319 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0f564534d80e6e93f838754d6109031.pdf 41633c3a43b11248ca6bbd08281340a2 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina Safet Kozarević University of Tuzla Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina safet.kozarevic@untz.ba Senija Nuhanović University of Tuzla Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina senija.nuhanovic@untz.ba Irnela Hrnjić University of Tuzla Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: Increased rise in costs of healthcare in the last five decades has rapidly increased interest in the functioning of healthcare systems within every country. The reasons for growth in healthcare costs are related to demographic changes, technology advancement, increased number of educated persons, emergence of new diseases, etc. Financing the risk of poor health is mainly organized through programs of social and private health insurance. Regarding the management of the risks of poor health in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), the social health insurance system is the basic solution for the population. However, in BiH, as in other countries in the world, the system of social insurance has become unfeasible and it is necessary to search for new solutions, that is, to reform the system. The research subject in this paper is private/voluntary health insurance offered by insurance companies, which can be an efficient addition to social insurance in BiH. It has become present on the market of private insurance in BiH only recently, so its share in the total premium of private insurance is still minor. Therefore, a primary research was conducted on the possibilities for its development as well as on the need and acceptance by the users of healthcare services. Besides, there was a need for examining the performance of the existing system of social health insurance, based on the principles of Bismarck’s model of financing, and recognizing its disadvantages. By identifying and eliminating obstacles for development of voluntary health insurance, it is possible to improve performance of the existing system of health insurance in BiH. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Keywords: Private/Voluntary Health Insurance; Social Health Insurance JEL Classification: G22, I13 Article History Submitted: 23 May 2014 Resubmitted: 29 June 2014 Accepted: 3 July 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/J ECOSS11512 87 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić Introduction Health is the basic human right and one of the most important assumptions for economic development and life quality of a country’s population. There is huge responsibility of individuals and communities regarding the prevention of disease occurrence and good health keeping and improving. Healthcare system is a complex entity whose functioning largely influences the level of population’s health, which indirectly affects the economic system as well. Very often the level of country’s development is represented as the level of health of an individual and the entire population. That is the reason why states are the bearers of the activities related to healthcare system management. Every state has a specific healthcare system that can have some similarities when compared to other states. For many years, the awareness on the importance of health and health insurance has been growing stronger. Many make efforts to find the appropriate model that would satisfy the highest possible needs for healthcare services, along with low costs and higher quality of services. From the country’s point of view, Bismarck’s or Beveridge’s model of healthcare system usually dominates, but there are other options that are combined or mutually corresponding. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) is characterized by the inherited Bismarck’s model of social health insurance whose effectiveness has been long questioned, while the country’s needs for healthcare increased significantly as the consequence of the war. Only in recent years, there has been more attention paid to the issues of the functioning of country’s health system, quality of services provided and alternatives to social health insurance. Some reforms of primary healthcare have already been implemented (Atun et al. 2007), but the reform of current model of financing is necessary, and it should provide a framework for introducing other forms of health insurance, such as voluntary health insurance provided by private insurance companies. However, the present offer of voluntary health insurance is still at a very low level. The reason for this is the lack of legal regulations and low interest by the state for entering partnership in health insurance with insurance companies. The aim of this paper is to establish the possibility for developing voluntary health insurance within the existing reform of the healthcare system in BiH. Due to that, based on the results of the secondary research, the most significant disadvantages were presented in terms of effectiveness of the existing system of social health 88 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina insurance. After that, based on the results of the primary research, the interest in the package of voluntary health insurance was registered by private healthcare institutions, citizens and insurance companies. The primary research was also to confirm the disadvantages of the existing system of social health insurance. Healthcare System in BiH Matter of health insurance needs to be observed in broad context of healthcare system, which is organized in a specific way in BiH. Healthcare in BiH is regulated on level of entities and Brčko District, and it esults in a very complex organizational solution, especially considering that on level of BiH Federation, besides entity ministry, there are also ten cantonal ministries of health. It is clear that this significantly increases costs of transactions and makes coordination in decision making more difficult (Kozarević, 2010). Healthcare in BiH is regulated with laws on healthcare adopted on level of entities. These laws have defined the concept of healthcare, which basically comes down to set of measures focused on systemic management of risks of poor health of the citizens. In purpose of that, competencies of specific institutions were established in this system, whose purpose is to enable high inclusion of population with right on healthcare, according to principles of: universality, cost-effectiveness, fairness, freedom of choice and autonomy. Health insurance within the social insurance in BiH is regulated with provisions of laws on health insurance on level of entities as well as corresponding regulations on Brčko District and cantonal levels. A special place in healthcare system belongs to health insurance institutes (funds) and public health institutes which were established on level of entities as well as Brčko District and level of cantons. Cantonal health insurance funds are formed for activities performed on level of cantons in BiH Federation. BiH Federation health insurance fund collects the assets of federal solidarity which are used to form Solidarity Fund of BiH Federation. Its purpose is to equalize conditions of compulsory health insurance in all cantons, to organize certain programs of healthcare in interest of BiH Federation and to enable providing of priority and most complex forms of healthcare from certain special fields. The assets of federal solidarity are provided from contributions for compulsory health insurance. Crucial difference in Republic of Srpska is in higher level of centralization through unified health insurance fund. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 89 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić Public health institutes also play significant role, and they are performing publichealth activities focused on planning and implementation of measures for: supervision over infectious and noninfectious diseases, providing of health safety of food, water, air and products for general use, monitoring of the environment, promotion of health, prevention of diseases and implementation of regular healthstatistical researches. Besides that, public health institutes are also in charge for providing of information on leading health issues and priorities, as well as for proposals for their solving. Literature Review The issues of health insurance have been everlastingly urgent and they provide material for constant research. By founding the World Health Organization (WHO) on April 07, 1948, the United Nations particularly emphasized their work in the field of healthcare. Under the auspices of the WHO, numerous conferences were held, whose aim was to define the suggestions for improving population’s health. One of the most important conferences for creating healthcare systems of the modern times was the one held in Alma Ata in 1978. Then the declaration “Health for All by the Year 2000” was brought that established the policies related to health protection on the global level. Public discussions led in many countries related to healthcare are mainly concentrated on the amount of health allocations or the issues related to increased costs and the need for the control of spending the resources in the healthcare system. Zrinščak (1999) compares the countries by various indicators such as: health allocations, healthcare system model, most frequent causes of death, etc. Although many healthcare indicators are getting improved, the inequality of the countries in terms of access to healthcare and social inclusion is increasing. Zrinščak mentions the following possible ways of cost control: (1) Measures related to patients – copayment, modalities of paying sick leave compensations and introducing waiting days, discounts in cases when insurance premiums during one year are not used, and limitations in selecting doctors and hospitals, (2) Health funds – reducing administrative costs, competition between private and mandatory funds, (3) Measures related to hospitals and doctors – encouraging competition among doctors and various models of payment for medical services, and (4) Measures aimed at control of pharmaceutical costs expressed through various models: “permitted” and “prohibited” drug lists, state regulation of prices, determination of the highest price, budget financing, etc. 90 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina In the last few years there has been a particular emphasis on the reform of the health insurance in the USA. Booz & Co (2012) established in its research that nowadays employers move towards the model of contributions deposited on savings accounts. Thus, employees may use the funds to choose the insurance package as they wish, instead of the earlier model of benefits in which company created the insurance program for all. Vaughan E. & T. (2000) believe that, regardless of the fact whether the financing system is private or public, it is influenced by adverse selection. They emphasize that private insurers’ premiums grow due to increased costs of medical services caused by population aging, improved medical technology, capacity overload and preventive medicine. Additional criticism to the US healthcare system is related to unequal access to medical care, unequal quality of medical services, significant misuse, inefficiency and frauds (Wiening and Rejda, 2007). While describing the reform of the health protection initiated by President Obama, Schansberg (2011) emphasizes that the state’s solutions to health protection are not efficient and that the advocates of healthcare free market should provide convincing evidence in favor of a real reform and conduct it where possible. He believes that abolishment or at least reduction of subsidies to health insurance based on employment would be the first step towards the free market of healthcare, and that employers would try to present several options to their employees. The effect of economies of scale is also possible if the groups of employers are categorized in only several insurance types. According to the analysis made by Deloitte (2012), as a direct result of the Affordable Care Act (ACA) it was estimated that some 32 million Americans by the year 2014 will have been insured. As of 2014, most of these individuals are to possess a minimum level of health insurance, whether by state-sponsored plans, plans sponsored by employers or plans provided on the market of individual insurance policies. In order to improve the access and respect patient’s rights, the ACA introduced new commercial standards such as: abolishment of medical underwriting, elimination of age limit, prohibition of exclusion based on previous illnesses, and cancellation of cost share (participation) for preventive services. Health plans would also have to provide the guarantee and renewing option as well as the coverage for essential medical privileges. The ACA introduces new distribution channels that would make the access to health insurance markets easier. National health insurance stock markets have been established aimed at providing information to potential clients and the facts on the range of health plans. Stock markets are designed for those who are not included in Medicaid, Medicare or employer sponsored plans. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 91 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić The study conducted by the European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies (2006), which discussed the private health insurance in Great Britain, showed that the number of new users is static, if not decreasing, that the market numbers for these types of insurance for corporations falls, and that insurance companies are to turn to smaller firms and individual policies. Vidojević (2011) describes the health system of Great Britain and the National Health Service (NHS) that is the basis of the entire system. The result of the economic crisis in 2008 is the plan for introduction of radical reforms, probably the most drastic ones in the last four years. In July 2010, the White Book Equity and excellence: Liberating the NHS was presented, which defines a new way of the NHS functioning. Patients will actively participate in making important decisions related to their health, in all stages of treatment. The feasibility of this change shall involve larger accessibility of medical documentation and the possibility for a patient to have an insight into it at any moment and, if he wants, to share it to a third party. Provided that all the planned measures are taken, in the following 4 years the savings should be achieved amounting to almost £20 billion that could be invested into the improvement of health service quality. In terms of financing healthcare in the European Union (EU) member states, Totić (2012) emphasizes that the national bodies of every EU member states join the collected contributions into the health funds for that purpose. Such fact leads to reluctance of certain groups to collective payment of subsidized costs of healthcare for other people, especially in poorer EU member states. This consequently increases reluctance to regular payment of taxes and/or contributions. Private health insurance is suggested as an alternative. Janković (2011) states that private (voluntary) health insurance is usually specified for the part of the population exempt from mandatory health insurance based on their high income (the Netherlands), the part of the population that may, based on their high income, choose whether to stay in mandatory or opt for voluntary health insurance (Germany) or for the part of the population, the so called self-employed (Austria and Belgium). The level of coverage is in the range of 0.2% in Austria up to 24.7% in the Netherlands. The search for a satisfactory system of financing healthcare is also present in Russia. Šolak (2007) believes that Russia needs a complete reorganization of the system of mandatory social health insurance. Fifteen-year long reforms did not lead to the goals that were set. One can notice the disruption of the proclaimed principles of social justice regarding the access of medical assistance, while the level of quality and culture in terms of health service is not appropriate to the modern needs. 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina Being a country in transition, on its way to healthcare reform, BiH suffers numerous problems due to its constitutional arrangement (two entities – BiH Federation which consists of cantons and Republic of Srpska – and Brčko District) and the fact that healthcare is regulated at the entity levels (Cain et al., 2002). The system in BiH Federation was decentralized too early, since every canton is responsible for its administration and the financing of healthcare. The system in Republic of Srpska (RS) is centralized and it has one body – the Ministry of Health that monitors the healthcare system. Due to the lack of appropriate legal mechanisms, coordination between the entities is rather poor, while in BiH Federation the cantons do not mutually cooperate at an appropriate level. Untimely decentralization brought a dramatic change of the system from the aspect of administrative structure and management, while the institutions continued their work without changes and kept the same functions as before the 1992-1995 war. The reason is that they were not able to develop the necessary skills and capacities that would stand such strong and complex processes of decentralization. That is why many functions in the cantons and entities are duplicated. The detected problems are also related to almost complete lack of planning function in healthcare, implementation of the passed laws, as well as a complex organizational structure. The implementation of health reform starts with a paradox including an innovative approach against the political resistance to changes as well as enthusiasm against obstacles. BiH cannot respond to all demands for healthcare and the situation is substantially worse than in 1992. A significant number of life-important medical treatments does not exist. There is a certain interest in the system reform, but nothing would move forward until the entities start cooperating and creating unified strategies for the entire country (CARDS Program 2005). For the purpose of health statistic records, the Public Health Institute of BiH Federation (2012) specified a set of conclusions on the total health condition of the population. The healthcare reform in BiH Federation is oriented to strengthening primary health protections, with the emphasis on promotion of health and prevention of illnesses. However, there are still discrepancies present in the population’s access to the teams of primary health protection in the cantons of BiH Federation. In accordance to the adopted Strategy for development of primary health protection, the process of implementation of family medicine in BiH Federation continued gradually. Even though there is a significant number of educated doctors and nurses and improved infrastructure, implementation of family medicine is still not satisfactory. A particularly evident problem is constant turnover of already Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 93 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić insufficient staff, medical doctors in particular. Implementation is more difficult mostly due to a slow restructure of departments within outpatient clinics, in accordance to the Strategy for development of primary health protection, nonstimulating mechanisms of payment, lack of managerial skills and insufficiently coordinated legislative. Methodology The existing systems of health insurance, not only in BiH but also in other countries in the region and world, show numerous disadvantages. The legal framework in BiH defined voluntary private health insurance as the option that citizens can use by their own choice. The assessment of performances of the existing model of health insurance in BiH is based on the secondary source indicators, announced by Eurostat (2012), the World Bank (2012), Central Bank of BiH (2012), Federal Ministry of Health (2013), Public Health Institute of BiH Federation (2012), Public Health Institute of RS (2011) and Agency for Statistics BiH (2012). Special attention was given to the following indicators: level of health protection costs, in particular expenditure on drugs from personal resources of the population; state’s allocations for healthcare; rates of natural population growth; leading causes of death; organizational structure of the health system; social and economic environment; availability and structure of healthcare personnel; characteristics of primary protection; amount of contribution for health insurance; populations’ coverage by health insurance; population’s structure by work status; development of the private sector of health protection and legal regulations, as well as population’s familiarity with these regulations. In order to reach research purposes, the development of voluntary health insurance in BiH is defined as the independent variable, while the improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the existing health insurance system in BiH is the dependent variable. The starting premise in the paper is that by identifying and removing obstacles for development of voluntary health insurance, it is possible to improve effectiveness of the existing system of health insurance in BiH. Therefore, the paper attempts to confirm that there is room for its development through the reform of healthcare system, extension of the existing model of social insurance and also that there is interest by insurance companies in a more serious approach to the offer of health insurance package. For the purpose of confirming the formulated hypothesis, the empirical research was conducted by survey of three groups of subjects: private 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina healthcare institutions, citizens, that is, the users of healthcare services, and insurance companies. The questionnaire for private health institutions consisted of 12 questions, in which the respondent had offered answers. In some questions there was option of entering a new, own response that was not listed in the questionnaire. Private health institutions located in Tuzla Canton are listed on the web site www.bhzdravlje.ba, where they are classified according to the activity and the level of care they provide to their customers. Of the total number of these institutions, the survey answered 51 institutions located in Lukavac, Gračanica, Gradačac, Srebrenik, Tuzla and Živinice. The second survey was focused on citizens and the questionnaire similarly consisted of 12 questions with multiple choice answers. A total number of 183 healthcare service users filled the questionnaire. One part of the survey was conducted online by the Internet news portal - www.lukavac-x.ba (115 respondents from different age groups). The last e-mail survey was focused to private insurance companies. The questionnaire, consisted of 10 questions with multiple choice answers, was send by email to all insurance companies registered in BiH. Since two insurance companies have branches in both entities, total number of active insurance companies in BiH is 22, and eight of them responded to the e-mail survey. Results and Discussions Disadvantages of the Existing System of Social Health Insurance in BiH Based on the analysis of secondary source indicators, a general rate is that the existing system of health insurance in BiH has many disadvantages. There are many fields in the healthcare sector that require changes and improvements. The following part of the paper mentions the most significant results obtained on the basis of the secondary source analysis. The rates of social insurance contributions are too high, even when compared to the OECD and new EU member states. The rate of social contributions in BiH Federation is 41.5% on gross salary, while in RS that amount is 33%. Over 50% of those covered by health insurance (retired persons, unemployed, invalids, war veterans) are exempt from paying contributions and their health insurance is Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 95 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić financed by the transfers from other non-budgetary funds and public revenue. Besides, the insured/retired number ratio grows in favor of the retired persons and is around 1.1:1, which is definitely not a desirable trend. It is well known that this ratio needs to be 4:1 in order for the social insurance system to function properly. The total healthcare expenditures in BiH are around 10.3% of the GDP, which is a level much higher than in most EU countries. Almost 60% of the total healthcare expenditures are paid from public resources while more than 40% are financed by households from their own resources. Unfavorable trends in the economy, war events, economic blockade, huge growth of unemployment, increased influence of grey economy, increased costs of healthcare, change in the structure of insured categories, etc., affected the increase in personal participation of citizens in the provision of health protection, economic situation in healthcare, and financial business activities of health insurance funds. Natural rates of population growth change more rapidly in comparison to the EU countries. Also, due to higher mortality rates compared to birth rates, natural population growth (-0.8%) has a negative value and it leads to natural depopulation. Regular healthcare statistics data show that chronic diseases are dominant in BiH when it comes to the leading causes of population diseases and mortality. Due to diagnostics costs, therapy, and rehabilitation of patients, such diseases are the leading health problems every year and they are a significant burden for the limited budget of the health sector and the entire community. Also, the results of the population surveys confirm unfavorable trends of life style and habits of the population with addiction diseases being dominant (smoking, alcoholism, drugs and psychotropic substances), inappropriate diet, overweight and obesity, as well as the lack of physical activity, which are the key risk factors for the health of BiH population. Organizational structure of the healthcare system is rather complex with the fragmentation of the system present, particularly in BiH Federation, where the cantons have the authority over healthcare services. Therefore, the healthcare system in BiH Federation includes: Federal Ministry of Health, ten cantonal ministries of health, Federal Institute of Health Insurance and Reinsurance, ten cantonal institutes of health insurance and eleven public health institutes. The healthcare system in RS is centralized at the entity level. 96 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina A large part of BiH population is not covered by health insurance and does not have the right to healthcare. The largest number of the uninsured persons in RS includes the employees of the companies in which employers do not pay health insurance contributions. There is an additional problem in BiH Federation for the unemployed who miss the 30-90 day deadline for registration at the employment bureau and then lose all rights to health insurance through this bureau. The public is not familiar enough with the process of passing and changing laws. The media do not sufficiently follow and inform on the laws in the field of healthcare that are in the process of passing and enacting in parliaments. Furthermore, authorities do not invest any efforts to make these new laws closer to citizens and introduce them to their rights. Empirical Research into the Possibilities for Private Health Insurance Development Research into Private Healthcare Institutions Based on the answers received from private healthcare institutions, it was established that female persons have a bigger share in their user list (63%). From the aspect of patients’ age structure, the highest number was in the range 19-55 years (41%), then 56-75 (32%), while the proportion of the patients aged 0-18 (15%) and 76-100 (12%) was relatively small. Almost all their patients have social health insurance (96%). The officials of the private healthcare institutions presented the reasons why patients choose to use the services in the private sector. They are given in Table 1. The most important reasons for using their services are high quality and fast service. Most private healthcare institutions (71%) believe that their services are of higher quality than those provided by the public healthcare institutions. Only 41% of the private healthcare institutions have contracts for certain services with the institutes for social health insurance. On the other hand, they are highly interested (75%) in contracting the services with these institutes. Table 1 shows that the satisfaction degree of those institutions that have the contracted services with the institutes is at a very low level (only 6% of them are completely satisfied). Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 97 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić Only 43% of the private healthcare institutions support the policy of a complete or partial opening the space in the healthcare system of BiH. The reason for this is that 27% of the institutions believe that their current position compared to the public healthcare institutions is poor. Private healthcare institutions offer certain suggestions for patient’s better access to healthcare services, not only in private but also in the public healthcare sector as follows: • Increasing the involvement of private institutions in healthcare (57%). • Increasing the flexibility of contracts in terms of prices and other conditions (35%). • Strengthening the monitoring of the contracted services and public announcement of data in terms waiting, quality, satisfaction, accessibility, etc. (47%). • Improving the regulation in both sectors (37%). • Other (12%): controlling public procurements in the public sector, defining patients’ rights and obligations of medical service provider by introducing clinical guides into the law on health protection, providing a patient with the option to choose where to use healthcare services and equaling private and state healthcare. Private healthcare institutions are highly interested in cooperating with private insurance companies (59%), but only a small number of them have already concluded the contracts with insurance companies (14%). Only 9% of the institutions replied that they did not see their interest in such type of business arrangement. The institutions that stated they do not have an opinion on the subject (20%) believe that they lack sufficient information on advantages and disadvantages of such arrangement. 98 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina Table 1: Surveys’ Results Survey of private healthcare institutions Reasons why patients choose private healthcare institutions: Service speed 68,63% Service quality 84,31% Impossibility of services in the public sector 45,10% Higher patients' confidence 49,02% Other 11,76% Satisfaction by the conditions of contracted cooperation with the health insurance institutes: Completely 5,88% Partially No, due to prices No, due to payment overdue No, for some other reasons 17,65% 13,73% 11,76% 9,80% Survey of users of healthcare services Reasons for using the healthcare services provided by the private sector: Impossibility for getting the appropriate service in the public sector Impossibility for getting fast service in the public sector Lack of confidence in the services provided in the public sector None of the mentioned Other Citizens’ experience while using the services of public and private institutions: Public Rude staff 27,33% Long waiting for some services (tests, referral letters to 38,26% specialists, medications, etc.) Unprofessional healthcare staff 18,33% Low quality treatment 12,86% Other 3,22% Source: Authors’ research Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 43,17% 50,82% 21,86% 10,38% 8,20% healthcare Private 3,76% 10,22% 5,91% 4,84% 75,27% 99 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić Research into the Users of Healthcare Services Most research subjects in the group of the users of healthcare services were male persons (67%). The largest number of them belongs to the age group in the interval 19-55 (87%), with significantly smaller proportions of other age groups 56-75, 0-18, and 76-100, in percentage 8%, 3% and 2%, respectively. Out of 92% of the subjects, who had social health insurance, 78% of them were not satisfied by the existing social health insurance. Only 20% of the subjects stated that they do not frequently use the services provided by the private healthcare sector. The reasons are given in Table 1, and it is evident that their reasons are rather similar to those stated by private healthcare institutions meaning speed of services, lack of certain service in the public sector, and higher confidence in the private sector. Regarding the quality of private versus public healthcare institutions, 73% of the subjects believe that the services in the private sector are of higher quality. The reasons for dissatisfaction by the existing social health insurance are given in Table 1, parallel with the rate given for the services provided by the private sector. It is evident that the subjects who had already used the services provided by the private sector rated their quality as much higher than in the public institutions. Similarly, Table 1 showed that the private healthcare institutions recognized long waiting for some services, unkind and unprofessional staff and low-quality treatment as the same reasons why patients/clients opt for the private sector services. More than 93% of the subjects believe that their social health insurance should provide them with a broader coverage of healthcare services. Only half of the subjects are familiar with the possibility for health insurance via insurance companies, while 86% of them would opt for private health insurance provided that their price is affordable. Research into Insurance Companies Underdevelopment of the private insurance market in BiH is evident from the realized structure of the premium on the market. The largest share belongs to the compulsory motor third party liability insurance. In the entire premium structure, the share of health insurance is 1.59% (BiH Federation 1.87% and RS 0.78%), and this is mainly for traveler’s health insurance. The market itself is highly fragmented, with a significantly higher number of insurers than needed for such a small market. As many as 14 insurers have the market share below 3%. Domestically owned 100 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina insurers cover less than half of the market. There are 10 active insurers on the market that are under majority foreign ownership, but they cover almost the entire life insurance market. The owners of these insurers are in Austria, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia. One company for reinsurance is also present on the market. Although all the insurance companies surveyed plan to introduce voluntary health insurance, only two of them currently offer these products. The insurance companies that provide the package of voluntary health insurance offer various products including those that cover the basic package of healthcare services to those that cover a wide spectrum of services. Female persons make 55% of the insured structure while the dominant age group is 19-55 (70%). Cooperation with the private healthcare institutions is registered for only one third of the products and 50% of the subjects believe that the private healthcare institutions are cautious because they are not well informed about the voluntary health insurance. Thirty-three percent of the subjects think that these institutions are interested in cooperation while the remaining 17% believe that the healthcare institutions are not interested as they do not see any benefit from such cooperation. Half of the subjects think that the insurance market is ready for the offer of voluntary health insurance package, while the other half estimate that the market is still not mature enough for such offer. Most of the insurers (83%) think that the reform of the healthcare system should envisage the room for voluntary health insurance provided by private insurance companies. Conclusion The research described in this paper shows the current situation in the healthcare system of BiH. A large number of indicators point at the system crisis, inefficiency, dissipation of scarce resources, large dissatisfaction of all participants, and other disadvantages. Regarding the private voluntary health insurance as the addition to the existing system of social health insurance, it is not developed due to many obstacles that need to be passed. On the other hand, interest in the introduction of such type of insurance, as showed by the results of the primary research, is high in the private healthcare institutions, users of healthcare services, and insurance companies. Development of voluntary health insurance is necessary and perhaps the only way out of the current situation. Unsustainability of Bismarck’s model of healthcare Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 101 �Safet Kozarević, Senija Nuhanović, Irnela Hrnjić system, not only in BiH but globally as well, is obvious, and there are numerous arguments that prove this statement. That is the reason why for a long time alternatives have been sought as well as additions to the traditional models of healthcare systems. The main causes of unfavorable relationship between the payer of health contributions and the users of health protection are demographic changes, that is, an immense increase in the participation of the old population (retired persons) and high unemployment rate. Consequently, this reflects in the decrease in the number of those who pay contributions and the increased number of health protection users. Unfortunately, there is no universal solution or an optimum model of healthcare system that would be widely acceptable. However, depending on the country itself and its characteristics, it is possible to create a combination of one of the models with the additional insurance options such as voluntary health insurance provided by private insurance companies. In this respect, the development of voluntary health insurance in BiH should be observed as an important breakthrough towards the improvement of health protection. The disadvantage of the voluntary health insurance lies in the fact that it does not have social solidarity. This means that those with higher risks of diseases pay higher insurance premiums (sick, old, smokers, etc.). A good thing for these categories of citizens is the fact that they would still have their social insurance. In other words, relieving the burden of the healthcare system by means of voluntary health insurance would leave more room for more endangered categories of the population. Finally, it has been confirmed that in the forthcoming reform of the healthcare system, which is obviously necessary, one should search for the room to develop voluntary healthcare insurance provided by private insurance companies. 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A global management and strategy consulting firm. Authors: Kapur, A., Kaura, A., Javanmardian, M., Borromeo, P. The Emergence of Private Health Insurance Exchanges Fueling the Consumerization of EmployerSponsored Health Insurance. Retrieved January 10, 2013, from http://www.booz.com/media/file/BoozCo-Emergence-Private-Health-InsuranceExchanges.pdf Cain, J., Duran, A., Fortis, A., & Jakubowski, E. (2002). Health Care Systems in Transition - Bosnia and Herzegovina. The European Observatory on Health Care Systems, Copenhagen. Retrieved February 27, 2013, from http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/75132/E78673.pdf Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2012). Bulletin 3. Retrieved February 20, 2013, from http://www.cbbh.ba/files/bilteni/2012/bilten_3_2012.pdf Deloitte (2012). The Impact of Health Reform on the Individual Insurance Market A strategic assessment. 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Law on Health Insurance, Official gazette of BiH Federation, No. 30/97. Law on Health Insurance, Official gazette of Republic of Srpska, No. 18/99, 51/01, 70/01, 51/03, 17/08 and 1/09. Law on Healthcare, Official gazette of BiH Federation, No. 29/97. Law on Healthcare, Official gazette of Republic of Srpska, No. 18/99, 58/01, 62/01. 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina Public Health Institute of Republic of Srpska (2011). Analysis of health of population of Republic of Srpska. Retrieved February 24, 2013, from http://www.phi.rs.ba/documents/publikacija_zdr_stanje_2010.pdf Schansberg, E.D. (2011). Envisioning a Free Market in Health Care, Cato Journal, Vol 31(1), 27-58. Šolak, Z. (2007). Health Care Finansing in the Russian Federation, Zbornik Matice srpske za društvene nauke, 123, 245-261. Retrieved February 17, 2013, from http://scindeks-clanci.ceon.rs/data/pdf/0352-5732/2007/0352-57320723245S.pdf Totić, I. (2012). Neka pitanja u vezi sa finansiranjem zdravstvene zaštite u zemljamačlanicama Evropske Unije. Medicinski glasnik, 17(43), 54-68. Retrieved February 17, 2013, from http://www.cigota.rs/sites/default/files/04_43_42_56.pdf Vaughan, E.J., & Vaughan, T.M. (2000). Fundamentals of Risk and Insurance. MATE, Zagreb. Vidojević, J. (2011). Development and Directions of the British National Health Service Reforms. Proceedings: Social Reforms – Contents and Results. Faculty of Political Sciences, University of Belgrade, 292-307. Retrieved February 15, 2013, from http://www.fpn.bg.ac.rs/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/Socijalne-reforme.pdf Wiening, E.A., Rejda, G.E., Luthardt, C.M., & Ferguson, C.L. (2007). Personal Insurance. American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Underwriters/Insurance Institute of America. Malvern, Pennsylvania. World Bank (2012). Report No. 66253-BA. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Challenges and Directions for Reform – A Public Expenditure and Institutional Review. Retrieved February 22, 2013, from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTBOSNIAHERZ/Resources/ BHPEIR2012IzazoviPreporukeZaReforme.pdf Zrinščak, S. (1999). Health Policy Systems in the World: Basic Characteristics and Current. Revija za socijalnu politiku (online), 6(1), 3-19. Retrieved January 24, 2013, from http://www.rsp.hr/ojs2/index.php/rsp/article/viewFile/312/897 Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 105 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2700 Title A name given to the resource Possibilities of Development of Private Health Insurance in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Kozarević, Safet Nuhanović, Senija Hrnjić, Irnela Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Increased rise in costs of healthcare in the last five decades has rapidly increased interest in the functioning of healthcare systems within every country. The reasons for growth in healthcare costs are related to demographic changes, technology advancement, increased number of educated persons, emergence of new diseases, etc. Financing the risk of poor health is mainly organized through programs of social and private health insurance. Regarding the management of the risks of poor health in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH), the social health insurance system is the basic solution for the population. However, in BiH, as in other countries in the world, the system of social insurance has become unfeasible and it is necessary to search for new solutions, that is, to reform the system. The research subject in this paper is private/voluntary health insurance offered by insurance companies, which can be an efficient addition to social insurance in BiH. It has become present on the market of private insurance in BiH only recently, so its share in the total premium of private insurance is still minor. Therefore, a primary research was conducted on the possibilities for its development as well as on the need and acceptance by the users of healthcare services. Besides, there was a need for examining the performance of the existing system of social health insurance, based on the principles of Bismarck’s model of financing, and recognizing its disadvantages. By identifying and eliminating obstacles for development of voluntary health insurance, it is possible to improve performance of the existing system of health insurance in BiH. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-01-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HN Social history and conditions. Social problems. Social reform https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ef2e2437e02392a5c6c0bf9a35579aa1.pdf b6f9fe84279cdbac0b3a653dbf958706 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey i Hilal Asil Fatih University Istanbul,Turkey hilalasil@fatih.edu.tr Hilal Özen Istanbul University Istanbul, Turkey hilaloz@istanbul.edu.tr Abstract: Daily deal sites have become so popular in Turkey just as they have in many other countries. Heavy discounted offers for products or services attract most of the people to these new marketplaces. Glancing over the offers before starting to work became a habit for some of the people. However, some others do not have any interest to daily deals. So, it can be said that behavioral differences are unavoidable among customers. There are different forces that initiate the buying process. In this study, factors that affect buying behaviors of people from daily deal sites are investigated. The effect of buying behavior on satisfaction is also examined. Price related constructs (price consciousness, price mavenism, sale proneness and coupon proneness) and impulse buying tendencies of customers are taken as predictors of buying behavior from daily deal sites. Results suggest that price mavenism and coupon proneness are positively related with buying behaviors from online daily deal sites. On the other hand satisfaction come about to be a positive result of buying behavior. Even though the focus of this study is specific to a limited group, it is envisaged that the results will provide insights for both academics and e-tailers. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 Keywords: Daily Deal Sites; Online Shopping; Turkey; Structural Equation Modeling. JEL Classification: M31, M10 Article History Submitted: 10 February 2014 Resubmitted: 30 May 2014 Accepted: 12 August 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JE OCSS11514 201 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen Introduction The rapid change in information and communication technologies today made consumers begin to spend much more time on the Internet. Hence, the number of the consumers’ online shopping activities is increasing day by day. According to the Interbank Card Center (BKM) data, e-commerce in Turkey has grown 14% in 2013 compared to the same period in 2012 (BKM, 2013). On the other side, this Internet revolution has also forced organizations to adapt their marketing, sales, and distribution and promotion efforts to the online environment. For retailers, these platforms represent a new marketing channel to promote their products and services and to attract new customers (Krasnova et al., 2013). In parallel with the developments in e-commerce, daily deal sites have become the latest Internet enthusiasm, providing discounted offers to customers for various items. Moreover, they have contributed to the transformation of online shopping. This new concept is growing as a subset of online shopping, which has been also named as “private shopping” or “exclusive shopping”. It is really like a closed loop at which only members can take the advantage of deep discounts and high-end brands (Baybars and Ustundagli, 2011). Membership is free, but in some cases to become a member to one of the deal sites, a person needs to be invited by another member. Daily deal sites have some advantages, as well as some disadvantages, both for the service providers and the customer. While the service providers get new customers and increase their popularity, in the meantime they can give some damage to their relations with their old customers. On the other side, customers get massive discounts by this way and get to know more places. But, they are sometimes discriminated and mistreated in some places to which they go using the discount coupons (Dang, 2013). Regardless of the problems that both side face, there are also a number of daily deal websites where users have to sign up to be able to buy products at high discounts in Turkey. In 2008 private shopping began to grow in Turkey. Markafoni was the first website which applied the daily deal model in this country. Trendyol and Limango were the followers in the Turkish online market. After those three firms, the number and variety of daily deal sites had increased continuously (Ekonomist, 2011). Unnado, Vipdukkan, Morhipo, Daybuyday, Markareyon and Perabulvarı were the most known private shopping sites after the first ones. In the beginning, the daily deal sites in Turkey were only accepting consumers that they had invited via an 202 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey invitation letter. But, after 2009 most of them had changed their operations and opened their system to all Turkish Internet users (Eticaretmag, 2013a). Despite the rapid development of the private shopping industry, research in this area appears to be insufficient. Thus, this paper represents an attempt to find out factors affecting consumers’ shopping behaviors and their satisfaction from daily deal sites. Literature review The usage of coupons and the promotions in purchasing products, are widely studied by academics in the literature, but limited research exists about daily deal sites which is also a new form of price promotion (Kimes and Dholakia, 2011). Several concepts from the promotions literature are relevant to the study of daily deals. Among these, consumers’ price consciousness, price mavenism, sale proneness, coupon proneness which are price related constructs and impulse buying tendency are examined in the context of this study. Price Consciousness Price consciousness is "the degree to which the consumer focuses exclusively on paying low prices" (Lichtenstein et al., 1993, p. 235). Brown et al. (2003) describe price conscious consumers as people who are more concerned with purchasing products and services at the lowest price or trying to get the best possible value for the money they spend. The Internet itself is a very convenient channel for price conscious consumers; as it diminishes the search costs by providing rapid and easy access to information about products and services (Girard et al., 2003). Daily deal sites also provide low price opportunities to customers. Price conscious consumers have a tendency to find cheaper items and reduce their search costs. So, they may be more willing to shop from daily deal sites. Therefore, in this study it is expected that price consciousness has a positive effect on buying behaviors of online consumers. H1: Price consciousness is positively associated with buying behavior from online daily deal sites. Price Mavenism Some of the consumers may have a desire to be perceived as a "price maven" in their social environment (Lichtenstein et al., 1993). By the definition provided by Yu Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 203 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen (2008, p. 67), price mavenism is explained as “the degree to which an individual is a source for price information for many kinds of products and places to shop for the lowest prices”. Price mavenism concept could be accepted as the narrow interpretation of the market mavenism concept (Moore et al., 2003) because, where market mavens are known as market experts, price mavens are only focused on price information in a market. Price mavens are mostly concerned with low price information in the market so that s/he could share this with others. So, in a similar vein with price consciousness, price maven consumers could be more willing to shop from daily deal sites that are mostly popular with low prices. It is expected in this study that price mavenism will have a positive effect on buying behaviors of online consumers. H2: Price mavenism is positively associated with buying behavior from online daily deal sites. Impulse Buying Tendency According to consumer decision process, consumers pass through numerous stages when they decide to purchase a service or product. After recognizing the need, they begin to search for information, evaluate alternatives and at the end decide to purchase. But, impulse buyers are feeling an urge to buy immediately, so they either pass this stages without thinking or they find themselves at the purchase stage without searching for information and looking for alternatives. On the other hand, this way of behavior is more common in the online environment. Consumers are acting more impulsively while making online purchasing (Verhagen and Dolen, 2011). From this point of view, one can assume that, when consumers see an offer in a daily deal site they could buy the item without thinking. In a study held by Sharma and Khattri (2013) they found that most of the online daily deals are taking place on impulse. The limited time period for a product in a daily deal site could make consumers more impulsive buyers (Liu et al., 2013). So, the shopping made from daily deal sites may be strongly related to impulse buying tendencies of consumers. This study is also expecting a high relationship between those two constructs. H3: Impulse buying tendency is positively associated with buying behavior from online daily deal sites. 204 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey Sale Proneness Being on sale could be sometimes the foremost important reason for a consumer in order to decide to buy a product. Yu (2008, p. 67) defined sale proneness as “an increased propensity to respond to a purchase offer when the price is presented in a discounted form”. Lichtenstein, Ridgway and Netemeyer (1993) stated in their study that people perceive sale prices more valuable than an equivalent price that is not presented in sale form. The buying intentions of consumers and being sale prone was found to be positively correlated in the literature (Alford and Biswas, 2002). In this study, it is also expected that sale proneness will have a positive effect on buying behaviors of online consumers. H4: Sale proneness is positively associated with buying behavior from online daily deal sites. Coupon Proneness Coupons are important promotional tools in some product categories (Swaminathan and Bawa, 2005). They are also being used in daily deal sites in order to attract consumers. When they are offered a discount coupon after entering the website, they become prone to use this coupon. So, consumers who respond to coupon offers are called as “coupon prone” consumers (Lichtenstein et al., 1990). Coupon proneness is a very similar concept with sale proneness and suggests that the perception of the price cue may also be related to the form in which it is presented (Lichtenstein et al., 1993, p. 235). Coupon proneness is consistent with the negative role of price which means that higher prices result in lower purchases (Alford and Biswas, 2002). Lichtenstein et al. (1990) define coupon proneness as “increased propensity to respond to a purchase offer because the coupon form of the offer positively affects purchase evaluations”. This study claims that coupon proneness will also have a positive effect on buying behavior. H5: Coupon proneness is positively associated with buying behavior from online daily deal sites. Satisfaction The satisfaction concept has an important position in marketing practice (Ho and Wu, 1999). Satisfaction from a retailer refers to consumers’ overall evaluation of the organization, based on their experiences with the organization (Park and Kim, 2003, Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 205 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen p.18). When the consumers are dissatisfied after a purchase behavior, they generally do not want to try the same experience again from the same retailer or e-tailer. So, it can be said that satisfaction is a key component for designing an online retail store (Liu et al., 2008). In order to make customers repeat the purchase behavior e-tailers should try to satisfy them. So, it is expected in this study that buying behavior will have a positive effect on satisfaction. H6: Buying behavior is positively associated with satisfaction from online daily deal sites. Figure 1 shows all of the hypothesized relationships. Figure 1: Research Model Price Consciousness Price Mavenism Impulse Buying Tendency Buying Behavior from Daily Deal Sites Satisfaction from Daily Deal Sites Sale Proneness Coupon Proneness Research Methodology Research Objectives This study attempts to analyze the effects of price related constructs (price consciousness, price mavenism, sale proneness and coupon proneness) and impulse buying tendencies of online consumers on their buying behaviors from daily deal 206 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey sites in Turkey. Besides, the effect of buying behavior on satisfaction is also investigated. Sample In order to test the research model, an online survey was conducted. The survey was conducted from April 30 to May, 14, 2013. Respondents of the survey were online consumers in Turkey who have bought a service or a product from an online daily deal site in Turkey within the last three months. An e-mail was sent to the people who were thought to shop from online daily deal sites in order to announce the survey. They were also asked to forward the e-mail to whom they think that were also using daily deal sites for shopping. In the e-mail, a link to the address was provided with instructions to start the questionnaire. At the end, the online questionnaire was administered to a set of 245 respondents. Respondents were the existing customers of the Turkish online deal sites. The demographic characteristics of the survey sample are summarized in Table 1. The sample comprised of 138 (56.3%) women and 107 men (43.7%). The respondents’ ages ranged from 18 to over 58 years. Most of the respondents were between the age group of 26-33 (38.4%) and it was followed by the age group of 3441 (25.3%). High School and lower grade respondents comprised only the 11.4%, university and over grade respondents comprised the 88.6% of the sample. Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample Age 18-25 n 60 % 24.5 26-33 34-41 42-49 50- 57 58+ Total 94 62 17 9 3 245 38.4 25.3 6.9 3.7 1.2 100.0 Education Have not completed High School High School University MS/Doctorate Total n 1 % 0.4 Gender Female n 138 % 56.3 27 138 79 245 11.0 56.3 32.2 100.0 Male Total 107 245 43.7 100.0 The respondents were also asked to indicate which of the daily deal sites they used more in the last three months. Markafoni had by far the largest share of 24.5%, which was the most preferred site in this study. This outcome was a surprise since Markafoni is the pioneer of this industry in Turkey (Özmen, 2011). Trendyol (20.0%) was the second mostly preferred daily deal site. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 207 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen Measures The price related constructs, which are price consciousnesses, price mavenism, sale proneness and coupon proneness, were measured using multiple items, five-point, Likert scales ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Similarly impulse buying tendency and satisfaction from online daily deal sites were measured by multiple items. Buying behavior from online daily deal sites were measured by asking the number of purchases made from an online daily deal site in the last three months. For all of the constructs initial scale items were adapted from previously validated measures. The items were adapted from the scales initially developed by Lichtenstein et al. (1993), Dholakia and Kimes (2011), Lichtenstein et al. (1990), and Liu et al. (2008). Price consciousness was measured by three items; price mavenism and sale proneness were each measured by five items, which were all derived from Lichtenstein et al. (1993). Coupon proneness was measured by four items and was adapted from Dholakia and Kimes (2011) and Lichtenstein et al. (1990). Impulse buying tendency was measured by five items and was adapted from Dholakia and Kimes (2011). Lastly, satisfaction from daily deal sites has four items and which was derived from the study of Liu et al. (2008). Results After collecting the data, validities and reliabilities of the scales were analyzed. The validity of the obtained data was tested using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA is known as a more strict interpretation of dimensionality of the scales (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988). In the initial test, the measurement model needed some revisions. So, the model was consequently refined by eliminating one item that has the largest error variance (Broekhuizen, 2006). After eliminating this item, the test of the final measurement model showed a good fit between the data and the proposed measurement model. One of the goodness of fit index measures is the relative/normed chi-square (χ2/df). Although there exists still some conflict regarding the acceptable ratio for this statistic, the cutoff point was taken as 3 (Hair et al., 2006). The ratio of the chi square value relative to degrees of freedom for the measurement model was calculated to be 1.663. Besides, comparative fit index (CFI), the goodness of fit index (GFI), the normed fit index (NFI), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were also taken in order to test the goodness of fit 208 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey of the measurement model. For CFI, NFI and GFI the recommended threshold for good fit is 0.90, and this was nearly met for most of the fit indexes (Hair et al., 2006; Kline, 2011; Raykov and Marcoulides, 2006). Also, RMSEA, in which a value less than 0.08 is considered a good fit, was also met (Browne and Cudeck, 1993). The results of CFA for the dataset are given in Table 2. Table 2: Goodness of Fit Statistics for the Measurement Model 1.66 0.879 0.951 0.887 AGFI 0.844 < 3.00 > 0.90 > 0.90 > 0.90 > 0.90 X2/sd Goodness of Fit Measures Recommended Levels GFI CFI NFI TLI 0,941 RMSEA > 0.90 < 0.08 0.052 In addition to the goodness of fit measures, reliabilities of the constructs were also considered. In order to test the reliabilities of the measures, cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used. According to Hair et al. (2006), Cronbach’s alpha values should be above 0.70 in order to establish scale reliability. Cronbach’s alpha scores assessing internal consistency of all research constructs were above 0.70, indicating good reliabilities of measures. Structural Model After testing the validity and reliabilities of the items, the causal relationships between them were tested. This study used structural equation modeling in order to test the hypothesized relationships between the constructs. At first, the fit between the data of this study and the proposed model was analyzed. To assess the model fit, χ2/df statistic, goodness of fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), normed fit index (NFI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used. All of the goodness of fit measures was between the recommended levels, so the model had a good fit. Table 3: Model Fit for the Structural Model Goodness of Fit Measures Recommended Levels X2/sd GFI CFI NFI 0.883 0.956 0.891 AGFI 0.851 TLI 0.948 RMSEA 1.58 < 3.00 > 0.90 > 0.90 > 0.90 > 0.90 > 0.90 < 0.08 0.049 Looking at the results for the model, three of the hypotheses were supported. The positive effect of price mavenism (H2) and coupon proneness on buying behavior (H5), and again the positive effect of buying behavior on satisfaction (H6) were all Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 209 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen supported. However, there was no support for H1, H3 and H4. Table 4 summarizes the standardized path coefficients and t-values. Table 4: Parameter Estimates for the Structural Model Price ConsciousnessBuying Behavior Price MavenismBuying Behavior Impulse Buying TendencyBuying Behavior Sale PronenessBuying Behavior Coupon PronenessBuying Behavior Buying BehaviorSatisfaction Parameter Estimates t-values 0.036 0.465 0.170 2.335* 0.060 0.817 -0.129 -1.260 0.229 0.260 2.515* 3.996* Hypothesis Not Supported Supported Not Supported Not Supported Supported Supported *p<0.05 As the results indicate, being a price maven and a coupon prone customer was found to be important for deciding to buy from online daily deal sites. Also, if a consumer bought from daily deal sites, this behavior was correlated with his/her satisfaction from those sites. But, price consciousness, sale proneness and impulse buying tendency were the constructs that were not related with buying behaviors from the online daily deal sites in Turkey. Conclusion Internet became a popular way for shopping throughout the world. Turkey, in this sense, is still a developing country with its 21.8% online shopping rate (TUIK, 2012). This rate could be interpreted as only one of the five internet consumers uses it for shopping purposes currently. Besides, a new way of online shopping called “private shopping” brought some changes to online shopping. In this new way of shopping “daily deal sites” which are offering many kinds of discounted products to their members, have contributed to the transformation of online shopping experience in Turkey as well (Pelenk et al., 2011). In this paper, the factors that predict a consumer’s online buying behavior from daily deal sites were attempted to be investigated. Those constructs were price consciousness, price mavenism, impulse buying tendency, sale proneness and coupon proneness. Besides the main objective, the effect of buying behavior on satisfaction 210 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey from online daily deal sites was also investigated. Primary data was collected from an online survey of national Internet users. Results of the study showed that some of the price related factors have significant effects on buying behavior from daily deal sites, while some do not have any effect. The hypothesis which claimed that there is a positive correlation between price mavenism and buying behavior was found to be significant. The shopper’s price maven trait is a positive predictor of their daily deal site usage, suggesting that a key motivator for daily deal purchase is being a good source of price information and making suggestions about price issues to friends. Respondents who see themselves as price maven are more prone to buying from daily deal sites. Those type of people mostly follow the discounts. On the other hand, daily deal sites claim to have the best prices. So, it could be said that the objectives of the consumers overlap with the purposes of the daily deal sites. Coupons have been in use throughout the world for many years to get discounts while buying something. Especially in the US, businesses took notice of the coupons and made millions of consumers use coupons (Horne, 2013). However, this habit is not widespread among Turkish retailers. Nevertheless, in Turkey, with the great success of daily deal sites, most of the people began to use this channel. So, the popularity of discount coupons is on rise. In this study, coupon proneness is found to be a positive predictor of buying behavior. This increases the possibility that consumers use daily deal sites because of the promotions made for the services and products. Similar with this study, Dholakia and Kimes (2011) tried to examine the effects of the six psychological factors of daily deal site use in their study. They found market mavenism and coupon proneness as positive predictors of online daily deal site usage. Finally, buying behavior has a positive effect on satisfaction from online daily deal sites. This means that when the number of purchases made from daily deal sites increases, the level of satisfaction increases. On the other hand, price consciousness, sale proneness and impulse buying tendency were not found to be predictors of buying behavior from daily deal sites. This suggests that daily deals do not appear to be attractive for price conscious and sale prone consumers to greater degrees. Interestingly, respondents who have tendency for buying impulse are not willing to buy from daily deal sites. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 211 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen Implications Why do consumers choose to buy from daily deal sites? Is this because they are impulsive buyers or do they love to hunt for bargains? Does coupon matter for them? Do mostly price conscious buyers choose this way of shopping? The results of the present study give answers to these questions for Turkish online consumers. There are some interesting findings of this study. At first glance, one can think that the logic behind daily deal sites is the low prices that they offer. This means that, online consumers use this way of shopping, because they think they are paying less compared to other online stores and even physical stores. But, price consciousness and sale proneness were not found to be related with buying behavior from daily deal sites. This could be interpreted as people who are searching for low prices are not always willing to buy from daily deal sites. Turkey is not in introductory stage for this way of shopping. The Turkish daily deal market could be claimed to be in the maturity stage, since in the first years, the market grew so fast and after 2014 this growth began to decline (Eticaretmag, 2013b; Atakan et. al., 2013). The big players mostly survive in the market, but even so there are still numerous daily deal sites and consumers are purchasing from those types of sites. They do not see daily deal sites as outlet stores offering low prices, which was the viewpoint at the beginning, because in some of the daily deal sites (especially in the leading sites such as markafoni.com) some luxury and high-priced brands are being sold. Prices of those products are same with these brands’ official web stores. In this case, consumers may choose buying from the daily deal site due to ease of access to luxury brands with limited distribution rather than price advantages. Besides, the inventory levels of the suppliers that are providing the products to daily deal sites began to drop off (Yavuz, 2012). This could be also a reason behind the moderate price levels. At the beginning the inventory level was high and the number of daily deal sites was low. So, they were utilizing from the situation and were offering lower prices to online customers. But later, this advantage disappeared. On the other hand, the most advantageous feature of online stores is their 7/24 accessibility. Consumers have the chance to buy what they want at the time their need emerges. This feature may increase the number of sudden purchases made from the internet which is directly related to impulse buying tendency. A recently conducted study by Liu et al. (2013) in China emphasized the importance of impulsiveness in online group shopping and recommended online retailers to pay attention to impulse purchases. Also, a study held by Martinez and Kim (2012) in 212 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey the US found a positive significant relationship between impulse buying behavior and intention to purchase from a private sales site. But, in our study which is conducted in Turkey, the story is not the same. Consumers having tendency for impulsive buying are not eager to buy from online daily deal sites. The e-tailers of daily deal sites should be aware of their customers, because they are not buying products/services without thinking. Therefore putting effort for attracting impulsive buyers does not seem a good idea for daily deal site retailers. Giving a limited time offer for the consumers in order to make them buy things quickly will not work. For this reason, they could extend the time period they offered to consumers for discounts. Being price maven and using coupons are the supporting criteria for using daily deal sites. Consumers who are consulted for price information are more eager to buy from daily deal sites. The reason behind this may because they want to give the impression to others that they follow daily offers. The perception of other people could be important for them. So, getting price information as early as possible is an important criterion for those type of consumers. Daily deal sites e-mail their subscribers every day. The e-tailers of daily deal sites may increase the frequencies of those alerts to consumers who are using their sites more often. Because the possibility of being a price maven for the people using daily deal sites more often could be high. According to the results of this study, using coupons encourages online consumers to shop from daily deal sites more frequently. Consumers who are prone to use coupons also use daily deal sites more often as compared to others. Coupon usage is normally not so widespread in Turkey for physical stores, but in online shopping, especially for daily deal sites’ coupons became popular. People are getting used to coupons. Some of them are sent by e-mail to consumers, some of them are active for one hour when they enter to the website. These coupons motivate online consumers for buying more products/services. E-tailers should consider this effect. In addition, the research findings of this study do provide some insights for Turkish e-retailers of daily deal sites in designing managerial implications on how to improve their performance in order to increase the level of customer satisfaction. They should consider the effects of those two constructs. Because, they have an effect on buying behaviors of online consumers and buying behavior is directly related to customer satisfaction. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 213 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen Limitations and Future Research Even though the research findings provide some new insights to researchers, as of prior studies this study has also some limitations. Firstly, even this study has a diverse sample that covers a wide range of demographic characteristics; the method for this is convenience sampling. The data were obtained from online consumers by emailing and asking them to submit to the questionnaire. So, the study could not present the entire Turkish online consumers. More diversified samples would provide more valuable results. Second, this study investigated the effects of price related factors and impulse buying tendency on buying behavior from daily deal sites. Some other constructs may have also any effect on buying behavior. In the future, those factors could be included and the effects may be retested. References Alford, B. L., & Biswas, A. (2002). The effects of discount level, price consciousness and sale proneness on consumers’ price perception and behavioral intentions. Journal of Business Research, 55, 775-783. Atakan, S., Jular, J. S. & Kirezli, Ö. (2013). Internetten grup satın alma davranışı: Fırsat sitelerinden alışveriş yapan tuketicilerin tutum ve davranışlarını anlamaya yonelik bir calışma. 18. Ulusal Pazarlama Kongresi Bildiri Kitabi, 384-392. Baybars, M., & Ustundagli, E. (2011). Attitudes toward online shopping from the aspects of personal characteristics and shopping motive through a developing concept: Private shopping. International Journal of Business and Management Studies, 3(2), 201-210. BKM, (2013). E-commerce transactions. The Interbank Card Center Report. Retrieved September 10, 2013, from http://www.bkm.com.tr/bkmen/istatistik/sanal_pos_ile_yapilan _eticaret_islemleri.asp Broekhuizen, T. (2006). Understanding channel purchase intentions: Measuring online and offline shopping value perceptions (1st ed.). Labyrinth Publications. Brown, M., Pope, N., & Voges, K. (2003). Buying or browsing? An exploration of shopping orientations and online purchase intention. European Journal of Marketing, 214 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey 37(11/12), 1666-1684. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A., & Long, J. S., (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136-162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Ltd. Dang, L. (2013). E-Commerce strategies of group buying websites, Case study: Groupon Inc. Unpublished thesis in International Business, Lahti University of Applied Sciences, Finland. Dholakia, U. M., & Kimes, S. E. (2011). Daily deal fatigue or unabated enthusiasm? A study of consumer perceptions of daily deal promotions. SSRN eLibrary. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1925865 Eticaretmag, (2013a). Özel Alışveriş Sitelerinin Dünden Bugüne Gelişimi, Retrieved May 5, 2014, from http://eticaretmag.com/ozel-alisveris-kuluplerinin-tarihi/ Eticaretmag, (2013b). Grup Satın Alma ve Fırsat Sektörünün Türkiye ve Dünyadaki Gelişimi, Retrieved May 5, 2014, from http://eticaretmag.com/grup-satin-alma-vefirsat-sektorunun-turkiye-ve-dunyadaki-gelisimi/ E-ticarette yeni trend tek ürüne odaklanmak. (2011, March). Ekonomist. Retrieved from http://www.ekonomist.com.tr/eticarette-yeni-trend-tek-urune-odaklanmakhaberler/2491. aspx Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1988). An updated paradigm for scale development incorporating unidimensionality and its assessment. Journal of Marketing Research, 15, 186-192. Girard, T., Korgaonkar, P., & Silverblatt, R. (2003). Relationship of type of product, shopping orientations, and demographics with preference for shopping on the internet. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18(1), 101-120. Hair, J. F., Tatham, R. L., Anderson, R. E., & Black, W. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Ho, C. F., & Wu, W. H. (1999, January). Antecedents of customer satisfaction on the internet: An empirical study of online shopping. In Systems Sciences, 1999. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 215 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen HICSS-32. Proceedings of the 32nd Hawaii Annual International Conference on (pp. 9-pp). IEEE. Horne, M. (2013). A history of coupons and daily deals: Thought they were fizzling out? Think again. Daily Deal Media. Retrieved September 9, 2013, from http://www.dailydealmedia.com/359a-history-of-coupons-and-daily-deals-thoughtthey-were-fizzling-uut-think-again/ Kimes, S. E., & Dholakia, U. M. (2011). Customer response to restaurant daily deals. SSRN eLibrary. Retrieved September 15, 2013, from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1925932 Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: Guilford press. Krasnova, H., Veltri, N. F., Spengler, K., & Günther, O. (2013). “Deal of the Day” platforms: What drives consumer loyalty?. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 5(3), 165-177. Lichtenstein, D. R., Netemeyer, R. G., & Burton, S. (1990). Distinguishing coupon proneness from value consciousness: An acquisition-transaction utility theory perspective. Journal of Marketing, 54, 54-67. Lichtenstein, D. R., Ridgway, N. M., & Netemeyer, R. G. (1993). Price perceptions and consumer shopping behavior: A field study. Journal of Marketing Research, 30, 234-45. Liu, X., He, M., Gao, F., & Xie, P. (2008). An empirical study of online shopping customer satisfaction in China: A holistic perspective. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 36(11), 919-940. Liu, Y., Li, H., & Hu, F. (2013). Website attributes in urging online impulse purchase: An empirical investigation on consumer perceptions. Decision Support Systems, 55(3), 829–837. Martinez, B., & Kim, S. (2012). Predicting purchase intention for private sale sites. Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 16(3), 342-365. 216 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey Moore, M., Kennedy, K. McG., & Fairhurst, A. (2003). Cross-cultural equivalence of price perceptions between US and Polish consumers. International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management, 31(5), 268–279. Özmen, T. (2011). History of online private shopping & private shopping in Turkey. Retrieved August 6, 2013, from http://tutkuozmen.com/2011/01/15/master-thesis6%E2% 80%93-history-ofonline-private-shopping-private-shopping-in-turkey/ Park, C. H., & Kim, Y. G. (2003). Identifying key factors affecting consumer purchase behavior in an online shopping context. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 31(1), 16-29. Pelenk, A., Velioğlu, Ö., & Değirmencioğlu, G. (2011). The new focus of consumption: An analysis on private shopping. Academic Journal of Information Technology. Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2006). A First Course in Structural Equation Modeling. New York: Psychology Press, Taylor & Francis Group. Sharma, N. V., & Khattri, V. (2013). Study of online shopping behavior and its impact on online deal websites. Asian Journal of Management Research, 3(2), 394405. Swaminathan, S., & Bawa, K. (2005). Category-specific coupon proneness: The impact of individual characteristics and category-specific variables. Journal of Retailing, 81(3), 205-214. TUIK, (2012). Household information technology usage study results. Turkish Statistical Institute News Bulletin. Retrieved July 18, 2013, from http://tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=10880 Verhagen, T., & Dolen, W. D. (2011). The influence of online store beliefs on consumer online impulse buying: A model and empirical application, Information & Management, 48(8), 320-327. Yu, S. F. (2008). Price perception of online airline ticket shoppers. Journal of Air Transport Management, 14, 66-69. Volume 5 Number 1 Spring 2015 217 �Hilal Asil, Hilal Özen Yavuz, Ö. (2012). Özel Alışveriş Siteleri Satacak Mal Bulamıyor Mu?. Ekonomist, 39. i This paper is an improved version of the study named “Factors Influencing Buying Behavior on Daily Deal Sites in Turkey” which was partly presented in ICESoS 2013 Conference. 218 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2736 Title A name given to the resource Price Related Constructs’ Effects on Daily Deal Buying Behavior in Turkey Author Author ASIL, Hilal OZEN, Hilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Daily deal sites have become so popular in Turkey just as they have in many other countries. Heavy discounted offers for products or services attract most of the people to these new marketplaces. Glancing over the offers before starting to work became a habit for some of the people. However, some others do not have any interest to daily deals. So, it can be said that behavioral differences are unavoidable among customers. There are different forces that initiate the buying process. In this study, factors that affect buying behaviors of people from daily deal sites are investigated. The effect of buying behavior on satisfaction is also examined. Price related constructs (price consciousness, price mavenism, sale proneness and coupon proneness) and impulse buying tendencies of customers are taken as predictors of buying behavior from daily deal sites. Results suggest that price mavenism and coupon proneness are positively related with buying behaviors from online daily deal sites. On the other hand satisfaction come about to be a positive result of buying behavior. Even though the focus of this study is specific to a limited group, it is envisaged that the results will provide insights for both academics and e-tailers. Keywords: Daily Deal Sites, Online Shopping, Turkey, Structural Equation Modeling. JEL Classifications: M31, M10 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-01-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3b5de31232f114135afa8957baec08cb.pdf c919dee0de89961e756eda880be982dd Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2775 Title A name given to the resource Investigating Croatian Inflation through the Cointegration with Structural Break Approach Author Author Malešević Perović, Lena Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This paper analyses the inflationary process in Croatia during the period 1992-2011, using a cointegration with structural break approach. Our results indicate that there is a long-run relationship between inflation, exchange rate, unit labour costs and money growth. Currency depreciation and unit labour costs are found to influence inflation positively, and money supply negatively. We argue that the latter occurs because exchange rate targeting policy in Croatia results in a situation where endogenous money moves in the direction opposite to the exchange rate, so as to keep the exchange rate fixed. We, furthermore provide some evidence that money supply need not mean risks to inflation in the presence of declining money velocity. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-02-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9d0bfa0cd64fc7ebaf5c527533dfcd57.pdf df3c325aabeb19b7e0984db9567841a6 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews Irena Vassileva New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria Submitted: 03.03.2014. Accepted: 03.11.2014. Abstract Although nobody would deny that academic criticism is an inherent feature of academic communication, most of the existing studies assume that due to the nature of the development of science, collaborative rhetoric is intrinsic to academic discourse and criticism is the exception rather than the rule. In order to check this hypothesis, the present pilot study investigates a sample corpus of 10 book reviews in the field of English applied linguistics that are definitely negative in character. Scientific book reviews not only belong to the basic academic genres, but also possess a functionally determined highly evaluative character, thus being potential carriers of academic criticism. They have, unfortunately, received relatively little attention as yet. The study aims to uncover the argumentation strategies used by review writers in terms of classical Aristotelian argumentation theory.Within this theory the notion of topic plays a crucial role. There are two basic types of topoi: those based on everyday-logic generic premises and those with conventionalised conclusions, whose subgroups are used as a methodological instrument of the analysis. The analysis leads to conclusions concerning the surface expression of the argumentation strategies used by writers, the degree to which criticism is based on objective logic and on subjective personal evaluation, the preference for certain topoi, as well as some general concerns in relation to confrontation in the academia. Keywords: academic discourse rhetoric, negative book reviews, English, confrontation in science, argumentation Aim and data of the study The pilot study is based on a sample corpus of 10 book reviews in English applied linguistics that have a definitely negative character.This means that the ‘final verdicts’ of the reviews are in accordwith the above motto.The investigation aims to elucidate the argumentation strategies used by review writers in terms of the classical 119 �Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews Aristotelian theory combined with the modern argumentation theory.The analysis leads to conclusions concerning the realisation of the argumentation strategies used by writers, the degree to which criticism is based on logic (objective) and on personal evaluation (subjective), the preference for and/or avoidance of certain topoi. The scientific book review Wills (1997:136) defines the academic book review in the following way: “A person, as a rule an expert, expresses her/his opinion on a scientific work with view to bringing about a (tacit) feedback between herself/himself and the respective author and to familiarizing a more or less expert leadership with the achievements and failures of the work under review. The reviewer produces, on the basis of his subjective text assessment, a metatext directly related to a primary text.” What follows from this definition are the two basic features of the review, namely: (1)The discourse of the review is not independent and self-sufficient, but is closely related ideationally to preceding texts and/or practices, thus forming a wide and complicated network of intertextual links. (“Ideational function” after Halliday 1985) (2) The two basic communicative functions of the review are the informative and the evaluative. (“Interpersonal function”, ibid.) Methodology McElholm (2002:67-68) maintains that: “Argumentation takes place when there is disagreement (or lack of agreement) as to a certain state of affairs, or as to what should be done, or as to whether something is good or bad; a speaker or writer intends to bring about consensus on the subject, i.e. transform disagreement into agreement, by persuading his or her audience of the correctness of the point of view put forward by him or her by advancing an argument which appeals to certain commonly held beliefs or opinions, i.e. beliefs or opinions shared by his or her audience.” Eggs (1994:16ff. and 1996:183) classifies argumentation into three types depending on the author’s objectives. Thus, there are three ways to react to a controversial problem of the type: 120 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Problem: T or not T? For T to assert Against T Argumentation to deny epistemic to advise in favour to appreciate of to advise against to find bad deontic ethical/aesthetic On the other hand, within the classical Aristotelian argumentation theory the notion of topic plays a crucial role. There are two basic types of topoi: those based on everyday-logic generic premises and those with conventionalised conclusions, where each of these groups contains the following subgroups: I. Topoi based on everyday-logic generic premises: 1. Topoi from the consequence 2. Topoi from the comparison 3. Topoi from the contrast 4. Topoi from the division (classification) 5. Topoi from the example II. Topoi with conventionalised conclusions 1. Topos from the authority 2. Topos from the analogy 3. Topos from the person. The topoi enumerated above will serve as a second analytical methodological instrument for the investigation of argumentation in book reviews. Results Content- and form-based premises The expression of criticism maytake various forms and may be based on different premises – theoretical assumptions, methodological failures, relevance of data, etc. I have divided the premises into content-oriented and form-oriented, where the first type refers to criticism of the content per se, while the latter refers to the graphic representation, spelling mistakes and the structure in general. Graph 1 shows the distribution of the two types and their sub-types within the present corpus in percent. 121 �Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews As Graph 1. below shows, the most frequent premise for criticism is theoretical deficiency or failure, which accounts for almost half of the cases (48%). Next comes criticism of methodology / analysis (22%), followed by pointing to discrepancies between the aim(s) of the respective study / course book and their realization, erroneous and/or imprecise use of terminology and ‘personal attack’ which I shall dwell upon later in more detail. 122 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Graph 1. Content- and form-based premises Hyland’s (2004) investigation of book reviews in various disciplines showed a tendency to praise general features and criticise specific ones: “[…] while over 80 per cent of the positive commentary on content addressed general aspects of the book, critical observations tended to be more specific, with 60 per cent referring to particular content issues.” This, however, does not seem to be the case in the present investigation. Reviewers tend to attach more importance to theoretical and analytical aspects of publications. Topoi in English book reviews Graph 2. demonstrates that 22% of the topoi consist of topos from the person,which, together with topos from the authority (4.5%), makes more than ¼ of the topoi. That is, unlike other academic genres where argumentation is primarily based on topoi based on everyday-logic generic premises (see e.g. Vassileva 2006 for spoken academic communication), within the genre of the academic book review the topoi with conventionalized conclusions account for a relatively high percentage of argumentation. Thus, it seems that the review is one of the few academic genres that are highly personalized. 123 �Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews Graph 2. Topoi in English book reviews The topos from the person is very often realized in the form of a personal attack and may have a snide and sneering, contemptuous tone: Ex. (1) But in my view, the outcome was merely a bizarre charade of camouflaged communication where the lion’s share of the analyst’s work was kept out of sight by invoking the “native speaker’s intuition” and “introspection” (cf. Beaugrande 1998b). In this example, there is a shift from condemning the content of the book under review to denouncing the author as incompetent and arrogant, thus flouting “need to facilitate a continued sense of solidarity with their readers” (Hyland 2004:48). The topos from the authority prevails in criticism of theoretical and terminological issues, usually pointing either to failures or to deficiencies: Ex. (2) But then Saussure never said it was, and nor did anybody else as far as I know. So this departure from tradition is not a radical theoretical innovation at all but a rudimentary mistake, […]. Topoi based on everyday-logic generic premises: The topoi from the contrast account for 38% of the cases: Ex. (3) If this were just an occasional lapse or aberration, it would not matter much. But this disregard of inconvenient textual features seems to be endemic in the critical approach. Most of the topoi from the contrast are used in criticism of theory and methodology / analysis. In addition, such criticism is often expressed by involving both the reader and the review author in the process of argumentation: 124 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Ex. (4) Meanwhile, bleary-eyed readers might ask with mounting frustration: if all these would-be “discourse analysts” have got it wrong, when is [X] going to present his own method that sets matters right? This does not expressly occur, as far as I can see, until pages […]. Next in frequency (with 15.5%) comes the topos from the example, which is not surprising for the genre since reviews often draw directly on the original text for argumentation: Ex. (5) However, some of the previous weaknesses continue to exist in this edition, which is rather disappointing. For instance, the writing is still not very reader-friendly and, in fact, is somewhat inaccessible. The ‘definition’ topos accounts for 8% and relates primarily to terminology; it is often expressed in the form of questions: Ex. (6) So there are seven main headings, but how the second group relate to the first is not explained. Nor is the relationship between headings (aspects?, dimensions?, functions?) within the groups. What, one wonders, […], is the difference between cohesion and text structure? The cause and effect topoi account for 5% of the cases. They refer either to negative consequences of problematic theoretical assumptions or of errors in the analysis: Ex. (7) It would be difficult for an EST teacher to try and use the book […] as there does not seem to be any attempt at teaching techniques […]. The topos based on means and goal (7%) expresses criticism concerning discrepancies between author’s aim and its realization. The latter may concern the overall aim of the publication or certain ‘local’ aims: Ex. (8) However, due to the brevity of the chapter there is very little by way of examples, and it is really only a reminder to the reader to use some visuals during the talk. Conclusions From the viewpoint of argumentation theory and Eggs’ (1994) classification, one could draw the following conclusions:  Epistemic argumentation dominates review articles.This is only logical, since academic discourse in general reproduces the natural striving of research for the truth and for explanations of phenomena.  Deontic argumentation is relatively more frequent compared to other academic genres such as the research article (see Vassileva 2000, 2006) due to the evaluative character of the genre;  The same holds for ethical argumentation, which presupposes the categorization of a claim on the scale of ‘good – bad’. 125 �Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews  Although this kind of personalized evaluation clashes in principle with the universal assumption of the objectivity of science, the wide use of topoi from the person in reviews points once again to their highly subjective character. The correlation between the topoi based on logical generic premises and those based on conventionalized conclusions is approximately 2:1 in the present corpus.Linguistics is a ‘Geisteswissenschaft’ (‘spiritual science’ if translated 1:1 from German) that does not and cannot always operate with strictly measurable, tangible and therefore verifiable matter, so it has to rely on logic for securing successful argumentation. The latter is obviously true for English with its high percentage of ‘argumentation pure’ through topoi from the contrast. Moreover, English-speaking reviewers are rather derisive and idiosyncratic. Particularly prominent is the relatively frequent use of ‘personal attacks’, realized in “scornful, contemptuous, and sarcastic tones” (Tannen 2002:1664) – a fact that contradicts Galtung’s (1985) observation that the English-speaking academic discourse community is more tolerant than, e.g., the German-speaking one. This new development is most probably due to the function of English as the globallingua franca of research, the language that is the medium of the ever-growing global competition in academia. In the humanities it is easy to play down the discourse of other scholars. Especially in cases where there is a preliminary conception that there could not possibly be any common ground to be found, where the review writer sees him/herself as a worrier, as a gatekeeper whose mission is to fight for the only cause, his/her own cause, the discussion of a book may turn into a battlefield and remain a battlefield, only to take other forms, sometimes through other media of academic communication. Thus, one could, to my mind at least, hardly speak today of the academic discourse community as one consisting of like-minded peers. Like-mindedness consists in ‘moving within the same semiotic space’, so to say, in partial sharing of terminology and background knowledge, in observing certain politeness rules. It stops, however, there, where basic interests of various kinds clash, since the competition for power and prestige in science becomes ever more intensive with the increase of its importance in modern society. Tannen (2002:1653) maintains in this connection that: “oppositional moves traditionally assumed to be constructive can have hitherto unexamined destructive consequences” and, further, that “there is much wrong with the metaphorical assignment of research to warring camps. It obscures the aspects of disparate work that overlap and can learn from each other. It obscures the complexity of research” (ibid., 1661). 126 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Our present conventions of climbing the academic ladder and making a name in the community through opposition and refutation of the work of our predecessors could be extremely counterproductive in the achievement of our primary goal, namely the maintenance of the purity of science and its principal aim – to explore the enormous complexity of our world. References Aristotle (1954).Rhetoric. (W.R.Roberts, Trans.) New York: Random House. Clyne, M. (1991). The Sociocultural Dimension: The Dilemma of the Germanspeaking Scholar. In Schröder, H. (Ed.),Subject-oriented Texts(pp. 49 – 67). Berlin: de Gruyter. Clyne, M. (1993).Pragmatik, Textstruktur kulturelleWerte.EineinterkulturellePerspektive. In Schröder, Fachtextpragmatik(pp. 3 – 18).Tübingen: Gunter NarrVerlag. H. und (Ed.), Eggs, E. (1994).Grammaire du discoursargumentatif. Paris: Kime. Eggs, E. (1996).Formen des Argumentierens in Zeitungskommentaren – Manipulation durchmehrsträngig-assoziativesArgumentieren ? In HessLüttich, E. W. B., Holly. W. &Püschel, U. (Eds.),TextstrukturenimMedienwandel(pp. 179 – 209). Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang. Galtung, J. (1985).Struktur, Kultur und intellektuellerStil.Einvergleichender Essay übersachsonische, teutonische, gallische und nipponischeWissenschaft.In Wierlacher, A. (Ed.),Das Fremde und das Eigene(pp. 151 – 193).München: Judicum-Verlag. Halliday, M. (1985).Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. Hyland, K. (2004).Disciplinary Discourses. Social Interactions in Academic Writing.Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. McElholm, D. (2002).Text and Argumentation in English for Science and Technology. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang. Tannen, D. (2002).Agonism in academic discourse.Journal of Pragmatics 34, 1651 – 1669. 127 �Argumentation Strategies inNegative Academic Book Reviews Vassileva, I. (2000). Who is the author? (A contrastive analysis of authorial presence in English, German, French, Russian and Bulgarian academic discourse).Sankt Augustin: AsgardVerlag. Vassileva, I. (2006).Author-Audience Interaction. A Cross-Cultural Perspective. Sankt Augustin: AsgardVerlag. Wills, W. (1997). Hedges in Expert-Language Reviews. In Markkanen, R., Schröder, H. (Eds.),Hedging and Discourse: Approaches to the Analysis of a Pragmatic Phenomenon in Academic Texts(pp. 134 – 147). Berlin/New York. 128 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2812 Title A name given to the resource Argumentation Strategies in Negative Academic Book Reviews Author Author Vassileva, Irena Abstract A summary of the resource. Although nobody would deny that academic criticism is an inherent feature of academic communication, most of the existing studies assume that due to the nature of the development of science, collaborative rhetoric is intrinsic to academic discourse and criticism is the exception rather than the rule. In order to check this hypothesis, the present pilot study investigates a sample corpus of 10 book reviews in the field of English applied linguistics that are definitely negative in character. Scientific book reviews not only belong to the basic academic genres, but also possess a functionally determined highly evaluative character, thus being potential carriers of academic criticism. They have, unfortunately, received relatively little attention as yet. The study aims to uncover the argumentation strategies used by review writers in terms of classical Aristotelian argumentation theory.Within this theory the notion of topic plays a crucial role. There are two basic types of topoi: those based on everyday-logic generic premises and those with conventionalised conclusions, whose subgroups are used as a methodological instrument of the analysis. The analysis leads to conclusions concerning the surface expression of the argumentation strategies used by writers, the degree to which criticism is based on objective logic and on subjective personal evaluation, the preference for certain topoi, as well as some general concerns in relation to confrontation in the academia. Keywords: academic discourse rhetoric, negative book reviews, English, confrontation in science, argumentation Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-03-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f62e56768af5b849e3fa0aca12f961c.pdf 25cd39fb58112cb04e02021678657c4e PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Students’ Communicative Program Evaluation Competence and Language Veronika Kareva South East European University, Macedonia Submitted: 02.04.2014. Accepted: 25.11.2014. Abstract There is no dilemma at present times that language learning means learning how to use the language and not learning to know about the language. Exactly for this purpose, in today’s global world characterized by massification and mobility in the field of education, the Council of Europe - Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), as a universal instrument allowing individuals to have a record of the different elements of their language learning achievement, begins its treatment of language use through the context of communication.Language programs at different institutions organize their work in the way that learners use the general competencies they bring with them, but also develop them further. Nonetheless, successful completion of university language courses does not always mean that the student has mastered the language and can use it for communication. This mostly refers to the cases where the language courses are treated as part of the curricula while the other instruction is in the L1. The fact that students at such institutions are not required to take any standardized English proficiency test put the effectiveness of the complete language program under a question mark. In order to provide evidence that its quality language provisionresulted in improved communicative competencefor students, the Language Center (LC) of the South East European University (SEEU) in Tetovo, Macedonia, introduced final oral examination as a part of the course grading criteria. The aim of this paper is to determine whether the introduction of the oral examination as a part of the final achievement exam hashelped raise student’s awareness of the need to improve their communication skills and thus attain better performance. Participants of the study are 114 students from eight sections, two per level, starting from beginner to upper intermediate, whose final scores will be followed in the last three exam sessions. In addition, individual students will be chosen and their progress followed during three academic terms in order to show the development of their communication skills. The results are expected to be used as an indicator for program evaluation by the University management and external evaluation. �Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation Keywords: communicative competence, children, English language Introduction Language institutions, no matter whether they function independentlyor as parts of Universities, are faced with the necessity of evaluating their programs. This evaluation might be required by all stakeholders involved in their functioning,starting withthestudents themselves, the management and administration, the parents, andin the case of South East European University (SEEU), by potential employers. This last stakeholder group is especially important nowadays when relevant international bodies and national institutionsare issuing recommendationsfor strengthening the link between universities and the economy in order to create a skilled labor force that can respond to the needs of the employment market. (Conclusions of the Council of Europe from Nov. 2012 on education and training in Europe 2020, Strategy for Educational Development 2005 – 2015 by the Ministry of Education of RM). As suggested by Lynch (1996), the program evaluation can take the form of student course evaluations, teacher questionnaires, achievement tests at the beginning and end of a period of instruction, or having an external expert prepare a report about the particular program. All the information gathered in this way is useful, but we believe that the most critical and valuable information about the strengths of a language program can be obtained from how well students use the language(s) being taught for communication or any other practical purpose, depending on the type of the program – e.g.if the program prepares students to pass a language proficiency test that will allow them to enter some other program or study. In casessuch as ours, where the language program has multiple purposes – to prepare students to function successfully in non-English speaking communities that aspire to be internationally integrated; and to provide them with opportunities for mobility, research and career development abroad – the necessity of knowing the language for communication seems even more relevant. The SEEU context SEEU operates in three languages – English, Albanian and Macedonian – and language-skills development within a multi-lingual society is a central part of every SEEU student’s academic career profile, both as required subjects and as optional elective courses. The University Language Center (LC) is an independent academic unit that provides obligatory and elective language courses for the faculties of Business and Economics, Law, Computer Sciences, Public Administration and �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Political Sciences, and Languages, Cultures and Communication. All these courses are integrated into the Faculties’ curricula and students gain ECTS credits upon their completion. This means that the LC does not have its own students, especially since there are no entry criteria for English; instead, students are tested at enrollment and placed at different levels. However, the University realizes the value of learning languages and its benefits for raising a student’s profile and competitiveness and provides ongoing support, especially with regard to the English program, which contributes to the internationalization strategy as well as the employability of its graduates. The English program is the broadest, since all students are required to take English courses in the first four semesters. They must complete four levels of General Englishand reach level B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR, developed by the Council of Europe for the purpose of measuring foreign language proficiency). After completing this requirement, students have the opportunity to enter a subject-oriented English for Specific Purposes (ESP) class. Those whose tests show that they have the required proficiency above level B1 (our level 4) can take Academic English in semester 1 and Advanced Academic English in semester 2 before starting ESP. There are clearly defined and appropriately varied criteria according to which students can receive a passing grade from the language courses: attendance, participation, presentation or project, speaking and writing skills evaluation, quizzes, and thefinal exam; these are all grading components. For evaluatingspeaking and writings skills, the students are fully informed and have the opportunity to practice with the published rubrics, following the recommendations on the practice and application component of the SIOP Model. (Echevarria, Vogt and Short 2007). What is more, the final exams are cross-moderated in order to achieve greater objectivity. This is the area where we face the issue of balancing achievement and proficiency and where program evaluation could bring evidence of the strengths and weaknesses of the LC with regard to students’ ability to use the language for their career development as well as for future study. Measuring students’ progress and program effectiveness Since the program in question aims to prepare students to use English for employment, mobility and further study and does not require taking any standardized proficiency test, and taking into consideration that all English final tests are achievement ones, it seems that there is no ‘real’ measure of how well students can use the language after graduation. We mustbear in mind that an achievement test measures what a person knows, how much they know, and compares them with a group that has the same knowledge, while a proficiency test measures what a person �Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation knows, but with an emphasis on how well they will be able to apply that knowledge in the future. (Test English Proficiency, 2011). It would be ideal for students to take both these tests during their academic study, but it would mean burdening them with extra costs. In order to provide information about student progress and program effectiveness in the existing circumstances, we applied two instruments: First, we created our own institutional proficiency test to be given to students at the beginning and at the end of the semester. Our aim was to see whether there would be difference in the score achieved at the end of the semester after 14 weeks of instruction and if so, how big the difference would be. This instrument has been applied for two years and it shows significant improvement of students’ scores at the final exam after a certain period of instruction. What is more, one study conducted at SEEU demonstrated a correlation between achievement and proficiency, meaning that good scores on the achievement tests mean higher proficiency (Kareva, Deari &Ramadani, 2013). The second instrument applied was the introduction of an oral examination as an obligatory course-grading requirement at the end of the semester. Its main aim was to raise awareness among students about the importance of the practical application of their knowledge so that they can pay more attention to developing their speaking and communication skills during English classes and to using every opportunity in and outside the classroom to practice English. It was also expected to provide teacherswith information onhow well students had learned the language for use in real-life, authentic situations. Communicative Competence What is the best way to learn if students are competent in the target language? How do we know that they can apply what they have learned in classroom and use it for communication and social interaction? In order to define