323 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/370f01ddcc67586ed52b01eaca1adca1.pdf 5cb2f2c45a18b99ceb4c6bd3c8b909dd PDF Text Text THE ELEMENTS OF REALISM IN GEORGE ELLIOT’S (MARIE ANNE EVANS) MIDDLEMARCH Hyreme Gurra State University of Tetova, Macedonia Article History: Submitted: 12.06.2015 Accepted: 26.06.2015 Abstract This research paper is going to elaborate Middlemarch, one of the greatest works of George Elliot (her real name was Marie Ann Evans). It is one of the major pieces of the thesaurus of British Victorian period. The novel is subtitled as ‘A study of Provincial Life’ which is set in the imaginary town of Middlemarch which is thought to be at the territory of today’s city of Coventry, a little town not far from Oxford. The story takes place between the periods of 1930-1932.Elliot presents the stories of a number of denizens of a small English town on the eve of the Representation of the People Act Bill. This Reform Bill endorsed major changes in the parliament where the number of commoners increased. Middlemarch is her seventh novel, started to be written in 1869.The interruption of her writing was caused by the illness of Thornton Lewes, the son of her partner George Henry Lewes. Elliot’s resumed works; fusing together several stories into coherent whole during 1871-1872, appeared in serial form. The Volume I Edition was published in 1874 and attracted a large publicity. The novel is composed of eight books; it contains also a prelude and a postscript or a finale describing the post-novel fates of the main characters. The narrator is an omniscient third-person singular that narrates the life of ordinary people isn’t granting the echelon of heroic princes and kings. As a realistic novel Middlemarch contains multiple and different characteristics of realism such as; a slow-moving plot, emphasis on morality, casualty, foreshadowing of everyday events, emphasis on psychological optimistic tone, too much details, events are usually plausible. The research methods that have been helpful while conducting this research paper are; narrative and descriptive methods. Key words: Middlemarch, echelon, religion, moral, love, intricacies, politics, etc. 1 �1. Introduction Victorian Literature was produced during the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901) or the Victorian dominion. It introduces a link and transition between the writers of the Romantic Period to the very different literature of the 20th century. (Norton Vol. 2, 1680) The 19th century is often regarded as a high point in British literature as well as in other countries such as France, the United States and Russia. Books, and novels in particular, become ubiquitous, and the “Victorian novelists” created legacy of works with continuing appeal. Novels were the most prevalent form of literature in the early Victorian Period. The major characteristics displayed as the major features of this genre are; morality values, social class divisions, marriage as a basic chapter of life, the character is more important than the plot, slow-moving plot and idealism. George Elliot is one of the major figures of Victorian novel. She did not write only Middlemarch, but she gained a special reputation for her masterpiece Middlemarch and her other works have been highly evaluated. There are many more characteristics that actually highlight the realistic events that the Victorian period uses as its unique features. Middlemarch puts together very fruitful elements that have made it a very precious work of literature even in the post-modern critic reviews announce. Characteristics that enhance the everyday life are part of the Victorian Literature and they mirrored the life of the 19th century. It is also portrayed the difference of gender role and their “gifted rights”, women’s duty to save their body and dignity for the only man in their lives and in the contrary men were not umpired to have more than one sex partner. Women of the time were adjudicated to have less sexual desires than men. They were considered men’s property and were responsible for them. The author being female herself hidden after a male pen name tries to deliver a message to the society to convince women be less dependable on men and enhances the importance of education and emancipation in a woman’s life. (Norton Vol. 2; 1581) Morality as a characteristic of Middlemarch - In order to understand Eliot’s moral view, it is essential to know her understanding of religion. Eliot has been deeply influenced by a number of philosophers such as Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach, Auguste Comte, and Bernard Paris whose views differ from the conventional view of Christianity. “Feuerbach argues that God is the mirror of man because God may be understood as a projection or reflection of humanity’s ideals. Comte wanted to lead man to altruism and did not believe in individualism because he 2 �focused on the order and progress of society.”(Pawar, 2012) Although she grew up in a religious family and attended church services in her childhood, after her mother’s death in 1836, she began to question the concept of religion. (Kadija & Mustafai, 2014) Eliot did not reject the essence of Christian faith and always believed in a sense of belonging; an attachment to a kind of faith as means of coping with loneliness and frustration, of understanding and controlling the mysterious universe. Eliot thinks that man’s moral development depends on his relationship with his fellows, not with God. Man can achieve this as he has the potential of “goodness” known as a Godlike quality. Therefore, she believes in the exaltation of human beings. Eliot was deeply interested in the morality of human relationships and her view does not differ much from traditional Christianity in terms of the choice of the highest good. Morality is based on religion and her points of view we may realize through this entire novel. “As a moralist, Eliot’s aim is to strengthen the determination of human beings. This is not inconsistent with her notion of determinism.” (Çetinkaja, 2003) 2. Society and Social class Elliot is very sharp and straightforward to the subject of the irresponsibility of some people that are of higher class who live better than others not by the merits of their own merited work. This issue is much more examined with controversial issues of the rising class as accepted and affordable of idiotic, selfish and harsh actions. The lower class has to labor for a meager living day by day with no hope of prosperity. This novel views the social class crisis. The society in Middlemarch is like a web of relationships, and it’s hard to distinguish one person or a group. The author is concentrated in showing the intricacies of upper class people. The title of the novel itself tells us that the novel is not about a single or two major characters but a whole society in general. The Garth family feels the supremacy over the others and mock the way the laborers on their farm talk and Mrs. Garth an autodidact, is concerned with the education of her children because she doesn’t want them to talk like the laborers. The drama continues with Fred Vincy, the spoiled son of the major-clerk, who makes Caleb Garth cosign a debt and then blows almost all the money away in his activities and gives only a small sum of money for the debt. This charges Caleb Garth with a debt that he has to pay 3 �with their scars savings. This brings us the message that people of high class feel of their right to do whatever they want to whoever they want. The author is concentrated in showing the intricacies of high class people. 3. The institution of marriage as an element of realism in Middlemarch Marriage is a theme as well as an element of realism, marriage and its pursuit are central concerns in Middlemarch, but different from all other novels marriage is not considered the final source of love and happiness but an order of morality values. Eliot considers the moral growth as an act of abandoning egoistic spiritual concerns and meeting a sympathetic response to the sufferings of the helpless. All the characters of the novel are concerned with marriage. They all tend to fall in love with someone and then get married. The main thing in the marriages of Middlemarch people is that they are all disappointed and disillusioned. Dorothea as the main character suffers from disillusion too. Her expectations about her marriage with Edward Casaubon are totally far behind the reality. The marriages of the secondary characters also tell us stories for example the marriage of Mr. and Mrs. Bulstrode face a marital crisis. Another couple having difficulties uniting are Fred Vincy and Mary Garth, they have loved each other from long ago, but Mary’s different points of view from Vincy and her decision that she won’t marry him without having a stabile profession, but never as a clerk. So they face a very great deal of hardship. And as we may think of it none of the marriages have the fairy happy ending. Middlemarch is one of the few novels that do not portray marriage as romantic and unproblematic relation. Middlemarch can be considered as a construction of liberalistic views opposing the values of Catholicism once married forever married. It supports treaties in favor of divorce. 4. The character is more important than the plot The fact that the characters are more important than the plot can be seen through the story. The novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits. (Kadija&Mustafai, 2014) The whole novel comprises an extensive number of characters. Plot is less important in Middlemarch than in any nineteenth century novel; the character and the idea are at least equally balanced with the plot. The various themes the incompatibility of Dorothea and Casaubon, of Lydgate and Rosamond, the commercial and 4 �social ambition of Bulstrode, and the romantic ambition of the unconvincing Ladislaw are devices to create the necessary tension against which George Elliot’s ideas can be presented as realistic. This is what makes the plot more dramatic and more complex; in contrary the characters are not complex they are simple that express feelings and opinions like ordinary people of real life. There is also represented Eliot’s tendency on shifting the attention to a number plots. Elliot enhances this by creating not only one plot but multiple plots. None of the plots are more important than the others; every one of them has its sub plot. Eliot’s master craft can be highlighted throughout her major concentration on managing to show the importance not only of the major character but also the secondary characters such as Mrs. Cadwallader and Mr. Raphles that change the course of the events. 5. Slow-moving plot as an element of realism Slow-moving plot is a characteristic of realism enhanced in this work. We may realize this when we first see the whole voluminous book containing seven hundred pages. The fact that the book is divided into eight parts tells us that the plot moves very slowly and sometimes different plots are stopped and then later continued. The reason why the plot moves slowly is that there are too much detailed storied and descriptions made. Books are divided and each tells a story involved in a much bigger story. The plot is layered and every sentence has meaning. Except from having a slow-moving plot the book has also multiple plots with large cast of characters. The progress of the plot is slow because of the complex character. Here we have to do with a novel portraying reality whose main intention is to involve the reader in and make him feel his ordinary everyday life in a fictive town of Middlemarch. In such literary genres writers are obliged to include as much details as possible and the intercourse of details ensures the deed of having slow-moving plot. Anyway complex characters don’t really let the reader think of it as slow as soon the first book and the prelude is finished. Therefore we can understand that slowmoving plot is inevitable. 6. Idealism It is another characteristic of Middlemarch. It is portrayed by Garth’s character as a Victorian model (the idealized man that was perfect and made no mistakes) one that would never 5 �work if there was treachery or something like that, he believes Raphles’s words but he still is not sure without seeing him he doesn’t promise Bulstrode not to talk but he says that he won’t. Mary Ann Evans represented female idealism (the idealized female of Victorian society was a woman placed at home, domesticity, motherhood and respectability were considered a sufficient emotional fulfillment) that is actually a failed idealism by one of the major characters such as Dorothea and followed by other secondary characters. An example of the idealism of the young being destroyed by the old is that of Dorothea. This can be seen by her continuing desire to "bear a larger part of the world's misery" or to learn Latin and Greek, both of which are continually thwarted by Casaubon, though this ends after his death, with her discovery of his selfish and suspicious nature, by way of the codicil. Dorothea, the heroine of the novel, is another example of frustrated idealism. Throughout the novel, there are numerous references to her desire to help the poor, though this is more often than not frustrated by her surroundings. The first example is her designs for the cottages; they are dismissed by her sister as being a "fad", and by her uncle as being too expensive. It is only when Sir James Chettam attempts to woo her, and builds the cottages in an attempt to gain favor with her, that her designs are actually carried through. Her idealism is arguably destroyed through her association with Casaubon. The character who has his ambitions and ideals brought most obviously low is Lydgate. The earliest example is when he has to make the choice between Fairbrother and Tyke. Both of these characters are rather poor examples of the clergy. One needs only to look to Lydgate to see an example of idealism being destroyed by the environment in which he is found. At the start of the novel, we are introduced to the "young, poor and ambitious" and most of all idealistic Doctor Lydgate, who has great plans for the fever hospital in Middlemarch. Throughout the novel, however, we see his plans frustrated by the designs of others, though primarily the hypocritical desires of Nicholas Bulstrode. Bulstrode is another example of a character that has had his idealism and destroyed, though not by Middlemarch. He was once a great and trusted minister, but the lure of money from the pawn shop, and the possibility of inheriting all of Ladislaw's mother's money proved too great for him. So as we consider finding similarities between the periods we see the influence of the preceding Romantic Period and the upcoming period of Modernism shifting gently to each other. 6 �It is fully witnessed the way these elements and characteristics of these periods have beautifully interrelated to create something great. So in this case beyond George Eliot a great consideration is to be paid to the Bronte sisters who definitely use many romantic features, but alongside with Elliot, Dickens, Carol and other author use these characteristics mentioned above in their works. 7. Conclusion The novel Middlemarch is composed of a prelude, eight books, eighty-six chapters and a finale. It is a very well-organized novel plotted with one hundred and fifty characters. There is a fluent arrangement of ideas and the cast are given their part from the beginning until the end. In the beginning of every book and also every chapter there is presented a quote that it is somehow related to the plot. There is a finale that represents the fate of every main character of the novel. It is to be realized that the author wants the reader to get a quite simple message, that of being able to judge right and not by moment’s passion and emotions. Dorothea, despite of all her rushing decision she brings, she still keeps herself together and trying to live a happy life in her way showing that money is not the most important key of life. Middlemarch shows a remarkable insight into the social disturbance that resulted from major shifts in social movements of the 19th-century society related to industrial revolutions and economy in general. The book pursues a number of underlying themes, including the social status of women, the nature of marriage, idealism and self interests, education and emancipation, religion versus moral values and hypocrisy, society and political reforms. Throughout the novel, different highly eminent author’s quotes or verses are cited. Some of the characters of the novel are people that make mistakes driven by passion or by the desire for knowledge but anyway they never give up love and happiness even after a great deal of disappointment. Women are highly appreciated and evaluated due to the fact of the author being a woman herself makes this work more remarkable. The only controversial point is her male pen name. Generally saying, this novel mainly deals with women describing their weak and strong points of the gender itself. Another interesting point to be marked is the importance of the man as a key factor of the society related to their evilness, notorious ambitions and irony towards humanity. This novel is a kind of a novel that supports and encourages woman to be full of live, energetic, charismatic and leaders as the example of Dorothea. 7 �Middlemarch Reviews The novel Middlemarch has been praised, evaluated from many eminent authors, magazines and critics. Virginia Woolf gave the book unstinting praise describing it as “the magnificent book with all its imperfection as one of the few English novels written for grown-up people”. Martin Amis and Julian Barnes have cited is as probably the greatest novel in the English language. The poet Emily Dickinson referred to the novel, she wrote in a letter: "What do I think of Middlemarch? What do I think of glory – except that in a few instances 'this mortal [George Eliot] has already put on immortality?" ( the guardian, Feb 2014) The Guardian magazine has estimated Middlemarch to be one of the ten greatest novels of the history, giving it the 21 position. Also the New York Times magazine of this year has again evaluated Middlemarch as one of the ten greatest novel of all time. It is also considered as a pantheon of English written fiction. References Elliot, G, Middlemarch, Wordsworth Classics, Wordsworth Editions Limited, 8, East Street, Ware ,Hertfordshire . Refik Kadija & Jusuf Mustafai “English Romanticism and Victorian Age”,2014 , Luma Grafik The Norton Anthology, English Literature, Ninth Edition- Volume 2 Web-pages: 1. AlexanderAlan,http://www.answers.com/Q/Characteristics_of_Realism_in_literatureLon g (accessed on 07.10.2014) 2. Long, Camilla, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eliot24_January_2010 ( accessed on 07.10.2014) 3. Campbell, Dona, http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753924/( accessed on 07.10.2014) 4. Mulder, Sabine/http:.www.Masterthesis.20Sabin.20Mulder .pdf2012 ( accessed on 07.10.2014 5. http://autocww.colorado.edu/~flc/E64ContentFiles/PeriodsAndStyles/Realism.html 8 �( accessed on 15.10.2014) 6. http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/feb/10/100-best-novels-middlemarch-georgeeliot Journals: 1. McCrum Robert, http://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/mar/16/road-to-middlemarchreview-rebecca-mead/ (accessed on 07.10.2014) Tertiary Literature: 1. Göskev Ç etinkaja, An Analysis of the Moral Development of George Eliot’s Characters in Middlemarch according to Lawrence Kohlbergs’s Theory of Moralization, 2003 (Master thesis) 2. [Anuradha Pawar. THE IMPACT OF LUDWIG FEUERBACH AND AUGUSTE COMTE ON GEORGE ELIOT’S MORAL VISION. Rep Opinion 2012;4(9):1-2]. (ISSN: 1553-9873). http://www.sciencepub.net/report. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2888 Title A name given to the resource THE ELEMENTS OF REALISM IN GEORGE ELLIOT’S (MARIE ANNE EVANS) MIDDLEMARCH Author Author Gurra, Hyreme Abstract A summary of the resource. This research paper is going to elaborate Middlemarch, one of the greatest works of George Elliot (her real name was Marie Ann Evans). It is one of the major pieces of the thesaurus of British Victorian period. The novel is subtitled as ‘A study of Provincial Life’ which is set in the imaginary town of Middlemarch which is thought to be at the territory of today’s city of Coventry, a little town not far from Oxford. The story takes place between the periods of 1930-1932.Elliot presents the stories of a number of denizens of a small English town on the eve of the Representation of the People Act Bill. This Reform Bill endorsed major changes in the parliament where the number of commoners increased. Middlemarch is her seventh novel, started to be written in 1869.The interruption of her writing was caused by the illness of Thornton Lewes, the son of her partner George Henry Lewes. Elliot’s resumed works; fusing together several stories into coherent whole during 1871-1872, appeared in serial form. The Volume I Edition was published in 1874 and attracted a large publicity. The novel is composed of eight books; it contains also a prelude and a postscript or a finale describing the post-novel fates of the main characters. The narrator is an omniscient third-person singular that narrates the life of ordinary people isn’t granting the echelon of heroic princes and kings. As a realistic novel Middlemarch contains multiple and different characteristics of realism such as; a slow-moving plot, emphasis on morality, casualty, foreshadowing of everyday events, emphasis on psychological optimistic tone, too much details, events are usually plausible. The research methods that have been helpful while conducting this research paper are; narrative and descriptive methods. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f58627141e34b5f66912947ec2587da0.pdf f4a88fda20ee444accdce8054b3d0604 PDF Text Text FROM READING TO TEACHING, DULCE ET DECORUM EST IN EFL CLASSROOMS Fahreta Fijuljanin & Samina Dazdarevic University of Novi Pazar, Serbia Article History: Submitted: 15.06.2015 Accepted: 26.06.2015 Abstract This paper aims to represent the usage of literature in foreign language classrooms in order to deploy the students’ knowledge of English literature as an important part of learning English language. Introducing literature in the language classrooms as well as the benefits of reading it make the introduction lines of this paper. The core of the analysis is presented through the poem of Wilfred Owen, Dulce et Decorum est. This postwar poem with its rich vocabulary is a great tool for a didactic initiation and proposition of EFL literature classroom instruction. Key words: Literature, EFL classroom, Dulce et Decorum est, Wilfred Owen, language teaching. 1. Introduction If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his own language, that goes to his heart. ‒Nelson Mandela This paper tends to make the above introducing Mandela’s lines the practical ones, not only theoretical. Due to that aim, we want to represent and pinpoint the important role of literature as a useful resource in EFL classrooms. The main stress will be on the different approaches to the Owen’s poem as well as analyzing the poem itself as a proposal for literature lecturer’s didactic instructions. Literature allows teachers to design and redesign many activities that are going to be a part of a modern and up-to-date classrooms that have to be ‘based on material capable of stimulating greater interest and involvement’ (Carter and Long 1991: 3) and �to ‘provide the stimulus for interaction to take place between the learners among them, and with the teacher’ (Duff and Maley 1990: 3). The whole work is written to encourage and induce a communicative approach in the EFL classrooms as the main goal of communicative approach is the teaching of communicative competence. Communicative competence should involve using language for different purposes and functions, using language according to the setting and participants and to understand different types of texts. Indeed, literary terms and expressions are developed structure of one’s national language with fixed or non-fixed norms in writing. Simply, it is a manifestation of one’s culture. According to that, introducing that ‘manifestation of culture’ in EFL classrooms should be the first and the last aim of any language activity. Dulce et Decorum est, a postwar poem which belongs to the modernist tradition, is a prolific and productive material for being a language teaching resource. The ideas and philosophy can easily be related to the modern world wars caused by procultural and religion marginalization. The poem is a pedagogical potential regarding its structure, content, context and form. The paper consists of three sections. The first is the theoretical one and describes the links between literature and literary content and language learning as well as teaching foreign language. The second part offers a brief picture of the poem and its author explaining the reasons why Dulce et Decorum est is an appropriate for communicative approach. And the final, the most important part, deals with the concrete suggestions and proposals for classroom activities to be carried out. Within this final part, we have also made some critical views on the poem. 2. A Word or Two about Literature and Teaching Language Language teaching is a life-long process whose methods and techniques varied from period to period, from culture to culture, even from individual to individual. Even nowadays, the innovative solutions and perfect methods are being searched for in order to regain a productive student who is willing to involve in global and contemporary philological and cultural thought. Communicative language learning is one of the approaches that gives credit to the use of authentic language, language that is used in a real life context. 2.1 Why teach literature? �As Olga Bottino (1999:211) mentions, the literature today is often seen within the framework of three main models: 1. The cultural model 2. The language model 3. The personal growth model Through the first model which is seen as a transmitting important ideas, feelings, thoughts, views and opinions student is able to learn about ‘the Other’, about something beyond already known, other culture, tradition and customs. This is the very first stage of introducing language into the classroom generally. The second stage, often criticized as a mechanic process, is seen as a tool for teaching grammar and vocabulary structures through the literary texts where every sense of pleasure and beauty can be lost. The third model is student-centered and its aim is to motivate them to read, to personally connect themselves with the certain theme. These models make teaching literature one of the most evaluated and of high importance in learning English as a foreign language. According to Collie and Slater (1990:3), following four reasons why literature is important in EFL classrooms are valuable authentic material, cultural enrichment, language enrichment and personal involvement. On the other hand, Maley (1989:12) lists some of the additional reasons of literature as a potential resource in the language classroom as universality, non-triviality, personal relevance, variety, interest, economy and suggestive power, ambiguity. The greatest task for language teachers is to comprise all of these factors and elements within his personal language teaching. Modern society challenges teachers to design stimulating activities that have to motivate the learners and literature stands for an excellent source for learning language. 2.2 Why poetry? Considering the personal growth of learner, it is of a high importance to begin with reading model of approaching and introducing literature in EFL classrooms. Teachers are able to practice language skills, reading and speaking which is prominent connection between language and literature. Using metaphors, poet is paving its path to the reader and unconsciously is making learning process. After reading, students gain the appreciation of the writer’s composition �structure and develop certain sensitivity for new vocabulary and discover his own capability of analytical thinking. The numerous benefits of using poetry in EFL classrooms have been highlighted by many EFL practitioners and scholars as the following: 1. Saraç (2003:17-20) explains the educational benefits of poetry as to provide readers with a different viewpoint towards language use by going beyond the known usages and rules of grammar, syntax and vocabulary, to trigger unmotivated readers owing to being so open to explorations and different interpretations, to evoke feelings and thoughts in heart and in mind, to make students familiar with figures of speech (i.e. simile, metaphor, irony, personification, imagery, etc.) due to their being a part of daily language use. 2. It can be used as an introducing and practicing language by exposing student to "authentic models-real language in context" (Brumfit & Carter, 1987). According to Tomlinson (1989:42) using poetry in the language process contributes more to the development of all language skills in real contexts than "a total concentration on the presentation and the practice of language items". 3. According to Collie and Slater (1987:72) "using poetry in the language classroom can lead naturally on to freer and creative written expression". 4. Poetry based activities are motivating as they generate strong emotional reactions. As Hess (2003:20) notes, "Entering a literary text, under the guidance of appropriate teaching, brings about the kind of participation almost no other text can produce. When we read, understand, and interpret a poem we learn language through the expansion of our experience with a larger human reality". Moreover, poetry employs powerful language to evoke and exalt special qualities and conditions of life, and suffices readers with feelings. Poetry is one of the most effective and powerful transmitters and representatives of culture. Poems comprise the most various cultural elements - allusions, metaphors, vocabulary, idioms, tone, dialect and accents that are not easy to translate into the mother tongue of a learner. 2.3 A poem to choose Following the curricula of the course on Anglo-American, modern, postmodern and postwar literature, Dulce et Decorum est seemed to stand as unique as its author was. It offers a �picturesque description of a real life conditions then as well as a pedagogical and cultural opportunities to explore its magnificent language and reveal it underlying philosophy. 2.4 Content, form and historical background With its historical background, the content of the poem represents the rich and picturesque sequences of events that make the classroom an audio and visual workshop for students. The poem is one of the most powerful literary works and it is a reflection of Owen’s ironical realism of his own thoughts and personal experiences related to the World War I. It culturally and literally marked one era of silence and issued the problem of patriotism as a life bitterness at the time. It begins with an ironic title taken from the Horace meaning ‘it is sweet and honorable’ which is followed by pro patria mori which means ‘to die for one’s country.’ Owen uses the irony as he believes this is the opposite of the truth, detailing the real but gruesome reality of the war. The most poetic technique used is imagery and visual imagery, to be more specific. Its reading demands a high involvement from the reader and allows students many different conclusions and further discussions. Owen brilliantly uses extensive imagery in this poem which is very productive for students’ imagination. He uses an effective language to convey painful but sincere message of war destructiveness using almost all of the figures of speech. Onomatopoeia and personification as well as metaphor, word connotation, alliteration, hyperbole, exclamations, epithets, simile are highly employed in describing the moments in the poem. Table of proposed tasks and expected responses I Introducing activities Teacher’s task Material tool used or Student’s response or activity �These three famous quotes are shown on the projector: - Mankind must put an end to war This introducing activity can be very before war puts an end to mankind. productive in a way that modern John F. Kennedy - only who is left. Bertrand Russell - society has its own wars. Students are War does not determine who is right - expected to comment on one of the Video mentioned projector favorite. Only the dead have seen the end of the war. quotes, choosing their Discussion about modern life can lead to an excellent introduction into the George Santayana main topic of Owen’s poem Dulce et Students are asked to comment on these Decorum. quotes, to resonate and connect them with contemporary life and happenings, especially in the war zone today. This question may give rise to a myriad Now students are asked to think of a situation where they felt sad, tearful, Images grievous or even distressed. of responses, for example when left by the beloved person, When someone in the family died, or when failing in an exam. On the next step, teacher should offer the first hint related to the poem they should Students are expected to think about examine. the title and give some of the possible Students are asked to deduce from the answers as war, destruction, soldiers, title Dulce et Decorum est Pro Patria glorification of war, bravery, strength, Mori, what does it mean and to give getaway, refugees. possible themes of the poem. Before the students are given the whole Poem Students are now fully dedicated to the text of the poem, the teacher is playing Video audio and visual happening in their �video with the effective reading of the classroom. Literature is not only about poem. In this case, teacher has chosen the reading but also about hearing the Christopher art of poetry. Since this is their first Eccleston video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qB4 time to meet Owen and his poetry, it is cdRgIcB8 ) very important to hear the poem from After the first listening, student are now the native speaker. given the poem in printed version. Teacher reads through the poem slowly and asks student to highlight the unknown words. It is very important to introduce the poem gradually to the students. This is supported by the step when teacher adds some history facts to the material. As the students became familiar with Students shouldn’t be bored because the now they are ‘meeting’ someone new material, teacher should allow them to and are still in the listening phase. The become familiar with the writer. Teacher teacher hadn’t still given them the should take care only to mention relevant assignment. The key moment related to facts about the writer, usually one that are interesting and easy to remember thus Images differing Owen from other authors. Teacher should mention, for example, that Owen was inspired by Keats, Byron, Shelly and other romanticist. Also, he was teaching in France when the war began and his first experience of the war was in hospital treating the wounded soldiers. He was close friend with Siegfried Sassoon. Projector this activity, and any other activities where the authors are mentioned, is the moment when they hear something familiar, in this case the names of famous romanticists Keats, Byron, Shelly and others. They immediately associate familiar authors with the one who is unknown. �Introducing activities are very important in further reading exercises and represent a teacher’s hook for student’s attention. It is a starting point in whether student will be interested in learning new things or not. It is of a high importance for learners to have the opportunity to predict what will next happen and have some idea what they are going to learn and read about. According to Maingay (1983) this is a very important strategy, not only in language, but also in communication. Also, usage of contextual learning can be useful in a way that students would be able to construct meaning and opinion based on their own experience. In that way, when they are asked to think of a sad situation, the teacher brings their personal situation closer to the general and social situation they are going to learn about. One of the main goal of these introducing activities is to develop and replicate a real world experiences within the personal world of a student. It can help and bring relevance and meaning to the reading, helping students to relate to their inner world, world they live in. Teacher should also take care of his vocational priorities in the classroom and pedagogical benefits of each activity involved. The aim of contemporary teachers is to be an interesting, never boring guide in class not an angry and serious supervisor. His basic role is to create a pleasant atmosphere where student will feel free to express his opinions, thoughts and be able to comment and communicate on various topics. II Analyzing activities Teacher’s task Material tool used or Student’s response or activity �Having looked at the pictures before The teacher shows some him, student creates his own inner pictures, impressions and feelings which will be concentrating on the suffering of the transmuted into critiques and opinions. soldiers, during WWI, battlefield pictures where soldiers are Student is expected to react according extremely tired, exhausted, returning from the battle. Pictures Owen describes the harrowing events and to the emotional state of his intellect, to explain why or why not is sweet and right to die for its own land and about asks the following questions: patriotism Is this sweet and right to die for? Why? and its meaning and definition. Student becomes able to Is this a patriotic poem? Why? Why not? define some expression relying on his previous interpretation. Having written down all the adjectives Students are asked to work in a group and identify all the adjectives in the poem and define the feelings that those adjectives from the poem, now they are asked to Images provoke in them. explain the provoked feelings while researching for adjectives. In this way they identify themselves with the author and his emotions. Even though the poem functions as the whole unit, the teacher separates poem into three parts in order to ease its interpretation for students. The first part is from 1-8 verses. Students Images, are asked to work in pairs and find the computer simile, alliteration, onomatopoeia, access rhyming couplets, repetitions, metaphors. Students are obliged to explain all these figures of speech and their cause of usage. Students have got the first concrete task which is to identify and analyze the poem critically. Some of the expected answers would be that simile is used to give a negative image of frail, decrepit and confined soldiers in ‘like old beggars under sacks’. Alliteration and also onomatopoeia is used in ‘knockkneed’. Students should also mention alternate rhyming couplets that run throughout the poem, e.g.’sacks’- ‘backs’/ ‘sludge’- ‘trudge’, and explain �why. In the second part, 8-14 students also get These verses differ from others by their an assignment to identify all above punctuation. Students are expected to mentioned figures of speech used in this notice where the capitalized letters are part of the poem. It is important to used and why, as well as using dash as mention that students are researchers here and they do all the work related to the analyzing the poem with no help of the teacher. Thus, the students become Images, computer access caesural pause and give reasons for its usage. Important figure of speech that overwhelms these verses is metaphor in ‘misty panes’, ‘green sea’, ‘drowning’. capable to critically analyze any kind of Owen uses ‘guttering’ as horrible literature. Access to computers should be sound allowed. coughing helplessly. which mimics the soldier Students anticipate that Owen’s usage In the final part of the poem, 14-28 verses, the teacher is still a guide who monitor his students’ work and researching the poem. One of the question Images for student would be about the simile and its use, about the effect of sibilance, about ‘a friend’ who is addressed as ‘my friend’. of simile is to compare ‘cud’ with the cancer and it is called an animalistic imagery. The interesting part of students’ research is discovering the mysterious ‘my friend’ whom Owen is addressing to. One of the answers was the one who explains that ‘my friend’ is every poet, writer, journalist who writes motivational poems like Jessie Pope. Finally, when the poem is literally and critically analyzed, students are asked to This questions gas given a myriad of mold and define the themes of the poem answers considering their interpretation of Owen’s patriotism, horrors of war, irony of life. viewing of war. like warfare, suffering, �With these analyzing activities, we fragmented the poem in order to develop lexical capability and competence of the students. Their research for vocabulary and literal explanations will make the learner to interact in the classroom being a part of the group. The aim of the assignments they got is to direct students towards a further and deeper understanding of the poetry. III Writing activities Material or Teacher’s task tool used This pre-final activity is related The final part, but not least important though, to their cognitive function. would enclose the interpretation of Owen’s poem. Students do not use their Now students are politely asked to close their eyes while the teacher is playing an audio-effective youtube Student’s response or activity Video video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gd3bhg3O_qE ). eyesight anymore and every new impression and cognition is based on the sense of hearing which, by medical researches, is now multiplied. After the first listening, students are asked to imagine themselves in the battlefield. They are fearful and hopeless. The sadness and destruction is all around them. They are asked to write a poem of Audio their own impression influenced by Owen’s poem. While the students are writing poems, the music of war is heard in the background. Finishing the final step in analyzing the poem, students’ creativity and talent should be expressed and shown which was the initial aim of this course. Listening activities involved in this part of writing can be very useful and represents an immensely memorable interpretation of poetry using the most powerful tool of intellect – imagination. Variety of activities in the classroom will surely guarantee a success. That success is students’ involvement, resonating, understanding and adopting new knowledge. �These activities are intended to be an outline and suggestion for using Dulce et Decorum as a resource of culture in English as a Foreign Language classroom. The basic approaches used in activities are communicative and contextual approach which develop social competence showing how to communicate and behave in foreign culture in foreign language. The teacher is the only one responsible for creating the learner’s autonomy and developing the way of learning and adopting knowledge. 3. Conclusion This paper is one solution of the many suggestions how to implement the poem Dulce et Decorum by Wilfred Owen in EFL classroom. It is our view of a cultural model application in learning foreign language which is designed to transmit important ideas, feelings, thoughts, views and opinions about ‘the Other’, about something beyond already known, other culture, tradition and customs. Thus, literature represents the increasingly popular method in mastering foreign language. Our selection of Dulce et Decorum by Owen is both thematically and formally justified since it is a brave and inspirational poem that is a representation of a cruel, but real war scenes that exist even today. These proposed introducing, analyzing and writing tasks proposed are a proof that the teacher can develop, not only literary, but also lexical, social and communicative competence through poetry. Dulce et Decorum is surely a useful tool for implementation of those competences in EFL classrooms. References Bottino, O. 1999. Literature and Language Learning. Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa. Brumfit, C.J.and A.C. Ronald, eds. 1986. Literature and Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. and M. Long, eds. 1991. Teaching Literature. London: Longman. Collie, J. and S. Slater. 1990. Literature in the Language Classroom: A Resource Book of Ideas and Activities. Cambridge: CUP. �Duff, A. and A. Maley.1990. Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hess, N. 2003. Real Language through Poetry: A formula for Meaning Making. ELT Journal. Maingay, S. 1983. Making Sense of Reading. Hong Kong: Nelson Harrap. Maley, A. 1989. ‘Down from the Pedestal: Literature as Resource’ in Literature and the Learner: Methodological Approaches. Cambridge: Modern English Publications. Sarac, S. 2003. ‘A Suggested Syllabus for the Teaching of Poetry Course in ELT Departments of Turkey’ Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Ankara. Hacettepe University. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2900 Title A name given to the resource FROM READING TO TEACHING, DULCE ET DECORUM EST IN EFL CLASSROOMS Author Author Fijuljanin, Fahreta Dazdarevic, Samina Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to represent the usage of literature in foreign language classrooms in order to deploy the students’ knowledge of English literature as an important part of learning English language. Introducing literature in the language classrooms as well as the benefits of reading it make the introduction lines of this paper. The core of the analysis is presented through the poem of Wilfred Owen, Dulce et Decorum est. This postwar poem with its rich vocabulary is a great tool for a didactic initiation and proposition of EFL literature classroom instruction. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a587f2a0e5370b33e74b06550cc3e004.pdf 29242db68e8d52e5fb6d65c792e8af6e PDF Text Text SUGGESTIONS ON DEVELOPING CHINESE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE IN NET ENVIRONMENT Huiru Duan & Jun Deng & Zheng Zhang Central South University, China Article History: Submitted: 11.06.2015 Accepted: 24.06.2015 Abstract: This paper presents an empirical study on Chinese university students’ intercultural communication competence. The results show that learners should promote their cultural knowledge, intercultural sensitivity, communication strategies and intercultural awareness, etc. Suggestions for the curriculum and pedagogy of intercultural communication and the methods in developing Chinese university students’ intercultural communication competence in net environment are provided based on the research results. Key words: intercultural communication (IC), intercultural communication competence (ICC), ICC questionnaire survey, course design 1. Introduction This is both a theoretical and empirical study of how to develop Chinese university students’ intercultural communication competence (ICC, for short). It is one of the phased objectives we have attained for a provincial project in China, the title of which is “The Course Design of Intercultural Communication (IC, for short) in Net Environment”. This is a case study, in which, we choose Central South University (CSU), a key university in Changsha, Hunan province, China, as the target university and the students in CSU as the experimental subjects. IC is often defined as communication “between people from different national cultures and many scholars limit it to face-to-face communication” (Gudykunst, 2002:179). The situation in China might be different from this definition – it might not always be 1 �possible for Chinese people to have face-to-face communication with people from different cultures. Yet it is important for Chinese people to have a better understanding of the other cultures. With the increasing of globalization and integration of economics, IC becomes more and more popular. It requires people to have more ICC. It is the same case in China. University, as a place to cultivate talents, inevitably, should take the responsibility for developing students’ ICC. As a result, nowadays, it has become a trend in universities to open a series of IC courses to improve university students’ ICC, which ranks as the no. 1 concern for teachers and university students inside and outside the foreign languages teaching field. In the Requirements for the Teaching of College English courses (2007), re-revised by Chinese Ministry of Education, the importance of the university students’ ICC is pointed out.. At the same time, it stresses the importance of cultivating university students’ sensibility and tolerance to cultural differences, dealing with such differences with ease and meeting with the increasingly extensive need of international communication. Therefore, we can find that developing university students’ ICC is one of the main directions and ultimate goals for college English teaching, which can meet the urgent demands for talents in nowadays society. It has triggered the probing interests of teachers for the teaching of IC. Research in ICC is of academic and pragmatic interest to many scholars due to the relevance of the subject in today’s culturally diverse society. (Arasaratham, 2007b). Historically speaking, western scholars have done a lot of research on ICC (Ruben 1976, 1977, 1978, 1989; Kim 1986, 1991; Yum 1988; Collier 1989; Gudykunst 1993, 1995; Spitzberg 1997; Fox 1997; Van de Vijver & Leung 1997; Smith 1999; Stephan, Stephan & Gudykunst 1999; Yoshitake 2002; Arasaranam 2007a). Compared with the study in the west, the IC study in China starts quite late. But recently, it develops very fast. According to an incomplete statistics, since the beginning of 1980s, more than 30 monographs and textbooks on IC have been published and more than 2000 articles have been published (Wenzhong Hu, 2005). Despite the abundance in the study of IC and despite the fact that recently, the study in this field has touched upon the aspect of the development of ICC, there still lacks deep study on ICC. (Shiyong Peng, 2005). This article analyzes the university students’ present situation of ICC by the means of 2 �literature study and empirical study, puts forward suggestions on how to develop Chinese university students’ ICC in net environment. The research questions for this study are (1): What is the level of current Chinese university students’ ICC? (2): How to improve their ICC in an English as a foreign language (EFL) context? 2. The Definitions for Terms The most important term in this article is ICC, which includes three important elementary concepts: culture, communication and competence. Culture can be defined from two points of view. From pragmatic point of view, culture refers to “the way we do things around here”. The other is from academic point of view, which means “a shared system of assumptions, values and beliefs of a people which result in characteristic behaviors”. (Utley, 2011[2004]) Anyone lives under a certain kind of culture. It is the ways in which we have learned to see and think about communication. Communication, according to Gudykunst and Kim (2002), includes a lot of assumptions, such as: “communication is a process involving the encoding and decoding of messages”, “communication takes place at varying levels of awareness”, “every communication message has a content dimension and a relationship dimension”, etc. That is to say, our culture makes us have a set of expectations to the way how people should act and react when we communicate with them. When one is in his own country, there is no exception to those expectations, but when one is placed in a foreign environment, he might find his expectation might not be met with. Then we come to the term competence. This term was first put forward by Chomsky in his distinction between competence and performance. The former refers to an ideal language user’s knowledge on language. Then in language teaching, there is the distinction between linguistic competence and communicative competence. Linguistic competence refers to the ability to produce and interpret meaningful utterances which are formed in accordance with the rules of the language concerned and bear their conventional meaning. (Byram, 1997:10) The concept ‘communicative competence’ was developed by Hymes, who used this concept to criticize Chomsky for his treating of language. Hymes argued that in understanding first language acquisition, one need to pay attention to not only grammatical 3 �competence (linguistic competence), but also the ability to use language appropriately. (Byram, 1997:7) Both linguistic competence and communicative competence are viewed from the first language acquisition point of view. Besides linguistic competence and communicative competence, we have intercultural competence, which, according to Ruben (1976), includes seven dimensions, namely, display of respect, interaction posture, orientation to knowledge, empathy, self-oriented role behavior, interaction management, and tolerance for ambiguity. Things are quite different when more than one language and more than one culture are involved in communication. That is the case in foreign language teaching, as it for sure concerns with both your own culture, language and the culture and language of foreign countries. Therefore, the major aim for foreign language teaching is to develop the students’ ICC. Intercultural communication competence (ICC) refers to the ability which enables a person to interact with people from another country and culture in a foreign language. “They are able to negotiate a mode of communication and interaction which is satisfactory to them and the other and they are able to act as a mediator between people of different cultural origins.” (Byram, 1997: 71) Different scholars hold different opinions on the inclusion elements of ICC. Here in this article, we agree with American scholar Lustig and Koester’s (2007) opinion that divides ICC into three basic elements, namely, knowledge, motivation and action and three levels of competence, namely, cognition, emotion (attitude) and behavior (Hu, 2013). Specifically, in the cognitive level, the communicator needs to obtain the knowledge of both his own country’s and other country’s in politics, economics, geography, history, humanity, religion, customs, etc. In the emotional level, the communicator should be sensitive to cultural differences, tolerant to various kinds of cultures, have deep understanding of one’s own culture and respect other cultures. The ICC in behavior level refers to the linguistic competence, non-linguistic competence, flexibility competence, the competence to deal with interpersonal relationship, psychological adjustment competence, the competence to adapt to environment and the competence of doing things in alien culture. (Hu, 2013:5) In Europe, the Common Reference Frame for European Languages of the European Union takes Byram’s 4 �definition for ICC (see the above), which includes four elements, namely, knowledge, skills, attitude and value, learning competence(1995) and judgment competence (1997). Byram’s mode includes the three aspect elements put forward by American scholars (knowledge, motivation and action). But in the aspect of competence, it adds learning competence and judgment competence. As for the scholars’ divergence between IC and ICC, professor Hu adopts and support Yang Ying and Zhuang Enping’s opinion, which equalizes the two competences and regard them as the same kind of competence. In this way, it can ‘promote people in emancipating their ideas from the narrow vision. In the course of developing students’ ICC, not only can linguistic communicative competence be made attention to, but also can the importance of intercultural awareness, thinking competence, non-linguistic communication and communicative strategies be stressed.” (Yang & Zhuang, 2007:16) Here in this paper we agree with the opinions of professors Hu, Yang & Zhuang. We hold both IC and ICC as the same kind of concept. At the same time, we adopt Byram’s ICC dimension, which is regarded as the major reference frame for the analyzing and fostering of ICC and the setting up of ICC courses. 3. A Summary of the Cultivation Means for Intercultural Communication Competence In the aspect of teaching method, the intercultural training researcher Gudykunst and Hammer (1983) put forward the combination method of knowledge imparting method and experience exploration teaching method. The former method helps students to grasp language and cultural knowledge by means of lectures and debates, and in the mean time, analyze and understand the culture differences. The latter method can promote students’ attitude and performance competence through real or simulated situation, such as role playing, simulation activity and visit, etc. Hongling Zhang (2007) summarized three different kinds of teaching methods: (1) the cultural teaching methods (lecture, case analysis, cultural contrast, theme discussion, scenario simulation), (2) the combination of cultural teaching and foreign languages teaching method (the integration of culture into the analysis of literature works, the teaching of vocabulary, reading, listening, oral English and writing), (3) participant observation method (the experience, interview and analysis in the target language). Besides, 5 �Zhang suggested the fostering of intercultural awareness and sensibility should contrast the development mode of intercultural sensibility put forward by Bennett (1998), i.e., the transformation of the language learners’ stages from escape, resist, reduction of cultural differences to adaptation, replying to cultural differences, and therefore, fulfilling the transition from ethnocentric stage to ethno-relative stage. At the same time, Zhang stressed the importance of cultural study method, which refers to the method which can foster the competence of analyzing and explaining cultural phenomena and having introspection of self study process. Hu (2013) put forward the relevant cultivation means from three aspects, namely, cognition, emotion and competence. He suggested that the ICC in cognition aspect should mainly be obtained from lecture giving, reading, video and website. The ICC in emotional aspect should be obtained from case analysis, field experience, etc. In ability aspect, the linguistic competence can be obtained from the classroom teaching, but some other competence should be fostered in the practical work and life. That is to say, in the teaching of IC, teachers can foster the students’ cognitive competence by resorting to textbooks, video and website materials, promote their attitude by case analysis and improve their linguistic competence.. The fostering of other competence could only be gained from extracurricular activities. Based on the cultivation means and the mode put forward by intercultural communication researchers, we plan to probe into the problems that Chinese university students will face in the course of IC process, make use of the advancing–with-the-time’s teaching resources, means and methods, put forward appropriate teaching plan by making use of empirical research method. 4. The Current Situation of the University Students’ ICC In order to investigate the current situation of the university students’ ICC, Weiwei Fan, Weiping Wu and Renzhong Peng (2013) designed the self-assessment scale on Chinese university students’ ICC, which is based on Byram’s multi-dimensions model of IC (including the dimensions of knowledge, skill, awareness and attitude) and the self-assessment questionnaire on IC compiled by Fantini (2000,2006). The scale includes 40 6 �descriptive items, which adopts a five-point Likert scale to keep the score successively from “0” (no) to “5” (very strong / very much). Fan, etc. (2014) made an investigation of more than 1000 university students by applying to such scale, from which they got 1050 effective questionnaires back and did data analysis. At the same time, they also randomly chose 20 students to do interview. The results of their study shows the following features of university students in ICC: (1) generally the Chinese university students are lack of culture knowledge of foreign countries; (2) they won’t voluntarily adjust their behavior to adapt to foreigners; (3) They are quite short of communicative competence in foreign languages; (4) They don’t know the foreigners’ opinion on them and the reasons why there are prejudice. The investigation objects for Fan, etc. include the university students from the first year to the fourth year. However, in college English teaching, the teaching objects for IC courses are mainly the second year students. In order to get the relevant information, we adopt the five-point Likert evaluation scale for Chinese students’ IC in different dimensions, designed by Fan. ① We randomly chose 202 second year students from 22 different majors in Central South University and did questionnaire investigation. We took back 199 effective questionnaires, among which, there were 99 students who had passed CET-4,②80 students who had passed CET-6, 20 students who hadn’t passed CET-4 and 13 students who had oversea experiences. The following 4 tables reflect the results of the mean value. Table 1: CSU students’ self-assessment table for intercultural knowledge (with 199 samples) Kn1 Kn2 Kn3 Kn4 3.31 3.53 3.04 *2.53 *2.58 *2.39 *2.16 *2.70 *2.52 *2.33 Variance 0.64 0.67 0.81 Mean Kn5 Kn6 Kn7 Kn8 Kn9 Kn10 value 0.92 0.71 7 0.85 0.80 0.82 0.83 0.86 �Table 2: CSU students’ self-assessment table for intercultural attitude (with 199 samples) At1 At2 At3 At4 At5 At6 At7 At8 Mean value 3.76 3.94 4.01 3.99 3.59 3.89 3.84 3.96 variance 1.06 0.93 0.91 0.89 0.83 0.85 0.89 0.86 Table 3: CSU students’ self-assessment table for intercultural skills (with 191 samples) Sk1 Sk2 Sk3 Sk4 Sk5 Sk6 Sk7 Sk8 Sk9 Sk10 Mean 3.5 3.7 *2.3 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.5 *2.7 *2.9 *2.7 value 9 4 1 4 0 0 0 2 8 5 Varianc 1.1 0.8 1.0 0.9 1.0 1.0 e 5 9 5 8 1 8 1.2 0 1.1 2 0.93 Sk1 Sk1 1 2 3.18 3.22 0.89 1.03 0.96 Table 4: CSU students’ self-assessment table for awareness (with 191 samples) Aw1 Aw2 Aw3 Aw4 Aw5 Aw6 Aw7 Aw8 Aw9 Aw10 3.66 3.62 3.41 3.40 3.50 3.16 3.55 3.06 3.38 3.28 variance 0.85 0.81 0.88 0.82 1.19 1.00 0.90 0.95 0.88 0.77 Mean value We can get these investigation results: (1) In the aspect of cognition, generally, the second year students lack understanding of the western cultural religion, taboos, everyday life social intercourse, value, cultural differences and intercultural communicative strategies and skills (mean value＜3). (2) In the aspect of skills, students are seriously short of linguistic competence, the sensibility to cultural differences and the competence in language and 8 �culture study. (mean value＜3). (3) In the aspects of awareness and knowledge, students rank normally ((mean value＞3), which means that students’ level of IC is still at a relatively quite low level, which can not be neglected in teaching. In short, our result is similar to Fan’s, which shows that the result of questionnaire investigation is typical and it can objectively represent the current situation of Chinese university students’ IC level. There is still a long way to go in developing ICC, which should be the focus of Chinese college English teaching. 