheu./Si fara e krisjes./The birds and the bees. Ujku –ujku/ka ra ujku./Cry woolf. Sillet ftohtë./Cold fish. Gënjeshtër me bisht./Fish story/Fish tale. Derdh lote korkodili/Shed crocodile tears. Phraseology according four categories: … Free Syntagm in both languages: - Del nga shinat./Set up of line. Qendron me kembë në tokë./Stand on your own two feet. I laj duart./Wash your hands off something. Kape zogun(kape shansin)./Make hay while the sun shines. I vë zjarrin(I fut xixat)./Play havoc. M’i kanë lidhur duart./Have one’s hand tied. …Syntagme with metaphor in both languages: - Bëj veshin e shurdhër./Turn deaf ear. Flet goja para mendjes./Speak off the cuff. Mban erë (dicka)./Smell a rat. Per një kacidhe./For a song. Bën nje djallë e gjysëm./Cost an arm and a leg. Ne fije teë perit/Walk a tightrope. Zbut gjakrat/Sugar the pill. �…Syntagm with comparison in both languages: - Ngul kembë si mushka./Stubborn as a mule. Nuhat si qen./Smell like a dog. Si femijë I lumtur./Like a kid with a new toy. Si peshku pa ujë./Like a fish out of water. Papritur e pa kujtuar./Like a bolt from the blue. E lehtë si pupël./Light as air. Si nata me ditën./Different as night and day. S’pipëtinte gjë./Still as death. …Formed phraseological units in both languages: - Shes perime. (concrete meaning)/Shes mend.(be selfish,phraseology, metaphor) / Sell mind. - Laj duart( concrete meaning), Laj duart (be given up, phraseology, metaphor) / Wash your hands off (sth.). - Të jap dorën.(concrete meaning)/Të jap dorën.( help, phraseology, metaphor)/Give a hand. - Luaj me lek.(concrete meaning)./Luaj me lek,(phraseology, metaphor)./To have money to burn. - Vij rotull.( concrete meaning)./ Vij rotull.(at the same point again, metaphor)./Run and round in circles. Shtrnëgo rripin (concrete meaning)./Shtrnëgo rripin.(spend money carefully ,metaphor)/Tighten your belt. - Del nga shinat.( concrete meaning)./Del nga shinat.(isn’t in a proper way, metaphor)./Step out of line. Syntagm (Phrase) Free sintagm/ phrase Albanian Example Ska rruge tjetër Syntagm comparison with Ngul kembë mushka Syntagm metaphor with Mu bë ferr Phraseology unit Luaj me lekë English Example Meaning Beggars can’t be You should not reject choosers an offer if it’s the only possibility you have. You have no choice. si As stubborn as a Persistent or mule determined to do something or on something you are saying. Get in someone’s You are annoying hair them so much that they can’t get on with what they are doing. To have money to Have so much money �burn that can spend it on anything they want. (Fig.4) As you can see, the Albanian Language uses so much syntagms with metaphor. It is a language that is expressed so much by the phraseology. Notes that metaphors, coming to their right form have come a very long way, until their final process, final shape. By the phrase, and then in the form of comparison, reduce the comparative particle, they came into their rigid dimension, being perfect, so gradually step by step, as the professor Memisha says : ''metaphor and semantic abstraction, take new dimensions, language reveals its options and intellectualized, regardless of the source of phraseologic units, come directly from the popular fountain''.6) And we can say that the English Language uses so many idioms and as a result that’s why we say it is an idiomatic language. During this work, I found most of corresponding metaphorical Albanian phrases as English idioms. For all we said above, we can prove the language relativism between Albanian and English language. 3. CONCLUSIONS: Many units mixed with metaphors, similes, hyperboles, synecdoche, metonymies etc., mean quantitative relations, understanding them not word by word, but figuratively. We encounter them in every language, they demonstrate that the similarities and differences constitute the languages relativism realized in meaning and in time, in utterance and thought, in form and content, like a precious treasure in spoken languages of the humanity. Many uses of the word in different meanings, in different figurative ways, in different interpretations according to different viewpoints and contexts, in the ‘’host-sentence’’, where it is part of meaning, creating a colorful-context relationship between ‘’the part and the whole’’. The word, phrase/syntagm, as well as the spoken and written language take the dynamics of their reflections in the respective dictionaries. It indicates the lexicon, semantics, and word formations, syntactic and morphological values and explains their functions and daily uses as a cultural and linguistic heritage for all nations. In a given context, people endowed with language, rich in linguistic tools, in a given context, represents their experience and ideas to others. The universal message of language, ( its ability to communicate ), the different traditional values, semantics, social and cultural issues, motives and variety of figure of speech and their uses, concrete and artistic lexicon, embodies the great power of the spoken word as a communication system for the humanity. - Phrases with metaphor give the communication by the symbolization. - Phrases with metaphor go through the concept of thought, not by words. �- Phrases with metaphor make parallelism and comparison. According to different contexts, metaphor makes different interpretations. It is the grey part that the readers need to guess through the abstraction of the subject. The grey part of metaphors extends the communication. Metaphor transforms the abstraction to the concreteness. Metaphors are not just language , they are deeply engrained patterns of association in thought. Metaphor is not just a matter of language and thought, but also of communication. Endnotes: 1) F. de Saussure, Course de linguistique Generale, Payot, 1969, f.23. Semantic and linguistic meanings as the validity of the language in use. 2) Breal, M. Essai de semantique: science des significations, Hachette, Paris, 1897 3) L. Wittgenstein, Recherches philosophiques, perkth, E. Rigal, Paris, Gallimard, 2004 4) Thomai, J. Teksti dhe Gjuha, f. 87. 5) Valter Memisha, ‘’Studime për fjalën shqipe’’, përmbledhje artikujsh, Tiranë 2011. 6) Valter Memisha, ‘’Studime për fjalën shqipe’’, përmbledhje artikujsh, Tiranë 2011 References: Stefanllari, I. (1998) ‘’Fjalori Frazeologjik Anglisht Shqip’’. Thoma, J. (1999) ‘’Fjalor Frazeologjik i Gjuhes Shqipe’’. Memisha, V. (2006). Rreth shndërrimit të togfjalëshit të lirë në njësi frazeologjike. Në, Studime filologjike. Nr. 3 - 4. Valter Memisha, ‘’Studime për fjalën shqipe’’, përmbledhje artikujsh, Tiranë 2011. Shezai Rrokaj ‘’Filozofi e Gjuhës prej Antikitetit deri në kohën e sotme, Arbëria’’, 2010. Martin Hilpert, Cognitive Linguistics, Polysemy, University of Neuchatel, English Department, Faculty member. F. de Saussure, Course de linguistique Generale, Payot, 1969, f.23. L. Wittgenstein, Recherches philosophiques, perkth, E. Rigal, Paris, Gallimard, 2004. Breal, M. Essai de semantique: science des significations, Hachette, Paris, 1897. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By, Chicago, London. Lakoff, G. (1993): ‘’The contemporary theory of metaphor’’ Ortony, A. (ed.): Metaphor and thought. Cambridge. Lakoff, G.& Turner, M. (1989). More than cool reason: A field guide to poetic metaphor. Chicago. �Gjoçaj, Z. (2001). Struktura leksiko-semantike e stilistike e frazeologjisë shqipe, Prishtinë. Fjalori i shqipes së sotme. (2002). Akademia e Shkencave. Botimet TOENA, Tiranë. Pavli Qesku, Fjalor Anglisht-Shqip, Botimet EDFA, Tiranw, 2000. McGraw-Hill’s, American Idioms Dictionary, Fourth Edition, Richard A.Sspears, Ph.D., USA, 2007. OXFORD Advenced Learner’s Dictionary, Sixth Adition by Sally Wehmeier, Oxford University Press 2000. F.de Saussure,Cours de linguistique Generale, Payot, 1969. B. L. Whorf, Language, Thought and Reality, Cambridge,1956. Ortony, A.(1998) ‘’Metaphor and thought’’ Cambridge University press, f.276. Oxford Dictionary of current Idiomatic English (vol 2; 1984). Mehmet Gjevori, Frazeologji e Gjuhës Shqipe, Tiranë, 1980. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2965 Title A name given to the resource ALBANIAN OBSERVATION PHRASEOLOGY WITH THAT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE FORMED BY METAPHORS Author Author Gjergji, Shpresa Abstract A summary of the resource. In today’s communication in schools, workplaces and communities has increased significantly being intermingled and involved with English language. Albanian and English languages have many phraseology units. They are formed by the transformation of the syntagm with two or more denominator units (noun, adjective, verb, adverb, etc). This figurative transformation is realized with comparison, hyperbola, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, etc. Both languages use all these means of communication. Our thesis focuses particularly on the formation of phraseology units with metaphors and aims to analyze how they are formed in four steps of transformation using the structure of: a)- free syntagm (phrase), (or free phrase). b)- syntagm (phrase) with comparison (with connectors: as, like ). c)- syntagm (phrase) with metaphor (connector falls). d)- formation of phraseology units. This process is similar in both languages, but there isn’t compliance and equality in their formation. By juxtaposing the phrases units in both languages, we aim at shedding some light on the main similarities and differences which seem to bring the languages closer but also create a gap between them, pointing out the common or universal features as well as the originality and the unique character of each language. If we analyze some phrasal units taken out from the dictionary (Phraseology English- Albanian dictionary by I. Stefanllari 1998) we notice that the units of English language are formed differently from the Albanian ones. This can prove the occurrence of linguistic relativism. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a87252bce7ac917532b898c460be3f87.pdf cb8a0aa1a4d8b516296175ce9b62b217 PDF Text Text MEETING STUDENTS' DIVERSE NEEDS FOR READING THROUGH DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION STRATEGIES Iranda Bajrami South East European University Article History: Submitted: 04.06.2015 Accepted: 05.07.2015 Abstract: The focus of this research is on meeting South East European University (SEEU) students’ diverse needs for reading. Although in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, all four language skills are important, reading becomes most important when students enter university without enough strategies for reading. Therefore the reading material presented should be differentiated to suit everyone’s needs. According to Biancarosa & Snow (2006) "a full 70 percent of U. S. middle and high school students require differentiated instruction (DI), which is instruction targeted to their individual strengths and weaknesses" (p.8). Consequently, since it is difficult for native learners to read in their mother tongue then it can be imagined how difficult it might be for EFL learners to read in English. Thus, differentiation in reading classrooms becomes an important responsibility for EFL lecturers.The methods of data collection used in this research wereteacher questionnaires and classroom observations to help discover the level of knowledge and application of DI reading strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers to meet diverse learners’ needs. The results of the study conducted showed that there is a discrepancy between the researcher’s observations and lecturers’ responses regarding the application of DI strategies and also there is some inconsistency between some lecturers’ own responses that claim to have applied DI strategies but fail to provide examples of such tasks. Hopefully, this research will help raise teachers’ awareness that DI reading strategies should be implemented in their EFL classes generally as well as in their reading classes to enhance diverse students’ reading skills and help them with their academic development. Key words: diverse needs, differentiation in reading classrooms, EFL learners, differentiated instruction strategies, EFL lecturers �1 INTRODUCTION Learning a foreign language encompasses the inclusion of all four language skills, which are crucial for becoming a proficient speaker of a particular language. In EFL classes, the importance is also on covering all language skills because they all form a mosaic of helping learners master the language more competently. Although paper acknowledges the significance of including all four language skills in a lesson, meeting students’ diverse needs for reading is the main aim of this research, especially focusing on applying differentiated instruction strategies to meet this aim.Moreover, the reason this paper focuses on differentiating reading instructions is related to Ankrum & Bean’s (2007) statement that “the process of reading is so complex that instruction tailored to individual needs is difficult for practitioners to attain”(p.136), therefore, lecturers are inclined to avoid it. As an EFL lecturer who has done research on the topic of differentiation and as a member of the central observation team for many years at SEEU, the researcher was intrigued to discover more about the knowledge and application of DI strategies among EFL lecturers at SEEU. Previously conducted observationswere an impetus for the researcher to undergo a more thorough study on DI strategies by observing an absence of application of DI strategies in the observed classes. 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This study focuses on providing both the information based on literature study on DI in general and on reading classes in particular. There are many definitions provided about differentiation but the one which is more related to this study is Tomlinson’s (2010) definition which states that “a teacher proactively plans varied approaches to what students need to learn, how they will learn it and/or how they can express what they have learned” (p. 155). This tells us that lecturers need to think about differentiation since they are planning their lessons in order to be prepared for reaching every student in their classroom and meeting their needs. Another reason for applying differentiation is stated in the following statement that “students do not come to school with the same background experiences, knowledge, and abilities; these differences greatly impact the content the teachers can provide and the instructional strategies they can use” (Levy, 2008 cited in Ross & Johnson, 2012, p. 4). In terms of applying differentiation in reading classes, Ford (2005),states that “anyone who thinks there is one right way to teach reading has never worked with two children (p.1). As a consequence, lecturers should widen their spectrum of thinking and always have in mind student diversity rather than perceivingstudentsas a group because if the tasks are not appropriate to students’ level they will not achieve success. In relation to this, Tomlinson (2001) relies on the writings of Howard (1994) and Vygotsky (1962) in explaining the rationale for applying DI: �We know that learning happens best when a learning experience pushes the learner a bit beyond his or her independence level. When a student continues to work on understandings and skills already mastered, little if any new learning takes place. On the other hand, if tasks are far ahead of a student's current point of mastery, frustration results and learning does not (Tomlinson, 2001, p.8). Moreover, whether differentiation happens in other classes or in reading classes, the tasks should be adapted to match students’ level. Helping students with their reading skills is very crucial, especially for struggling EFL learners who find it even more difficult to read in a foreign language. Consequently, Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. (2012) claim that Good readers read because it gives them pleasure and they do it well; consequently, they get practice in reading and become better at it. However, the research on Striving Readers (Ayers & Miller, 2009 cited in Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. , 2012) provides evidence that many poor readers get so discouraged that they lose the will or desire to read and thus to succeed (p.10). As a result, in order to encourage poor readers to read more and not get frustrated, the lecturers should “provide support for struggling readers by asking reading specialists for help and providing strategic instruction that engages all learners—even struggling readers—in rewarding learning experiences” (Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C., 2012, p.10). 