325 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d27b4f4392dce74befa7b910ef5ffb08.pdf 3b2bcef44cf00901522b46d5fbc3c39b PDF Text Text LOVE AND HATRED IN TWO LANGUAGES: CROSS-CULTURAL ANALYSIS Ivana Grabar & Ekaterina Kostina & Marijana Kolednjak University North, Croatia & Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University, Russia Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 27.06.2015 Abstract: Living in a world that has become a 'global village' makes different nations seem very similar we dress in a very similar way, we listen to the similar music, we sometimes even use the same words. But how similar are we when it comes to understanding another person’s culture and values related to some of the general notions, such as love and hatred? The authors of this paper come from two countries that speak Slavic languages and are in many ways similar: Russia and Croatia. This similarity initiated a cross-cultural research described further in the paper. The authors have compared the meanings of two opposite notions (a value and an anti-value) - love and hatred - with regard to the meaning and importance they have in these two countries and how they are used in their respective languages. The definitions of the value love were collected from various available dictionaries in different areas and then analyzed as semantic components. Then the same procedure was conducted with the anti-value hatred. Since these semantic components are used in sentences/phrases in Russian and Croatian in various ways, their comparison has been made. Furthermore, students of two universities (one Russian and one Croatian) filled in a questionnaire regarding the meaning these notions have for them. The purpose of the questionnaire was to help the authors find out whether there are similarities/differences in how these two notions are perceived in their respective countries and languages and whether their meanings and importance for the culture differ. The obtained results will offer some insight into the Russian and Croatian languages when compared on the linguistic and cultural level with regard to a value and an anti-value. Key words: (anti)values, (cross-) culture, language, love and hatred, semantic components. �1. Introduction As one of the consequences of globalization, people tend to be similar – there are no big differences between people throughout the world with regard to what theywear, what kind of music they listen to, what topics they talk about. But how similar are we when it comes to understanding another person’s culture and values related to some of the general notions, such as love and hatred? In philosophy, culture is seen as something that members of a social group share (Prinz, 2011). Since groups and therefore cultures differ, culture strives to the universality of human development, which makes it designed for and subject to changes and transformations. Being aware of differences among various cultures helps us understand how people behave and for what reason. In order to understand the nature of a culture, we need to contrast it with other cultures; therefore, the dialogue of cultures is needed. This cross-cultural interaction enables us to understand people that belong to a culture different from our own. By understanding the culture, we are able to communicate more effectively. Even though the similarities among cultures are usually obvious, we sometimes have problems when communicating since those differentiating characteristics become obvious only when unexpected problems in communication appear. Cultural diversity can be overlooked: according to Lewis (2006), romantic love is seen differently in France and Finland, and the English notion of revenge bears little similarity to the Sicilian. In cultural studies, cultural communication is seen as the way of cultural synthesis, i.e. creative acquisition of everything valuable presented in one’s own culture and in others (Y.V. Bromley, 1974; S. I. Ryzhakova S. A. Arutyunov, 2004). Since communication is the core of language learning, integrating culture in language education has been a never-ending topic of discussion among language teachers, especially when it is perceived as the consequence of globalization and therefore the necessity of understanding other cultures (Lange & Paige, 2003). It is of crucial importance in today’s pluralistic world to overcome ethnocentrism. In order to do this, inter-disciplinary and cross-disciplinary integration is required for understanding reality. One of the key concepts of philosophy today is the term cross-culturalness. D.B. Zilberman (1996) and M.T. Stepanyants(1996) define it as a dialogue or pluralism of cultures. From the �philosophical point of view, cross-culturalness contributes to a more precise understanding of the cultural identity of a specific human society. The task that modern philosophy has is to reach the level of the planetary community. When doing this, cross-cultural and universal values need to be taken into consideration. While trying to understand universal values, one should bear in mind a variety of unique cultures of the peoples inhabiting our planet. The significance of human values should be realized by people living in different cultures. This enables those wholive in a multinational, multicultural society interact by being guided by the cross-cultural pluralist prerequisites. Therefore, people should learn to understand foreign values and to transfer this knowledge and this valuable experience of dealing with other cultures from generation to generation. This interaction between cultures then serves as the basis for understanding the world. Within the framework of intercultural dialogue a person faces many problems connected with the adequate transfer of sense when dealing with people representing different cultures and possessing different universal values. Universal values represent a set of essential values that bind the individual to society and contribute to the unity of man and the world. They have been created alongside the development of the human civilization.However, for the moment there is no unambiguous wording of the concept "universal values".In philosophical studies they distinguish cultural values (freedom, creativity, love, communication, activity), moral values (the point of life and happiness, goodness, duty, responsibility, conscience, honor, dignity), aesthetic values (the beautiful, the sublime), religious values (faith), scientific (the truth), political values (peace, justice, democracy), legal values (law and order). In the modern era of global change the values of kindness and tolerance have become particularly important. Value orientations of a personality explain many of today's events in the world. Therefore, in order to establish a successful dialogue between cultures, the authors of this paper believe that comparative cross-cultural studies of the values of different nations are needed. With this in mind, it was intriguing to find out whether there is any difference (or similarity) between two nationalities, Russian and Croatian, regarding the attitude towards two notions: a value love and its anti-value hatred. Since these two represent a cultural value and its anti-value which are probably the most universal of all, the authors expected there would not be many differences in �the attitude towards love and hatred between these two nations. However, they were intrigued to see whether the definitions of these two notions have a different importance when cross-cultural comparison is made. In addition, they wanted to investigate whether these notions are perceived in the same way between students studying programs in different scientific fields. The background for this interest comes from the years of experience in teaching but also in the scientific evidence – there has been evidence that the brains of science and humanities students differ (Takeuchi, et al., 2014). 2. Methodology The study was conducted in the winter semester of the academic year 2014/2015. The participants of the research were 142 Russian and Croatian students of two universities: Novosibirsk State Pedagogical University (NSPU) in Russia and University North (UNIN) in Croatia (Figure 1). There were 66 male and 78 female students (Figure 2) of approximately the same age– the average age of participants was20. The students of these two universities study programs belonging to three scientific fields: humanities, technical sciences and social sciences, with the Russian students belonging to humanities and the Croatian to technical and social sciences (Figure 3). Croatian 29% 71% 46% 54% Russian Figure 1.Nationality of participants Male Female Figure 2. Gender of participants Technical sciences 29% 27% 44% Social sciences Humanities Figure 3. Scientific field that participants belong to �Definitions of a value love and its anti-value hatred were collected from different Russian and Croatian sources: monolingual dictionaries and encyclopedias from the fields of philosophy, psychology, theology, and general encyclopedia. The authors translated the explanations of the obtained semantic components into English and after a thorough comparison, 16 definitions of love and 7 definitions of hatred were singled out from all the used sources. These definitions were then used as statements of a questionnaire which was given to the participants. They were asked to choose a number on a Likert scale from 1 to 5, where number 1 was equal to ‘I strongly disagree’ and 5 to ‘I strongly agree’. The data was collected during the regular lessons at the universities (English language and Philosophy) and was later analyzed by using the software SPSS. Chi-square test has been conducted, with p<0.01. 3. Results and discussion When analyzing the results, the authors wanted to see whether there were any statements that students preferred or opted for more frequently or they chose higher values. Therefore, the frequencies of the statements have been calculated. According to the analyzed results, the students marked three statements describing love with the dominant value of 5 – love as a complex emotion; love as a state of caring (giving and sacrificing for another person); and love as a desire to be present in the life of the other person (Table 1). Table 1. Frequencies of definitions of love LOVE – definition N Mo state of dependence on another person 3 state of longing for another person 4 complex emotion 5 state of caring (giving and sacrificing for another person) 5 force that causes reconciliation condition of reflection by presenting the loss of oneself 144 4 3 active influence 4 intention (act of will) 4 inclination towards good 4 form of sociability (relations based on natural biological sexual drive) 4 �ambivalence of attitudes 3 cardinal virtue (chastity) 3 self-giving (the act of complete giving) 4 emotionally positive attitude to an object in the center of the vital needs 3 feeling physiologically determined by sexual needs 4 desire to be present in the life of the other person 5 With regard to hatred, two definitions were marked with the highest value by the majority of students: hatred as a deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of anger, and hatred as a deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of hostility (Table 2). The other definitions were marked by most of the students with value 3 (I neither agree nor disagree). Table 2. Frequencies of definitions of hatred HATRED - definition N Mo deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of anger 5 deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of hostility 5 deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of disgust 3 deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of desire to cause the object pain 3 or harm deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of repulsion deep emotional attitude characterized by persecution and harassment of the 144 3 3 object of hatred aspiration to cause pain and feel the satisfaction that results from an unpleasant 3 situation in which the object of hatred is These results show that when it comes to the notion of love, the students have agreed or strongly agreed with the definitions they were offered with. As it regards hatred, they were less ready to agree with the statements – most of them were indifferent to them. However, they seem to associate hatred mostly with feelings of anger and hostility. �When we look at the statements that most of the students strongly agreed with (Figures 4 and 5), we see that the definition of love as the state of caring can be chosen as the definition that most of the students agree with. On the other hand, the definition of hatred is not as ‘clear-cut’ – the values that the students have chosen show more similarity. However, we noticed that they relate hatred mostly to the feeling of anger. 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 strongly disagree disagree neither agree nor disagree agree complex emotion state of caring desire to be present in the life of the other person strongly agree Figure 4.Frequencies of definitions of love marked with the highest value by the majority of the students 60 50 strongly disagree 40 disagree 30 neither agree nor disagree 20 agree 10 strongly agree 0 deep emotional attitude deep emotional attitude characterized by feeling of characterized by feeling of anger hostility Figure 5.Frequencies of definitions of hatred marked with the highest value by the majority of the students �In order to find out whether there are any statistically significant differences regarding the nationality and the field of study in relation to the statements, we looked at all the statements (definitions of love and of hatred). The obtained data has been analyzed using the SPSS software –a chi-square test has been conducted and we opted for the p<0.01 since this allows only a 1% chance that the deviation is due to chance alone. The results showed statistically significant difference with regard to nationality for only two of the statements: love as an emotionally positive attitude to an object in the center of the vital needs and hatred as aspiration to cause pain and feel the satisfaction that results from an unpleasant situation in which the object of hatred is. Table 3 shows the statistical significance of results of dependence of love as an emotionally positive attitude to an object in the center of the vital needs with regard to nationality. It can be seen that majority of Croatians opted for value 3 and Russians for value 4. Moreover, only 19% of Russians opted for 3 compared to 51% of Croatians. Only 8.8% of Croatians opted for value 5 compared to 31% of Russians. It has to be mentioned that the mode value for this definition was equal to 3 – the reason for that might be the fact that the opinion of Croatians prevailed maybe because there were more Croatians than Russian students. �Table 3.Love as an emotionally positive attitude to an object in the center of the vital needs with regard to nationality Love as an emotionally positive attitude to an object in the center of the vital needs with regard to nationality Nationality Croatia n 1 2 3 4 5 Total Count 4 8 52 29 9 102 % within 3,9% 7,8% 51,0% 28,4% 8,8% 100,0% 80,0% 61,5% 86,7% 65,9% 40,9% 70,8% % of Total 2,8% 70,8% Count 1 Nationality % within attitude Russian % within 5,6% 36,1% 20,1% 6,3% 5 8 15 13 42 2,4% 11,9% 19,0% 35,7% 31,0% 100,0% 20,0% 38,5% 13,3% 34,1% 59,1% 29,2% Nationality % within attitude Total % of Total ,7% 3,5% Count 5 13 % within 3,5% 5,6% 10,4% 9,0% 60 44 22 29,2% 144 9,0% 41,7% 30,6% 15,3% 100,0% 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0 100,0% Nationality % within attitude % % of Total 3,5% % % % % 9,0% 41,7% 30,6% 15,3% 100,0% Table 4 shows the results of dependence of nationality and hatred as aspiration to cause pain and feel the satisfaction that results from an unpleasant situation in which the object of hatred is. Again, most of the Croatians opted for value 3 and Russians for value 4. �Table 4.Hatred as aspiration to cause pain and feel the satisfaction that results from an unpleasant situation in which the object of hatred finds him/her Hatred as aspiration to cause pain and feel the satisfaction that results from an unpleasant situation in which the object of hatred is Nationality Croatia n 1 2 3 4 5 Total 17 16 40 10 18 101 39,6% 9,9% 17,8% 100,0% 65,4% 69,6% 85,1% 40,0% 81,8% 70,6% 11,9% 11,2% 28,0% 7,0% 12,6% 70,6% 7 15 4 42 16,7% 35,7% 9,5% 100,0% 34,6% 30,4% 14,9% 60,0% 18,2% 29,4% % of Total 6,3% 4,9% 4,9% 10,5% 2,8% 29,4% Count 26 23 47 25 22 143 32,9% 17,5% 15,4% 100,0% Count % within Nationality 16,8% 15,8% % within painsatisfaction % of Total Russia n Count 9 7 % within Nationality 21,4% 16,7% % within painsatisfaction Total % within Nationality 18,2% 16,1% % within painsatisfaction % of Total 100,0 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% % 18,2% 16,1% 32,9% 17,5% 15,4% 100,0% There was no statistically significant difference in the choice of the statements regarding the scientific field, neither for love nor hatred. 4. Conclusion The present world shows an amazing variety of cultures, both in terms of values and in terms of practices. Culture is a collective phenomenon since it is at least partly shared with people who �live or lived within the same social environment. It consists of the unwritten rules of the social game. Culture is learned, not innate. On the other hand, values are implicit: they belong to the invisible software of our minds. Additionally, values are the deepest manifestations of culture. Hence, the core of culture is formed by values. Values are broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Talking about our own values is difficult, because it implies questioning our motives, emotions, and taboos. Our own culture is to us like the air we breathe, while another culture is like water – it takes special skills to be able to survive in both elements (Hofstede G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M, 2010). Although students in this survey are from two different countries and are students of different fields of study, the final results show a similarity between the attitude of the Russian and Croatian students regarding the definitions of love and hatred. An interesting fact that speaks in favor of the similarity between these two cultures is that the authors, when trying to find the definitions of these (anti)-values, had problems with finding the definitions of hatred – there are different descriptions of love and only several of hatred. That is the reason why there are sixteen definitions of love and only seven of hatred. The authors explain this discrepancy with the fact that there are different relations that we describe as love (love towards our friends, siblings, spouse, etc.) whereas hatred is less complicated to describe it. Moreover, the perception of love and hatred is very similar in these two cultures (nationalities) and in the fields of science. Therefore, this shows that love and hatred are universal values – values perceived in a similar way. These results confirm the (null) hypothesis that there are no differences between nationalities or scientific fields when it comes to the level of agreement with the statements/definitions of love and hatred. Minor statistically significant differences were obtained with the aforementioned two statements. Therefore, we could conclude that we ARE talking about universal values. However, we should be aware that the research described in this paper has its limitations with regard to the number of respondents – the majority of respondents are Croatian and the Croatian opinion prevailed as the opinion of majority. Consequently, the authors suggest conducting the same research with more participants from more cultures/nationalities. The data would give an insight into the perception of love and hatred as universal values from various points of view, i.e. points of view of various nationalities. �References: Bromley, Y.V. (1974). Races and Peoples: Contemporary Ethnic and Racial Problems. Central Books Ltd. Hofstede G., Hofstede G. J., Minkov M. (2010). Cultures and Organization.Software of the Mind.Intercultural Cooperation and Its Importance for Survival. New York: McGraw Hill. Lange, D. L., & Paige, R. M. (2003). Culture as the Core: Perspectives on Culture in Second Language Learning. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Lewis, R. D. (2006). When Cultures Collide: Leading Across Cultures. Boston, MA: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Prinz, J. (2011). Culture and Cognitive Science. Retrieved from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/culture-cogsci/ Stepanyants,M.T.(1996). The east and the west, the 7th philosophical conference held in Honolulu, Hawaii, United-States, January 1995, Voprosy filosofii, (3), pp. 143-150 Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Sekiguchi, A., Nouchi, R., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Kawashima, R. (2014). Brain structures in the sciences and humanities. Brain structure & function. Zilberman, D.B. (1996). Tradition as communication - translation of values and written language, Voprosyfilosofii, (4), pp. 76-105. Ryzhakova,S. I.,Arutyunov,S. A. (2004). Kulturnaiaantropologiia.Ves’ Mir. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2913 Title A name given to the resource LOVE AND HATRED IN TWO LANGUAGES: CROSS-CULTURAL ANALYSIS Author Author Grabar, Ivana Kostina, Ekatarina Kolednjak, Marijana Abstract A summary of the resource. Living in a world that has become a 'global village' makes different nations seem very similar - we dress in a very similar way, we listen to the similar music, we sometimes even use the same words. But how similar are we when it comes to understanding another person’s culture and values related to some of the general notions, such as love and hatred? The authors of this paper come from two countries that speak Slavic languages and are in many ways similar: Russia and Croatia. This similarity initiated a cross-cultural research described further in the paper. The authors have compared the meanings of two opposite notions (a value and an anti-value) - love and hatred - with regard to the meaning and importance they have in these two countries and how they are used in their respective languages. The definitions of the value love were collected from various available dictionaries in different areas and then analyzed as semantic components. Then the same procedure was conducted with the anti-value hatred. Since these semantic components are used in sentences/phrases in Russian and Croatian in various ways, their comparison has been made. Furthermore, students of two universities (one Russian and one Croatian) filled in a questionnaire regarding the meaning these notions have for them. The purpose of the questionnaire was to help the authors find out whether there are similarities/differences in how these two notions are perceived in their respective countries and languages and whether their meanings and importance for the culture differ. The obtained results will offer some insight into the Russian and Croatian languages when compared on the linguistic and cultural level with regard to a value and an anti-value. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8ca23b7721abd4b4ee6a2ec4407aece7.pdf 9a588a11f013649d74365b0d3e3bb496 PDF Text Text HEMINGWAY AND KADARE - A COMPARATIVE OUTLINE Fatbardha Doko University of Tetova, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 26.06.2015 Abstract: In this article I tried give a comparative view between two great novel writers, who belong to different nations, cultures and periods, Ernest Hemingway and Ismail Kadare. Both of them are the greatest representatives of their own national literature, and both are part of the world elite literature, translated in more than 40 languages, and internationally awarded. Similarity between Hemingway and Kadare can be noticed not only in their literary works, but in their political ideology as well. I analyzed some of their novels, and in this paper I pointed out some similarities and differences in themes, characters, style, narration etc. Hemingway’s novels that I cover in this paper are Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls, Islands in the Stream, Moveable Feast and Old Man and the Sea, as long as Kadare’s novels are: Chronicle in Stone, General of the Dead Army and November of a Capital City. As a result, I noticed that these two authors have many things in common, their relation to Paris, their political ideology, and in their novels we can notice similar characteristics in their characters - their heroes represent moral values; themes - both of them write about war, love, social issues, etc; naration, style, etc. So, no matter Hemingway and Kadare distant in time and place, there are some touching points between them. Key words: Hemingway, Kadare, war, novels, characters, politics. �1. Introduction Both Hemingway and Kadare are distinctive part of the elite group of world writers; they both are the most prominent writers of their native literatures, translated in over 40 world languages. Hemingway is one of the greatest modernist writers of American literature. He was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on 21st July 1899. As a part of a big family, he didn’t feel free enough to express himself, so he found some freedom and independence in hunting, fishing, and camping with friends. However, as far as his profession is concerned, he took up journalism from a very young age, so he became a great reporter of very important events, like different wars and conflicts in Europe. All this marked not only his life, but his writing career as well. Ismail Kadare is the greatest Albanian writer of all times, and he has secured a place among the best world novelists. He was born in Gjirokastra, Albania, on 28th January 1936, so we see that he was a part of communist Albania. His country and his further education in Moscow played in important role in his career and his life. Their native countries did not fulfill their ideals, so they both felt disappointed – Hemingway was angry at post war America and the great depression, so he was called the greatest representative of the Lost Generation. This is why Hemingway spent most of his time in Europe, where he found quietness, especially in Paris in the 20s. He described these Paris years in his famous Moveable Feast, where he talks about his friends and acquaintances that had a very important role in his life and career, and influenced his ideology and philosophy, like Fitzgerald, Dos Passos, Gertrude Stein, etc. Café houses in Paris were places where he found peace and motivation to write. This is why almost all of Hemingway’s novels are set in Europe and not in the USA. Kadare was disappointed by the communist regime in Albania. Paris was Kadare’s shelter from the cruel Albanian dictatorship too. He immigrated to France in 1990, leaving the disastrous regime that was counting its last days behind. He found peace in Paris, where he still lives and works as an intellectual and a world writer, and has an honorable position among the greatest intellectuals. Just as Hemingway, Kadare enjoys the mornings in Paris cafés, gathers his thoughts and gets inspired for his great works. So we see that Paris was their common ‘love’. They express their infatuation with by writing about their life in Paris, Hemingway described it in Moveable Feast, and Kadare in Mornings in Café Rostand. �However, Hemingway travelled a lot, lived abroad, visited different places, like Italy, Spain, England, France, Cuba, Switzerland, etc, and this influenced his literary works, Kadare’s movements were limited because of the Hoxha regime, so he did not have the opportunity to travel. His life was concentrated in and around Albania, until he arrived in France 1990. Both of them experienced expatriate life, and both of them found a real tranquility in Paris. Hemingway was closely related to journalism, not only because he became a reporter at a very young age, but because journalism became the basement of his literary career. He reported from the World War1 for Kansas City Star, later he covered Europe for Toronto Star and Hearst's International News Service. This is how journalism opened him the way to literature. Journalism was not strange for Kadare either. He was not a real journalist but had an important experience with journalism when he worked for the Drita magazine and when he edited „Les letres albanaises“ magazine. Both Hemingway and Kadare are awarded international prizes and awards: beside many other awards and prizes, Hemingway was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Literature, and the greatest possible award, the Nobel Prize, for the wonderful Old man and the Sea. Kadare on the other hand, for many years in a row is one of the most serious candidates for the Nobel Prize, but he has been awarded many other prizes like Man Booker Prize, Prize, Prince of Asturia, Jerusalem Prize, etc. These are the points that their lives have in common. Hemingway and Kadare can be studied in the aspect of their political ideology, which means their views on politics, or better to say, their relation to socialism. They express their views and opinions on these issues through the opinions of their characters. Thus we understand that politics is a part of their lives as well. Firstly, both of them are against fascism, they express their attitude against this ideology and its followers. They are against violence, death, ignorance, injustice, products of this fascist ideology. Hemingway participates in and reports from different conflicts, like the WW 1, the Spanish civil War, the WW 2, where he experienced the fascist cruelties; Kadare on the other hand, witnesses war atrocities as a child, when Italian, Greek and German fascist armies occupied his birth place, the town of Gjirokastra. Since they oppose fascism, they positioned on the side of communists. At first they considered communism as a refuge and rescue from fascism, but later they saw its real face, and their �opinion is not clearly defined. Hemingway is interested in global politics, and opposes everyone who is against communism, he is even angry at the American anti communist politics. It is until he experiences the real communism during the Spanish civil war when he sees the corruption and authority of communism. But still, fascism was much bigger evil. Because of this Hemingway is considered a man without a political home, a man opposed to fascism than socialism, but distrustful of all government1. He expresses these views in For Whom the bell Tolls, Island in the Stream, etc. As far as Kadare is concerned, he experiences socialism in Albania, where the harshest sort of communism ruled for 50 years. Enver Hoxha establishes an absolute power, and everyone who doesn’t succumb to his wishes is destined to death or persecution, even his closest associates. They were all accused of alleged betrayal of national ideals. Kadare’s attitude on politics might be ambiguous, since many consider him a dissident, who writes against the regime, but also a collaborator – he could not survive and work freely if he wasn’t a collaborator, and on the other hand he wouldn’t escape in Paris if he supported it. We notice that Kadare behaved wisely, and that saved him. The Great Winter and The Wrong Dinner are still debatable novels, because some believe that they represent his relation to the regime, and for the others they are dictated by the regime. His dissidence is an object of dispute. 