5. Suggestions on Developing University Students’ ICC in Net Environment The investigation result shows that Chinese university students’ ICC needs to be improved. Recently, Chinese college English education starts to stress on the development of students’ ICC. Under such an environment, a lot of general teaching textbooks have been published. But, after an analysis of the content for the recently-published textbooks, we found there exist a series of problems: some theories and communication examples in the textbook of IC are totally copied from the foreign textbooks; some quoted examples are too old-fashioned and they come apart from the reality; although the emphasis of the textbook include introduction to theory, case analysis and contrast of cultural differences, yet such contents as culture and language learning competence, critical reflective competence, communicative strategies and strategic cultivation are seldom touched upon; some textbooks provide for rich practical cases of IC, yet there are too little introduction of theoretical knowledge on IC; although there presents and analyzes the misunderstanding in IC, yet it is short of a deep-level analysis of the relevant cultural phenomena; at the same time, when there appears misunderstanding in IC, there is no concern of how to negotiate with the other side, how to explain one’s indigenous culture, how to adopt an appropriate expression to satisfy both sides. Here are the suggestions we have for developing university students’ ICC, especially under nowadays’ situation, i.e. we have a wide used net environment. These suggestions will be considered from the perspective of the constituents of ICC, i.e. knowledge, attitude & awareness, and behavior & skill. Firstly, in the knowledge level, we propose wide reading for the obtaining of culture knowledge and IC knowledge. As for the reading materials, not only can we read mass 9 �publications, but also we can get access to wide range of internet readings. At the same time, we can improve the university students’ ICC by opening various kinds of courses. For example, In the Chinese-western culture, we can open the course – Special subjects in Chinese and western cultures, to help students to understand and analyze the surface culture (like life style) and the deep culture (like religion, value, etc.). In the aspect of linguistic knowledge, including speech sounds, vocabulary and sentence structure, we can open the course like English dialects, etymology, lexicology, English Chinese translation respectively. English dialects can make students be familiar with the common variants (such as American English, British English, Indian English, Singapore English, African English, etc ), like their different ways of pronunciation. Etymology and lexicology (in which, the explanation of roots and stems constitutes an important part of the course) can promote students’ vocabulary study, in which culture plays an important role in the explanation of the source, formation and meaning of the words. By the course English Chinese translation, students can acquire syntactic knowledge and the differences between English and Chinese. Besides these, in the teaching of basic English, we can blend the relevant culture knowledge and language knowledge with the language skills (like Audio-Visual skills and reading, writing & translating skills) in the course of teaching. We can provide references, websites for the students and guide them to search, choose, organize and dispose information, which is gained from the materials in textbooks, websites and media. Secondly, in the attitude and awareness level, we propose the elimination of ethnocentrism and the conducting of ectopic thinking and the accepting of alien cultures. The elimination of ethnocentrism means that one should not evaluate the foreign cultures with his own culture and standard. On the contrary, one should think from the other’s side, i.e., conducting ectopic thinking, by making use of case analysis, scenario simulation, debate, interview and giving questionnaires to oversea students. In this way, university students can accept alien culture. But, at the same time, we should be aware of our unique culture identity. We should foster our confidence in culture and our cultivation in national study. In the course of IC, we should extend our excellent traditional culture and ideology, striving for the right of having equal dialogue with foreigners, rather than compromising and discarding (our own culture). 10 �Thirdly, in the behavior and skill level, not only should students have language competence and culture competence, but also they should have the competence for language and culture, communication strategies and skills and the competence for solving problems. All these competence can be practiced and reflected in the teaching and learning activities. By the means of teaching, we should not only go on the traditional classroom teaching (including lectures, debates, etc.) but also should we make full use of the web environment to develop the students’ self-study ability by resorting to some new teaching methods like MOOC, Flipped classroom, etc. We can teach ICC courses by first letting students do self-study, then let them come to classroom to have group discussion, PPT presentation. In this way, students’ subjective initiative can be aroused. The students can make full use of the resources in network laboratory to improve their learning ability, to find problems voluntarily and then, teachers’ guidance to solve the problems will enhance the students’ ICC. We suggest that cultural knowledge and ICC theory should be integrated in the EFL curriculum and textbooks. In the class, teachers are suggested to use case analysis, role-play, discussion and debates. They are also encouraged to use online resources, such as MOOC courses, ICC websites, journal articles, Wechat and chat rooms for exploring and reflecting on these issues, so they will be prepared for effective international communication in the future. 6. Conclusion The developing of ICC is a gradual process. Not only should we impart the knowledge of culture difference, develop students’ critical thinking, guide them in promoting language and communication competence, but also we should help them to develop their own learning competence , the communicative strategies and the adaptability competence. Through this study, we found Chinese university students still need to make great improvement in the aspects of knowledge, attitude, skill and awareness of ICC. Although recently, the IC study has been concerned with fostering ICC in foreign language teaching, yet the study of the training mode is still at its initial stage. We suggest the course design for “IC in college English” be organized according to the theoretical framework of Byram. In the course of teaching, we should combine research and teaching, conducting need analysis according to the result of empirical study. In teaching methods, we should also make 11 �improvement, keeping pace with the time. We should propel and deepen the reform of college English to meet the demand of job market and international communication. ① We have mentioned in the previous part that: this assessment was originally proposed by Byram (1997) and Fantini (2000, 2006), then combined and modified by Fan, Wu & Peng (2013). ② CET-4 is an exam purposed for the non-major students. Usually it was taken when the students are in second year’s study. References Arasaratnam, L.A. Empirical research in intercultural communication competence: A review and recommendation. Australian Journal of Communication, 34, pp 105-117. 2007a. Arasaratnam, L.A. Research in intercultural communication competence. The Journal of International Communication, 13:2. pp66-73. 2007b. Bennett, M. J. Intercultural communication: A current perspective. In M. J. Bennett (Ed.), Basic concepts of intercultural communication: A reader. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press,1998, pp. 1-34. Byram, M. Acquiring intercultural competence. A review of learning theories. In L. Sercu (Ed.) Intercultural Competence. The Secondary School. Vol.I. Aalborg: Aalborg University Press, 1995: 53-69. Collier, M.J. Cultural and intercultural communication competence: Current approaches and directions for future research, International Journal of International Relations, 13, pp287-302. 1989. Fantini, A. E. A central concern: Developing intercultural competence. http://www.sit.edu./publications/docs/competence.pdf, 2000 Fantini, A. E. Exploring and Assessing Intercultural Competence. http://www.sit.edu/SITOccasionalPapers/feil_research_report.pdf,2006 Fox, C. The authenticity of intercultural communication, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 21, pp.85-103. 1997. Gudykunst, W. B. Toward a theory of effective interpersonal and intergroup communication: An anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) perspective, In R.L. Wiseman & J. Koester (eds) Intercultural Communication Competence, Newbury Park, CA:Asge, pp33-71. 12 �1993. Gudykunst, W. B. Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory, in R.L. Wiseman (ed) Intercultural Communication Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 8-58. 1995. Gudykunst, W. B. Intercultural communication. In W. B. Gudykunst, & B. Mody (Eds.), Handbook of international and intercultural communication (pp. 179–182). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 2002. Gudykunst, W.B., & Hammer, M. R. Basic training design: Approaches to intercultural training. In D. Landis & R. W. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercutlural training, Vol.1:Issues in theory and design. New York: Pergamon Press, 1983, pp.118-154. Gudykunst, W. B. and Kim, Y. Communicating with strangers: an approach to intercultural communications (4th Edition), New York: McGraw-Hill. 2002. Kim, Y.Y. Understanding the social structure of intergroup communication, in W. B. Gudykunst (ed) Integroup Communication, London: Edward Amold, pp. 86-95.1986. Kim, Y.Y. Intercultural communication competence: A systems-theoretical view, in S.Ting-Toomey & F. Lorzenny (eds) Cross-cultural Interpersonal Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp. 259-275. 1991. Lustig, M. W. & Koester, J. Intercultural competence. Interpersona Communication across Cultures (5th Ed.).Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2007 Ruben, B.D. Assessing communication competency for intercultural adaptation. Group & Organization Studies, 1, pp. 334-354. 1976. Ruben, B.D. Guidelines for cross-cultural effectiveness. Group & Organization Studies, 2, pp 470-479. 1977. Ruben, B.D. Human communication and cross-cultural effectiveness, Intercultural & International Communication Annual, 4, pp. 95-105. 1978. Ruben, B.D. The study of cross-cultural competence: Traditions and contemporary issues, International Journal of International Relations, 13, pp. 229-240. 1989. Smith, L.R. Intercultural network theory: A cross-cultural paradigmatic approach to acculturation, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, pp.629-658. 1999. Spitzberg, B.H. A model of intercultural communication competence, in L.A.Samovar & R.E.Porter (eds) Intercultural Communication: A Reader, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, pp. 379-391. 1997. Stephen, W.G., Stephan, C.W. & Gudykunst, W.B. Anxiety in intergroup relations: A comparison of anxiety/uncertainty management theory and integrated threat theory, 13 �International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23, pp.613-628. 1999. Utley, D. Intercultural resource pack: intercultural communication resources for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2011[2004]. Van de Vijver, F. & Leung, K. Methods and Data Analysis for Cross-cultural Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1997. Yoshitake, M. Anxiety/uncertainty management (AUM) theory: A critical examination of an intercultural communication theory, Intercultural Communication Studies, 11, pp.177 -193.2002. Yum, J.O.Network theory in intercultural communication, in Y.Y. Kim & W.B. Gudykunst (eds) Theories in Intercultural Communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage, pp239-258. 1988. Department of higher education, Chinese ministry of education. The requirement for the teaching of college English courses. Beijing: Higher Education Press. 2007. Fan, Weiwei, Wu, Weiping, Peng Renzhong. The dimensions of Chinese university students’ intercultural competence and analysis of assessment scale. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2013(4):581-592. Fan, Weiwei, Wu, Weiping, Peng Renzhong. An analysis of the self-assessment of Chinese university students’ intercultural competence. Teaching Research, 2014:53-59. Hu, Wenzhong. The empirical study of intercultural communication. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2005, 37(5):323-327. Hu, Wenzhong. How to locate the position of intercultural communication in foreign language teaching. Foreign Language World, 2013(6):2-8. Peng, Shiyong. The current situation, problems and suggestions for Chinese intercultural communication study. Journal of Hunan University: Social Science, 2005, 19 (4):86-91. Yang Ying., Zhuang Enping, The construction of the ability framework of intercultural communication competence in foreign language teaching. Foreign Language World, 2007:13-21. Zhang, Hongling. Intercultural foreign language teaching. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press. 2007. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2887 Title A name given to the resource SUGGESTIONS ON DEVELOPING CHINESE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE IN NET ENVIRONMENT Author Author Duan, Huiru Deng, Jun Zhang, Zheng Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents an empirical study on Chinese university students’ intercultural communication competence. The results show that learners should promote their cultural knowledge, intercultural sensitivity, communication strategies and intercultural awareness, etc. Suggestions for the curriculum and pedagogy of intercultural communication and the methods in developing Chinese university students’ intercultural communication competence in net environment are provided based on the research results. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c1a1727e073774bb33d86af5e1d683d3.pdf 9b8fb69ba777b7730dea5ba4e46e1e4d PDF Text Text LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION FOR MOBILITY: INSIGHT FROM THE IEREST PROJECT Ana Beaven & Lucia Livatino Università di Bologna, Italy Article History: Submitted: 07.06.2015 Accepted: 21.06.2015 Abstract The increase in the number of students taking part in study abroad programmes worldwide has highlighted the need to offer intercultural preparation for this specific group of students. The IEREST European project (Intercultural Education Resources for Erasmus Students and their Teachers) has produced a set of teaching resources to help students benefit from their sojourn in terms of personal growth and intercultural learning. The theoretical approach underlying such resources is linked to a concept of interculturality that promotes the idea of multiple identities, and to the notion that identities are co-constructed in interaction (Holiday, 2011, 2013). Furthermore, the learners are taught to recognize the subjectivity and instability of worldviews. In this sense, the activities are culture-general, and can be taught to students regardless of their specific destination. This paper presents the activity “Meeting people abroad”. Although originally not designed for the language classroom, it was adapted for use in an Englishlanguage course for a group of future Erasmus students. Central to the activity is the learners’ engagement with other mobile students through the task of carrying out an interview from potentially non-essentialist perspectives. The target language is thus seen not as an aim in itself, but as the means to develop the learners’ intercultural communication skills and understanding. In their new format for the foreign language classroom, the activity was tested at the University of Bologna in September 2014. Feedback was collected through focus groups at the end of the course, and was used to evaluate the materials and reflect on ways of introducing the intercultural in foreign language education (Byram, 2008), in particular in the context of student mobility. �1. Introduction Since its creation in 1987, the Erasmus programme has enabled over three million students to study abroad for a period between three and twelve months as part of their university studies. Nevertheless, often the only preparation they receiveis in terms of language courses to enable them to study in the target language or learn the basics of the local language, when English is the medium of instruction. Nevertheless, it has become increasingly clear that studying abroad doesnot provide only an academic experience, but also – and perhaps primarily – an intercultural one. It is also evident from the literature that contact with people from different cultures does not in itself ensure the reduction of stereotypical perceptions nor the development of intercultural skills (Byram & Zarate, 1995; Coleman, 1998; Alred et al, 2003;Shaules, 2007) and scholars have called for preparation and support actions which can be help students from this point of view(Abdallah-Pretceille, 2008). It was therefore as an answer to this call that the IEREST (Intercultural Education Resources for Erasmus Students and their Teachers) European project1 was developed, aiming at a producing a set of teaching resources to help students benefit as much as possible from their study abroad experience in terms of their personal and intercultural development. The IEREST resources, however, were not developed for foreign language teaching. Nevertheless, we believe that they can fruitfully be adapted to the language classroom, in order to offer mobile students effective preparation from an intercultural as well as linguistic point of view. In the next sections of this paper, we will offer a brief outline of the theoretical underpinnings of the IEREST resources, followed by an overview of intercultural language teaching. We will then describe how one of the pre-departure activities was adapted to the English language classroom, and discuss the feedback provided by the students during the focus-group that followed the course. Finally, we will consider the implications of our pilot study. 2. The IEREST educational resources As mentioned above, the resources produced within the IEREST project, called ‘intercultural paths’, are designed to be taught before, during and after the sojourn abroad. They are ‘culture general’ in that they prepare mobile students for their intercultural experience rather than to travel to a specific destination. The materials, written in English, are published as Open Educational Resources and can therefore be adapted and translated into other languages. However, they have not been designed as language learning materials. �The theoretical approach underlying such resources is linked to a critical approach to interculturality, and in particular to culture, identity and power. 2.1 Culture Culture is often conceptualised from an essentialist perspective, whereby people are identified according to the ‘essence’ of their national culture (or “large culture”). This is often a stereotypical and reified concept of culture, which constrains individuals and reduces them to less than what they are. However, culture can also be conceptualised – and this is the IEREST approach – from a non-essentialist perspective. Cultures are therefore seen not as something solid and external to the individuals that ‘belong’ to it, but rather, from a social-constructivist viewpoint, as something that is co-created, agreed upon or transformed by individuals in interaction. Thus, the concept of “small culture” (Holliday, 1999) signifying any cohesive grouping (e.g., a neighbourhood, a work group, an Erasmus community) can be a useful notion to attempt to understand social behaviour. 2.2 Multiple identities Here, identity (like culture) is not seen as something solid and unchangeable, but rather as something that is constructed in context and that changes with context. People constantly (re)negotiate and (re)construct who they are in interaction with others (Holiday, 2011, 2013). Age, gender, social class, language or ethnic background, among others, all contribute to the creation of impressions of oneself and of others. People therefore construct a multiplicity of identities, where some of these aspects may be more relevant than others in different contexts, and can change. 2.3 Power in language Finally, an underlying idea of the project is that certain discourses limit the opportunity that some people have to enjoy multiplicity and to construct their identities in their own terms. Therefore, a critical approach is needed to deconstruct dominant discourses about otherness (Andreotti& de Souza, 2008; Guilherme, 2002). 3. Intercultural language teaching Before describing how the activities were adapted to the foreign language classroom for this specific study, a brief excursus into intercultural language teaching is necessary. Foreign language teaching, particularly since the advent of the communicative approach in the 1970’s, has been seen primarily in its instrumental role of enabling people to communicate �across languages in a socially appropriate way. In this context, culture has been seen as corollary to the teaching of effective communication with people from a specific cultural background, usually meaning specific countries where the target language is spoken. Thus, culture has been – and still is in much foreign language teaching – seen as equivalent to knowledge about specific countries, their high culture (mainly literature), history, landmarks and norms. In this perspective, study abroad has been seen as the ideal opportunity to learn a language and its ‘culture’, used in the singular. The move to an intercultural approach to language education (Byram 1989, 1997) has attempted to shift the emphasis from learning about a target culture to acquiring, through and in the foreign language, the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to be an interculturally competent person. More recently, Risager’s transnational paradigm (2007) questioned the one-to-one correspondence between a language and its (national) culture. Finally, some scholars have emphasised the need to place identity at the core of intercultural language teaching (Guilherme, 2002; Block, 2007; Norton and Toohey, 2011). It is within this framework that the IEREST materials – with the necessary adaptation – are considered highly suitable to the foreign language classroom. 4. The study This paper describes the adaptation and implementation of one of the pre-departure activities entitled “Meeting people abroad”, whose objectives are: • to enable students to critically respond to situations where they experience a need tomeet – or on the contrary avoid – “local” people, other international students, or other co-nationals; • to enable students tointeract with people from other cultural backgrounds from potentially non-essentialist perspectives. The activity was taught as part of a pilot Englishlanguagecourse in the autumn of 2014 at the University of Bologna, to a group of seven future Erasmus students. The students’ level in English was intermediate (B1-B1+ of the Common European Framework of Reference). The course lasted three lessons of three hours each for a total of nine hours. 4.1 The tasks The activity includes three tasks. In the first, the students are asked to analyse the brochures and/or websites of their destination country or university, including photographs or descriptions of the local people. Through this, they become aware of ways of stereotyping or idealising others. In the second task, the students analyse a video of an Erasmus student in Portugal interviewing her fellow students. By concentrating on aspects of culture that the interviewer (or the interviewees) �choose to highlight or ignore, the students become aware of how people provide their listeners with a subjective view of themselves or of others. The students then carry out and video-record an interview to an incoming student from their destination country before they come to class. In class, they analyse the video-recordings in groups, paying attention to how successful they were to avoid an essentialist interviewing style, to whether the interviewee used stereotypes, and to how stereotyping can happen as a result of leading questions asked by the interviewers. During the course described here, the original intercultural objectives were supplemented with linguistic objectives as follows: Intercultural objectives Task 1 Linguistic objectives Understanding ways of stereotyping and Practising idealising others comprehension skills on authentic materials for authentic purposes Oral production/interaction during class discussion Pragmatics: hedging and mitigation of claims though the use of modals, adverbial phrases and indirect speech. Task 2 Interpreting what people say about their Practising written comprehension skills culture as evidence of what they wish (English subtitles) and oral others to see about themselves, and which (inter)comprehension(Portuguese and may not be applicable to others from that French) culture or group Note-taking on completing a grid and during mini-lecture Oral production/interaction during group discussion Task 3 Interacting with othersby adopting a non- Pragmatics: essentialist style. Noticing Expressing politeness how (interview preparation) stereotyping can be the result of a leading Morphosyntax: Question formation question. Reflect on ways in which (interview preparation) stereotyping can be deconstructed. Language/communication awareness: Interacting through English as Lingua Franca (interview preparation) Oral interaction during the interviews �Oral production/interaction during class discussion Table 1 – Intercultural and language objectives. 4.2 Data collection Following the 9-hour course, the students were asked to take part in a focus group to collect their feedback. The students were asked about their perceived learning resulting from the interviewing task, their intercultural and language learning, and their overall satisfaction with the course. 4.3 Feedback on the interview task All the students stated they had enjoyed carrying out an interview in English to an incoming student from their destination country. Specifically, one student (Elena) – who had interviewed two Belgian students at the same time – commented on her ability to notice contradictions between the students, and to think critically about this: ‘So she underlined the positive aspects, but when the other guy came, she said “No, for me it’s not the same”… there were differences and they came up […]Before doing this course, I wouldn’t have noticed these aspects, so I would hear their explanations without being critical to what she was saying to me.’ Another student (Andrea) had noticed how his leading question had been the cause of his interviewee’s generalisation about ‘the English’: ‘I tried not to ask something that generalised. I think only the first question: “What’s the relationship between the English people and Erasmus people”, maybe she tried to answer me in a contextual way, in a … “well, we aren’t very… we live separately, but if you want to live the English life, we’re open to other people, to other cultures”.’ Michel reported becoming aware of how making questions more specific can help one’s interlocutor provide answers which avoid generalisations: ‘I noticed when she said for three times “it depends”, in three different questions. I wouldn’t have noticed that before, and so when she said “it depends” I was trying to be �more specific with the questions, like “it depends on what?” Before I wouldn’t have focused on this.’ Finally, Francesca commented on how she was able to interpret what her interlocutor said in the light of the theoretical concepts discussed in class: ‘In my experience this aspect came when we talked about the traditional customs in Portugal, and she told me that some people like and some people don’t like the traditional customs. So she [wanted me to understand] that each experience is personal […] She wants [me] to understand that I [shouldn’t] listen to one part of the [general] context, I must hear one side and then another side.’ 4.4. Language Learning In terms of language learning, and despite the brevity of the course, the students appreciated the possibility to practice aspects of language related to communicating in real contexts, and get a taste of what they would have to do once abroad: ‘Trying to speak with other international students, because usually we can’t do this at university, because usually I attend with other Italian students, so this is an opportunity to contact, to speak with international students.’ (Matteo) ‘Also learning about starting a conversation. Because answering a question is easier than starting a new conversation. So starting it, and keeping it going, yeah… (Michel) ‘… And find a way to structure the phrases, so if I don’t remember a word, I try another way. Now I feel more confident with English.’ (Francesca) ‘Maybe also more brave to speak with others.’ (Elena) ‘Being able to speak in class, and speak about topics we don’t usually discuss in language lessons.’ (Andrea) 4.5 Intercultural learning �The intercultural objectives had been a novelty to all of the participants, who felt that this facet of the course was particularly useful for their preparation to go abroad. They mentioned having developed their awareness of the dangers of generalisations (both positive and negative) as well as being more open to listening to what their interlocutors said rather than jumping to conclusions. More than a specific preparation, what I got out of this is a forma mentis, about the idea of arriving in a different country, different from mine, and in particular relating to others and trying not to generalise… “We, Italians, we do things this way”. Maybe being more open, but also more critical, more careful about what others tell us, but also what we tell others… maybe we’ll notice that others generalise “oh, yes, we’re like this…”, but having done this course, we’ll try not to do that. (Elena) I underline the fact that now we’re much more careful about what we hear, but also what we say and how we say it… It was useful to interview an Erasmus student, because during the interview I paid a lot of attention to when she generalised, but also to when I had to reformulate a sentence in order to avoid generalising. (Michel) 5. Conclusion The present study has shown how intercultural language education should not imply prioritising the language over the intercultural objectives by, for example, adding ‘token’ intercultural aims to a pre-existing language syllabus. Acknowledging the importance of intercultural development as a way to access other worldviews is crucial when preparing students to study abroad, but not only. After all, the foreign language classroom is the ideal place to explore and put into practice intercultural communication. As Liddicoat and Scarino put it, “learners are from the beginning of their learning users of language, in fact users of languages, through which they present themselves and construct and explore their worlds. Language is not a thing to be studied but a way of seeing, understanding, and communicating about the world” (Liddicoat & Scarino 2013). References Abdallah-Pretceille, M. (2008) Mobilité sans conscience…! In F. Dervin and M. Byram (Eds.) Echangesetmobilitésacadémiques – Quelbilan?(pp. 215-231) Paris: L’Harmattan. �Alred, G., M. Byram, and M. Fleming (Eds.)(2003). Intercultural Experience and Education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Andreotti, V. & de Souza, L.M.T.M. (2008). Translating theory into practice and walking minefields: lessons from the project ‘Through Other Eyes’. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning. 1(1), 23-36. Block, D. (2007). Second language identities. London: Continuum. Byram, M. (1989). Intercultural education and foreign language teaching.World Studies Journal,7(2), 4-7. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. and Zarate, G (1995) Young people facing difference – Some proposals for teachers. Council of Europe Publishing. Coleman, J.A. (1998) Language learning and study abroad: the European perspective. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 4, 1-21. Guilherme, M. (2002). Critical citizens for an intercultural world. Foreign language education as cultural politics. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Holliday, A. R. (1999). Small cultures. Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 237-64. Holliday, A. R. (2011). Intercultural communication & ideology. London: Sage. Holliday, A. R. (2013). Understanding intercultural communication: negotiating a grammar of culture. London: Routledge. Liddicoat, A.J. and A. Sacrino (2013) Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning. New York: Wiley and Sons. Norton, B., &Toohey, K. (2011). Identity, language learning, and social change. Language Teaching, 44(4), 412–446. Risager, K., 2007. Language and Culture Pedagogy: From a National to a Transnational Paradigm. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Shaules, J. (2007) Deep Culture. The Hidden Challenges of Global Living. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 1www.ierest-project.eu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2885 Title A name given to the resource LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION FOR MOBILITY: INSIGHT FROM THE IEREST PROJECT Author Author Beaven, Ana Livatino, Lucia Abstract A summary of the resource. The increase in the number of students taking part in study abroad programmes worldwide has highlighted the need to offer intercultural preparation for this specific group of students. The IEREST European project (Intercultural Education Resources for Erasmus Students and their Teachers) has produced a set of teaching resources to help students benefit from their sojourn in terms of personal growth and intercultural learning. The theoretical approach underlying such resources is linked to a concept of interculturality that promotes the idea of multiple identities, and to the notion that identities are co-constructed in interaction (Holiday, 2011, 2013). Furthermore, the learners are taught to recognize the subjectivity and instability of worldviews. In this sense, the activities are culture-general, and can be taught to students regardless of their specific destination. This paper presents the activity “Meeting people abroad”. Although originally not designed for the language classroom, it was adapted for use in an Englishlanguage course for a group of future Erasmus students. Central to the activity is the learners’ engagement with other mobile students through the task of carrying out an interview from potentially non-essentialist perspectives. The target language is thus seen not as an aim in itself, but as the means to develop the learners’ intercultural communication skills and understanding. In their new format for the foreign language classroom, the activity was tested at the University of Bologna in September 2014. Feedback was collected through focus groups at the end of the course, and was used to evaluate the materials and reflect on ways of introducing the intercultural in foreign language education (Byram, 2008), in particular in the context of student mobility. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e567382af27c499e7240f8b4a9d3cb3f.pdf cef0633bb886c7618e503ccdec1921de PDF Text Text TEACHERS AS PATIENCE STONES: A METAPHOR ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF EFL TEACHERS IN TURKEY Melike Baş & Betül Bal-Gezegin Amasya University, Turkey Article History: Submitted: 02.06.2015 Accepted: 18.06.2015 Abstract With the application of cognitive linguistics to language teaching and learning, metaphor analysis has gained interest among researchers in recent years. This study, which is conducted in an EFL language environment in Turkey, aims to investigate students’ metaphors that underlie their conceptualizations on English language teachers. Participants are students of English (n=83) studying at a university in Turkey during 2014-2015 academic year. Students were first instructed on the concept of metaphor, then they were asked to complete the metaphor elicitation sheet including the prompt “An English teacher is like ... because ...” Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Conceptual Metaphor Theory defined and developed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), who consider metaphors as mental constructs that shape human thinking about the world and reality, is used as the theoretical background for this study. The linguistic metaphors provided by the participants were first categorized thematically and then examined in parallel with previous studies (Oxford et al., 1998; Saban et al., 2006). Results revealed a variety of underlying conceptualizations that reflect different individual mappings across conceptual domains. The findings yielded new categories, which imply that culture as well as students’ personal experiences might shape their perceptions on language teachers. The study is significant in the sense that it highlights the use of metaphor as an effective cognitive tool to better understand students’ beliefs of their language teachers and their language learning process. In addition, it provides an opportunity for the teachers to have a self-reflection on their roles as language teachers. Key words: conceptual metaphor, learner perception, English language teacher, EFL, Turkish 1 �1. Introduction With the rise of cognitive approach to language learning in recent years, the number of studies focusing on learners’ beliefs has increased dramatically. The study of perception and beliefs in language learning is important since it provides the evidence to figure out how language learners view the learning context. There are several ways which enable researchers to elicit the beliefs and conceptualizations of learners and practitioners. One increasingly popular method is metaphor analysis, whereby participants generate metaphors for relevant activities and concepts and then actively work on them. Metaphors, in the sense of Lakoff & Johnson (1980a), are fundamental mental operations by which we understand the world through mapping from known domains to unknown domains, and that some conceptualizations are metaphorically organized in our minds. Cognitive theory sees metaphor as a process and a product of mapping across concept domains. For instance, in the conceptual metaphor TIME IS MONEY, time (a more abstract entity) is viewed as money (a more concrete entity) as in the examples “You’re wasting my time”,“You’re runningout of time”, etc. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980b, p.454). Conceptual metaphors are usually expressed in an A IS B format, using capital letters. It is believed that metaphors of language learners may help teachers to develop professionally by revealing students’ experiences of language learning activities and situations (see for example, Cameron, 2003; Cortazzi& Jin, 1999; de Guerrero &Villamil, 2002). Students’ beliefs and perceptions of their teachers can be an indicator of their attitudes to language learning and even their overall success of the target language. It is important for the language teachers to find out these hidden perceptions which might help them to obtain more insights on their students’ overall perceptions of language teachers. This, in turn, helps the teachers to foster language learning and focus on the reasons of negative attitudes and eliminate them as possible. There are a number of studies that investigate how teachers of English are metaphorically conceptualized by both students and teachers themselves. These studies can be grouped into three in terms of the providers of metaphors on language teachers, namely, (prospective) teachers themselves, students, and both teachers and students. It should be noted that the majority of studies on metaphor analysis in EFL contexts (see e.g. Ellis, 2001, 2003; Zapata & Lacorte, 2007; Erkmen, 2010) have centered on metaphors from teachers, not the language learners themselves except for a few studies (e.g. Ahkemoğlu, 2011). The studies that explore metaphors from teachers’ perspectives generally aim to help the teachers to 2 �express and “construct representations of themselves and their experience” (Kramsch, 2003, p.125) and “to promote awareness of professional practice” (Cortazzi& Jin, 1999, p.155). Within this framework, this study aims to explore students’ beliefs about their English language teachers through an analysis of metaphors they produced within an EFL context with the guidance of the research question “What metaphorical images do Turkish EFL students use to describe the English language teachers?” 2. Methodology In this study, we follow the general approach to metaphor collection and analysis by Cameron & Low (1999), which involves "collecting examples of linguistic metaphors...,generalizing from them to the conceptual metaphors they exemplify, and using the result to suggest understandings or thought patterns which construct or constrain people's beliefs and actions” (p.88). 2.1. Participants & Setting The study took place in the Department of Foreign Language Studies at Amasya University in Turkey. The participants were 83 preparatory class students studying English at 2014-15 academic years. The participants’ age ranged between 18 and 20. They had been studying English since their secondary school, and their English level could be considered A1 (CEFR). 2.2. Instrument and Data Collection Data were collected through a self-designed metaphor elicitation sheet adopted from previous studies (Oxford et al, 2006; Saban et al., 2006). The students were first presented with a general definition and description of the concept of metaphor followed by examples and excerpts obtained from previous studies (e.g. a child is like a notebook because whatever falls on it makes a trace). As the next step, the metaphor elicitation sheets written in students’ first language were distributed. The sheet aimed to elicit their metaphors of English teachers via the prompt “An English teacher is (like) ... because … .” This prompt requires the participants to express their ideas about what they believe of the language teachers. This personal metaphorical reasoning was later used to classify the metaphors in the data analysis phase and understand the rationale for choosing these specific metaphors. 2.3. Data Analysis 3 �The metaphor analysis methodology employed by Saban, Koçbeker & Saban (2006) and Oxford et al. (1998) was adopted in the study. The steps followed for data analysis are: i) listing the collected examples of linguistic metaphors (e.g. Student-13 “meyve” [fruit]), ii) identifying main categories of metaphors in accordance with the students’ rationale behind choosing specific metaphors (e.g. teacher as a basic need-fruit), iii) constructing conceptual themes based on the main categories identified (e.g. SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE, GUIDE, etc.), iv) grouping the metaphors under main themes, and v) establishing inter-rater reliability. In order to ensure inter-rater reliability, we asked three outside researchers to independently review eight categories obtained from the data. Discrepancies were discussed and a consensus was reached on for disagreements. 3. Findings and Discussion The analysis of data yielded 67 properly-structured metaphors. These metaphors are grouped under 15 conceptual categories. Table-1 presents these categories, with their definitions, frequencies and linguistic metaphors in each category. Table-1 Teacher metaphors by students and their descriptions Categories 1. Definition n Examples teacher as a Teacher provides guidance 12 guide in a desert, guide and directs students, helps director, family, guide, them achieve goals, supports map, pilot, star, the sun, the students, corrects them supporter, mother, when necessary worker who guides the mine workers in a coal mine 2. teacher as the Teacher is the source and/or 11 book, transporter, source of conduit of language: primary school teacher, knowledge dispenses language computer, daily knowledge to students newspaper, library, parents, treasure, a collection of all the 4 �books in the world 3. teacher as basic Teacher is a vital element to 8 fruit, pencil lead, rain, need survive. She meets the basic fountain, water, water needs of the students learning and oxygen a language 4. teacher as a Teacher is someone who has patient person to be very patient in the 7 mother, Darwin, patience stone process of teaching 5. teacher as an Teacher provides the students 5 transporter on a river, instrument with the necessary tools and piano, brain, key, opportunities to learn the window language 6. 7. teacher as a care Teacher takes care of the giver/repairer students especially when they care unit nurse, are in need of correction maintenance teacher as a Teacher takes care of the cultivator growth and improvement of 4 nurse, doctor, intensive 4 gardener, farmer 3 brain, God, boss the students. Teacher's job is to construct the optimal environment in which the inner nature of the mind could grow and nourish 8. teacher as an Teacher is the superior power, authority authoritative figure, and the decision maker. She controls the students 9. teacher as an Teacher is funny, friendly, entertainer energetic, entertaining the 3 soap opera, smurfs, toys students in the language learning process. Such a teacher does not bore her students 10 teacher as a Teacher never stops learning 2 sunflower headed to the 5 �. chaser of new things sun knowledge 11 teacher as a . molder/crafts- Teacher shapes the students’ 2 interior designer, cook 2 mirror, a Turkish minds person 12 teacher as a . reflector Teacher reflects her own experience, background and citizen who went to knowledge, as well as the Germany in 1960s culture of the target language 13 teacher as an . effective agent Teacher plays a significant 2 ink, revolution 2 cactus, hammer 1 construction worker role in students’ lives, i.e.she affects the students andyields change in their lives by leaving a trace on those she teaches 14 teacher as a . harmful agent Teacher punishes students when they are not good enough 15 teacher as a . builder Teacher helps students to be successful The qualitative analysis of the metaphors generated by the participants shows that almost all of the students participated in the study have a positive attitude towards language teachers. There are only four images out of 67 contained a negative description of the teachers, namely, cactus, hammer, boss and God. In the cactus metaphor, the teacher is depicted as an unsuccessful person who spends long time to teach but cannot improve students’ language skills. Similarly, the student who uses the metaphor of “cactus” indicates that the teacher punishes the learners especially if they do not understand English. In both of these metaphors students attribute the notion of punishment with teachers. In the other two negative metaphors, boss and God; teachers are perceived as people who have the sole power and authority. There is diversity in the metaphors found. As can be seen in Table-1, there are 15 categories and the metaphors include images of plants, various jobs, entities, and instruments. The analysis shows that language teachers are seen as enjoyable (soap opera, smurfs, toys); 6 �effective (ink, revolution); productive (interior designer, cook); self-reflective (mirror); necessary (fruit, pencil lead, rain, fountain, water, water and oxygen); growth providing (gardener, farmer) agents. In this study, teacher as a guide (n=12)is the most recurrent metaphor, and quite similar in number, the next category was teacher as source of knowledge (n=11). It is obvious that students consider their language teacher both as the one who teaches them the target language but also guides them in their learning procedure. These metaphors reflect the image of a teacher type who has all the knowledge and skills that students may need. TEACHER AS GUIDE metaphor entails that the language learning is seen a goal-oriented and teacherfacilitated process. TEACHER AS THE SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE metaphor, on the other hand, implies that teachers are the ultimate providers of knowledge whereas learners are the receivers of the information. Another point to be discussed based on the metaphors found is that, as it is known, within the communicative language teaching; the focus has changed from teacher to student. This indicates that teachers should not be regarded as the sole source of knowledge but the guide to help the students find their ways in learning and exploring the target language. As can be seen above in Table-1, there is a large amount of metaphors indicating that students see their teachers both as a guide and source of knowledge. This might mean that there is a shift from what is called classical teacher role of “knowledge provider” to the role of “guide”. Thus, it is satisfying to see that metaphors, which show that students see their language teacher as an authority in class, are very limited (brain, God, boss). Although this study shares some of the metaphors formed by teachers and learners in previous studies about language teachers such as gardener (Oxford et al, 1998), parent, map, etc. (Saban et al, 2006), mother, water, book, cook, doctor (Nikitina & Furuoka, 2008), director, the sun (Guerrero & Villamil, 2002), it also reveals some metaphors unique to the present study (e.g. Darwin, stone of patience, google, sunflower headed to the sun, etc). It seems likely that these differences are due to cultural and contextual factors of this particular teaching atmosphere. The metaphor “stone of patience”, for example, is a common expression used in the Turkish culture. It is mostly used for people and it indicates that the person who is the stone of patience shows an unusual patience towards a difficult situation or task. There are five students who form this metaphor. With this metaphor, they indicate that their language teachers are very patient people who put a lot of effort in the procedure and have to wait for a long time to see improvement of their students. The students underscore 7 �that the language learning is a gradual and difficult procedure, and the teachers are doing their best to wait for the success of their students patiently. 4. Conclusion In the present study, we investigated and classified students’ metaphors about the concept of English language teacher. The analysis of the metaphors has yielded some fruitful and insightful understandings of the roles of these teachers in this particular teaching context. To begin with, the study shows that the diversity and richness of the metaphors provided is an indicator of how varied metaphorical images students have on the same concept. The study also highlights the value and significance of metaphor analysis as a tool to assist students in examining their values, beliefs, and conceptualizations of their teachers. In addition, it is a useful pedagogical tool for teachers to review and revise their teaching practices, their roles as language teachers and their attitudes if necessary. Another important finding is that students continue to identify their teacher with a series of traditional teaching roles, such as leader, provider of knowledge, agent of change, and nurturer; however, these students also have a more “facilitating” role of their teachers which is relatively a more recent teacher role appeared with communicative teaching methodology. With the rise of this theory in language classrooms, the roles of teachers have shifted from being the only source of knowledge to the one who guides to seek and find knowledge. As this study shows, the two most commonly used metaphors come from both of these roles of teachers, namely, teacher as the knowledge provider and teacher as the guide. It is inferred that with a few exceptions (boss and God), students, in fact have come to the realization that the classroom is not teacher-centered anymore. Students should also actively participate in the learning process and teachers are there to foster their learning. It should be within the objectives of the teacher development programs to uncover students’ perceptions of their teachers through use of metaphors by which students’ conceptual frameworks are analyzed. Becoming more aware of their beliefs and strategies by means of metaphors, language teachers can develop better insights into their existing roles according to students and thus they can adapt their teaching styles and strategies accordingly if necessary. References Cameron, L. (2003). Metaphor in educational discourse. London: Continuum. 8 �Cortazzi, M.,& Low, J. (1999). Bridges to learning: Metaphors of teaching, learning, and language. In L. Cameron, & G. Low (Eds.)Researching and applying metaphor (pp.149-176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (2001). The metaphorical constructions of second language learners. In M. P. Breen (Ed.)Learner contributions to language learning: New directions in research (pp.6568). Harlow: Longman. Ellis, R. (2003). A metaphorical analysis of learner beliefs.In P. Burmeister, T. Piske& A. Rohde (Eds.)An integrated view of language development: Papers in honor of Henning Wode. Trier, Germany: WissenschaftlicherVerlag. Erkmen, B. (2014). Non-native novice EFL teachers' beliefs about teaching and learning.HacettepeÜniversitesiEğitimFakültesiDergisi (H. U. Journal of Education) 29(1), 99-1 Guerrero, M. C., &Villamil, O. S. (2002).Metaphorical conceptualizations of ESL teaching and learning.Language Teaching Research, 6(2), 95-120. Kramsch, C. (2003). Metaphor and the subjective construction of belief. In P. Kalaja& A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.)Beliefs about SLA: New research approaches (pp. 109-128). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1980a). Metaphors we live by. London: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G.,& Johnson, M. (1980b). Conceptual metaphor in everyday language.The Journal of Philosophy, 77(8), 453-486. Nikitina, L., &Furuoka, F. (2008). “A language teacher is like...”: Examining Malaysian students’ perceptions of language teachers through metaphor analysis. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 5(2), 192–205. Oxford, R. L, Tomlinson, S., Barcelos, A., Harrington, C., Lavine, R. Z., Saleh, A., Longhini, A. (1998). Clashing metaphors about classroom teachers: Toward a systematic typology for the language teaching field. System 26(1), 3-50. Saban, A., KoçbekerB. N., &Saban, A. (2006).An investigation of the concept of teacher among prospective teachers through metaphor analysis.Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice 6(2), 509-522. Zapata, G.,&Lacorte, M. (2007).Pre-service and in-service instructors’ metaphorical constructions of second language teachers.Foreign Language Annals, 40(3), 521–534. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2895 Title A name given to the resource TEACHERS AS PATIENCE STONES: A METAPHOR ANALYSIS OF STUDENTS’ CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF EFL TEACHERS IN TURKEY Author Author Baş, Melike Bal-Gezegin, Betül Abstract A summary of the resource. With the application of cognitive linguistics to language teaching and learning, metaphor analysis has gained interest among researchers in recent years. This study, which is conducted in an EFL language environment in Turkey, aims to investigate students’ metaphors that underlie their conceptualizations on English language teachers. Participants are students of English (n=83) studying at a university in Turkey during 2014-2015 academic year. Students were first instructed on the concept of metaphor, then they were asked to complete the metaphor elicitation sheet including the prompt “An English teacher is like ... because ...” Data were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Conceptual Metaphor Theory defined and developed by Lakoff & Johnson (1980), who consider metaphors as mental constructs that shape human thinking about the world and reality, is used as the theoretical background for this study. The linguistic metaphors provided by the participants were first categorized thematically and then examined in parallel with previous studies (Oxford et al., 1998; Saban et al., 2006). Results revealed a variety of underlying conceptualizations that reflect different individual mappings across conceptual domains. The findings yielded new categories, which imply that culture as well as students’ personal experiences might shape their perceptions on language teachers. The study is significant in the sense that it highlights the use of metaphor as an effective cognitive tool to better understand students’ beliefs of their language teachers and their language learning process. In addition, it provides an opportunity for the teachers to have a self-reflection on their roles as language teachers. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a6fe72537a4e6d8c2b8e5522f14ab30b.pdf 1305cef4be1cc60c749c1116cd02888f PDF Text Text 1 THE USE OF AGENT-BASED MODELS IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS: AN APPROACH TO CHOMSKY’S LINGUISTICS THROUGH THE CLARION MODEL Miriam Bait & Raffaella Folgieri & Oscar Scarpello Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy Article History: Submitted: 09.06.2015 Accepted: 21.06.2015 Abstract In this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) (Gilbert 2008) to study the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to Chomsky’s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995) . The CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002) integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, with the motivational aspect, i.e. accepting the cardinal principles of the embodied mind (Clark 1997) and recognizing the basic role of direct men- environment interaction in cognitive mechanisms. Ron Sun develops these points in a theory of mind and in a thorough discussion of learning problems. The goal of an artificial neural network (ANN), based on a CLARION architecture, is to verify theoretical assumptions through simulation, bringing together the dichotomy between implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge through a learning mechanism realized by the extraction of explicit rules by subsymbolic knowledge, based on interaction with the world. In the real world, cognitive operations are mostly performed unconsciously. Moreover, learning is carried out through attempts, in dynamic circumstances. The methodology allows to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behaviour, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The simulation, thus, enables a study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (that of satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. �2 Through ANN-based models one can build realistic 'intelligent agents', i.e. with a 'mind', minimizing the programming of rules of behaviour and letting the interaction with the environment produce efficient behaviour. Key words: ABMS, Agent Based Model System, CLARION, implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge, embodied cognition, language and grammar. �2 1. Introduction Following Heidegger (2013), being-in-the-world is an essential condition of the human cognition: this means to recognize the basic role of the direct, immediate, non-deliberative humans-environment interaction. It does not require the mediation of any form of representation, but consists in a functional-associative process, in which the knowledge of an object is strongly related to the instrumental value of it, in relation with the subject. Furthermore, a central idea is that also the explicit knowledge is strongly influenced by this aspect. In this paper, we focus on the study of the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to the Chomsky ‘s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995). To do this, we needed to identify a model suited to perform a cognitive simulation of all mechanisms. But, how could we simulate and comprehend a disordered and non-intuitive system like the humans-environment learning paradigm? «One promising approach involves what has become known as an autonomous-agent theory. An autonomous agent is a creature capable of survival, action, and motion in real time in a complex and somewhat realistic environment» (Clark 1997, 6). Studying the process in their relationship with the world becomes essential, as well as the attention we must assign to the interdependency between learning and acting. A useful tool «is the use of simulated evolution as a means of generating control systems for (real or simulated) robots. Simulated evolution (like neural network learning) promises to help reproduce the role of our rationalistic prejudices and predispositions in the search for efficient solution» (Clark 1997, 87). The central element is the evolutionary character of the model. The immediateness of the cognitive processes characterizes human action also in structured social contexts: «The idea, in short, is that advanced cognition depends crucially on our abilities to dissipate reasoning: to diffuse achieved knowledge and practical wisdom through complex social structures, and to reduce the loads of individual brains by locating those brains in complex webs of linguistic, social, political, and institutional constraints [...]. Human brains, if this is anywhere near the mark, are not so different from the fragmented, special purpose, action-oriented organs of other animals and autonomous robots» (Clark 1997, 180). �3 There are situations in which the environment is structured so that an individual does not need great elaboration processes to achieve an objective. The objective of a simulation is comprehending and analysing the totality of the humans-environment relationships and Clark (1997) recognizes these possibilities. The starting point of our work is the acknowledgement that cognitive science call for a methodological approach allowing a cross-discipline study of the mind based on an evolutionary perspective. As already mentioned, in this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) [Gilbert 2008] to study the development of historical natural languages using the CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002). The simulation allows to study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. Section two is devoted to Ron Sun’s mind theory and to the description of his CLARION model (Sun, 2002), while section three describes the designed simulation. In section four we will discuss the results and in last chapter five we will draw our conclusions and suggest possible future developments. 