3 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION 3.1 Participants The participants, who took part in this research conducted in the summer semester 2015, were 16 EFL Lecturers from SEEU, Tetovo/Skopje, Macedonia. The participants were mainly involved in responding to the teacher questionnaires. However, regarding the observations conducted, the number of participants is not specified because the research relies generally on the data gathered from the classroom observations conducted throughout the years in SEEU EFL classes as part of regular classroom observations. The researcher, being a member of the Central Observation Team at SEEU for many years, had collected data for many peer observed classroom observations already, another observation was not necessary for this particular research. �3.2Instruments Teacher questionnaire (see Appendix 1), which consisted of 8 questions related to teachers’ knowledge about DI in reading classes, were the main instrument of this research which helped gather the data about teachers’ knowledge and application of DI strategies in their EFL classes, especially in their reading classes. The questionnaire was designed by the researcher, after consulting the literature on DI generally and in reading classes in particular, and after consultations with experienced lecturers as well as based on the needs of the present research.Six questions, were perceived as crucial in providing the necessary data.The questionnaire consisted of both closed and open questions, which required teachers to choose one of the given options, provide their comments as well as match the given choices. Moreover, classroom observations, conducted regularly at SEEUas part of the Central Observation Team at SEEU (explained above), were another important part of this research because the data was an essential asset which added reliability and validity to the research. The results from classroom observations functioned as anendorsement to the findings obtained from this study because they were used to compare the teacher responses with the researcher’s data from classroom observations, therefore what the teachers said about their use and application of DI strategies could be easily compared with the reality observed in the classroom, where two observers were available (an observer and a co-observer). 4 DATA ANALYSIS In order to analyze the data gathered for conducting this research, it was required that both qualitative and quantitative data analysis is used. Quantitative analysis included the answers requiring rating and matching, whereas qualitative analysis required teachers to provide definitions and comments for certain questions. Consequently, teachers were asked to respond to the questionnaire, which consisted of closed questions e.g. Yes a lot; Yes, a little; Not at all, which were followed by questions requiring teachers to present their own examples of their experience with DI in EFL classrooms. In addition, one of the questions asked teachers to match three scenarios with the type of a lesson, which provided information to check lecturers’ knowledge about differentiation if it was incidental or academic. Regarding the observations, the focus was on the application of DI strategies and tasks in the observed EFL classes throughout the years. �5 RESULTS The findings of this study focus mainly on the responses gathered from the teacher questionnaires, which are explained in details below, whereas the results from the classroom observations are summarized. 5.1 Questionnaire Responses 5.1.1 Question 1: Are you aware of the term differentiation?Yes, a lot __ Not at all__ Yes, a little__ Regarding the first question which asked participants about their awareness of differentiation, there were mixed responses as follows. Two of the participants said Yes, a lot; six participants said Yes, a little and eight participants responded with Not at all. 5.1.2 Question 2: In what ways do you know about differentiation? Workshop__ Conference__ The Internet__ Formal education__ Other (specify)_______ Those who either answered a lot or a little in question 1 appeared to know about differentiation from conferences, workshops and the Internet. However, only one respondent knew about differentiation from formal education. 5.1.3 Question 3: If you answered question 1 with yes, then answer this question.Could you give a brief definition of differentiation? Definitions of DI given by teachers: 1. The efforts of the teacher to respond to variances of learners’ needs in the classroom. 2. Using a various range of pre and post reading techniques according to students’ proficiency level. 3. Instruction that is tailored to meet specific students’ needs. 4. Adjusting your teaching to meet the students’ needs. 5. Using a wide variety of teaching strategies for different students. 6. Using different activities, adapting to students’ needs and proficiency level. 5.1.4 Question 4: Do you attempt to differentiate in your class? little__ Not at all__ Yes, a lot __ Yes, a In relation to the application of DI in their EFL classes, lecturers responded as follows. Two of them stated Yes, a lot, five lecturers said Yes, a little and nine participants responded with Not at all regarding DI applied in their classes. 5.1.5. Question 5: If you answered question 4 with yes, then answer this question.If you attempt to differentiate, what tasks would you give in different ways? �Concerning DI tasks provided in EFL classes, the lecturers responded in the following manner: 1.Tasks with more open outcomes are given, so each student can do the task at the level of ability and knowledge they have.2.Activities in the introductory stage when presenting new grammar or vocabulary item by exemplifying in more than one way and in the production stage not expecting or insisting on the same outcome from students. 5.1.6 Question 6: Do you attempt to differentiate in your reading classes? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__ Not at all__ In regards to the lecturers’ application of DI in their reading classes specifically, the results are much different than previous ones. As a result, there were two responses stating Yes, a lot, two responses stating Yes, a little and twelve responses stating Not at all. 5.1.7 Question 7: If you answered question 6 with yes, then answer this question. If you attempt to differentiate, what reading tasks would you give in different ways? In relation to the DI tasks provided in reading classes the lecturers suggested the following tasks: 1. Adapting reading comprehension questions to students level of proficiency. 2. Different reading comprehension questions. 3. Reading for gist and detail to less proficient readers. Reading for gist, detail, inference, summarizing to more proficient learners. 5.1.8 Question 8:Below are provided 3 scenes of a reading class. Match the scenarios I-III with the type of a lesson a-c. a. No differentiation b. Little differentiation c. A lot of differentiation I. The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the passage and then they are given one set of closed questions related to the text. ______ II. The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the passage and then they are given three activities that fit each student’s reading ability; students participate. _______ III. The teacher has a passage about reading. Students read the passage and then they are given one set of closed questions related to the text. _______ �The last question required the teachers to match the scenarios with the type of a lesson. Regardless of the teachers’ knowledge and application of DI in their classes all the teachers were able to answer this question. As a result, there were thirteen correct answers, whereas there were only three incorrect answers. 5.2 Observation Findings From many classroom observations conducted across SEEU and especially in the EFL classes in the past semesters, it was observed that DI strategies were not applied proactively neither generally in EFL classes nor specifically in reading classes in the observed classrooms. Even though, there were some instances where teachers have tried to retreat from the main course book and use additional resources either printed or electronic, still it was not done with an aim to meet the needs of diverse students in their classroom, but it was done to provide more practice for students. The researcher can certainly claim this because not in any circumstanceneitherwhen the lecturers submitted their lesson plans nor discussed with the observers either before or after the observation have mentioned any intention of applying differentiated instruction strategies in their classes. 6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The questionnaire results indicate that the answers provided in the questionnaire did not completely match researcher’s observationsand even some lecturers contradicted themselves with their responses. Firstly, lecturers’ claimed to have knowledge of DI, and although most teachers who attended workshops and conferences knew a little about differentiation,not all of them could define it correctly. Then, although some teachers claimed to have applied DI in their classes, they failed to provide explanation of the DI tasks they give students, which is questionable because if they have applied it then they should be able to provide an explanation of the tasks they used. Also,some teachers tried to provide some tasks by claiming that they were differentiation tasks but the examples provided did not have any similarity to differentiated tasks.As a result, those tasks were not even shown in this research under lecturer’s responses in the results chapter. Regarding the application of DI in reading classes, even fewer teachers responded to have applied DI strategies and there were only few tasks provided. Finally, regardless of various responses provided throughout the questionnaire, out of sixteen surveyed participants, thirteen matched the tasks and scenarios correctly, whereas only three respondents matched them incorrectly. This shows that lecturers’ knowledge about DI is more incidental than academic. �The last question was not only useful for the researcher to collect the required data, but it also helped the participants who knew a little or not at all about differentiation become acquainted with some DI tasks that might be applied in their classes. This question was left as the last one in the teacher questionnaire in order not to let participants see examples of DI tasks while completing the questionnaire. There was even a comment made by one of the respondents that if that question was put earlier then that respondent could have answered all previous questions, which he apparently failed to answer. The findings from the classroom observation were really helpful in comparing the questionnaire findings with the results from the observed classrooms. Despite the fact that the lecturers claimed that they have applied differentiation in their classes, the data from classroom observations (which included both this observer plus a co-observer) show the opposite. Although, in some of the observed classes there were attempts made to put students in groups, then adapt some tasks from the main course book, or additional resources were used like the internet and other visual data, these tasks were mostly used to enhance the lesson, not differentiate learning. No lesson plan received or in any pre or post observation meetings held with lecturers, demonstrated that while preparing for the lesson or while teaching they tried to differentiate their instruction. As a result, it was concluded that those tasks were not designed to meet each individual students’ diverse needs, but they matched teaching to the middle or one size fit all approach which is not what differentiated instruction, defined as “teaching with student variance in mind” (Hall, 2009, p.1) promotes. 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS This research provides very useful data that helps not only the researcher to discover the level of knowledge and application of DI strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers, but also it should be useful for lecturers themselves because they can hopefully understand the importance of application of DI in their EFL classes generally and in their reading classes too so they can understand how the lack of its application might hinder students from gaining success. The observations reveal that teachers generally care about their students and try to help them by providing additional exercises and tools, but they are not doing it in the appropriate way. Therefore, instead of planning the lesson for students as a group having the same needs, they should step back from those margins and think about their students as individuals and then plan and teach the lesson by applying differentiated instruction strategies. In conclusion, lecturers should get more information about DI and start applying it in their EFL classes as well as in their reading classes if they want their students to genuinely succeed. �References Ankrum, J.W. & Bean, R. M. (2007). Differentiated Reading Instruction: What and How? Reading Horizons 48(1), 133-146. Biancarosa, C. & Snow, C. E. (2006). Reading next—A vision for action and research in middle And high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.).Washington, DC:Alliance for Excellent Education. Ford, M.P. (2005). Differentiation through flexible grouping: Successfully reaching all readers. (Government Contract No. ED-01-CO-0011). Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates. Hall, B. Differentiated instruction: reaching all students. Retrieved from:http://assets.pearsonschool.com/asset_mgr/current/20109/Differentiated_Instruction .pdf Howard, P. (1994). An owner’s manual for the brain. Austin, TX: Leornian Press. Richardson, J. S., Morgan, R. F. & Fleener, C. (2012, 8th ed). Reading to learn in the Contentareas. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ITP. Ross, J.D & Johnson, L. (2012). Support for differentiation: Implementing eSpark. Virginia department of Education. Tomlinson, C. A . (2001). How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, (2nd ed. ). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tomlinson, C. A.(2010). Differentiating Instruction for Academic Diversity. (9thed). In Cooper. J.M. (Ed). Classroom Teaching Skills. (p.156). Belmont, USA: Cengage Learning. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. �APPENDIX 1 Teacher Questionnaire Please answer the following questions related to differentiation in reading classes. Your contribution is appreciated. 1. Are you aware of the term differentiation? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__ Not at all__ 2. In what ways do you know about differentiation? Workshop__ Conference__ The Internet__ Formal education__ Other (specify)_______ 3. If you answered question 1 with yes, then answer this question. Could you give a brief definition of differentiation? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 4. Do you attempt to differentiate in your class? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__ Not at all__ 5. If you answered question 4 with yes, then answer this question. If you attempt to differentiate, what tasks would you give in different ways? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 6. Do you attempt to differentiate in your reading classes? Yes, a lot __ Yes, a little__ Not at all__ 7. If you answered question 6 with yes, then answer this question. If you attempt to differentiate, what reading tasks would you give in different ways? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 8. Below are provided 3 scenes of a reading class. Match the scenarios I-III with the type of a lesson a-c. b. No differentiation b. Little differentiation c. A lot of differentiation IV. The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the passage and then they are given one set of closed questions related to the text. ______ �V. The teacher has a passage about reading and uses a PowerPoint including images, illustrations and lecture notes to explain the main points to students. Students read the passage and then they are given 3 activities that fit each student’s reading ability; students participate. _______ VI. The teacher has a passage about reading. Students read the passage and then they are given one set of closed questions related to the text. _______ � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2952 Title A name given to the resource MEETING STUDENTS' DIVERSE NEEDS FOR READING THROUGH DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION STRATEGIES Author Author Bajrami, Iranda Abstract A summary of the resource. The focus of this research is on meeting South East European University (SEEU) students’ diverse needs for reading. Although in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom, all four language skills are important, reading becomes most important when students enter university without enough strategies for reading. Therefore the reading material presented should be differentiated to suit everyone’s needs. According to Biancarosa & Snow (2006) "a full 70 percent of U. S. middle and high school students require differentiated instruction (DI), which is instruction targeted to their individual strengths and weaknesses" (p.8). Consequently, since it is difficult for native learners to read in their mother tongue then it can be imagined how difficult it might be for EFL learners to read in English. Thus, differentiation in reading classrooms becomes an important responsibility for EFL lecturers. The methods of data collection used in this research were teacher questionnaires and classroom observations to help discover the level of knowledge and application of DI reading strategies among SEEU EFL lecturers to meet diverse learners’ needs. The results of the study conducted showed that there is a discrepancy between the researcher’s observations and lecturers’ responses regarding the application of DI strategies and also there is some inconsistency between some lecturers’ own responses that claim to have applied DI strategies but fail to provide examples of such tasks. Hopefully, this research will help raise teachers’ awareness that DI reading strategies should be implemented in their EFL classes generally as well as in their reading classes to enhance diverse students’ reading skills and help them with their academic development. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ffb5734712a6fb15ef4273c3df92937d.pdf f7b30ba1766e8684647e902e89cdbc97 PDF Text Text COLLEGE STUDENTS’ FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN RESERVATION Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 08.08.2015 Abstract: This is the narrative of the fieldwork conducted by the Global Citizenship Studies Department at Seisen University. The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was started in 2008 in Colville in the State of Washington. Since 2008, we have sent average of 10 students every year for 7 years. The aims of this fieldwork are: 1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans 2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature 3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people Keywords: Native-American Reservation, multi-cultural understanding, service learning �I. INTRODUCTION Seisen University is a women’s college established by Catholic nuns from Spain in 1950. The name of the department I belong to is Global Citizenship Studies Department and probably the only department that has this name in the world. I would like to introduce one of the fieldworks that our department is conducting. Before I start elaborating on the fieldwork, let me briefly explain the department and its curriculum. The department was established in 2000 with the aim to foster the women who can contribute to global society with global perspective. Our motto is “Think globally, act locally.” This is the structure of our curriculum. At the bottom as you can see, first things students are expected to gain in their first year classes are basic knowledge, fundamental learning skills, and communication skills. In the second year, they start taking classes in the three major areas, namely, Social Sciences and Humanities, Global Communication and Fieldwork. In the area of Social Sciences and Humanities, students study, for example, history, sociology, economics, politics, culture, religion and so on. In the area of Global Communication, they learn not only English and other foreign languages but also cross-cultural communication, interpretation, translation, presentation skills and so on. And in the Fieldwork, students are expected to see, find out and feel at first-hand what they learned in the Social Sciences and Humanities and Global Communication areas. In the third year they decide the research theme and survey the literature and make �research for the theme. And finally in the fourth year, they complete their thesis and make presentation based on the thesis. I hope the explanation made it clear where the fieldworks are placed in our curriculum. Two overseas fieldworks are usually offered in addition to the fieldworks in the United States and England and two within the country every year. So far we have sent our students to India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Nepal, Bhutan, Malawi, the USA, England, New Zealand, Korea, Taiwan, and we will start a new program in Malaysia this summer. We have our domestic fieldworks in Okinawa, farming area in Ibaraki, the forestry area in the central part of Japan. All these fieldworks are aiming at researching the specific area and understanding its culture. The purpose of these fieldworks is far from that of the sightseeing tours. Before they actually participate in the fieldwork, the students study about the host country receiving the guidance of the professor who has experience living in the area and has a strong network in the community. The people from the host country are often invited as resource persons so that our students could gain as much information as possible before they leave for the fieldwork site. II. THE FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN RESERVATION The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was started in 2008 in Colville in the State of Washington.Since 2008, we have sent average of 10 students every year for 7 years. The aims of this fieldwork are: 1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans 2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature 3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people 1. The site of the fieldwork According to the national census in 2010, the population of the United States is approximately 308,750,000 out of which 0.9 % is Native Americans. That is about 3,000,000. There are 566 reservations acknowledged throughout the country. 229 are in Alaska and the rest of 337 are scattered in 33 states. The American government approves of each tribe’s right of self-government. Colville reservation is located 115 kilometers (71 miles) north of Spokane, Washington. It covers the southeastern part of Okanogan County, the southern half of Ferry County and the southern tip of Stevens County. The population is about 8,700 which consists of 12 different tribes. Their native language is Salish, however, there are less than 100 people who can use the language. �In order to enter the reservation, the ferry boat is the only way and that is why the area is called Ferry County. The ferry boat can accommodate 12 cars at a time and runs from 6:45 in the morning to 9:30 in the evening free of charge. There are no street lights or traffic signal. As you can easily imagine, you don’t have Wi-Fi access, either. There is only one small gas station and a tiny supermarket. The natural environment is just wonderful. They don’t have any kind of pollution. There are lots of different kinds of wild animals. You can find many beaver dams in the Twin Lakes and you can see ospreys flying high above the sky and diving in the lake to catch fish. Deer come very close to where people live and wild turkeys march in line. If you are lucky, you will see a moose and if you are unlucky you will meet a skunk. We should never leave food out in the house because bears would come in to get it. You hear them roar at night and you may run into them. The reservation is just like a safari park. �Our students appreciate the beautiful nature. They enjoy canoeing and swimming in the lake and meeting the various wild animals. Rick, one of the Native-American rangers in the reservation told us the ecology of the wildlife. He told us that animals do not attack us unless we do some harm to them and that the Native Americans do not catch animals more than they need. In the reservation, one has to have an ID as a Native-American to shoot animals or catch fish. 2. The History of the Native-Americans It may be easy to associate Native-Americans with Pocahontas in Walt Disney’s animation. They have dark skin and dark braided hair wearing leather clothes and ride their horses very well. However, the Native-Americans we met in the reservation are not at all like them. Blue jeans and T-shirt is the most typical outfit. They live in a common house, drive a car and cook whatever other Americans eat other than authentic food such as wild deer meat stew, wild huckleberry jam, and fried bread. �However, we should not forget the history of the Native-Americans. We take our students to three museums nearby to acquire general idea of the reservation and tribes. They look around the exhibits and ask the curators questions about history, lifestyle, culture, and art of the tribes. These pieces of knowledge help the students gather information through hands-on experience exchanging with local people. It is a very famous story that Columbus left Spain in 1492 bound for Japan sailing the Atlantic Ocean and he ended up landing on the United States. He believed it was India and therefore called the native people Indians. After Columbus, for 400 years, many Europeans came and repeated the brutal act and also they brought them such diseases as smallpox, the measles and tuberculosis. The Native American population decreased drastically. In addition, alcohol and guns had undesirable effects to the large extent the life of the Native-Americans. In 1830, the American government decided to set forth administrative policy to assimilate the Native-Americans into mainstream of the American society. They had to change their names, religion, language and way of life. They were told to change their hunting life to agricultural life and driven to the unproductive land. Children were sent to Indian schools many of which had dormitories so that they were forced to live apart from their parents. Our students learned the Native-Americans’ regrettable history, traditions and culture �and at the same time the problems they are facing: poverty, unemployment, lack of education, alcohol and drug dependence, destruction of family and so on. They try to find the solutions to these problems. They become aware of the link between what they learned in the classroom and what they actually see and feel through their experience outside of the classroom. 3. Ihchelium School and More Students spend most of the time with children and students at Inchelium School in the reservation. Ms. Denise Seeley, the teacher who teaches the 5th graders, really likes the idea of this cultural exchange program and she is very cooperative. Our students and the 5th graders exchange letters and emails prior to their visit and they introduce themselves with each other so that they feel familiar when they meet. When they visit the class, they answer whatever questions the Inchelium students have and help them do the assignment. They also play games together. Inchelium School has always been ranked in the worst 40 in the States in terms of academic standard and the very worst among 500 schools in the State of Washington. The children are not very good at writing and even the 5th graders could not write more than 5 lines. However, those who had our students in class and spent quite a while with wrote beautiful essays. Let me share with you some of them. ��As you can see, they have so much to write about and willing to write. When children have some feelings and emotions, they want to express them. They enjoy changing font and giving a designed title. Ms. Denise Seeley commented that these essays seem to be love letters from Inchelium children to Seisen girls. Not only in composition class but in math class, too, there was a big change. Their grades in math jumped up only in this class among all the 12 classes in Inchelium School. Again Ms. Seeley said she did not do anything special but that each child came to have self-respect and became aware that it is importance to be considerate to each other. The change of behavior in their everyday life and the change of attitude toward study had a great influence on their �grades. A boy who had to go to the principal’s office 45 times a year as punishment for doing something wrong went there only 5 times this year. Another boy was very violent and sometimes Ms. Seeley had to evacuate all other students out of the classroom, but after experiencing this exchange program, he never caused a single problem. These changes were such remarkable phenomena that those teachers who were reluctant to invite our students to their classes had to change their mind. They were afraid of running out of time to teach composition or math if these Japanese college students come and the class will be doing something extra other than the regular curriculum. The older students have such questions as what young people are most interested in, what are the most popular fashion, music, and cartoon. They play basketball and cook typical dishes of their own culture for each other. Inchelium School is kind enough to let our students have lunch with the students in the cafeteria. They usually serve salad, bread, milk, and meat, fish, pasta, and so on. It is not a fancy food but children could have as much as they want. Some parents with alcohol or drug dependence do not cook for their children and so the lunch they have at school could be important nourishing food for them. Outside of Inchelium School, the community holds friendship pow wow, a kind of prayer meeting while we are there. The Native Americans dance, sing, and play the drums in their native costumes and our students also dance and sing in yukata, a kind of kimono. They show how to dance with each other. Other than the pow wow, we had chances to share a very good time with local people at family night out and parties held by church. Our students showed and told how to do folding paper and let the children try on Yukata. �Recently only a few people attended pow wow and family night out, and people don’t get together and spend time together, however, the pow wow and family night out held while our students were there became the biggest ones in the past. 4. Impacts of the Fieldwork on the Native-American Reservation What our students brought to the Native-Americans may be only a fragment of our culture and not a common culture shared by many Japanese. It could be very personal, however, we could say that the impact that they made on the community was quite huge. Very few non-Native-Americans, if any, enter the reservation and needless to say, there are hardly any foreigners’ visits there. The small children always gathered around our students and some high school students came to see us every night at our lodge. The adults extended hospitality to us to offer places and food for our cultural exchange in spite of the fact that they live in poverty. It seems as if we made a big ventilation hole in the society for a wind of change to go through. The children from the very beginning were so curious and came closer to us, talked to us and played with us without any hesitation, while adults were cautiously stood by without showing any emotion at first. However, once they realized that we were harmless and doing our best to communicate with them because we really wanted to know about them and be friends with them, they started asking so many questions and extended hospitality to us. We often heard the words to express their gratitude by adults by saying that our visits to the reservation reminded them of importance to protect their