2. Their Art This is in fact a study based on the method of comparison. Even though they belong to different periods, there is a common point in the temporality of their works. In many cases, the action of their novels is set during a war period, and after war. For example, Farewell to Arms, that is set in the midst of Italian-Austrian conflict during the WW 1, than, For Whom the Bell Tall, set during the Spanish Civil war; than Island in the Stream, set during the WW 2, etc. Kadare on the other hand, writes about the WW 2, like The Stone Chronicle, The General of the Dead Army, etc, but also travels back in history writing about Albanian past, tradition, legends, ottoman occupation of Albania etc. However, their narrative time, the tense the story is narrated, is actual, present, and thus directly transmits experiences and events that really happened, like for example the Spanish civil war that 1 A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway, ed. Linda Wagner-Martin, Oxford University Press, 2000, p.25/26 �really happened and Hemingway witnessed, the Cuban coast, Paris, places that Hemingway lived in. Kadare writes about the past and historical events related to Albania and Albanians, he describes Tirana when it was liberated in 1944, describes his native town of Gjirokastra, and other Albanian cities. As we see, the location the events are set are real, not fictive, those are places that really exist on the map. For example, in Farewell to Arms, Hemingway’s hero F.Henry travels through Italy and visits Gorizia, Milano, north Plava, Rome, Naples, Padova, Abruzzo, Lausanne, Montreaux, Oberland Bernese, etc, and it resembles as we are following the map of Italy. It is the same with the hero of For Whom the Bell Tolls, R. Jordan, a teacher of Spanish, who came from America to participate in the Civil war, moves through different places like Extremadura, Madrid, La Granja, Segovia, El Escorial, Ronda, etc. In other works, he describes Paris (Moveable Feast), Africa (Snows of Kilimanjaro), Cuba (Islands in the Stream), etc. Unlike Hemingway, Kadare generally writes about Albania and Albanian cities. For example, the general in The General of the Dead Army searches for dead soldiers throughout Albania, and in that way he describes the Albanian geography. November in a Capital City is set in Tirana, Chronicle in Stone in Gjirokastra etc. other cities... 3. Characters As characters play the most important role in a novel, we’ll see what Hemingway characters have in common with Kadare’s. Both of them present a wide range of characters, with their own characteristics, but similarities as well. The characters come from different social classes; they are of various age and professions – for example Frederic Henry is an ambulance driver, Jordan is a teacher, Hudson is a painter, Catherine is a nurse, Bret is a dancer, Pilar is a guerilla fighter, and we also have doctors, soldiers, prostitutes, etc. Kadare introduces a general, a priest, a writer, a young boy, a miller, a soldier, old woman, radio presenters, etc. But what do they have in common? First of all the military characters, for example Frederic Henry, Robert Jordan, Pablo, El Sordo, in Hemingway’s novels, the general, the lieutenant, soldiers, etc. There are deserters – Frederic in Farewell to Arms, and the young German soldier. Both of them are in love. They are all generally young people, ambitious, with a particular aim and mission. �Hemingway and Kadare’s heroes have specific missions, and are of various types. In some cases, the hero is at the centre of the actions, like Frederic Henry and Catherine, who strive to the end, only to protect their happiness. It is the same with Jordan who is the epicenter of all events and actions, than Santiago, etc. In Kadare’s novels, the heroes who are at the centre are Gjergj Berisha, (Broken April) the General etc. However, we can notice that almost all Hemingway’s characters are Americans who deal in foreign countries, who strive for global ideals, like Frederic in Italy, Jordan in Spain, Hudson in Cuba, etc, as long as Kadare’s heroes are all Albanians and deal in their own country, like the child in Chronicle in stone, Adrian Guma in November, etc, except the general, who presumably is Italian, whose mission is set in Albania. Kadare also incorporates some mythical and legendary heroes, like Scanderbeg, Rozafa, etc. As far as their personalities are concerned, we can notice that all of them represent human values, even though in different aspects – they are dedicated to their missions and fulfill their moral duty, show their love towards their family, towards their nation, etc. However, all of them experience certain changes, and these changes can be moral, fateful or out of knowledge. For example, when Frederic is wounded, he suffers a destiny change, because he has to retreat from the battlefield and stay in the hospital, where he meets Catherine, and thus his life enters a new phase. Thomas Hudson experiences destiny changes when his children die in accidents, he loses every desire and will to go on, so he drinks, has no desire to paint, etc. Santiago undergoes destiny changes as well – he is happy to have caught a big fish, but this brings him a great pain as well when he has to face the sharks. Kadare’s general suffers moral changes when he realizes the vanity and destructiveness of war, the hypocrisy of his mission, he realizes the evil his army had caused, so at the end we see him morally and psychologically destroyed, since he is nothing than a general of a dead army, of skeletons. The general also undergoes some destiny changes, and it is when he meets the old Nica, who slams him with the bones of the lieutenant Z he was searching for. At Chronicle in stone, the destiny changes of the characters are influenced by the war. The child protagonist experiences the destructiveness of the war and its atrocities as a very young boy, what actually touches his psyche. On the other hand, the moral changes occur when he realizes the craziness and immorality of the war; the mentality, superstition, magic, tradition do also influence his moral changes. �Hemingway creates real and everyday people, grounded, more natural and mundane ones, like different soldiers, literary wanderers, duck hunters, bullfighters, and thugs in American literature, people he had come across during his life. Kadare on the other hands shows a greater variety in this respect, more developed imagination in building the characters. For example he created a number of grotesque characters like Dino Chichua, the life old lady, Kail’s daughter, Ibrahim Sheh, Kako Pinoja, Mark Alemi, the choir of the noble ladies, etc. Kadare uses the physical appearance, the outfit, gestures, mimicry, etc, to characterize the inner state and world of the characters. Protagonists of both Hemingway and Kadare are usually males. They are presented as much more macho types in Hemingway than in Kadare, what embodies the masculinity of the writer. However, female characters are important as well. They are more present and have greater role in Hemingway’s novels, where they always match the macho characters with their femininity, sensibility and sexiness, and affect the action– we do not see them at home, in the kitchen, but always outdoor. They are young, beautiful, energetic, and joyful, no matter to have experienced terribly difficult periods and experiences in their life. Kadare’s women are kind of marginalized; they appear shortly, but have an impeccable influence, like for example the old Nica, who appears during the most explosive moment in the novel, and becomes the most important character, the one who bears all the responsibility. There are generally no matchable female heroines to male heroes. Kadare mainly presents the traditional Albanian woman – they take care of the home, gossip, are superstitious, etc. However, Kadare describes the Albanian intellectual woman as well, like the journalists in November of a Capital City. In many cases they project their own characters in the personalities of their characters – like Frederic, Hudson, the child, Guma, etc. 4. Thematic comparison One of the major themes which is common in the novels of both authors is the theme of war. Hemingway talks about WW1, the Spanish Civil war, the WW2, etc, wars not led in America, whether Kadare talks about the WW2 in Albania and its effects long after it is finished. Both of them write about something experienced, something real. They do not describe battles, but write about the consequences and destructiveness of war. They both write about war victims caused by �destructive arms, like tanks, shells, guns, etc. we can also notice indirect victims caused by war, like raped women, traumatized people, people who commit suicide as they are psychologically destroyed, wounded people, etc. so we can see the physical and psychological consequences of war. It is clear that both authors based their works and themes in the revolt against injustice and violence. They both think that people are part of an incomprehensible world, so we clearly notice Bodler’s idea that every generation considers oneself as the unluckiest of all. Another kind of war that appears in the novels of the both authors is the class war. We see it in For Whom the Bell Tolls, in the conflict between the republicans, loyal to the Spanish republic, and the nationalists, supported by the fascist forces, led by Fransico Franco, during the Spanish civil war. Kadare presents this kind of war in November in a Capital City, during the establishment of the communist system. Another theme related to war is death. We read about many deaths caused in war, but death is unavoidable in peace time as well, like the death of Hudson’s sons, death is present in bullfighting arenas, it appears 20 years after the war, than after Tirana is liberated, etc In the works of both authors, certain social issues are treated as well, for example the suicide. In Hemingway’s novels, it is exposed as a problem and the characters talk about it, for example in Moveable Feast, Farewell to Arms, etc, and in Kadare’s novels it appears in many examples like Nica’s daughter, the alleged suicide of the intellectuals, etc. However, it is a very serious matter and they consider it as cowardice, weakness and something unacceptable, which in the case of Hemingway is very ironic, since we know that he himself committed suicide. They also talk about politics, economics, racial issues, social differences, cultural problems, etc. all these issues in fact result in wars that they talk about. But they do not write about these dark themes only. Another important theme they both discuss, but have different view on, is love and sexuality. Love is generally a parallel theme with the one of war. We have sincere and romantic love – Catherine sincerely loves Frederic, obeys him, believes him, leans on him, etc. Maria loves Jordan passionately; Jake Barns loves Brett platonically, etc. Passionate scenes are present as well in Hemingway’s novels, not only �expresses through typical sex scenes, scenes that are artistically described, like when Maria and Robert make love under the moon, than Frederic and Catherine in the hospital, etc. Kadare incorporates the theme of love, but not in the dimensions and the form Hemingway does. We generally do not see couples in love, but we rather see forbidden love, like the love between the German deserter and the miller’s daughter, than we have a youthful infatuation and erotic view of female figure from a child’s point o view, etc. Beside the romantic and emotional love, there is another form of love present. It is the love towards the nation and the native country, towards the family, nature etc, which characters express. Hemingway had personally been a part of the conflicts, contributed for the cause of equality, against injustice in global spheres, and had contributed for the benefit of many European nations. We can see this transmitted through his American characters that fight in Europe- Frederic in Italy, Jordan in Spain, Hudson in Cuba, etc. Kadare expresses his strong patriotic sensitivity, and we notice it in his writing about Albania, Albanian history, tradition, Albanian issues, etc. In his novels we see great battles being fought for the freedom of the motherland, Albania, and Albanians – like the battles in Gjirokastra in Chronicle in Stone, than the fight for liberation of Tirana in November, than the Albanian tradition, sad history, mythology, etc. Another common point is the dedication and love towards their jobs and missions- Hemingway’s heroes are determined to fulfill their mission and task – Jordan to mine the bridge, Santiago spends his last atoms of strength to catch the fish, etc. The general as well loves his job and is proud of his mission, Guma is dedicated to his profession and he is not affected by the new regime, etc. As we mentioned, historical theme is very important for Kadare, however he doesn’t accept the concept of historical novel. When he uses a historical theme, he takes into consideration two sources: reality of the era he describes, and the period he lives in. This can be noticed in The Castle, in the Rain Drums, etc. In this way he transmits an allegory of the Ottoman Empire and its time – for example the siege of Kruja is an allegory of the occupied Albania, etc. ‘Who Brought Doruntina?’ and the Broken April deal with the Albanian tradition as well. We can see �that Albanians suffered many storms, difficult periods during the history, and this made them strong and persevering. 5. Narration As we all know, Hemingway’s novels are characterized by a simple, minimalistic style, with other words, he uses the theory of omission. With this theory he tries to omit any unnecessary word or structure, especially adjectives, he writes short and clear sentences, selected vocabulary, simple grammar, that is seen in almost all of his novels, especially in Old Man and the Sea. His minimalistic style conforms to the scientific ideals of originating the maximum amount of information with the minimun expenditure of energy.2, that was inherited from his journalistic style. However, beside this economy, Hemingway tells a lot, and in order to see the larger part of his art, we have to read between lines, or dive deep under water and see the larger part of the iceberg. That is why his narrative technique is called Iceberg theory. As we saw, Hemingway is a great realist; he tries to present everything truly, like the places, events, real characters, and he verifies this by saying - All you have to do is write one true sentence. Write the truest sentence that you know.” As far as Kadare is concerned, we can notice the Iceberg theory as well, and the best example is the presented history of Nica’s daughter in The general of the dead army. Kadare uses a simple style and syntax, but unlike Hemingway, he uses much more figurative language, a lot of grotesque elements and figures, more developed imagination, various stylistic devices like hyperbola, allegory, personification, metaphors, or simply said, real art. The grotesque is an aesthetic imaginative fiction that has the value of artistic conventions. 3 Even though he uses grotesque, he still present realistic art, and this is another thing that makes him great writer. This means that both of them tried to tell the readers more than they wrote, Hemingway through the iceberg principle, and Kadare through his figurative and grotesque style, so we have to read between lines in order to understand them. We may say that Kadare creates the dialogue with its artistic prose influenced by famous style of Hemingway’s novels, and his grotesque is similar to Kafka’s. He gradually created his own original style, what makes him unique example in the Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway, ed.Linda Wagner-Martin,Oxford University Press, New York, London, 2000, р.54 Çaushi, Tefik; Universi Letrari Kadaresë; 1993, Dituria, Tiranë. P.56 2A 3 �world literature. Kadare is capable of turning the dimmest feelings of human soul into words, where it is often hard to find clear thoughts4. 6. Conclusion As we saw, regardless being distant in space and time, Hemingway and Kadare, have something in common. Hemingway’s influence on Kadare can also be seen in Kadare’s superb translation of The Old Man and the Sea. Their novels represent a real treasure for the world literature, so we should be lucky to have the opportunity to read and be illuminated by the characters, themes, and the narration of these big writers. I am especially proud to be a contemporary of the great Kadare and name him as the greatest representative of my national literature. References A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway, ed.Linda Wagner-Martin,Oxford University Press, New York, London, 2000 Baker, Carlos; Hemingway, The Writer as Artist: Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1956 Çaushi, Tefik; Universi Letrari Kadaresë; 1993, Dituria, Tiranë Ernest Hemingway, The Critical Heritage, ed. By Geoffrey Meyers, Routledge, London, New York, 2005 Ernest Hemingway Primer, by Timeless Hemingway, 2009, стр.8 Hemingway, a Collection of Critical Essays, ed. by Robert Weeks; Prentice Hall,Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J, 1962 Mort, Terry: The Hemingway Patrols: Ernest Hemingway and His Hunt for U-Boats, Scribner, New York, 2009 4Ibid, p.140 �Rutten, Tim; Dissident or not, Ismail Kadare is one of the greatest, article in L.A.Times, 18.feb.2009 The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway, ed. by Scott Donaldson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2909 Title A name given to the resource HEMINGWAY AND KADARE - A COMPARATIVE OUTLINE Author Author Doko, Fatbardha Abstract A summary of the resource. In this article I tried give a comparative view between two great novel writers, who belong to different nations, cultures and periods, Ernest Hemingway and Ismail Kadare. Both of them are the greatest representatives of their own national literature, and both are part of the world elite literature, translated in more than 40 languages, and internationally awarded. Similarity between Hemingway and Kadare can be noticed not only in their literary works, but in their political ideology as well. I analyzed some of their novels, and in this paper I pointed out some similarities and differences in themes, characters, style, narration etc. Hemingway’s novels that I cover in this paper are Farewell to Arms, For Whom the Bell Tolls, Islands in the Stream, Moveable Feast and Old Man and the Sea, as long as Kadare’s novels are: Chronicle in Stone, General of the Dead Army and November of a Capital City. As a result, I noticed that these two authors have many things in common, their relation to Paris, their political ideology, and in their novels we can notice similar characteristics in their characters - their heroes represent moral values; themes - both of them write about war, love, social issues, etc; naration, style, etc. So, no matter Hemingway and Kadare distant in time and place, there are some touching points between them. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8bfe4138c8f7c64806bbdcd291147ca1.pdf 27685eda4499a7625e641afb06226cc1 PDF Text Text KOKUJI (国字): THE JAPANESE “NATIONAL CHARACTERS”. A CASE STUDY: THE JAPANESE ACQUATIC FAUNA Giovanni Borriello* Roma Tre University, Italy Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 30.06.2015 Abstract: The great influence that the Chinese writing system has had on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese writing systems is widely demonstrated. Nevertheless, besides the use of the characters directly imported from China, these cultures have had the necessity to create “national characters” to satisfy the needs of their own languages. This paper, that analyzes this phenomenon in the Japanese environment, begins with an analysis of the reasons that have pushed the Japanese “to create” own characters and the reasons why at a certain moment such “creation” has been suspended. In the second part of the paper samples of kokuji will be presented that can be circumscribed to those with radicals 魚・鳥・木・草 and that result to be surely the most numerous and related to species of flora and fauna japonica. Key words: Kokuji, Japanese Kanji, National Characters. �On Web page http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm is possible to read the following presentations in Japanese and English for the first kokuji online dictionary edited by Ōhara Nozomu1: 「俥・柾・畠・鯰」が国字ではないというとみなさんは驚かれますか。この辞典では 、定説ともいえる扱いを受けてきた文字についても再調査を行い、国字説の誤りを是正す るとともに、多くの新たな国字の追加を行っています。 読者の皆様方からのご指摘の点を含め改善に努めてはいますが、改善すべき点は残っ ています。ご質問のメールもいただけるようになりましたが、本辞典の内容に対する典拠 を付けた反論もお待ちしております。 読者の方からのメールにより、欧米からもアクセスしていただいていることがわかり ました。 リンクしていただいているページも増えつつあります。基本的にリンクフリーではあ りますが、リンクした旨ご連絡いただくようお願いします。 日本を代表できる「和製漢字の辞典」として恥ずかしくないものにしていきたいと存 じますので、気が付かれた点や感想・質問など遠慮なくメールしていただきますようお願 いいたします。 漢字・ジテン（辞典・字典・事典を含む）に関する質問をお受けするために掲示板を 、私の全てのWebページを一覧できるために『ジテン・フェチの漢字辞典』を、開設いた しましたので、こちらもご利用ください。2 Wasei Kanji no Jiten – Dictionary of Kanji created in Japan is the first online dictionary dedicated to Kokuji (Kanji created in Japan). Almost all Kanji (Chinese characters) in Japanese were imported from Chinese. But some characters were created by Japanese people. We call them Kokuji 国字 (literally “national characters”). For example, touge 峠, mountain pass was created combining ‘mountain’ 山, ‘up’ 上, and ‘down’ 下. This dictionary includes some Kokuji and Kanji which was thought as Kokuji.3 ***** * Giovanni Borriello PhD (giovanni.borriello77@gmail.com), Professor of History and Institutions of Asia, Roma Tre University, Italy. 1 Ōhara Nozomu (ed. by), Wasei kanji no jiten, 2000, http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm (13.06.2015) 2 http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm (13.06.2015) 3 http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/abstract.htm (13.06.2015) �It is known that the Japanese enriched the vocabulary of Chinese characters (hanzi, kanji) with characters of their own coinage, called kokuji (‘national characters’)4. Overall, their number was calculated in 15005. In general, they could be introduced to make use graphically locutions, concepts, especially names of things found absent in Chinese lexicons. It can be confirmed at first glance from the high percentage of kokuji with radicals of “tree” and “fish”, likely to indicate actual or presumed native species, of which precise corresponding Chinese appeared missing. The matter would appear more compelling because among the other things is well-known the variety and richness of the Japanese flora and fauna patrimony with an high number of species listed as japonicae, even if they are not exclusive of Japan, but in any case “typical” of its terraqueous environment6. Now, if we extrapolate the kokuji of its aquatic fauna, we are faced with a list of characters, such as the following, taken from the Dōbun tsūkō7 by Arai Hakuseki (1657-1725): 魸 namazu, 鰯 iwashi, 鱈 tara, 鯲 dojō, 鯐 subashiri, 鮱 bora, gigi, 鯒 kochi, 鮲 mate, 鱰 shiira, 魞 eri, isaza, konoshiro, 鯎 ugui, 鯑 kazunoko, asari. Reviewing them individually, we find the following data on the basis of the main current lexicons and any possible recurrences in Chinese8: 魸 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’ (Parasilurus asotus)9; 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’ (Sardinops melanostictus)10; 4 They are also referred to as waji 和字・倭字, wazokuji 和俗字, honpō seisakuji 本邦製作字, wasei kanji 和製漢字. 5 Anne Commons, “The development of kokuji (‘Chinese’ characters coined in Japan)”, in Fifth Annual Graduate Student Conference on East Asia, Columbia University, 1996. 6 For an overview of the phenomenon, see Giovanni Borriello, “The Historical Development of the kokuji 国字 Phenomenon in Japan”, Susret Kultura 6, Međunarodni interdisciplinarni simpozijum Susret kultiura, II, Filozofski fakultet, Novi Sad, 2013, I, pp. 507-512. http://digitalna.ff.uns.ac.rs/sadrzaj/2013/978-86-6065-040-7121 7 Itani Zen’ichi (edited by), Arai Hakuseki, “Dōbun tsūkō”, Arai Hakuseki shū, Tōkyō, Seibundō shinkōsha, 1936, pp. 407-476. 8 In References, they are reported the abbreviations for the dictionaries and lexicons consulted for the following notes. 9 Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten confirm the use of the kokuji. For the lemma namazu, Kokujikō by Ban Naokata and Wasei kanji no jiten report the kokuji too; Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 report, always with the same meaning, the character 鯰, that is unanimously classified as kokuji. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for namazu the character 鯰, ascribing the lemma to the area of Wakayama. Of the three kokuji reported, Ricci attests the character 鯰 with the reading nien. 10 For the Chinese, Ricci gives the same character with the reading ruo and the same meaning. �鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’ (Gadus morhua)11; 鯲 dojō ‘Japanese loach’ (Cobitis barbatula)12; 鯐 subashiri ‘Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna’13; 鮱 bora ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’ (Mugil cephalus)14; isaza ‘Biwa goby’ (Chaenogobius isaza)15; konoshiro ‘Japanese gizzard shad’ (Konosirus punctatus)16; 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’ (Leuciscus hakonensis)17; 鯑 kazunoko ‘Herring roe’18; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’19; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’20; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’21; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphin fish’ (Coryphaena hippurus)22; In Chinese, the character is attested with the reading xue as generic name for ‘cod’. The character is given in Morohashi, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma dojō, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 give the character 鰌, a common use Chinese character with reading qiu and the meaning of ‘small 11 12 fish that lived in the mud’; for the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten use the compound 泥鰌, niqiu in Chinese. 