2. Ron Sun’s mind theory and the CLARION model Ron Sun (2002) developed these points in a mind theory and, in particular, in a thorough discussion of the learning problem. Both these aspects are then realized in a cognitive modular architecture, namely CLARION (Connectionist Learning with Adaptive Rule Induction ONline), that integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive level and together with the motivational aspects, whose objective consists in verifying the theoretical assumption through a simulation. The fundament of this mind theory is the dichotomy between implicit (sub-symbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge and the learning mechanism that is the construction of explicit rules of the sub-symbolic knowledge. The latter is founded on the interaction with the world: it is a fundamental implicit process, direct and not mediated by representations. In daily activities, under the time pressure, most of the cognitive operations realised, are performed without any reflection. Furthermore, learning happens by attempts, in circumstances in which the scenario is not stationary, stable and not for the individual who acts and learns. These adaptability and dynamism are reproducible only by neural networks or �4 simulations environments. In Sun’s model this implicit process is based on the reinforcement learning and on the Q-learning algorithm. These methods simulates humans’ learning that is graduated and action-oriented (Sun 2002, 25). The following phase of the bottom-up learning corresponds to the algorithm for the extraction of rules called Rule-Extraction- Revision (RER) (Sun, 2002). This algorithm allows to extract from neural networks the essential elements to construct a rule formed in an explicit manner, that is in the “if-then” form. Our purpose is based on the use of the CLARION cognitive architecture (Sun 2002) and the agent-based model, to enable individuals to learn a language from a universal grammar, drawing on Chomsky’s "principles and parameters theory" (Chomsky 1995) and then to act and interact within an environment. The methodology allows us to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behavior, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The sub-symbolic knowledge is suited to grasp the peculiarity of the men-environment and men-men interaction. The extraction method consisting in selecting information from the implicit knowledge allows to formulate the concepts themselves in an explicit form. The fundament of the symbols must be sought in the sub-symbolic knowledge and particularly in the interaction among agents and between agents and environment. In this context, the neural models can significantly contribute to set the significance of representations and the concept of intentionality. 3. Tools and Methodology The adopted methodology is interesting for the effects we can observe in the development of the cognitive structures of single agents in information technology simulation realized through ABM (Agent Based Models) we will describe in the following. In fact, this kind of simulations allow to study the emergence of non-programmed and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural networks as learning instruments make realistic the simulations, thanks to complex architecture not limiting to act in a “reactive” way to the stimuli from the environment. �5 The realized model is composed of a cognitive architecture that allows learning and of a platform where it is possible to develop the agents simulation. The cognitive architecture is CLARION, chosen for its modularity and for the capability to integrate implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, combining all these element with the motivational aspect. Figure 1: CLARION (The Connectionist Learning with Adaptive Rule Induction ON-line) We wish to highlight that the three innovative aspects of this architecture are: I. The interaction between cognition-motivation and environment: the motivations of the agent correspond to social needs, the trigger of every action and cognition. II. The ability of the agent to learn autonomously, regardless of the cultural context provided a priori. The learning and the formation of implicit knowledge is based on a trial-anderror criterion. The abstract and explicit knowledge can be extracted from the implied knowledge. It is gradually acquired through a "bottom-up" process. III. The constant interaction of multiple subsystems. �6 Neural networks are the first step of the hierarchy of knowledge: through parameter estimation it is possible to build a function that can associate (such as, map) different values, through a reward-punishment process, in a continuous interaction with the outside world. The algorithms used are the reinforcement learning and Q-learning: the advantage of these processes is that no preset external value is required in order to estimate the values of the network variables. Once the network is trained, it is possible to derive rules and concepts to create explicit knowledge. The simulation with ABMs is defined within a delimited environmental system, populated by actors who perceive a certain state of the system, interact with each other, and express a certain preference structure which might change in the very course of the simulation. To design the simulation, we chose the NetLogo (https://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/) platform because this software is suitable for complex systems evolving over time. More specifically, the purpose of this simulation is to explore how and to what extent the properties of language users, learning, environment, structure of the social network, may influence the spread of a language. In this model, two linguistic variants are at work within the social network: one variant is generated by grammar 0 and the other is generated by grammar 1. Speakers interact, at each time cycle, according to the network links. At each iteration, every speakers pass on a sentence expressed in Grammar 0 or Grammar 1 to neighbors in the network. Then individuals listen to their neighbors and change their grammars according to what they have heard. The model is organized into three distinct but interacting elements:  the environment;  speakers acting within this environment;  the social network �7 Figure 2: the simulation developed in NetLogo The structure given to the environment has been characterized by defining variables and procedures that provide a dynamic foundation for agents that act within it, interacting with each other and with the created environment. The speakers interact with two different grammars that are learned using the CLARION cognitive architecture. In this model, each grammar is associated with a weight, which determines for every speaker, the probability to access that grammar. The speakers still produce statements in compliance with the grammar of access, but individuals now have a probability to produce sentences with or without the original parameters. This allows us, according to what Troutman, Goldrick, and Clark stated in their study (2008), to detect intraspeaker variations when changing the language. Learning determines the interaction modality with the environment and, consequently, the degree of language proficiency that the speakers will acquire during the simulation. The degree of competence achieved allows to activate the algorithms and communication procedures in order to create the link between the individual speakers environment and the procedures for dissemination in the social network. �8 English speakers and Italian speakers interact with each other according to the network links. Every iteration make all agents speak, and listen at the same time, thus passing an statement to their neighbors and consequently modifying their grammars according to what they receive as input from other speakers. All speakers, after each iteration, update their grammar immediately after listening. This implies a choice for one of the two polarizing grammars on the basis on its weight. If the selected grammar is able to analyze the expression correctly, the grammar is rewarded by increasing its weight. Otherwise, the grammar is penalized by decreasing its weight. In addition, the speakers have a bias in favour of the English grammar that was introduced by Troutman, Clark and Goldrick (2008). Their results show that a bias is a crucial component in the variation pattern of the language. Finally, the implementation of the social network characterizes the interaction between speakers making communication possible and influencing with its form and structure, evolving in time, the time and modes of communication. Starting from this assumption, the implemented network was reconsidered as a structure with a mesh topology, where each node is directly connected to the other nodes by random bonds, using for each connection a dedicated branch. More specifically, the model starts from the creation of links between nodes (speakers) over time, trying to realize a fully meshed topology within a limited group of speakers who represent a kind of "eco-village" following the "Rule of 150". The number of Dunbar (or rule 150) states that the size of a social network capable of supporting stable relationships is limited to about 150 members (Hill Dunbar 2002). 4. Results and discussion In the simulation, at the initial moment of interaction of a group, the speakers of two different languages, implement accommodation strategies to communicate. Later, the increase of linguistic competence obtained by speakers during the cycles of the simulation time, transforms the process of diffusion into an individual exchange interaction. The users of a language choose one of neighbours they are randomly linked to, by adopting the grammar of the other, simply by proximity. The individual exchange between speakers is intuitively the moment where individual elements of a group, having acquired a good linguistic competence individually interact with the others in order to create personal relationships with other individuals. �9 Increasing the language competence, the simulation ends with a third phase where speakers do not start from opposite positions, since they have mediated the differences and have developed skills since the beginning of the simulation, and may aim at a common result. The following picture shows the average distribution of the languages among speakers. Italian speakers are represented by the blue line, while Anglophone agents are in the red one; the ordinate shows the distribution while the abscisses the time in the simulation. Figure 3: average distribution of the languages in speakers As a result, it is possible to notice the development of the use of one grammar instead of another to communicate among all members of the group, without being anchored to a basic form of communication given by the mediation of two different grammars. It has also been noted that the value of the bias in favour of grammar 1 has a very strong weight, and this is essential to enrich the social network with a motivation element by the subjects. Moreover, it is possible to find the percentage of the initial distribution of grammars to establish the minimum number of Italians that is required in order to invalidate the bias of prejudice in favor of the spread of English grammar. 5. Conclusion The first conclusion considering the results of the simulations and the cases examined, concerns the actual occurrence of an adjustment by the speakers and a development in the use of a grammar instead of another to communicate between all members of the group. �10 The interaction with the environment and the interaction within the social network permit the achievement of a high level of language competence. When this level is acquired, the speakers reach constantly the threshold value of one of the two grammars examined. It has also been noted that the value of the bias in favour of the English grammar is a very strong weight, and this is essential to enrich the social network with a motivational framework of speakers. The preference of a grammar enhances the language competence. Finally, it has been observed that some initial distributions into groups of speakers can invalidate the prejudice in favor of the use of a language because of their number. This might mean that an environment that is strongly characterized by the presence of a language (e.g., Italian grammar) leads the speakers not to communicate with the other (English grammar), even if the individual and the aggregate preference would say the opposite. The action of an agent within a simulation is the result of complex dynamics among factors such as action, thought and external structures. In short, the agent simulates cognitive processes. Only within an evolutionary perspective the world becomes a space of computational resources that are complementary to human cognitive processes. Therefore the mind has created much of its representations that are local and action-oriented. Under this new light, defining knowledge as "distributed" acquires even greater meaning. In fact, cognitive architectures that are based on networks, are inspired by the brain structure and it is claimed they provide excellent tools for the study of the mind and its functioning. Their development has played a very important role in the philosophical debate, in particular, within the domain of cognitive sciences and the philosophy of mind. A serious mistake, however, would be to take radical positions disregarding representational and computational methods. The problem is still open, but the concept of actionoriented representation is crucial in order to grasp one of the many aspects of the brain-world relationship. This new interpretation gives prominence to the simulation, and in particular to simulation through agents, fostering new methodological perspectives for the cognitive sciences. �11 References Gilbert N., (2008), Agent-based models. No. 153. Sage. Chomsky N., (1995), The Minimalist Program (Current Studies in Linguistics), MIT Press. Clark A., (1997), Being there: putting brain, body, and world together again, MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Heidegger, M. (2013). Essere e tempo. Utet Libri. Hill, R. A., & Dunbar, R. I. (2003). Social network size in humans. Human nature, 14(1), 53-72. Sun R., (2002), Duality of the Mind, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. Troutman, C., Clark, B., & Goldrick, M. (2008). Social networks and intraspeaker variation during periods of language change. University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics, 14(1), 25. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2897 Title A name given to the resource THE USE OF AGENT-BASED MODELS IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS: AN APPROACH TO CHOMSKY’S LINGUISTICS THROUGH THE CLARION MODEL Author Author Bait, Miriam Folgieri, Raffaella Scarpello, Oscar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this paper we propose the use of Agent-Based Models (ABM) (Gilbert 2008) to study the development of historical natural languages starting from a universal grammar according to Chomsky’s "Theory of the principles and parameters" (Chomsky 1995) . The CLARION architecture, designed by Ron Sun (Sun 2002) integrates implicit and explicit knowledge, cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, with the motivational aspect, i.e. accepting the cardinal principles of the embodied mind (Clark 1997) and recognizing the basic role of direct men- environment interaction in cognitive mechanisms. Ron Sun develops these points in a theory of mind and in a thorough discussion of learning problems. The goal of an artificial neural network (ANN), based on a CLARION architecture, is to verify theoretical assumptions through simulation, bringing together the dichotomy between implicit (subsymbolic) and explicit (symbolic) knowledge through a learning mechanism realized by the extraction of explicit rules by subsymbolic knowledge, based on interaction with the world. In the real world, cognitive operations are mostly performed unconsciously. Moreover, learning is carried out through attempts, in dynamic circumstances. The methodology allows to observe the development of cognitive structures of individual agents through ABM and contribute to studying the emergence of unplanned and unexpected routines or mechanisms. The use of neural models as learning tools implies that the simulations are realistic, considering the relationship between intentional behaviour, learning, desires, individual structures and social structures. The simulation, thus, enables a study the mind from an evolutionary perspective (that of satisfying a particular need in a physical and sociocultural world), understanding how individual structures and social institutions and environment could change each other. Through ANN-based models one can build realistic 'intelligent agents', i.e. with a 'mind', minimizing the programming of rules of behaviour and letting the interaction with the environment produce efficient behaviour. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5fd9d53bbe66af262ab3493413b160e4.pdf 24e75db673287ee63af9ba8a801880bb PDF Text Text ROLE OF JADID REPRESENTATIVES IN THE FORMATION OF PRESENT UZBEK LITERAL LANGUAGE NORMS Inomjon Azimov Nizami Tashkent State Pedagogical University, Uzbekistan Article History: Submitted: 13.06.2015 Accepted: 25.06.2015 Abstract: Language is the mirror of a nation. All changes occurring in the life of a nation, undoubtedly, find their reflection in language. In this regard, patriots and eminent figures of a nation have always considered language as good means of self-apprehension, elevation of its greatness and glory, reservation and reiteration of spirituality during hard times. Particularly during the first quarter of the XX century, known in history as the National Renaissance, academicians and scholars paid a lot of attention to language as they believed it was engendering national spirituality and elevation of national ideology in people. They considered language to be an invaluable pearl which indicates the existence of a nation. In this regard, in the view of development of our own language, we have accumulated all the facilities and initiated elaboration of rules of Uzbek language. 1. Introduction From the history of our science it is known that Uzbek linguistics till the 30s of the past century, with its scientific-theoretical, practical-stylistic features, and social-cultural contradictions is one of the actual issues subject to studying. Particular aspects of Uzbek linguistics of that period are not studied much. Till our Independence an opinion that Uzbek linguistics have started forming in the 40s prevailed, while Uzbek linguistics of the 20s and 30s was not considered at all. Whereas, during the initial period following the October revolution scholars such as Fitrat, Shokirjon Rahimiy, Qayum Ramazon, Elbek, Gozi Olim Yunusov, and others have contributed much to the development of Uzbek linguistics. Due to various disputes among academicians in regards to a variety of views towards language orthography, education of mother language in schools was in poor condition. There was a shortage of school manuals – ABCs and other books, while available ones did not correspond to requirements. There was not any scientific research on the rules of Uzbek �language and there was not any manual on Uzbek Language Grammar. The following is a quote by Hoji Muin in the article on “Til masalasi” (Issue of language) in the 29th issue of 1918 of “Mehnatkashlar ovushi” (Voice of labour): “We cannot blame present scholar and interpreter friends for not knowing Turkic rules, they are unplumbed in this regard. As none of them and us have not studied in particular school. Education of language rules is usually given at specialized schools, but such schools are not yet opened in our Turkistan. And education of morphology and syntax of Turkic language has not yet started in new schools. Our Turkic language is still a un-researched language and there is not any single Tractate on its morphology and syntax. Our preceptor friends are not aware of language rules in detail, which is evident from the books and school manuals written by them [1,92]. At that time the grammar of Turkic language was taught in the majority of Jadid schools. Fitrat ruled that our schools and letters remain under Ottoman influence. In his speech at Qurultay (Council) of Language and Orthography in 1921 mentions that the majority of hours given to teaching/learning of mother language in the courses opened at Tashkent are presented in Ottomanic; in the First Teachers’ Courses opened in Samarqand there is no inherence of mother language at all; decision of Education Council Session of 1918 and Teachers’ Qurultay of the past year stipulates education of mother language during initial three years only, then after general Turkish language (Ottoman Turkish language) is to be taught; disputes of teachers attending the course of Uzbek language taught under Ottoman Turkic Sheikh Vosifiy’s izofai lamiya, izofay bayoniya, izofai tashbehiya from “Qavoyidi lisoni usmoniy” elevated from Arabic language - all of these insulting and showcasing disrespect towards our language [2, 234-135]. Of course, there were objective and subjective reasons for this condition. First of all, there was a shortage of skilled teachers. Vadud Mahmud, a Uzbek scholar, writes the following: “If so, there is not any single school we can indicate; upbringing is so important for us – education establishments are in worst conditions; notwithstanding amount of educated people in the faculty, faculties are disgusting. We do not have any establishment preparing any teacher in adjusted system. At worst, we do not have any single magazine leading proper education and upbringing. Frankly speaking, we don’t have anything with proper background” [3, 115]. He mentions that schools are being closed for the reason that majority of teachers, who studied at Teachers’ Course, are not educated enough, with no particular goal, working just to let time pass and teaching almost nothing to children. He says that if situation remains same, illiteracy will continue further: “We have reverted back to past condition this �year! I.e., how we were before revolution, we are in worse condition now. 5-6 teachers left the country and busy with other work. Thus, we degraded again” [3, 113]. Secondly, shortage of manuals for schools of new style. Hoji Muin writes the following in this regard: “If one reason for this is absence of books, another would be teachers’ methods, which are totally away from education. Initially few teachers had to implement tartarian books into their schools and some of them - translation of TurkicTartarian works for teaching kids. Even, due to absence of books, teahers had no option except teaching with such old books as “Chor Kitob”, “Mantiq ut-tayr”, “Huja Hofiz” and Navoi’s works. [1, 141-142]. “Usuli savtiya” by Ismoilbey Gaspirali successfully implemented in express education of children in Bahchisaray was approved by Central Asia Jadids. Manuals taught in traditional “Usuli hijo” in the region were replaced with “usuli savtiya” in new schools. Advantage of this method in practice was quickly noticed and was well appreciated by common. Row of special ABCs were created for teaching in such method. [4, 336]. Y.Abdullaev and A.Nurmonov in their researches mention about such ABCs made during that period [4,5]. А.Nurmonov evaluates Saidrasul Saidazizov’s “Ustodi avval” and Munavvar qori Abdurashidkhonov’s “Adabi avval” as initial and complicated examples of Uzbek alphabet as well as closely speaks on Saidrasul Saidazizov’s manual. Y.Abdullaev mentions creation of dozens of ABCs till 1917, but abovementioned two works being the most complicated ones. [4, 336]. This is why the most important challenge of Uzbek intelligence was elaboration of Uzbek language rules and execution of scientific researches as “till there is no any scientific research – none of these will remain further” [2, 141]. For this reason it was important to deeply analyze nuncupative and scriptural sources of our nation, to mutually compare, make scientific conclusions and, by this means, to elaborate rules of Uzbek language: “Let us scientifically clarify number of sounds in our language. Let us shout that our language is exemplary and rich; we have struggled and overwhelmed those saying “This language is rude, let us take one of literal dialects of Turkic language”. Hence, we have not yet arranged sign rules of our language. We have to provide “singleness” of our symbols and elaborate concrete rules of our language for the benefit of our writers. First of all we ourselves should know these rules. Pure shape of our language we shall grab from the language of our people residing in tribal. There are dostons (rune), ashula (song), matal (proverb) and lapar (cuplet) which always represented native dialect of tribal people. All of this has to be put down carefully; �hence there are works of aristocratic poets scripted within public. There are ancient historical documents as “Qutadgu biling”, “Hibatul haqoiq”, “Devoni lugatiti turk”, “Muqaddimatul adab”. Let us meticulously examine all of these; compare to each other, coincide and avail precise and solid results. Efforts and results availed in this regard and shape – would be scientific. And there won’t be anyone commenting the same” [2, 141142]. But implementation of this work, firstly, was very complicated. Secondly, it was work that few scholars could afford to do. These were duties subject to joint implementation by all nation scholars: “It is obvious this work is to be inconvenient. It can not be done by one person. Challenges faced in this path will fall onto all recently appeared young writers. We all are obliged to give basis, to dedicate contemprorary cultural essence to new Uzbek literature” [2, 142]. Scientific Council under Turkistan Education Commissariat disputes in this regard. During the First Council attended by Russian professors as Е.D.Polivanov, D.Shmidt, S.Falyev, Kazakh, Tartarian and few Uzbek scholars such as А.Boytursinov, А.Sa’diy, N.Hakim, who were invited from various educational establishments. They listened lectures by Professor S.Falev on Morphology and Orthography of Kazakh dialects prepared by A.Boytursinov, Kazakh linguist; during Second Council they listened E.D.Polivanov’s lecture on “Basics in formation of morphology and orthography of Turkic languages”; at Third Council - “Basics in studying and formation of rules of Turkic languages” by А. Sa’diy. According to A. Sa’diy, two issues caused disputes during the Council, which were: “1. Is it possible to follow, take example and refer to languages of other groups during structurizing rules of Turkic languages? 2. Is it expedient to form logical morphology and orthography to the nature of Turkic languages? Either uniform logical morphology and orthography?” Е. D. Polivanov in his lecture underlines his opinion in usefulness of comparison with Russian language either reference to Russian morphology and orthography during formation of morphlogy and orthography of Uzbek language, showcasing similarities and analogy of two languages. А. Sa’diy would totally reject this opinion and note that Uzbek and Russian languages are totally different. He mentions that Uzbek grammar differs from morphology and orthography of Russian and Arabic languages and mentions origination of totally different morphology and orthography. He also mentions that the grammar is measured narrowly against Turkic languages, appearing as headless, cut-off, not applicable �for implementation in lingual aspect as unworthy clothing; in this regard impossibility of analysis of words. As written by him, professors invited for formation of Uzbek language Grammar did not speak Uzbek, Turkic or Tartarian languages, and there were translators involved for them. Elbek’s article on “Discussion on rules of Turkic languages” was written in relation to the Council held, which includes scholar’s critics on those professors not knowing any single kalima (word) in Uzbek language, but came to form its grammar, and also mentions that formation of rules of Uzbek language is for those familiar with its overall spirit and speaking this language [6, 18]. But the elevation of the Uzbek language to the level of literal language, and its convertion into a literal one was a challenge at that time. As there were Farsi-Tadjik traditions in imaginative literature, Arab traditions in scientific literature continuing, opinions on elevation of “populace” Uzbek language onto the level of literal one were virtually nonexistent. Secondly, reference to Ottoman Turkic language in literature was very tough. Vadud Mahmud writes in this regards: “If we count Uzbek as a derivation of chigatay poets dialect, we shall encounter two different dialect”. Some would say it is dialect of Eastern Turkic either Chigatay, this is our main dialect which was written by Navoi, Bobur, Fazliy. Others may be western Turkic either Turkic dialects, which is known for us due to famous lyric poet Fuzuliy. Quby poets followed this. It is considered not strange for us with the importance of first dialect of these two being our language, whereas second one with the reading lovely” [3, 59]. Thirdly, as mentioned by Fitrat, there were many elements of Tartarian words mixed in official language. This is why the majority of scholars could not believe Uzbek language to become a literal language due to mixture of elements of many languages in it. In such complicated conditions, the nation’s scholars lead by Fitrat struggled for development and independency of Uzbek language, wishing for an “independent language in Turkic group and science written in this language” This is why it was a must-to-do for any Uzbek writer to elaborate Uzbek versions of words derived from other languages, attempts in searching Uzbek (Turkic) versions of scientific revelations, to remain versions which could not be replaced, but to moderate them under rules of Uzbek language. Role of members of “Chigatoy gurungi” (Dialect of Chigatay) lead by Fitrat in notification of signs of Uzbek language was irreplaceable. They have put forward the following tasks: “- there is complete, great, artistic literature of our language. Constancy of our language is not in its Arabism, but in itself. We should reveal this; �- in order to develop our literature, we need to utilize everlasting heritage of our poets and achieve general basics of developed dialects and languages; - rules of our language to be written not from Tartarian either Ottoman books, but to be taken from our own language. This is why there is a need to collect all the words spoken by common, gather all the fairy tales, proverbs, couplets being a public literature; - since literature is scriptural science, to form and elaborate writing rules and signs”. [2, 135]. Members of “Chigator gurungi” have made a goal to create new Uzbek national literature, literal language, science and culture. They wished to elevate new literature and literal language, being a progency of chigatay literature, to renew its popularity as during Navoi’s age, to be a sample literature and sample literal language for other Turkic languages. 2. Conclusion Due to our Independence we are able to study works of victimized scholars. Few problems of Uzbek linguistics, the linguistic heritage of Jadid representatives, lexis of their works, literal language style was studied by scholars as А.Nurmonov, S.Zufarov, Y.Abdullaev, К.Nazarov, А.Madaminov, М.Valihonov and М.Qurbonova. Moreover, their role in formation of stylistic norms of our language, serious analysis of their scrupulous work in this regard is very vital. A detailed study of scientific-imaginative heritage of nations’ patriots - who sacrificed a lot on the way to national independency, struggled for the development of our language, contributed much to the development of Uzbek’s literal language - to have justified and impartial evaluation of their service in the development of Uzbek linguistics is one of the main tasks encountered by our linguists. References: Hoji Muin. Selected works. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2010. Fitrat Abdurauf. Selected works, Chapter IV. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2006. Vadud Mahmud. Selected works. –Т.: Ma’naviyat, 2007. A.Nurmonov. Selected works, 3-chapter. 3rd Chapter.