identity and strengthen the solidarity �of the tribe. They also helped the people there make a step forward to know that there is a world different from their own. Our students noticed that they could change the world around them, and they became more eager to learn about what they don’t know. I discussed the impact of the fieldwork on the Native Americans from the perspective of service learning. We also conducted questionnaire on the impact of the fieldwork on Seisen students and my colleague, Kathy wrote about the findings. Of course our students learned so much through this fieldwork and we found the comments of our students very interesting and inspiring. III. CONCLUSION There is one thing that we have to keep in mind about conducting fieldwork in Colville because of its uniqueness. As it was mentioned above, thisreservation is closed to non NativeAmericans and therefore the people there did not open their mind at first. But once they opened their heart to us, it seems that they had complete trust in us. Most people there have given up establishing long-lasting relationship with outsiders and therefore we should keep our program to visit them regularly in order to sustain and strengthen our bond. Especially we should not disappoint the children who are expecting Seisen students to come and visit them every summer. The 4th graders are so anxious to become 5th graders because they can have our students in their class. It is our hope that this fieldwork will be of any contribution to make the community a better place to live. �Lastly two episodes will be introduced before I finish my presentation. There is one Native-American college student who has been assisting our fieldwork. His name is Neil. He is always wearing a cap with “Native Pride” on. He was studying information technology at a university in Texas. Few young people in this reservation go to university since the academic level is extremely low, most of the families cannot afford it, and they cannot get accustomed to a new environment because the life in the reservation is very different from the life elsewhere. He is a graduate from Inchelium School and young children seem to respect him and envy him. He said he is proud to be a Native-American and his plan was to become a teacher at Inchelium School after graduating from college. In the spring of 2009, Neil came to Tokyo. He was staying with our students’ families and faculty members. While he was supporting our fieldwork, he became more and more interested in Japan and he chose this country for his first travel overseas. He came back again in 2011 for the second time. He changed his major to TESOL and now he is planning to teach English in Japan. Nobody was expecting this. It is sure that the impact of this young man as a role model on the children in the reservation is great and many of them will be determined to go to college and choose to visit Japan as the first destination of their overseas travel. In fact, lots of boys and girls were saying that they want to go to Japan. We met a boy when we were visiting Pascal Sherman Indian School which is located in the other end of the reservation in March this year. He used to go to Inchelium School a few years ago and when he found us he came up to us and took out a wrinkled piece of paper from his pocket and showed it to us. On the paper were some expressions in Japanese he learned from our students when he was in the 5th grade. Since he never knew that we were visiting his �school that day, it is sure that he carries the piece of paper all the time. Finally let me introduce the words by Margaret Mead, a famous American anthropologist. It is not exaggeration to say that her words literally mean what this fieldwork is aiming at: “Never doubt that a small highly committed group of individuals can change the world: indeed it is the only thing that ever has.” � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2961 Title A name given to the resource COLLEGE STUDENTS’ FIELDWORK IN THE NATIVE-AMERICAN RESERVATION Author Author Aikyo, Mikiko Abstract A summary of the resource. This is the narrative of the fieldwork conducted by the Global Citizenship Studies Department at Seisen University. The fieldwork in the Native-Americans reservation was started in 2008 in Colville in the State of Washington. Since 2008, we have sent average of 10 students every year for 7 years. The aims of this fieldwork are: 1) to understand history, culture and life of the Native-Americans 2) to learn the importance of symbiotic relation between people and the nature 3) to acquire English skills through communicating with local people Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8e47c313c03f5413ff379f895ae415bf.pdf 45f37cba15850807b45bb1e427cc5d71 PDF Text Text PROVERBS TEACHING IN EFL CLASSES: “WHERE THERE IS A WILL, THERE IS A WAY” Sana’ Ababneh Al-Balqa’a Applied University Article History: Submitted: 07.06.2015 Accepted: 15.07.2015 Abstract: The present study aimed at investigating the presence of proverbs in English textbooks taught to EFL Arab learners as well as investigating the attitudes of English language teachers towards proverbs as part of the EFL teaching materials. Results of the content analysis which has been carried out on four English textbooks of the Enterprise series show that teaching proverbs is included as part of the teaching material presented to the students. Proverbs are presented in different ways: sometimes they are used as titles of units, in vocabulary exercises, or as separate sections at the end of each unit. And they appear either in their original form or truncated. On the other hand, teachers' attitudes towards teaching proverbs to EFL learners show their belief in the importance of teaching proverbs since they convey the culture and wisdom of their users, moreover, they provide students with a rich source of vocabulary. They also give them an opportunity of making comparisons between their own proverbs and the English ones thus broadening their knowledge of the world; finally, they help students to express themselves in English in a more natural, native-like way. Keywords: English, Proverbs, Language, Teaching, EFL �1. INTRODUCTION Foreign language teaching witnessed a shift from focusing on grammar teaching to vocabulary teaching. Moreover, new trends in teaching give more emphasis to the role of vocabulary in learning and teaching a foreign language as it is a fundamental component for communication and comprehension. Today vocabulary teaching has given more emphasis to teaching vocabulary as “chunks “of language such as idioms, collocations, phrases, and proverbs. Akbarian (2010: 1) claims that English is rich in multi-word lexemes, such as idioms, proverbs, and other fixed expressions that might be a stumbling block for English as foreign language learners. On the other hand, Rubin and Thompson, (1994: 79) focus on the importance of the indirect approach in learning vocabulary as it enables learners to learn vocabulary through reading and listening rather than memorizing and retention of lists of words. Moreover, the indirect approach depends on presenting the new vocabulary within texts a matter that gives the learners the opportunity to learn the intended meaning rather than presenting lists of separate words that may have different meanings according to the context in which they occur. This way of teaching vocabulary depends on implementing the use of idioms, collocations and proverbs because this is the appropriate language that one needs to learn to be able to communicate fluently and accurately (Ababneh, 2008:26) Studies in the field show that most foreign language learners believe that they don’t have enough vocabulary to communicate or produce utterances like native speakers of the target language, one of the ways that makes this process easier for those students is through the study of figurative language as it is the way in which native speakers express their thoughts, views, ideas and emotions. Thus learning proverbs in this respect can provide a chance for learners to acquire some information about the culture of that language. (Çakir, 2010: 7). Thus idiomatic expressions such as proverbs should not be neglected during the learning process, and every language learner has to be prepared to deal with real language in different contexts as it is true to say that such expressions frequently take place in all forms of discourse: in conversations, lectures, movies, radio broadcasts, and television programs. Nevertheless, foreign language learners surely face a challenge in understanding and producing L2 proverbs because they are very difficult for them. But if they want to produce and understand the target language they must be prepared to meet the challenge considering the fact that lower level of linguistic competence in the target language will lead to disadvantage in understanding L2 figurative expressions. (Çakir, 2010: 7). Thus the present study addresses itself to study proverbs’ occurrence in English textbooks used in teaching English and to investigate the attitudes of the teachers towards teaching proverbs since they have an importance in learning the foreign language. A proverb is defined as “a well- known phrase or sentence that gives advice or says something that is generally true “(Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary). It is generally short and known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form and which is handed down from generation to �generation (Mieder 1993:5, 24.). In other words, proverbs represent every culture’s collection of wise sayings that offer advice about how to live your life. Nothing defines a culture as distinctly as its language, and the element of language that best encapsulates any culture’s values and beliefs is its proverbs. Moreover, the study of proverbs can provide cultural insights and stimulate communication, as learning the proverbs of the target language gives a foreign language learners an opportunity to practice and develop their oral communication.( MacDougall, 2004). In the same vein, Nuessel and Cicogna (1994) claim that proverbs learning is the ideal form for introducing metaphorical language and, as a result, metaphorical competence for several reasons: first, proverbs are short and easy to remember. Second, the language of proverbs is fairly simple and corresponds to the basic vocabulary of elementary and intermediate class. Third, they are a persistent element of the language understudy. Fourth, developing proverbial language ability will result in an important discourse strategy in students, like that of indirect speech acts, that allows the speaker to disguise his true feelings. Finally, proverbs have a literal meaning and a secondary figurative meaning. This of course indicates metaphoric competence because the students must make an appropriate analogy between the proverb and the specific situation (Nuessel and Cicogna (1994). Furthermore, (MacDougall, 2004) argues that idioms and proverbs can give the learner the opportunity to have a more thorough understanding of both language and culture, and without grasping the meaning of these types of sayings, we are confined to a unilateral understanding. He further states that students, translators, interpreters, and linguists also will benefit from constantly updating their understanding and use of these words of wisdom, since they can offer culturally-specific insights, since proverbs can help in comprehending the way people of the target language think about the world. In the same respect, Byrne (2005) mentions three main functions for proverbs. Firstly, they transmit wisdom and cultural values from one generation to another. Secondly, they advise and warn children about proper and dangerous behavior. Thirdly, many proverbs have a playful and provocative tendency; they embellish speech and cap arguments. All these make proverbs easy to remember and use. Furthermore, Mieder (2004) claims that the use of proverbs in the teaching of English as a foreign language is very important in fostering learners’ ability to communicate effectively. He also suggests that the proverbs which are appropriate be introduced as part of the teaching material are those used today by the native speakers of the target language. He also states that “textbooks on both the teaching of native and foreign languages usually include at least some lists of proverbs an accompanying exercises “(p. 147). In the same vein, Hanzén (2007: 1) concludes that proverbs play an important role in language teaching as a part of gaining cultural knowledge, metaphorical understanding and communicative competence. From all the ideas presented in the above discussion stems the importance of carrying out such study as it could add a brick to the wall of knowledge regarding this area in vocabulary teaching to Arab EFL learners. �The present study has two goals; first it will examine whether proverbs are a part of the EFL teaching curricula in Jordan. The investigation focused on the occurrence of proverbs in four English textbooks used in a private school in Jordan. Second, it will look on the attitudes of English teachers toward using proverbs in the teaching among eleven teachers who teach English at a private school in Jordan. 2. AIM The aim of this study is to investigate whether and how proverbs are used as a part of EFL teaching in a private school in Jordan. The investigation concerns the occurrence of proverbs in four textbooks of English, namely, a pre-intermediate series of English textbook “Enterprise: 1,2,3,and 4’. And what attitudes there are among eleven English teachers who teach this course book toward using proverbs in their teaching. Questions of this study are adapted from Hanzén (2007: 4). 2.1. Questions of the study • How many proverbs occur in the English textbooks “Enterprise: 1,2,3,and 4’? • What are the purposes of using the proverbs in the textbooks? • In what forms do the proverbs occur? • Do English teachers include proverbs in their teaching? Why/why not? How? • What are the teachers’ attitudes toward using proverbs in English teaching? 3. METHODS AND PROCEDURES This part presents the procedures which the researcher followed to carry out the study. As it was mentioned earlier there are two objectives for this study: first an examination of the occurrence of proverbs in the English textbooks and to fulfill this objective, a content analysis was done by the researcher to the four textbooks understudy. Then a questionnaire was distributed to English teachers that was adapted from Hanzén (2007) to measure their attitudes towards teaching English proverbs. The method used is descriptive and it combines quantitative and qualitative research approaches. 3.1 Examination of Textbooks The primary material in this investigation consists of four textbooks that are used as the teaching textbooks of English at Yarmouk University Model School, Jordan. The material is purposefully chosen and therefore does not include all the textbooks that are available for teaching English in Jordan. The four textbooks are a special edition of the Enterprise series of English course books which are namely: “Enterprise 1, Enterprise 2, Enterprise 3, and Enterprise 4. A content analysis to the textbooks was held by the researcher in order to find out how many proverbs the textbooks contain, how they are used, and what forms the proverbs have. The content analysis included �every part of the student book and the work book for each textbook. However, the survey has not included other material connected to the textbooks, e.g. CDs, worksheets and extra material. When a proverbial expression was detected, it was determined as a proverb with the help of The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Electronic version). All the proverbs were then classified under some categories that illustrate the purpose of using each proverb, as well as the form of the proverb in which it appears in the textbook whether it was original form, truncated or paraphrased. 3.2. Questionnaire to English Teachers In order to find out whether proverbs are a part of the EFL teaching in Jordan, the researcher adapted Hanzén (2007) questionnaire, which was given to eleven English teachers at Yarmouk University Model School. The questionnaire consisted of ten questions; eight unstructured open ended questions and two multiple-choice questions (see Appendix.1). The aim of the questionnaire was to find out if teachers use proverbs in their teaching, which ones they consider useful to teach, how they use them, and what attitudes they have toward using proverbs in their classes. 