13 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma subashiri, Kōjien introduces the compound 州走, of common use in Chinese with the reading chouzou. The lemma is not reported in Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 14 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma bora, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce, always with the meaning of ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’, the character 鯔. The latter character is recorded, both in Dōbun tsūkō by Arai Hakuseki and in Morohashi as kokuji and with the reading of kochi too. The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. For isaza, Kōjien uses the character 鯋, of common use in Chinese with the reading sha for ‘white shark’. 16 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson; for the same lemma konoshiro, Kenkyūsha 32, 15 Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鰶, a common use character in Chinese. 17 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma ugui, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the Chinese compound 石斑魚 shibanyu. 18 The kokuji is given in Morohashi, Nelson, Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma kazunoko, Kenkyūsha 74 gives the characters 数の子. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten don’t record the entry. 19 The kokuji, with the related lemma of gigi, is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten only. 20 All the Japanese dictionaries, except for Kokujikō and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten, that don’t record the lemma, identify this fish with the same kokuji. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading yong and with the same meaning in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian. 21 The kokuji is given in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten only. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten don’t record the lemma mate. 22 Kokuji and lemma attested in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74. �魞 eri ‘Japanese lizardfish’ (Synodus saurus)23; asari ‘Japanese little-neck clam’ (Tapes philippinarum)24. ***** To the list of Arai Hakuseki, we can add the following kokuji, extrapolated from other lexicons: anago ‘Japanese variety of conger of the Species Conger japonicus’25; ayu ‘Japanese sweetfish’ (Plecoglossus altivelis)26; 魹 azarashi ‘Japanese hair seal’ (Phoca vitulina)27; 鰕 ebi ‘Japanese lobster’ (Uruptychus japonicus)28; hamo ‘Japanese barracuda’ (Sphyraena japonica)29; 鰚 haraka ‘Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna’30 鰰・鱩 hatahata ‘Japanese sandfish’ (Arctoscopus japonicus)31; 23 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. Morohashi records the reading eso too, that we can find also in Kenkyūsha 74 to which is ascribed, in this latter dictionary, the character 鱠 of common use in Chinese with the reading kuai. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for the same kokuji the reading eso ascribing it to the area of Wakayama. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested only in Giles with the reading ren to indicate a ‘fabulous creature half man, half fish’. 24 Kokuji and lemma attested in Morohashi, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma asari, Kōjien introduces the mixed form 漁り, while Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten use the Chinese compound 浅蜊 jianli. 25 The kokuji is recorded only by Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma anago, Kenkyūsha 32 uses the transcription in hiragana あなご replaced in Kenkyūsha 74 with the compound 穴子, of common use in Chinese with the reading xuezu. 26 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji ; Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 give for the lemma the character 鮎, that is a common use character in Chinese with the reading nian, for an unspecified variety of trout. In turn, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten ascribed the previous character assigning it also the readings ai and ae. 27 Wasei kanji no jiten only confirms the kokuji. For the lemma azarashi, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 use, always with the meaning of ‘seal’, the compound 海豹, that is of common use in Chinese with the reading haipao and the meaning of ‘sea lion’, other name for ‘seal’, while this lemma is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 28 The kokuji is recorded in Kenkyūsha 32, Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma ebi, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the compound 海老, hailao in Chinese. 29 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten. For the lemma hamo, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the character 鱧 of common use in Chinese with the reading li. 30 Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten agree on the generic designation. Other dictionaries don’t attest the kokuji or the lemma. 31 The first kokuji is recorded in Morohashi, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten; Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 give the character 鱩 too, that Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten classify as kokuji, while Gendai �鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’32; 鮃 hirame ‘Japanese halibut’ (Paralichthys olivaceus)33; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’ (Pleurogrammus azonus)34; ・ ・鯔 ina ‘Japanese amberjack’ (Seriola dumerili)35; inada ‘Japanese amberjack’ (Seriola lalandi)36; 鮖 kajika ‘Japanese sculpin’ (Cottus hilgendorfi)37; kamasu ‘Japanese saury’ (Cololabis saira)38; karasumi ‘Mullet roe’39; ・鮙 karei ‘Japanese plaice’ (Pleuronectes platessa)40; Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten for the same lemma gives the transcription in hiragana はたはた ascribing the noun to the area of Akita. 32 Kokuji given only in Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten records only the lemma with the transcription in hiragana はや, that ascribes to the area of Kyōto. 33 Both Morohashi and Wasei kanji no jiten record the character, but Morohashi gives it also the readings -hei, -byō, and doesn’t classify it as kokuji. Kōjien introduces for the same lemma the compounds 平目 pingmu and 比目魚 pimuyu. Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses only the compound 平目 pingmu, ascribing it to the area of Shichio, while both Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 use for the lemma hirame the compound 比目魚 pimuyu. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading p’ing in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian, that identifies it with the Japanese hirame. Tha fact that the character is a kokuji seems to be sure as confirmed in the definition that we can find in the Chinese dictionaries. Then, it was replaced by the Chinese characters that, alluding to the characteristics of the eyes, better identify the fish. 34 Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Nelson and Wasei kanji no jiten report it as kokuji. Kenkyūsha 32 doesn’t record the lemma, while Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses the transcription in hiragana ほっけ, ascribing the lemma to the area of Fukushima. 35 The first character is recorded in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten, but Morohashi doesn’t classify it as kokuji. For the lemma ina, Wasei kanji no jiten records the kokuji too, while Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce, for the same lemma, the kokuji 鯔. The latter is recorded, both in Dōbun tsūkō by Arai Hakuseki and in Morohashi, as kokuji and with the reading of kochi as well. Indeed, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten gives for ina the Chinese character 鰤 with the reading shi and with the same meaning, but ascribing the noun to the area of Kyōto. 36 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma inada, Kōjien uses the transcription in hiragana いなだ, while Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the common Chinese character 鰍 qiu, with the meaning of ‘Japanese amberjack’. For the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduces the already reported character 鰤, as previously seen, for the lemma ina, ascribing it to the area of Shizuoka and of Ishikawa and implicitly meaning the identity between inada and ina. 37 The kokuji is attested in Morohashi, Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson. For the lemma kajika, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鰍, that is a common use character in Chinese with the reading qiu. 38 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kamasu, Kōjien introduces the character 魣 xu, while Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 give the compound 梭魚 suoyan. Indeed, the lemma is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 39 The kokuji is recorded in Wasei kanji no jiten only. Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74, for the lemma karasumi, use the transcription in hiragana からすみ. Such form in hiragana is given in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten as well and ascribed to the area of Ōshū. �鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’ (Katsuwonus pelamis)41; kawagisu ‘Japanese gudgeon’ (Pseudogobis esocinus)42; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’ (Sillago japonica)43; ・鯉 koi ‘Japanese carp’ (Cyprinus carpio)44; kujira ‘Japanese whale’ (Balaena mysticetus)45; masu ‘Masu salmon’ (Oncorhynchus masou)46; 鮴 mebaru ‘Japanese rockfish’ (Sebastes inermis)47; 鰘 muroaji ‘Japanese horse mackerel’ (Trachurus japonicus)48; mutsu ‘Japanese blue fish’ (Scombrops boops)49; ・鯰 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’ (Parasilurus asotus)50 The first kokuji is given in Morohashi and in Wasei kanji no jiten only. The latter gives the kokuji 鮙 too. For the lemma karei, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten record the Chinese character 鰈 die. 41 Kokujikō, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74, Wasei kanji no jiten and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten record the kokuji 鰹 present in Morohashi as well, but not classified as kokuji. In the consulted Chinese dictionaries, the kokuji 40 鰹 is attested with the reading jian in Giles and in Ricci only. 42 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kawagisu, Kenkyūsha 32 uses the mixed form 川ぎす, while Kenkyūsha 74 introduces the compound 川鱚, where the second character is recorded as kokuji in all the Japanese dictionaries consulted, except for Dōbun tsūkō that doesn’t record the character. 43 The kokuji is recorded in all the Japanese dictionaries consulted, except for Dōbun tsūkō and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten that don’t give the kokuji and the lemma kisu. In Chinese, the kokuji is attested with the reading xi and with the same meaning in Ricci and in Han Ying Da Cidian. 44 The first kokuji is recorded in Wasei kanji no jiten only, that for the lemma koi, gives the kokuji as well, that Morohashi doesn’t’ classify as kokuji. For the lemma koi, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the character 鯉, that Nelson only classifies as kokuji. In Chinese, the character 鯉 is recorded with the same meaning and reading li in Ricci only. 45 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma kujira, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74, and the Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten as well, use the Chinese character 鯨 jing. 46 The kokuji is attested in Wasei kanji no jiten only. For the lemma masu, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the character 鱒, that is a Chinese character with the reading zun. Indeed, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten for the same lemma uses the transcription in hiragana ます, ascribing the lemma to the area of Fukushima. 47 Wasei kanji no jiten and Nelson only register the kokuji 鮴.For the lemma mebaru, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 眼張 of common use in Chinese yanzhang. Indeed, there aren’t attestations in Kenkyūsha 32 or in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 48 Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten attest the kokuji 鰘, while for the lemma muroaji, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 室鯵, that are common use characters in Chinese with the reading shisao. 49 Wasei kanji no jiten only registers the kokuji, while for the lemma mutsu, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the Chinese character 鯥 lu, Kenkyūsha 32 gives the compound 石鮅魚; for the same lemma, Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten uses the transcription in hiragana むつ ascribing the noun to the area of Shiga. 50 See note 4. �鮄 saba ‘Chub mackerel’ (Scomber japonicus)51; 魝・ ・ saku ‘Chum salmon’ (Oncorhynchus keta)52; same ‘Japanese variety of great white shark’ (Carcharodon carcharias)53; 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer whale’ (Grampus orca)54; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’ (Zenopsis nebulosa)55; tai ‘Red seabream’ (Pagrus major)56 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’ (Leuciscus hakonensis)57; urumeiwashi ‘Sardine variety of the Species Etrumeus micropus’58 . ***** Now, of these kokuji listed: 51 Wasei kanji no jiten and Morohashi give the character 鮄, that Morohashi doesn’t record as kokuji. For the same lemma, Kenkyūsha 32, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce 鯖, a common use character in Chinese with the reading qing. 52 With saku is identified a variety of ‘salmon’ (Oncorhynchus keta), the most important Japanese species of salmon, that it is possible to find mainly in the Tonegawa and Nakagawa rivers. Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji 魝, that Morohashi records for the lemma saku, but doesn’t classify it as kokuji. In the Chinese dictionary consulted, the only one that gives this character is Giles with the reading of jie and the meaning of ‘to dissect’ or ‘to cut (slice) the fish to be dried’. For the lemma saku, Kokujikō and Wasei kanji no jiten give the kokuji and as well, that are not in the other Japanese lexicons consulted. For the same lemma, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce, giving the readings sake and shake too, the common use character in Chinese 鮭 kui. 53 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . For the lemma same, Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien and Kenkyūsha 74 use the character 鮫, that is a common use character in Chinese chao. Morohashi, Kōjien, Nelson, Wasei kanji no jiten and Kenkyūsha 74 give the kokuji 鯱. It is not attested in the other Japanese and Chinese dictionaries. 54 Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji 魴, that Morohashi records for the lemma tai, but doesn’t classify it as kokuji. It is not attested in the other Japanese dictionaries consulted. Indeed, the kokuji is recorded in all the Chinese dictionaries consulted with the reading fang and the same meaning. So is it really a kokuji or simply a Chinese character acquired from Japan, then abandoned because not indicating an important character or species? 56 Wasei kanji no jiten only gives the kokuji . Kenkyūsha 32, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten, for the lemma tai, introduce the character 鯛, that it’s a common use character in Chinese with the reading tiao. 55 57 Dōbun tsūkō, Morohashi, Kōjien and Wasei kanji no jiten give the kokuji 鯎, that it’s not attested in the other Japanese characters. For the lemma ugui, Kenkyūsha 32 and Kenkyūsha 74 introduce the compound 石斑魚 shipayu. Indeed, the lemma ugui is not recorded in Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten. 58 With urumeiwashi is identified a ‘Sardine variety’ of the Species Etrumeus micropus. Wasei kanji no jiten gives the kokuji , that is not attested in the other Japanese dictionaries. For the lemma urumeiwashi, Kōjien, Kenkyūsha 74 and Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten introduce the compound 潤目鰯 runmuruo, of common use in Chinese. The lemma is not attested in Kenkyūsha 74. �Forty-nine are names of fishes: 魸・ ・鯰 namazu ‘Japanese catfish’; 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’; 鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’; 鯲 dojō ‘Japanese loach’; 鮱 bora ‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’; isaza ‘Biwa goby’; konoshiro ‘Japanese gizzard shad’; 鯎 ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphinfish’; 魞 eri ‘Japanese lizardfish’; anago ‘Japanese variety of conger of the Species Conger japonicus’; ayu ‘Japanese sweetfish’; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’; hamo ‘Japanese barracuda’; 鰰・鱩 hatahata ‘Japanese sandfish’; 鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’; 鮃 hirame ‘Japanese halibut’; ・鯔 ina ‘Japanese amberjack’; kamasu ‘Japanese saury’; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’; ・ inada ‘Japanese amberjack’; 鮖 kajika ‘Japanese sculpin’; ・鮙 karei ‘Japanese plaice’; 鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’; kawagisu ‘Japanese gudgeon’; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’; ・鯉 koi ‘Japanese carp’; masu ‘Masu salmon’; 鮴 mebaru ‘Japanese rockfish’; 鰘 muroaji ‘Japanese horse mackerel’; mutsu ‘Japanese blue fish’; 鮄 saba ‘Chub mackerel’; 魝・ ・ saku ‘Chum salmon’; ‘Japanese variety of great white shark’; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’; ugui ‘Big-scaled redfin’; same tai ‘Red seabream’; 鯎 urumeiwashi ‘Sardine variety of the Species Etrumeus micropus’. Three of marine mammals: 魹 azarashi ‘Japanese hair seal’, whale’. One of crustaceans: 鰕 ebi ‘Japanese lobster’. kujira ‘Japanese whale’, 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer �One of molluscs: asari ‘Japanese little-neck clam’. Two of roe: 鯑 kazunoko ‘Herring roe’, karasumi ‘Mullet roe’. Two are varieties of “Unidentified variety of Japanese marine fauna”: 鯐 subashiri, 鰚 haraka. ***** Therefore, we have in total fifty-eight kokuji of which thirteen are still in use today. From the series of forty-nine kokuji related to the fishes’ names, there are the following ten: 鰯 iwashi ‘Japanese sardine’; 鱈 tara ‘Japanese variety of cod’; 鯒 kochi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鮲 mate ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Platycephalus indicus’; 鱰 shiira ‘Japanese dolphinfish’; gigi ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Pelteobagrus nudiceps’; 鰙 haya ‘Japanese variety of marine flora of the Species Leuciscus macropus’; hokke ‘Japanese mackerel’; 鰹 katsuo ‘Japanese Skipjack tuna’; 鱚 kisu ‘Japanise whiting’; 魴 tai ‘Japanese mirror dory’. Of the three kokuji relating to the names of mammals, the only one still in use is 鯱 shachi ‘Japanese variety of killer whale’. Of the two names of unidentified marine species remains in use only 鰚 haraka that in the Japanese dictionaries used is reported exclusively as “fish” (魚). ***** �Summing up, we can deduce the following situation. Many kokuji, and they were the majority, or thirty-three, fall into disuse. They could be introduced when Japanese were not even aware of the existence of corresponding kanji (or kanji compounds). Once it was found to have in the Chinese vocabulary, they were abandoned in favor of the latter. This is the longer list: xuezu; asari → 浅蜊 ZH dian li; anago → 穴子 ZH ayu → 鮎 ZH nian; 魹 azarashi → 海豹 ZH hai pao; 鯲 dojō → 鰌 ZH qiu・泥鰌 ZH niqiu; 鰕 ebi → 海老 ZH hailao; 魞 eri → 鱠 ZH kuai; 鱧 ZH li; 鮃 hirame → 平目 ZH pingmu・比目魚 ZH pimuyu; isaza → 鯋 ZH sha; 鮖 kajika → 鰍 ZH qiu; karei → 鰈 ZH die; 鯨 ZH jing; shisao; konoshiro → 鰶 ZH ji; karei・鮙 kujira → masu → 鱒 ZH zun; 鮴 mebaru → 眼張 ZH yanzhang; 鰘 muroaji → 室鯵 ZH mutsu → 鯥 ZH lu; 鮄 saba → 鯖 ZH qing; 魝・ ・ 鮫 ZH chao; 鯐 subashiri → 州走 ZH chouzou; shipayu; inada → 鰍 ZH qiu・鰤 ZH shi; kamasu → 魣・梭魚 ZH suoyu; kawagisu → 川鱚 ZH zhuanxi; 鮗・ hamo → saku → 鮭 ZH nian; same → tai → 鯛 ZH tiao; 鯎 ugui → 石斑魚 ZH urumeiwashi → 潤目鰯 ZH junmuruo. A number of kokuji, to be precise eight, falls into disuse, because they had to prevail on them other kokuji. Indeed, we have found that some nouns had been created with more kokuji, who apparently had been introduced as “neologisms” created in different locations or by different “authors”; it was the case for the following: for the lemma bora (‘Japanese flathead grey mullet’), they had been introduced two kokuji 鮱・鯔, the latter prevailed on the first one; the same phenomenon was found for the lemma hatahata (‘Japanese sandfish’), where among the two kokuji created, 鰰・鱩 prevailed the second one. For the lemmas koi, ina and namazu, for which they had come into use even three kokuji, 鮘 koi・ koi・鯉 koi; ina・ ina・鯔 ina; 魸 namazu・ namazu・鯰 namazu, prevailed respectively 鯉 koi, 鯔 ina e 鯰 namazu. They were probably kokuji adopted to designate an identical variety or fish species maybe in different regions and then replaced by those of more frequent or widespread use that consolidated the coding. Finally, a series of seven kokuji was replaced, as we have already seen, or by one or more kanji or by transcriptions in kana only: anago → あなご・穴子 ZH xuezu; inada → いなだ; �masu → 鱒 ZH zun・ます; hatahata, hokke → ほっけ; mutsu → 鯥・石鮅魚・むつ, 鰰 hatahata → はたはた・鱩 karasumi → からすみ. ***** So from the analysis of a small group of kokuji emerges already the complexity of the phenomenon that is behind the characters created in Japan. Definitely a phenomenon rarely studied in Japan itself, where it tends to talk only of kanji and kana and to limit the notion of kokuji mostly to the “Japanese” writing in general59. In truth, that of kokuji, as complex of characters come into use in Japan, is a phenomenon that follows the entire course of the Japanese language and writing and should therefore be put in an historical context through a precisely record of the occurrences of each characters in the texts that have remained and their frequency at least in the literary use. The study should also be thorough about the possible “geographical” pertinences of each attributions of the names, as already reported in the notes for some kokuji or their transcriptions in kana. They are examples: hokke → ほっけ ascribed to the area of Fukushima; Shiga; 鰰 hatahata → attributed to Akita and masu → ます e mutsu → むつ ascribed to the area of karasumi → からすみ to Ōshū. The sampling shown authorize us to conjecture that the phenomenon has manifested itself already at the beginning of the adoption of the Chinese writing. It can explain how many characters of local creation prove then superfluous to the finding of Chinese counterparts already in use and then become obsolete. It may be also interesting to note that of all the above mentioned kokuji, it seems that the Chinese used just the following eight entered and remained in current use: 魞 eri → ZH kuai; 鮃 hirame → ZH ping; 鰯 iwashi → ZH ruo; 鰹 katsuo → ZH jian; 鱚 kisu → ZH xi; 鯒 kochi → ZH yong; 魴 tai → ZH fang; 鱈 tara → ZH xue. 59 Satō Kiyoji (ed. by), Kokugaku kenkyū jiten, Tōkyō, Meiji shoten, 1972, p. 77 �References Borriello Giovanni, “The Historical Development of the kokuji 国字 Phenomenon in Japan”, Susret Kultura 6, Međunarodni interdisciplinarni simpozijum Susret kultiura, II, Filozofski fakultet, Novi Sad, 2013, I, pp. 507-512. http://digitalna.ff.uns.ac.rs/sadrzaj/2013/978-86-6065-0407121; Borriello Giovanni, “I kokuji della fauna volatile”, in Mastrangelo Matilde, Maurizi Andrea (ed. by), I dieci colodi dell’eleganza. Saggi in onore di Maria Teresa Orsi, Roma, Aracne, 2013, pp. 69-83; Commons Anne, “The development of kokuji (‘Chinese’ characters coined in Japan)”, in Fifth Annual Graduate Student Conference on East Asia, Columbia University, 1996. Giles Herbert (ed. by), A Chinese-English Dictionary, Shanghai, Kelly & Welsh, 1892, (Giles); Haig John H. (ed. by), The New Nelson. Japanese-English Characters Dictionary, Rutland, Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1997, (Nelson); Hirayama Teruo (ed. by), Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten = Dictionary of Japanese Dialects, Tōkyō, Meiji shoin, 1992-94, (Gendai Nihongo Hōgen Daijiten); Instituts Ricci (ed. by), Grand Dictionnaire Ricci de la Langue Chinoise, Paris-Taipei, Desclée de Brouwer, 2001, (Ricci); Itani Zen’ichi (ed. by), Arai Hakuseki, “Dōbun tsūkō”, Arai Hakuseki shū, Tōkyō, Seibundō shinkōsha, 1936, (Dōbun tsūkō); Iwasaki Tomihei, Kawamura Jujirō (ed. by), Kenkyūsha New Japanese-English Dictionary, Tōkyō, Kenkyūsha, 1932, (Kenkyūsha 32); Iwasaki Tomihei, Kawamura Jujirō (ed. by), Kenkyūsha New Japanese-English Dictionary, Tōkyō, Kenkyūsha, 1974, (Kenkyūsha 74); Mathews Robert Henry (ed. by), Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary, Shanghai, China Inland Mission and Presbyterian Mission Press, 1931, (Mathews); Morohashi Tetsuji (ed. by), Dai kanwa jiten, Tōkyō, Taishūkan shoten, 1955, (Morohashi); Shinmura Izuru (ed. by), Kōjien, Tōkyō, Iwanami shoten, 1991 (Kōjien); Oga Tetsuo (ed. by), Dai nihon hyakka jiten = Enciclopedia Japonica, Tōkyō, Shōgakukan, 1967- , (Japonica); Ōhara Nozomu (ed. by), Wasei kanji no jiten, http://homepage2.nifty.com/TAB01645/ohara/index.htm, 2000 (Wasei kanji no jiten); Satō Kiyoji (ed. by), Ban Naokata, “Kokujikō”, Kokugogaku kenkyū jiten, Tōkyō, Meiji shoin, 1977, (Kokujikō); �Wu Guanghua (ed. by), Han ying da cidian, Shanghai, Shanghai jiao, 1996, (Han Ying Da Cidian). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2910 Title A name given to the resource KOKUJI (国字): THE JAPANESE “NATIONAL CHARACTERS”. A CASE STUDY: THE JAPANESE ACQUATIC FAUNA Author Author Borriello, Giovanni Abstract A summary of the resource. The great influence that the Chinese writing system has had on the Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese writing systems is widely demonstrated. Nevertheless, besides the use of the characters directly imported from China, these cultures have had the necessity to create “national characters” to satisfy the needs of their own languages. This paper, that analyzes this phenomenon in the Japanese environment, begins with an analysis of the reasons that have pushed the Japanese “to create” own characters and the reasons why at a certain moment such “creation” has been suspended. In the second part of the paper samples of kokuji will be presented that can be circumscribed to those with radicals 魚・鳥・木・草 and that result to be surely the most numerous and related to species of flora and fauna japonica. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/01ace9687a0691cbd7cbc5622660ad83.pdf c7ab497501bdd8c7fe3063e90354f2e9 PDF Text Text POGLED NA STILSKE FIGURE PRIPOVIJETKE MRAK NA SVIJETLIM STAZAMA IVANA GORANA KOVAČIĆA Ana Tereza Barišić University of Zagreb, Croatia Article History: Submitted: 03.05.2015 Accepted: 01.06.2015 Abstract The aim of this paper is to explore the stylistic authenticity of Dark on the Lit Paths, a short story written by Ivan Goran Kovačić, within the context of theory of stylistic devices. The short story abounds in expressive lyrical descriptions which portray characters and events from the author’s own homeland who, sympathising with the minor, ordinary, suppressed members of society emphasizes an idyllic harmony between Jačica Šafran, a peasant and nature, at the same time warning against poverty, envy and inhuman relationships among people. The paper presents an analysis of stylistic devices which, like skillfully interwoven threads in the plot of this short story, in presentation of characters and in problems presented in this work, are extremely important for the poetic segment of the author’s work of fiction. Gérard Genette (1985; 52) claims that a stylistic device is space which has its own form, space “between a sign and sense”, “inner space of language”, and that there are as many stylistic devices as there are forms of this space that can be identified. Therefore, the paper aims to present a review of figures of diction, figures of speech based on sentence structure, tropes and figures of thought, using the concrete examples from the short story in order to show the characterisation of the figurative features of Kovačić’s text, such as its picturesque features or expressive syntax. Figures of literary discourse have been exempt from this paper. Analysing the short story through various examples of anaphora, epiphora, onomatopoeia, epithets, inversion, similes, metaphors, antithesis, gradation, hyperbole, irony, personification and many other stylistic devices, the author wishes to present, determine or dispute the recent claims by numerous critics who do agree about one thing – that Kovačić's fiction is original �both in its structure and expression. She also wishes to emphasize a wide range of meaning and engagement of the writer's discourse. Key words: Ivan Goran Kovačić, Dark on the Lit Paths, figures of diction, figures of speech, figures of speech based on sentence structure, figures of thought. �1. Uvodne napomene Autorica će se u svom radu pozabaviti stilskom originalnošću pripovijetke Mrak na svijetlim stazama Ivana Gorana Kovačića, pisca koji kroz lirske opise prikazuje likove i događaje iz vlastitog zavičaja, suosjećajući s običnim ljudima, naglašavajući idiličan sklad između seljaka Jačice Šafrana i prirode, upozoravajući na siromaštvo, zavist i međuljudske odnose, a istovremeno priklanjajući se strani slabijih i potlačenijih pripadnika društva. Tekst njegove pripovijetke obiluje stilskim figurama koje su vješto upletene u fabulu ove priče, karakterizaciju likova i kao takve pridonose poetizaciji njegova proznog uratka. Cilj rada je prikazati ih i pokazati istinitost tvrdnje da je Kovačićeva proza originalna po svojoj strukturi i izrazu. Jezik književnoga djela obogaćuje standardni jezik na dva načina: svojim pamćenjem i svojom kreativnošću (Benčić i Fališevac 1995). U radu se analiziraju figure dikcije1, figure konstrukcije2, figure riječi3 i figure misli4. 