-Т.: Academnashr, 2012. Y.Abdullaev. Birinchi Uzbek alifbosi (First Uzbek alphabet) // Uzbekiston adabiyti va san’ati (Literature and Arts of Uzbekistan, February 6, 1991. �Sh.Bobomurodova. Uzbek tilshunosigi rivojida Elbekning roli (Role of Elbek in development of Uzbek linguistics: Dissertation for the Cand.Sc. (Phil.). –Т., 2002. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2889 Title A name given to the resource ROLE OF JADID REPRESENTATIVES IN THE FORMATION OF PRESENT UZBEK LITERAL LANGUAGE NORMS Author Author Azimov, Inomjon Abstract A summary of the resource. Language is the mirror of a nation. All changes occurring in the life of a nation, undoubtedly, find their reflection in language. In this regard, patriots and eminent figures of a nation have always considered language as good means of self-apprehension, elevation of its greatness and glory, reservation and reiteration of spirituality during hard times. Particularly during the first quarter of the XX century, known in history as the National Renaissance, academicians and scholars paid a lot of attention to language as they believed it was engendering national spirituality and elevation of national ideology in people. They considered language to be an invaluable pearl which indicates the existence of a nation. In this regard, in the view of development of our own language, we have accumulated all the facilities and initiated elaboration of rules of Uzbek language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a159617fa01d9eefa88273e991810234.pdf acd4adeb8f51775eed16315c570c6fba PDF Text Text TERMINI OZNAČAVANJA "BASME /BAJALICE" U SAVREMENOM GRČKOM JEZIKU Ljiljana M. Vulović University of Belgrade, Serbia Article History: Submitted: Accepted: Abstract Βajanje, basma, bajalica are the serbian words that belong to the circle of magical terminology. Interesting is the comparative approach that compare the Serbs and the Greeks at the linguistic aspect. Βajanje is seen as a magical behavior which aims to make a change in the desired direction. As a rule, the basis of this behavior makes a voice part - specific language formula, shorter or longer, which is usually called by Serbs basma. In the literature the Serbs use the word bajalica as a synonym for the basma , term that in Serbian is used as a common name for a person who is engaged in chanting, and it is usually a woman. Greek for bajanje use the term καταδέσμος, while for the basma they have more terms: κατάδεσμος, μαγεία, μαγγανεία, γητειά / γήτεμα, ξόρκι, and επωδή. Based on these findings, we see that the Greeks „bajanje“ use the above terms and that as a marker for the same action and as a result of these actions they have “ basme, bajalice”. In the case of the Greek’s terms we can make a classification on the basis of objective magic spells that act on the content and those can be as follows: 1. positive or negative for achieving any goal, whether good or bad - κατάδεσμος, μαγεία, μαγγανεία. We must draw attention to just κατάδεσμος and μαγγανεία are basme with negative content and operation. 2. those that are used for the treatment and reject evil ξόρκι, επωδή while γητειά / γήτεμα may be to invoke the rejection of evil, so for healing and for love. 1 �Narodno bajanje predstavlja širok prostor za ispitivanje gradje kako kod Srba tako i kod Grka. Ispitivanje se vrši sa više aspekata, držeći se magijskih principa i pravila koja vladaju u građenju verbalne strukture bajanja. Interesantan je komparativan prilaz kojim se upoređuju basme kod Srba i Grka s lingvističkog aspekta. Grci za "bajanje" koriste termin καταδέσμος, dok za basmu imaju više termina: μαγεία, ξόρκι, γήτεμα, μαγγανεία, επωδή. Svaki termin označava posebnu vrstu basme što se ogleda u različitim terminima označivačima. Na uporednom primeru svakog grčkog termina videćemo podudarnosti u sistematizaciji naših basmi što otvara veliki prostor za istraživanje. Ključne reči: bajanje/ basma/bajalica, μαγεία, μαγγανεία , γήτεμα, ξόρκι, επωδή. 2 �1. Uvod Narodno bajanje “kao oblik magijskog ponašanja čiji je cilj ostvarivanje neke promene u željenom pravcu” ( Tolstoj, Radenković, 2001: 16) predstavlja širok prostor za višeslojno ispitivanje građe, držeći se magijskih principa i pravila koja vladaju u građenju verbalne strukture bajanja. Narodno bajanje kod Srba (i svih Južnih Slovena) je veoma detaljno obrađeno (v. predloženu literaturu u fusnotamа) ali nedostaju radovi i paralelni primeri vezani za narodno bajanje kod savremenih Grka a da su prezentirani na srpskom jeziku. Problem leži u jezičkoj barijeri, pošto se prostorno šire izučavanje novogrčkog jezika kao stranog razvija tek nakon 1967 godine. Premda postoji mnoštvo radova na grčkom jezičkom području, u okviru grčke „λαογραφία“ etnologije, kod nas nema radova koji bi dali komparativni prikaz situacije pri ispitivanju narodnog bajanja u istovetnoj funkcionalnoj i lingvističkoj problematici. Blizina dva naroda, s aspekta teritorijalnosti, Srba i Grka, ekonomske i duhovne veze su svakako dovele do postojanja ako ne semantičke istovetnosti, ono bar sličnosti u pogledu termina iz sfere verovanja i običaja. U ovom radu ćemo detaljnije raspravljati o terminima: narodno bajanje, basma / bajalica kao delovima verbalne magije i kao zasebnim delom magijske prakse. Upotrebom izgovorene ili pisane reči, najčešće je tajni, skriveni deo usmene ili pisane magijske tradicije u svakoj ljudskoj kulturi. Usmeni korpus verbalne magije deo je kolektivnog pamćenja, tajno prenošen s kolena na koleno i pamćen kao deo zajedničke prikrivene kulture pojedinaca koji su se kroz istoriju bavili ovim umećem. Moramo skrenuti pažnju da „u izvesnom stepenu, na slovenska bajanja uticala je pisana magijska književnost (apokrifne molitve, zaklinjanja, magijski zapisi i formule). Prepoznatljiva su tri pravca uticaja: vizantijski (preko grčkog jezika), romansko – germanski (preko latinskog i nemačkog) i u neznatnoj meri islamsko – orijentalni (preko turskog i arapskog jezika). Najarhajičniji sloj kod Slovena je u bajanjima i posebno se čuva kod Slovena koji naseljavaju-balkansko – karpatsku oblast i na Ruskom Severu“. ( Tolstoj , Radenković, 2001: 18). Narodno bajanje kod Grka u potpunosti se može uklopiti u sistem narodnog bajanja koji je detaljno definisao i sistematizovao Ljubinko Radenković u nizu svojih radova a posebno u delu 3 �“Narodna bajanja kod Južnih Slovena”. (Radenković, Lj, (1996a). Narodna bajanja kod Južnih Slovena , Beograd: Prosveta, Balkanološki institut SANU, dalje u tekstu: Radenković, 1996a ) .1 “Narodna bajanja su posmatrana kao specifičan oblik komunikacije. Veza između magije i jezika odražava se kroz vjerovanje da određene riječi, izgovorene na određeni način, mogu uticati preko uverenja da reči nose određeno značenje i određenu energiju. Magijski je govor stoga ritualni čin i jednake je, ako ne i veće važnosti, za uspjeh magijskog čina od nekih neverbalnih magijskih praksi i dejstvovanja. Postavljen je model komunikativnog lanca koga u ovakvim slučajevima čine sledeći elementi: pošiljalac i primalac informacije (poruke), način, uslovi i sredstva opštenja, kao i sistem kodiranja. Pošiljalac informacije jeste bajalica (po pravilu žena), primalac je obično nevidljiv a zamišlja se kao biće iz divljeg sveta koje ugrožava čoveka kome se pruža zaštita bajanjem. Informaciju (poruku) bajalica najčešće šalje verbalno i neverbalno, odnosno izgovaranjem utvrđenog bajaličkog teksta i izvođenjem određenih radnji uz upotrebu pojedinih predmeta. Da bi poruka bila na odgovarajući način primljena i da bi se izvršio postavljeni cilj (najčešće iskazan kao razdvajanje demonskog bića od čoveka) , strogo se uvažavaju prostorno vremenski parametri (gde i kada se izvodi komunikativni čin)”. (Radenković, 1996a: 8 - 9). Na osnovu iznetog citata sledi zaključak „ basma je ustanovljeni govorni obrazac kojim se najčešće ostvaruje komunikativni čin bajanja“. (Radenković, 1996a: 65). Dakle, basma se shvata „kao „instrument“ posebne vrste i oblika koja nosi posebnu snagu i koja ima za zadatak da vrati u normalno stanje narušeni poredak.“ ( Tolstoj , Radenković, 2001: 17). Radenković (1996a:7) bajanje „ posmatra kao magijsko ponašanje čiji je cilj da se izvrši neka promena u željenom pravcu. Po pravilu, osnovu tog ponašanja čini govorni deo – posebna jezička formula , kraća ili duža, koja se kod Srba najčešće naziva basma i koju prate pravila izgovaranja ( način, vreme i mesto).“ 1 A takodje, i sledećim njegovim radovima : Раденковић , Р.(1991). Казивања о нечистим силамa. Ниш. Раденковић, Љ.(1982). Народне басме и бајања. Ниш; Приштина; Крагујевац. Раденковић, Љ.(1996b). Симболика света у народној магији Јужних Словена. Ниш. Radenković, Lj. (1973). Urok ide uz polje. Narodna bajanja . Niš: Gradina. Radenković, Lj. (1982). Narodne basme i bajanja. Niš: Gradina,, Priština: Jedinstvo Kragujevac: Svetlost Radenković, Lj. (1983). Narodna bajanja. Beograd. Radenković, Lj. (1996a).Narodna bajanja kod Južnih Slovena, Beograd: Prosveta, Balkanološki institut SANU, Posebna izdanja, knj. 60. 4 �„Prema nameni južnoslovenske narodne basme se mogu podeliti u tri grupe: 1) medecinske ( za lečenje raznih bolesti ); 2) privredne (protiv grada, kiše, magle, protiv štetočina , za uspešan lov) ; za društveni život (ljubavne pesme).“ (Radenković, 1996a:72 ). Po strukturi pak, basme imaju oblik ustaljenih fraza, molitva, zaklinjanja ili razvijenu sižejnu šemu. (Tolstoj, Radenković, 2001:17). Cilj ovog rada jeste da se preciznije razmotre nekoliko verbalnih magijskih oblika i to sa tri aspekta: književnojezičkog, istorijskog i etnološkog. To su termini bajanje /basma /bajalica. Najpre ćemo jasno da ih definišemo i prezentujemo kako na srpskom tako I na grčkom jeziku. 2. Narodno bajanje/ basma /bajalica Basma i bajanje je komunikativni oblik skupa magijskih radnji koje su evidentne kroz celu istoriju Slovena i svih susednih naroda a i šire. Bajati, bajem, bajam „izgovarati vradžbine, vršiti propratne magijske radnje, proricati“, bajati vodu „madjijati„ (Bjeletić, Marta; Vlajić - Popović, Jasna; Vučković, Marija; Djokić, Maja; Loma, Aleksandar; Petrović, Snežana,(2006) Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika 2, Beograd: Prosveta, Balkanološki institut SANU. Dalje u tekstu Loma i dr., (2006):83-84), odnosno, bjati-bajem pripadaju terminologiji , po mišljenju Skoka (1971: 92-93) staroslovenskoj mitologiji i sferi običaja , verovanja i magijske prakse. Sama riječ dolazi iz predhriščanske stare slavenske mitološke terminologije i narodnoga vjerovanja. Na zapadu, od 1452 godine za narodno bajanje se koristi termin „vražanje“ (bajati, -ēm impf, na istoku , vračati na zapadu ). Prvobitno značenje je isto kao i u gr. φημί “govoriti”. Pejorativno značenje razvilo se iz reči “vračanje”. Ono se vidi najbolje u prefiksalnoj složenici nabajati nekome nešto ”nekoga krivo izvijestit”. Ovo posljednje značenje nalazi se i u stčeš. boju, bati, kao i u lotiškom batJma »kriva vijest« i u jednako obrazovanom latinskom fama, gr. φήμη »glas«. Pomoću sufiksa -n dobila se izvedenici: basna f “(danas) fibula” a izvedenica koja se dobila pomoću sufiksom -ъka je bajka. Moramo spomenuti i radne imenice na -ač: bajač, na -lac, -lica (v.): bajalac m prema bâjalica f, pejorativna na -alo (v.): bojalo; na -vāc, -vica , bâjavac m prema băjavica î (kajkavski); i denominale: òbajati, -jēm-pļ. (Vuk, na istoku) očarati (na zapadu). Kako vidimo, izvedenice iz glagola bajati su imenice bajač, bajalac i bajalica za osobe koje bajaju te reči bajka i basna, te basma za različite književne oblike. Radne imenice su bajač, 5 �bajalac, bajalica , pejorativna bajalo, denominali obajati/obajem „ očarati“ na zapadu. (Skok 1971: 92 – 93). Po Skoku (1971: 92 – 93) osnova od koje nastaju gore navedeni termini je “praslavenska i sveslavenska *ba-“, i ona je postojala i u baltoslavenskom te vodi poreklo iz ie Skok (1971: 92 – 93) navodi da Miklošič i Matzenauer smatraju da je reč u vezi s madž. báj »magia, incantatio, ali i muka, zlo, teret« , terminom koji potiče iz tur. *bagy “veza”. Može se uporediti s džag. báj »veza, čarolija«, bajlamak »očarati«, bajgin »začaran«. Nalazi se i u složenici đozbaidžija “mađioničar” (göz »oko«) (Skok, Slávia 15, 343). Ovamo ide i bağlama kao prezime. Međutim, nabajati i bajati u hrvatsko-kajkavskom znači “mučiti, štrapacirati, inkomodirati nekoga”. Bajanje se kroz istoriju hrvatskog jezika , kako smo videli, naziva i „čaranjem, vračanjem i vražanjem“. (Deniver Vukelić, Uvod u klasifikaciju verbalne magije i verbalna magija u zapisanoj usmenoj hrvatskoj tradiciji, u Studiam Mythologica Slavica XVII, 2014: 243- 270, dalje u tekstu Vukelić, 2014:243-270). Ovaj termin bajati znači i “liječiti bolest ili drugu životnu teškoću paramedicinskim, natprirodnim načinima”. Najčešći oblik bajanja stoga je primarno iscjeliteljski, odnosno ona predstavljaju jedan od najstarijih oblika borbe čoveka protiv bolesti (Kropej 2009: 146) koja napada čoveka i sve što ga živo okružuje. Dakle, kasnije se iz reči bajati razvilo i pejorativno značenje u kontekstu nabajati nekome nešto „nekoga krivo izvestiti“, odnosno “pričati laži, pretjerivanja ili izvrnute činjenice” što se vidi i u lat. fama „glas“. Uz ovaj glagol postoji i glagol bahoriti, iz koje se izvode i reči bahorija, bahornik i bahorica, a s prvobitnim značenjem “govoriti nejasne, magične formule” (Skok 1971: 92 – 93): bähoriti, -im impf. (Vuk, 16. v., zapadni pisci) bajati . Odatle apstraktum na -ija i na -je', bahòrija , băhorje „bajanje“, radne imenice bahornīk , bahoternik (valjda složenica) prema băhorica „bajalac, ica“. Glagol je izveden s pomoću h < s(k) od ie. osnove *ba-, koja se nalazi u gr. φημί »govorim« i u našem bajati (v.), bajalac. Odatle rusko bahan “hvastati se” i radna imenica bahar' “brbljavac, čarobnjak”. Osnova *bah- nalazi se i u drugim slavenskim jezicima, osim u bugarskom i poljskom. Zbog toga se može označiti kao praslovenska. Prvobitno značenje bilo je “govoriti nejasne, magične formule”; odatle onomatopeiziranje osnove s pomoću -or-, upor. žuboriti, krákořiti. Kao i bajati ide u (Skok 1971: 92 – 93). Dakle, da zaključimo, psl. glagol izvodi se iz pie. korena *bha- < *bheH2- „govoriti“ (reč, molba, zapovest) ; od ie. paralela najbliže stoji lat. fari sa prezentom proširenim sufiksom -ie- for < 6 �*faior prema prvobitnijem atematskom obrazovanju u gr.φημί, dor. φαμί . (Loma i dr.,2006:8384). S druge pak strane postoji i reč čar koja takođe ima značenja kao i lat. divinatio, incantatio, rus. volšebstvo i koja je podjednako baltoslovenski i sveslovenski magijski termin iz praslavenskog doba. Iz nje proizlaze i reči čarati, čarovan (čaroban), čarovit, čarnik i čarnica, čaralac i čaralica, čarovija (čarobija, čarolija, čarovnica (čarobnica) i čarovnjak (čarobnjak). (Vukelić, 2014:243-270). Kao najstariji slovenski termin iz oblasti magije, reči čar i čarati bile su tabu. Zbog toga su za njih postojale posuđenice coprati, coprtja, cňparnjica i eufemizmi viška f (Lika) vještica f, višćun , čini , opčiniti . Kad je riječ čar izašla iz folklorne magije, promenila je značenje u ono jednako kao u latinskoj riječi carmen, incantare > fr. charme, enchanter. Prema Skoku vokal á u čar dolazi od ie. e posle palatala, kako pokazuje lit. keras “čar”, odatle denominal kereti “pogledom ili rečima začarati, ureći”, od ie. osnove qyęr- “činiti, obrazovati”. Osnovno je značenje toga glagola bilo “činiti”,a kako pokazuje sanskrtska paralela karoti 3. 1. sing. “čini”, ali i izvedenica nižeg prevojnog stepena , krty a znači “čar”; u keltskom (kimričkom) peri- također znači “činiti”. Isti se razvitak ponavlja i kod Slovena (ini pl. m., opčiniti, u tal. fattura, stfr. failure i španj. hechicera “vještica” (Skok 1971: 295). Čin se stoga definiše na tri semantička značenja: 1° oblik, način, 2° radnja, djelo, ali u folkloru 3° u pl. čini m. pored f. “incantatio” i “magija” te radne imenice na -úń od participa perf. aktiva činilac m prema činilica f “incantatrix” od (op)Łiniti “začarati” (Skok 1971: 325 – 326). “U raznim srpskim krajevima basma može biti označena i na drugi način;u istočnoj Srbiji – basan, kod Srba krajišnika – basna , u Hercegovini i na Kosovu –bajka ,u Jadru – odbrajanje, na Krodunu – izgovaranje i čitanje. Kod Bugara se javljaju slični nazivi: basma, basna, bailka, basemka.” (Radenković, 1996a: 65). V. starorusko basniti “pričati, izmišljati”. “U literature se kod Srba sreće i naziv bajalica kao sinonim za basmu” (Radenković, 1996a: 66). Medjutim, termin bajalica se u srpskom koristi kao “najčešći naziv za osobu koja se bavi bajanjem” i to su pojedinci, obično stare žene, a ređe i muškarci (Radenković, 1996a:14). Rečnik SANU (1959: 247) konstatuje više sinonima za označavanje ovakvih lica: (za ženu) bajaluša, bajanica, bajara, bajarica, bajačica, basmara, basmarica, bahorica, bahornica; ( za muškaraca) bajalac,bajalica, bajalo, bajar, bajač, balać, basmač, basmadžija, bahornik. U rečniku JAZU (1880:154) , za bajača postoji još naziv bahoternik. (Radenković , 1996a: 14). 7 �Kod Hrvata u Hercegovini – mole i moliboge, u Kotarima u Dalmaciji – vidigoje, u Makedoniji su to basmarice, bajalici, bajaljki, u Bugarskoj – bajački, basmarki, u Sloveniji zagovarjalki, kod Rusa zagovorščici itd. (Tolstoj, Radenković,2001: 17). One koje bajanjem nanose štetu se nazivaju kod odredjenih naroda različito: vrčarice, vražalice, činjarice, madjionice,čarovnice, coprnice, kaldunje. (Tolstoj, Radenković ,2001: 17). 3. κατάδεσμος Ako skrenemo pažnju na termine “narodno bajanje” u smislu radnje, “basma” kao verbalni čin te radnje i “bajalica” kao instrument / osoba koja vrši čin bajanja i pokušamo da pronadjemo paralele kod Grka dobijamo sledeću situaciju: termin κατάδεσμος označava λαογρ. μαγική πράξη που πιστεύεται ότι προκαλεί εμπόδιο ή βλάβη σε κάποιον ή ότι τον αναγκάζει να κάνει κάτι (magijsku radnju za koju se veruje da može da uzrokuje smetnje ili da nanosi štetu nekome, ili da ga prinudjuje da nešto čini) ( Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998: 853). Termin se u potpunosti slaže sa značenjem reči „bajanje“ u kom smislu ga Grci i koriste. Mnogi rečnici takodje, navode da termin označava „magijsku radnju“: (Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, από το Ίδρυμα Μ. Τριανταφυλλίδη, 1998, Αθήνα. on line - language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/index.html http://www.greek u daljem tekstu Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής,1998) κατάδεσμος , ο : (λαογρ.) μαγική ενέργεια που έχει ως σκοπό να βλάψει κπ. ή να αποτρέψει κάποιο κακό:( (magijska radnja koja ima za cilj da škodi nekome ili pak da odbije kakvo zlo). Termin se sreće i u starogrčkom jeziku istog oblika i istog značenja κατάδεσμος. Od VI v. pre n. ere pojavljuju se kod Helena , odnosno u staroj Grčkoj i u kolonijama grčkim magijski tekstovi poznati pod nazivom κατάδεσμοι lat. Defixiones “čarobni uzao, zatravljivanje čarobnim uzlom “ ( Gorski, Majnarić , 1976: 217). Kod Senca (1910: 481 ) to je samo “ čarobni uzao”. Vidimo da Senc i Gorski - Majnarić kao prmarno značenje daju “čarobni uzao”. To su bili najpre kratki tekstovi pisani na olovnim tablicama a kasnije su stavljani u grobove. Česti su u grobovima posebnih vrsta pokojnika ( άωροι, βιαιοθάνατοι ), pokojnika koji su iskusili mors immature “ preveremenu smrt” , ili umrli kakvom nasilnom smrću. Po sadržaju, najpre, se tim tablicama pokušava umilostiviti njihov bes zbog takve smrti, gde je teško razlikovati molitvu od kletvi i tek kasnije postaju prava bajanja/ basme. Vremenom ove tablice dobijaju drugačiji i sadržaj i oblik i 8 �postaju poseban oblik μαγικοί δεσμοί, το δέσιμο με μαγεία ( “magijska vezivanja,vezivanje pomoću magije ), pisani na tankim olovnim listovima i urolani i učvršćavani i bušeni iglama . Po sadržaju su to magijski tekstovi koji imaju za cilj da naškode nekome, bilo osobi bilo životinji ili da pošiljaocu obezbede ljubav voljene osobe, ili da mu obezbede kakav uspeh u takmičenju ili nekom sudskom sporu. Od bogova zazivaju se Demetra, Persefona, Erinije, Hekata i Gaja a od muških božanstava Hermes. U kasnijem periodu pojavljuju se i imena egzotičnih demona i bogova, a veoma često i samog preminulog. Vremenom sadržaj se menja i nalazi se na granici izmedju kletve i molitve i u tom slučaju se mogu pojaviti i imena. (OCD, 2012:399-400). Κατάδεσμος se održao kao poseban oblik magijske radnje i delovanja sve do danas. U novogrčkom posebno označava tzv. „crnu magiju“ , magijske radnje kojima se teži naneti zlo kome, posebno osetljivim grupacijama i u osetljivim trenutcima ljudskog života, u vremenu prelaska ( rodjenje, venčanje, smrt). Što se tiče etimologije kατάδεσμος vodi poreklo od str gr κατα-δέω 1. čvrsto svezati 2. N.T. zavezati 3. osuditi, zavezati. Φίλτροις καταδήσομαι „čarobnim napitkom uza se privezati”. Reč je izvedenica od gr.glagola δέω „ vezati, privezati okovati (Senc, (1910): 481,188 ). U grčkoj laografiji postoji veliki broj dela koja se bave ovom problematikom, posebno njihovim sadržajem. 2 2 -Κουκουλές, Φ.Ι., (1926) «Μεσαιωνικοί και νεοελληνικοί κατάδεσμοι 2», Λαογραφία 9 63. -Επωδές και κατάδεσμοι από την ανατολική Σάμο / Μ. Γ. Βαρβούνηςby Βαρβούνης Εμμανουήλ Γερ. (1966) Published: Αθήνα: Αιγέας, 1992 -Ἐπωδές καί κατάδεσμοι Τριφυλίας μέ συσχετισμό πρός ἀρχαῖα, μεσαιωνικά καί ἄλλα νεώτερα στοιχεῖα / Δημ. Α. Κρεκούκια...by Κρεκούκιας Δημήτριος Α. (1919-) Published: Ἀθήνα: Τυπ. Ἑλλάς, 1971 -Ἐπῳδαί (ξόρκια) καί κατάδεσμος ἐκ Νάξου by Οικονομίδης Δημήτριος Βασ. (1909-) Published: Σύρος: [χ.ἐ.], 1956 9 �4. μαγεία Termin μαγεία „magija, vračanje, čaranje, čini” (Balać,Stojanović, 2002: 425) predstavlja σύνολο από μυστικιστικές γνώσεις και ενέργειες με τη βοήθεια των οποίων ο άνθρωπος πιστεύει ότι προκαλεί τη δημιουργία φαινομένων τα οποία δε συμβιβάζονται με τους φυσικούς νόμους ή την κοινή εμπειρία (skup svih mističnih znanja i radnji pomoću kojih čovek veruje da izaziva stvaranje fenomena koji ne odgovaraju prirodnim zakonitostima ili zajedničkom iskustvu ) (Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, 1998 : s.v. ). Magija se deli na dve vrste: 1. μαύρη μαγεία „crna magija“ 2. Λευκή μαγεία “ bela magija„. Kod Babinjotisa (1998: 1036) μαγεία je το σύνολο των πράξεων (συνηθ. Τελετουργικών ) , με τι χρήση αντικειμένων (λ.χ. ειδικών φίλτρων , βοτανιών ) ή των λόγων , με τα οποία πιστεύεται ότι μπορεί κανείς να κάνει αόρατες δυνάμεις της φύσεως , πνεύματα, δαίμονες, κ.τ.ο. να επιδράσουν για την επίτευξη επιθυμητού σκοπού (απόκτηση αγαθού, ωφέλεια ή βλάβη προσώπου κ.α.) (skup svih radnji , obično obrednih gde uz pomoć objekata ( posebnih napitaka biljaka) ili rečima, za koje se veruje da neko može nevidljive prirodne sile, duhove, demone da natera da deluju u pravcu ostvarivanja željenog cilja (sticanje dobara, kakve koristi ili nanošenje zla kome ). Srećemo i oblik τα μάγια „magija, vradžbina, čarolija, čari“ (Balać,Stojanović, 2002:425) što predstavlja “η άσκηση μαγικής επιροής“ ( vršenje magijskog uticaja) nastao od μαγεία promenom roda i akcenta. Τakodje , το μάγεμα „magija , vračanje, čar, čarolija, draž, uživanje“ (Balać,Stojanović, 2002:425). Još u srednjevekovonom grčkom nalazimo na sledeća značenja termina μαγεία odnosno μαγειά: najpre μαγεία,- μαγική τέχνη ( u značenju magijska umetnost, veština), -ενέργεια με μαγική επίδραση, μάγια ( energija sa magiskim uticajem i delovanjem ) i - κάθε μέσο που χρησιμοποιείται για μαγικό σκοπό ( označava svako sredstvo koje se koristi u magijske svrhe ). ( Kriaras, s.v.). Ovaj termin srećemo i u klasičnom grčkom u istom značenju i upotrebi što samo još jednom potvrđuje starinu ove vrste termina. Kod Grka nailazimo i na glagol sa istom osnovom μαγεύω “čarati, začarati, očarati, zavesti- ασκώ μαγική επίδραση ιδίως βλαβερή· κάνω μάγια. „omađijati”, očarati, odnosno „vršiti magijski uticaj, posebno loš“. Glagol dobija značenje αποδίδω σε κτ. μαγικές ιδιότητες “pripisati nekome magijska svojstva”. Sinonim μαγγανεύω „omadjijati u negativnom smislu „ide zajedno sa imenicom η μαύρη μαγγανεία,“ magija, opsena, prevara“ (Balać,Stojanović, 2002:425) η μαγεία 10 �που ασκείται για κακό σκοπό ( madjija koja se primenjuje u negativnoj konotaciji, sa zlom namerom ) (Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998: 1035-1036 ). Imenica μαγγανεία η je najpre 1. είδος μαγείας που χρησιμοποιεί μυστηριώδεις μεθόδους και απευθύνεται σε κακοποιές δυνάμεις για την επίτευξη ορισμένου σκοπού, συνήθ. βλαπτικού. 2. (πληθ.) τα μέσα ή οι ενέργειες που χρησιμοποιούνται για τη μαγγανεία: Kάνει / χρησιμοποιεί κάποιος διάφορες μαγγανείες. (vrsta magije koja koristi mistične metode i obraća se zlim silama u cilju postizanja odredjenog cilja, obično štetnog, ili u množini označava sredstva ili radnje koje se koriste tokom μαγγανεία, madjijanja, vračanja i svakako bajanja.(Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, 1998 : s.v. ) Smatra se da su navedeni termini u vezi sa μάγος - ιερέας σε ορισμένους ανατολικούς λαούς κατά την αρχαιότητα ( sveštenicima odredjenih istočnih naroda u staro vreme- `Πέρσης ιερέας obično persijski, v. αυτός που ασχολείται συστηματικά με τη μαγεία στα πλαίσια μιας πρωτόγονης κοινωνίας- onaj koji se bavi magijom u drevnim društvima ) : dok μαγεία, znači „θεολογία των Μάγων» ( teologija magova) a str gr μαγεύω “ασκώ μαγεία“ ( vršiti , upražnjavati magiju ). U književnosti str gr μαγγανεία ”μαγικό κόλπο“ znači “ magijska veština, umešnost, prevara“ (Balać-Stojanović, 2002:382). Hofmann (1950: 224) u svom Etimološkom rečniku takodje, ove reči povezuje sa rečju μάγος, γόης- čarobnjak/mag, απατεών-lažov, prevarant, μαγεύω, γοητεύω, θέλγω. Dok imenica μαγεία predstavlja μαγική τέχνη, θεολογία των μάγων magijsku veštinu, teologiju magova.Hofmann (1950: 224) Smatra da je reč pozajmjenica iz iranskog iz str. Pers. Maguš μάγος Mag. 5. γητειά Imenica γητειά pripada terminima koji označavaju narodno bajanje i znači η πρόκληση ή η αποτροπή ενός κακού, που προέρχεται συνήθ. από βασκανία, με μαγικά μέσα (prizivanje ili odbijanje kakvog zla, koje proizilazi obično iz urokljivog pogleda, I opčinjavanja magijskim sredstvima) dakle , to basma za skidanje uroka, čini, kako dobrih tako i zli. Posebno označava basme koje su društvenog karaktera I služe za prizivanje i otklanjanje ljubavnih problema. Reč označava i „ sve ono što poseduje magijska svojstva” - ό,τι θεωρείται πως διαθέτει μαγικές ιδιότητες. 11 �Srednjevekovna i savremena γητειά je nastala od γητεία a u vezi je sa glagolom γητ(εύω) . Kriaras (s.v.) smatra da γητεία je μαγική επωδή odnosno μάγια. Ovoj leksičkoj porodici pripada i glagol γητεύω “ vračati, bajati, ureknuti“ (Balać-Stojanović, 2002: 170) -κάνω μαγεία σε κάποιον , ασκώ μαγική επίδραση με ξόρκια- (omađijati nekoga , vršiti magijski uticaj vračanjem, bajanjem) odnosno, κάνω γητειές „ vršiti vračanja, bajanja“ (Balać,Stojanović, 2002: 170) , kao I προκαλώ ή αποτρέπω ένα κακό με μαγικά μέσα “izazivam i odbijam kakvo zlo magijskim sredstvima (Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998: 420) . Od iste osnove imamo i reč η γητειά κ. γητιά, λογ. γητειά - η μαγική ενέργεια ή λόγος , που αποσκοπεί στην πρόκληση ή την αποτροπή του κακού ή την ερωτική έλξη, ή το γήτεμα „ vradžbina „(Balać-Stojanović 2002: 170) ( magijska radnja ili govor koji ima za cilj zazivanje ili otklanjanje zla ili se koristi za ljubavno privlačenje, ili gitema ) (Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998:420). Ovde vidimo i termin γήτεμα το - η ενέργεια ή το αποτέλεσμα του γητεύω- koji označava „eneregiju ili rezultat delovanja glagola γητεύω“.Tako imamo tri oblika, različitog roda ali istog značenja: γητειά , γητιά, γήτεμα. Što se tiče etimologije Babinjotis (1998:420) smatra da je ona neizvesna. Dopušta da je verovatno od str gr γοητεύω nastao naš glagol. od aorista εγοήτευσα > εγήτευσα sa gubljenjem nenaglašenog –o O poreklu glagola γητεύω postoje više mišljenja. Srednjevekovno gr γητεύω potiče od str gr γοητεύω “μαγεύω“, od γογητεύω. Druga pretpostavka je dao Filinda (Φιλήντα. Γλωσσογν. 2, 43) I označava glagol kao γιατρεύω με μαγικά μέσα „ lečiti magijskim sretstvima“ i izvodi ga od εγώ γοητεύω > γογητεύω, apokopom prvog sloga. Interesantno je tumačenje kojer daje Hadzidakis koji glagol povezuje sa γύφτος > γυφτ-εύω > γυτεύω, ciganima budući da su se oni bavili bajanjem i vračanjem, te time umanjuje starinu ovoj jezičkoj porodici I njen nastanak smešta u srednji vek. Ovako široko determinisanje γητειά , γητιά, γήτεμα svrstava ove termine u grupu bajalica I basmi kojima su se lečile odredjene bolesti. Tako da cilj odredjuje vrstu, da li je basma za lečenje, ili basma za postizanje kakvog cilja (najčešće ljubavnog). 6.ξόρκι Termin ξόρκι-„vračanje, bajanje, čaranje, molitva kod bajanja, magično sredstvo“(Balać, Stojanović, 2002: 502) označava μαγικά λόγια που, σύμφωνα με λαϊκές δοξασίες έχουν τη δύναμη να απομακρύνουν τα κακά πνεύματα , να θεραπευτούν αρρώστους ( magijske reči, magijski govor, 12 �koji na osnovu narodnog mišljenja ima snagu i moć da otkloni zlo i da leči bolesne) (Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998: 1238). Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής( 1998 : s.v. ) ξόρκι determiniše kao συμβολικά μαγικά λόγια που σκοπό έχουν να διώξουν τα κακά πνεύματα- ( simbolične magijske reči koje imaju za cilj da oteraju zle duhove ). Glagol iste osnove ξορκίζω -ομαι “ bajati, zaklinjati, terati neko zlo vračanjem I bajanjem” (Balać,Stojanović, 2002: 502 ) znači i απομακρύνω, διώχνω τα κακά πνεύματα με ξόρκια ή με άλλα μαγικά μέσα ( odbiti,oterati zle duhove putem bajanja ili nekim drugim magijskim sredstvima ). Glagol ima značenje i εξορκίζω „zakleti negog (da nešto ne uradi)”. (Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, 1998 : s.v. ) Sreće se u srednjevekovnom grčkom ξορκίζω od ἐξορκίζω u značenju „επιβάλλω όρκο nametnuti zakletvu nekome“. Istu osnovu vidimo i u reči ξορκιστής ο „ „zakljinjač, onaj koji baje, vračar” (Balać, Stojanović, 2002: 502) a za ženu ξορκίστρα. Kriaras ( s.v.) za ξόρκι navodi značenje μαγική ευχή, επωδή για την απομάκρυνση κακού „ magijska želja, magijska pesma u cilju otklanjanja zla“ . U suštini ξόρκι je poseban vidi bajalica, bolje rečeno magijskog govora, jer često sadržaj je veoma teško razumljiv ili čak potpuno nerazumljiv, koji ima primarno značenje otklanjanj zla. Verovatno reč nastaje u srednjem veku. 7. επωδή I konačno, srećemo se i sa terminom η επωδή „ vračanje, čaranje, bajanje, zavera„ (BalaćStojanović, 2002: 280) i u značenju -σειρά τυποποιημένων φράσεων , ( γενικότ.) το τραγούδι ή α λόγια , για τα οποία πιστεύεται ότι απαγγελία ή η καταπολέμηση των κακών πνευμάτων , τη θεραπεία ασθενειών, συν. Ξόρκι, μαγγανεία , ( η επωδή-μαγικό τραγούδι, ξόρκι) ( niza tipičnih fraza , uopšteno pesama ili reči , za koje se veruje da recitovanje istih ili jednostavno izgovaranje ima uspeha putem magije da se bori protiv zlih duhova, ili da leči bolesne , sinonimi su ξόρκι, μαγγανεία γητειά, dakle, επωδή je magijska pesma , istovetna sa ξόρκι) (Μπαμπινιώτης, 1998: 669). Kod Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής (1998: s.v.) επωδή je λόγος (συνήθ. έμμετρος και σε ιδιάζουσα γλώσσα) με μαγικό περιεχόμενο, ο οποίος απευθύνεται σε δαιμονικές δυνάμεις με σκοπό 13 �την αποτροπή ορισμένου κακού (govor, obično u stihu i na posebnom jeziku, magijske sadržine, koji se upućuje demonskim silama u cilju odbijanja odredjenog zla ). Reč potiče od starogrčkog ἐπῳδή 1. Hvalospjev i molitva kod žrtava u Perzijanaca, u kojoj su se svi bogovi i sveti dusi zazivali. 2. čarobne pjesme (Sirena). Napose a), basma, bajanje za liječenje bolesti. b ), čarolije da se pridobiju prijatelji i ljubavnici a to je : urok , napitak (φίλτρα). (Senc,1910:345). Na osnovu iznetog vidimo da Grci za „bajanje“ koriste gore navedene termine i to kao označivača za samu radnju, dakle “bajanje, vračanjem mađijanje, omađijanje” i kao posledicu te radnje “ basme, bajalice”. Termini se po sadržaju ne mogu striktno svrstati u podelu koju daje Radenković , budući da vidimo da se svi termini po upotrebi preklapaju. Možemo izvršiti podelu na osnovu cilja magijske radnje na basme koje po sadržaju mogu biti: 1. Pozitivno / negativne za postizanje kakvog cilja, dobrog ili lošeg - κατάδεσμος, μαγεία, μαγγανεία. Tu moramo skrenuti pažnju da samo κατάδεσμος i μαγγανεία su basme sa negativnim sadržajem i delovanjem. 