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS This section will present the results of the content analysis of the textbooks and the questionnaire given to the teachers. First, the results gathered from the content analysis of the textbooks will be presented. The data will show the number of proverbs found in each textbook, a description of the purposes of using the proverbs, and the different forms the proverbs used in each textbook. Second, the results obtained from the answers of the teachers regarding questionnaire questions will be presented. 4.1. Examination of Textbooks The content analysis of the 4 textbooks has resulted in 116 findings of proverbs. Six of the proverbs are used more than once. Table (1) presents the number of proverbs in each textbook. 45 of the proverbs (38.8%) were found in Enterprise (1). 30 proverbs (25.9%) in Enterprise (2). 29 proverbs ( 25 %) were in Enterprise (3), and 12 proverbs (10.3%) were found in Enterprise (4). However, only 5out of the 116 proverbs were used twice in the four textbooks, and one was used three times. “When in Rome, do as the Romans do “. Table 1: Number of proverbs in English textbooks textbook Proverb number Percentage % Enterprise 1 45 38.8 Enterprise 2 30 25.9 Enterprise 3 29 25 �Enterprise 4 12 Total 116 10.3 4.2. Purposes of Using Proverbs The second step in the content analysis was to examine the contexts in which the proverbs occur in order to find out what the purposes of using the proverbs in the textbooks are. The purposes were classified under three categories: Heading: Proverbs are used as headings for nine units in Enterprise (1), such as ‘Home sweet home’ and “All’s well that ends well”. Exercise: Proverbs are used in exercises to match the proverbs with their meanings or definitions. Such as, ‘One man’s meat is another man’s poison”. Discussion: Proverbs are used as bases for discussions. At the end of each unit the textbooks 1,2 and 3 offer a list of proverbs and the students were asked to discuss them in relation with the ideas presented in the unit which introduces a particular idea that involve relationships, food, travel, fashion and style etc. Table (2) shows the result for the different categories of purpose proverbs are used to express. In Enterprise 4, proverbs are mainly used for exercise, and they are presented as a matching exercise between the proverbs and their meaning. In Enterprise 3 proverbs are mainly used for discussion, all the 29 proverbs are presented in one category where the students are asked to discuss their meanings. Proverbs in Enterprise 2 were divided into two categories; 29 proverbs are used for discussion and only one is used as a heading of a unit. As for the proverbs in Enterprise 1, eight of them were used as headings, and 37 proverbs were used for discussion. Table (2). Numbers and percentages of the proverbs’ purposes in English textbooks. Textbook Purpose Number of proverbs Percentage % Enterprise 1 Enterprise 2 Enterprise 3 Enterprise 4 Heading Exercise Discussion Heading Exercise Discussion Heading Exercise Discussion Heading Exercise 8 0 37 1 0 29 0 0 29 0 12 6.9 0 31.9 0.86 0 25 0 0 25 0 10.3 �Discussion 0 116 Total 0 100 4.3. Form of the Proverbs The 116 proverbs found in the textbooks understudy were analyzed regarding the form in which they appear in the each textbook. 98 proverbs have original form, i.e. the original form, and only 8 proverbs are truncated. Table below 3 views the division between the three types of forms found from the analysis. Table (3). Forms, Numbers and percentages of the proverbs in English textbooks. Textbook Proverbs’ forms Number of proverbs Percentage % Enterprise 1 original truncated original truncated original truncated original truncated 43 2 30 0 23 6 12 0 116 37 1.7 25.8 0 19.8 5.1 10.3 0 100 Enterprise 2 Enterprise 3 Enterprise 4 Total It is clear from the data in Table 3, that the most commonly used form in the four textbooks is the original form with a 92.1%. While the truncated form appeared twice as headings in Enterprise 1, e.g. “A friend in need… “and “Birds of feather…”, and six times in Enterprise 3. 4.4. Teachers’ Responses on the Questionnaire The first question in the questionnaire caters for the textbooks that each teacher used. Results showed that 7 teachers use Enterprise 4, and seven use Enterprise 3, 6 teachers use Enterprise 2, and 5 of them use Enterprise 1. Most of the teachers use more than one of the textbooks understudy at the same time. The results on question 2 show that all the respondents notice the occurrence of proverbs in the textbooks that they use. The findings regarding question 3 which inquires about the most chosen alternatives on how to deal with a proverb found in the textbook, show that ten teachers out of eleven chose “Compare to the Arabic equivalent”, nine of them chose “Discuss the meaning”, and eight teachers chose “Explain it”. Seven teachers chose “Discuss the metaphorical meaning”. Four teachers chose the alternatives of “Discussing the cultural issues concerning the proverb and “Discussing the communicative use of the proverb”. Two of the teachers resorted to the use of the alternative “Work with a theme around the proverb”. However, no respondent has chosen “I do not deal with it “ nor “I have not noticed �any and therefore I do not deal with it”. Worth noticing is that one teacher suggested a way of dealing with the proverbs by giving a situation in which such a proverb could be used. Table. 4. Teachers’ responses on the way they deal with a proverb found in the textbook. Alternatives Teachers’ Responses Explain it 8 Compare it to the Arabic equivalent 10 Discuss the meaning 9 Discuss the metaphorical use 7 Discuss cultural issues 4 Discuss the communicative use 4 Work with a theme around the proverb 2 I do not deal with it 0 I have not noticed any and therefore do not deal with it 0 Answers on question 4, “Do you consider proverbs an important part of the EFL teaching?“ revealed that all the teachers consider proverbs important part of the teaching because they believe that proverbs enable students to use the language communicatively, and most of them think that proverbs explain the cultural aspects of the language and they help students to understand that words have literal and metaphorical meanings. They also see teaching proverbs is an integral part of a foreign language teaching. The respondents also say that the use of proverbs makes explaining the materials easier and more interesting since they may summarize the main idea of a particular topic. Again all the teachers positively answered the fifth question which inquired whether the teachers use proverbs as a part of the teaching, and they do it because they believe that they reflect the cultural values and experience of English people and they also convey the cultural knowledge and wisdom of its speakers. Moreover, they consider them to be a source that enriches students’ knowledge in English by understanding both the literal and metaphorical meaning which they convey. Some of the teachers see proverbs as an appropriate mean to understand the content of texts since proverbs are interesting, funny and easy to remember, these findings support Hanzen’s (2007:24) claims that “proverbs are normally quite easy to learn”. One teacher also adds the idea that proverbs broaden students’ minds as they give them the opportunity to compare their culture with other cultures. Another interesting point mentioned by one teacher is that learning proverbs can provide students with an economic language since an appropriate proverb in a particular situation can save many words to say. Teachers’ answers regarding question six which inquires if the teachers think that there are other areas of phraseology more important to teach than proverbs, show that five teachers believe that proverbs are the most important area of phraseology to be taught in EFL classes because the �other areas like idioms and phrasal verbs are not more important than proverbs. Moreover, proverbs have strong relation to spoken language since they can express the knowledge, wisdom and experience of our life. On the other hand, another five teachers disagree with them and they believe that there are other important areas of phraseology such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and collocations. Those justify their belief by saying that idioms and phrasal verbs are more commonly used by native speakers than proverbs. And some of them even argue that proverbs are old fashioned today especially among young people. One teacher was indifferent and considers all the areas important without any preference. The answers on question (7) which was about how the teachers to include proverbs in the teaching. Teachers listed various ways in introducing or teaching proverbs, the most proposed way was explaining and discussing the meaning of the proverb, followed by giving the Arabic equivalent and giving a situation that suits when and where such a proverb is used. Some teachers also suggested including the proverbs as titles of chapters or reading texts, as well as using them as themes for writing tasks and in matching exercises where there should be matched with their meanings or the situation in which they could be used. Furthermore, they proposed discussing the metaphorical meaning of the proverbs in order to differentiate between the literal and metaphorical meaning so that students realize the diversity in using vocabulary. In question eight the teachers were asked to choose 20 proverbs that they think the most important to teach to an EFL learner. Below is a list of the proverbs chosen by the teachers, they are ordered according to the choice of the teachers, i.e., the proverb which was chosen more, comes first and so on. 1. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. 2. Don’t judge a book by its cover. 3. Easy come, easy go. 4. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. 5. Beggars can’t be choosers. 6. Birds of a feather flock together. 7. The early bird catches the worm. 8. All’s well that ends well. 9. All that glitters is not gold. 10. Two heads are better than one. 11. Practice makes perfect. 12. A picture is worth a thousand words. 13. Better late than never. 14. Honesty is the best policy. 15. Early to bed and early to rise, makes the man healthy, wealthy and wise. 16. Curiosity killed the cat. 17. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 18. Like father like son. �19. Easier said than done. 20. Money talks. An analysis of the teachers’ choices from the list of proverbs in question 8 indicates that among the twenty most chosen proverbs there are nine proverbs with didactic and character building contents. Eight proverbs from the teachers’ choices have an equivalent in Arabic and they are very common among people such as “Beggars can’t be choosers’. “A friend in need is a friend indeed”, “Like father like son”. Only three of the proverbs are metaphorical and are therefore very useful when it comes to teaching metaphorical understanding such as “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder”. Teachers’ choice of proverbs may reflect their characters as they are educators they prefer to teach and pass the knowledge to the next generation, that’s why their choices were centered on those proverbs that have didactic character or those that are frequently used in their community and this of course is crucial for using the language for communication. Proverbs other than those presented in the list of the 75 most frequently used proverbs in the USA today ( Meider, 2004: 129-130), suggested by the teachers to be taught for the EFL learners are listed below as an answer to question nine. 1. Like father like son. 2. Curiosity killed the cat. 3. Come rain or shine. 4. East, west, home is the best. 5. When money talks, truth keeps silent. 6. A stranger is a friend you haven’t met yet. 7. Big fish eat little fish. 8. A stitch in time saves nine. 9. Out of a frying pan and into the fire. 10. Lend your money and lose your friend. An analysis of those suggested proverbs assure the analysis of teachers’ choice of proverbs in question 8, as five of those proverbs enjoy a didactic character and the other five are frequently used in Arabic. According to the last question where the teachers are asked if they have further comments regarding teaching proverbs in the EFL classes, some of the teachers assure that proverbs are important to teach and be part of the curricula as they have intercultural association. This result goes in line with Hanzen’s (2007:25) study as the respondents in her study claim that “when it comes to developing both understanding and communicating in English, it enables learners to communicate with variation “. Only one teacher believes proverbs could be replaced by other idioms since proverbs are considered to be an old fashion facet for the young generation who communicates through the new means of technology that enables them to communicate using �codes and most of today’s teens developed their own lingo that consists of abbreviations and symbols and abbreviations that mean words. (Ababneh and Al-Ajlouny, 2013:132). 5. CONCLUSION The results of the present study revealed that proverbs occur in the four textbooks understudy. They were used as headings, vocabulary exercise and in lists at the end of each unit under the title “words of wisdom”. In Enterprise 4, they do not occur as frequently as other kinds of expressions, e.g. idioms and phrasal verbs, though. Moreover, the proverbs used in the textbooks appear into two forms; most of them appear in their original forms, while few were truncated. The majority of teachers considered proverbs an important part in EFL teaching materials. Teachers also had positive attitudes towards teaching proverbs. Only one teacher argued that they could be old-fashioned and not useful for students because of their use of modern means of communication which allow them to use their own lingo. One interesting conclusion is that proverbs play an important role in developing the cultural and metaphorical knowledge of the learners since they could match different situations in daily life and they summarize popular experience and traditional wisdom. This goes in line with Stern's (1987:206) words when he writes that the language learner "should be made aware of the interaction between language and culture ". Moreover, since proverbs play a cross-cultural role, many of them having their equivalent in other languages, this could broaden students' minds by giving him/her a wider perspective. The method most used by the teachers in teaching proverbs was giving the Arabic equivalent. This sounds normal since the emphasis in teaching is on communicative competence of learners which can be enhanced by relating to their previous experience embodied in their knowledge of their native culture. This goes in the same vein with what Talyor (1990:1-3) claims regarding vocabulary learning learners should be aware of the importance of many factors when learning L2 vocabulary such as the register, morphology, semantics and the knowledge of the equivalent words in L1. Recommendations: Due to the small number of respondents to the questionnaire and textbooks involved in this study, further research on this subject is recommended that may include a national survey among teachers in all public and private schools in Jordan, and on all English language textbooks used in those schools. In addition, university level EFL courses can also be included. �References Ababneh, S. (2008). Designing an instructional program and measuring its effect on Jordanian EFL university students’ achievement in English collocations. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Yarmouk University, Jordan. Ababneh, S.& Al-Ajlouny, M. K.(2013). The effect of texting on EFL students’ academic writing in English. The Internet Journal Language, Culture and Society. Issue 38.pp(131-137). Akbarian, Is’haaq. (2010). A spice of classroom: incorporating proverbial expressions in EFL classes. The Journal of Asia TEFL. Vol.7, No.1,pp. 221-238. Byrne, G. (2005). The enduring world of proverbs. Contemporary Review, 287, 285-291. Çakir, İsmail. (2010). How does “A Stitch in Time Save Nine “in EFL Classes? Studies in Literature and Language. Vol. 1, No. 8, 2010, pp. 05-14 Hanzén, M .