the term communicative competence, Bagaric (2007) calls upon the work of Chomsky, who differentiates between “competence (the monolingual speaker-listener’s knowledge of language) and performance (the actual use of language in real situations)” (p. 95). The model of communicative language competence described in the CEFR (2001) is the closest to what we need in order to measure the language ability of our students, which will bringfurther relevant information about the complete program evaluation. In the CEF, communicative competence includes three basic components – language competence, sociolinguistic competence and pragmatic competence. Language competence refers to knowledge of and ability to use language resources to form well-structured messages. Sociolinguistic competence refers to possession of �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics knowledge and skills for appropriate language use in a social context while pragmatic competence refers to sequencing of messages in accordance with intercultural and transactional schemata. The oral examination that we introduced was based on the topics studied during the course and the vocabulary and structure used (language competence). The assessment rubric was based on the appropriateness of the answer in terms of language use, as well as the social and cultural context (sociolinguistic and pragmatic competence). For instance, if the topic was “Modern versus Traditional Education”, one exam question would beto talk about the advantages and disadvantages of private universities. The answer would require all three competences and would mean that the student would be able to apply what she/he has learned to form her/his critical and informed opinion about the matter and actually discuss it with the examiner. Research Methodology In order to see if students’ performance had improvedas a result of the introduction of the oral examination, we have compared the scores obtained from the rubrics for the oral-examination evaluation in the last three sequencing exam sessions (Appendix 1). A total of 114 students from eight sections were included in this study. Their level of English was different, starting from elementary to upper intermediate(A1 to B2 according to CEFR). Since the oral examination counted as 10% of the final grade, there were a maximumof 10 points for the best answer distributed in the following way:three points for fluency, three points for accuracy, two points for appropriacy (meaning, content correctness of the answer) and two points for pronunciation.The points that students accumulated through the last three exam sessions were followed and compared with others to see if the introduction of the oral examination had led to a certain progress and improvement of their speaking skills. Since the examination topics were related to practical application of the material presented during the lessons throughout the semesters, it was assumed that an increase in the number of points would mean increased communicative competence. For instance, if the lesson was about schools and education, examples of exam questions related to that topic would be to talk about the advantages and disadvantages of wearing uniforms at schools,a comparison between private and state schools, a comparison between modern and traditional education, the happiest/the most embarrassing memory from early school days, etc. A student’s ability to talk about these topics would mean that he/she has acquired the key vocabulary and become able to use it in context when talking about realistic situations. �Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation Data analysis From the scores that students achieved on the oral examination as a part of the final examination, we were able to follow the progress in their speaking skills over the period of three academic semesters. This means that if a student started from level 1 (A1), his progress was followed until he reached level 4 (B2).In addition to every single student’s progress, we were able to follow the average result in every exam session and also the general progress at different levels of English. The figure below shows the comparison between the scores achieved when passing level 2 (A2) and level 1(A1). The results show that the progress in students’ speaking skills demonstrated through the number of points accumulated on the oral examination when passing level 2 (A2, according to CEFR) was the lowest (Figure 1). The distribution of percentage in this figure means that out of the total number of 114 students, only 20, or 18% had increased their oral proficiency when passing level 2, compared to the points earned when passing level 1.Some22,81% of students achieved the same number of points, meaning their oral proficiency had remained the same. The biggest number of students (57,02%) actually demonstrated lower oral proficiency in level 2 compared to level 1. Figure 1. Comparison of scores between oral exams in levels 1 and 2 Student Evaluation S1L1-S2L2 20,18% 22,81% Equal Less 57,02% More The next figure (Figure 2) shows the comparison and the progress with oral proficiency scores between levels 2 (A2) and 3(B1). It can be noticed that in the higher levels, the progress in oral proficiency had increasedcompared to the previous �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics two levels.Some 50,88% of students achieved higher scores at the oral examination compared with their achievement in level 2,35,96% remained at the same level of proficiency and only 13,16% performed worse than in the previous oral examination. Figure 2. Comparison of scores between levels 2 and 3 Student Evaluation S2L2-S3L3 50,88% 13,16% Equal Less More 35,96% There were similar results in the next exam session when the results of the oral proficiency exam were compared between level 3 and level 4. Figure 3 shows this comparison. Figure 3. Comparison of scores between levels 3 and 4 Student Evaluation S3L3S4L4 46,49% 28,07% Equal Less More 25,44% The biggest percentage of students (46,49%) improved their scores on the oral examination, 28,07% remained with the same skills and 25,44% had worse results when they passed from level 3 to 4. �Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation Conclusions Our assumption that the introduction of the oral examination will lead to better speaking skills and increased communicative competence is only partially confirmed. Students generally performedmore poorly when they took level 2 exams compared to their results in the oral exam for level 1. However, in the next two sessions, the general results were higher, both when passing from level 2 to 3 and from levels 3 to 4. The lower result in level 2 exam weighted against those in level 1 can be explained with the fact that at the beginning level, the speaking tasks were very simple and all students performed well. By comparison, level 2 oral examinations were more complex and students therefore achieved worse results. When they got used to these oral examinations and probably practiced their speaking skills more both in and outside the classrooms, the results improved. Better results in higher levels are also an indicator of the program’s effectiveness. It is therefore strongly recommended that oral examinations be introduced in parallel with the final written tests in all University language programs in which language courses are part of Faculties’ curricula. Students feel more motivated to practice and improve their speaking skills when they are formally evaluated on them. This should be done regardless of the fact that students’ class participation is one of the grading components and they are expected to work on their speaking skills during every lesson. The difficulty in measuring every student’s class participation and activity is another argument in favor of having an oral component in the final examination. References Echevarria, J., Vogt, M.E., & Short, D. (2007). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP® Model. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Lynch, Brian, K. (1996). Language Program Evaluation. Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam034/95001719.pdfon 27.12.2013 Official Journal of the European Union (19.12.2012). Council Conclusions on education and training in Europe 2020. Retrieved from http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2012:393:0005:0007:E N:PDF on 13.01.2014 Test English Proficiency. (2011) �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics http://www.testenglishproficiency.com/TestEnglishProficiency.html March 3, 2013 Retrieved on Kareva, V.,Deari F., Ramadani K. (2013). The Relationship between English Achievement and Proficiency Tests. pp. 22-36. Albanian Journal of Educational Sciences. Volume 1, nr.2, 2013. ISSN 2309-2769. Graduate School of Education & Centre for Democratic Education, Tirana, Albania, 2013. Nacionalna programa za razvoj na obrazovanieto vo Republika Makedonija 20052015. Ministerstvo za obrazovanie I nauka na RM. Retrieved on 13.01.2014 fromhttp://www.npro.edu.mk/dokumenti/strategija-mk.pdf The Council of Europe. Education and Languages. Language Policy. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR). Retrieved on 14.01.2014 from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre1_en.asp Appendix 1 – Students’ achievement per semester �Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation achievement by semester Student ID Nam e 119467 119388 119437 119640 119821 119712 119557 120007 120006 120120 119581 119936 120004 119676 119786 119657 119706 119438 119872 119499 119543 119545 119589 119597 119610 119924 119747 119591 119628 119877 119882 119909 119910 119569 119615 120103 119390 119391 119733 120002 119692 119965 119892 119972 120024 119577 119465 119416 120038 119975 119739 119809 119512 119978 119925 119932 119727 119830 120040 120003 120067 120108 120111 119973 120107 120001 119954 119955 119415 119833 119804 119903 119696 120525 118710 119603 119948 119935 119558 119732 120050 119966 119907 119906 119411 119632 119418 118900 Musli Fitore Erduan Ismail Xhihad Inis Mentor Asim Fatmir Hidije Alban Lirim Ziqufli Mirterzan Qazim Berat Kushtrim Filip Piril Ivana Gzim Elfatije Lundrim Luljeta Armin Besnik Semra Lavdrime Ardiane Majlinda Valmira Hafize Valbon Arjeta Bujamin Teuta Festim Argjend Alajdin Valbona Albona Shenazije Bujar Lavdrim Rami Ariana Arlind Arton Arbresha Shenur Xheneta Ardenis Mihajlo Mirsad Kushtrim Gafur Gzim Nuhi Armend Valdrin Altrim Albiona Noli Abdylgani Hysnije Valdeta Sedat Vedat Albert Senad Orhan Mirajet Muhamed Lulzime Valbon Florina Fisnik Sabidin Bajram Nadmir Azra Lejla Selvete Shenure Besar Zamir Zilfi Sedat Surnam e Faculty Arifi Fazliji Selmani Iseini Nurishi Ismaili Islami Osmani Pajaziti Bajrami Alii Emshiu Rexhepi Kamberi Rakipi Ajdini Ljatifi Veljanoski Uzun Serafimoska Abdii Beshiri Rahmani Rexhepi Imshi Abdiji Emini Nuredini Murseli Mustafi Xhemaili Dalipi Arifi Abazi Dauti Idrizi Fazliji Ibraimi Zendeli Ilazi Ramani Elezi Adili Bexheti Salihi Fetai Daudi Bexheti Zenku Saqipi Rufati Aliu Dukoski Bekteshi Osmani Sinani Izairi Alili Tairi Ilazi Shabani Elezi Bicurri Agushi Jashari Ilazi Nesimi Nesimi Jonuzi Sulejmani Shasivari Fazli Ajrullau Jusufi Azizi Imeri Qamili Omeri Emini Mehmedalija Zulfiqari Jonuzi Limani Memeti Nuhiu Saiti Abdullai Amedi Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Law Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Business and Economics Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Contemporary Sciences and Technologies Languages, Cultures and Communication Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Public Administration and Political Sciences Oral exam Oral exam Oral exam Oral exam S1-level 1 S2-Level 2 S3-Level 3 S4-Level 4 7 9 6 8 6 2 8 7 7 10 9 2 10 8 2 2 3,5 6 8 6 5 10 7 8 5 5 9 10 10 7 10 10 10 9 10 6 7 6 7 9 8 8 8 9 4 8 9 7 9 10 9 4 9 7 10 10 7 8.5 10 9 8 10 10 10 1 6 10 10 8 10 8 9 9 10 4 4 10 3 4 9 9 10 10 5 8 5 3 8 8 6 6 7 7 6 2 4 5,5 6,5 9 2 6 6 3 6 8 8 10 7 5 10 5 10 4 3 10 10 7 6 8 10 6 9 7,5 6 5 4 4 6 7 8 6 6 3 9 8 1 6 8 8 4 4 8 9 10 4 8 9 4 3 10 9 8,5 5 6 10 10 8 8 8 7 7 8 4 2 9 2 2 6 4 8 10 4 7 5 4 4 7 3 4 5 5 4 6 5 6 10 9 4 4 8 6 4 4 5 10 5 7 10 8 10 7 8 9 6 5 6 7 9 8 7 4 10 3 4 8 8 6 8 8 / 3 8 5 / 8 10 9 4 9 6 9 7 8 4 / 6 7 10 / 9 4 5 10 / 4 4 6 6 10 9 / 5 6 6 6 8 5 7 8 8 6 3 4 6 10 4 5 3 8 6 10 5 6 / 8 2 6 8 4 9 3 / / / / 10 10 / / 9 9 6 5 7 7 9 7 7 4 10 7 6 9 4 4 6 7 / 8 7 5 / 5 10 9 7 9 7 / / 9 5 / 4 4 7 / 9,5 2 4 8 / 4 4 5 4 7 5 / 7 6 / / 4 6 10 8 8 4 7 / 7 Average S1L1-S2L2 S2L2-S3L3 S3L3-S4L4 8,00 More Less More 5,50 Less Less More 5,25 Equal Less More 5,75 Less Less Less 6,50 More Less More 4,50 More Less More 6,50 Less More More 5,25 Less More Equal 6,13 Less More Equal 8,83 Less More More 8,75 Equal Equal Less 2,50 Equal More Less 6,50 Less Less More 7,50 Less More Equal 3,75 More More Less 5,25 More Less More 4,63 More Less Less 6,33 More Less More 9,33 More Equal More 6,00 More Less More 5,67 Equal More More 10,00 Equal Equal Equal 7,50 Less More More 9,33 More Equal More 5,33 Less More More 6,25 Less More More 9,25 More Less Equal 8,00 Equal Less Equal 6,75 Less Less Equal 6,50 Less Equal More 8,00 Less Less Equal 9,50 Equal Less Equal 7,75 Less More Less 8,00 Equal Less Equal 6,38 Less Less Equal 8,00 Equal More Equal 5,50 Less Less More 5,00 Less Equal More 7,00 Less More More 6,75 Less More Less 6,25 Less Less Less 7,50 Equal Equal Less 7,25 Less More Less 7,50 Less More Equal 4,50 Less Equal More 8,00 More Less Less 6,75 Less Less Equal 1,00 Less More Equal 6,33 Less More Less 9,33 Less More Equal 8,75 Less More Equal 4,75 Equal Equal More 7,75 Less More Equal 7,00 More Less More 9,33 Less Equal More 9,00 Equal Less More 7,00 Less More More 5,67 Less Less More 9,00 Less More Equal 5,75 Less More Less 5,50 Less More Less 9,25 Equal Equal Less 9,50 Less More Equal 9,25 Less More More 3,00 More Less Less 5,25 Equal Less Less 9,50 Equal Equal Less 10,00 Equal More Equal 6,00 Equal Less Equal 6,50 Less Less Equal 6,75 Equal Less Less 6,50 Less Less Less 8,25 Less More Less 8,00 Less More Less 4,00 Equal More Equal 4,50 Less More More 7,75 Less Less Equal 3,67 Less More More 4,00 Less More More 6,75 Less More Less 6,00 Less More More 8,75 Less Less More 9,00 Equal Less Equal 6,25 Less More Equal 6,25 Less Less Less 5,00 Equal Less More 3,67 More Equal More 6,25 Less More More � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2828 Title A name given to the resource Students’ Communicative Competence and Language Program Evaluation Author Author Kareva, Veronika Abstract A summary of the resource. There is no dilemma at present times that language learning means learning how to use the language and not learning to know about the language. Exactly for this purpose, in today’s global world characterized by massification and mobility in the field of education, the Council of Europe - Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), as a universal instrument allowing individuals to have a record of the different elements of their language learning achievement, begins its treatment of language use through the context of communication.Language programs at different institutions organize their work in the way that learners use the general competencies they bring with them, but also develop them further. Nonetheless, successful completion of university language courses does not always mean that the student has mastered the language and can use it for communication. This mostly refers to the cases where the language courses are treated as part of the curricula while the other instruction is in the L1. The fact that students at such institutions are not required to take any standardized English proficiency test put the effectiveness of the complete language program under a question mark. In order to provide evidence that its quality language provisionresulted in improved communicative competencefor students, the Language Center (LC) of the South East European University (SEEU) in Tetovo, Macedonia, introduced final oral examination as a part of the course grading criteria. The aim of this paper is to determine whether the introduction of the oral examination as a part of the final achievement exam hashelped raise student’s awareness of the need to improve their communication skills and thus attain better performance. Participants of the study are 114 students from eight sections, two per level, starting from beginner to upper intermediate, whose final scores will be followed in the last three exam sessions. In addition, individual students will be chosen and their progress followed during three academic terms in order to show the development of their communication skills. The results are expected to be used as an indicator for program evaluation by the University management and external evaluation. Keywords: communicative competence, children, English language Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-02 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/573343de93bd5e5816a8ad7fbc1fe74d.pdf ac1f797cc8362f28da9a773fce71feb7 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The relationship between english learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy of the first-year studentsat Naresuan University Nattaporn Luangpipat & Watana Padgate Naresuan University, Thailand Submitted: 07.04.2014. Accepted: 04.11.2014. Abstract This study aims to explore the relationship between English learning achievement and students’ perceived self-efficacy, and the possible factors of the students’ perceived self-efficacy. Some 370 first-year students at Naresuan University were randomly selected to fill in the questionnaires while grades representing students’ learning achievement were collected from the instructors.The collected data was analyzed by Pearson’s Correlation and Multiple Linear Regression. The result of the study showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between English learning achievement and students’ perceived self-efficacy. The factor related to students’ perceived self-efficacy was mainly from vicarious experience, which was somewhat contradictory to the findings ofearlier studies (Bandura, 1986; Kiran&Sungur, 2012; Lent, Brown et al., 1996; Luzzoet al., 1999; Pajares, Johnson &Usher, 2007) Hopefully, the result of this studycan be utilized to improve student performance in English learning through a better understanding selfefficacy and its related factors. Keywords: Self-efficacy, English learning, Learning achievement Introduction Thailand, as a non-native English-speaking country, has recognized the importance of English by means of introducing the English language in primary, secondary, vocational and tertiary institutions for several decades (Anyadubalu, 2010).However, according to an English Proficiency Index (EFI) survey in 2011 by Education First, a leading international education company, Thai students’ English proficiency is in a ‘very low’ group, ranked 42 out of 44 non-native English-speaking countries (Prasertsuk, 2012). Moreover, English is still the least favorite subject among Thai students (Kaewmala, 2012). According to Kaewmala (2012), most Thai students feel 207 �The relationship between english learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy of the first-year studentsat Naresuan University about an English class the same way they feel about a dentist appointment;consequently, it is not so easyfor them to do well at what they are afraid of. A bigger problem than their fear of English is their belief that they are poor English learners. Students are always hammered as ‘not good enough’ learners (Jabbarifar, 2011); therefore, they tend to believe it is difficult for them to succeed in learning English. Self-efficacy refers to individuals’ beliefs about their ability to accomplish a specific task (Maddux 1995 cited in Weaver, 2008). According to Bandura’s work on learning theory in the early 1960’s, self-efficacy has been denoted as a person’s beliefs concerning his or her completion of a task and his or her perceived competency level in performing the task (Bandura, 1986) – or, as simply concluded by Jabbarifar (2011), as a matter ofthe learners’ believing “I can” or “I can’t”. Although many studies (Jabbarifar, 2011; Mahyuddin, et al, 2006; Tilfarlioglu&Cinkara, 2009) have explored students’ self-efficacy in areas such as math, science, and sports, one domain has been surprisingly neglected is language learning (Hsieh, 2004). Since language learning has different characteristics from other types of learning, students’ self-efficacy in learning a language may vary from other areas and may work differently in influencing their achievement (Gardner, 1982). Moreover, this topic hasrarely been researched in Thailand, especially at the university level. In order to make a difference in students who learn English, a positive self-efficacy in learning a language, particularly English, should be fostered (Fukami, 2002). Also, the experience of failure or success should be adjusted as a factor to raise students’ self-efficacy instead of decreasing it. Thus, the relationship between English learning achievement and self-efficacy among the first-year students at Naresuan University should be investigated. Furthermore, the factors that go into creating the students’ self-efficacy should be studied in order to assist students in generating the ‘can do’ belief and mitigate the ‘can’t do’ belief. The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship between English learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy among the first-year students at Naresuan University, and to investigate the factors related to the students’ perceived self-efficacyin an attempt to answer the following questions: 1. 2. 208 Is there any relationship between English learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy among the first-year students at Naresuan University? What are the factors related to the students’ perceived self-efficacy? �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Literature Review Self-Efficacy Theory Bandura (1977) formally defined self-efficacy as a person’s belief about their ability to organize and execute courses of action necessary to achieve a goal. However, selfefficacy was considered a differentiated set of self-beliefs specific to different areas of functioning, e.g. social self-efficacy or academic self-efficacy, since no person can feel competent at all tasks (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 1995cited in Weaver, 2008). The concept of self-efficacy as domain- or task-specific has been proven to be a better predictor of actual behavior than a general self-efficacy concept (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Multon, et al., 1991;Lent, Brown, et al., 1996). Sources of Self-efficacy According to Bandura (1997), there are four major sources affecting self-efficacy: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological states. Mastery experience refers to the past experience of success and/or failure (Bandura 1986). Successes raise efficacy appraisals; repeated failures lower them(Bandura, 1997). Vicarious experiencehappens when people make judgments about their own capabilities by watching other people perform certain tasks, or simply say, ‘if they could do it, I could do it as well’ (Wikipedia, 2012). Social persuasion generally manifests as direct encouragement or discouragement from another person. Discouragement is generally more effective at decreasing a person's self-efficacy than encouragement is at increasing it (Wikipedia, 2012). Physiological statesare closely linked to arousal of the nervous system with various states (Wikipedia, 2012). Research Methodology Population and sample The population of the study comprised all first-year students who enrolled in theFundamental English course (00112), a compulsory subject for first-year students. 209 �The relationship between english learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy of the first-year studentsat Naresuan University These students, estimated at 3,890,were registered as students at Naresuan University in the 2013academic year. 370of the first-year students, estimated based on Taro Yamane (1976), were selected as thesample for the research to prevent the students’ self-efficacy from being influenced by other English-language courses in higher years of study. Research Instruments The students’ self-efficacy was measured by means of a questionnaire. The questionnaire includedquestions aboutthe students’ general information, their selfefficacy with respect to English language learning, and factors related to their selfefficacy. The students’ grades, as an indicator of the students’ English learning achievement, were collectedfrom their instructors in the Fundamental English course. Data Collection The sample group was asked to fill in the questionnaire before their Fundamental English mid-term examination in order to minimize the examination’s influenceon the students’physiological or physiological states. Then, the data from the questionnaire was analyzed. Data Analysis A quantitative design was chosen to analyze the data. The Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation was used to explore the relationship between English language achievement and students’ perceived self-efficacy. Multiple Linear Regression was used to describe the possible factor of the students’ self-efficacy. Resultand discussion Discussion One Research Question 1aimed to investigate whether there was any relationship between English learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy among the first-year students at Naresuan University. The result revealed apositive relationship between English language achievement and the students’ perceived self-efficacy, even though the degree of the relationship was rather low (r = .39). The result of the study was similar to that ofChemers et al., (2001), Mahyuddin, et al. (2006), Multon et al. (1991), andTilfarlioglu&Cinkara(2009). 