2. Figure misli Budući da je Kovačić naslovom djela dao naslutiti da se u njemu radi o kontrastu, razumno je započeti analizu antitezom. Antiteza se sastoji u tom, da se po dva suprotna pojma ili misli jedno drugomu naprotiv stavljaju (Zima 1988). Ovaj pripovjedni korpus odiše suprotnošćui kroz prikaz glavnih likova što je uočljivo u njihovim imenima, Jačica Šafran i Franina Brdar. Da se pretpostaviti da je vlastita imenica Jačica izvedena od deminutivnog pridjeva jak (jak + ica = jačica), a da njegova karakterizacija dobije puniji izgled,autor imenu dodaje prezime Šafran (cvijet) i time determinira i izrazitu senzibilnost samog lika što se iščitavanjem redaka i potkrepljuje. Tradicionalna onomastička teorija promatra vlastita imena kao jezične znakove koji identificiraju objekte imenovanja (Brozović Rončević i Žic Fuchs 2005). Jačica5 je neshvaćen pa njegovu pojavu i sam svećenik metaforizira svojim komentarom „Grešna duša“. Da je njegova misija bezuvjetno poslužiti svakomu tko traži od njega pomoć i požrtvovno prionuti poslu, iščitava se iz teksta „Ali Jačica nije već trideset godina dolazio u selo o Martinju – jer su njegovu čuvarinu polizali kroz godinu volovi s dlana, pozobale ptice u šumama i raznijeli sijači vjetrovi što je ovima preteklo…“ što je opet u suprotnosti s njegovom sitnom građom vidljivom iz vanjske karakterizacije. „Malena tijela (…) sličio je grmičku koji se podigao iz čučnja i gegavo popošao“. Jačica je, dakle, po svemu suprotan Franini Brdaru, paralelnom glavnom liku ove pripovijetke čije se ime može izvesti iz �vlastite imenice Fran. Njegovo je prezime Brdar, najvjerojatnije složeno i postalo od imenice brdo. Jačica i Franina suprotni su likovi i u načinu izražavanja. Dok se Jačica,u svojim vrlo kratkim iskazima, služi mnoštvom umanjenica koji naročito odgovaraju govorniku koji govori pod utjecajem emocija (Aristotel 1989) te raznim deminutivima što je vidljivo iz navedenim primjera „Golubo, Golubičice moja, žalosnice…/Milosnice, i opet će Jačica ljubiti teoce u čelo, u gubičicu“, Franina je odrješit i nemaštovit u svojim iskazima, pomalo drzak i grub kao pravi ugljenar: „Hej, Jače, ljudino čobanska…što ruješ po tom blatu…ti si, junačino, utovio krda njihova!“ Kao dio stilske komponiranosti ove pripovijetke je i uporaba ironije, suprotnosti od onoga što želimo da se shvati (Škreb 1983) ili figure koja se dakle sastoji u tom, da govornik bira onaki izraz, kojim jedno kaže, a drugo, tomu protivno, misli i hoće (Zima 1988). Ironija je uočljiva u ovoj rečenici: „Dočuo za nj i velečasni, pa se duhovnik snebio što jedan od stada njegova ne dolazi u crkvu, ne ide, kao ostali pričesnici, da (…) umilostivi Boga slušajući riječ njegovu s prodikaonice“ u kojoj se naglašava dužnost svećenika, posrednika Božje riječi, da vrati na put posrnulu ovčicu iako je ona sa svim svojim karakteristikama daleko od toga. Ironičan je i zajedljivo sarkastičan način na koji se suseljani odužuju i zahvaljuju Jačici za tridesetogodišnju pastirsku službu „Kad je onemoćao (…) dogovori se selo da mu nađe zamjenika (…) razložili mu svoje stajalište – pružili mu nekoliko polovnika kukuruze i uputili ga da se nastani u ruševnoj samotnoj kućici s vrtom, daleko od sela, povrh općinske ceste (…) Od svoje ušteđevine ćeš lako otrgnuti“. Ovakvim stilom pisanja autor je potvrdio da je ironija izraz koji potiče iz osećanja genijalne nadmoći koje vodi duhovitom poigravanju s ljudima i odnosima. Ironijom se postižu najsnažniji efekti ukoliko je razumljiva svima sem onome kome je upućena. U tom slučaju njegov položaj postaje komičan (Živković 1986). Slikovitost pjesnikova izraza uočljiva je u predočavanju Franine čitatelju koji je najavljen osobitim prizorom u kojem je vidljivo personificiranje prirodnog fenomena u kojem njegovu veličinu i snagu predočuje uvećanicom imenice oblak ne bi li naglasio njegovu osobnost od koje, eminentno je kroz tekst, svi bježe kao od zatamnjenog neba očekujući neizbježnu elementarnu nepogodu. „Ali jedno jutro polegla grdna oblačina iznad sunčane kolibice…“ S druge pak strane ne bi li nam lakše i intenzivnije predočio povezanost pejzaža i Jačice te Jačičinu senzibilnost i veliku privrženost samoj prirodi i njezinoj ljepoti, kao i prirodne čari, autor koristi personifikaciju, najčešće shvaćenu kao osobitu metaforu, u kojoj se �stvarima, prirodnim pojavama, apstraktnim pojmovima, životinjama ili biljkama pridaju ljudske osobine (Solar 2006). „Raspjevale se ptičice po šumama, dolepršali oblačići kao bijeli anđeli i porosili pšenicu, osvježili livadu u boku nad kućom…“. Da je priroda oživljena u punom mahu, da se poigrava s njezinim stanovnicima, vidimo iz sljedećih primjera koji pridonose lirskim opisima Kovačićeva djela. „Poljubilo toplo sunce sočne klice i izvuklo za vrat iz zemlje zelene klasove i zlatnim šibama istjeralo kukuruzne stabljike iz tame, da ne ljenčare“. Personifikacijom pokazuje i susret Jačice i prvih sazrelih kukuruza „Odgurnuo jedno jutro lišće na klipu, a ovaj se nasmijao prpošno Jačici u brk bijelim, mliječnim zubićima…“ u kojima se nazire toplina odnosa između dva nevina bića. Kovačić nam vješto prikazuje i duševna stanja lika kroz rečenice u kojima je vidljiva ta stilska figura ne bi li nam zornije prikazao jačinu strepnji koje je Jačica osjećao. „Bijelio se papir pred njim (…) i ledenio mu srce…“ U konačnici, iz načina prikazivanja Jačice zaključujemo da je toliko stopljen s okolinom i postao njezinim suživljenim dijelom da je potpuno prirodno pročitati „…dopodne je kosio travu na livadi, a na njivici oponašali ga vjetrom zanjihani kukuruzi, koji su u ritmu s njime (…) mahali zelenim kosama, i o bokovima ljuljali im se klipovi…“ i složiti se da je autorova vještina predočavanja zaljubljenosti u vlastiti zavičaj trajna inspiracija za retke poput ovih u kojima je uočljiva njegova originalnost. Ne bi li naglasio određeni emocionalni stav prema predmetima ili pojavama te tako istaknuo vlastiti odnos govornika prema onome što želi reći, Kovačić se služi hiperbolom, pretjerivanjem koje postaje, kad se što s tom namjerom, da jače u oči pada, preko mjere umoljava ili uveličava (Zima 1988). Hiperbola, koju je Bagić(2012) opisao u svom radu kao mikrostrukturu pojačavanja koja osjećanja i zbivanja prikazuje u ekstremnom stupnju jačine, a predmete idealizira u pozitivnom ili demonizira u negativnom smislu vidljiva je u ovim primjerima „Iz njegovih su ruku (…) lizali sonajpakosniji bodači volovi; na njegov poziv pristupale bi mu najupornije junice, i najjogunastijiteoci…/Naš govedar tuli najljepše i najjače!/…gdje se popeo na najvišu bukvu i do noći promatrao s visoka daljine…“ gdje je ona izrečena superlativima navedenih pridjeva ne bi li ih dodatno istaknula izazivajući u čitatelja gdjegdje čuđenje gdjegdje divljenje. 3. Figure riječi Izražavanje metaforom koju je Zima (1988) definirao kao izraz prenesen od pravoga u nepravo značenje radi živoga prikazivanja jedan je od češćih6 oblika stilskog oblikovanja �diskursne slikovitosti Kovačićeve pripovijetke, a to dokazuju i primjeri poput „…sličio je grmičku (…) koji je gdjegdje bjelkasto procvjetao“gdje autor prikazuje zapravo starca Jačicu i njegove pozne godine. Kovačić svoju spoznaju svijeta i života povezuje s osjećajima koje je utkao u starčev lik i predočuje ju kao savršenstvo koje je moglo nastati samo posredstvom Boga„Činilo mu se kao da srče suze s njegovih očiju…/Pomoći će vam kišica (…) da se pozlatite…“S druge pak strane, prepoznatljiva je i određena odbojnost prema Jačičinom susjedu koja progovara iz svake njegove riječi pa je uočljiva i određena razlika u opisivanju tog antijunaka kojega se Jačica pomalo plašio„Ali jedno jutro (…) grdna oblačina (…) zamuti oči Jačičine, smrknu mu vedro čelo…/...grmio svojim dubokim, teškim glasom…/A i djevojke bi se raspršile pred njime“ Kovačićeva averzija prema ljudima na položaju i neodobravanje njihovih manipulacija nad siromašnima i bijednima još jednom dolazi do izražaja kroz metaforičnost sljedećeg primjera „S oproštenjem rečeno, malo mu se vrti već od djetinjstva…“ gdje je kroz izraz vrti mu se od djetinjstva naglašeno susjedsko nepoštivanje Jačice za sve one godine njegove službe. Kako je poredba posve jednostavna u svom jezičnom obliku, prozirna u svojoj jednoličnosti i kako se broji u najraširenije i najomiljenije mikrostrukture pojačavanja afektivnosti izražaja (Škreb 1983) nije neobično što je baš u ovoj pripovijetki autor izrazio svoje misli upravo kroznju i time pridonio slikovitosti. Naime, poredba ili poređenje je jezično izražajno sredstvo kojim se neko svojstvo, stanje ili djelovanje i slično objašnjava, čini bližim, stilistički ističe, afektivno pojačava dovođenjem u vezu, povezivanjem s nekim drugim, čitaocu poznatijim svojstvom… (Živković 1986). Zanimljiv je primjer poredbe u kojem svećenik opisuje Jačicu „…grub kao gorska trava i nijem kao zvijer….“ gdje je starčeva priroda poistovjećena s najgoropadnijim zvijerima čime se aludira i na starčevu nepristupačnost i tvrdoću u razgovoru s ljudima. Jačičina odvojenost od pastirske službe koja mu je teško pala, opisana je ovako: „Iz početka je ustajao u predjutarje (dok su zvijezde, poput cvjetova, blijedeći venule na nebu)…“ kao i njegova briga za Golubom „…i poniknu pred njom skrušeno kao pokajnik“. Opisi prirode i njezinih ljepota zbog poredbe naročito dolaze do izražaja i time ublažavaju ili pojačavaju osnovni ton, raspoloženje koje izaziva neka pojava (Živković 1986). Tako u primjeru „…dolepršali oblačići bijeli kao anđeli…“ uočavamo svu ljepotu bjeline �neba. U ovim oslikanim primjerima „…a kukuruzi stali na noge kao vitezovi/ i o bokovima ljuljali im se klipovi kao golemi vodiri…/…Jačica je sjedio pod borovima, na kojima su visjeli šešerikao nakiti…“ istaknuta je afektivna snaga autorovih riječi i misli predočenih na bjeline papira kao skladna harmonija. I u opisu Franine Brdara, njegova načina izražavanja i ponašanja prema drugima prožima se poredba i time se ukazuje na određeni poseban aspekt promatranja lika i svega što se uz njega veže. Iz primjera „Prozvali ga Oblačina, jer bijaše uvijek namrštena lica i neprestano s kletvom, kao s gromom, na ustima…“ saznajemo opravdanje za iznenadna djevojačka bježanja pred njim „…i djevojke bi se raspršile pred njime kao golubice…“, razlog njegovog grubog nastupa prema svima „…udari lopovske gazde po tikvi i pokolji im stado kao vuk…“ kao i način odnošenja prema iskorištavanom starcu „…tom starom strvinom ti začepiše gubicu, tom kravetinom mrhavom, umjesto da im kao ljudina rečeš…“ Tako je i Franinova snaga jasno prikazana ovom poredbom „…udarci sjekire odjekuju u sobici kao u mrtvačkom sanduku.“ Da bi dao posebnu notu naoko običnim riječima i ukrasio tekst, autor ga kiti ukrasnim pridjevima koji upozoravaju na neka posebna svojstva i određene odnose među riječima…(Solar 2006), tj. ukrašava ih epitetima, a pod tim pojmom Zima (1988) podrazumijeva svaki dodatak, koji s onom riječju, kojoj se dodaje, čini jedan ukupni pojam. Evo primjera: „riječi pogrdne/ žalosnice stara / kravetina mrhava / ljudina čobanska / svjetina bućoglava / srčetinasmrdljiva/ gnusna riječ / najpakosniji bodači / malena tijela / okrugle mahovinaste brade / zveketljiv prasak / ohladnjele jagode / grešna duša / bezuba kravica / ruševna samotna kućica / grčeviti jecaji / snažni vrat / jutarnja rosa / malo kovrčasto tele / slinasta njuškica / turobne, paćeničke oči / krhka starost / meke travčice / zarašteni vrtić / toplo sunce / zlatne šibe / zelene sablje / sunčani poljupci / grdna oblačina / mračni vojnici / isukani mačevi“. Iščitavajući tako tekst, pojedini epiteti u čitatelja izazivaju posebne utiske dok su drugi navedeni radi izazivanja emocionalne napetosti. 4. Figure dikcije Ne bi li postigao intenzivniji jezični izraz, Kovačić u svom pisanju koristi mikrostrukture ponavljanja. Anafora je ponavljanje iste riječi odnosno grupe riječi na početku više stihova ili strofa u poeziji, odnosno više rečenica ili rečeničnih dijelova u prozi (Živković 1986) koja je izražena već u početnoj rečenici pripovijetke „…bez drenovače u šaci, bez roga u ustima, bez riječi pogrdne…“te i u rečenici koja opisujeJačičinu kravicu i njezinu �svakodnevnicu: „Tako je glasno, tako je veselo žvakala dobra, bezuba kravica tvrdu gorsku travu…“ kao i u dijelu teksta Franina posprdna obraćanja na sramotnu i necijenjenu Jačičinu tridesetogodišnju pastirsku službu od koje se nije obogatio, a kamoli zbrinuo „Ti natravio bikove u koševinama, ti si, junačino,utovio krda njihova!/…tom starom strvinom ti začepiše gubicu, tom kravetinom mrhavom…/…Nećeš, vojsko, nećeš, narode…“ Ponavljanje se uočava u izražavanju njegova straha zbog nadolazećeg gubitka Golube „Svaki bi čas trčkarao u štalu i uvjeravao se da li je zasun dobro prebačen, da li Goluba u polutami zvekeće…“ te u završnom dijelu teksta gdje po prvi puta grubijan Franina pokazuje svoju suprotnost7, suosjećanje i brigu za Jačičino duševno stanje nakon odvođenja Jačičine kravice, njegova blaga „Kad je stigao pred kuću, priđe mu Franina blizu i stavi ruku na pleće: - Odveli su ti, Jače, kravu… Odveli su ti kravicu…“. Ovi primjeri obogaćuju smislenost rečenog u pripovijetki i izazivaju posebne emocionalne dojmove u srcima čitatelja koji mogu prodrijeti u razmišljanja i osjećanja likova. Jedina rečenica s izraženom epiforom, koju je Solar (2006) definirao kao pjesničku figuru iz skupine glasovnih figura, odnosno zvučnu figuru ili figuru dikcije, koja nastaje ponavljanjem riječi na kraju… je ona u kojoj Franina izražava nezadovoljstvo zbog ranjavanja svoje noge „…evo,nožurinu sam prebio, ali ne za drugoga, ali ne za drugoga!“ U svojim lirskim opisima autor često upućuje na idilu, skladnost između seljaka i prirode kako smo već ranije analizirali pa nije ništa neobično da će se u svom uratku poslužiti i onomatopejom koja je definirana (Bagić 2012) kao poseban tip ponavljanja odnosno glasovnog podudaranja. Ona uz ponavljanje pretpostavlja i oponašanje zvukova iz prirode, pa se jezični elementi kojima se takvo oponašanje predočuje katkada nazivaju imitativima. Ta je stilska figura prepoznatljiva u dijelu teksta gdje je neka mještanka, provocirajući Jačicu Šafrana i njegovu izolaciju od suseljana, izazvala smijeh i ludorije za vrijeme večere. „Prosuo se zveketljivprasak tanjura.“Onomatopejom je prikazan zvuk plača „…objesio se o vrat Jakanuzagušujući na dlaci grčevite jecaje…/…grčevito zaplače…“, način smijanja „…a ovaj se nasmijao prpošno…/…grohotali se Jačičini vršnjaci…“, cvokotanje zubi „…drugi drvosječe cvokotali zubima…“, zvuk šapata „…sipio je njegov šapat…“, zvuk zveckanja „…su sitno zveckale kolajne…/…zvekeće lančićem na koritu“. Dakle, autor je upotrebom tih određenih glasovnih skupina u čitatelja htio izazvati određene osjetilne podražaje. 5. Figure konstrukcije �Anadiploza pojašnjena kao jedna ili više rieči, koje na kraju jedne izreke stoje, ponavljaju se u početku druge izreke (Zima 1988)i koja se shvaća kao govornička ili pjesnička figura (fonetička), figura ponavljanja riječi ili izraza (…) čijim se ponavljanjem pojačava izražajnost riječi ili izreke (Simeon 1969) prepoznatljiva je u pretposljednjem dijelu pripovijetke „Plati vojnicu! Vojnicu plati!“ kada su gospoda došla pokupiti Jačičin dug jer u mladosti, kako doznajemo, nije izvršio svoju domovinsku dužnost. Autor ukazuje na ljudsku grubost prema onima koji zbog određenog razloga nisu bili ukalupljeni u društvo toga doba. Da bi jednostavnije prikazao uzbuđeno duhovno stanje Jačice Šafrana i snažnu emocionalnost, autor je posegnuo za inverzijom (Živković 1986), tj. obrtanjem uobičajenoga reda rečenice ili reči ne bi li istaknuo onu rečenicu ili riječ koju želi posebno naglasiti pri tome pazeći ne bi li izazvao određen učinak i na čitatelja. Kroz primjere „bez riječi pogrdne/ napokon se velečasni odluči i uz pomoć crkvarovu popne se/ Golubičice moja, žalosnice stara/ on bi se svaki put trgnuo kao knutom udaren, zamrmoljivši glasnije / sjede mrko na prag“ je jasno da nisu napisani na navedeni način, ne bi izazvali takvu ekspresiju. 6. Zaključak Analizom pripovijetke Mrak na svijetlim stazama Ivana Gorana Kovačića proničemo u neizmjerno lijep i individualiziran svijet prepun stilski ukrašenih rečenica, lirskih opisa, predodžbi kao i problematiku svijeta i ljudskih odnosa. U tome nam uvelike pomažu karakteristike Kovačićeva teksta iskazane brojnim stilskim figurama, od onih koji pridonose slikovitosti njegova izraza do onih koje njegove misli i razmišljanja čine izraženijima. Svoju povezanost za zavičajem i ljudima s kojima je odrastao najbolje je iskazao upotrebom metafora, personifikacija i slikovitih poredbi i epiteta pomoću kojih je načinio ponajljepše lirske opise. Kroz uočljiv naslov, odnose među likovima otkrio nam je šaroliku lepezu trzavica, suprotnosti i rastrganosti koje mogu nastati posredstvom ljudskih nastojanja u svim oblicima komunikacije pa tako pročitavši djelo zaključujemo da je mrak na svijetlim stazama zapravo zloba suprotstavljena dobroti, grubost suprotstavljena nježnosti, nehumanost suprotstavljena humanosti, neljudi suprotstavljeni čovjeku. Uspješnim stvaranjem izražajnih predodžbi posredstvom inverzija, izazivanjem emocionalne napetosti pomoću hiperbola, gradacija i posebnih utisaka posredstvom onomatopeja, ironije i drugih, Kovačićeva pripovijetka itekako ostavlja traga na svakog čitatelja koji se, htio to ili ne, mora zamisliti pred zadaćom koju nam je zadao sam autor – �angažman na strani slabijih i obespravljenih. No, iza svih tih poruka progovara ona najglasnija – sjeti se odakle si nastao i budi čovjek. Bilješke 1 Anafora, epifora, onomatopeja. 2 Inverzija, anadiploza. 3 Metafora, epitet, poredba. 4 Antiteza, hiperbola, ironija, personifikacija. 5 Jačici su suprotstavljeni svi navedeni likovi bilo da je riječi o fizionomiji (Franina Brdar), razmišljanju (suseljani) ili odnosu prema prirodnim ljepotama i životinjama. Dok Franina nemilosrdno siječe drveće, svima se obraća s nepoštovanjem i grubošću, Jačica brine o svakoj travci, skroman je i sretan s onim što ima, izbjegava kontakte s ljudima. 6 Ni jedna stilska figura nije po opširnosti kao metafora zastupljena u djelu. 7 Prvi je i jedini put Franina Brdar prikazan kao osjećajan čovjek koji razumije tuđu nevolju. Literatura Aristotel,(1989). Retorika, Zagreb: Naprijed. Benčić, Ž. i Fališevac, D. (1995). Tropi i figure, Zagreb: Zavod za znanost o književnosti. Bagić, K. (2012). Rječnik stilskih figura, Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Brozović Rončević, D. i Žic Fuchs, M. (2005). Metafora i metonimija kao poticaj u procesu imenovanja, Foliaonomastica Croatica, 12/13, 96. Kovačić, I.G. (2001). Pripovijetke, Zagreb: Naklada Fran. Simeon, R. (1969). Enciklopedijski rječnik lingvističkih naziva I/II., Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. Solar, M. (2006). Rječnik književnoga nazivlja, Zagreb: Golden marketing-Tehnička knjiga. Škreb, Z. (1983). Mikrostrukture stila i književne forme, u:Uvod u znanost: teorija, metodologija, ur. Z. Škreb i A. Stamać, Zagreb: Rotulus. Zima, L. (1988). Figure u našem narodnom pjesništvu, Zagreb: Globus. Živković, D.(1986). Rečnik književnih termina, Beograd:Nolit. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2905 Title A name given to the resource POGLED NA STILSKE FIGURE PRIPOVIJETKE MRAK NA SVIJETLIM STAZAMA IVANA GORANA KOVAČIĆA Author Author Barišić, Ana Tereza Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to explore the stylistic authenticity of Dark on the Lit Paths, a short story written by Ivan Goran Kovačić, within the context of theory of stylistic devices. The short story abounds in expressive lyrical descriptions which portray characters and events from the author’s own homeland who, sympathising with the minor, ordinary, suppressed members of society emphasizes an idyllic harmony between Jačica Šafran, a peasant and nature, at the same time warning against poverty, envy and inhuman relationships among people. The paper presents an analysis of stylistic devices which, like skillfully interwoven threads in the plot of this short story, in presentation of characters and in problems presented in this work, are extremely important for the poetic segment of the author’s work of fiction. Gérard Genette (1985; 52) claims that a stylistic device is space which has its own form, space “between a sign and sense”, “inner space of language”, and that there are as many stylistic devices as there are forms of this space that can be identified. Therefore, the paper aims to present a review of figures of diction, figures of speech based on sentence structure, tropes and figures of thought, using the concrete examples from the short story in order to show the characterisation of the figurative features of Kovačić’s text, such as its picturesque features or expressive syntax. Figures of literary discourse have been exempt from this paper. Analysing the short story through various examples of anaphora, epiphora, onomatopoeia, epithets, inversion, similes, metaphors, antithesis, gradation, hyperbole, irony, personification and many other stylistic devices, the author wishes to present, determine or dispute the recent claims by numerous critics who do agree about one thing – that Kovačić's fiction is original both in its structure and expression. She also wishes to emphasize a wide range of meaning and engagement of the writer's discourse. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/376bc1d9ff65ca55c4585a5c512b2400.pdf 3334be503ee652a1f9cec9570b6d9c5c PDF Text Text TASK BASED LEARNING: A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS Sema Turan Middle East Technical University Article History: Submitted: 07.06.2015 Accepted: 15.07.2015 Abstract: TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind of activities for each of them. Keywords: task-based learning. �1. TASK-BASED LEARNING (TBL)+ TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching (Thornbury, 2006: 223). It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar, for example, because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001:173). TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves (Willis & Willis, 2007). In other words, as Thornbury (2006) suggests, according to TBL, ‘you learn a language by using it,’ not ‘in order to use it’ (p. 223). 1.1. What is a task? In fact, it is a bit problematic to define task as a term because as Zhao (2011) also states, there is not a complete agreement about what constitutes a task. Willis (1996) defines a task as an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome. In this definition, the outcome is important because although the activity involves the use of language, the focus is on outcome. Language in a communicative task is seen as a tool that brings about an outcome (Seedhouse, 1999). Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy (Ellis, 2003). As Larsen-Freeman (2000) points, tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. 1.2. Background In fact, TBL has originated from Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). It is just a strong version of CLT (Zhao, 2011: 46). Despite the CLT’s focus on communicative competence, there was still a tendency to see the study of language form as prior to language use due to the need in promoting accuracy as well as fluency. In the meantime, Prabhu headed a project in schools in South India, and this project was one of the first experiments with TBL. In this project, learners were presented with a series of problems and solved these through information and opinion gap activities under teacher guidance through the medium of English. Later he argued that a focus on language form inhibited language learning, and language development was the outcome of natural processes (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001). TBL gained official popularity when Jane Willis published A Framework for Task-based Learning in 1996. In the book, she stated that she had been into TBL since the early 1980s not only because she was unhappy and unsatisfied with the traditional PPP method, but also because she was influenced by Prabhu’s procedural syllabus experiment. �1.3. Principles of TBL According to Willis (1996) there are three essential conditions, which are exposure, use, and motivation; and one desirable condition, which is instruction for successful learning. Chowdury (2014) summarizes Willis’ ideas as follows: Exposure involves a comprehension of meaning and the conscious observation of other people’s use of the target language. It is when such features are noticed and processed in the learners’ minds. Through exposure learners get the necessary input. Use is basically concerned with speaking and writing unlike exposure that is mainly associated with reading and listening. Through the use of the target language, learners are pushed to make the expected output. The use of language through tasks prepares learners to make free and meaningful use of the target language. Motivation is needed to process the exposure. It enables learners to benefit from the exposure and use. The TBL framework can be used to motivate learners. For example, students get motivation through success. If they see that they can accomplish the tasks easily, they will be motivated and look for more tasks. Instruction should motivate learners to engage in language use rather than teacher control. Instructed language learning should primarily involve natural language use, based on activities concerned with meaning rather than language. 1.4. Procedure According to Willis (1996), the difference between PPP and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end (p. 52). As the communication task is the central point to the framework, such a procedure is more useful than the PPP cycle. A typical TBL lesson is structured as follows: Pre-Task: Language Focus: Introduction to topic Analysis and Practice and task instructions Exposure- ExposureFocus on Form- Task Cycle: Task > Planning > Report -Use- - -Exposure-Focus on Form- Feedback-Feedback- - �Pre-Task: Introduction to topic and task instructions: This stage provides exposure to teacher talk, but brainstorming useful topic words and phrases is a way of involving students. Task Cycle: At this stage, learners use language in varying circumstances and are exposed to others using it. In the Task Phase, learners can use language interactively and spontaneously in pairs, and mistakes don’t matter. The Planning Phase is when the teacher provides input and advice, so there is some focus on form and feedback. At this stage, learners plan what to say at the report stage by trying to use accurate language. The Report Phase encourages a combination of accuracy and fluency. Language Focus: Analysis and practice: At this stage, learners have a chance to focus on form and ask questions about language features as they get exposure to the language from the task cycle. For example, there can be consciousness-raising activities such as identifying, classifying, and focusing on specific language features. These help learners systematise what they already know while noticing new things about language and the way it is used (Willis, 1996). 1.5. Criticism Proponents of TBL favour the way it combines fluency and accuracy. However, some others criticize TBL due to some factors. One criticism is about the issue of feedback. Some criticize the fact that learners get no correction or feedback during the task phase and argue that the feedback that learners get while on task is more effective than post-task. To overcome this limitation, Thornbury (2006) suggests the use of recasts, which is the teacher’s reformulating learners’ statements in a more target-like way. Some others criticize the fact that there is no focus on form at the pre-task stage although it might be necessary to pre-teach grammar items that might be needed during the task. According to Willis (1996), this is one difference of TBL from PPP. Finally, TBL is criticized for being a influential more at the theoretical and research level than actual classroom practice because it requires a totally different course design and testing procedures. In addition, it presents a management challenge because it is difficult to set up and monitor tasks in large classes. Also, it might be difficult to deal with language problems that emerge spontaneously from the task performance (Thornbury, 2006: 224). 