2. One koje služe za lečenje i odbijanje zla ξόρκι, επωδή, dok ητειά/γήτεμα može biti za prizivanje i odbijanje zla, stoga lečenje i za ljubavne čini. Tabelarno to izgleda ovako: Κατάδεσμος μαγεία Μαγγανεία Γητειά/γήτεμα Ξόρκι Επωδή - + + + + Tabela I Tek nakon detaljne obrade i prezentacije sadržaja navedenih basmi/bajalica možemo izvršiti uporednu analizu kako sadržaja tako I termina koji se koriste. Medjutim, i na pojedinim izvodima evidentirano je da postoji veliki stepen leksičke i sadržajne identičnosti kod basmi kod Srba i kod Grka, koja je utvrdjena i kod drugih naroda u Jugoistočnoj Evropi. 14 �Literatura - Balać, A.- Stojanović, M. (2002).Grčko-srpski rečnik . Beograd:Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva-Beograd. - Μπαμπινιώτης, Γ.(1998). Λεξικό τής Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας. Aθήνα:Κέντρο Λεξικολογίας. - Gorski, O.- Majnarić, N. (1976). Grčko-hrvatski ili srpski rječnik . Zagreb: Izdavačko preduzeće „Školska knjiga“. - ETIMOLOŠKI REČNIK SRPSKOG JEZIKA 2 Sveska 2: BA–BD2, (2006) redaktori Bjeletić, Marta; Vlajić - Popović, Jasna; Vučković, Marija; Djokić, Maja; Loma, Aleksandar; Petrović Snežana, Beograd . - Hammond, N.G.L. -Scullard, H.H. (1970). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (OCD). - Hofmann, J. B. (1950). ΕΤΥΜΟΛΟΓΙΚΟΝ ΛΕΞΙΚΟΝ ΤΗΣ ΑΡΧΑΙΑΣ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΗΣ, ETIMOLOGISCHES WORTERBUCH DESGRIESCHISCHEN. Munchen. - E. Kriaras’Dictionary of Medieval Vulgar Greek Literature . Dostupno preko http://www.greek language.gr/greekLang/medieval_greek/kriaras/index.html ( 15.02.2015). - Kropej, M. (2009) Slovenian Charms Between South Slavic and Central European Tradition. U: Charms, Charmers and Charming – International Research on Verbal Magic. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 145–162. - Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής, από το Ίδρυμα Μ. Τριανταφυλλίδη, 1998, Αθήνα . Dostupno preko : http://www.greek language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/triantafyllides/index.html (15.02.2015). - Νεοελληνικές λαϊκές επώδες ( γητείες, ξόρκια):μορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά και εθνογραφικές καταγραφές. Πασσάλης , Χαραλάμπος Ν., ΑΠΘ, Τήμα Ιστορίας και Αρχαιολογίας.2000. σε ΑΠΘ - Мијушковић М. Љубавне чини. Београд, 1985 - Radenković, Lj, (1996). Narodna bajanja kod Južnih Slovena . Beograd: Prosveta, Balkanološki institut SANU . - Раденковић , Р. (1991). Казивања о нечистим силам. Ниш. - Раденковић ,Љ. (1982). Народне басме и бајања. Ниш; Приштина; Крагујевац. 15 �- Раденковић, Љ.(1996b). Симболика света у народној магији Јужних Словена. Ниш. - Radenković, Lj. (1973). Urok ide uz polje. Narodna bajanja, Gradina, Niš. - Radenković, Lj. (1982). Narodne basme i bajanja. Niš: Gradina, Priština: Jedinstvo, Kragujevac: Svetlost . - Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog I narodnog jezika, SANU, Beograd, 1959. - Riječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, JAZU, Zagreb, 1880. - Senc, S. ( 1910). Grčko-hrvatski rječnik . Zagreb: reprint 1988. - Словенска Митологија, Енциклопедијски речник, (2001) редактори Светлана М. Толстој и Љубинко Раденковић, Beograd:Zepter Book World. - Skok, P. (1971-1974). Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika / T. 1-4, Suradjivao V. Putanec. Zagreb. 16 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2917 Title A name given to the resource TERMINI OZNAČAVANJA "BASME /BAJALICE" U SAVREMENOM GRČKOM JEZIKU Author Author Vulović, Ljiljana Abstract A summary of the resource. Βajanje, basma, bajalica are the serbian words that belong to the circle of magical terminology. Interesting is the comparative approach that compare the Serbs and the Greeks at the linguistic aspect. Βajanje is seen as a magical behavior which aims to make a change in the desired direction. As a rule, the basis of this behavior makes a voice part - specific language formula, shorter or longer, which is usually called by Serbs basma. In the literature the Serbs use the word bajalica as a synonym for the basma , term that in Serbian is used as a common name for a person who is engaged in chanting, and it is usually a woman. Greek for bajanje use the term καταδέσμος, while for the basma they have more terms: κατάδεσμος, μαγεία, μαγγανεία, γητειά / γήτεμα, ξόρκι, and επωδή. Based on these findings, we see that the Greeks „bajanje“ use the above terms and that as a marker for the same action and as a result of these actions they have “ basme, bajalice”. In the case of the Greek’s terms we can make a classification on the basis of objective magic spells that act on the content and those can be as follows: 1. positive or negative for achieving any goal, whether good or bad - κατάδεσμος, μαγεία, μαγγανεία. We must draw attention to just κατάδεσμος and μαγγανεία are basme with negative content and operation. 2. those that are used for the treatment and reject evil ξόρκι, επωδή while γητειά / γήτεμα may be to invoke the rejection of evil, so for healing and for love. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-08 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7050a16fc2415f9404b0b6169b0acb33.pdf f00e8947417a29dea4423576b95e238f PDF Text Text “THE MAP IS MORE INTERESTING THAN THE TERRITORY” THE CASE OF THE NOVEL THE MAP AND THE TERRITORY BY MICHEL HOUELLEBECQ Iva Šarić & Patrick Levačić University of Zadar, Croatia Article History: Submitted: 12.06.2015 Accepted: 28.06.2015 Abstract: In the novel The Map and the Territory (2011) by Michel Houellebecq the issue of merging the status of faction and fiction is present in all the poetic categories of the novel, i.e. in the plot and in the narration, the status of the narrator and characters, up to the narrative timespace continuum. The aim of this paper is to literary analyze and interpret this Houellebecq's work. Our approach is triple. First, we deal with the structure of the plot, the categories of characters and narrator, and then the narrative perspectives and spatial-temporal frame of the novel and its style. As a next step, our analysis is expanded to the interaction of mentioned narrative forms, i.e. their mutual relations are observed. Particular attention is put on the transformation of the metonymy to the metaphor. Finally, we complete this work observing the relations between the novel and ''the real'' in its sociological and historical meaning. In this way, the pragmatic level and the functioning of the novel outside of a strictly literary framework is problematized. Key words: Houellebecq, The Map and the Territory, faction, fiction, metonymy, metaphor, irony Apstrakt: U romanu Karta i teritorij (2011.) Michela Houellebecqa u okviru svih poetičkih kategorija dolazi do mješanja statusa stvarnosti i fikcije. Možemo ga dakle pratiti od kategorije pripovjedanja i fabule, preko pripovjedača i likova do vremena i prostora u djelu. U ovom ćemo radu analizirati i interpretirati spomenuti roman, pri čemu će pristup tekstu biti trostruk. �Prva razina analize odnosit će se na strukturu fabule, kategorije likova i pripovjedača te perspektivu pripovjedanja, prostorno-vremenski okvir djela i njegove stilske značajke, dok će na sljedećoj razini analiza biti proširena na interakciju navedenih naratoloških oblika, odnosno na njihove suodnose, pri čemu će poseban naglasak biti stavljen na prijelaz metonimije u metaforu. Naposljetku, ovaj će rad biti zaokružen problematiziranjem pragmatičke razine teksta, odnosno razmatranjem odnosa romana sa stvarnošću kao društveno-povijesnom zbiljom, drugim riječima, razmatranjem funkcioniranja proznog djela izvan isključivo književnih okvira. Ključne riječi: Houellebecq, Karta i teritorij, stvarnost, fikcija, metonimija, metafora, ironija �1. Uvod U ovom radu analizirat ćemo i interpretirati odnos stvarnosti i fikcije u romanu Karta i teritorij1 (2011.) Michela Houellebecqa. Njihov odnos pratimo na nekoliko razina, ponaprije u vidljivoj strani teksta, preko romanu svojstvenih poetičkih kategorija (fabula, pripovjedač, likovi, vrijeme i prostor), a zatim preko njihovih suodnosa te napokon na razini implicitnog. Na toj ćemo se razini pak fokusirati na odnos metonimije i metafore u tekstu. Njihov odnos vidimo onako kako ga određuje Ricoeur, pri čemu se Samo [...] metonimija može potpuno tretirati kao fenomen denominacije: jedna riječ na mjestu druge riječi; u tom smislu samo ona udovoljava teoriji supstitucije, jer samo ona ostaje u granicama denominacije. […] Metafora se u stvari razlikuje od metonimije po tome što igra na dva registra: na registru predikacije i na registru denominacije […] metafora u diskursu igra takvu ulogu koju metonimija nikad i nikako ne može dostići; njihova razlika u plodnosti pokreće složenije faktore nego što je obična razlika između dviju vrsta asocijacija. Metafora ima prevagu nad metonimijom ne zato što bi bliskost bila siromašniji odnos od sličnosti, ili zbog toga što su metonimijski odnosi izvanjski, zadani u stvarnosti, a metaforičke ekvivalencije stvara imaginacija, već zato što produkcija neke metaforičke ekvivalencije uvodi u igru predikativne operacije o kojima metonimija ništa ne zna. (Ricoeur, 152) Nadalje, na razini tekstu implicitnog zanima nas i uloga ironije pri čemu je promatramo ne samo kao figuru, nego i kao svojevrsnu strategiju koja zastupa određeni pogled na svijet: [...] ironija [je], ne samo kao figura, nego kao model i horizont relevantna tehnika postmodernizma, a pripovjedačeva intencija o otkrivanju pripovjedne tajne npr. time što se za pripovijedanje veli da je priča, vrhunac je pripovjedačeve ''samosvijesti''. Postmodernistička književnost je u tom smislu situacionistička, [...] , demontaža je iluzije sveznajuće pozicije visokog modernizma, te ne proizvodi u biti psihološko ja, biografsko ja, historijsko ja, nego artificijelno ja, a njen post-historicizam je u tome što ne samo intencionalno nego i imanentnom logikom postaje komentar (estetski) usvojenoga (historijata) žanra. [...] Postmoderna ironija, [...] postaje strategijska supstancija više nego dinamičko načelo i tako se krajnje reducira postajući ''prvim'' (narativnim) pokretačem. (Milanja, 62) Houellebecqovo djelo nadalje se uklapa u dugu tradiciju političkog korištenja ironije koja postoji u Francuskoj „[...], i kod neangažiranih autora, kao i kod onih koji najotvorenije �prakticiraju ideološke ili političke oblike književnosti. To je stoga što ironija, kao i ideologija, ima vrijedonosnu dimenziju ''kuđenja preko pohvale'', [...] !“ 2 (Denis) 2. Glavni lik i njegov odnos s drugim (likovima) Houellebecqovi romani smatraju se uprimjerenjem „[...] bešćutnog liberalizma, robnoinformacijskog terora, rasapa obiteljskih veza i društvene kohezije, tobože hedonističkog nadmetanja egoizama, gubitničke osuđenosti na samoću i depresiju [...]“, a njegovi „Protagonisti su u trajnoj ambivalenciji potrebe za ljubavlju i nemogućnošću da se voli ili bude voljen, psihičkog rasula i pridržavanja društvenih pravila, sudjelovanja u nametnutoj borbi i izvjesnosti poraza.“ (Koščec, 24, 195) Analizu romana Karta i teritorij stoga ćemo početi na njegovoj sadržajnoj razini koja prati životnu priču vizualnog umjetnika Jeda Martina od njegova djetinjstva, koje je obilježeno samoubojstvom majke i očevim radom u vlastitom arhitektonskom studiju, pri čemu Jean-Pierre Martin baš i ne provodi mnogo vremena sa sinom, te školovanjem u internatu kod Isusovaca, da bi potom Jed studirao fotografiju, pronašao prvi posao i nešto kasnije postao priznati umjetnik na pariškoj, ali i svjetskoj likovnoj sceni. Glavni fabularni tok romana koncentriran je na Jedovo postizanje uspjeha, njegov umjetnički proboj, odnosno na razdoblje od nešto više od deset godina, od 2010. do 2020. Roman međutim zahvaljujući analepsama i prolepsama obuhvaća veliki vremenski raspon tako da sveznajući pripovjedač donosi događaje ne samo prije 2010., već i one nakon 2020., dakle događaje iz budućnosti, sve od otprilike 2060. godine i Jedove smrti. Jedovi djedovi bili su obrtnici, no obojica su se izdigla nad puku reprodukciju. Jedan je djed bio fotograf, a drugi zlatar, u njihovu radu prisutna je dakle umjetnička komponenta. Jedov otac je pak arhitekt koji je želio biti umjetnik, on se, kako sam kaže: Poslije mature upisao sam se na parišku Umjetničku akademiju. Moju majku je to pomalo zabrinjavalo, htjela je da radije upišem fakultet za inženjera; ali od tvog djeda sam dobio veliku podršku. Mislim da je on imao umjetničku ambiciju, kao fotograf, ali nikada nije imao mogućnost da snima što drugo osim vjenčanja i pričesti. [...] ''Da, i ja sam htio biti umjetnik...'' [...] ''Ali nisam uspio [...]. (KT, 197) Cijelog života odnos Jeda s ocem je distanciran, ne uspjevaju se zbližiti. Jed oca posjećuje tek jednom godišnje, na Badnjak, no ni tada ne zna o čemu bi zapravo s njim razgovarao. Do prekretnice dolazi u trenutku kada mu otac počinje pričati o svom radu i svojim propalim životnim ambicijama. Međutim, Jed predosjeća da taj preokret znači vjerojatno i posljednji susret s ocem: „Jed je nakratko [...] osjetio da su ušli u novu etapu svojih odnosa, ili da se više �nikad neće vidjeti.“ (KT, 207) Star i bolestan otac će se naposljetku bez Jedova znanja odlučiti za eutanaziju u Švicarskoj. Jed je odrastao bez majke, a ni sa drugim ženama ne uspjeva upostaviti bliski odnos. Tijekom studija djevojka mu je kolegica Genèvieve koja je escort-dama koja ga napokon ostavlja zbog bivšeg klijenta. Kasnije Jed upoznaje Olgu, upješnu rusku poslovnu ženu koja mu pomaže u karijeri, no nakon njezina povratka u Rusiju ta je veza okončana, a ne uspjeva je obnoviti ni deset godina kasnije kad će se Olga vratiti u Pariz, premda ga ona voli. Jed nema prijatelja. Koliko-toliko prijateljsko-poslovni odnos uspjeva održavati sa svojim galeristom Franzom Tellerom. Odnos najbliži prijateljskom pak uspostavlja s piscem Michelom Houellebecqom. Autor romana Michel Houellebecq uvodi dakle u roman lik Michela Houellebecqa kojeg bismo mogli bismo smatrati i metonimijom Houellebecqa autora. Houellebecq lik pak piše predgovor za katalog Jedove izložbe, dok će Jed portretirati pisca i taj mu portret, koji će dosegnuti cijenu u stotinama tisuća eura, kasnije pokloniti. Dvojica umjetnika raspravljaju o svome radu, a umjetničke su im koncepcije slične. Postavljaju se pitanja o funkciji umjetnosti danas i njezinoj komercijalizaciji. No, ne samo da Jed Martin i Michel Houellebecq imaju sličan pogled na umjetnost, već među njima postoje i drugi paralelizmi – lifestyle im je blizak (Houellebcqova kuća u Irskoj bez namještaja i prepuna neraspakiranih kutija i neurednog travnjaka svojevrsni je preslik Jedova pariškog stana, improviziranog namještaja, zapuštenog i neodržavanog, obojica se nezdravo hrane – Houellebecq je ljubitelj suhomesnatih proizvoda, a Martin pakiranja hrane što se podgrijavaju u mikrovalnoj pećnici, primjerice), obojica nisu u stanju ostvariti kontakt s drugima (Houellebecq ima dva propala braka i djecu s kojom se ne viđa, prijatelja nema dok su Jedovi obiteljski i ljubavni odnosi promašeni), danima žive u samoći (Houellebecq živi samotno, dani su mu isprazni i ne zna kamo bi sa samim sobom, dok Jed mjesecima ni s kim ne razgovara, osim što blagajnici u samoposluživanju odgovara s „ne“ na njezino pitanje o posjedovanju kartice vjernosti trgovačkom lancu). Do preokreta u Houellebecqovom životu dolazi kad se vraća u rodni kraj, kad kupuje rodnu kuću i nabavlja psa koji mu postaje vjerni prijatelj, no na kraju će ipak skončati tako da nitko danima neće znati da je mrtav. (Još će jednom liku iz romana, inspektoru Jasselinu, pas biti vjeran drug.) Jed će se pak i sam kasnije preseliti na selo, u kuću djeda i bake u kojoj je kao dijete provodio praznike, no i njegov će život biti obilježen samoćom. Kako možemo pročitati u tekstu, od svih odnosa koje Jed ima, kao prijateljski bi se mogao opisati onaj s vlastitim bojlerom koji ga godinama nije iznevjerio, i čijim kvarom započinje roman: „Zapravo se vrtio u krugu, barem se to moglo reći. Toliko je bio besposlen da je, prije par tjedana, počeo razgovarati s bojlerom. A najozbiljnije je bilo što �je sada – preksinoć je postao svjestan toga – očekivao da mu bojler odgovori. [...] Sve u svemu, to mu je bio najstariji drug.“ (KT, 362) Jed dakle nije u stanju uspostaviti odnose s drugim ljudima, podbacio je i kao sin, i kao ljubavnik i kao prijatelj. Likovi dvojice umjetnika u zrcalno su simetričnom odnosu, jednog možemo smatrati alter egom onoga drugoga. 3. Struktura fabule Jedova je karijera međutim besprijekorna. Njegovo umjetničko stvaralaštvo počinje u srednjoškolskim danima fotografiranjem željeznih predmeta starim fotografskim aparatom koji je naslijedio od djeda, fotografa, da bi na studiju tu svoju aktivnost proširio i na fotografiranje ostalih metalnih predmeta: „Tako se Jed otisnuo u umjetničku karijeru bez ikakvog drugog projekta osim projekta – čiju iluzornu narav je vrlo rijetko naslućivao – da objektivno opisuje svijet.“ (KT, 44), a „Povjesničari umjetnosti, vještiji baratanju jezikom, poslije su zabilježili da se to prvo pravo Jedovo ostvarenje već bilo pokazalo, i to u istom smislu kao i sva sljedeća te usprkos raznolikosti materijala, kao hommage ljudskom radu.“ (KT, 44) Jednog dana Jed iznenada shvaća da je s fotografiranjem predmeta gotovo. Slučajno pak, dok s ocem odlazi na selo na pogreb baki, Jed na benzinskoj crpki kupuje Michelinovu kartu departmana Creuse Haute-Vienne te doživljava „estetsko ukazanje“ (KT, 46): Karta je bila vrhunska; potresen, počeo je drhtati pred policama. Nikad nije gledao tako veličanstven predmet, tako bogat emocijom i smislom kao što je bila ova Michelinova karta 1/150 000 [...]. Esencija modernog doba, znanstvenog i tehničkog shvaćanja svijeta, pomiješana s esencijom animalnog života. Crtež bijaše složen i lijep, apsolutne jasnoće, s ograničenim kolorističkim kodom. (KT, 46/47) Po povratku u Pariz, Jed kupuje sve Michelinove karte koje uspjeva naći te ih počinje fotografirati. Tako nastaju printevi poput onog departmana Creuse: Upotrijebio je jako nagnutu vizuru, trideset stupnjeva od horizontale, s maksimalnom dubinom polja. Tada je ubacio zamućenost daljine i plavkasti efekt na obzoru, služeći se Photoshopom. U prvom planu bilo je jezero Breuil i selo Chatelus-le-Marcheix. [...] U dnu i na desnoj strani slike, kao da je izvirala iz maglovitog rastera, još se razaznavala bijelo-crvena vrpca autoceste A20. (KT, 56/56) Ovaj ispis označava početak Jedovog uspjeha koji će biti okrunjen samostalnom izložbom: Ulaz u dvoranu bio je zapriječen velikim panoom, ostavljajući sa strane prolaze od dva metra, na koji je Jed jedno kraj drugog postavio satelitsku fotografiju okolice Guebwillerovog Balona i povećanje Michelinove karte ''Departmani'' za istu zonu. �Kontrast je bio frapantan: dok se na satelitskoj fotografiji vidjela više-manje jednolična zelena juha posuta nejasnim plavim mrljama, karta biješe razvila fascinantnu mrežu departmanskih cesta, slikovitih puteva, vidikovaca, šuma, jezera i prijevoja. Iznad obaju uvećanja, crnim slovima, stajao je naslov izložbe: ''KARTA JE ZANIMLJIVIJA OD TERITORIJA'' (KT, 72) „Jedov studij bio je čisto književni i umjetnički, pa on nikada nije imao prilike meditirati o kapitalističkim misteriju par excellence: misteriju formiranja cijena.“ (KT, 83) Jed preko specijalizirane mrežne stranice prodaje svoje printove po cijeni koja se ustalila na 2000 eura za format 40x60. No ova faza umjetnikovog rada ubrzo završava. Kad se njegova djevojka Olga, koja ga je na neki način lansirala zahvaljujući svojim vezama, vrati u Rusiju, Jed će uništiti svoje radove, mjesece i godine rada. Za Jeda biti umjetnik znači biti poslušan, odnosno slušati svoju intuiciju. „Te poruke mogle su podrazumijevati da uništiš neko djelo, odnosno cijelu skupinu djela, da bi se uputio u radikalno novom smjeru, a katkada i bez ikavog smjera uopće, ne raspolažući nikakvim projektom, ni najmanjom nadom u nastavak.“ (KT, 96) Jed pati bez Olge, no „U takvim okolnostima zbio se u njegovom životu ''povratak slikarstvu'' koji će biti predmetom tolikih komentara.“ (KT, 106) Jed počinje slikati ulja na platnu i time se bavi sljedećih desetak godina. Nastaje takozvana „serija jednostavnih zanimanja“: Jed Martin ne prikazuje manje od četrdeset dvije tipske profesije, nudeći tako posebno širok i bogat analitički spektar za proučavanje uvjeta proizvodnje u društvu svog vremena. Sljedeće dvadeset dvije slike, usredotočene na suočavanja i susrete, klasično nazvane ''serija kompozicija poduzeća'', kane dati relacijsku i dijalektičku sliku funkcioniranja ekonomije u cjelini. (KT, 108/109) Po riječima samog Jeda: „U zadnjh deset godina pokušavao sam prikazati ljude iz svih društvenih slojeva, od mesara za konjetinu do generalnog direktora multinacionale.“ (KT, 157) Njegov rad smještaju u tendenciju „povratka slikarstvu“, o čemu Jed kaže: Povratak slikarstvu, ili skulpturi, odnosno povratak predmetu. Ali to je po mom mišljenju, najviše zbog komercijalnih razloga. Lakše je uskladištiti i preprodati predmet ili instalaciju, ili performans, ali čini mi se da imam nešto zajedničko s tim. Iz slike u sliku pokušavam izgraditi jedan umjetni, simbolički prostor u kojem bih mogao prikazivati situacije koje imaju neki smisao za grupu. (KT, 135) Od te će izložbe Jed Martin zaraditi 30 milijuna eura. �4. Od stvarnosti do metametafore Roman je koncipiran u tri velike cjeline koje završavaju epilogom. Prva cjelina romana analepsa je, odnosi se na život Jeda Martina u razdoblju koje je prethodilo onom u kojem se proslavio, a o čemu čitamo u drugoj cjelini romana. Ta cjelina pak završava Jedovim posjetom Houellebecqu u njegovoj kući u Francuskoj kad mu poklanja svoje platno. Međutim, treća cjelina romana svojevrsni je preokret u naraciji jer radnja više primarno ne prati Jedov život, već je koncipirana kao krimić. Netko je naime ubio Michela Houellebecqa, a policija, na čelu s inspektorom Jasselinom i njegovim pomoćnikom Ferberom, ljubiteljem Nervalove Aurélie, traži ubojicu. Jed se pojavljuje kao svjedok koji je posljednji Houellebecqa vidio živog i koji će konstatirati kako su ostaci pisca i njegova psa raspoređeni poput Pollockova djela. Piščeva trauma tako je na prvoj razini, razini priče, a zatim i na drugoj razini, metaforički, pretvorena u umjetničko djelo. Jed pak saznaje da mu je otac otišao na eutanaziju u Švicarsku, po prvi je put sasvim sam na Badnjak. Epilog romana koji slijedi pak donosi odgovore na neriješena pitanja. Slučaj Michela Houellebecqa slučajno je riješen nakon tri godine, kad se uspostavilo da je pisac ubijen kako bi bio ukraden njegov vrijedan portret koji je naslikao Jed Martin. Jed pak seli u Creuse, u kuću djeda i bake te kupuje velike parcele zemlje koje okružuju njegovo imanje te sve opasuje visokom, trometarskom žičanom ogradom. Ne izlazi, nema kontakata s ljudima. Nastaju djela iz njegove posljednje faze opusa kada kamerom iz dana u dan snima rast biljaka. Već i sam naslov romana najavljuje postmodernistima dragu temu poigravanja statusom zbilje i fikcije. Ne zaboravimo da se referira i na slavnu rečenicu „Karta nije teritorij“, poljskog inženjera Alfreda Korzbyskog (1879.-1950.), utemeljitelja opće semantike. Riječ je dakako o razlici između stvarnosti i njezinog prikaza.3 Tekst romana obilježava suodnos realnog, fiktivnog i imaginarnog (Iser). Naime, zbilja je prisutna u fikcionalnom tekstu, međutim ona je ondje fingirana, drugim riječima roman se pretvara ili hini, simulira stvarnost, roman kao da je stvarnost. Stvarnost se prenosi u tekst, odnosno znak za nešto drugo, takozvanim činovima fingiranja (Iser). Taj postupak naziva se irealiziranjem, a činovi fingiranja podrazumijevaju tri irealizacije: selekciju elemenata iz realnog svijeta, kombinacije elemenata teksta i njihovo podvrgavaje novoj kontekstualizaciji, odnosno njihovo relacioniranje, te napokon razotkrivanje fikcionalnosti pri čemu se semantički prostori teksta čine analognima realnom svijetu, odnosno postaju egzemplifikacija svijeta. Razotkrivanje fikcionalnosti vrši se pomoću signala jer između autora i čitatelja postoji ugovor, a jezik pritom nije ključni signal za prepoznavanje fikcije, nego su to književni rodovi koji imaju funkciju koda i usmjeravaju �obzor očekivanja čitatelja. Dakle, „Ako se fingiranje ne može izvesti iz reproducirane zbilje, tada u njemu dolazi do izražaja imaginarno koje se povezuje s realnošću koja se reproducira u tekstu.“ (Iser, 312/313) Priroda književnog djela kao istovremenog spoja realnog, fiktivnog i imaginarnog stoga jednako ovisi kako o svome tvorcu, tako i o svome čitatelju. I dok je čitatelj kao takvu treba prepoznati, autor je kao takvu treba stvoriti – poštujući pritom određene sheme, kodove, odnosno koristeći strategije koji se iznova ponavljaju: „Sva ta obilježja teme, likova, kompozicije, vremena, prostora, te, razumije se, i samog pisma, sačinjavaju neku vrstu realističkog koda. Taj kod usmjerava imaginarno pripovjedača koji nastoji [...] fikciji dati privid stvarnosti.“ (Mitterand, 5) Dakle, pisanjem ne samo da realnost postaje fikcija, nego kretanje ide i u suprotnom smjeru, fikciji se daje privid realnog. Houellebecq pribjegava postupcima ozbiljenja fikcije datiranjem događaja, realnim toponimima, uvođenjem u fabulu poznatih francuskih javnih osoba te napokon, kao krunom svoga postupka, i samoga sebe. Naravno, time se istovremeno fikcija defikcionalizira i potkazuje kao svojevrsno poigravanje ili šala s čitateljem – Michel Houellebecq je ubijen, što kao da je vijest iz crne kronike. S problematiziranjem odnosa zbilje i fikcije u skladu je i naslov djela – karta i teritorij – karta kao otklon od stvarnosti, i teroritorij kao sama stvarnost. No, Jed Martin, dakle umjetnik, pokazuje kako teritorij postaje karta, a karta umjetničko djelo. Karta bi trebala biti neka vrst dokumenta, ona je neka vrst metonimije stvarnosti, no istovremeno i fikcija – sjetimo se primjerice nesrazmjera rubova i središta karte, ili nenavođenja određenih mjesta na karti, iako ona u stvarnosti naravno postoje. Karta tako dobro ilustrira umjetnički postupak selekcije elemenata iz stvarnosti i njihovu transpoziciju, odnosno relacionizaciju, simbolizaciju i napokon metaforizaciju. Karta se pak kod Houellebecqa dodatno fikcionalizira fotografiranjem, novom obradom, novom selekcijom, novom simbolizacijom, čime postaje meta-metafora. Od metonimije karta se dakle prevodi u metaforu da bi opet bila metonimizirana i metaforizirana. Time roman dolazi na poziciju ukazivanja na to kako se metafora zapravo može, u okviru određenog koncepta, svesti na metonimiju, odnosno da „Kada se te doktrine racionaliziraju koncepcijama o nekoj duhovnoj supstanciji i sličnom, onda se metafora prevodi na metonimijski jezik i "objašnjava". Ali takva objašnjenja žestoko mirišu na intelektualnu smrtnost i iščezavaju prije ili kasnije, dok se prvobitna metafora ponovo javlja, beskompromisna kao i uvijek.“4 (Fry, 84) Stoga se metametafora karte napokon može promatrati kao realizirana metafora romana kao žanra koji polazište ima u stvarnosti koja se međutim višestruko irealizira. �5. Od ironije do metaironije Odnos zbilje i fikcije produbljuje uzmemo li u obzir tekstu implicitan odnos ironije i ideologije sa stvarnošću. Naime, Između stvarnosti i ideologije postoji [...] čisti hijerarhijski odnos: zbiljsko, onako kako ga poima marksistička kritika ili znanost, kauzalna je istina ideologije, koja je mjesto iluzije, laži ili lažne savjesti. U slučaju ironije, također postoje dva sloja značenja: doslovni, prihvatljiv po sebi, no koji određeni indikatori vrlo različite prirode traže prevrednovati, kako bi se preradio izgrađeni smisao. U tom smislu, najklasičnija ironija čini očiglednim kontradikciju između idealnog, vrednovanog svijeta, i svijeta takvog kakav jest, potkazujući otklon između očaravajuće iluzije ideala, ili utopije, i stvarnosti. S tog stajališta vrijedonosni doseg ironije različit je od onog ideologije jer ona zahtijeva odvajanje vrijednosti i istine: nikada ironijsko prevrednovanje ne negira višu vrijednost predviđenog idealnog svijeta, pa čak ni kad razotkriva svoj iluzorni ili nemogući karakter u stvarnosti: dva sloja značenja zadržana su dakle, i to u nužnoj dvosmislenoj napetosti.5 (Denis) Ton ovog Hoellebecqovog romana prvenstveno je ironičan, a „[...] ironija [kao] određena vrst igre vrijednostima, vjerovanjima, stavovima i mišljenjima predočenim u djelu, te njezine detronizirajuće i desakralizirajuće funkcije utječu na preokretanje smisla čuvajući nas od jednodimenzionalnog i doslovnog shvaćanja.“ (Slabinac, 120). U romanu tako možemo iščitati kritiku francuske i svjetske umjetničke scene, kritiku komercijalizacije umjetnosti, no prvenstveno je riječ o auto-ironiji. Ironija je dakle dvostruka, s jedne je strane usmjerena na poslanje umjetnika (možemo li ga smatrati svojevrsnim plaćenikom koji radi za novac?), a s druge na samo umjetničko djelo. Stoga autor i uvodi samoga sebe u tekst kao jednog od likova, temeljeći svoj lik na metonimiji, poigravajući se dakle stereotipima o vlastitu liku (Houellebecq pijanica, Houellebecq koji orgija s prostitutkama na Tajlandu, Houellebecq pred bankrotom pa piše za 10 000 eura) i djelu (stvarni književni kritičari koji se pojavljuju u tekstu kao likovni kritičari Jedova rada) da bi napokon došlo do (iznenadne) „smrti autora“, točnije, „ubojstva autora“. Pa ako je Houellebecq lik metonimija pravog Houellebecqa, Houellebecqa pisca, ne bismo li mrtvog Houellebecqa mogli smatrati metaforom autora, odnosno metaforom za smrt autora ili, drugim riječima, za smrt same metafore, za mrtvu metaforu? Naime, poetski diskurs po Ricoeuru obilježava živa metafora, a spekulativni mrtva. Nadalje, oživotvoriti metaforu po Ricoeuru znači „dovesti spekulativnu misao u suglasje s pjesničkom riječi.“ (352) Nije stoga slučajno da je Houellebecq živio i da je ubijen u �filozofskim selu, odnosno selu u kojem svaka ulica ili trg, naravno metaforički, nose ime nekog filozofa. Naime, odnos shvaćanja i tumačenja za Ricoeura je komplementaran i dijalektički, a interpretirati metaforu zapravo znači metaforizirati metaforu. Zadaća spekulativnog diskursa potraga je za mjestom na kojem pojaviti se znači „rađanje onoga što raste“, što je zapravo metafora rascvata koja po principu repetitivnosti, kroz cikluse metonimija-metafora-metonimija i tako dalje, dovodi kako do nestanka autora, umjetnosti, tvorca, Boga, tako i do otpočinjanja novog ciklusa rođenjem autora, metaforike ... i njegova nastavljanja. Odnos prema romanu kao žanru u romanu Karta i teritorij ironičan je, stoga ga određujemo kao roman o romanu, odnosno meta-roman. Uz (auto)ironičan stav autora prema umjetničkom stvaralaštu – samom djelu i njegovu autoru, ironija je napokon usmjerena i na funkciju umjetnosti. „Po Barthesu, pravu odgovornost za pisca ne predstavljaju ideološke implikacije njegova djela, nego prihvaćanje književnosti kao promašenog angažmana [engagement manqué]“ (Denis), što je zapravo pozicija estetskog purizma, odnosno rada isključivo na jeziku. Jed Martin u analognoj je situaciji. U romanu čitamo kako se obogatio umjetnošću i više ne stvara za tržište. Jedov motto postaje: „Ne treba tražiti smisao ondje gdje ga nema.“ (KT, 360) On se povlači na svoje imanje i počinje svoj zadnji projekt snimanja rasta biljaka, takozvanih videograma. U posljednjem intervjuu koji je dao pred smrt „[...] govori – gotovo isključivo – o tehničkim postupcima koje je primjenjivao pri izradi onih neobičnih videograma [...]. [...] O značenju djela koje ga je zaokupljalo tijekom cijelog zadnjeg razdoblja života, on si ne dopušta nikakva komentar.