210 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Chemers et al. (2001) identified self-efficacy as a significant predictor of academic performance (r = .34) while Mahyuddin, et al. (2006) found the significant positive correlations between several dimensions of self-efficacy and academic achievement in English language learning (r = 0.48). While Multon et al. (1991) showed a somewhat low relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance (r = .38), the study of Tilfarlioglu&Cinkara (2009) illustrated that the EFL students’ selfefficacy levelsand their EFL success measured by end-of-the-year GPA also yielded a significant correlation,but the degree of the relationship was fairly low (r= .37). It was noticed that the participants and research material of those studieswere similar to those used in this study. The participants were mostly the first-year undergraduate students from diverse majors and different English proficiency backgrounds. Furthermore, the questionnaire was used as the research instrument in those studies. The possible reasons for the rather low relationship between the students’ perceived self-efficacy and their English language-learning achievement could bethe research instruments,achievement evaluation, and students’ learning condition. The questionnaire might not bean adequate means ofassessing the students’ selfefficacy because self-efficacy is quite an individual construction. Also, grading was a considerable factor in different results, since the English Foundation Course comprised many aspects in evaluating the students’ learning achievement. The grade the students acquired might have been contaminated by other factors such as class participation, extra activities or a group project. Moreover, the participants were firstyear students; they might have been afraid or felt uncomfortable with the university educational system, which was new to them. As a result, they reported their selfefficacyas quite low, while the grades they received seem pretty positive compared to their perceptions. Discussion Two The purpose of the research question two was to examine the factors related to the students’ perceived self-efficacy. Vicarious experience seemed to be the only factor that had a statistically significant relationship with the students’ self-efficacy. The other factors, which were mastery experience (ME), social persuasion (S), and physiological states (PS), showed no statistical relationship with self-efficacy. This result contradicted the findings ofmany studies (Bandura, 1986; Kiran&Sungur, 2012; Lent, Brown et al., 1996; Luzzoet al., 1999; Pajares, Johnson & Usher, 2007) that identified mastery experience as the most powerful source. Bandura’s study (1986) suggested mastery experience the most powerful source of one’s self-efficacy since it involved students’ interpretation of their own past 211 �The relationship between english learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy of the first-year studentsat Naresuan University performance. Kiran&Sungur(2012) also implied that middleschool students’ selfefficacy was strongly informed by their mastery experiences. Lent, Brown et al. (1996) indicated that mastery experience was listed as the most influential source of self-efficacy, while Luzzo et al. (1999) reported that mastery experience significantly contributed to improvements in self-efficacy. Pajares, Johnson, &Usher (2007) also stated that mastery experience accounted for the greatest alteration in self-efficacy. However, the study’s results were supported by many other studies (Bentz, 2010; Pajares, 2002; Steven, et al., 2006; Usher &Pajares, 2006). Bentz (2010) demonstrated that although students’questionnaire responses appeared to favor mastery experience, when they were asked personally about their early experiences learning to speak Englishduring interviews, the dominant factor they mentioned was vicarious experience. They indicated that their learning occurred mostly during the time they spentwith friends and siblings. Friends, siblings, and similar-age cousins were identified as the primary drivers for building capacity in oral English acquisition; they also provided feedback and judgments about the subjects’ performance.Pajares (2002) stated that the effects of vicarious experience can powerfully influence a student’s self-efficacy beliefs whileStevens et al. (2006) reported that vicarious experience was a significant predictor of self-efficacy beliefs.Usher &Pajares (2006) also illustrated that vicarious experience was a significant predictor of self-efficacy. It can be assumed that the reason vicarious experience (VE) became the most significant factorrelated to the students’ self-efficacywas that the students considered their peers to be a reliable source. Since a group has power over its members(Newcomb, 1962), the data collection in classrooms, where the students shared similar experiences and sat in groups, might explain this result. Bandura (1997) and Pajares (2002) emphasized that vicarious experience could be the most influential factor when students havelimited experiences or are uncertain about their ability to accomplish a task. Given thatthe students in this study were between 17 and 19 years old, it is possible to assume that they had limited experience. Consequently, they might need a role model to evaluate themselves, and their peers were likely to be the most influential people. Implications and recommendations Implications for teaching and learning The motivation for this study partially stems from a desire to improve student performance in English language learning by better understanding self-efficacy. 212 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Hopefully, the results of this study canbe widely beneficial in English-language education as well as other subjects. Jabbarifar’s study (2011)stated that positive self-efficacy was one of the major contributors to second-language success. Therefore, creating positive learning conditionscould helpdevelop constructive self-efficacy. Morris (2004) suggested thatteachersprovide more opportunities for students to receive encouraging mastery experience in learning. Morris (2004) also recommended that helpful vicarious learning, such as pair work or small-group work, should be introduced in class. Kiran&Sungur (2012) suggestedthat teachers provide students a scaffold so they could learn with their peers. Group work among students with diverse levels of English-language achievementshouldalso be introduced in the classroom, since the influence of other students can impact students’ perceptionsof themselves (Emmett, Hall, & McKenna, 2013). Recommendations for further studies This current study tried to explore the relationship between learning achievement and the students’ perceived self-efficacy, as well as the factors that make upself-efficacy. However, the results from quantitative research might not be sufficientto ensurenew sources of self-efficacy for students.Qualitative researchsuch as in-depth interviews or observations should be added, so that the factors behind student self-efficacy can be verified more accurately. Moreover, a longitudinal study should be conducted to see how an individual’sself-efficacy is constructed and how it changes over time. In addition, the factors related to student self-efficacy should be investigatedextensively in other demographic contexts in order to obtain a specific understanding of student self-efficacy and to provide greateropportunity to foster positive self-efficacy among students. References Anyadubalu, C. C. (2010). 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Innovative Higher Education, 28 (3). Newcomb, T.M. (1962). Student Peer-Group Influence. In Sanford, Nevitt (Ed), the American College: A Psychological and Social Interpretation of the Higher Learning, 469-488.Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc. Retrieved March 18, 2014, from http://psycnet.apa.org/index.cfm?fa=buy.optionToBuy&uid=2006-10217013 Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self Efficacy.Retrieved February 15, 2014, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html. Pajares, F., Johnson, M. J., & Usher, E. L. (2007).Sources of writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary, middle, and high school students.Research in the Teaching of English, 42, 104–120.Retrieved June 20, 2013, from http://sites.education.uky.edu/motivation/ files/2013/08/PajaresJohnsonUsherRTE2007.pdf. Prasertsuk, K. (2012). ASEAN insight: English skills and ASEAN. Bangkokbiznews. 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Sources of Academic and Self-Regulatory Efficacy Beliefs of Entering Middle School Students.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 31, 125-141. Wang, C. (2004). Self- regulated learning strategies and self-efficacy beliefs of children learning English as a second language. Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University. Retrieved June 20, 2013, from https://etd.ohiolink.edu/ap/0?0:APPLICATION_PROCESS%3DDOWNLO AD_ETD_SUB_DOC_ACCNUM:::F1501_ID:osu1091546670%2Cinline. Weaver, J. (2008). Effect on Self-efficacy on Motivation and Achievement among fifth grade Science students. Science Direct. Retrieved May 16, 2013, from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042811027467. Wikipedia. (2012). Self-efficacy. Retrieved http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-efficacy. 216 May 15, 2012 from � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2821 Title A name given to the resource The relationship between English learning achievement and perceived self-efficacy of the first-year students at Naresuan University Author Author Luangpipat, Nattaporn Padgate, Watana Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to explore the relationship between English learning achievement and students’ perceived self-efficacy, and the possible factors of the students’ perceived self-efficacy. Some 370 first-year students at Naresuan University were randomly selected to fill in the questionnaires while grades representing students’ learning achievement were collected from the instructors.The collected data was analyzed by Pearson’s Correlation and Multiple Linear Regression. The result of the study showed that there was a statistically significant relationship between English learning achievement and students’ perceived self-efficacy. The factor related to students’ perceived self-efficacy was mainly from vicarious experience, which was somewhat contradictory to the findings ofearlier studies (Bandura, 1986; Kiran&Sungur, 2012; Lent, Brown et al., 1996; Luzzoet al., 1999; Pajares, Johnson &Usher, 2007) Hopefully, the result of this studycan be utilized to improve student performance in English learning through a better understanding self-efficacy and its related factors. Keywords: Self-efficacy, English learning, Learning achievement Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-07 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4b9c795aedf808febfd3aa47fbbe07c4.pdf e09477b38fa29aac527451e113c9b7d3 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Fatma Aksoy Anadolu University, Turkey Submitted: 09.04.2014. Accepted: 01.11.2014. Abstract The present study was designed to investigate if there is a significant difference among SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners, and if there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom. A total of 46 preparatory school students, studying at Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages, participated in this study. The participants were required to provide Turkish equivalents of the 15 new words presented in semantic, thematic or totally unrelated sets that they were encouraged to learn through word cards. The data gathered from 37 of these participants were analyzed. The results of the delayed tests revealed that semantically related sets (SR) significantly differed from unrelated and thematic sets, and helped the participants learn and recall more words, while the results of the immediate tests did not yield to a statistically significant difference. Keywords: Vocabulary presentation, semantic clustering, lexical sets, thematic clustering. Introduction “Without grammar very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” David Arthur Wilkins, 1972 As the quotation above lays bare, vocabulary is vitally important for the generation and maintenance of communication, which is the preliminary purpose of learning a language. If we regard communication, either oral or written, as a wall that we put up with the advent of every kind of new knowledge related to language, without a shadow of a doubt, words constitute the bricks of this wall. Despite this importance, 69 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) however, vocabulary has only recently gained recognition. As Decarrico points out (2001): Vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the language is first, second or foreign. Although vocabulary has not always been recognized as a priority in language teaching, interest in its role in second language learning has grown rapidly in recent years, and specialists now emphasize the need for a systematic and principled approach to vocabulary by both the teacher and the learner. (p.285) Perceiving vocabulary differently from time to time may be attributed to the historical development process of language learning and teaching in general. Although vocabulary teaching was notably important when Grammar Translation Method and Reading Approach were the leading languageteaching methodologies (the early decades of the 20th century), the emergence of Audio-lingual Method had a devastating effect on vocabulary teaching and research, with the argument that too much vocabulary learning would distract learners from the main purpose of language learning, which was, at that time, basic habit formation of phonological and grammar patterns. 1980s and after, however, have seen a resurgence of interest in vocabulary instruction (Seal, 1990). Now, after having been of secondary importance for a period of time, vocabulary instruction is coming into prominence with “the teachers and researchers waking up to the realization that vocabulary is an important area worthy of effort and investigation” (Seal, 1990:309). Besides the significance of vocabulary instruction, yet another reality of the issue that we need to embrace is that learning vocabulary poses a great challenge for EFL learners due to the amount of the words that a learner needs to know and the complexity of learning process. As Schmidt(2000)alsospecifies,languages include enormous numbers of words, “something that was probably already obvious from the thickness of your dictionary.” (p.6) It is certainly not possible to learn all of these words and “the learning process is not an all-or-nothing process in which a word is suddenly and completely available for use.” (Schmidt, 2000:6)However, regarding that the significance of vocabulary has been recognized, only recently though, language teachers as well as authors and researchers in the field are faced with how learners can best learn as many vocabulary items as possible. In an effort to seek answers to this question, studies on such current issues as implicit learning versus explicit learning, presenting vocabulary in context versus in isolation, monolingual dictionaries versus bilingual dictionaries, etc. have emerged. Of these current issues, an equally controversial one is presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets versus thematic sets, which is the argument that this paper endeavors to tackle. 70 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics As will be mentioned later, not many studies have been recorded on this controversial issue in Turkish context, which was the starting point of the present study. In addition to the scarcity of related studies in Turkey, especially in preparatory classes, the importance of how vocabulary is presented as well as what is presented and how it is taught, on which a good number of studies have already been carried out, played a crucial role on the emergence of this study. As for the significance of this study, it is expected to reveal beneficial results for learners, teachers and textbook writers with regard to the way of vocabulary presentation that can pave the way for the most effective vocabulary learning. Below each side of this argument, namely semantic clustering and thematic clustering of vocabulary, is discussed referring to related empirical studies. Review of Literature Semantic Clustering Semantic clustering of vocabulary simply means presenting words that share the same semantic and syntactic features, generally grouped under a headword (e.g. flower names or clothing items). (Mirjalili, Jabbari, Rezai, 2012)To be more precise, they share the same semantic features, which means that they have similar meanings. As for what is meant by “they share the same syntactic features,” itindicates that they conform to the rules of syntax, a branch of linguistics that is interested in the way in which words are put together in sentences.To give an example, dish-bowl-plate and shirt-jacket-sweater are semantic clusters, with the headwords being kitchen utensils and clothing items respectively. (Tinkham, 1997) They have similar meanings (share semantic features) and they all belong to the same part of speech (share syntactic features).Below semantic clustering is discussed referring to both supporters and opponents considering that there is dichotomy in the research area regarding its use in vocabulary teaching. As AlShaikhi(2011) indicates, despite many a textbook writer who presents new vocabulary in semantic sets without empirical basis, Seal(1990) explainsthe reasons why he prefers such presentation in his book American Vocabulary Builder 1: Semantic clustering makesmore sense in terms of vocabulary structure and progress and enables learners to guess the meanings of the unknown words as they are presented with other words that share similar characteristics. Other writers who provide justification for semantic clustering include Neuner (1992) and Dunbar (1992). Neuner maintains that learners need less effort to learn words in semantic sets and it is easier to retrieve the words learned in such a way from memory. Similarly, Dunbar puts forward that semantic sets provide learners with an opportunity to see how information is organized and stored in the brain and also enables learners to notice how the words are similar or different. 71 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) All in all, employing semantic sets in vocabulary teaching and thus textbooks dates back to the advent of notional/functional syllabuses, developed by Wilkins (1976). As Nunan (2001) states: “Notions are general conceptual meanings such as time, cause and duration, while functions are the communicative purposes that are achieved through language such as apologizing, advising and expressing preferences (p.61).” Considering that notions and/or functions are placed at the center of syllabus design, it seems inevitably easier to present new vocabulary in semantic sets. Other authors and researchers, on the other hand, hold the very opinion that semantic clustering hinders vocabulary learning as words sharing similar syntactic and semantic features interfere with each other (Higa, 1963; Laufer, 1986; Nation, 2001). Nation (2002) provides language teachers with some guidelinesregarding deliberate vocabulary learning through the use of word cards, which also includes a warning to avoid interference as follows: “Make sure that words of similar meaning or of related meaning are not together in the same pack of cards. This means days of the week should not be all learned at the same time. The same applies to months of the year, numbers, opposites, words with similar meanings, and words belonging to the same category, such as items of clothing, names of fruit, parts of the body and thingsin the kitchen. These items interfere with each other and make learning much more difficult.” (p.42) So as to base the opposing ideas to semantic clustering on scientific grounds, it is worth mentioning Interference Theory, developed by McGeoch (1992), which claims that two learning materials interfere with one another and consequently learning is impaired. As Baddeley (1990) indicates,“as similarity increases between targeted information and other information learnt either before or after the targeted information, the difficulty of learning and remembering the targeted information also increases” (Papathanasiou, 2009: 318). Concordantly, it seems unequivocally illogical to present word items sharing similar syntactic and semantic characteristics together. In a similar vein, Distinctiveness Hypothesis by Hunt and Mitchell (1982) also links ease of learning to distinctiveness, in other words non-similarity, of the information to be learned. In the light of these two sound supports against semantic clustering, we can move on to adiscussion of the third method of vocabulary presentation mentioned in this study. 72 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Thematic Clustering Thematic clustering is grouping words that share the same thematic concept although they may not share the same syntactic features (Mirjalil, Jabbari, Rezai, 2012). To illustrate, as explained above, what is meant by “sharing the same syntactic features” is thatwords may not be used in a sentence in the same way; in other words, they may not belong to the same part of speech. Another characteristic of thematic clustering is that the words presented in thematic sets are cognitively associated. To give an example, beach, sunny and swim are thematic clusters(Tinkham, 1997), and although they share the same thematic concept, they all come from different parts of speech, noun, adjective and verb respectively. Of the key principles of teaching vocabulary, such as presenting new vocabulary in rich contexts to provide learners with clues and multiple exposures to target vocabulary, one principle suggests “exercises and activities include learning words in word association lists” (Decarrico, 2001:288).Such cognitive associations of words are useful on the grounds that they reflect the relationships in the mind (Decarrico, 2001).Similarly,Haycraft (1987) holds the view that words related to a general theme should be offered together. For example, teaching such words as brake, crash, door, engine, seat, speed, passenger, park (the words that means of transportation have in common) is likely to come in more useful than teaching only all the means of transportation such as cars, trains, aeroplanes, etc. at a time. The logic behind this is that once the learners acquire the underlying vocabulary items, “the teacher can make the application wider and more useful, and can revise the vocabulary later in different situations” (p.46). The scientific basis of thematic clustering can be attributed to Barlett’s Schema Theory, whose foundations he laid in 1932(cited in AlShaikhi, 2011). Schema Theory simply maintains that knowledge is organized into units and stored accordingly. That is to say, just like in the mother tongue acquisition, a learner of a second or foreign language forms a schema with the advent of a new word and company of thematically related words expands this schema and thus the vocabulary knowledge of the learner. In this sense, Schema Theory can be said to closely relate to Haycraft and Deccario’s viewpoint mentioned above. Having reviewed the concepts of semantic clustering, along with arguments for and against, and thematic clustering,along with their scientific bases, it is well worth peeking over the empirical investigations into the issue. 73 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Related Research Studies As a result of having placed much importance on teaching and learning vocabulary in recent years, a good number of studies have been conducted to gain insights into, in semantic and lexical terms, which way of presenting new vocabulary proves to be a more useful tool. (Tinkham, 1997, Waring, 1997; Finkbeiner and Nicol, 2003; Hashemi and Gowdasiaei, 2005; Erten and Tekin, 2008; Papathanasiou, 2009; Hoshino, 2010; Bolger and Zapata, 2011; Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai, 2012) It is worth mentioning that these studies have come up with different findings, although many of them are in favor of making use of either semantically unrelated sets or thematically related sets in vocabulary teaching. To begin with,Tinkham(1997)explored the effects of semantic and thematic clustering on L2 vocabulary learning, and concluded that the latter facilitates vocabulary learning, whereas the former hinders it. He carried out two separate experimentsin which he compared the effect of semantically related artificial words with that of unrelated artificial words and thematically related artificial words respectively. To reinforce the findings that semantically related sets are superior to semantically unrelated sets, but inferior to thematically related sets in terms of learning and recall of vocabulary, subject perceptions of relative difficulty of the aforementioned vocabulary sets were also recorded on a short questionnaire. Waring(1997) carried out a close replication of Tinkham’s, in which he paired Japanese words with artificial ones. This replication study also brought the facilitative effect of thematic related and unrelated sets over semantically related sets to the light, supporting the findings from the original study. Additionally, Waring, in his study, administered a trials-to-criterion test to find out which of the two sets in each experiment (1. Semantically related sets versus semantically unrelated sets, 2. Semantically related sets versus thematically related sets) was learned completely before the other one. Similarly, Finkbeinerand Nicol (2003) conducted a study, in which the participants learned 32 new words in either a related or unrelated way, and were asked to translate these words at test. The researchers found that the participants translated the words learned in semantic sets more slowly and their translation performance was reported to be lower in proportion to the unrelated sets. A similar study from Turkish context, by Erten and Tekin(2008), indicated that presenting words in semantically unrelated sets proved to be a more useful tool than presenting vocabulary in semantically related sets. The researchers also confirmed 74 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics that, with help of delayed post-test, the positive effect of the unrelated sets persisted in the long term. It was also established that the participants completed the test for semantically related vocabulary at a longer time then they did at the test for unrelated vocabulary, which demonstrates that it takes more time and is relatively more difficult to recall the words learned in semantically related sets. Papathanasiou’s(2009) action research, in which the Greek EFL learners learned and were tested on six related word lists (either sense relation such as synonyms, antonyms and homonyms, or topic relation) and six word lists that did not have any relationship at all, investigated which of the aforementionedmethods was more useful. The findings suggested that presentation of unrelated vocabulary facilitated vocabulary learning among adult learners at beginner level. A recent study whose findings are compatible with the previous ones listed here isBolger and Zapata’s (2011) extension of Finkbeiner and Nicol’sresearch, in which they presented 32 artificial words in either semantically related or unrelated sets, embedding them in story context. Apart from making use of context, what makes this study differ from previous ones is that it included three phases, in the third of which a stimulus template was introduced to make stimulus match verification with eyetracking possible. The researchers concluded that semantic relatedness inhibited vocabulary learning or delayed it. However, it was also noted that use of context moderated the negative effects of semantic clustering. The latest of the related studies mentioned above was conducted by Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai (2012), whoexamined the effects of semantic, thematic and unrelated clustering of vocabulary for different proficiency levels, namely elementary, preintermediate and intermediate, under two instructional approaches of isolation and context. The results demonstrated that semantically related words were recalledleast frequently, and the participants recalled more words when they were exposed to thematically related sets. Another finding of the study was that the participants performed better when the words were presented in isolation rather than in context. As a result, the findings of this study are also in line with Interference Theory, Distinctiveness Hypothesis and Schema Theory. Despite the abundance of research in favor of presenting new vocabulary in semantically unrelated sets, there are few studies with findings in the opposite direction. Hashemi and Gowdasiaei(2005)managed a study to assess the effectiveness of lexical sets and semantically unrelated vocabulary instruction on 60 EFL learners from Iran. In contrast to the findings mentioned above, lexical sets proved to be more useful for upper- and lower-level students, with the upper-level students making more progress. 