2. RELEVANCE OF TBL TO LEARNING CONTEXTS TBL is applicable in a variety of teaching and learning contexts. According to TBL, learners are free to use any language they can to achieve the outcome. Language forms are not prescribed in advance. Language learners, who are human beings, have an innate capacity to work out the ways of expressing meanings. In real life, people do not simply take note of the new linguistic input and copy or reproduce it. Instead, they put language to use to achieve �purposeful communication. Therefore, they adjust or adapt input to create new meanings (Willis &Willis, in Carter & Nunan, 2001). TBL aims to achieve this through principles that are parallel to SLA principles. This way, learners can be encouraged to create a meaning system in TBL. Thus, the fact that its principles are realistic and naturalistic is the reason why TBL would suit a variety of learning circumstances. In order to overcome what was criticised about TBL as its limitations, teachers need to prioritize their purposes with regards to the facilities they have. That is, they need to determine whether they want to incorporate the communicative element in their classes along with the form and accuracy or they want to continue with the traditional PPP approach. If they prefer the former, then, it is possible to involve tasks to overcome these limitations. For instance, as Larsen-Freeman (2000) suggests, teachers can add information-gap, opinion-gap (reasoning-gap), or problem solving tasks in their courses and overcome limitations regarding the management or course design. The variety that these tasks offer can provide the base for a lot of teaching contexts and. Finally, according to TBL, working with upper-level learners whose needs can be clearly defined, it is possible to offer pedagogic tasks which relate directly to real-world tasks. Also, the idea that language emerges out of the relationship between exposure, use, focus on form and feedback makes a lot of sense. Therefore, TBL is applicable and a better alternative to PPP. �References           Chowdhury, M.Y.U.K. (2014). The Task-Based Learning Framework and Its Implications in Language Learning and Teaching. Journal of Education and Practice. 5(2): 111-117. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Lebeau, I., Rees, G. (2008). Language Leader Pre-Intermediate Course Book. Pearson. UK Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based Learning. Longman. London, UK. Willis, J., Willis, D. Task-based Language Learning. in Carter, R., Nunan, D. (Ed.s) (2001). The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. CUP. Cambridge, UK. Willis, J., Willis, D. (2007) Doing Task-Based Teaching. OUP. Oxford, UK. Seedhouse, P. (1999). Task-Based Interaction. ELT Journal. 53(3): 149-156. Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts. Macmillan. Oxford, UK. Zhao, H. (2011). How Far Do the Theories of Task-Based Learning Succeed in Combining Communicative and from-Focused Approaches to L2 Research. Journal of Cambridge Studies.6(1): 41-56. �APPENDIX: A SAMPLE TBL LESSON Time Stages & Procedure Aims 5 Pre-Task min.s 20 Task min.s Planning 1. T. shows pictures to elicit the topic of the lesson (Festivals). Timing Interaction of the Activity T-Sts Sts-T St-St 5 min. s 2. Sts. talk in pairs about what activities are there at a festival (1 min.). Later, they tell their ideas to T. T. aims to elicit words such as theatre, cinema, poetry, fireworks, dance, comedy, etc. 1. In groups, sts. plan their night 5 min.s out at this festival by expressing their preferences and making a conversation. T. does not provide any help. Sts. do what they can 5 mins. do. Materials  Pictures  Board  Board marker T-Sts Sts-T T-St St-T St-St Sts-Sts 2. In groups, sts. plan what to say Reporting when they come on the stage to 10 report their night out at this min.s festival. Sts. are focused on accuracy. T. is ready to provide input and advice if sts. need. 3. 2-3 groups come on the stage and report what they have planned. They speak out the conversation they got ready. By the way, other sts. provide feedback about the content of their friend’s conversation. They answer questions such as Do you agree? Would you like to attend the same events? etc. 25 Post-Task 1. Sts. listen to a sample min.s conversation and complete the statements in the handout individually (Appendix A). Then, 10 min.s T-Sts Sts-T T-St St-T  Listening Handout s (Appendi �Analysis they compare with their peers. T. hands out the key. Practice 2. T. elicits statements to focus on the form. 3. Sts. do the practice handout in pairs. T. provides the key (Appendix B). 10 min.s 5 min.s St-St Sts-Sts x A)  Practice Handout s (Appendi x B)  Board  Board marker �LESSON APPENDICES Appendix A: Listening Handout A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box. than (x2) rather (x2) prefer keen love fancy I don’t ________________ that. I’d ________________ to go to the classical concert. I’d ________________ see the film. I’m not that ____________ on the concert. I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers ______________the one-man theatre show. 6. I’d ________________ to see the drummers. 7. I’d _______________ see that _______________ a play about Shakespeare. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. B. Which sentences in Exercise A: a. mean you like one thing more than another thing: b. mean you don’t like / prefer something: c. mean you like / prefer something: �KEY: A. Listen and complete the sentences with the words in the box. than (x2) rather (x2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. prefer keen love fancy I don’t fancy that. I’d prefer to go to the classical concert. I’d rather see the film. I’m not that keen on the concert. I’m more interested in the Japanese drummers than the one-man theatre show. I’d love to see the drummers. I’d rather see that than a play about Shakespeare. B. Which sentences in Exercise A: a. mean you like one thing more than another thing: 5, 7 b. mean you don’t like / prefer something: 1, 4 c. mean you like / prefer something: 2, 3, 6 �Tape script: �Text: EDINBURGH FESTIVAL AFTER DINNER EVENTS (8 p.m. – 11 p.m.) CASTLE CLASSICS Great music, great orchestra, great location. Tonight: The world famous National Orchestra perform Beethoven’s Symphony No.3 in the main hall of the wonderful Edinburgh Castle. MOVIES IN THE PARK Enjoy movies from around the world in the festival’s outdoor cinema – the popcorn is free! Tonight: Hum Tum – an Indian film made in the true Bollywood style. This is a romantic comedy filled with great songs and dances LATE NIGHT EVENTS (11 p.m. –2 a.m.) MINI-THEATRE Powerful plays with the smallest of casts. Tonight: Shakespeare – A Writer’s Life. One actor performs the full story of Shakespeare’s life. He acts as Shakespeare, his mother and father, his wife and even his children. You’ll laugh out loud. WORLD BEATS Music and dance from all around the world. Tonight: Japanese Drumming. An incredible performance by 45 drummers that you’ll never forget. Powerful and unique. �Appendix B: Practice Handout � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2964 Title A name given to the resource TASK BASED LEARNING:A COMMUNICATIVE ALTERNATIVE FOR EFL TEACHERS AND LEARNERS Author Author Turan, Sema Abstract A summary of the resource. TBL is an approach that makes the task the basic unit for planning and teaching. It contrasts with approaches that are centred around grammar because it involves the specification not of a sequence of language items, but of a sequence of communicative tasks to be carried out in the target language. TBL aims to engage learners in real language use. This can be done by designing tasks which require learners to use the language for themselves. Tasks hold a central place both in current SLA research and in language pedagogy. Tasks serve to provide learners with a natural context for language use. As learners work to complete a task, they have opportunities to interact, which are thought to facilitate language acquisition. The difference between traditional approaches to teaching English, such as PPP, and TBL is that in TBL, the focus on language form comes at the end as the communication task is the central point to the framework. Therefore, a typical TBL lesson consists of ‘pre-task’, ‘task cycle’ and ‘language focus’ stages. This paper aims to explain the content of the stages, giving English language teachers some ideas about the kind of activities for each of them. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bd1fdf650e82cf35bf8f47c7e63cd4c5.pdf 68db20a42aee3d9ddf9991c6079c3f9a PDF Text Text TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN Utkir Tolipov Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami Tashkent, Uzbekistan Abstract: Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process. This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies. Keywords: Education, student-teacher relation, pedagogical education, Uzbekistan model Introduction: The current stage of development of the world community is characterized by the rapid unfolding of innovative processes, with innovations increasingly acquiring the status of general indicator of cultural development. One of the conditions of a modern progress is represented by the readiness of the public as well as the counciousness of an individual in terms of changes, in all of the spheres of society. In the conditions of modern civilization reforms in the educational system have become a pressing issue in many countries. According to UNESCO, the main reason for this was the need for education of the person with the planetary thinking, with the ability to participate actively in social and cultural process, to change himself and the surrounding reality. It is education as a sphere, most closely associated with the development of the human personality, which is considered to be the most important factor in economic and social development. The key figure here was and will always remain a teacher - a competent person with a broad outlook in the various fields of knowledge, socially mature and with creative personality. Pedagogical education becomes the foundation of the education system as a whole. �In accordance with the position of the new socio-cultural paradigm a personality is seen as an active subject, capable of affecting the social development, creating a spiritual world of science, religion, culture, morality, and setting new directions for social development. In connection with this, education with his primary goal: the development of such qualities and abilities of a person that would allow him or not only to exist comfortably adapting to a rapidly changing social conditions, but also to overcome difficulties related to perception of innovations for creating a qualitatively new social space - begins to play foreground role in social progress. It follows that the development as an alternative to the concept of “teaching” becomes the key concept of the world's educational systems today. Almost all developed countries have already recognized the need to reform their education systems so that the student would truly become an active figure in the educational process and a cognitive activity of students i.e. the process of learning (not the sum of knowledge, as it was until now, and still taking its place now during traditional teaching) would be in the focus of the teachers The educational institution prepares a person to vigorous activities in various fields of economy, culture, and the political life of society. That is why the role of the school as a base level of education is extremely important. Its ability to respond flexibly to the needs of society, while preserving the accumulated positive experience has a great importance too. However, not all school (university) personnel quickly respond to socio-economic changes, scientific and technical progress. Some teachers are still following the conservative paradigm of teaching adopted in the XIX century: the teacher - textbook (read: system of teaching aids) - student. This system focuses on teaching, on the central role of teacher in the pedagogical process. The student acts as the object of this activity. The statements that the learner (student) should be the subject of the process are not implemented in practice adequately. Therefore, it is important to realize the philosophical paradigm of democratic society “person - society – state” in all areas of society and, above all, in the system of education. Modern society of information technology in comparison with the industrial one of mid-late XIX-XX centuries is in much greater degree interested in the fact that its citizens are able to act independently and actively to make decisions and adapt to the changing conditions of life. Respectively, all types of educational institutions must implement the task of preparing graduates, which are able to: • adapt flexibility to changing life situations, apply skillfully and independently acquired knowledge in practice to solve a variety of arising problems in order to have an opportunity to find their place in life; • think critically, being able to see problems arising in the real world; seek and find a rational way to solve them, using modern technology; have a clear awareness of where and how the acquired knowledge can be applied in the surrounding reality; generate new, creative ideas; �• work competently with the information (to be able to collect facts necessary to solve certain problems, analyze them, hypothesize solutions, make the necessary generalizations, comparing with the same or alternative solutions, set static patterns, make reasoned conclusions, apply them to identify and resolve new problems); • be sociable, contact in different social groups, be able to work together in various areas, situations, including conflict ones, preventing the latter or skillfully finding the exit from it; • working independently to develop their own morality, intelligence and cultural level. This is the imperative of our time. Teachers from different schools of Uzbekistan make similar conclusions, and this has already become a constructive solution in the refined requirements of the educational standards of the State, new curricula built on the principle of continuity, textbooks, manuals, and most importantly - in the style of lessons and activities. Note that the new fundamental social order to the education system from the state is really embodied in the Law "On Education" and the National program for personnel training. The most important thing at the moment is to work together in order to implement this public policy. National Program Implementation and Didactic Models: The implementation of the National Program involves the expansion of individual freedom, increasing the responsibility of each person for the determination of his or her own destiny, which in turn causes an increasing burden on the personality. Primarily this concerns teachers. Educational activity requires a constant creative readiness, continuous self-realization, self-development Today, a kind of "core" of the teacher’s personality refers to as his or her professional and notional potential, which defines humanistic orientation of world attitude and outlook, actions and behavior of the teacher, his or her high adaptability, capacity of creative self-realization and spiritual self-development. In this context, we reviewed the following possible didactic model: 1. Communicative model is aimed at the formation and development of important professional and semantic orientations (personal values, philosophy, the meaning of life) as well as the foundations of creativity and sense of competence of the future teachers in the course of live communication of the teacher and students, imbued with mutual understanding. 2. Active-search model of professional development of the individual sense of the teacher focuses on the development of the foundations of its competence by organizing search and semantic activity of students on practical and extracurricular classes in the course of independent educational and research work. �3. Reflective model aimed at creating a professional and meaningful self-student educator, the development of its abilities to professional self-determination and self-development. This model provides an opportunity for the teachers to reflect on themsleves in the face of the natural and social reality, to seek answers to the many vital and relevant professional issues. 4. Simulation model of professional development of the individual sense of the future teacher contributes to the establishment of its foundations focused on the meaning and sense of Retention competence and basic value-oriented and professionally mediated by personality traits. It can be used for these purposes, can be used depending on the situation and role structurally-role-playing games, activates the process of empathy, compassion, personal identification, the main human need growth, development, and self-improvement. All this prompts the student is already present as the subject of training and educational processes to independent, courageous, enterprising, creative and thorough solutions, albeit in the conditional-game, but liberating his developing personality, situation. 5. Activities and practical model has the same target orientation as the previous one, but is carried out by the organization of independent professional sense of activity of students in the teaching practice. 6. Model of professional sense of self-development is designed to provide first and foremost the establishment of the meaning of the creative competence of the future teacher. As-final, she adds, it consolidates the results of the use of all previous models and represents the transition from the development of professionally-semantic potential of students in pedagogical high school to professional-semantic self-development of the teacher in the course of independent professional activity. State educational standards include not only the training of qualified specialists in a particular area, but also the formation of well-educated creative people, which is impossible without extensive knowledge of the fundamentals of science. Fundament of teacher education contributes to the establishment and development of critical thinking and creativity, as well as providing effective integration of the humanities, natural sciences and professional knowledge. Humanization of teacher education should be focused on distribution coating abilities and meet the diverse educational needs of the priority of human values and harmony in the relationship between man and the environment. Means to achieve the formation of personality of teacher education ensures the formation of students' holistic view of the world, high spirituality, culture, and is saturated with the components of an ethical (moral), aesthetic, ecological, economic and legal education, regardless of the profile and specialization areas of teacher education. Continuity means that the output of the previous stage of pedagogical education must be on the �organizational and substantive level "dock" with the release of the next stage, thus ensuring the interconnection and interdependence of all levels of teacher education. The normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher education should be: • Integrated state educational standards, curriculum and programs, providing close inter-subject, interdisciplinary communication; • a systematic approach to determining the content of educational programs; • psycho-pedagogical and methodological coordination of the educational process in educational institutions of different levels of teachers’ education. The universality of education is perhaps the most complete set of disciplines that determine the unity of professional and general cultural aspects of basic training for future teachers. In the process of development and modernization of the content and structure of vocational teacher education are starting the following provisions: • continuity of professional-pedagogical preparation of personality-oriented nature; • priority theory object of professional activity; • unity of theory and practice; • continuity and integration in building theoretical knowledge and practical skills; • technology training solutions for standard and special (creative) professional problems; • training diagnosis studying the state of the pedagogical process and the use of these results in educational work. Conclusion: Through the application of the acquired theoretical knowledge in the future teachers is formed by a technique of translation of the theory in action, that is, the technology consists of professional work and lay the foundation of professional consciousness. The most important aspect of the content of teacher education is to enrich the creative potential of the teacher's personality on the basis of the revival of national spiritual culture, basic knowledge of folk pedagogy in relation to the history and culture of other peoples of our country and all mankind. The set of specific objectives will give a unified character of the process of teacher training through the use of the capabilities of each of the subject, as well as the complex psychological and pedagogical disciplines. Originating in the Republic of Uzbekistan reforming processes are formed, including the teacher, as a result of the consistent implementation of the National Program for the preparation of the sub-frames, which are made in conditions of Uzbekistan's transition to democracy, the rule of law, and the market economy. The essence of these processes boils down to a fundamental optimization of personnel potential of teacher education, raising the prestige of the profession educators, teachers and �researchers, creating a system of continuous pedagogical education in accordance with tendency world education in the context of sustainable development. References: 1. Problem of cognitive-constructive skills development of students in modern conditions: Monograph/reduction. R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent: Sharq. 2012. – 560 p. 2. Conceptual model of studying on the base of development of cognitive-constructive skills of students as the condition of preparation the younger generation to the invocation of the XXI century // Formation of harmoniously educated generation in modern conditions: collection of scientifically methodically articles (second edition). – Tashkent, 2011. – Pp 13-109. 3. Formation abilities of self-expression and self realization of students as the bases qualities of personality – order of time: scientifically-methodically book for teachers and lecturers / R.H.Djurayev. – Tashkent, 2012. – 298 p. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2966 Title A name given to the resource TENDENCIES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE WORLD'S EDUCATIONAL SYSTEMS AND PEDAGOGICAL EDUCATION IN UZBEKISTAN Author Author Tolipov, Utkir Abstract A summary of the resource. Education as an area is most closely associated with the formation of human personality, and therefore is the most important factor of economic and social development. The teacher was and still is the key figure in the education system. Consequently, pedagogical education is seen as the foundation of the education system in general. However, the importance of student-teacher relationship has become a main issue in the post-modern society, emphasizing the role of the student in the learning process. This research paper investigates the most common didactic models for teaching and acquiring knowledge, while proposing the normative and methodological basis for the continuity of organizational stages of teacher’s education. In terms of this, this paper deals with these models by presenting the current situation in the teaching system of Uzbekistan, presenting its methodologies. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da27ca81876f76823cc906d410a9d019.pdf 9bfa56fcdacee00f48eb3f4e75851ae5 PDF Text Text THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTRASTIVE TEXT STUDIES IN TRANSLATOLOGY Lindita Sejdiu-Rugova & Bardh Rugova University of Prishtina Article History: Submitted: 04.06.2015 Accepted: 05.07.2015 Abstract: The paper aims at bringing up a type of text linguistic analysis, different from traditional one, with the emphasis on the contrastive studies in general and on the EnglishAlbanian cross-linguistic phenomena in particular. It will concentrate in explaining some of the most intriguing and most diverse text analysis elements having in mind the following text categories: Point of view, Composition, Text Idioms. A grammatical structure (Relative Constructions) has been examined thoroughly within the translation method analysis, out of and within the co-text analysis. It resulted in two different outcomes: traditional direct method analysis on one side and text linguistic co-text analysis on the other. Text linguistics as a special field of studies has been greatly developed due to the increased number of translations from one language into another. Text analysis, which relies on the deep description of micro and macro text elements of the text, is crucial for determining the level of translation accuracy of a particular text. Having in mind the relevance of recent discourse and pragmatic analyses impact in the development of interdisciplinary studies, the explanation of constituent elements of the written text is of great importance for the contrastive text studies or translation studies respectively. Keywords: text, discourse, paragraph, composition, point of view 1 �1. INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to emphasise the importance of text grammar as a special discipline within Text Linguistic studies and to prove its reliability by comparing the linguistic analysis of one of the segments of grammar in English and Albanian (in our case relative constructions) using the usual contrastive methods of sentence grammars and by taking into consideration some of the aspects of text grammar analysis. Analysing grammatical structures and functions without having taken into account their cotext and context features could be compared to flavourless dishes! Since the flavour you add gives a more inclusive description of text grammar categories, sentences are not analysed isolated and several semantic and pragmatic concepts, very important for the understanding of the text as a piece of coherent writing or a stretch of coherent speech, are viewed differently. 2. TRANSLATION AS A PROCESS AND AS A PRODUCT The theory of translation regards translation as a transformation of one text into another when being translated from a source language into a target one. A great part of this theory has been oriented towards the context studies, by emphasising that the translation process involves translation of one culture into another. Such an attitude and such a viewpoint are very much related to a sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, ethnolinguistic and anthropological text analysis, thus leading it towards a linguistic concept which treats the text as a process, as a discourse. However, another point of view, treating a linguistic unit as a product, is related to text grammar and the concepts of the linguist Theun Van Dijk (1972). It represents the main methodological basis of this paper, too. 3. CO-TEXT VS. CONTEXT The text grammar analysis treats a linguistic unit within a co-text (Werlich, 1983), not context. There is always some text and some co-text that accompanies it. Context, on the other hand, includes more extralinguistic factors in order to give a prompt interpretation of a text (Rugova & Sejdiu-Rugova, 2015; Van Dijk (1972, 1977), De Beaugrande, Dressler 1981, Werlich, 1983). Text Categorization, Point of view, Composition and Text Variety are considered to be the most important categories in analysing the original text and their translations into a target language. Having in mind the fact that transformation from one text into another requires the text analysis of both languages, the above-mentioned text categories will be considered when contrasting the translation of grammatical structures from English into Albanian and vice-versa. 