“ (KT, 382) Drugim riječima, Jed se zatvara u svoju kulu bjelokosnu, a njegovo stvaralaštvo odvaja od konkretnog povijesnog trenutka odbacujući referenciju na stvarnost te društveni ili politički angažman, težeći univerzalnom i interpretaciji kozmosa, njegujući ideal nepristranosti (impassibilité) i kult forme u stvaralaštvu koje postaje autonomno u odnosu na zakone tržišta, znanost i moral, te napokon, elitističko, kao što se dogodilo i krajem 19. stoljeća kad „[...], se pisci udaljuju od svoje publike, koja više voli proizvodnju od kreacije“ (Tadié, 173). Jedova su djela zatvorena, odnosno hermetična, treba ih deširirati i u njima pronaći simboličko, on u nekom vidu neolarpurlartizma usvaja Gautierovu devizu po kojoj „Postoji samo lijepo koje ne služi ničemu, a sve što je korisno ružno je“ (Thérenty, 71). Umjetniku napokon preostaje tek gledati kako raste bilje, pa je tako Jed Martin U to isto vrijeme, počeo [...] kamerom snimati fotografije svih ljudi koje je uspio upoznati, od Genèvieve do Olge preko Franza, Michela Houellebecqa, oca i drugih osoba, zapravo svih onih čije je fotografije imao. [...] Izložene naizmjenično kiši i �sunčevom svijetlu, fotografije su se napuhavale, na mjestima trunule, onda se raspadale u komadiće, i za nekoliko tjedana bile su potpuno uništene. [...] Tako se djelo koje je zaokupljalo posljednje godine Jeda Martina može gledati – to je najdirektnije tumačenje – kao meditacija o svršetku industrijskog doba u Europi, i još općenitije o prolaznoj i prijelaznoj naravi svakog ljudskog poslovanja.“ (KT, 387, 389) Jed Martin stvara dakle djelo koje svjedoči o propasti jednog načina života i jedne civilizacije. U romanu Jedovo umjetničko djelo zapravo korespondira s krajem jednog svijeta, o čemu, na drugoj razini teksta, svjedoči sveznajući pripovjedač. Naime, jednom će prilikom Jed izaći sa svog imanja i uvidjeti koliko se Francuska u međuvremenu promijenila – proizvodne djelatnosti nestale su, Francuska je postala u prvom redu poljprivredna i turistička zemlja koja prodaje svoje šarmantne hotele, parfeme i mesne doručke, ali i seks, pri čemu se mijenja jedino nacionalnost njezinih posjetitelja, dok imigracija nestaje sa zatvaranjem radnih mjesta u industriji. 6. Zaključak Houellebecqovi romani specifični su „[...] po tome što podrivaju ne samo vladajuće sustave i predodžbe nego i vlastite građevine, na sve tri razine, logosa, ethosa i pathosa.“ (Koščec, 196) Ironijski skepticizam u tekstu rezultirat će poetskom samorefleksijom, odnosno pripovijedanje će u vidu meta-metafore postati predmetom narativnog diskursa, na što se će se nadodati postmoderna ironija ne samo kao „[...] sarkastično ironičan odnos [autora] prema suvremenoj kulturi i civilizaciji, [nego] i autoironična poetička poruka o nedoumici oko vlastita Izraza i poslanja.“ (Slabinac, 122) Pa što bi dakle bila funkcija umjetnosti? Neka vrsta angažmana u kojoj umjetnik ukazuje na stanje u svijetu? Ili bismo trebali umjetničko poslanje shvatiti kao udaljavanje od svijeta, u kojem, ako ćemo suditi po Jedovom primjeru, i tako nije moguće uspostaviti odnose s drugim(a)? Je li zaista, kako Houellebecq piše u posljednjoj rečenici svoga romana, „Triumf vegetacije [...] totalan.“? (KT, 389) Ili se pak radi o parodiranju nove verzije parnasovskih učenja, ironiziranju ironije, ironiji na drugu potenciju? Zbilja je naravno polazište za fikcionalni prozni tekst, a u samom tekstu nalazimo je prerađenu, simbolički posredovanu jezikom te metaforizanu i dohvatljivu na razini implicitnog. Implicitno u tekstu, koje se može manifestirati (i) kao ideologija ili ironija, ima pak povratan učinak na stvarnost. Naime, ironiju je moguće interpretirati samo unutar takozvane interpretacijske zajednice (Hutcheon), što znači da pripadnici te zajednice, kako bi uopće prepoznali da određena tvrdnja traži ironijsko prevrednovanje, moraju dijeliti relativno �velik broj vrijednosti i kodova. U procesu interpretacije ironije čitatelj pak dolazi do određenih zaključaka, on se može poistovjetiti s likom kojeg ironija cilja, može se od njega ograditi, propitati svoje vlastite vrijednosti i uvidjeti njihov ideološki karakter čime se zapravo na neki način i sam kompromitira, te napokon, nakon što mu književnosti otvori oči, promijeniti samoga sebe. U jednom će se trenutku u romanu Jed, otuđeni Jed, zapitati: „Je li on to bio na najboljem putu da ga svlada osjećaj prijateljstva prema Houellebecqu?“ (KT, 177) Nije li autor i ovdje autoironičan, pa nam pokazuje, upravo preko lika pisca Houellebecqa, da baš kontakt s umjetnikom i umjetnošću – ili živom metaforom (Ricoeur) – predstavlja jedini (i kakav takav) vid kontakta s drugim? Odnosno, kao što će to sam autor napisati u svojoj posljednjoj knjizi Soumission: Samo vam književnost može pružiti osjećaj dodira s nekim drugim ljudskim duhom, ljudskim duhom u njegovoj cjelovitosti, njegovim slabostima i snagom, njegovim ograničenjima, uskogrudnošću, fiksnim idejama, vjerovanjima; sa svime što ga dira, zanima, uzbuđuje ga ili mu je mrsko. 6 (S, 13) Iako književnost dakle ne daje jednoznačne odgovore, upravo zbog inherentne joj višeznačnosti iziskuje stalno propitivanje. Nije li baš zato karta zanimljivija od teritorija? U ovom će radu za roman Karta i teritorij (Michel Houellebecq, Zagreb: Litteris, 2011.) biti korištena kratica KT, dok će za roman Soumission (Michel Houellebecq, Paris: Flammarion, 2015.) biti korištena kratica S. 2 « [...] il y a en France une tradition bien établie d'un usage politique de l'ironie, tant chez les auteurs réputes les plus dégagés que chez ceux qui pratiquent les formes plus ouvertement idéologiques ou politiques de littérature. C'est que l'ironie, comme idéologie, possède une dimension évaluative (‘’ le blâme par la louange ‘’), [...] ! », preveli I.Š. i P.L. 3 Vidi KT, str.72., fusnota 45. 4 „Kada se te doktrine racionalizuju koncepcijama o nekoj duhovnoj supstanci i sličnom, onda se metafora prevodi na metonimijski jezik i "objašnjava". Ali takva objašnjenja žestoko mirišu na intelektualnu smrtnost i iščezavaju pre ili kasnije, dok se prvobitna metafora ponovo javlja, beskompromisna kao i uvek.“, preveli I.Š. i P.L. 5 « Entre la réalité et l’idéologie, il y a donc un rapport hiérarchique net : le réel, tel que le critique marxiste ou la science permettent de le saisir, est la vérité causale de l’idéologie, laquelle est le lieu de l’illusion, du mensonge et de la fausse conscience. Dans le cas de l’ironie, il y a également deux strates de significations : un sens littéral, acceptable en soi, mais que certains indices, de nature très variable, commandent de réévaluer, pour élaborer un sens construit. En ce sens, l’ironie la plus classique met en évidence une contradiction entre n monde idéal ou de l’utopie et la réalité. De ce point de vue, la portée évaluative de l’ironie est différente de celle de l’idéologie puisqu’elle postule un décrochage entre les valeurs et la vérité : jamais la réévaluation ironique ne nie la valeur supérieure du monde idéal envisagé, même si elle prend acte de son caractère illusoire ou impossible dans la réalité ; les deux couches de significations sont donc maintenues, et dans une tension nécessairement équivoque. », preveli I.Š. i P.L. 6 « Mais seule la littérature peut vous donner cette sensation de contact avec un autre esprit humain, avec l'intégralité de cet esprit, ses faiblesses et ses grandeurs, ses limitations, ses petitesses, ses idée fixes, ses croyances; avec tout ce qui l'émeut, l'intéresse, l'excite ou lui répugne. », preveli I.Š. i P.L. 1 �Bibliografija Denis, Benoît: « Ironie et idéologie – Réflexions sur la responsabilité idéologique du texte », COnTEXTES [Online], http://contextes.revues.og/180, 2/2007, 16/02/2007, pristup 05/02/2015 Fry, Northrop (Fraj, Nortrop): Veliki Kod(eks), Beograd: Prosveta, 1985. Iser, Wolfgang: „Činovi fingiranja ili što je fiktivno u fikcionalnom tekstu“, u Umjetnost riječi, listopad-prosinac 1987., Houellebecq, Michel: Karta i teritorij, Zagreb: Litteris, 2011. Houellebecq, Michel: Soumission, Paris: Flammarion , 2015. Koščec, Marinko: Michel H. – mirakul, mučenik, manipulator?, Zagreb: Tvrđa, 2007. Milanja, Cvjetko: „Postmoderni odmak“, Republika 49, 1993., 5/6, Mitterand, Henri: L'Illusion réaliste, Pariz: Presses Universitaires de France, 1994. Paul Ricoeur, Živa metafora, Zagreb: Grafički zavod Hrvatske, 1981. Slabinac, Gordana : „Metatekstualne funkcije ironije i groteske u avangardi“, Republika 9-10, 1990. Tadié, Jean-Yves: La création littéraire au XIXe siècle, Paris: Armand Colin, 2011. Thérenty, Marie-Ève: Les mouvements littéraires du XIXe et du XXe siècle, Paris: Hatier, 2001. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2912 Title A name given to the resource “THE MAP IS MORE INTERESTING THAN THE TERRITORY” THE CASE OF THE NOVEL THE MAP AND THE TERRITORY BY MICHEL HOUELLEBECQ Author Author Šarić, Iva Levačić, Patrick Abstract A summary of the resource. In the novel The Map and the Territory (2011) by Michel Houellebecq the issue of merging the status of faction and fiction is present in all the poetic categories of the novel, i.e. in the plot and in the narration, the status of the narrator and characters, up to the narrative time-space continuum. The aim of this paper is to literary analyze and interpret this Houellebecq's work. Our approach is triple. First, we deal with the structure of the plot, the categories of characters and narrator, and then the narrative perspectives and spatial-temporal frame of the novel and its style. As a next step, our analysis is expanded to the interaction of mentioned narrative forms, i.e. their mutual relations are observed. Particular attention is put on the transformation of the metonymy to the metaphor. Finally, we complete this work observing the relations between the novel and ''the real'' in its sociological and historical meaning. In this way, the pragmatic level and the functioning of the novel outside of a strictly literary framework is problematized. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PN Literature (General),PN0080 Criticism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2133b83b0b1b128e5ee580500b0124ed.pdf eaf6b53d40feb2ee05d2bc51ac85a822 PDF Text Text (RE)CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONALISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA INSTRUMENTALISATION OF LANGUAGE IN THE ONLINE-MEDIA FOR PROMOTING NATIONALISM Ružica Čubela University of Vienna, Austria Article History: Submitted: 12.06.2015 Accepted: 30.06.2015 Abstract The nation as an "imagined community"1 mirrors the creation of personal senses of identity, which can lead to feelings of belonging to one group but excluding the other one. Exclusive nationalism has created many brutal conflicts in the 20th century, and a particular example of it was seen in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This kind of nationalism still exists in everyday life supported by an uncontrolled rapid spread of (dis)information on web portals. This paper deals with the reconstruction of the nationalist discourse on web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina through different concepts of nationalism with a comparative approach using methods of linguistics and cultural and social anthropology. It is a continuation of the contemporary discourse on the concept of nationalism, personal and collective national identity in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as a personal empirical research in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Key words: language and culture, hate speech, nationalism, discourse analysis, ethnolinguistics, interdisciplinarity, Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 Anderson 1996 1 �1. Uvod Kada govorimo o višejezičnosti, promociji jezičine raznolikosti i međukulturalnoj komunikaciji, ne smijemo zaobići i činjenicu jezične seperacije u situacijama kada se jezik poistovjećuje sa nacijom ili instrumentalizira za nacionalističke svrhe. Rekonstrukcija ove separacije iznimno je relevantna za znanstveno istraživanje, ne samo kao jezični, već i kao kulturni fenomen, budući da se radi o mehanizmu kojim se ostvaruju nacionalistički ciljevi. To, pored ostalih primjera u svijetu, potvrđuje aktualna situacija u Bosni i Hercegovini. Stoga je svako istraživanje ovog tipa relevantno za međukulturno razumijevanje i učenje, procjenu jezičnog purizma, kao i viđenje nacionalnog identiteta u kontrastu sa globalnim identitetom. Nacionalizam predstavlja jednu vrstu diskursa koji najčešće vodi do isključenja pojedinaca ili zajednice iz društva. Prošlogodišnje demonstracije u BiH bile su, između ostalog, usmejerene protiv takvih praksi i potvrđuju da je nacionalizam u toj zemlji još uvijek aktualna i bitna tematika za znanstveno istraživanje2, te tako i ovaj rad predstavlja dio šireg istraživanja o (re)konstrukciji nacionalizma u Bosni i Hercegovini sa lingvističko-antropološkog aspekta. Istraživanje se bazira na već postojećim podacima o nacionalističkom diskursu, a pokušava elaborirati i aspekte ovog diskursa na primjeru bosanskohercegovačkih internetskih portala. Predstavljeni prilog se fokusira na jezik u odnosu na značenje. Ispituju se značenja izjava koje utjelovljuju nacinalistički diskurs i koji ga na taj način sukreiraju, čime određeni ''kreatori'' tog diskursa ili pošaljatelji poruka pokušavaju utjecati na mišljenje recipijenata da bi prikazali ideološke pozicije moći. Glavno pitanje u ovom kontekstu, dakle, glasi sa kojom retorikom se nacionalizam u Bosni i Hercegovini reproducira kroz online portale? U prvom dijelu ovoga rada predstavljene su metode istraživanja, slijedi teorijski koncept u kojem se objašnjava nacionalizam sa antropološke teorijske tačke, te primjeri iz bosanskohercegovačkih online portala i njihova analiza. 2 Anderson 1996: 12, Eriksen 2010: 289 2 �2. Istraživačko polazište Kroz procese globalizacije, nove oblike migracija i sve kompleksnije geopolitičke interese, interdisciplinarni pristupi su sve neophodniji i sve relevantniji u ovakvim istraživanjima. Stoga je istraživačko polazište u ovom radu utemeljeno u lingvistici kao i u kulturnoj i socijalnoj antropologiji. Etnolingvistika kao lingvistička subdisciplina proučava jezik koji, kao fenomen, spaja društvo kroz zajedničke tradicije i socijalne prakse, i koji je ustvari kulturni resurs, proizveden na osi razmjene među ljudima. Ovdje istražujemo jezik koji se instrumentalizira za stvaranje separacije u jednom društvu, što kroz izjednačavanje jezika sa nacijom, što kroz retoriku propagiranja nacionalizma, te stvaranje nacionalističkog diskursa. Metode i strategije istraživanja su kvalitativne, vođene glavnim pitanjem i sastoje se od participacijskog istraživanja na terenu, diskursne analize i kodiranja po Grounded teoriji. 2.1. Participacijsko istraživanje U vremenskom periodu od šest mjeseci prošle godine, tačnije 2014, provedeno je participacijsko istraživanje na terenu Bosne i Herzegovine. To podrazumijeva vođenje (djelimično strukturiranih) razgovora sa ekspertima i ne-ekspertima, posmatranja svakodnevnice, kao i analizu medijskih sadržaja. Na osnovu ovakvog pristupa, uočeno je da je tema nacionalizma zauzela, i još uvijek zauzima, dobar dio prostora u svakodnevnom životu ljudi. Nema sumnje da se radi o političkim i javnim praksama koje sve to organiziraju i koje razvijaju i opskrbljuju mehanizme proizvodnje različitih diskursa. 2.2. Diskursna analiza Nacionalizam se može razumjeti kao diskurs koji se stvara kroz govor i štampu. Analiza tog diskursa pomaže razumijevanju stvaranja istog, a ona podrazumijeva metodologiju koja spaja teoriju i metode. Njen cilj je, pojednostavljeno rečeno, utvrditi kako se kroz govor stvara stvarnost, jer realnost nije jednostavno tu, ona se stvara diskurzivno kroz izreke aktera koji govore, potom se postavlja pitanje ispravnosti, iskrivljenosti i adekvantosti.3 U ovom slučaju istražujemo diskurs o nacionalizumu u masovnim medijima, a ključna pitanja koja se postavljaju u diskursivnoanalitičnom pristupu su sljedeća:  Tko je legitimni govornik?  Koje znanje se prenosi i tumači kao istinito?  Iz kojih dijelova ili značenja se sastoji znanje? 3 Kiefl 2014: 423ff, 434, 439, 263; Bluhm 2000: 4 3 � Koji fenomeni se konstruiraju?  Kako se plausiblizira znanje koje stoji na raspolaganju?4 2.3. Odabir korpusa Budući da je cilj studije prepoznavanje obilježja nacionalizma u pisanom medijskom diskursu, odabran je korpus online portala, analizirani su članci tri potrala kao primjeri koji su objavljeni kratko prije posljednjih izbora 2014. godine. Temeljni zadatak u vezi sa građom ticao se odgovora na pitanje: Koja vrsta nacionalističkog diskursa se primjenjuje u smislu latentne manipulacije i stvaranja osjećaja pripadnosti prema naciji? 2.4. Metoda analize: Grounded teorija Analiza korpusa izvršena je prema metodi Grounded teorije, odnosno primijenjeno je otvoreno kodiranje kodovima koji su preuzeti iz koncepata definicije nacionalizma prema Andersonu (2005), Chohenu (1985), Eriksenu (2010) i Gellneru (1991), te je primijenjeno aksialno kodiranje da bi se deduktivno pokazali primjeri za teorijski koncept.5 U ovom slučaju Grounded teorija nije korištena za generiranje nove teorije jer se pretpostavlja da nacionalizam postoji kao diskurs u bosanskohercegovačkim portalima. 4 Keller 1997: 262 5 Götzö 2014: 444f 4 �3. Teorijski okvir 3.1. Nacionalizam kao koncept Svaka generalna teorija nacionalizma u postmoderni nije savršena, jer bi trebala podrazumijevati i analizu različitih utjecaja, oblika kultura, te formiranja nacija i dr. Kada krenemo od osnovne definicije nacije, po Benedictu Andersonu koji govori o tom konceptu kao o ''zamišljenoj zajednici'', možemo razumjeti i ideologiju samog nacionalizma. Ta ideja o ''imaginarnom spoju'' povezuje čak i anonimne čitaoce, pretpostavlja nešto zajedničko i stvara potrebu razlikovanja i širila se najprije kroz printane6, a danas i putem online medija. Choen ističe da su nacije konstruirane kroz kod pripadanje ili ne-pripadanje, gdje počinje razlika izmedju ''nas'' i ''njih'', onima koji su u grupi i onima koji nisu.7 Gellner i Erikson8 definiraju nacionalizam kao jednu ideologiju koja poistovjećuje kulturne granice sa političkim. Dakle, riječ je o ideji određene grupe ljudi koji misle da imaju homogenu kulturu, jezik, povijest, religiju, te zato i insistiraju na pravu na jednu etičku državu. Međutim, nevolja takvih zamišljenih zajednica je u tome što se homogenizacija može postići jedino uz neprihvatljivo radikalne mehanizme realizacije. Drugim riječima, ona je samo moguċa kroz asimilizaciju, bijeg ili ubistvo9, jer kultura i jezik ne postoje u obliku nečeg konstantnog, oni su stvar dogovora i uvijek u procesu promjene kroz odnose sa drugima. 3.2. Strategije kreiranja nacionalističkog diskursa Prema relevantnoj literaturi, postoje utvrđeni mehanizmi i strategije u postupku kreiranja nacionalističkog diskursa, a sastoje se od sljedećeg:  izrazitog naglašavanja razlika sa drugim skupinama,  naglašavanja kulturnog kontinuiteta i čistoće - promjene i strani utjecaj se potiskuju,  potiskivanje unutranjih razlika – ''nema'' miješanja sa članovima drugih grupa,  širenje osjećaja ugroženosti u usporedbi sa drugim skupinama - povijest se izučava iz viktimističke pozicije, ''moja'' grupa je ugrožena,  oni koji nisu članovi ''moje'' grupe se demoniziraju da bi se veza unutar grupe ojačala, a  kulturni heroji prošlosti se rekonceptualiziraju kao moderni nacionalisti.10 6 Anderson 2005: 40ff, 50ff, 72f 7 Chohen 1985: 15 8 Eriksen 2010: 289f, 290, 292; Gellner 1991: 8 9 Gellner 1991: 10 10 Eriksen 2010: 305 5 �3.3. Nacionalizam i jezik Opstojnost imaginarne zajednice potpomaže pisani diskurs putem printanih medija na ''jedinstvenom'' nacionalnom jeziku, što omogućuje uvođenje novih termina u standardni jezik ili čišćenje jezika od stranih elemenata.11 U Evropi je od 19. stoljeća na sceni prisutno kreiranje nacija koje najčešće svoje utemeljenje i opstojnost koncentriraju oko jezika, smatrajući da je jezik jedan od najvažnijih parametara za postojanje jedne nacije. Todorova navodi da je nacionalizam na Balkanu nastao oko parametara jezika i religije. Južnoslavenske političke elite su preokrenule definiciju jezika, koji nije više samo sredstvo komunikacije već se poistovjećuje sa nacijom. Politika insistira na zasebnosti jezika iz straha da će svijest o istom jeziku voditi do ponovnog spoja zbog kojeg bi kvalitetno opala moć aktualne političke elite. Jezična politika igra, dakle, jednu zasebnu ulogu u Bosni i Hercegovini, jer se jezik instrumentalizira u svrhu opstojnosti nacionalizma na društveno-političkoj sceni.12 3.4. Širenje nacionalističkog diskursa na internetskim portalima Internetski portali, kao jedan od novijih medija, koji je povoljan zbog svoje dostupnosti svima, i to ne samo za čitanje, nego i za pisanje, zapravo predstavlja medijum koji se teško može kontrolirati. Poruke se brzo šire, a teško se mogu upratiti. Također predstavlja jednostavno sredstvo za širenje nacionalističke propagande. ''[…] izražena ja tendencija manipulacije jezikom javne komunikacije na njegovoj nužnoj ideologizaciji.''13 Stoga, mora se prvo napraviti razlika između onih portala na kojima objavljuju ozbiljni, ugledni stručnjaci, teoretičari, novinari i analitičari različitih profila. Takvih portala i nema puno. Mi ovdje govorimo o ovim masovnijim portalima, a oni nisu ustanovljeni u svrhu informiranja. Štaviše, njihova je uloga druge naravi. Dakle, u prvom redu, njima nije cilj informiranje članova društava već ostvarivanje prihoda kroz reklamu i, još važnije, stvaranje mišljenja. Moć napisane riječi u kreiranju mišljenja sa ciljem dospijevanja širokom krugu recipijenata koristi se često za govor mržnje14, te za nacionalističko huškanje koje je dio toga koncepta. Govor mržnje jeste reguliran Krivičnim zakonom BiH (član 145.a), Krivičnim zakonom F BiH (član 163.), Krivičnim zakonom RS (član 390.) i Krivičnim zakonom Distrikta Brčko BiH (član 160.). No problem time nije riješen, budući da se danas govor mržnje sve rjeđe upotrebljava otvoreno, a sve češće se iskazuje suptilo, pa su njegove posljedice daleko opasnije i učinkovitije. 11 Hobsbawm 1990: 129 12 Kordic 2010: 169f; Todorova 1999: 282; Škiljan: 2000: 137 13 Škiljan: 2000: 49. 14 Walker 1994: 8 6 �4. Odabrani primjeri i analiza Budući da je ovaj rad ograničen na količinu riječi a nije ni kvantitativnog karaktera, daje se samo par reperezentativnih primjera za govor mržnje odnosno propagiranje nacionalizma na online portalima. I to: Primjer a: ''[...] BiH će dobiti kandidatski status za EU kad Hrvati budu jednakopravni [...] Hrvatski jezik, naš identitet i kulturnu baštinu sačuvati. [...] Ne diramo nikoga, uvažavamo druge i drugačije, a čuvamo svoje [...]'' 15 ''HNS smo pokrenuli jer smo željeli poslati jasnu poruku da nas ne mogu poniziti i saviti nam kralježnicu, što god mislili o nama […] HNS je skup svih Hrvata koji razmišljaju hrvatski u BiH […] zašto ćete izaći glasovati […] da osiguramo budućnost svoje djece i ovdje u Hercegovini i u Središnjoj Bosni i u našoj Posavini […] kako bi zaštitili naš jezik, kulturu, običaje, tradiciju i sve ono što nas veže i zbog čega smo prepoznatljivi […] ''HDZ RH uvijek smatrao da su Hrvati u RH i Hrvati u BiH jedno tijelo, jedan narod, […] U ovakvoj nesređenoj BiH, složit ćete se, da nije pravedno da u državi žive tri naroda u dva entiteta,''16 Analiza: Ovako postavljen iskaz višestruko iskrivljuje stvarnost. Niko iz EU nije naredio nikome u BiH da će otvoriti pregovore kad se ''sačuva'' hrvatska kulturna baština. Time se dalje implicira da se tačno zna šta je hrvatsko u BiH. Iz drugog dijela iskaza, gdje je uz hrvatski jezik dodalo identitet i kulturna baština, da se zaključiti da je hrvatski jezik sama esencija tog identiteta, što je jednostavno dekonstruirati usporedbom bosanskohercegovačke jezične situacije prije i poslije devedesetih. Ovakvo ideološko pisanje o nejednakopravnosti ima za cilj poticanje i produbljivanje osjećaja neravnopravnosti i ugroženosti spram drugih. Dakle, govori se o ''jedinstvenom'' jeziku, identitetu i kulturi kao o nečemu fiksiranom, nespojivo je s onim što je odveć istraženo: ovi koncepti su u procesu stalne promjene. A stvaranje imaginarnih zajednica i ne može bez stvaranja iluzije da je nešto moje u opasnosti od nekog ili nečega drugog. Nema kontrole i manipulacije društva bez falsificiranja historijskih činjenica. Upotreba frazeologije iz svakodnevne komunikacije u ovom značenju dobiva na hiperboličnosti. Međutim, matrica je 15 URL 1: http://poskok.info/wp/?p=111495, poskok.info 29.9.2014 16 URL 2: http://poskok.info/wp/?p=111578, poskok.info 30.9.2014 7 �prilično potrošena, budući da se stalno potencira jezik, kultura, baština... Akcenat je na prvom dijelu binarne opozicije, čime se ne isključuju ''oni''. Širenje osjećaja poniženja i ugrožavanja od strane drugih. Pretpostavka da drugi imaju negativno mišljenje. Konstrukcija drugih ili zajednica drugih – ko su oni – razdvajanje ''naša'' i ''njihova'' djeca. Postavlja se teza o postojanju ''hrvatskog načina razmišljanja''' i ne-hrvatskog načina razmišljanja. Zaštita jezika, kulturnih običaja, tradicije i sve što je nečije u opasnosti koje drugi predstavljaju – kreacija tog imaginarnog drugog. Naglašava se kulturni kontinuitet, a propagira separacije naroda. Primjer b: “Vi ste na pravom putu, od bošnjačkog rasula do svebošnjačke sloge […] On je istakao da BiH trebaju predstavljati ponosni i časni političari koji znaju, mogu i hoće to da rade, i da je došao trenutak za ujedinjenje bošnjačkog naroda. […] će raditi za dobre Bošnjake i druge građane BiH.''''17 „ako se ne glasa za jednu partiju niste vjernici.“18 „Bošnjaci na predstojećim izborima "biraju između svog nestanka ili ponižavajućeg položaja u manjem bh. entitetu […]"19 Analiza: Stvaranje ''mi'' i ''vi'' grupa. Naglašavanje razlika i stvaranje imaginarne zajednice. Nema miješanja sa članovima drugih grupa. Postavlja se pitanje tko su dobri Bošnjaci a tko loši, i tko to određuje. Ovdje se radi i o jasnoj aluziji na dobre Bošnjane koji, svakako, nemaju nikakve veze sa današnjim stanovnicima Bosne i Hercegovine. Ovo je strategija kojom grupa pokušava priskrbiti sebi kontinuitet, a znamo da je svako društvo u tranziciji obilježeno višestrukim diskontinuitetom. Treba reći da nije neočekivano da se nacionalistički diskurs poziva različitim strategijama na kontinuitet. U ovom primjeru 17 URL 3: http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53818&DR._CERI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NE%C4%86E_BITI_B AKIROVI_ROBOVI, bosnjaci.net 9.10.2014 18 URL 4: http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53818&DR._CERI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NE%C4%86E_BITI_B AKIROVI_ROBOVI, bosnjaci.net 9.10.2014 19 URL 5: http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53798&TOKI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NEMAJU_PRAVO_NA_P OLITI%C4%8CKU_NAIVNOST, bosnjaci.net 8.10.2014 8 �stvaranje pripadnosti jednoj grupi odvija se na temelju binarnih, crno – bijelih opcija: drugi, nedobri se demoniziraju. Primjer c: ''Sud i Tužilaštvo BiH nisu mesto gde se deli pravda, već su te pravosudne institucije formirane da bi vršile "nepravdu i egzekuciju" nad Srbima.'20 Analiza: Propagira se osjećaj ugroženosti u usporedbi sa drugima i demoniziranje drugih kao i stvaranje ''mi'' i ''vi'' grupa. Ovo je jedan od klasičnih primjera usađivanja ideje o institucionalnom nacionalizmu. Riječ je o bazičnom poticaju u smislu stvaranja imaginarnog zajedništva. Ni leksem egzekucija nije bez razloga prisutan. Ovim izborom se potencira viktimistički osjećaj, kao i osjećaj straha, budući da Sud i Tužilaštvo, ni manje ni više, vrše egzekuciju, iako bosankskohecegovačko zakonodavstvo ne poznaje smrtnu kaznu, niti se prakticiraju maksimalne zakonske kazne. 20 URL 6: http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Politika/492044/Dodik-Sud-i-Tuzilastvo-BiH-formirani-da-vrse-egzekuciju-Srba, bliz.rs 1.9.2014014 9 �5. Zaključak Prema ovom istraživanju, nacionalistički diskurs u Bosni i Hercegovini konstruira se prvenstveno na stvaranju ''mi'' i ''vi'' grupa te razvijanju straha i osjećaja ugroženosti, kao i širenju iluzije o nekom kontinuitetu (Anderson 2005; Chohen 1985; Eriksen 2010; Gellner 1991). Nacionalizam se većinski proizvodi putem stranaka, budući da je stvoren ogroman inžinjering koji propagira imaginarno nacionalno zajedništvo i separaciju naroda u jednoj multikonfesionalnoj i multietničkoj državi. Identificiranje preko nacionalnog identiteta i ekskluzija drugoga predstavlja krizu jednog društva u kojem je pristup medijima olakšan. Samo kvalitetno obrazovanje može stvoriti filter zaštite od pogubnih utjecaja. No, kako reče Noam Čomski, kad se društvo totalno kontrolira, kad su mediji pod ovakvom kontrolom moćnika, kad je obrazovni sistem zasnovan na aprthejdu, jer on odgovara istim, onda je i nauka konformistička21. 21 Čomski 2009: 29 10 �Bibliografija Anderson, B.: Die Erfindung der Nation. Zur Karriere eines folgenreichen Konzepts. Frankfurt/New York. 1996. Bluhm, R. et. al.: Linguistische Diskursanalyse. Überblick, Probleme, Perspektiven. In: Schöingh, F. (Hg.): Sprache und Literatur in Wissenschaft und Unterricht. Heft 86, Jahrgang 31. Fink, Paderborn, 2000, S. 3-19. Cohen, A.P.: They Symbolic Construction of Community. London. 1985. Čomski, N.: Kontrola medija, Rubikon – Beoknjiga. Novi Sad/Beograd. 2009. Eriksen, T.: Small places, Large Issues. An Introduction to Social and Cultural Anthropology. London. 2010. Gellner, E.: Nationalismus und Moderne. Berlin. 1991. Götzö, M.: Theorienbildung nach Grounded Theorie. In: Bischoff, C.; et. al.: Methoden der Kulturanthropologie. Bern. 2014. Keller, R.: Diskursanalyse. Eine Einführung für SozialwissenschaftlerInnen. Wiesbaden. 1997 Kiefl, O.: Diskursanalyse. In: Bischoff, C.; et. al.: Methoden der Kulturanthropologie. Bern. 2014. Kordic, S.: Jezik i nacionlizam. Zagreb. 2010. Hobsbawm, E. J.: Nationen und Nationalismus. Mythos und Realität seit 1790. Frankfurt/New York. Škiljan, D.: Javni Jezik. Zagreb. 2000. Todorova, M.: Imaginarni Balkan. Biblioteka XX vek. Beograd. 1999. Walker, S.: Hate Speech: The History of an American Controversy. Lincoln/London. 1994. Internet URL 1: http://poskok.info/wp/?p=111495, poskok.info 29.9.2014 URL 2: http://poskok.info/wp/?p=111578, poskok.info 30.9.2014 URL 3: http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53818&DR._CERI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NE% C4%86E_BITI_BAKIROVI_ROBOVI, bosnjaci.net 9.10.2014 URL 4: http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53818&DR._CERI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NE% C4%86E_BITI_BAKIROVI_ROBOVI, bosnjaci.net 9.10.2014 URL 5 http://www.bosnjaci.net/prilog.php?pid=53798&TOKI%C4%86:_BO%C5%A0NJACI_NEMAJU_ 11 �PRAVO_NA_POLITI%C4%8CKU_NAIVNOST, bosnjaci.net 8.10.2014 URL 6: http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Politika/492044/Dodik-Sud-i-Tuzilastvo-BiH-formirani-da-vrseegzekuciju-Srba, bliz.rs 1.9.2014 bliz.rs 1.9.2014 12 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2919 Title A name given to the resource (RE)CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONALISM IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA - INSTRUMENTALISATION OF LANGUAGE IN THE ONLINE-MEDIA FOR PROMOTING NATIONALISM Author Author Čubela, Ružica Abstract A summary of the resource. The nation as an "imagined community" mirrors the creation of personal senses of identity, which can lead to feelings of belonging to one group but excluding the other one. Exclusive nationalism has created many brutal conflicts in the 20th century, and a particular example of it was seen in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This kind of nationalism still exists in everyday life supported by an uncontrolled rapid spread of (dis)information on web portals. This paper deals with the reconstruction of the nationalist discourse on web portals in Bosnia and Herzegovina through different concepts of nationalism with a comparative approach using methods of linguistics and cultural and social anthropology. It is a continuation of the contemporary discourse on the concept of nationalism, personal and collective national identity in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as a personal empirical research in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HT Communities. Classes. Races,P Philology. Linguistics