75 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Accordingly, AlShaikhi (2011) obtained results against thematic clustering in his thesis study for his Master of Arts degree. Although he hypothesized that the most effective way would be thematic clustering among semantically related, semantically unrelated and thematically related vocabulary lists, the results revealed that semantically related and unrelated sets are better to gain new vocabulary with no statistically significant difference, whereas thematically related setsare the least effective. The final research study to mention is by Hoshino (2010), who investigated which of the five types of word lists –namely, synonyms, antonyms, categorical, thematic and arbitrary (unrelated)–contributed to maximum learning of new vocabulary in a classroom setting. According to the results, neither semantically related (synonyms and antonyms) nor thematic lists, but categorical lists proved to be the most effective. As an example of a 10-item vocabulary list and test offered by the researcher indicates, “categorical list” meansa list that contains two words from five different semantic categories; to exemplify, moth-wasp, asthma-diabetes, calf-chick. In a nutshell, clashing points of view and research findings confront us with a controversy. Despite this controversy, most textbooks keep presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets with no empirical justification. Along with this being a controversial situation and the prevailing presentation of new vocabulary in a semantically related way, scarcity of related research studies in the Turkish context addressing preparatory school learners also paved the way for the present study to be conducted with the intention of seeingwhether presenting vocabulary in semantically related, semantically unrelated and thematically related sets yields to statistically significant difference as the previous studies suggest. Therefore, the present study sought answers to the following research questions: 1. Is there a significant difference between SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners? 2. If there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom? Methodology Participants Forty-six Turkish EFL students studying at the preparatory school of AnadoluUniversity participated in the present study. According to Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR), the participants were at B2 level. However, Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages prefers to split 76 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics B1 and B2 levels into two as B1.1 - B1.2 and B2.1 - B2.2, aiming to elaborate the learning outcomes for each level and better equipthe learners with these outcomes. In light of this fact, the participants of the current study fall into B2.1 level, which is assumed to correspond to intermediate level. It is worth mentioning that they were two repeat-classes (not mainstream); that is to say, it was the second time the participants were studying at the mentioned level. It is equally necessary to note that most of the participants had been studying at this school for four semesters, indicating that they also repeated some of the previous modules (A, B1.1, B1.2, B2.1). The participants’ language-proficiencylevel was determined by the proficiency exam of the schoolthat they sat after a placement test at the beginning of the fall term (2013). Each module takes eight weeks on average, at the end of which learners sit an end-of-module test. Those who get 60 and above are entitled to pass to the next level, whereas those who obtain less than 60 are required to repeat the same module. This study was carried out at the beginning of the spring term (2013), namely at the third module of the year. Since the experiment was conducted only one week after the end-of-module exam of the previous module, and the participants sat the very same exam, they were assumed to be at the same level. Materials and Instruments Three word lists, (semantically related (SR), semantically unrelated (SU) and thematically related (TR)), each containing fifteen words, were utilized during the implementation of the present study. Benefiting from a number of similar studies (AlShaikhi, 2011; Papathanasiou, 2009; Erten&Tekin, 2008) thefollowing criteria were determined to decide on the words to be used in each list:  The words must be unfamiliar to the participants  The words must not contain cognates.  Borrowed words should be abstained from.  Words with idiomatic meaning should be avoided.  Concrete words should be chosen as much as possible. (The logic behind this is the ease of teaching and testing rather than the cognitive development of the participants.)  The words on semantically related list should belong to the same part of speech. As mentioned before, it is not possible to control the parts of speech of thematic clusters. Unrelated sets could have contained the words that belong to the same part of speech; however, in this study, different parts of speech were chosen. With the aforementioned criteria having been considered, three word lists were formed. The words on SR list were taken from a 77 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) website(http://www.enchantedlearning.com/wordlist/landforms.shtml),with the headword landforms. The 15 words were all nouns and the mean of letters was 5.86. The words on the TR list, including five verbs, four nouns and five adjectives, were taken from another website (http://www.majortests.com/word-lists/word-list11.html), with the mean of letters being 5.73. Nine words out of 15 on the TR list were taken from AlShaikhi’s (2011) master’s thesis, in which the thematic set of words concerned ahospital theme, whereas the other six words were added by the researcher herself. This list included six verbs, five nouns and four adjectives, with the mean of letters being 7.4. In order to ensure that the participants were unfamiliar with every one of the words, a pilot study was conducted with 10 students sharing similar characteristics with the participants. The attendants of the pilot study were provided with the word lists, and asked to tick the words they know or have seen before. Another material used was the small word cards with which the participants were provided to write the English words on one side and the Turkish equivalents on the other in orderto learn and practice the target words. The reason why word cards were preferred over word lists was to preventlist-effect(Nakata, 2008).The word lists were also used as the testing material, with the words having been reshuffled to avoid the risk that the participant may have recalled the meanings of the words to be learned thanks to visual memory if they had been tested in the same order. Finally, a short questionnaire of four open-ended questions were employed in which the participants were asked about their perception of the difficulty of learning the words on each list and the immediate tests subsequent to each teaching session. The open-ended questions were taken from Tinkham’s (1997) experimental study and included which set the participants found the most difficult, why they thought it was difficult, which set they found to be the easiest and why they thought it was easy. It is worth mentioning that the Turkish translations of the questions were addressed to the participants, and they were asked to respond in Turkish as well. The reason why the native language was preferred although the participants would have been able to comprehend and answer the questions in English was to enable them to express themselves better. (See Appendix for the instruments) Data Collection Once it was confirmed that the participants were unlikely to know or recognize the words to be used, the data-collection procedure was started. The study was conducted with two classes, each containing 23 students, during normal 45-minute class hours, and was completed within two weeks. The first week was allocated for learning the new words and immediate tests, and a delayed test was administered in the following week. Subsequent to the delayed tests, the participants were requested to answer four 78 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics open-ended questions, adapted from Thinkham (1997). The purpose was to gain insights into students’ perception of the difficulty of the different types of clustering. Each intact class was offered each word list with the same order (SR-SU-TR) on the same day in two different class hours. Word sets were presented every other day, namely Monday (SR), Wednesday (SU) and Friday (TR). Since, based on the pilot study, the participants were assumed not to know or have seen the target words before, no pre-test was administered prior to the presentation. Therefore, each lesson had three main steps, presentation, practice and immediate test respectively. The same procedure was followed for each word set. Ten minutes were allocated for the presentation phase, in which the participants saw a list of the 15 words with their parts of speech projected on the thin client. The teacher first read aloud the words so as to familiarize the students with the form of the target words and then provided the Turkish translations. The participants were asked to write the new English words on one side of the small cards provided by the teacher and the Turkish translations on the other. The purpose was to enable the participants to learn the new vocabulary at a receptive level only; that is, they were merely expected to learn and recall the meaning of the words. The second step of each lesson was the practice, for which twenty minutes were allocated. The participants were encouraged to learn the words with help of repetition. While they were practicing the words by turning the cards over and over, the teacher walked around the class to provide help if necessary. After the students went through the cards as many times as they needed (they were encouraged to do it at least five to six times), the teacher asked them to orally provide Turkish equivalents of the words she uttered. Once the time allocated for the practice was over, the word cards were collected and immediate test sheets were distributed. It is worth mentioning that the test paper was the same as the list provided at the very beginning of the lesson, with a different order of the words and, needless to say, without the Turkish equivalents. The participants were required to write the Turkish translations of the target words at their own pace. The words were presented in isolation because the purpose of the assessment here was to see if the participants could recall the words they had just learned and find out which way of vocabulary presentation (SR, SR, TR) better facilitated learning and recollection. Depth of processing, a theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972) (cited in Brown &Perry, 1991)that suggests“retention is dependent on the level at which information is processed” (p.657), had to be disregarded; translation was preferred because it was quick and practical. 79 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Data Analysis and Results In both the immediate and the delayed tests, the participants were required to provide the Turkish translations of the 15 words given, and each correct translation was considered as one point, making the total score in every list 15. It is worth mentioning that the data provided by the participants who did not sit any of the six tests (three immediate and three delayed) were excluded. The remaining data gathered from the tests (of the 37 participants who sat all the tests) were computed through IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics along with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA test were run. One-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was used because the data were collected from the same participants at different time periods (Larson-Hall, 2010). Additionally, content analysis was used to analyze the participants’ answers to the questions regarding the difficulty of the word sets. The findings of these tests as well as the participants’ answers to the questionnaire are expressed below. Quantitative Results The participants’ scores on the immediate tests for each clustering were quite close to each other. The mean scores for SR, SU and TR were M=14.35, M=14.46 and M=14.62 respectively. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the immediate test results for each clustering. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Immediate Test Results Group SR SU TR Number of Participants 37 37 37 Mean Scores 14.35 14.46 14.62 of Standard Deviation 1.418 1.426 .861 Minimum Score 9 7 12 Maximum Score 15 15 15 Although the mean scores for each clustering were slightly different from one another, a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA (RM ANOVA) was run to see if this is statistically the case. Regarding the immediate test scores, the one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed a non-significant difference amongthe three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2.72)=.480, p>.001. The delayed test results, on the other hand, differed from one another to a larger extentcompared to the immediate test results. It was revealed that the participants performed better on the SR test (M= 11.05), while their performance wasreported to be considerably similar concerning SU and TR sets, with the mean scores being 80 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics M=8.16 and M=8.08 respectively. Table 3 displays the descriptive statistics of the delayed test results for each clustering. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Delayed Test Results Group SR SU TR Number of Participants 37 37 37 Mean Scores 11.05 8.16 8.08 of Standard Deviation 3.636 4.622 3.244 Minimum Score 2 1 2 Maximum Score 15 15 14 As the descriptive statistics indicate, there seemed to be an important difference between SR clustering and the other two types of clustering. To be able to ensure this difference and if it is statistically significant, a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was run on the data gathered from the delayed tests. The one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference among the three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2,72)=13.118, p<.001. To see which types of sets caused this difference, a follow-up independent samples t-test was conducted. Table 3. Paired Samples Statistics Std.Error Mean Pair 1: SR SU Pair 2: SR TR Pair 3: SU TR Mean 11.05 8.16 11.05 8.08 8.16 8.08 N 37 37 37 37 37 37 Std. Deviation 3.636 4.622 3.636 3.244 4.622 3.244 .598 .760 .598 .733 .760 .533 The independent samples t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between SR (M=11.05, SD=3.636) and SU (M=8.16, SD=4.622),t(36)=4.535, p<.001. Another statistically significant difference was reported between SR (M=11.05, SD=3.636) and TR (M=8.08, SD=3.244),t(36)=4.857, p<.001. However, no significant difference was found between SU (M=8.16, SD=4.622) and TR (M=8.08, SD=3.244), t(36)=.111,p>.05. Table 4 below displays the results of the paired sample t-test in more detail. 81 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Table 4. Paired Samples Test Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 95%Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig. (2tailed) Pair SR SU 1 2.892 3.879 .638 1.559 4.185 4.535 36 .000 2.973 3.723 .612 1.732 4.214 4.857 36 .000 Pair SR TR 2 .081 4.431 .728 -1.396 1.558 .111 36 .912 Pair 3SU TR Qualitative Results Once the six sessions (three teaching sessions followed by immediate tests – three delayed tests) were completed within two weeks, each participant was asked the following questions: 1. Which set did you find to be the most difficult? 2. Why do you think it was difficult? 3. Which set did you find to be the easiest? 4. Why do you think it was easy? Thirty-seven participants answered the questions.Table 5 displays the data gathered regarding questions 1 and 3. As the results indicate, the participants reported to find the semantically unrelated set the most difficult (n: 24 - %64.86), whereas semantic clustering seemed to be the easiest to the participants (n:20 - %54.05). The qualitative results related to the easiest set are congruent with the quantitative results, namely the test scores of the participants. However, a great number of the participants said they found the semantically unrelated set the most difficult, even thoughit was the thematic set in which they performed the worst. 82 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 5. The Participants’ Perception of the Difficulty of the Word Sets The most difficult The easiest Word Sets Number * Percentage Number * SR 6 %16.21 20 SU 24 %64.86 2 TR 7 %18.91 15 37 %100 37 Total *Number refers to the number of the participants. Percentage %54.05 %5.4 %40.54 %100 Regarding questions 2 and 4, inquiring as to the reasons why the participants found a particular type of clustering easiest or most difficult, inductive content analysis was used since “the data moves from the specific to the general, and particular instances are observed and then combined into a general whole” (Elo, &Kyngas, 2007). As stated above, the participants reported to have found the SU set the most difficult. Regarding the reasons, most of the participants agreed on that no relationship among the words in terms of meaning as well as different parts of speech made learning and recalling process difficult. Some of the participants noted that SU set was easy to learn but difficult to retrieve from the memory. Still some other participants stated that they had great difficulty associating the words with one another, thus could not remember a good number of them. In reply to question 4, most of the participants conveyed to have found the SR set the easiest. Most of the participants stated that they found the SR set to be the easiest because they came from the same part of speech and were similar in terms of meaning. According to the participants, it was easy to learn and recall these words because they were semantically related to each other. Some participants also reported that this set was easier since it enabled them to visualize the words better. Other participants claimed that the words in this set were shorter and easier to pronounce, thus making these words easier to learn and retrieve from the memory. A few participants noted that this set was easier because it was the first to be presented. Lastly, one participant expressed that theSR set was the easiest because s/he was interested in geography (all the words on SR set were related to landforms). Below the findings of the present study are discussed with reference to related studies. Discussion This study was conducted to find out if three different approaches topresenting new vocabulary (Semantically Related, Semantically Unrelated, Thematically Related) differ significantly when it comes to learning and recalling vocabulary; and if so, 83 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) which set causes this significance.To achievemore reliable and valid results, quantitative data were reinforced with qualitative data, gathered from the participants’ responses to a four-item questionnaire about their perception of the relative difficulty of the word sets. The descriptive statistics of the immediate tests showed that no big difference came into discussion concerning the different types of clustering. With relatively slight differences, the participants performed the best in thematic set test (M=14.62), followed by semantically unrelated set test (M=14.46) and semantically related set test (14. 35). That this difference was not statistically significant was also confirmed with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA test, F(2.72)=.480, p>.001. The descriptive statistics of the delayed tests, however, revealed that the difference was not slight. To ensure this, another one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was run and a significant difference was found among the three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2,72)=13.118, p<.001. This barelymeans that the way in which new vocabulary is presented has a significant effect on learning and recalling this vocabulary. To explore which word set/s gave way to this significance, a paired samples t-test was conducted for further analysis. For the instruction of paired samples t-test, the word sets were paired and the results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between SR (M= 11.05) and SU (M=8.16). This means that the participants performed significantly better in theSR delayed test in proportion to theSU test, indicating that presenting new words with sharedsemantic and syntactic features is much more advantageous than organizing and presenting new vocabulary in an unrelated way in terms of semantics and syntax. Another significant difference was found between SR (M=11.05) and TR (M=8.08), accordingly signifying the advantage of semantic sets over thematic sets. The participants confirmed this finding by clearly reporting to have found the semantically related sets as the easiest and the semantically unrelated set the most difficult. At this point, it is worth mentioning that although the participants performed the worst in thematic set test, they said they found TR slightly less difficult than SR and much more easier than SU, indicating that the quantitative data are not congruent with the qualitative data concerning TR set. Why this is the case can be explained by the effect of the order in which the words sets were presented in this study. TheTR test was the last to be presented, and accordingly, the delayed TR test was conducted in the sixth (the penultimate) session. The participants must have been bored towards the end. Another interfering effect, as observed by the researcher, may be the different parts of speech that the words belonged to. Even 84 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics though the words in SU test also belonged to different parts of speech, and the part of speech that each word belonged to was written next to that word in the tests, the participants had difficulty in retrieving that right word in the thematic word set. They may not have interfered with the parts of speech in SU test because the words were totally different from one another, whereas in TR test similar words along with different parts of speech may have raised difficulties on the participants’ side. These findings do not support many of the previous related studies that found thatsemantically related word sets hinder learning and recalling, whereas words organized and presented regardless of any semantic and syntactic relationship at all and thematic sets facilitate both learning and recalling (Tinkham, 1997, Waring, 1997; Finkbeinerand Nicol, 2003; Erten and Tekin, 2008; Papathanasiou, 2009; Bolger and Zapata, 2011; Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai, 2012) On the other hand, the aforementioned findings of the present study were congruent with Hashemi and Gowdasiaei(2005) and AlShaikhi (2011), whose findings also indicated that lexical or semantic sets proved to be more useful in terms of learning and recalling new vocabulary. Finally, no significant difference was found between SU (M=8.16) and TR (M=8.08), claiming that presenting new vocabulary in either unrelated sets or thematic sets do not yield much difference. In qualitative terms, it was revealed that SR clustering proved to be a more useful tool in learning new vocabulary, whereas SU clustering was regarded as the most difficultapproach with respect to learning and recalling new vocabulary.This finding is in line with the quantitative data. However, regarding TR clustering, the two types of data contradict each other. Almost 40% of the participants (n: 15) reported to have found TR clustering the easiest; however, this type of clustering also produced the lowest scores in the delayed test. At this point, it is necessary to look into the reasons why the participants reported thusly. The participants claimed that the TR set was easy because the wordscentered ona specific theme (hospital scene). In addition, the participants also stated that it was easy to visualize these words; these words are associated with a single event, and are likely to be encountered in real-life situations.On the other hand, participants’ perception of this set’s difficulty (n: 7)was reportedlybecause the words in this set were relatively longer and the participants lacked motivation towards the end. Other reasons included some participants’ lack of interest in hospital-related words and the fact that this set was presented last.As a consequence, the reason why the participants were not able to perform onthe TR test as well as they did on the SR test may be attributed to the limitations of the study to be explained below. 85 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Limitations and Further Research The present study has some limitations and missing points that can be considered for further research. Some of these limitations and missing points are related to the participants, while some others stem from factors such as time concern and practicality. Regarding the participants, first of all, the sample size could have been bigger, which would have made itpossible to reach more generalizable results. Another factor that could have affected the results of the study is the participants’ lack of motivation. Considering the fact that the study was conducted during the last module of the semester, it has to be accepted that the participants were tired and not eager to do a single thing that would not be covered in either the mid-module or endof-module exams. In addition, the study was completed within a total of seven sessions, which may have bored the participants. In this regard, one suggestion for further researchisto better motivate the participants is to form the word lists from their textbooks or other teaching materials, if possible. As for the other factors mentioned above, first, the order of the word lists could have influenced the results. In the current study, the participants were first provided with the semantically related set, followed by the semantically unrelated and thematic sets respectively. It would have yielded to more reliable results if each group had taken each word list as the first, the second and the third. In that case, each group would take nine word lists as well as nine immediate and delayed tests, although thiswould be a rather long and impractical process. Second, the participants were encouraged to learn the target vocabulary via repetition only. Both teaching and testing were based on recognition rather than production, which led to ignoring depth of processing, as mentioned above. The logic behind this was to enable the participants learn the target vocabulary within the shortest time possible. As for testing, a definition recall test was determined as the assessment and evaluation instrument so as to offer more objective and standard results. One drawback, which is rooted in the way the participants learned the target vocabulary and were tested, was that the learners with good memory skills had an advantageover the learners with relatively poorer memory skills. However, the present study came up with some basic insights as to which way of presenting new vocabulary is more efficient in proportion to the others concerning Turkish EFL preparatory school learners. Finally, in order to obtain a particular pattern of results, the present study was conducted only on intermediate level students, which is regarded as a threshold according to Common European Framework References. Testing various level students and including language proficiency level as a variable can lead to insights into the results and their interpretation on a wider scale. 