4. TRANSLATION OF RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS FROM ENGLISH INTO ALBANIAN AND VICE-VERSA – A CASE STUDY The so-called Relative clauses in both English and Albanian belong to the group of subordinate clauses with a very specific function: that of a modifier of a noun phrase. However, the most recent CUP comprehensive grammar of the English Language, published in 2002, by Huddleston and Pullum classifies them within the Relative Constructions group, not clauses, due 2 �to the fact that they contain an anaphoric element whose interpretation is determined by an antecedent and together with their antecedent they create a phrase and can be replaced very easily by a phrase. The special anaphoric tie or relation they create with their antecedent classifies their relation with the larger structure containing them into an integrated, supplementary, fused or a cleft relative. (Huddlestone & Pullum at al., 2002: 1033-1095). Huddlestone & Pullum (2002) suggest that the anaphoric element may be overt or covert, and according to them, in the overt case the relative clause is marked by the presence of one of the relative words who, whom, whose, which, etc., as or within the initial constituent and such clauses are called wh- relatives. In non-wh relatives the anaphoric element is covert, a gap; this class is then subdivided into that relatives and bare relatives depending on the presence or absence of that: 1. He’ll be glad to take the toys A which you don’t want. [ wh relative] B that you don’t want. [non-wh: that relative] C you don’t want. [non-wh: bare relative] (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002) In Albanian, Relative Clauses have been treated and classified as Modifying Clauses (Fjali përcaktore), e.g.: Hodhi sytë nga libri, fletët e të cilit ishin përthyer shumë. (italicised relative pronoun in genitive, being the second modifying element in a relative construction), and most of the existing traditional grammarians (Domi at al., 1995; Floqi S. at al., 1991, Prifti, 1971, Çeliku, 2012) have listed them as an independent functional of the hypotactic sentence classification (including other categories, such as: Subject Clauses (kryefjalore), Predicative Clauses (kallëzuesore), and Adjunct Clauses (rrethanore)).1 The relative pronouns in Albanian possess the category of number, case and gender; hence their contextualisation is more versatile and different from the one in English. In Albanian, a relative construction may appear before the word it refers to and this cataphoric reference is typical of the relative word in regard to a longer grammatical constituent it belongs to, in the situations when the relative constructions strongly approve an idea or a thought: Që ti nuk erdhe, kjo po që është e saktë. - Kjo (This) being a presupposed element of reference, used after the relative construction Qw ti nuk erdhe… (That you did not come). 5. METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH More than 100 examples of Relative Constructions in English and their translation into Albanian have been analysed with the direct translation method analysis, common for traditional contrastive studies. The corpus has been extracted from the novel Martin Eden written by Jack London and contrasted with its Albanian translation of Shaban Demiraj. The relative constructions have been isolated from the phrases and sentences they were part of with the aim of interpreting their translation into Albanian by comparing it to the original English structural 1 This type of classification is a functional one and covers only partially co-text functions of relative clauses in Albanian. However, I would like to distinguish two very good recent monographies published in Tirana, one is on Anaphora and another one on Relative Phrases in Albanian, by Çepani (2015) and Koleci (2013), from the generativist perspective, which exemplify very well that there are cases when Albanian anaphoric elements are not c-governed (a Government and Binding theory) and that Albanian anaphoric reflexives (vetvetja) bare the feminine noun features, too (they are more independent than English reflexives). 3 �version. For the purpose of finding the more comprehensive equivalences and correspondences between Albanian and English relative constructions, a corpus of 50 sentences from Ismail Kadare’s novel “Ura me tri harqe” (The three-arched bridge), translated into English by John Hodgson,has been extracted, too. 6. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES Since English is quite analytical and Albanian belongs to a very flective language type, the following research hypothesis could be drawn: - The translation of relative constructions from English into Albanian is more dispersed; The relative constructions in Albanian have more possible structural forms; Analysing relative constructions in their co-text provides more reliable results to the translation method analysis. 7. RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITHOUT THEIR CO-TEXT (TRANSLATION METHOD ANALYSIS): RESEARCH OUTCOMES AND DATA ANALYSIS One of the most astonishing facts that were encountered during our interpretation of relative constructions and their translations from one language into another is that more than ¼ of the examples of translated sentences have been considered to be incorrectly translated. So, most of corpus is being translated from relative integrated and supplementary clauses into fused relative clauses (relativizer becomes a hidden element of the subordinate construction) or even Nominal clause: Se si mund të jetohej brenda një kafazi me një tigër, kjo merrej lehtë me mend. (Kadare, p.72); And it is well known what life is like with a tiger in its lair. (Kadare, p.107) However, there were cases when the translator tried to preserve the structures used in Albanian (Appositive Clauses were translated into Appositive Clauses): e.g.: Kam parandjenjën se do të ndërrojë së shpejti fati i Arbrit. (Kadare, p.8); I have a premonition that the destiny of Arberia will soon change, ... (Kadare, p.3). Some of main findings of the study we conducted have been listed below: 1. The majority of English relative constructions have been translated into Albanian as relative clauses, mainly non-restrictive and restrictive. Even in the cases of fused relatives in English, the translation shows integrated and supplementary type of relatives in Albanian. This implies that integrated, supplementary and cleft relatives in English resemble structurally their Albanian translation correspondences, whereas fused relatives do not correspond that much to their Albanian corresponding forms: 2. Another characteristic feature of English relative constructions is that they can take a preposition before and after the relativizer (with few exceptions) whereas in Albanian its typical position is before the relative word: me të cilin! 3. Non-finite clauses used with a relative meaning are typical for English, but in very cases for Albanian. E.g.: The girl walking in your direction is my sister. / Vajza qw po ecw drejt teje wshtw motra ime.(^duke ecur drejt teje)- subjunctive of standard Albanian (finite 4 �form); or Mendimi i tij pwr tw shkuar nw piknik ishte i drejtw.- infinitive of purpose, appositive function, relativised partially). There were even cases when the whole sentence was “sacrificed” for the sake of better adaptation from English into Albanian, such as: She scarcely noted the rhythm otherwise, except when it became pompous, at which moments she was disagreeably impressed with its amateurishness. (Martin Eden, 166), and the zero translation into Albanian. We suggest it could have been translated with a relative construction, too: Përkundrazi, asaj nuk i bënte përshtypje të madhe intonacioni i fjalisë, përveç rasteve kur amaterizmi i tij dukej sheshit. (authors’ translation) An Albanian speaker can feel that the supplementary relative clauses had an open illocutionary force (as supplementary relatives usually do) which was not transferred into Albanian, its specification could have been a true or false proposition. Consequently, the illocutionary force was not transmitted into Albanian in the same way as it was supposed to, sometimes it even got lost in translation. 8. RELATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS WITHIN INCLUSIVE TYPE OF ANALYSIS THE CO-TEXT – A MORE The direct translation method analysis, typical for most of the contrastive studies in FLT study programmes in the countries of the Balkan region, and as such, being excluded from the co-text, would be justified by any traditional grammarian as a very comprehensive method of grammatical analysis. However, it would not ‘satisfy’ the real translation analysis, or the Text Grammar Analysis. So, in terms of text grammar studies, relative constructions could be treated as anaphoric cohesive devices even in the situations when the antecedent is not used immediately before the relative word: e.g. a) I met a man another day [who says (that he knows you)]; … who and he refer to a man, but only who is a relative; or when the fused relative word has the anaphoric element in itself (what=the thing that), similar to reflexives, which are typical anaphoric words (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002: 1047): e.g. What you offered is not what we wanted! = (The thing that you offered) is not (the thing that we wanted)! In terms of Text Point of View and considering the last example, the relative word what could be treated as a non-personal entity. It merges and fuses in itself the third person neutral / objective NP the thing and the objective relative word that into one neutral word what – the later representing an example of an objective view subordinator, trying to relate the speaker’s point of view with its co-text: nobody knows what you offered if the subordinate clause what we wanted is not given as its co-text. If a subordinate clause what we wanted presents concretization of what you offered, it is still neutral in terms of expressing factors to which the speaker relates the phenomena. However, the personal pronouns you and we (second person you addressing the receiver (dialogical communication) and first person plural we which appears to relate to the phenomena by placing the speaker in the sender group), tend to bring the co-text of this sentence towards the subjective point of view, by excluding the receiver point of view (what we wanted is 5 �not fulfilled). In terms of its presentation, it can be regarded as a verbatim authentic text through a direct speech style. In terms of Focus, relative constructions could be classified into narrowing focus text producers since they usually explain the substance of their antecedent, the voice of the relative clause is active in this example, which shows that the action presented in the fused relative structure results from animate phenomena and not from the outside context (Werlich, 1983). Regarding the mode of the relative construction, the above-mentioned example has a negative mode: the speaker assigns non-factual existence to the process of offering. The text structuring of the relative constructions in the above-mentioned example is a co-textfree structure due to the agreement in number between the two fused relative constructions and due to the successive tense forms used in both of them (past)! However, they can be considered as co-text-bound constituents of a sentence having in mind the topical sequence forms of past simple in both constructions as a sign of a narrative text form. In terms of Text typical idioms (idioms referring here to the typical structural and constituent features of a text type), relative constructions are considered to be clause expansions of the descriptive text idiom: e.g. They were going out for a ride into the hills Sunday morning on their wheels, which did not interest Martin until he learned that Ruth, too, rode a wheel and was not going alone (Martin Eden, p.125); (Të dielën në mëngjes ata do të bënin një shëtitje me biçikleta nëpër kodrina. Kjo në fillim s’i bëri ndonjë përshtypje Martinit por puna ndryshoi, kur mori vesh se Ruthi e ngiste biçikletën dhe do të shkonte bashkë me të vëllezërit. (Martin Iden, p.107) Relative constructions may, however, appear when specifying additional modification of the antecedent by means of restrictive (integrated) Relative Constructions in the expository text idiom expansion, too: I can’t understand’he murmured,’ or maybe it’s the editors who can’t understand. (Martin Eden, p. 184); S’po kuptoj dot gjë, pëshpëriti me vete. Ose ndoshta janë redaktorët e fletoreve ata që nuk kuptojnë. (Martin Iden, p.172) 9. CONCLUSION It has been proved that Albanian translation of relative constructions is more versatile in form and has more possibilities of occurrence than in English due to the various functional categories relative pronouns belong to in the sentence. The more detailed text analysis of relative constructions in comparison to traditional contrastive analysis (without having considered the grammatical elements, such as point of view, composition and text variety) proved to be more supportive and more inclusive method of enhancing the quality of translation and text adaptation from one language into another, too. To sum up, a co-text analysis of relative clauses (text grammar analysis), very often incorporated in contextual analysis (extralinguistic analysis of situational factors and socio-historical circumstances shared by the communicants) give a more competence-based research. Text grammar and Text linguistics must be an integrated part of curriculum in foreign language 6 �teaching in general, and particularly in translation studies. Both of them represent linguistic communication acts and as such, they cannot be analysed isolated from their linguistic environment, whether it be a pure linguistic or an extralinguistic one. References: ASHRSH. 1997. Gramatika e gjuhës shqipe I dhe II. Tiranë: IGJL Çeliku M. 2012. Sintaksë e gjuhës shqipe (përbërësit sintaksorë). Tiranë: ILAR De Beaugrande R. Dressler H. 1981. Introduction to Text Linguistics, London: Longman Halliday M, Hasan R. 1976. Cohesion in English. London: Longman Huddleston R. Pullum G. et al. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP Quirk R, Greenbaum S, Leech G, Svartvik J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Essex: Longman Prifti S. 1971. Sintaksa e gjuhës shqipe. Prishtinë: Enti i tekstevedhe i mjeteve Rugova L. 2012c. Contrastive Analysis of Declarative Content Clauses in English and Albanian. In: Albanologjia bashkëkohore: arritje dhe perspektivë . Sankt Peterburg. ILI RAN (338-352) van Dijk T. 1977. Sentence topic and discourse topic. Papers in Slavic Philology 1, (49-61) van Dijk T. 1979. New developments and problems in textlinguistics. In: J.S. Petöfi, (red.) Text vs. Sentence. Basic questions of textlinguistics. Hamburg: Buske Verlag, 2 vols., (509-523) van Dijk T. 1988. News as Discourse. Hove, London: Lawrence Erblaum van Dijk. T. 2009. Society and Discourse. How Social Contexts influence Texts and Talk. New York: Cambrigde University Press. Werlich E. 1983. A Text Grammar of English. Stuttgart: Quelle&Meyer 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2954 Title A name given to the resource THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTRASTIVE TEXT STUDIES IN TRANSLATOLOGY Author Author Sejdiu-Rugova, Lindita Rugova, Bardh Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper aims at bringing up a type of text linguistic analysis, different from traditional one, with the emphasis on the contrastive studies in general and on the English-Albanian cross-linguistic phenomena in particular. It will concentrate in explaining some of the most intriguing and most diverse text analysis elements having in mind the following text categories: Point of view, Composition, Text Idioms. A grammatical structure (Relative Constructions) has been examined thoroughly within the translation method analysis, out of and within the co-text analysis. It resulted in two different outcomes: traditional direct method analysis on one side and text linguistic co-text analysis on the other. Text linguistics as a special field of studies has been greatly developed due to the increased number of translations from one language into another. Text analysis, which relies on the deep description of micro and macro text elements of the text, is crucial for determining the level of translation accuracy of a particular text. Having in mind the relevance of recent discourse and pragmatic analyses impact in the development of interdisciplinary studies, the explanation of constituent elements of the written text is of great importance for the contrastive text studies or translation studies respectively. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d52a584972d7ebbf2593d514457d22f4.pdf ed73018857bb8e0d9d846375235eec72 PDF Text Text ŽIVOTINJSKA SIMBOLIKA U IZABRANIM DJELIMA GÜNTERA GRASSA Anemarija Ručević Sveučilište u Zadru Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 10.07.2015 Apstrakt: Promatrajući Grassove naslove, primjećujemo čestu upotrebu životinja: Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur, Štakorica, Korakom raka, itd.. Cilj ovoga rada je analizirati zašto se Grass odlučuje za određenu životinju u izboru svojih naslova, prikazati simboliku odabranih životinja i otkriti postoji li veza između životinje i djela. Analiza se temelji na tri njegova djela: Mačka I miš (1961.), Pasje godine (1963.) I Lumbur (1977.). Ključne riječi: Günter Grass, životinjska simbolika, Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur 1 �1. Günter Grass se kod izbora naslova svojih djela često odlučio za životinje koje na prvi pogled ne možemo povezati s književnim predlošcima. Jesu li životinje simbolične, alegorične ili uopće nemaju značenje? Koja je njihova uloga i funkcija? Novela Mačka i miš ima simboličan naslov koji upućuje na dječju igru koja ima strogu podjelu uloga lovca i ulovljenog, pobjede jačeg nad slabijim. Čitajući novelu brzo uočavamo da se uistinu radi o borbi, borbi između svijeta i pojedinca autsajdera. „Miš“ u noveli je Joachim Mahlke, autsajder u društvu kojega love „mačka“ Pilenz i cjelokupno društvo sve dok na kraju ne kapitulira i dok se ne preda. Na početku novele uočavamo često ponavljanje riječi „mačka“ kada je „Mahlkes Adamsapfel der Katze zur Maus wurde“.1 Mačka postaje Mahlkeovom suprotnošću, tj. suprotnost njegove Adamove jabučice. S ponavljanjem tih riječi, one postaju lajtmotivom cijele novele. Pripovjedač na početku novele „Ich aber, der ich Deine Maus einer und allen Katzen in den Blick brachte, muss nun schreiben.“2 Opisano je mačkino (mačka=životinja) približavanje žrtvi koja zajedno s pripovjedačem tvori trokut. Tijekom cijele novele Mahlkeovi pokušaji sakrivanja prevelike Adamove jabučice tvore središnju temu. Mačka i miš postaju progoniteljima i progonjenima, lovcima i ulovljenima, počiniteljima i žrtvama. Mahlkeova Adamova jabuka postaje „mišem“ koja tijekom radnje postaje simbolom žrtve i progonom. Mahlke se trudi kompenzirati svoj deficit pokušavajući se prilagoditi konvencijama i normama društva; pokušaji koji počinju na početku, kada Pilenz tjera mačku: „Die Katze kam übend näher. Mahlkes Adamsapfel fiel auf, weil er groß war, immer in Bewegung und einen Schatten warf. (...) So jung war die Katze, so beweglich Mahlkes Artikel- jedenfalls sprang sie Mahlke an die Gurgel; (...) oder ich, mit wie ohne Zahnschmerz, packte die Katze, zeigte ihr Mahlkes Maus: und Joachim Mahlke schrie, (...)“3 Mačka postaje simbolom progonitelja, počinitelja koji Mahlkea tijekom cijele novele diskriminira, ali potiče i na maksimalne uspjehe kao npr. ronjenje u olupini broda. Mačka predstavlja društvo, možda čak i nacistički režim, koje Mahlkeu (ali i svakom drugom autsajderu) prijeti, koji očajava i koji se želi prilagoditi vladajućim zakonima. Ta „mačka“, tj. društvo prilično je okrutno i bez milosti, ali i blago i mirno pa se često može u njima prevariti. Nacistički režim ima jasne predodžbe o ljudskom izgledu, a oni koji nisu odgovarali toj slici, nemilo su poučeni boljem ili su ubijeni. Mahlke se ne osjeća kao dio grupe i ne pronalazi pripadnost. „Mačka“ predstavlja opasnost za one koji ne odgovaraju predodžbi. Nacistički režim na neljudski način utjelovljuje strah, mučenje i prijetnju. Možemo zaključiti da se Grass bavi temom ljudskog osamljenja unutar totalitarnog društva u kojemu pojedinac svoje mišljenje i želje mora poreći da bi dobio priznanje svoje okoline pri čemu se sve više od nje izolira i udaljava. Stoga se Mahlke nalazi u zamršenoj Günter: „Katz und Maus“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.6 S.6 3Ebd. S. 6 1Grass, 2Ebd. �situaciji: s jedne strane želi oslonac koje pronalazi u svom štovanju Blažene Djevice Marije, a s druge traži identifikaciju i pripadnost grupe, prijatelja. U noveli se javlja jedna osoba koja se oslobađa prijetnje, pritiska i straha od neuspjeha, osoba koja se ne mijenja i koja se ne boji posljedica, a to je Tulla (Ursula) Pokriefke. Moramo spomenuti i pripovjedača Heini Pilenza koji zauzima poziciju izdajice jer opisuje priču oko Joachima Mahlkea sa sarkastičnim podzvukom kako ne bi privukao pozornost vlastite krivnje; i on je autsajder pa stvara odnos mržnje i ljubavi prema Mahlkeu zbog čije je smrti suodgovoran: kada na kraju novele Mahlkeu uskrati i baci otvarač za limenke, oduzima Mahlkeu životno potrebnu stvar: „Denn was mit Katze und Maus begann, quält mich heute als Haubentaucher auf schilfumstandenen Tümpeln.“4 Mačka i miš simboliziraju lovca i ulovljenog, koje kasnije zamjenjuje ćubasti gnjurac koji stoji za ujednačenje obojice. Pripovjedač Heini Pilenz napokon želi pronaći mir i nada se Mahlkeovom oprostu „der nicht auftauchen wollte“.5 2. I naslov 1963. Objavljenog romana „Pasje godine“ upućuje na određenu simboliku. Pojam „pasje godine“ višeznačan je: možemo shvatiti kao životne godine psa koje se pretvore u ljudske godine (1:7), ali i (od 19.stoljeća) korišten pojam opisivanja loših godina, analogno jadnom ili hladnom. Radi se o vremenu u kojemu su samo psi mogli preživjeti ili u kojima čovjek postaje životinjom prema izreci „samo najjačio pstaju“.6 Naslov romana daje naslutiti da će glavnu ulogu igrati psi, naročito početak treće knjige: „Der Hund steht zentral.(...) Oder halte dich an den Hund, dann stehst du zentral. (...) Jeder Hund steht zentral.“7 Roman ne govori samo o prijateljstvu između Amsela i Materna, nego i o povijesti pseće obitelji, priči koja opisuje propast jedne pseće obitelji: „Es war einmal ein Hund, der verließ seinen Herrn,(...) durchschwamm (...) die Elbe und suchte sich westlich des Flusses einen neuen Herrn“.8 Psi su u pravilu slovili kao vjerni pratitelji, stoga je blisko povući paralelu s tadašnjem vremenu: psi su svojim gazdama vjerni kao što je njemački narod bio vjeran svom „gazdi“ Hitleru. Kao dobar primjer za odnos između psa i čovjeka djeluje Tulla, odnosno njezin odnos prema psu Harrasu kojega nekoliko puta bez razloga nahuškava na svoju „prijateljicu“ Jenny Brunies i učitelja klavira Felsner- Imbs: 4Ebd. S.178 S. 178 6Königs Erläuterungen: Günter Grass- Hundejahre, Bange Verlag, 2006, S.78 7Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.469 8 Ebd., S.466 5Ebd. �„kaum hatte Felsner- Imbs (...); knapp hatte er die Hälfte des Weges zur Hoftür zurückgelegt- (...) da ließ meine Cousine Tulla unseren Hofhund Harras von der Kette. (...) der schoßdiagonal über den Hof, (...) umsprang mutwillig den zur Säule erstarten Pianisten; (...) und erst als Felsner- Imbs sein Heil im Davonlaufen suchte (...) war Harras dem Pianisten hinterdrein und faßte ihn beim wehenden Bratenrock (...).“9 Harras s vremenom postaje agresivniji, a upravo njegova rastuća agresivnost paralelna je s rastućim nacističkim režimom i ideologijom, mržnjom Nijemaca protiv Židova, zapravo protiv svih koji nisu odgovarali arijevskoj vrsti; stoga se ponavljaju rodoslovna stabla pasa: „Am dunklen Anfang gab es, soll es, hat es (...) eine Wölfin gegeben, deren Enkel, der schwarze Hund Perkun, zeugte die Hündin Senta; und Pluto deckte Senta; und Senta warf sechs Welpen, darunter den Rüden Harras; und Harras zeugte Prinz; und Prinz wird in Büchern (...) Geschichte machen.“10 Stabla koja se ponavljaju simbol su za tzv. Arijevce koji su vrijedni i dostojni, ali i za odnos između nacista i Hitlera o kojemu znamo da je imao samo čistokrvne njemačke ovčare. Pas postaje Grassovo sredstvo s kojim čitatelja suočava s Hitlerovim rasnim ludilom. Ne samo rodoslovno stablo, nego i pseća imena nose određenu simboliku u sebi: npr. Prinzsimbol carstva, moći i neograničene vlasti (čime je Hitlerova vlast slična onoj prinčevoj, kraljevoj), Pluto (Pluton)- rimski bog podzemlja; u grčkoj mitologiji mu je jednak Had.11Pas Pluto kasnije postaje simbolom krivnje jer završetkom nacizma počinju veliki ljudski, ali i pseći bijegovi: „..überlaufender Hund, Hauab-Hund, Ohne-mich-Hund, Hundegeworfenheit (...) fahnenflüchtiger Hund, der den Wind im Rücken hat; denn der Wind will auch nach Westen, wie alle (...) Vergessen wollen alle die Knochenberge und Massengräber, die Fahnenhalter und Parteibücher, die Schulden und die Schuld.“12 Pseće su godine, kao što smo spomenuli, loše godine koje Grass opisuje u svom romanu, počevši od završetka prvog svjetskog rata (1917.-1927.), sljedećeg razdoblja nesigurnosti i gospodarske krize 1929. s pripadajućom deflacijom i velikom nezaposlenošću. Nakon toga slijedi početak i širenje nacizma koji svoj vrhunac dostiže s najvećim zločinom u njemačkoj povijesti, holokaustom, i naposljetku slijedi opis poslijeratnog vremena (nakon 1945.) sve do sadašnjosti. U romanu ne igraju samo psi važnu ulogu: središnja je tema prijateljstvo između Amsela (kasnije Brauxela) i Materna. Radi se o njemačko- židovskom prijateljstvu tijekom trećeg rajha i poslije toga, između umjetničko orijentirano intelektualca Amsela i njegovog prijatelja, nagonskog i snažnog Materna. 9 Ebd. S.232-233 Ebd, S.76 11 Pluton znači bogat, a dolazi od grčke riječi ploutos – bogatstvo. Grci su Hada također zvali Pluton, a Rimljani su poslije preuzeli to ime za svog boga. http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluton_%28mitologija%29 (9.3.2015.) 12 Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.465 10 �Slično kao u noveli Mačka i miši u ovom romanu nalazimo uloge lovina i lovca, žrtve i počinitelja, ali s političkim karakterom. Umjesto ulovljenog miša i žrtve Mahlkeastoje umjetnik Amsel i Jenny Brunies, a umjesto mačke Pilenza imamo počinitelje Materna i Tullu. Kada Hitlerov njemački ovčar Prinz (kasnije Pluto) u Zapadnoj Njemačkoj dotrči do Materna dokaz je da se posljedice trećeg rajha ne mogu zaboraviti, slično kao u djelu „Korakom raka“ (2002.): „Das hört nicht auf. Das hört nie auf.“13 Matern i njegov napad na slabašnog Amsela (pas ostaje kod njega jer ga ne može predati kolodvorskoj misijskoj pomoći) simbol su za njemačko svladavanje prošlosti nakon trećeg rajha koje se zapravo ne događa. Simbolično je i da se cjelokupno rodoslovno stablo sastoji od čistokrvnih, crnih njemačkih ovčara- crna boja simbol je za nešto loše i negativno, za krivnju pa možemo povući paralelu i vidjeti krivnju kod njemačkog naroda kroz nekoliko generacija. Osim pseće simbolike u djelu vidljiva je i ona ptičja. Umjetnik i intelektualac se zove Amsel (kos) koji u svojoj mladosti gradi strašila koja slikovito prikazuju ljudsku i njemačku povijest. Kasnije se zove Haseloff (Hase= zec, simbol bijega od nacizma, ali i simbol za plodnost, plodno u smislu svog rada14). Za razliku od novele Mačka i miš, u ovom romanu pobjeđuju slabiji- Mahlke se povukao na olupinu broda da bi se spasio dok Matern pronalazi Amsela (kasnije Brauxel) te mu se podređuje pa Amsel izlazi kao pobjednik. Miš se sakrio od mačke, dok su ptice uspjele pobjeći, tj. odletjeti pohlepnim psima. Postavlja se pitanje bi li Mahlke uopće mogao preživjeti, bi li imao izgleda protiv mačke, jer je njegov deficit bio svima vidljiv (prevelika Adamova jabučica) za razliku od Amselovog židovskog podrijetla koje nije bilo vidljivo na prvi pogled pa je Amsel imao priliku preživjeti pseće godine i na kraju izaći kao pobjednik iz borbe. 3. Lumbur je priča čovječanstva od kamenog doba do sadašnjosti u vremenskom periodu od devet mjeseci. Polazna točka i središnja tema radnje bajka je o ribaru i njegovoj ženi.15U bajci je žena zla, nezasitna i zahtjevna. Kod Grassa je lumbur pokretač koji motivira muškarce da pišu svoju povijest i da se oslobode žena. Stoga ne iznenađuje da lumbur na kraju dolazi pred feministički tribunal, tzv. feminal koje se sastoji od devet i više žena koje su sve povezane s Gdanjskom. Grass poduzima preokret uloga u kojemu su muškarci megalomani koji zahtijevaju sve više jer žele vladati svijetom i pobijediti prirodu. Lumbur, koji je stoljećima pomagao Grass, Günter: „Im Krebsgang“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, Göttingen, 2002, S. 216 (22.6.2012) 15Prema braći Grimm radi se o ribaru koji sa svojom ženom živi u skromnoj kućici i jednog dana ulovi lumbura koji moli za život- ribar ga vrati u more. Ribareva žena Ilsebill pita zar nije pritom imao želju. Na ženin nagovor ribar se mora vratiti do mora, dozvati lumbura koji će ipuniti njezine želje. Što joj želje postaju neumjerenije, to vrijeme postaje sve lošije. Lumbur joj ispuni svaku želju, ali kada naposljetku zaželi da postane Bog, lumbur ju vrati u skromnu kućicu kao na početku bajke. Usp.: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vom_Fischer_und_seiner_Frau(22.6.2012) 13 14http://www.druidenwelt.de/hase_j.html �muškarcima zaključuje da je muškarac pri kraju. U kamenom dobu Edek uhvati lumbura koji otada slovi kao savjetnik muškarcima sve dok ga krajem dvadesetog stoljeća (1974.) ne ulove tri žene koje nakon toga osnuju feminal kako bi mu sudile da je tijekom desetljeća i tisućljeća upropastio ženstvenost. Lumbur se ispostavlja kao izvrstan retoričar i želi promicati žensku stvar time što mijenja strane: „Die Männersache gebe nichts mehr her. Demnächst werde eine Krise weltweit das Ende maskuliner Herrschaft signalisieren. Die Herren seien bankrott. (...) Er, der Butt, wolle sich fortan nur noch dem weiblichen Geschlecht zuwenden.