(2007). “When in Rome, do as the Romans do “Proverbs as a Part of EFL Teaching. Retrieved December 12,2014 From: http://www.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:3499/FULLTEXT01.pdf Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.8th edition. Oxford University Press. NY. Mac Dougall, D. (2004). Why Learn Proverbs? Retrieved January13,2015. From http://www.lingo24.com/articles/why_learn proverbs--7html. Mieder, Wolfgang. (1993). Proverbs are Never out of Season. Popular Wisdom in the Modern Age. NewYork: Oxford University Press. Mieder, Wolfgang. (2004). Proverbs - A Handbook. Westport, CT; Greenwood Press. Nuessel, F.,& Cicogna, C.(1994). Incorporating metaphoric competence in the elementary and intermediate Italian curriculum through proverbial language. Retrieved January10,2015. From http://tell.fll.purdue.edu/PLA-Archive/1994/Italian - html /Nuessel, Frank. htm. Rubin, Joan and Thompson Irene. ( 1994). How to be a more successful language learner: Towards learners autonomy. Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle and Heinle. Stern, H.H. (1987). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. NY. Taylor, Linda. (1990). Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. London: Prentice Hall. �Appendix.1. The use of proverbs as a part of EFL teaching Questionnaire Dear Colleagues, Please answer the following ten questions. Thank you for your valuable help! Dr. Sana’ Ababneh Nov, 2014 1. What textbook/s do you use? Circle your choice. a. Enterprise 1 b. Enterprise 2 c. Enterprise 3 d. Enterprise 4 2. Have you noticed any proverbs in the teaching material you use? If YES, what have you noticed?................................................................................... If NO, why do you think you have not noticed any?....................................................... 3.How do you deal with a proverb that you find in the textbook? Choose one or more by drawing a circle around the letter of your choice. a -Explain it. b - Compare it to the Arabic equivalent. c -Discuss the meaning. d-Discuss metaphorical use. e -Discuss cultural issues concerning the proverb. f -Discuss the communicative use of the proverb. g -Work with a theme around the proverb. h -I do not deal with it. i -I have not noticed any and therefore I do not deal with it. j-Anything else. Specify. …………………………………………………………….. 4. Do you consider proverbs an important part of the EFL teaching? If YES – explain why:……………..……………………………………………………………. If NO why not?…………………………………..………………………………………………. �5. Do you teach proverbs? If YES , why?…………………………………….………………………………………………. If NO why not?.........................………………………………………………………………….. 6. Is there anything else within the area of phraseology that you think is more important to teach than proverbs? If YES – what is it and why do you think it is important? …………………………..…………………………………………………………………….. If NO – why? ………………………………………………………………………………….. 7. If you were to include proverbs in your teaching, how would you teach them? Give examples of ways to use proverbs in teaching. ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8. Below follows a list of the 75 most frequently used proverbs in the USA today (Mieder, 2004: 129-130). Look over the whole list then circle 20 proverbs that you think are most important to teach to an EFL learner. (The list is ordered according to the headword in Italics in each proverb.) 1. Absence makes the heart grow fonder. 2. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. 3. The apple doesn’t fall far from the tree. 4. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. 5. Beauty is only skin deep. 6. Early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 7. Beggars can’t be choosers. 8. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 9. Birds of a feather flock together. 10. The early bird catches the worm. 11. Don’t judge a book by its cover. 12. Don’t cross the bridge till you come to it. 13. New brooms sweep clean. 14. Business before pleasure. 15. You cannot have your cake and eat it too. 16. Chickens come home to roost. 17. Don’t count your chickens before they’re hatched. 18. Spare the rod and spoil the child. 19. Every cloud has a silver lining. 20. Easy come, easy go. 21. First come, first served. 22. Too many cooks spoil the broth. �23. Curiosity killed the cat. 24. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. 25. Let sleeping dogs lie. 26. You can’t teach an old dog new tricks. 27. Don’t put all your eggs in one basket. 28. All’s well that ends well. 29. Like father, like son. 30. Big fish eat little fish. 31. A fool and his money are soon parted. 32. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 33. Don’t look a gift horse in the mouth. 34. All that glitters is not gold. 35. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. 36. Many hands make light work. 37. One hand washes the other. 38. Haste makes waste. 39. Make hay while the sun shines. 40. Two heads are better than one. 41. He who hesitates is lost. 42. Honesty is the best policy. 43. Don’t change horses in the middle of the stream (mid-stream). 44. You can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink. 45. Strike while the iron is hot. 46. Better late than never. 47. He who laughs last, laughs best. 48. Live and let live. 49. Look before you leap. 50. Love is blind. 51. Misery loves company. 52. Money talks. 53. A penny saved is a penny earned. 54. Penny wise and pound foolish. 55. A picture is worth a thousand words. 56. A watched pot never boils. 57. Practice makes perfect. 58. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 59. When it rains, it pours. 60. When in Rome, do as the Romans do. 61. Easier said than done. 62. If the shoe fits, wear it. �63. Out of sight, out of mind. 64. Where there’s a smoke, there’s a fire. 65. A stitch in time saves nine. 66. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 67. If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again. 68. It takes two to tango. 69. Time is money. 70. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. 71. Waste not, want not. 72. Still waters run deep. 73. The squeaky wheel gets the grease. 74. Where there’s a will, there’s a way. 75. Two wrongs don’t make a right. 9. Are there any more proverbs, other than those listed, that you consider important to teach?................................................................................................ 10. Do you have any comments on this subject of proverbs as a part of EFL teaching?.................................................................................................................................... * The questionnaire is compressed for spatial reasons, in its original forms it gives the respondents more space to write. THANK YOU! � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2963 Title A name given to the resource PROVERBS TEACHING IN EFL CLASSES: “WHERE THERE IS A WILL, THERE IS A WAY” Author Author Ababneh, Sana’ Abstract A summary of the resource. The present study aimed at investigating the presence of proverbs in English textbooks taught to EFL Arab learners as well as investigating the attitudes of English language teachers towards proverbs as part of the EFL teaching materials. Results of the content analysis which has been carried out on four English textbooks of the Enterprise series show that teaching proverbs is included as part of the teaching material presented to the students. Proverbs are presented in different ways: sometimes they are used as titles of units, in vocabulary exercises, or as separate sections at the end of each unit. And they appear either in their original form or truncated. On the other hand, teachers' attitudes towards teaching proverbs to EFL learners show their belief in the importance of teaching proverbs since they convey the culture and wisdom of their users, moreover, they provide students with a rich source of vocabulary. They also give them an opportunity of making comparisons between their own proverbs and the English ones thus broadening their knowledge of the world; finally, they help students to express themselves in English in a more natural, native-like way. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4f87e18d6034c6e542bfcaa15d2c51fd.docx afdd3efbd321f0e8e5df4b97a1c28f4d https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/76dd1f3f99d5e0afa00a9658938cd538.pdf aa0eb49b6a01f0072f013982b9d0bda3 PDF Text Text Autor: Mr. sc. Ajla Škrbić, viši asistent Institucija: Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Travniku E-mail: ajla.skrbic@pfk.edu.ba TRANZICIONA PRAVDA KAO USLOV PRISTUPU EVROPSKOJ UNIJI Sažetak Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja osobama koje su prekršile pravo u sukobu, već prvenstveno izgradnju odrţivog mira u postkonfliktnim društvima. Sastoji se od niza inicijativa kojima je cilj utvrđivanje istine o onome što se desilo u sukobu koji se zbio u prošlosti - a što, svakako, obuhvata i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naknadu štete ţrtvama zločina. U radu će poseban naglasak biti na vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde. Pokušat će se odgovoriti na pitanje da li bi uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde trebalo biti uslov za pristup Evropskoj uniji, kao i šta su drţave bivše SFRJ učinile po tom pitanju. Poseban akcenat bit će na drţavi Bosni i Hercegovini i njenim dostignućima na ovom polju. Ključne riječi: Evropska unija, tranziciona pravda, mehanizmi tranzicione pravde. �1. Uvod Acquis (pravna tečevina Evropske unije) uslov je o kojem drţava potencijalna članica Evropske unije (u nastavku teksta: EU) prilikom pregovora o pristupanju uopšte ne moţe raspravljati. Svaka drţava koja podnosi zahtjev za članstvo u EU mora biti spremna prihvatiti acquis u potpunosti. Sadrţaj acquis-a podijeljen je na 35 poglavlja pregovora. U kontekstu ovog rada značajna su poglavlja broj 23 i 24 – „Pravosuđe i temeljna prava“ i „Pravda, sloboda i sigurnost“. U radu ćemo pokušati ustanoviti da li EU mora više insistirati na ovoj oblasti, odnosno šta je na tom polju učinjeno na Balkanu te, posebice, u Bosni i Hercegovini (u nastavku teksta: BiH). Prilikom pisanja ovog rada koristili smo zvanične dokumente EU i stručnu literaturu koja se bavi ovom tematikom, ali i pisanja nevladinih organizacija i branitelja/ica ljudskih prava koji se zalaţu za postizanje tranzicione pravde na Balkanu, te web portale koji raspravljaju o ovoj tematici. 2. Značaj tranzicione pravde Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ispravno „postupanje prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava“ ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja počiniocima tih zločina, već mnogo više. „Prema Međunarodnom centru za tranzicionu pravdu, postupci tranzicione pravde obuhvataju:  pozivanje kršilaca ljudskih prava u prošlosti na odgovornost putem krivičnog gonjenja i vansudskih oblika istrage (kao što su mehanizmi za utvrđivanje istine);  reparacija za ţrtve i napori da se zadovolje njihove potrebe;  transformacija sistema bezbednosti, tako da odgovaraju za kršenja ljudskih prava u prošlosti i potencijalno uklanjanje kršilaca ljudskih prava iz javnih ustanova;  i reformisanje javnih institucija da bi se sprečilo ponovno kršenje ljudskih prava iz prošlosti.“i Slaţemo se sa Refikom Hodţićemii kada kaţe da pogrešna tumačenja pojma tranzicione pravde uglavnom dolaze zbog prefiksa „tranziciona“.iii On u intervjuu datom GlobalX portalu navodi definiciju tranzicione pravde, prema kojoj ovaj pojam obuhvata društvenu strategiju bavljenja posljedicama sistematskih zločina i kršenja ljudskih prava, strategiju koja ima dva osnovna cilja: 1. pruţanje pomoći i obeštećenja ţrtvama, kako bi se, koliko je to moguće, ublaţile posljedice pretrpljene boli, štete i nepravde; 2. sprečavanje da se takva sistematska kršenja ljudskih prava ponove.iv Dakle, cilj tranzicione pravde nije samo krivično gonjenje onih koji su prekršili ljudska prava u prošlom sukobu, nego i apsolutna reforma cjelokupnog društva koje je takva kršenja ljudskih prava omogućilo, podrţalo ili zataškalo. Navedeno podrazumijeva reforme institucija, širenje istine o počinjenim zločinima, lustraciju u drţavnim i akademskim krugovima, uključivanje istine u obrazovne programe u školama, pomoć ţrtvama i sl. Ustanovljavanju pravnog okvira za uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde u velikoj mjeri pomogla je presuda Međuameričkog suda za ljudska prava u slučaju Velásquez-Rodríguez protiv Hondurasav. Ista naglašava pet osnovnih obaveza drţave u borbi za zaštitu ljudskih prava: BIRN. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/balkanska-tranziciona-pravda/sta-jetranziciona-pravda (27.11.2015.) ii Refik Hodţić je novinar i aktivista iz Prijedora čiji je stručni rad vezan za tranzicionu pravdu. Radio je kao glasnogovornik Međunarodnog krivičnog suda za bivšu Jugoslaviju (The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia; u nastavku teksta: ICTY) i Suda BiH, a danas je direktor komunikacija Međunarodnog centra za tranzicionu pravdu u New Yorku. iii GlobalX. (2015, juli 6.). Intervju: Refik Hodţić – Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. GlobalX. Preuzeto sa: http://globalx.ba/intervju-refik-hodzic-srebrenica-je-najprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima/ (27.11.2015.) iv Ibid. v Velasquez Rodriguez v. The State of Honduras, Međuamerički sud za ljudska prava, 29.7.1988. i �1. 2. 3. 4. preduzimanje neophodnih mjera kako bi se spriječila kršenja ljudskih prava; efikasno istraţivanje svih navoda o zločinima ukoliko do njih ipak dođe; imenovanje ţrtava i počinioca zločina; procesuiranje svih osoba za koje postoji osnovana sumnja da su naredile ili lično počinile zločine, kao i organizovanje efikasnog i fer sudskog postupka; 5. izrada programa reparacija za ţrtve.vi Sve suprotno od navedenog ide ka stvaranja zaborava. A ako zaboravimo našu prošlost, ona će upravljati našom budućnošću.vii Nemoguće je izgraditi zdravo društvo - ako je to društvo zasnovano na laţima i zataškivanju zločina. Ako napisano prenesemo na BiH: neophodno je da se identifikuje i prepozna istina o onomo što se dogodilo devedesetih godina. Ţrtvama je potrebno javno priznanje da je ono što im se desilo neprihvatljivo, te podrška drţavnih institucija i društva, i to prvenstveno u vidu rehabilitacije, psihosocijalne pomoći i resocijalizacije – dakle, onih vansudskih mehanizama tranzicione pravde. Mišljenja smo da ţrtve prvenstveno trebaju moralnu satisfakciju, a zatim i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naredbodavaca zločina, ali i same drţave za nepravdu koju su doţivjele. Na kraju, dakako, neophodno je i sistemsko rješenje neadekvatnih pravosudnih procesa, koje je danas prisutno u svim drţavama u regionu. Sve navedeno zajedno stvara klimu koja onemogućava da se isti ili slični zločini ponove u budućnosti. Sve navedeno, dakako, nije moguće ukoliko se u proces ne uključi i obrazovni sistem drţava koje su u fokusu. 3. Podrška EU u postizanju tranzicione pravde na balkanu EU je definisala uslove koje svaka drţava koja ţeli postati članica EU mora ispoštovati.viii Acquis (pravna tečevina EU) predstavlja skup prava i obaveza koje sve drţave članice obavezuju i povezuju unutar EU.ix EU je sredinom novembra usvojila akt Okvirna politika EU za podršku tranzicionoj pravdi.x Time je naglasila svoju posvećenost podrţavanju ovih procesa, i postala prva regionalna organizacija koja ima namjensku strategiju spram tranzicione pravde. Sve navedeno ukazuje da EU smatra da međunarodna zajednica mora raditi zajedno kako bi razvojno podrţala postkonfliktna društva.xi Politika proširenja EU zasnovana je na ulaganju u mir, sigurnost i stabilnost u Evropi. Izgledi za članstvo u EU imaju snaţan efekat transformacije na potencijalne drţave članice, odnosno ti izgledi podrazumijevaju pozitivnu demokratsku, političku, društvenu i ekonomsku promjenu u drţavama.xii Kako se iz prethodnog poglavlja dā zaključiti, nema mira, sigurnosti i stabilnosti na Balkanu bez tranzicione pravde. EU mora insistirati na ovoj tematici ako ţeli u svoje članstvo primiti drţave Balkana Popović, D. M. (2009). Vodič kroz tranzicijsku pravdu u Bosni i Hercegovini. Razvojni program Ujedinjenih nacija u BiH, str. 15. i 16. Navedena rečenica je glavna vodilja u radu: Škrbić, A. (2015, oktobar). The role of young scientists in post-conflict societies. Rad prezentovan na Baku Forumu 2015. Baku, Azerbejdţan. Rad je trenutno u pripremi za objavljivanje u zborniku radova sa naznačene konferencije. viii Pristupanje novih drţava članica EU regulisano je članom 49. Ugovora o EU. Osnovni uslov je da drţava mora biti evropska te da mora poštovati principe slobode, demokratije, zaštite ljudskih prava i osnovnih sloboda, kao i vladavine prava, odnosno vrijednosti na kojima je zasnovana EU (čl. 6 (1) Ugovora o EU). No, tokom perioda 1973–2007. postepeno su razvijani i utvrđivani i novi kriteriji. Pristupanju drţave EU prethode pregovori o članstvu, a predmet tih pregovora su uslovi, dinamika i način preuzimanja acquis-a. Direkcija za evropske integracije. (2010, juli 1.). Pristupanje novih drţava članica u EU. Direkcija za evropske integracije. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dei.gov.ba/dokumenti/default.aspx?id=4813&langTag=bs-BA (20.11.2015.) ix Ibid. x European Union. (2015). The EU’s Policy Framework on support to transitional justice. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/pdf/the_eus_policy_framework_on_support_to_transitional_justice.pdf (29.11.2015.) xi European Union External Action. (2015, novembar 16.). EU adopts its policy framework on support to transitional justice. European Union External Action. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/2015/191115_eu_transitional_justice_en.htm (29.11.2015.) xii Navedeno je istaknuto i u Strategiji EU za proširenje Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the regions Evropske komisije od 10.11.2015. (str. 2.). vi vii �koje predstavljaju stabilna društva.xiii Ipak, svjedoci smo poprilično nekonzistentnog odnosa spram tranzicione pravde od strane aktera uključenih u procese EU integracija. Primjerice, nedavno je negativno iznenadila Kancelarija za evropske integracije Vlade Srbije kada nije imala primjedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih invalida, civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica u Republici Srbiji. Naime, već duţe se vode ţestoke rasprave oko ovog Nacrta zakona između vladinih tijela, s jedne strane, i nevladinih organizacija koje se bave zaštitom ljudskih prava, sa druge strane. Kancelarija za evrposke integracije Vlade Srbije je ta koja bi trebala posmatrati usklađenost propisa Srbije sa acquis-em te sugerisati da se nacrti zakona izmijene u skladu sa evropskim smjernicama. Stalno se ističe da je jedan od osnovnih ciljeva EU: zaštita prava i interesa drţavljana drţava članica te razvoj EU kao prostora slobode, sigurnosti i pravde, no ovako se moţe steći dojam da EU nije stalo do svih njenih (potencijalnih) drţavljana. Nacrtom zakona na koji Kancelarija za evropske integracije Vlade Srbije nije imala primjedbe većina civilnih ţrtava koje danas ţive u Srbiji neće biti prepoznate kao ţrtve, niti će dobiti podršku drţave. xiv Njime se krše brojne međunarodne norme o zaštiti ţrtava kršenja ljudskih prava, ali i ustavno načelo koje propagira jednaku zaštitu građana pred zakonom.xv Pozitivnih primjera, ipak, ima. Zvaničnici često izjavljuju da drţave Balkana neće ući u EU dok ne uspostave tranzicionu pravadu, odnosno da treba igrati na privlačnost ulaska u EU da bi se pomoglo drţavama na putu prema demokratiji, vladavini prava i normalizaciji odnosa sa susjedima – što je 2011. izjavljivao francuski ministar za evropske poslove Jean Leonetti.xvi Nadalje, djeluje se i praktično. U BiH je pokrenut projekat „Osiguranje pristupa pravdi za svjedoke/ţrtve, kroz jačanje postojećih i uspostavljanje novih mreţa podrške svjedocima u BiH“, za koji je najveći donator upravo EU (sa 1,7 miliona eura).xvii Cilj projekta je unapređenje pristupa pravdi i rehabilitaciji za svjedoke, i to kroz pruţanje blagovremene multidisciplinarne podrške kako bi se doprinijelo odrţivom miru u BiH.xviii Prilikom predstavljanja projekta šef Odjela kooperacija u Delegaciji EU u BiH Melvin Asin naglasio je da bi vlasti na svim nivoima trebale prepoznati vaţnost ovog pitanja, dok je britanski ambasador Edward Ferguson istakao vaţnost institucionalnog rješenja za pitanje ţrtava seksualnog nasilja.xix Putem Evropskog instrumenta za demokratiju i ljudska prava osigurava se dugoročna pomoć za organizacije koje promovišu krivičnu pravdu, ali i druge mehanizme tranzicione pravde.xx Podrška procesima vettinga, kojima bi se iz javne sluţbe uklonili prekršioci ljudskih prava, nazire se u programskom dokumentu kojim se misije EU u svijetu usmjeravaju da ohrabruju procese koji raskidaju sa kulturom nekaţnjivosti.xxi Istraţivanja su pokazala da porast kriminala i siromaštvo idu pod ruku sa nesuočavanjem sa prošlošću, odnosno nesuočavanjem sa masovnim kršenjima ljudskih prava u prošlosti. Freeman, M. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. Fond za humanitarno pravo, str. 1. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mreza-mira.net/wp-content/uploads/Sta-je-tranziciona-pravda.pdf (23.11.2015.) xiv Prema procjenama Fonda za humanitarno pravo - radi se o najmanje 15.000 osoba. Diković, J. (2015, novembar 20.). Bez primedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca i ţrtava. Danas. Preuzeto sa: http://www.danas.rs/danasrs/drustvo/bez_primedbi_na_nacrt_zakona_o_pravima_boraca_i_zrtava_.55.html?news_id=311508 (26.11.2015.) xv Primjerice, Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih i civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica ne prepoznaje porodice nestalih kao civilne ţrtve rata te za njih predviđa manje beneficije u odnosu na beneficije koje uţiva rodbina srpskih vojnika i policajaca koji su nestali van teritorije Republike Srbije. xvi Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. (2011, oktobar 5.). Leonetti - Srbija neće u EU dok se ne pomiri sa susjedima. Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. Preuzeto sa: http://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/eu_t01.html (29.11.2015.) xvii Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2015, novembar 13.). EU podrţava pristup pravdi za svjedoke i ţrtve u Bosni i Hercegovini. Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.ba/?p=37896 (29.11.2015.) xviii Ibid. xix Ibid. xx Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice BiH i Ministarstvo pravde BiH. Strategija tranzicijske pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini 20122016., str. 115. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mpr.gov.ba/aktuelnosti/propisi/konsultacije/Strategija%20TP%20%20bosanski%20jezik%20fin%20doc.pdf (29.11.2015.) xxi Ibid. xiii �Ipak, većina istraţivanja o tranzicionoj pravdi u drţavama bivše SFRJ u zaključku ističe spor napredak u ovoj oblasti. Gotovo svi istraţivači slaţu se da se većina djelovanja, pa i djelovanja EU na ovom polju, svodi na sudske mehanizme tranzicione pravde, dok su ostali mehanizmi, uglavnom, zanemareni.xxii Tendencija i lokalnih i međunarodnih političara je svođenje tranzicione pravde na formalne događaje kao što su potpisivanje raznih ugovora, zvanične posjete i sl. Takođe, u taj proces uključeni su samo političari koji idu u te posjete i daju izjave, dok nema dubinskog pomirenja između institucija i građana.xxiii Postoje razni mehanizmi tranzicione pravde pokrenuti u regionu, kao što su domaći centri za utvrđivanje činjenica, regionalna komisija za utvrđivanje istine RECOM (Regionalna komisija za utvrđivanje činjenica o ratnim zločinima i drugim teškim povredama ljudskih prava počinjenim na teritoriju nekadašnje SFRJ od 1. januara 1991. do 31. decembra 2001. godine) te nekoliko inicijativa za utvrđivanje činjenica preko različitih centara za istraţivanje i dokumentaciju.xxiv No, za sada na promociji tranzicione pravde u regiji najviše rade nevladine organizacije.xxv Dobro je što iste pokazuju interes za ovu tematiku, ali vladina tijela su ona koja bi trebala insistirati na tranzicionoj pravdi. Da bi do toga došlo, mora postojati politička volja, koja u regionu, realno, ne postoji. Upravo zbog toga potreban je jači pritisak institucija EU. One moraju prisiliti vladina tijela (odnosno političke aktere) da institucionalno doprinesu suočavanju ovih drţava sa prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava. Mora se onemogućiti utjecaj političara (direktan ili kroz podobne funkcionere) na sudske i vansudske mehanizme tranzicione pravde, posebno na suđenja. Podrška EU (odnosno podrška vladinih tijela drţava Balkana) moţe se izraziti kroz povećanje finansijskih ulaganja kako bi se stvorili bolji uslovi za procesuiranje ratnih zločina, uvođenjem posebnih obuka za sve koji učestvuju u procesuiranju ratnih zločina, ukidanjem diskriminatornih zakonodavnih akata koji nisu u skladu sa međunarodnim aktima – odnosno ulaganjem u sve druge mehanizme koji doprinose tranzicionoj pravdi. EU mora vršiti pritisak na političare u drţavama bivše SFRJ kako bi akteri koji procesuiraju ratne zločince mogli raditi bez pritiska. Do sada smo bili samo svjedoci „nedostatka resursa i javne podrške“xxvi u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. Navedeno je potvrđeno u kosovskom Izvještaju o napretku za 2015. godinu. Istaknuto je da tuţioci na Kosovu nemaju ni volje ni kapaciteta istraţivati slučajeve ratnih zločina u koje su umiješani pripadnici Oslobodilčke vojske Kosova.xxvii Navedeno je potvrdio i šef delegacije EU u Srbiji Michael Davenport prilikom predstavljanja posljednjeg izvještaja Misije Organizacije za evropsku sigurnost i saradnju u Srbiji. Istakao je da će nezavisnost pravosuđa biti ključni kriterij prilikom pregovora Srbije za članstvo u EU.xxviii Šef delegacije EU u Srbiji je takođe izjavio da EU ni zbog kakvih političkih i ekonomskih pitanja i ozbiljnih reformi sa kojima se Srbija suočava neće tokom pregovora staviti van Sporazum o stabilizaciji i pridruţivanju za drţave Zapadnog Balkana specifičan je jer je saradnja sa ICTY osnova pristupa EU na Balkanu. xxiii Ristić, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Političari na Balkanu pomirenje ne shvataju ozbiljno. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/politi%C4%8Dari-na-balkanu-ne-bave-se-ozbiljno-pomirenjem-11-16-2015 (29.11.2015.) xxiv BIRN. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/balkanska-tranziciona-pravda/sta-jetranziciona-pravda (27.11.2015.) xxv Pojedine nevladine organizacije veoma profesionalno djeluju na ovome polju. U vezi sa temom radom moţemo istaknuti TRIAL u BiH, Fond za humanitarno pravo u Republici Srbiji, Documenta u Republici Hrvatskoj... Fond za humanitarno pravo je, primjerice, pripremio komentare na Akcioni plan za Poglavlje 23 i dostavio ga Ministarstvu pravde (dostupno na: http://www.hlcrdc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Komentari-FHP-na-3.-nacrt-Akcionog-plana-za-poglavlje-23.pdf, 26.11.2015.) Djelovanje nevladinih organizacija posebno je bitno sa aspekta dokumentovanja i ukazivanja na kršenja ljudskih prava, nakon čega bi zvanične institucije trebale reagovati. No, ponekad reakcija vlasti čak i tada izostane (primjerice, pogledati tzv. dosijee koje redovno objavljuje Fond za humanitarno pravo u Republici Srbiji, a u kojima se javnosti pruţa uvid u različita kršenja ljudskih prava, sa jasnim dokazima protiv pojedinaca koji, opet, nakon objavjivanja izvještaja često ne budu procesuirani). xxvi Navedeno je naznačeno u posljednjem izvještaju Misije Organizacije za evropsku sigurnost i saradnju u Srbiji, ali isti je slučaj i sa ostalim drţavama u regionu. Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxvii Čolaku, P. (2015, novembar 10.). EU kritikuje Kosovo zbog procesuiranja ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/eu-kritikuje-kosovo-zbog-procesuiranja-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-11-10-2015 (29.11.2015.) xxviii Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxii �fokusa pitanja tranzicione pravde.xxix Takve izjave predstavnika EU su neophodne, ali potkrijepljene njihovim djelovanjem u skladu sa izjavama. EU promiče i štiti ljudska prava, demokratiju i vladavinu prava. Ljudska prava čak čine samu srţ odnosa ove Organizacije sa drugim drţavama.xxx U njenim javnim istupima ističe se da promicanje napora u zaštiti ljudskih prava moţe pomoći i u sprečavanju i u rješavanju sukoba. Takođe se naglašava da politika EU posebno obuhvata napore u promicanju prava ţena, djece, manjina i raseljenih osoba, borbu protiv diskriminacije, te zaštitu građanskih, političkih, ekonomskih, socijalnih i kulturnih prava. Svi ugovori o trgovini ili saradnji sa drţavama koje nisu članice EU sadrţavaju klauzulu o ljudskim pravima, u kojoj se ističe da su ljudska prava ključna za odnose sa EU.xxxi Da navedeno ne bi bilo samo slovo na papiru, EU mora proširiti djelovanje u potencijalnim drţavama članicama. Pitanje tranzicione pravde na prostoru Balkana je od krucijalne vaţnosti za razvoj drţava na ovome prostoru, posebno kad se uzme u obzir i trenutno postojanje rasprava o uzrocima rata, broju ţrtava, odnosno toku rata uopšte. Utjecaj EU mora biti još jači, kako bi se stanje na ovome polju promijenilo nabolje. Trenutno stanje u svim drţavama na Balkanu na polju tranzicione pravde je, manjeviše, jednako. Ne otvara se dovoljno novih predmeta ratnih zločina i ne procesuiraju se visoko rangirani osumnjičeni za zločine. Institucije koje se bave ratnim zločinima podvrgnute su političkom pritisku. U medijima, ali čak i ispred zvaničnih institucija kritikuju se tuţilaštva za ratne zločine zbog toga što podiţu optuţnice protiv svojih građana. Kritike su tuţilaštvima usmjerene i zbog toga što mali broj slučajeva obuhvata „naše“ ţrtve, dok se mnogo govori o „njihovim“ ţrtvama.xxxii Političari u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ zalaţu se za prestanak priče o prošlosti i upućivanje na razmišljanje o budućnosti. Ukoliko i pričaju o prošlosti, govore o istoj sa aspekta vlastitih „istina” – posebice jer među njima ima i onih koji su saučestvovali u prošlim zločinima.xxxiii 4. Tranziciona pravda u kontekstu pristupanja bih u EU Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH objavila je u julu ove godine Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015.xxxiv Između ostalog, ovaj Izvještaj obrađuje i napredak ostvaren u BiH na polju tranzicione pravde, i to u posebnom poglavlju (Poglavlje 4). Ukazuje da je u BiH neophodno jačanje krivične pravde, kao glavnog mehanizma tranzicione pravde, ali da je neophodno korištenje i drugih mehanizama tranzicione pravde, prvenstveno mehanizma prava na istinu (kazivanje istine). Preporuke u Izvještaju su da se efikasno procesuiraju i kazne počinioci ratnih zločina, i to u sudskim postupcima koji će biti dostupni javnosti i gdje će svrha kaţnjavanja biti zadovoljena. Nadalje, Izvještajem se naglašava vaţnost pruţanja podrške članovima udruţenja preţivjelih ţrtava i pojedincima u ostvarivanju njihovih prava. Posebice se sugeriše usvajanje zakona o ţrtvama torture u BiH.xxxv U „pravom“ izvještaju o napretku BiH 2015xxxvi kaţe se da je BiH ostvarila određeni nivo pripremljenosti za provođenje acquis-a u oblasti pravde, slobode i sigurnosti. Izvještaj ističe da je postignut određeni napredak BiH na ovome polju.xxxvii Izvještaj, koji se dostavlja Vijeću EU i Evropskom parlamentu, kao i drţavi o čijem napretku Izvještaj govori, utvrđuje da se BiH vratila na reformski put i počela rješavati prioritete na putu pristupanja EU. No, ističe se da tek treba unaprijediti saradnju Fond za humanitarno pravo. (2015). Kroz pristupanje ka pravdi. Broj 8, str. 4. Europska unija. Ljudska prava. Europska unija. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.eu/pol/rights/index_hr.htm (28.11.2015.) xxxi Ibid. xxxii Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-10-27-2015 (27.11.2015.) xxxiii Gruhonjić, D. (2012, april 20.). Pomirenje kao politička tabu-tema. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/pomirenje-kao-politicka-tabu-tema (29.11.2015.) xxxiv Alternativni izvještaj o napretku predstavlja izvještaj o aktuelnom stanju evropskih integracija u BiH iz ugla organizacija civilnog društva. Cilj mu je da utječe na zvaničan Izvještaj o napretku koji sačinjava Evropska komisija. xxxv Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH. (2015). Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015: politički kriteriji. (Sarajevo, juli 2015.) Preuzeto sa: http://eu-monitoring.ba/site/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Alternativni-izvje%C5%A1taj-o-napretku-BiH2015.pdf (20.11.2015.) xxxvi Evropska komisija. (2015, novembar 11.). Izvještaj za Bosnu i Hercegovinu za 2015. godinu. xxxvii Ibid., 61. Boldirana slova dodata od strane autora ovog teksta. xxix xxx �zakonodavnih tijela na nivou drţave, entiteta i Brčko Distrikta.xxxviii Pored ostalog, Izvještaj, govori i o problematičnom radu skupštinskih odbora Brčko Distrikta, uključujuci i Odbor za evropske integracije, iz razloga čestog nedostatka kvoruma na sjednicama, kao i ograničenih kapaciteta sluţbi Skupštine Distrikta.xxxix Naglašava se da je Predsjedništvo BiH usvojilo Izjavu za preduzimanje reformi i unapređenje procesa evropskih integracija, i da tekst te Izjave u potpunosti odraţava zaključke Vijeća za vanjske poslove EU iz decembra 2014. godine. Pohvalno je dodato i da je Parlament BiH usvojio ovu Izjavu.xl Dalje u Izvještaju ističe se da je Vijeće ministara usvojilo Plan rada za 2015. godinu, koji obuhvata usvajanje oko 65 zakona koji se tiču procesa evropskih integracija. Ovaj izvršni organ je u julu usvojio i Reformsku agendu.xli Ovakvi i slični zaključci Evropske komisije mnogo su korišteni od strane visokih funkcionera i u medijima kako bi se u javnosti stekao utisak da BiH napreduje na polju ljudskih prava i da se krupnim koracima pribliţava članstvu u EU. Malo ko je javno (barem od vladinih sluţbenika) ukazao na zaključak Evropske komisije da u BiH još uvijek nije uspostavljen efikasan mehanizam koordinacije između različitih nivoa vlasti za usklađivanje, provedbu i primjenu propisa EU. A takav mehanizam je potreban kako bi zemlja mogla efikasno komunicirati sa EU.xlii Većina političara istakla je ogroman društveno-politički napredak BiH - koji se moţe izvući iz Izvještaja ako se istom gleda „kroz prste“. Malo ko je spomenuo da Ured Vlade Federacije BiH za evropske integracije nema dovoljno administrativnih kapaciteta da koordinira poslove evropskih integracija sa ostatkom drţave i između različitih nivoa vlasti u Federaciji BiH, kao i zaključak Evropske komisije da Vlada Federacije BiH i kantoni do sada nisu uspješno sarađivali na pitanjima evropskih integracija.xliii Ovime ne kritikujemo EU – kritikujemo vlasti naše drţave. No, kritikujemo i pohvalne izjave zvaničnika EU koji doprinose ovakvom stavu vodećih bh. političara.xliv Naravno, nisu ni EU ni zvaničnici EU krivi što se BiH već godinama nalazi u ranoj fazi reformskih procesa gotovo u svim oblastima. Stvarnog napretka u dostizanju tranzicione pravde ne moţe biti dok u BiH (i regiji) ne dođe vlast spremna da se odrekne zločina i zločinaca. No, EU i zvaničnici EU ne smiju stvarati utisak da kretanja u BiH idu u pozitivnom smjeru, niti hvaliti bh. političare i vlast za napredak kojeg, realno, nije ni bilo.xlv „Dva su glavna faktora koja oblikuju proces tranzicione pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini koji nominalno traje u zadnjih 20 godina: nametanje različitih mjera od strane međunarodne zajednice i Ibid., 7. Ibid., 8. xl Ibid. xli Ibid. xlii Ibid., 9. xliii Ibid. xliv Primjerice, izjavu Komesara za proširenje EU Johannesa Hahna datu na press konferenciji u Briselu: „EU inicijativa sprovedena u decembru 2014. godine omogućila je novu formu koja vodi ka Sporazumu o stabilizaciji i pridruţivanju, a to su dokazali usvajanjem Reformske agende. Implementacija agende je na pravom kolosijeku, a strukturalni dijalog o pravosuđu dokazuje da se pravi sistem za rješavanje relevantnih pitanja na drţavnom nivou“. Mirosavljević, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Evropski napredak BiH koji to i nije. Al Jazeera. Preuzeto sa: http://balkans.aljazeera.net/vijesti/evropski-napredak-bih-koji-i-nije (27.11.2015.) Ili, pak, izjavu Šefa delegacije EU u BiH Lars-Gunnara Wigemarka da se, po prvi put u posljednjih nekoliko godina, BiH pribliţava EU, odnosno ostvaruje smisleni pomak, i to u provedbi reformske agende - što je jedan od uslova u pribliţavanju EU integracijama. [Ahmetašević, N. (2015, novembar 24.). “Pozitivno” nazadovanje: europske pohvale bh. elitama. Bilten. Preuzeto sa: http://www.bilten.org/?p=10347 (30.11.2015.)] xlv Kako je istakao Vedran Dţihić, viši istraţivač na Austrijskom Institutu za internacionalnu politiku i direktor Centra za napredne studije Jugoistočne Evrope u Rijeci, krucijalna je činjenica da u BiH postoje formalni institucionalni pomaci, a da u fazi implementacije, u kojoj građani trebaju osjetiti pozitivne učinke, imamo samo probleme. N1 BiH. (2015, novembar 17.). Konferencija o pridruţivanju EU: Za BiH 2016. ključna faza. N1. Preuzeto sa: http://ba.n1info.com/a70028/Vijesti/Vijesti/Vedran-Dzihic-gost-Novog-dana.html (28.11.2015.) Gotova ista situacija je i u drugim drţavama. Upoređivanje sa susjednim drţavama i slabim napretkom u istima naglašava se kao plus u vlastitoj drţavi. Tanjug. (2015, novembar 11.). Vučić: Napredak u 33 od ukupno 34 poglavlja. Dnevnik. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/vucic-napredak-u-33-od-ukupno-34-poglavlja (29.11.2015.) S druge strane, ovogodišnji izvještaji o napretku u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ koje ţele pristupiti EU uglavnom prate iste smjernice koje su bile date i u prošlim izvještajima pa se dā zaključiti da ogromnog napretka - koji vlade svih drţava ističu - u pravilu i nema. xxxviii xxxix �potpuno odsustvo političke volje domaćih političara da se sistematski bave posljedicama zločina.“xlvi – izjavio je Refik Hodţić, potpuno tačno ukazujući na osnovni problem u vezi sa sprovođenjem tranzicione pravde u BiH. Zaključujemo da je za napredak BiH potreban pritisak, i to pritisak međunarodne zajednice. EU mora ojačati svoj pritisak u domenu tranzicione pravde ukoliko ţeli u svoje članstvo primiti drţavu u kojoj se poštuju ljudska prava i koja „ulaţe u mir, sigurnost i stabilnost“ te u kojoj su evidentne „pozitivne demokratske, političke, društvene i ekonomske promjene“. Istraţivanjem dostupnih dokumenata o razvoju tranzicione pravde u BiH došli smo do zaključka da se suočavanje sa prošlošću u ovoj drţavi do sada uglavnom svodilo na saradnju sa ICTY, a i to samo iz razloga što postoji obaveza drţave na ovu saradnju. Ovaj aspekt tranzicione pravde je bitan, ali ne i jedini bitan. Vaţno je da ICTY ne dozvoljava da se prošlost zaboravi. Vaţno je da ICTY omogućava pojedincima da u svim, čak i onim najzabačenijim dijelovima BiH saznaju o počinjenim zločinima. Presude koje ovaj sudski organ donosi smatramo vaţnim, i smatramo da trebaju biti obavezan dio obrazovnog sistema ne samo u BiH, nego u svim drţavama bivše SFRJ. No, ICTY nije i ne treba biti jedini mehanizam tranzicione pravde u BiH. 5. Zaključak Evropska unija mora mora jače vršiti pritisak na vladina tijela drţava bivše SFRJ u pogledu njihovog djelovanja na polju tranzicione pravde. Iz istraţivanja svih novih drţava nastalih raspadom SFRJ uočava se da iste idu korak naprijed samo ako neko vrši pritisak na njih, i ako je taj „neko“ - međunarodna zajednica. EU mora shvatiti da je jedini ispravan put balkanskih drţava-potencijalnih novih članica EU - put koji podrazumijeva suočavanje sa prošlošću. Proces suočavanja sa prošlošću i proces pomirenja trebaju biti prioritet za bivše drţave SFRJ, ali i EU. Način da se to postigne nisu samo suđenja ratnim zločincima. Taj put postiţe se i vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde: donošenjem zakona koji su u skladu sa međunarodnim aktima o zaštiti ljudskih prava, saradnjom sa civilnim društvom, pruţanjem adekvatne podrške ţrtvama ratnih zločina i sl. Usvajanje Okvirne politike EU za podršku tranzicionoj pravdi naglašava podršku EU ovoj oblasti, ali smatramo da je potreban jedan sveobuhvatniji prilaz EU tranzicionoj pravdi u regionu. EU je pokazala da prepoznaje vaţnost tranzicione pravde i da uviđa da ista doprinosi vladavini prava. No, ona mora usloviti BiH i sa drugim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde – ne samo saradnjom sa ICTY. Ova Organizacija mora istaknuti stav da je uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde uslov za evropske integracije. Od EU očekujemo da će nastaviti poticati sprovođenje tranzicione pravde u BiH. Od EU očekujemo da natjera vlasti u BiH da rade na istoj. Jer ako EU to ne učini, mišljenja smo da bi tranziciona pravda u BiH mogla ostati na nivou prazne riječi na papiru. 6. Reference Ahmetašević, N. (2015, novembar 24.). “Pozitivno” nazadovanje: europske pohvale bh. elitama. Bilten. Preuzeto sa: http://www.bilten.org/?p=10347 BIRN. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/balkanskatranziciona-pravda/sta-je-tranziciona-pravda GlobalX. (2015, juli 8.). Refik Hodţić: Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. Front slobode. Preuzeto sa: http://www.frontslobode.ba/vijesti/intervju/55084/refik-hodzic-srebrenica-je-najprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijimmanipulatorima (29.1.2015.) xlvi �Čolaku, P. (2015, novembar 10.). EU kritikuje Kosovo zbog procesuiranja ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/eu-kritikuje-kosovo-zbog-procesuiranja-ratnihzlo%C4%8Dina-11-10-2015 Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2015, novembar 13.). EU podrţava pristup pravdi za svjedoke i ţrtve u Bosni i Hercegovini. Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina & European Union Special Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.ba/?p=37896 Diković, J. (2015, novembar 20.). Bez primedbi na Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca i ţrtava. Danas. Preuzeto sa: http://www.danas.rs/danasrs/drustvo/bez_primedbi_na_nacrt_zakona_o_pravima_boraca_i_zrtava_.55. html?news_id=311508 Direkcija za evropske integracije. (2010, juli 1.). Pristupanje novih drţava članica u EU. Direkcija za evropske integracije. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dei.gov.ba/dokumenti/default.aspx?id=4813&langTag=bs-BA European Union. (2015). The EU’s Policy Framework on support to transitional justice. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/pdf/the_eus_policy_framework_on_support_to_transitional_justice.pd f European Union External Action. (2015, novembar 16.). EU adopts its policy framework on support to transitional justice. European Union xrternal Action. Preuzeto sa: http://eeas.europa.eu/top_stories/2015/191115_eu_transitional_justice_en.htm Europska unija. Ljudska prava. Europska unija. Preuzeto sa: http://europa.eu/pol/rights/index_hr.htm Evropska komisija. (10.11.2015.) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the regions. Strategija EU za proširenje. Evropska komisija. (2015, novembar 11.). Izvještaj za Bosnu i Hercegovinu za 2015. godinu. Fond za humanitarno pravo. (2015). Komentari na Akcioni plan za Poglavlje 23. Preuzeto sa: http://www.hlcrdc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Komentari-FHP-na-3.-nacrt-Akcionog-plana-za-poglavlje-23.pdf Fond za humanitarno pravo. (2015). Kroz pristupanje ka pravdi. Broj 8. Freeman, M. Šta je tranziciona pravda?. Fond za humanitarno pravo. Preuzeto sa: mira.net/wp-content/uploads/Sta-je-tranziciona-pravda.pdf http://www.mreza- GlobalX. (2015, juli 8.). Refik Hodţić: Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. Front slobode. Preuzeto sa: http://www.frontslobode.ba/vijesti/intervju/55084/refik-hodzic-srebrenica-jenajprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima GlobalX. (2015, juli 6.). Intervju: Refik Hodţić – Srebrenica je najprofitabilnija moneta najljigavijim manipulatorima. GlobalX. Preuzeto sa: http://globalx.ba/intervju-refik-hodzic-srebrenica-jenajprofitabilnija-moneta-najljigavijim-manipulatorima/ Gruhonjić, D. (2012, april 20.). Pomirenje kao politička tabu-tema. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/pomirenje-kao-politicka-tabu-tema Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. (2011, oktobar 5.). Leonetti - Srbija neće u EU dok se ne pomiri sa susjedima. Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. Preuzeto sa: http://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/eu_t01.html Inicijativa za monitoring evropskih integracija BiH. (2015). Alternativni izvještaj o napretku 2015: politički kriteriji. (Sarajevo, juli 2015.) Preuzeto sa: http://eu-monitoring.ba/site/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/Alternativni-izvje%C5%A1taj-o-napretku-BiH-2015.pdf �Ministarstvo za ljudska prava i izbjeglice BiH i Ministarstvo pravde BiH. Strategija tranzicijske pravde u Bosni i Hercegovini 2012-2016. Preuzeto sa: http://www.mpr.gov.ba/aktuelnosti/propisi/konsultacije/Strategija%20TP%20%20bosanski%20jezik%20fin%20doc.pdf Mirosavljević, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Evropski napredak BiH koji to i nije. Al Jazeera. Preuzeto sa: http://balkans.aljazeera.net/vijesti/evropski-napredak-bih-koji-i-nije Nacrt zakona o pravima boraca, vojnih i civilnih invalida rata i članova njihovih porodica u Republici Srbiji iz 2014. godine N1 BiH. (2015, novembar 17.). Konferencija o pridruţivanju EU: Za BiH 2016. ključna faza. N1. Preuzeto sa: http://ba.n1info.com/a70028/Vijesti/Vijesti/Vedran-Dzihic-gost-Novog-dana.html Popović, D. M. (2009). Vodič kroz tranzicijsku pravdu u Bosni i Hercegovini. Razvojni program Ujedinjenih nacija u BiH. Ristić, M. (2015, oktobar 27.). OEBS: Srbija zaostaje u procesuiranju ratnih zločina. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/oebs-srbija-zaostaje-u-procesuiranju-ratnih-zlo%C4%8Dina-1027-2015 Ristić, M. (2015, novembar 17.). Političari na Balkanu pomirenje ne shvataju ozbiljno. BIRN. Preuzeto sa: http://www.balkaninsight.com/rs/article/politi%C4%8Dari-na-balkanu-ne-bave-se-ozbiljno-pomirenjem11-16-2015 Tanjug. (2015, novembar 11.). Vučić: Napredak u 33 od ukupno 34 poglavlja. Dnevnik. Preuzeto sa: http://www.dnevnik.rs/politika/vucic-napredak-u-33-od-ukupno-34-poglavlja Ugovor o EU (7.2.1992.) Velasquez Rodriguez v. The State of Honduras, Međuamerički sud za ljudska prava, 29.7.1988. �Author: Ajla Škrbić, LL.M., Senior Assistant Institution: Faculty of Law, University of Travnik E-mail: ajla.skrbic@pfk.edu.ba TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE AS A CONDITION FOR THE ACCESSION TO THE EUROPEAN UNION Abstract Transitional justice is a term that implies different ways of treating previous human rights violations in societies in transition, which lead to post-conflict reconciliation in society. It does not mean only trials against persons who have broken the law in the conflict, but rather building of sustainable peace in post-conflict society. It consists of a numerous initiatives aimed at establishing the truth about what happened in the previous conflict. It also includes the determination of responsibility of the perpetrators and reparation for crime victims. This paper will focus on the extra-judicial mechanisms of transitional justice. It will try to give the answer for the question of whether the establishment of transitional justice should be a condition for joining the EU, as well as what the states of former Yugoslavia did in this field. Special emphasis will be on the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its achievements in this field. Key words: European Union, transitional justice, transitional justice mechanisms. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3176 Title A name given to the resource TRANZICIONA PRAVDA KAO USLOV PRISTUPU EVROPSKOJ UNIJI Author Author ŠKRBIĆ, Ajla Abstract A summary of the resource. Tranziciona pravda je termin koji označava različite načine postupanja prema prošlim kršenjima ljudskih prava u društvima u tranziciji, a koji dovode do postkonfliktnog pomirenja u društvu. Ne podrazumijeva samo suđenja osobama koje su prekršile pravo u sukobu, već prvenstveno izgradnju održivog mira u postkonfliktnim društvima. Sastoji se od niza inicijativa kojima je cilj utvrđivanje istine o onome što se desilo u sukobu koji se zbio u prošlosti - a što, svakako, obuhvata i utvrđivanje odgovornosti počinioca i naknadu štete žrtvama zločina. U radu će poseban naglasak biti na vansudskim mehanizmima tranzicione pravde. Pokušat će se odgovoriti na pitanje da li bi uspostavljanje tranzicione pravde trebalo biti uslov za pristup Evropskoj uniji, kao i šta su države bivše SFRJ učinile po tom pitanju. Poseban akcenat bit će na državi Bosni i Hercegovini i njenim dostignućima na ovom polju. Ključne riječi: Evropska unija, tranziciona pravda, mehanizmi tranzicione pravde. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-50-9 K Law (General)