(...) Heute gilt es, die Zeitwende zu datieren. Auf dem Machtwechsel der Geschlechter beruht mein Prinzip. Die Frauen sind aufgerufen.“16 U središtu romana nalazi se i odnos uloga, veze između muškarca i žene. Pripovjedač se od kamenog doba do sadašnjosti provlači kroz sve muške uloge: „Ich, das bin ich jederzeit.“17 kao što Ilsebill preuzima sve ženske uloge: „Und auch Ilsebill war von anfang an da.“18 Na početku lumbur zastupa protuženski princip jer muškarca potiče da postane gospodarom povijesti: „Ich rate euch: Weg von der Brust. Ihr müßt euch entwöhnen. (...) Wir, jedenfalls, brauchten noch ein sattes Jahrtausend, um männlich im Sinne des Butt zu werden.“19 Budući da su muškarci napisali gotovo cjelokupnu povijest ne začuđuje ako kažemo da je lumbur negativni princip muškarca, tj. utjelovljenje rastuće vladavine. Lumbur potiče razvoj muškaraca pri čemu se muškarac javlja kao neemancipirani spol. Tek otpadanjem treće dojke muškarac gubi svoju povezanost sa ženskim svijetom koja se sastoji od rađanja i hranjenja. U pjesmi u prvom mjesecu pripovjedač objašnjava o čemu će govoriti: o pripremanju hrane i svakodnevice, ljubavi, želje i razmnožavanju; govori i o gladi, nasilju i ratu koji vodi do razaranja. Pritom su u pozadini uvijek žene bile odgovorne da ima dovoljno hrane te su stoljećima i tisućljećima osigurale život čovječanstva. Problem je što pisac Grass žene svodi na njihovu biološku uloga jer povezuje ulogu žene s hranom (pripremanju hrane) i sposobnosti rađanja i dojenja. To opet vodi do žestoke reakcije od strane feministkinja predvođene Alice Schwarzer, koja pisca Güntera Grassa u svom časopisu “Emma” 20 naziva “Pašom mjeseca”: „Propagiert die Legende, die Frauen seien von Natur aus die besseren Menschen. Ausersehen, nun die böse Welt und vor allem die armen, bösen Männer zu retten. Und jetzt will er auch noch unser Maskottchen werden. (...) Armer Gege. Hättest du abgelassen Grass, Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993, S.52 Ebd., S.9 18Ebd., S.9 19Ebd., S.44 20http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/emma.htm(19.1.2012) 16 17 �von den Frauen, du wärst (vielleicht) ein Dichter geblieben. So aber reichts nur zum modischen Softy mit Schnauzbart.“21 Za feministički tribunal lumbur je utjelovljenje muške vladavine stoga se svi muškarci zajedno s lumburom nalaze na optuženičkoj klupi22: „(...)bleiben die Frauen- selbst wenn sie studiert, sich emanzipiert haben und den Computer verbessern, (...) hübsch frisierte Natur. Sie haben den Ausfluß monatlich. (...) Ja, aus Prinzip sind sie Mütter, auch wenn sie es nicht, noch nicht sind oder (...) nie sein werden (...). Frauen müssen nicht fürs Nachleben sorgen, weil sie Leben verkörpern; Männer hingegen können nur außer sich Nachleben beweisen, indem sie das Haus bauen, den Baum pflanzen, (...) im Krieg fallen, doch vorher Kinderchen zeugen. Wer nicht gebären kann, ist allenfalls mutmaßlich Vater und vor der Natur aus arm dran.“23 Pred kraj postaje vidljivo da je muškarac uistinu pri kraju stoga se lumbur dao dobrovoljno uloviti da bi na kraju postao njihov savjetnik- postavlja se pitanje radi li se ovdje o promjeni uloga odnosno nastavku vladajućeg principa. Roman možemo shvatiti kao knjigu koja govori o poteškoćama između muškarca i žene, koja govori o muškom problemu snalaženja u novonastaloj situaciji ženske emancipacije, ali i o pokušaju obostrane emancipacije koja se mora odvijati u malom koracima. „Emanzipation heißt für Grass nie, Kopie der Männer durch die Frauen, Angleichung der Frauen an den Mann. (...) Emanzipation kann nur für beide gleichzeitig verwirklicht werden und bedeutet die radikale Abkehr beider Geschlechter von den bisherigen Rollen und Gewohnheiten, nicht dem Rollentausch.“24 21Ebd. Sabine Moser: Günter Grass, Romane und Erzählungen, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2000, S.114 Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuchverlag, München, 1993, S. 504-505 24Neuhaus, Volker: Günter Grass, 3. Auflage, J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 2010, S. 167 22 23Grass, �Popis literature:        Reclams Romanlexikon, Band 5, 20.Jahrhundert III, Philipp Reclam jun. Stuttgart Königs Erläuterungen: Günter Grass- Hundejahre, Bange Verlag, 2006. Grass, Günter: „Katz und Maus“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Grass, Günter: „Hundejahre“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Grass, Günter: „Im Krebsgang“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, Göttingen, 2002. Grass, Günter: „Der Butt“, Dt. Taschenbuch Verlag, München, 1993. Moser, Sabine: Günter Grass, Romane und Erzählungen, Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin, 2000.  Neuhaus, Volker: Günter Grass, 3. Auflage, J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart, 2010.  Schwarzer, Alice: „Pascha des Monats“ u: Magazin „Emma“, Juli 1977. Izvori s interneta:  http://www.druidenwelt.de/hase_j.html (22.6.2012.)  http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vom_Fischer_und_seiner_Frau (22.6.2012.)  http://staff-www.uni-marburg.de/~naeser/emma.htm (19.1.2012.) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2948 Title A name given to the resource ŽIVOTINJSKA SIMBOLIKA U IZABRANIM DJELIMA GÜNTERA GRASSA Author Author Ručević, Anemarija Abstract A summary of the resource. Promatrajući Grassove naslove, primjećujemo čestu upotrebu životinja: Mačka i miš, Pasje godine, Lumbur, Štakorica, Korakom raka, itd.. Cilj ovoga rada je analizirati zašto se Grass odlučuje za određenu životinju u izboru svojih naslova, prikazati simboliku odabranih životinja i otkriti postoji li veza između životinje i djela. Analiza se temelji na tri njegova djela: Mačka I miš (1961.), Pasje godine (1963.) I Lumbur (1977.). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d6558642186562fa9b086cafbfd77a4b.pdf 494abe295dc5d005104959b34fd304d9 PDF Text Text CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Maria Rugo & Antonia Ordulj Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt & University of Zagreb Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 10.08.2015 Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Abstract: The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 1. INTRODUCTION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Second language acquisition is a complex process because of many interrelated factors (age, cognition, input, educational background, motivation...) and codes of native language and target language. During this process the learner creates an interlanguage (IL) (Selinker, 1972), i.e. a dynamic linguistic system that contains variable elements and structures of both native and target language, which learners use and develop during different stages of second language acquisition. During the early stage of of this complex process, though the native language elements tend to prevail, the interlanguage system develops simultaneously with the learner’s linguistic improvement. However, incorrect target language structures often become a rooted habit and can easily fossilize in any developmental stage of language acquisition. All language elements, rules and subsystems are liable to fossilization irrespective of and the age or the length of instructions received by the learner had in the target language. The fossilized structures remain even when it seems that they have been completely removed (Selinker: 1972:215). 2. THEORETICAL ISSUES ON NEGATIVE TRANSFER Any interlanguage presents several characteristics: fluctuation, fragmentation, as well as simplicity in form and function (Vrhovac, 2001). Simplicity of IL refers to the use of less complex grammatical rules and limited vocabulary, which means that IL is the system with its own language rules (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Since an IL is a dynamic linguistic system, it is liable to changes caused by development of learner language knowledge. According to Selinker (1972) there are five different processes that are involved in developing of learners IL: language transfer, overgeneralization of TL linguistic elements, transfer of training, strategies of second language learning, and strategies of second language communication. According to Richards (1974), errors could be classified into two categories: interlingual errors, and intralingual and developmental errors. Interlingual errors are influenced by native languages, which interfere with the target language learning process. Intralingual and developmental errors are caused by the target language itself, and they occur during the learning process. Actually, the language transfer is the one that causes a large number of errors from the target language. According to Odlin (1993:27), transfer can be defined as “influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.” It refers to transfer from one language to another, and this transfer can be either positive or negative. If the elements common to both the learner’s mother and target languages are similar, then a positive transfer occurs. On the other hand, if there are differences between both languages, and some elements proper of the mother language obstruct the acquisition of the target language structures, then the transfer is negative (Medved Krajnović, 2010; Odlin, 1993). During the Fifties and Sixties, under the influence of contrastive analyses, most language errors among learners’ IL were thought to be triggered by the influence of the mother tongue. Although many researches belie this claim, it is a retained opinion that mother tongue indeed is a contributing factor in the acquisition of the foreign language (PrebegVilke, 1991). Odlin (1993) states that negative transfer is relatively easy to identify and that, Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �according to cross-linguistic similarities and differences, we can differentiate four consequences stemming from a given negative transfer: underproduction, overproduction, production errors (substitutions, calques, alternations of structures) and misinterpretations. If a learner is able to produce a small number of examples when using a target language, then underproduction occurs. This may be caused by either the inability to produce examples of target language, or by a mechanism of avoidance, i.e. when the structures in the target language appear to be significantly different from those in the target language. Practical analyses of Chinese learners’ essays have confirmed that simple sentences in written English are used because there are no complex sentence patterns in Chinese (Wang& Liu, 2013). On the other hand, if learners tend to excessively use the structures of a target language in a wrong way (e.g. they use many simple sentences instead of adopting more complex ones), this results in an overproduction. According to Wang and Liu (2013), Chinese learners of ESL often overproduce patterns when using paragraph introductory structures, e.g. firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally or with the development of. When observing the mechanisms of error production, Odlin (1993) differentiates substitutions, calques and alternations of structures. Substitutions refer to the choice of replacing one language element with another, usually a use of native language form in the target language (e.g. serioso → serious, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Calques represent given elements of syntactic structures that usually get literally translated from a native language (e.g. He tenido mi pelo cortado → I have had my hair cut, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Alternations of structures very often occur in case of a cross-linguistic influence, and may be observed in hypercorrections. According to Odlin (1993:38), hypercorrections are “overreactions to particular influence from the native language.” Particularly, Odlin (1993) refers to spelling errors that involve substitutions of the letter b for the letter p (e.g. blaying VS playing), made by Arabic learners of ESL. Finally, misinterpretations refer to any wrong interpretation of the messages expressed in the target language. In this study we will focus on the lexical errors of Croatian learners of Italian as foreign language. Since IL is a separate transitional linguistic system that involves linguistic elements of both native and target language, changes could be observed in the IL used by Croatian learners of Italian as a foreign language at all levels, i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics (Jelaska, 2005). According to previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013), the most frequent phonological errors encompass the pronunciation of vocals, the use of double consonants or the insertion of sounds in accordance with the phonology of Croatian words (e.g. Croatian learners will often pronounce Italian words such as meccanico or psicologo by uttering them according to the Croatian phonological system, i.e. mehaničar; psiholog). Errors at the morphological level usually occur with the highest frequency, e.g. omission of definite and indefinite articles before a noun, wrong choice of prepositions, wrong grammatical gender, word order, using of Italian verbs giocare, tornare, ridere as reflexive verbal forms due to the influence of Croatian verbs igrati se, vratiti se, smijati se etc. Both the choice of word order as well as the discrepancy in noun’s number and gender may be seen as among the most problematic errors at the syntactic level. Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear (White) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �3. AIM OF THE STUDY Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The aim of this study was to determine the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian, by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners. 4. METHODOLOGY Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.1 Subjects Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The study was conducted among a sample of 40 learners attending ABC, a foreign language school based in Zagreb, Croatia, which specifically deals with courses of Italian language and culture. All of the participants are native Croatian speakers and have studied Italian as a foreign language at intermediate levels (B1 and B2). Lessons take place in a stimulating working atmosphere, in which an emphasis is put on developing communicative competence. The average age of the participants is between 19 and 60 years old, and the majority of them has had a formal education in Italian language for 4 to 6 years, though some of them have learned the language for 1 to 3 years. For all of them, Italian is the second (or third) foreign language acquired in an educational context, with English always being the first foreign language studied. In this project, we focus on the negative transfer in lexical context and how it is reflected in practical examples. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.2 Data Collection The errors caused by negative transfer have been collected during regular classes of Italian as a foreign language. Teacher has created a record encompassing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (B1-B2) Croatianspeaking learners. Their oral production has been partly recorded, but mostly transcribed or written down by the students or by the teachers. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) According to collected examples, the authors have decided to divide the lexical errors in five categories: 1) Calques occurred under the influence of mother tongue (L1) Calques are errors that closely represent native language structure and they are usually the most frequent. According to Vinay (1995), calques are defined as “special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form or another, but then translates literally each of its elements”. A given L2 word is the result of a literal translation from the L1. We refer here to what has been observed by Ringbom (2001), according to whom the calque is a type of lexical transfer of meaning occurring when there is awareness of the existing target language form, but not of Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �the semantic/collocational restrictions. It is very important to remove calques at an early stage, because later on they tend to fossilize. It is, for instance, quite hard to eliminate calques from a student’s language usage if he or she have learned Italian in Italy without attending any relevant language course. In this case, his or her oral performances present many calques consisting in literal translations from Croatian language. Their fossilization makes the errors’ removal very slow and sometimes almost impossible. Furthermore, when using Italian words and phrases such as ‘commenti’, ‘fare una domanda’, ‘stravagante’, and ‘non vedo l’ora’, Croatian learners tend to rather adopt the literal translation from their native language, as summarised in the following table: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian commenti fare una domanda stravagante non vedo l'ora Wrong production in Italian commentari chiedere una domanda estravagante non posso aspettare Form in Croatian komentari pitati pitanje ekstravagantan ne mogu čekati / jedva čekam Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 2) Calques occurred under the influence of English language Though our main aim here is to focus on the mistakes that Croatian learners of Italian as L2 tend to make under the influence of their native language, it must be pointed out that this issue is also often influenced by a series of errors produced under the influence of English language. As already mentioned, for all participants English is the first foreign language, thus it is reasonable to expect that previously acquired foreign language may cause a number of interferences between languages. Lexical errors under the influence of English language are usually deceptive cognates, as illustrated by the following examples: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian istruito stampare capire sostenere qualcuno ti porto a casa siamo molto legati Wrong production in Italian educato printare realizzare supportare qualcuno ti prendo a casa siamo molto collegati Form in English educated to print to realize to support someone I'll take you home we are very connected Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 3) Wrong usage of target structures Some target structures are differently used in both Croatian and Italian languages; for example, among students there is a tendency to confuse the adjective bravo, which is used when someone is good at doing something, with the adjective buono, which in Italian identifies something that is good to eat (good), or of good quality (e.g. a good movie). In Italian, the sentence sono bravi a correre cannot be transformed as sono buoni a correre. Furthermore, the adverb bene/male can only be used with a verb, but not with the verb to be in this kind of sentence: it is not correct to say il suo comportamento è male, but il suo Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �comportamento non va bene. Also some words can have different usages, e.g. there is a difference between the Italian verbs rubare and derubare, since rubare means to rob something, while derubare means to rob someone of something. In Croatian both actions are rendered as rubare, thus resulting in a misusage of the Italian correct semantics attached to each verb. Another common error occurs with the verb viaggiare (to travel): when in Italian this verb refers to the action of starting a journey, it should be translated as partire; e.g. siamo partiti alle 3 di mattina, and not abbiamo viaggiato alle 3 di mattina. 4) Underproduction Analyses of oral production have also revealed that Croatian learners tent to avoid the target language not using structures that are not familiar with in the L1. For example, in Italian the passive form is normally used also in oral speech, however learners tend to avoid using it because it is not a common structure in their mother tongue. Moreover, the structure fare+infinito doesn't exist in Croatian language, so for example, they simplify their syntax by using some other form, or by literally translating from Croatian (e.g. Mi ha arrabbiato instead of Mi ha fatto arrabbiare; Do che riparano il computer instead of Faccio riparare il computer). Another underproduction occurs with the simplified use of gerund by Croatian learners, who prefer to use the explicit form rather than a gerund because they find it hard to express orally: e.g. instead of saying aggiungendo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente, they use the explicit Se aggiungessimo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente). 5) Overproduction Croatian learners of Italian as L2 often overproduce the demonstrative pronoun questo instead of the direct pronoun lo and this can lead to redundancy (e.g. avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e ho ordinato questo. The correct Italian sentence would rather be: Avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e l’ho ordinata. The excessive use of demonstrative pronoun questo is usually caused by learners’ fear, as well as by the tendency to simplify unfamiliar structures in the target language. 6. CONCLUSION The present study has confirmed the influence of negative transfer of Croatian L2 learners. Croatian learners of Italian as L2 refer constantly to their mother tongue in oral production which is also confirmed in previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013; Letica& Mardešić, 2007). According to collected examples, the errors were divided in five groups: calques from Croatian and English language, overproduction, underproduction and wrong usage of target language structures. The most common type of errors are calques from Croatian (L1), which are mainly caused by the students’ choice of avoiding the use of target language whenever they do not feel sure or don't know the words or the correct structure of a sentence. Calques are not helping the development of target language, because mother tongue concepts, words and Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... �structures often works in a different way than those in the target language, so learner should be aware of and familiarize themselves with the relevant differences between languages. In addition, our analysis has revealed that Croatian learners of Italian often use calques from English, this being a previously acquired language that learners master since a very young age. Not only have our examples confirmed that these types of interferences very frequently occur at a lexical level, but they also have demonstrated that learners avoid and simplify those structures that appear to be not so common or significantly different between Croatian and Italian languages; this can result in a mechanism of underproduction of given target language structures, as well as in the opposite process of overproduction, which appears to be often a consequence of underproduction (Wang& Liu, 2013). In order to overcome errors in the target language, the teacher should prepare a set of different activities, such as contrastive demonstrations of the errors in both languages, cloze tests, and presentations of the texts that are being studied during the lesson. Indeed, teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures that have already been acquired by the students. Teachers should further encourage Croatian learners to use those elements and structures of Italian language that are not so common in oral production of Croatian (e.g. passive sentences). It is important to make learners aware of the recurrent errors, by adopting authentic texts that feature given problematic structures and elements, as well as by recurring to role plays in which learners are pushed to pay attention to specific elements of the target language. Finally, learners should also develop their own strategies for learning new and problematic elements and structures of target language. In this framework, a teacher’s key action consists in making the students aware of the differences between linguistic structures, as well as always pointing out at the words used in both languages. If learners are able to notice those differences from the very beginning of their educational process, it may then be easier for them to adopt the correct structures of the target language. Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... References Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 1. Alujević Jukić, M. i Brešan,T. (2010). Prijenosne pogreške kod talijanskih izvornih govornika tijekom pisane produkcije na hrvatskom kao stranom jeziku. XXIII. Međunarodni znanstveni skup „Prostor i vrijeme u jeziku: jezik i vrijeme u prostoru. Osijek, 1-14. 2. Calvo Cortés, N. (2005). Negative language transfer when learning Spanish as a foreign language. Interlingüística, 16 (1), 237-248. 3. Cattana Nesci (2004). Analizzare e correggere gli errori, Guerra edizioni, Perugia. 4. Guglielmi L. (2008). Studenti serbofoni e croatofoni: lingue ‘gemelle’ e diversi fenomeni di tranfer nell’apprendimento dell’italiano LS. http://www.itals.it/studenti-serbofoni-e-croatofoni-lingue-gemelle-e-diversi-fenomenidi-transfer-nellapprendimento (last consultation 09.06.2015) 5. Jelaska, Z. i sur., (2005). Hrvatski kao drugi i strani jezik. Zagreb: Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted: Font color: Auto, English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �6. Letica, S. & Mardešić, S. (2007). Cross-Linguistic Transfer in L2 and L3 Production. In J. Horvath & M. Nikolov (Eds.), UPRT 2007: Empirical Studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 307-318). Pecs: Lingua Franca Csoport. 7. Medved Krajnović, M. (2010). Od jednojezičnosti do višejezičnosti. Uvod u istraživanja procesa ovladavanja inim jezikom. Zagreb: Leykam international. 8. Odlin, T. (1993). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge, CUP. 9. Prebeg Vilke, M. (1991).Vaše dijete i jezik. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 10. Richards, J.C. (1974). Error Analyses. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Longman. 11. Ringbom, H. (2001). Lexical Transfer in L3 Production. In Cenoz, J. et al., (eds) Crosslinguistic influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 12. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231. 13. Sironić Bonefačić, N. (1990). Anali degli errori nell’espressione orale dell’italiano come lingua straniera. SRAZ XXXV. 173-181. 14. Vinay , J.P. (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English A methodology for translation, John Benjamins Publishing Co. 15. Vrhovac, Y. (2001). Govorna komunikacija i interakcija na satu stranog jezika. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. 16. Wang, S. & Liu, C. (2013). Negative language transfer reflected in ESL learners’ English writing. ICT for Language learning. 17. Županović Filipin, N. & Mardešić, S. (2013). Analisi dell’interlingua nell’apprendimento dell’italiano a livello universitario. SRAZ LVII, 201-219. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Not Italic, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2958 Title A name given to the resource CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Author Author Rugo, Maria Ordulj, Antonia Abstract A summary of the resource. The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PQ Romance literatures https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2cbd989b477f128aade5d9f8ee1a4b12.pdf de4dae67da572b6b717cd5ff53c07cee PDF Text Text STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES ABOUT THE ‘OTHER’ AS AN UNAVOIDABLE PART OF BRITISH LITERATURE AND CULTURE Olivera Petrović-Tomanić Teachers' Training Faculty, Bijeljina Article History: Submitted: 05.06.2015 Accepted: 10.07.2015 Abstract: The concept of the ‘other’ is an inherent part of understanding one’s identity, since people define their roles through their relations toward ‘others’. Generally speaking, the ‘other’ is everyone who is detached and different from one’s self or one’s true nature. ‘Otherness’ became the subject of research in postmodern British literature in terms of its diversity and variety, divergence and disagreement with standard, conventional and established. To demonstrate how prejudices are widespread and what their role in literature is, the selection of British novels of the 20th century has been made with the emphasis on the second part of the century and postmodern British novel. The analysis has proved that stereotypes are indeed unavoidable part of British culture and literature and exposed their particular role in works of literature. The second half of the twentieth century brings seismic shift of literary and national identity: The English novel was replaced by novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. This is the main reason for selection of the British novels of the late 20th century that are representative both for their artistic quality and influence. The analysis of selected works from modern and postmodern periods with the regard to stereotypes and prejudices about 'other' undoubtedly pointed out that mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. Key words: ‘other’, stereotypes, prejudices, postmodern British novel, identity, diversity. �1. INTRODUCTION: THE CONCEPT OF ‘OTHER’ The concept of the 'other' is one of the most important in the postcolonial theory. The authors of ‘Post-Colonial Studies, The Key Concepts’ state that, in general terms, the ‘other’ is anyone who is separate from one’s self. The existence of others is crucial in defining what is ‘normal’ and in locating one’s own place in the world. The colonized subject is characterized as ‘other’ through discourses such as primitivism and cannibalism, as a means of establishing the binary separation of the colonizer and colonized and asserting the naturalness and primacy of the colonizing culture and world view. (Ashcroft, Griffiths & Tiffin, 2000) The term 'other' is largely used in existential philosophy and in defining the relationship between ourselves and others in the creation of self-awareness and the idea of identity. In the Introduction of her most famous work The Second Sex (1949) French writer and the representative of the French philosophy of the twentieth century Simone de Beauvoir writes about women and the concept of ‘other’ and, in a special way, she reflects on the concept of the other. The category of the Other is as primordial as consciousness itself. In the most primitive societies, in the most ancient mythologies, one finds the expression of a duality – that of the Self and the Other. This duality was not originally attached to the division of the sexes; it was not dependent upon any empirical facts. The feminine element was at first no more involved in such pairs as Uranus-Zeus, Sun-Moon, and Day-Night than it was in the contrast between Good and Evil, lucky and unlucky auspices, right and left, God and Lucifer. Otherness is a fundamental category of human thought. (Beauvoir, 1949, transl. and ed. H.M. Parshley, 1953) In general, awareness of one's identity is always built on the basis of awareness of what we are not, or, in other words, on the basis of awareness of others. In this paper, 'other' will be viewed in terms of its diversity and variety, differences and disagreements with the norm, normal and accepted. The term 'other' is taken from philosophy to mark a change in the Western understanding of the relationship between consciousness and the world that surrounds us. However, this term has changed the focus of the analysis and walked away from this philosophical understanding of the 'other'. The concept of 'other' is now being used in the political, cultural, linguistic and religious context. Whether viewed from the standpoint of ideology, psychoanalysis or discourse it is impossible to create the subject without observing its 'other'. The possibility of dialogue between the various racial and cultural groups also became one of the important uses and meanings of this term. 2. STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICE ABOUT ‘OTHER’ Although it is quite common in everyday use and in the scientific circles, the word 'stereotype' has an interesting origin. This word is used to denote a typographic element that was used during the printing instead of the original. The American journalist Walter Lippmann merged the metaphor and called the stereotype the image in our hands. Both 'cliché' and 'stereotype' originate from the world of press. So 'cliché' is the French word for the printing �surface of the stereotype. In the English language the word 'stereotype' first appears in its modern sense in 1850. as a noun and it has the meaning of a picture or a notion eternized without a single change. (Brown, 1995) Thus, in the original meaning the stereotype is the imprint of a fixed style in the printing technique. By analogy, in the social sciences the term is used for schematic, simplistic and hardly changeable attitude towards someone or something. The term originated in the period of emerging and development of racial, ethnic, religious and social intolerance. In essence, stereotyping is wrong and unjustified broad generalization. Therefore, each group stereotype containing emotionally negative assessment of an ethnic, racial, religious or a social group is interpreted as a prejudice. Along with personal stereotypes, cultural norms and social stereotypes are precisely defined in the middle of the last century (Bender & Hastorf, 1950) as one of the most serious prejudice in the perception of a person. This prejudice means that those who make judgments have generalized expectations about how others are motivated, how they behave, think and so on, and applied these norms or stereotypes, without exception, in assessing the others. Various examples and studies have shown that social stereotypes as the embodiment of social norms are among the most powerful determinants in the perception of a person. Going back to the problem of setting the boundaries between personal and social stereotypes, it is easily noticeable that a false strong link between 'self' and 'other' can appear if these entities are assessed and placed into stereotypes based on cultural norms - that is, systematic variations in assessment of 'self' arising from the same source, or norms, as well as systematic variations in the assessment of 'other'. In this case it would be wrong to say that 'being' is projected onto the 'other', but, in fact, the same cultural stereotypes are projected on both the 'being' and the 'other'. In the recent decades, this concept begins to occupy a central place in the humanities, and one of the results is that the concept of 'other' is being on the right track to replace the older, somehow worn out, concept of stereotype. Its further use, without connecting to the 'other', does not bring more of the same critical success and the same modern touch. Newer and more modern concept is compatible with the stereotype and can be used to revive and expand its critical applications. Michael Pickering in the chapter on the concept of 'other' is trying to bring the two concepts in the analytical relationship, claiming that they complement each other and help each other as the conceptual terms in the critical vocabulary. ‘The stereotype and the Other is used to control the ambivalent and to create boundaries. Stereotypes are a way of dealing with the instabilities arising from the division between self and non-self by preserving an illusion of control and order. (Pickering, 2001) 3. POSTCOLONIAL CONCEPT OF ‘OTHER’ IN THE FIRST PART OF THE 20TH CENTURY One of the most important concepts in the entire postcolonial theory, the concept of the 'other', and its reflections in literature, are presented in three novels that represent England of the �first half of the twentieth century in the best way. Heart of Darkness (1902) by Joseph Conrad, A Passage to India (1924) by E.M. Forster and The Heart of the Matter (1948) by Graham Greene serve as a nearly inexhaustible source of examples to show imperialism, colonial relations, the dying empire, Britain's diversity and culture of the enslaved nations, creating inevitable the 'other' and the stereotypes and prejudices that simply thrive in such historical and social circumstances. Heart of Darkness is interpreted and explained from the standpoint of imperialism and racial prejudices, as well as from Conrad’s representation of Africa and Africans through the narrator Marlowe as a demonic 'other'. Complex social relations between Englishmen and Indians in A Passage to India have been discussed through the topic of friendship, innumerable differences of the two cultures and the creation of the 'other' which was dealt by a large number of post-colonial critics. Also, Green's Africa as ‘a place you've dreamed of’, ‘the blank unexplored continent the shape of the human heart’ will not remain untainted by stereotypes and prejudices of both the colonizers and the colonized. What connect these three selected pieces are not only postcolonial themes and 'otherness', but also the affection of their authors to the idea of adventure stories. None of the three authors may not be, strictly speaking, considered a writer of travelogue and adventure novels, but the political and social conditions of the time imposed the issues related to the rule of Empire and the 'size of the nation'. The size of the nation involved the occupied territories, and in the minds of the then politicians and citizens, the British colonies were equated with the British power and wealth. The Empire meant open opportunities, even for writers. They felt that all these distant lands invite the English to come with the promise that they would be rewarded for their English courage and strength. But what is, perhaps, the most important thing, the Empire offered the penmen broadening of horizons both at the moral and geographical level. The Empire meant more personal power, more heroism, greatness available in these remote areas more than at home, but, at the same time, it meant more cruelty, corruption and monstrosity, extraordinarily shown in Conrad's Heart of Darkness. The cults of adventure and implicit imperialism have long been an important part of English life and the centre of cultural habits. There was, for example, the cult of geography, geographical maps and images of distant places, the cult of travel and research, studies of primitive tribes, the cult of the ocean and the British Navy, British sailors, all forms of swimming and sailing, rock climbing, amateur geology and botany, and all those activities that are meant to be British, healthy and heroic, which are thought to contribute to the cult of adventure and reinforce the myth of the great British Empire. Joseph Conrad was, on the one hand, a hero and a favorite to the readers who were thrilled by adventure novels, and, on the other hand, he was a hero of the opposite side. In his early novels we can notice dreams of treasure, gold and diamonds, as well as the abundant use of the motif of adventure reverie. He admitted that his favorite novels of childhood were adventurous, then the biographies of the great explorers, as well as all kinds of geographical texts. This youthful enthusiasm turned into a big disappointment, especially caused by his journey to the Congo in 1890 where he was faced with the Belgian imperialism and this �experience compelled him to write Heart of Darkness. The sharp decline of Conrad interest in adventure ideas, from the boyish enthusiasm to the disappointment in mature age, Martin Green explains with the political history of the empire in decline and with Conrad’s temperament since he was inclined to such disappointments on the other grounds as well. Basically, he is often represented and identified with the European conscience of the time. (Green, 1984) While he created a true cult of the English adventurous heroism thanks to his willing choice of England as a country, he even became the English sailor, he could not hide the disappointment after the First World War. There was nothing that looked like an honorable and courageous view of the war, and that, along with the Allies’ condemnation of colonialism at its end, has created the need for the anti-imperialist literature. However, Conrad had never become anti-imperialist writer. Heart of Darkness has clear motifs of adventure stories and imperialist themes. It is necessary to emphasize that Conrad was far from attacking the English imperialism in this novel. It is quite confidently praised in the opening pages of the novel: 'The river Thames, we are told, had known and served all the men of whom the nation is proud – from Sir Francis Drake to Sir John Franklin, knights all, titled and untitled – the knights – errant of the sea. It had borne all the ships whose names are like jewels flashing in the night of time (..) Hunters for gold or pursuers of fame, they all had gone out on that stream, bearing the sword, and often the torch, messengers of the might within the land, bearers of a spark from the sacred fire. What greatness had not floated on the ebb of that river into the mystery of an unknown earth! The dreams of men, the seed of commonwealths, the germs of empire.' (Conrad, 1994) This is, doubtlessly, one of the most direct and overt glorification of the English history. When Conrad's hero Marlow says ‘this was also one of the dark places of the Earth’ meaning is clearly contrastive - even England used to be uncivilized - and undoubtedly he influences the reader to think of the size which England meanwhile reached. For the setting of his best novel A Passage to India (1924) E. M. Forster chose a country where he was not born, where he did not spend a lot of time, and he had already been a famous novelist who dealt with purely English issues before wrote anything about India. The general topic of the novel is the inability of the Empire to understand and defeat India. At a basic level, it is the story of the British Empire in which Forster ridicules the administrative class. He presents them as people who are totally unable to understand or cooperate with their Indian colleagues and subordinates. They are also, from Forster’s point of view, incapable to create any kind of normal life for themselves in India - except a pale copy of the petty-bourgeois life in England. Martin Green believes that Forster, on the next level, tries to include in the Empire the remnants and traces of the failed Muslim empire and Muslim culture in India. This doubling of the material even more highlights and reinforces the anti-imperialist thesis. (Green, 1984) �One of the Englishmen that Forster describes in his novel is Mr. Turton. During the party which aims to bring the Indians and the English together, he was really trying to make this mission successful. He made pleasant comments, made some occasional joke, but he knew something that would undermine the reputation of each guest and that is why he was very superficial. Miss Derek represents a much more inferior kind of Anglo-Indians since she viewed the whole peninsula as a comic opera. Turton is undoubtedly a more dignified and generous until the moment when an Indian is accused of the harassment an Englishwoman. Then behind the ostensible heroism we can see him becoming blind and deaf. ‘I have had twenty five years experience of this country’- he paused, and 'twenty five years' seemed to fill the waiting room with their staleness and ungenerosity - 'and during those twenty five years I have never known anything but disaster result when English people and Indians attempt to be socially intimate. Intercourse, yes. Courtesy, by all means. Intimacy - never, never.’ (Forster, 1979) It is obvious that Forster is pointing here to the weakness and starch which cast a shadow on the reliable qualities of Anglo-Indians. We come to the so-called Catholic novelist Graham Greene and his famous novel The Heart of the Matter (1948). A number of elements typical of the works of Kipling, Conrad’s motifs of adventure story, post-imperialist environment, as well as similarities with Agatha Christie and her typical characters may be found in this work. The frequent use of the imperialist criteria related to social status is quite surprising. Greene constantly ridicules Wilson and Harris for the lack of strength and bravery, the failure typical of the ruling class. This is rather uncommon since it is in direct opposition to the officially proclaimed 'Catholic' sensitivity. Apart from the obvious (anti) imperialist themes and elements of adventure stories, these three novels have another connecting feature – the same postcolonial feeling of insecurity in the main characters. Thus, for example, Greene’s hero Scobie gets into a lot of suspicious activities and decisions that lead him to a terrible dilemma, a moral crisis and the suicide at the end. Readers cannot get rid of the feeling that the environment in the colony certainly contributes to it - in the blend of the unspoiled natural beauty and the extreme lack of basic living conditions, where, in Greene's words, ‘human nature hasn’t had time to disguise itself‘ and where ‘you could love human beings nearly as God loved them, knowing the worst.’ (Greene, 1971) 4. POSTCOLONIAL WRITING: POSTMODERN BRITISH NOVEL The second half of the twentieth century brings a monumental change of both literary and national identity: English novel has been replaced by a novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. Brian Shaffer (2006) in his study of the novels in English written between 1950 and 2000 notes that what used to be situated on the margins of the canonical �literature is now clearly in its very heart: the novel in the English language is now truly international product with all Anglophone postcolonial writing, as well as with the works of immigrants from former colonies and from all over the world that are read and critically assessed as British. Equally important as English novelists of this period, non-English writers, with no doubt, dictate literary parameters and attract huge attention. In the post-colonial era the questions of identity and nationality have become complex and difficult to determine. This is so apparent in the post-war Britain which copes with the collapse of the Empire followed by the process of national redefinition, both in terms of the international status and in terms of the population structure. Novel, and literature in general, proved to be an excellent source for research of hybrid cultural forms that have emerged in England which is constantly changing and becoming a truly multicultural. However, this is not so simple story that celebrates Britain's diversity in cultural terms. The identities of immigrants described in the post-war novels are often vulnerable, and their experiences in the new society are painful. Dominic Head (2002) explains it by the transitional nature of the postcolonial expression in the twentieth century. Postcolonial identity should be properly understood as a process not as the arrival, while vulnerability may be explained by the hostile nature of the British and especially English society, which is usually described as insensitive and often ruthless to the goals of active multiculturalism. In such social and cultural circumstances, stereotypes and prejudices about the other nations and cultures have become inevitable, and the postcolonial concept of the 'other' has reflected itself in all known forms of the racial, class, political and sexual diversities. One of the first writers of the recent generation who openly called for a change of monocultural definitions of the British national identity was Hanif Kureishi. With partly Asian origin (Pakistani father, English mother), he could personally experience numerous prejudices against Asians in the British society. His, nowadays iconic, call for the inevitable introduction of 'a new way to be British', became the main subject of many of his works, and among others the main subject of his most famous novel, The Buddha of Suburbia (1990). It seems that no novel of social conditions in England created so realistic, vivid and poignant picture of the changes that took place on the island in the seventies and the eighties of the twentieth century. It clearly presented the changes of the term 'Englishness' in the multicultural British society. Two writers of East-Asian origin often associated with 'colored British' writing are Timothy Mo, born in Hong Kong (under the English rule from 1841 to 1997) of Chinese father and English mother and Kazuo Ishiguro, whose both parents are Japanese who emigrated to England. Mo is certainly best known for his humorous novel Sour-sweet (1982) which deals with the Chinese immigrants in London. The food is used as a metaphor for dislocation and rootlessness as the inseparable parts of the emigrant experience, as well as for a shortcut to cultural integration. Mo’s voice is one of the strongest among the writers who explore the impact of colonial rule on the formation of the cultural identity of immigrants in the imperial megalopolis. He shares the same interest with writers of his generation for the problems of migration, dislocation and biculturalism. Mo skillfully depicts the portraits of immigrants who �crossed the path from the colonial periphery to the center of the Empire, but also experienced all the trauma of exile, culture shock and distress that accompany the adaptation to the new environment. Through the story of adapting to a new culture in the novel Sour-sweet he shows what it looks like when England is the 'other' in the eyes of Chinese immigrants. He also presents the inevitable stereotypes and prejudices that undoubtedly color immigrants’ view of England and its inhabitants. Despite a strong commitment to traditionalism and insisting on cultural authenticity that Mo illustrated by numerous examples of the rejection of change and cultural novelties typical for Chinese immigrants in London, it is clear that assimilation is inevitable and that the only way of survival for an individual, for a family, and the entire nation, is the acceptance of changes and the adaptation. The name of Kazuo Ishiguro is often mentioned in the same context of the 'new internationalism' with Timothy Moo and writers of their generation. He is probably best known for his third novel, Remains of the Day (1989). This work was awarded the Man Booker Prize for Fiction in 1989. However, his recent novel When we were orphans (2000) is closer to the international writing. The novel deals with the psychological trauma of the main characters who moved to England from the war-affected Shanghai. Ishiguro’s position of someone who was born in Japan but raised and educated in Britain, gives him the possibility of having 'intriguing impartial or double perspective.' (Head, 2002) Even in his early novels that have Japanese characters, he uses the material with the conventions of Japanese courtesy. This preoccupation is developed in the novel Remains of the Day through the style of his narrator - an aging butler Stevens, and there we can make a comparison between the two types of restraint and diffidence. It is not irrelevant to note that the action of the novel takes place in July 1956, during the Suez crisis, a catastrophic episode of British history that marked the end of its imperial power. Although there is no clear connection between these events and the story in the novel, the feeling of this important historical event hovers all the time. The British writer of South African origin Christopher Hope fits into this group of authors due to the subjects and to the freshness of the new landscapes brought to the contemporary British fiction. Thanks to his South African origin, and to the topics and the views he brought with him, Hope provides a new, different perspective and the critical and artistic judgment about the major religious, political and cultural issues. In the literary circles he is known as highly skilled creator of insightful satire and, therefore, often compared to Jonathan Swift. Using sarcastic humorous observations Hope gives readers a true but disturbing picture of the world that surrounds them. In the novel Darkest England (1996) Christopher Hope applies a typical postmodern technique when the readers’ expectations are completely betrayed because of the inversion and degradation of the usual colonial discourse. The achieved aim is the abolition of the myths of socalled grand narratives and complete reversal of the known concepts and relationships, usually with the help of parody. Using satire and irony, almost inevitable in his works, Hope completely undermines the famous colonial image by sending an African researcher in the 'noble' mission to �England. There is hardly any well-known stereotype of the 'other' that Hope does not use in this work and shows how astute he is in observing and recording all the peculiarities, eccentricities and the 'follies' of a nation. In this funny inversion of the colonial discourse Englishmen become 'others' and all the stereotypes about themselves and ‘others’ created by the representatives of the dominant discourse are reviewed. Bushman David Mungo Booi explores the often narcissistic nation which, although it lost the Empire, it has not lost the imperial arrogance and self-confidence. 5. CONCLUSION The analysis of the selected works from the era of modernism and postmodernism with the regard to the stereotypes and prejudices about the 'other' pointed out that the mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. In the wealth of literary material, especially in postmodern British novel since it occurs in a multicultural environment which provides an excellent basis for stereotypes, particularly negative ones, we can recognize and unveil stereotypes and prejudices about the 'other' that, even unconsciously and to a certain extent, every person in every culture carries within him/herself. The results of this research will be useful for more comprehensive overview of some of the most significant British novels of the twentieth century, especially with the cultural context of their inception and later influence, but also for perception and comprehension of the contemporary British society and culture as a whole. �References: Ashcroft, B., G.Griffiths and H. Tiffin (2000). Post-colonial Studies, The Key Concepts. Oxford: Routledge. Beauvoir, S. ‘Women and the Other’ in Walder, D. (ed.) Literature in the Modern World, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown, R. (1995). Prejudice, Its Social Psychology. Oxford: Blackwell. Conrad, J. (1994). Heart of Darkness. London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1902) Forster, E.M. (1979). A Passage to India, London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1924) Green, M. (1984). The English Novel in the Twentieth Century: The Doom of Empire. London: Routlegde. Greene, G. (1971). The Heart of the Matter. London: Penguin Books. (First published in 1948) Head, D. (2002). The Cambridge Introduction to Modern British Fiction, 1950-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pickering, M. (2001). Stereotyping.Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Shaffer, B. (2006). Reading the Novel in English 1950-2000. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2962 Title A name given to the resource STEREOTYPES AND PREJUDICES ABOUT THE ‘OTHER’ AS AN UNAVOIDABLE PART OF BRITISH LITERATURE AND CULTURE Author Author Petrović-Tomanić, Olivera Abstract A summary of the resource. The concept of the ‘other’ is an inherent part of understanding one’s identity, since people define their roles through their relations toward ‘others’. Generally speaking, the ‘other’ is everyone who is detached and different from one’s self or one’s true nature. ‘Otherness’ became the subject of research in postmodern British literature in terms of its diversity and variety, divergence and disagreement with standard, conventional and established. To demonstrate how prejudices are widespread and what their role in literature is, the selection of British novels of the 20th century has been made with the emphasis on the second part of the century and postmodern British novel. The analysis has proved that stereotypes are indeed unavoidable part of British culture and literature and exposed their particular role in works of literature. The second half of the twentieth century brings seismic shift of literary and national identity: The English novel was replaced by novel written in English language due to importance and to strength. This is the main reason for selection of the British novels of the late 20th century that are representative both for their artistic quality and influence. The analysis of selected works from modern and postmodern periods with the regard to stereotypes and prejudices about 'other' undoubtedly pointed out that mentioned concepts are unavoidable part of British literature and culture, and their numerous variations and roles in literature were clearly demonstrated. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English