86 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Given the aforementioned limitations and missing points, further research with a bigger sample size, including participants from different levels of language proficiency is required either to substantiate the present results or give way to contradictory ones. So as to come up with more accurate findings, the prospective effect of the order in which the different types of clustering are presented should be reconsidered. Additionally, the advantage of good memory skills can be eliminated by incorporating different learning styles rather than resorting to repetition only. Conclusion The primary purpose of this particular study was to find out which way of organizing and presenting new vocabulary, namely semantically related sets, semantically unrelated sets and thematic sets, help EFL learners learn and recall the most words. For this purpose, the participants’ scores from three definition-recall tests, each organized and presented in semantically related (SR), semantically unrelated SU) and thematic sets (TR) respectively, were compared with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA, in terms of immediate and delayed tests. The results of this present study revealed that the participants learned and recalled the most words when they were presented in semantic sets. Semantically unrelated and thematic sets, on the other hand, resulted in students learning and recalling fewer words.The findings obtainedthrough statistical analysis were also supported by the participants, who reported to have found the semantically unrelated set the easiest. Similarly, in response to the question about the most difficult word set, the semantically related set was rated the lowest. The participants also cited the semantically unrelated set as the most difficult in terms of learning and recalling, whereas the qualitative results showed that the participants performed the worst in thematic set test, although the mean scores of the thematic set test and semantically unrelated set test were quite close to each other. As the aforementioned findings of the current study suggest, it can be concluded that the Turkish EFL preparatory school learners best learn and recall new vocabulary when it is organized and presented in semantic sets, which means a group of words that share the same semantic and syntactic features. Semantically unrelated sets – groups of words that share neither semantic nor syntactic features – seem to pose the greatest difficulty for Turkish EFL preparatory school learners, as both the test scores and the comments of the participants of this particular study indicate. Although the participants reported that the thematic set wasclose to the semantically related set in terms of both ease and difficulty, the delayed test scores showed that the thematic set was on the negative side, just like the semantically unrelated set. Following the results of the present study, some implications concerning the way new vocabulary is organized and presented in a Turkish EFL context can be made. First, the findings of this particular study do not support presenting new vocabulary in either unrelated sets 87 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) or thematic sets. Although further research is requiredto verify the findings of the present study, organizing and presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets can be recommended. In summary, how vocabulary is organized and presented is of crucial importance as it may facilitate or obstruct the learning and recalling process. In this sense, the current study may provide some contributions to EFL teachers, learners and even textbook writers; and it supports presenting and testing new vocabulary in semantic sets. However, the present study is not free from drawbacks, necessitating further research to validate the findings. APPENDICES A- WORD LISTS Semantically Related Set (SR) Landforms 1. Atoll (n) : Mercanada 2. Bight (n) : Koy 3. Brook (n) : Dere 4. Dune (n) : Kumtepesi 5. Estuary (n) : Haliç 6. Gully (n) : Küçükvadi 7. Meander (n) : Menderes 8. Pond (n) : Gölet 9. Scarp (n) : Yamaç 10. Tributary (n) : Akarsu 11. Escarpment (n) : Kayalık 12. Mound (n) : Höyük, tepecik 13. Ravine (n) :Hendek 14. Inlet (n) : Körfez 15. Prairie (n) : Çayır *All nouns *Mean of letters:5.86 Semantically Unrelated Set (SU) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 88 Boor (n) : Çokkabainsan Abate (v) : Azaltmak Nugatory (adj.) : Değersiz Blunder (n) : Gaf, pot Abjure (v) : (Hakkından) Vazgeçmek; Feragatetmek �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Glib (adj.) : Üstünkörü Whittle (v) : Yontmak Repine (v) : Şikayetetmek Feint (n) : Sahtesaldırı Caret (n) : Düzeltmeişareti Runic (adj.) : Gizemli Probity (n) : Dürüstlük Supine (adj.) : Uyuşuk Augury (n) : Falcılık Coerce (v) : Zorlamak *Five verbs *Five adjectives *Four nouns *Mean of letters:5.73 Thematic Set (TR) Hospital Scene 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Alleviate (v) Drip (v) Sanitize (v) Suture (n) Convalescence (n) Incise (v) Debilitated (adj.) Wail (v) Deteriorate (v) Lazaret (n) Matron (n) Infirm (adj.) Robust (adj.) Vaccinated (adj.) Balm (n) : (Ağrıyı) Hafifletmek : Damlatmak : Temizlemek : Dikiş : İyileşme : Kesmek : Zayıflamış : Bağırmak, inlemek : (Durmu) Kötüleşmek : Karantinayeri : Başhemşire : Halsiz : Güçlüvesağlıklı : Aşılanmış : Merhem *Six verbs *Five nouns *Four adjectives *Mean of letters: 89 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) B- TESTS Start Time: Finish Time:  Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Brook (n) Scarp (n) Inlet (n) Bight (n) Meander (n) Prairie (n) Atoll (n) Gully (n) Ravine (n) Mound (n) Dune (n) Pond (n) Estuary (n) Escarpment (n) Tributary (n)  Start Time: Finish Time: Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Probity (n) : Augury (n) : Runic (adj.) : Supine (adj.) Feint (n) Boor (n) Blunder (n) : Nugatory (adj.) Coerce (v) Abate (v) Repine (v) Glib (adj.) Caret (n) Whittle (v) : Abjure (v) 90 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics  Start Time: Finish Time: Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Lazaret (n) Incise (v) Matron (n) Deteriorate (v) Alleviate (v) Debilitated (adj.) Drip (v) Infirm (adj.) Balm (n) Sanitize (v) Vaccinated (adj.) Suture (n) Wail (v) Robust (adj.) Convalescence (n) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : C- QUESTIONNAIRE  Please answer the following questions. 1. Which set did you find to be the most difficult? 1 2 3 2. Why do you think it was difficult? 3. Which set did you find to be the easiest? 1 2 3 4. Why do you think it was easy? 91 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) References AlShaikhi, A. Z. (2011). The Effects of Semantic and ThematicCategorization of Vocabulary on Arabic-speaking EFL Learners. Unpublished Master’s Thesis for Master’s Degree, Colorado State University, Colorado, United Sates of America. Baddeley, A. (1990). Human Memory. United Kingdom: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bolger, P. & ZapWZSata, G. (2011). Semantic Categories and Context in L2 Vocabulary Learning. Language Learning, 61 (2), 614-646. Brown, H., D. ( 2007).Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.New York, NY: Pearson Education, Inc. Brown, T. S. & Perry, F. L. (1991). A Comparison of Three Learning Strategies for ESL Vocabularu Acquisition. Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc (TESOL). 25 (4), 665-670. Decarrico, J. S. (2001). Vocabulary Learning and Teaching. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed. ) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (3rd Edition, pp. 285299). Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Dunbar, S. (1992). Developing Vocabulary by Integrating Language and Context. TESL Canada Journal. 9 (2), 73-93. Elo, S., &Kyngas, H. (2007).The qualitative content analysis process.Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62 (1), 107-115. Enchanted Learning. Retrieved May, 2013, http://www.enchantedlearning.com/wordlist/landforms.shtml from: Erten, H. &Tekin, M. (2008). Effects on vocabulary acquisition of presenting new words in semantic sets versus semantically unrelated sets. System. 36, 407422 Finkbeiner, M. &Nicol, J. (2003). Semantic category effects in second language word learning. Applied Psycholinguistics. 24, 369-383. 92 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Harmer, J. (1983).The Practice of English Language Teaching. United States of America: Longman Group Ltd. Hashemi, M. R. &Gowdasiaei, F. (2005). An Attribute-Treatment Interaction Study: Lexical-Set versus Semantically-Unrelated Vocabulary Instruction.RELC Journal. 36 (3), 341-361. Haycraft, J. (1978). An Introduction to English Language Teaching. Singapore: Longman Group Ltd. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Higa, M. (1963). Interference effects of intralist word relationship in verbal learning. Journal of Verbal Behavior. 2 (2), 170-175. Hoshino, Y. (2010). The Categorical Facilitation Effects on L2 Vocabulary Learning in a Classroom Setting. RELC Journal. 41 (3), 301-312. Hunt, R. R. & Mitchell, D. B. (1982). Independent effects of semantic and nonsemantic distinctiveness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition. 8 (1), 81-87 Larsen-Hall, J. (2010). A Guide to Doing Statistics in Second Language Research Using SPSS.Newyork: Routledge. Laufer, B. (1986). Possible changes in attitude towards vocabulary acquisition research. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 24 (1), 69-75. Majortests. Retrieved May, 2013, from: http://www.majortests.com/word-lists/wordlist-11.html Mirjalili, F., Jabbari, A. K. &Rezai, M. J. (2012). The Effect of Semantic and Thematic Clustering of Words on Iranians Vocabulary Learning.American International Journal of Contemporary Research. 2 (2), 214-222 Nakata, T.(2008). English vocabulary learning with word lists, word cards and computers: implications from cognitive psychology research for optimal spaced learning. ReCALL. 20 (1), 3-20 Nation, P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. 93 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Nation, P., &Maera, P. (2002). Vocabulary. Schmitt, N. (Ed.)An Introduction to Applied Linguistics.(pp. 35-54) United States of America: Oxford University Press. Neuner, G. (1992). The role of experience in a content-and-comprehension oriented approach to learning a foreign language. Arnold, P. J. &Bejoint, H. (Eds.) Vocabulary and Applied Lingusitics. United Kingdom: MacMillan. Nunan, D. (2001). Syllabus Design. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed. )Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (pp. 55-65). Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Papathanasiou, E. (2009). An investigation of two ways of presenting vocabulary. ELT Journal. 63 (4), 313-321. Schmidt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. United States of America: Cambrdige University Press. Seal, B. D. (1990).American Vocabulary Builder 1. United States of America, Longman. Seal, B. D. (1991). Vocabulary Learning and Teaching. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed. ) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (2nd Edition, pp. 296311). Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Thornbury, S. (2011).How to Teach Vocabulary. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited. Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. Second Language Research. 13 (2), 138163. Waring, R. (1997). The Negative Effects of Learning Words in Semantic Sets: A Replication. System. 25 (2), 261-274. Wilkins, D. A. (1976).Notional Syllabuses: a taxonomy and its relevance to foreign language curriculum development. Oxford: Oxford University Press 94 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2809 Title A name given to the resource A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Author Author Aksoy, Fatma Abstract A summary of the resource. The present study was designed to investigate if there is a significant difference among SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners, and if there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom. A total of 46 preparatory school students, studying at Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages, participated in this study. The participants were required to provide Turkish equivalents of the 15 new words presented in semantic, thematic or totally unrelated sets that they were encouraged to learn through word cards. The data gathered from 37 of these participants were analyzed. The results of the delayed tests revealed that semantically related sets (SR) significantly differed from unrelated and thematic sets, and helped the participants learn and recall more words, while the results of the immediate tests did not yield to a statistically significant difference. Keywords: Vocabulary presentation, semantic clustering, lexical sets, thematic clustering. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,PA Classical philology,PE English,PK Indo-Iranian,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cfdcc670557d2222f62881f13840cc3e.pdf 0c3458eca2a8edc30160be4f05dea904 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The Interconnection and Interrelation Features of Words and Their Importance in Compiling Second Language Dictionaries Azamat Akbarov International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Hadicha Muhiddinova Uzbekistan State World Languages University Tashkent, Uzbekistan Submitted: 09.04.2014. Accepted: 17.11.2014. Abstract In the process of teaching language the most important task is to know the peculiarities of interconnection of words. And one of the effective factors of learning and teaching Uzbek as a second language is to conduct specific research on interconnection and interrelation features of words and to compose special dictionaries of the Uzbek language for Russian-speaking students. Meanwhile, the issue of interconnection and interrelation peculiarities of words has been investigated not only by many linguists but by some psychologists as well.One of those prominent psychological scientists is N.I.Jinkinn. According to him, the integration of speech units is divided into two phases. He also relates “the grammar field” with the second phase of speech-unitintegration. Furthermore, he points out that in the first phase of this process, words and word forms are spread out in the “speech field”. In the second phase a speaker selects the necessary words for the primary explanation of the idea,which is followed by the correct grammar form, and then collocates with a suitable word [1,45]. For instance, according to N.I.Jinkinn,a noun, an adjective and an adverb do not usually collocate with other words. They are called as lexics, which are spread in the “vocabulary field” but divided into characteristic groups. Keywords: Uzbek interconnection language, dictionaries, interrelation, second language, Introduction It is necessary to know the interconnection of a particular word with other words. The acquisition of the speaking process in a second language develops in uneasy way comparing to the oral process in target language, because the students are not familiar with the word-association systems of a foreign language. Moreover, critical 27 �The Interconnection and Interrelation Features of Words and Their Importance in Compiling Second Language Dictionaries thinking should be developed about the words in context. For instance, in the Uzbek language conjunctions, auxiliaries and word-forming affixes are mainly used to link words. However, these grammatical means are not enough to identify the features of interconnection of words. So, it’s proved that in addition to word-forming affixes, conjunctions and auxiliaries, there are other grammatical means that serve to connect two words. Thus, this kind of phenomenon should be taken into consideration while learning and teaching the language and developing the process of speech [2,53-55]. It is also important to explain the connection of a noun and a verb as key words and identify their correct and incorrect interrelation meanings. It should be noted that many handbooks by A.Pulatov, I.Muminova, I.Pulatov[4] and “Modern Uzbek language,” and especially the research on enriching the speech of studentsby verbal phrases in non-philological faculties by M.Karakhujaeva[3,23],are very useful. Yet this represents a drop in the ocean, and classifying Uzbek words into key words, dividing them according to interconnection features and several other issues have to be resolved in the future. G.Ahmedovahas done research on integrating and developing Russian-speaking students’practice and experience. Her study shows that achieving effective results in improving Russian speaking students’ skills concerning formed words depends on successful consolidation of word-forming affixes and lexico-semantic relation systems. The research also clarifies that one of the unresolved problems in composing dictionaries is that each meaning of a word is taught individually. Here, several meanings of words are not combined around one concept. As a result, they are only learned and even soon forgotten by students [5,79]. In recent years our Uzbek linguists have done some studies on the systems and interconnection of words. While M.Korakhujaeva is doing her research on linguistic principles of economic terms, she informs about the interrelation systems in Uzbek linguistics is studied as a language units and how to use the character of the language units basing them on system characteristics. She also introduces the extent to which lexemeshelp improve learners’ speech fluency. The study also declares that it impossible to improve speaking skills without learning the ways of logical and semantical interrelation. M.Korakhujaeva’s study deals with word interconnections, their logical relations, the relation of economic terms with verbs and their relationship within semantic-syntactic models [6,33]. However, it is investigated that the words different characteristics and features in a speaking process is a whole dynamic process, while as the usage of oral lexics features are seen in process. Thus, concrete language events are analyzed, connecting them to the ways of communicative situations. This analysis is useful in learning 28 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Uzbek as a second language. Russian language-methodology and foreign-language scientists link semantic principles with lexics and grammar forms in texts. For example, T.P.Skorikova exemplifies A.A.Leontev’s ideas and agrees with him: “To share two facts methodically in functional-semantic theory: it is focused on locating one semantic language form and analyzing oral speech psycholinguistically” [7,8687]. One of the main functions of a good teacher is to pay attention to lexic forms’ relations with semantics, logical interconnection and differentiation features in a foreign-language context. For instance,the phrase секингапирмоқ (to speak slowly) in the Uzbek language has many meanings in context. 1) to whisper; 2) to speak at a low speed. In order to differentiate this situation, one should pay attention to the low pronunciation features of the word “секин”, when it is spoken about the word in the meaning of “speed” in the word “секин”, it is pronounced [i:].When it is talked about in the meaning of low voice the word “секин”is pronounced [i]. Such cases of homophony can cause a number of difficulties in the process of language learning. In the language spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, homographs are numerous. Bosnian, a language stemming from the Slavic family, bearing close ties to the neighboring Croatian and Serbian languages, has a notoriously difficult system of homographic, but not homophonic, words. Thus, words such as pas (belt) and pas (dog) are differentiated via the length of the central vowel, [a:] and [ʌ] respectively. Similarly, the vowel length determines the meaning in duga /du:gʌ/ (rainbow) and duga /dugʌ/ (long), luk /luk/ (onion) and luk /lu:k/ (bow), kupiti /ku:piti/ (buy) and kupiti /kupɪti/(pick up, collect). Additionally, functional lexemes such as the auxiliary form of to be in Bosnian is a homograph with the word for solitude; thus sam /sʌm/ (to be, present tense, nom.) and sam /sa:m/ (alone) can be differentiated only through the slight tonal change. Finally, the numerous cases remnant in Bosnian create homographs through case change. For example, the word unuka /unʊkʌ/(granddaughter) is in the nominative case. The word unuka /unuka:/ is the plural genitive form of the word grandchildren[12]. These kinds of differences of oral forms are seen in use context.It is very important to differentiate functionalsemantic, phonetic, lexical, morphological and syntactic features in teaching oral speech. From this point of view, it is one of the problems at the center of attention of lexicographers in the relation of systematic words. The linguist L.M. Plehanova emphasizes that when composing dictionaries we have to pay attention to the lexical feature of an idea. From this point of view, integration lexicography dictionaries should be compiled as follows:1. An explanation of words.2. The usage of words. 3. The origin of words. 4. Synonyms. 5. Antonyms. 6. 29 �The Interconnection and Interrelation Features of Words and Their Importance in Compiling Second Language Dictionaries Homonyms. 7. Association. 8. Lexical-syntactic connections (with nouns, adjectives, verbs). 9. Predicative centers. 10. Phrases. 11. Illustrations [8,11-12] These kinds of dictionaries havea great practical importance. In the future, serious attention should be given to compiling Uzbek dictionaries and to make special studies on teaching words and their interrelation, one stem words and how to show their connection, their images in a mother tongue, their all parts and associations and their active lexics help to activate passive words. As a first experiment it was used for beginner classes as Uzbek-Russian picture dictionary [9]. In the dictionary, some words are given as descriptive expressions, as themes, and sometimes they are placed next to the dictionary articles. For example, the word ўсимликлар, a big group name, was sub-grouped into by дарахтлар, майсалар, гуллар, полиз экинлари. Dividing to the groups of thing-object nouns, from general to specific helps students to learn the words better and use them their ownways. In some pictures it was associated to show all parts of a thing-object. For instance, while giving the word дарахт (tree) it’s necessary to present the other tree parts as: илдизи, танаси, пўсти, шох, барг, гул, новда, мева, because pupils imagine the tree with all its parts and know how to name each part of a tree in their mother tongue. In that position, we should say that naming component parts and logical-semantic relationship of a thing-objectnoun in mother tongue and learning language should be differentiated. We can see this in examples from the Uzbek and Russian languages. For instance, in Uzbek, the tree’s upper part is called пўстлоқ (bark) but a melon’s and watermelon’s upper part called пўчоқ (peeling). In the Russian language it is called корочка. The inner seeds of melons are called as қовуннинг уруғи, while in a watermelon they are called тарвузнинг дони. In other words, the words can differ from the semantic relationship and interconnection. In the Russian language, both of them are translated as косточка. So, the name of thing-object picture it’s good idea to give them as dividing into component parts and show all their names separately. Moreover, different exercises focused on synonym and homonym formations and antonym-formed wordscan help learners to differentiate words and grammatical ways of meanings. These types of exercises, according to linguist M.A.Jurabayeva, should be accepted in addressing the following issues: - the special difficulties of word forming; 30 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics - from the simple to complex didactic principles; written and oral exercises that serve for constructive structure; learning process and self-study of students [10,13]. Certainly, in learning a language, one should be aware of the word-formation possibilities. Learning and teaching the possibilities of word formation suffixes place a great practical role for enhancing vocabulary and developing exercises. Nowadays, this is the most important issue for compiling successful and useful Uzbek dictionaries for use in mastering a second language. Moreover, it’s pleasant to know that the Uzbek language is not only becoming known and taught in Uzbekistan, but all over the world. References Жинкин И.Н. Речь как проводник информации. – М.: Наука, 1982. – С. 45. Султонова О. Ўзбек тили дарсларида ўкувчилар нуткини ўстириш. // Тил ва адабиёт таълимида янги педагогик технологиялар, 2-қисм. – Т.: 2006. 53-55-б. Қорахўжаева М. Феълларни ўқитиш асосида нофилологик гуруҳлар талабаларининг касбий нутқини шакллантириш методикаси: АКД. – Т.: 2002. - 23-б. Пўлатов А., Мўминова Т., Пўлатова И. Дунёвий ўзбек тили. – Т.: ЎзМУ, 2003. Абдураҳмонова М., Аббосова Г.. Нутқ ўстириш бўйича қўлланма (Ўзбекистон Республикаси Президенти асарлари бўйича). –Т.: 1998. Ахмедова Г.М.. Ўзбек тили дарсларида ўкувчилар нуткини ясама сўзлар билан бойитишнинг методик асослари (таълим рус тилида олиб бориладиган мактаблар мисолида): Пед. фан. ... номз. дисс. – Т.: 2003. - 79-б. Қорахўжаева М. Феълларни ўқитиш асосида нофилологик гуруҳлар талабаларининг касбий нутқини шакллантириш методикаси: Пед.фан....номз.дисс. –Т.: 2002. - 3-б. СкориковаТ.П.. Теория функционально-семантического поля и проблема соотношения системности – функциональности – коммуникативности // Языковая системность при коммуникативном обучении.– М.: Русский язык, 1988. – С. 86-87. Плеханова Л.М. Лингво стилистические особенности семантико31 �The Interconnection and Interrelation Features of Words and Their Importance in Compiling Second Language Dictionaries функциональный характер лексем, выражающих гуманистические ценности: АКД. – Т.: 1998. – С. 11-12. Ҳожиев А., МуҳиддиноваХ..С. Ўзбекча-русча ва русча-ўзбекча расмли луғат (таълим рус тилида олиб бориладиган мактабларнинг бошланғич синфлари учун). – Т.: Ўқитувчи, 2007. Джурабаева М.А. Аффиксальная синонимия в узбекском языке: АКД,. – Т.: 1975. – С. 13. Халиловић, С. Правопис Босанског Језика. Културно Друштво Препород, 1996. 32 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2804 Title A name given to the resource The Interconnection and Interrelation Features of Words and Their Importance in Compiling Second Language Dictionaries Author Author Akbarov, Azamat Muhiddinova, Hadicha Abstract A summary of the resource. In the process of teaching language the most important task is to know the peculiarities of interconnection of words. And one of the effective factors of learning and teaching Uzbek as a second language is to conduct specific research on interconnection and interrelation features of words and to compose special dictionaries of the Uzbek language for Russian-speaking students. Meanwhile, the issue of interconnection and interrelation peculiarities of words has been investigated not only by many linguists but by some psychologists as well.One of those prominent psychological scientists is N.I.Jinkinn. According to him, the integration of speech units is divided into two phases. He also relates “the grammar field” with the second phase of speech-unitintegration. Furthermore, he points out that in the first phase of this process, words and word forms are spread out in the “speech field”. In the second phase a speaker selects the necessary words for the primary explanation of the idea,which is followed by the correct grammar form, and then collocates with a suitable word [1,45]. For instance, according to N.I.Jinkinn,a noun, an adjective and an adverb do not usually collocate with other words. They are called as lexics, which are spread in the “vocabulary field” but divided into characteristic groups. Keywords: Uzbek language, dictionaries, interrelation, second language, interconnection Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ac4104b48187d842150d5c9acacc8459.pdf e3537b50b7b199436656aa18b8f4d1db PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki sa somatskom Indira Smajlović-Šabić Marijana Nikolić University of Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 18.11.2014. Sažetak: Rad će se baviti iznalaženjem odgovora dvama pitanjima: dinamikom mogućeg udjela metaforiziranih stihova sevdalinke sa somatskom sastavnicom srce, u kognitivnoj perspektivi, s jedne strane, i pojavnošću odgovarajućih konceptualnih modela, s druge strane. Kognitivna lingvistika u ovom smislu obuhvata teoriju pojmovne metafore kao sredstava da se konceptualizuje svijet, ali i uže specifično, kao sredstvo perspektivizacije i usmjeravanja pažnje s dvojakim ciljem: da se naglase željeni stavovi, pogledi i mišljenja i da se odagnaju nebitni i nepoželjni aspekti ostalih pojava. Na taj način sevdalinka konceptualizuje svijet oko sebe, svijet primarno bošnjačko-muslimanski, sa mnogim socijalnim netrpeljivostima koje u ovoj perspektivi bivaju odagnane, jer ne umire se od njih već od sevdaha. Ključne riječi: sevdalinka, sevdisanje, kognitivna lingvistika, konceptualna metafora i metonimija, domene izvora i cilja Abstract The purpose of the study will be to explore the following questions: the dynamics of the possible contribution of metaphorical lyrics in sevdalinka song with the heart as a somatic component, in a cognitive perspective, on the one hand, and the occurrence of corresponding conceptual models, on the other hand. In this sense, cognitive linguistics covers the theory of conceptual metaphor as means of conceptualizing the world, but also in the narrow sense specifically, as means of perspectivisation and directing the attention with a twofold purpose: to emphasize the desirable attitudes, views and opinions, and to dispel unimportant and undesirable aspects of other phenomena. In this manner, sevdalinka conceptualizes the world around it, primarily a Bosniak-Muslim world, with many social animosities being dispelled in this perspective because one dies, in figurative sense, because of sevdah and not because of them. 105 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki Keywords: sevdalinka, sevdah, cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor and metonymy, domains of source and purpose Metafore su u prošlosti bivale vezane uglavnom s književnošću, i pri tome su imale samo ukrasnu i retoričku funkciju. Posmatrane su kao jezičke neobičnosti, ali savremena metaforička lingvistička zanimanja prave iskorak iz nevedene interpretacije. Kognitivna lingvistička teorija počinje u kasnim sedamdesetim godinama s publikacijamaMetaphor and thought Ortonya (1979), i Metaphors we live by Lakoffa i Johnsona (1980), a njihovu su teoriju podržali i naučnici Cameron i Low (1999), Cameron (2003), koji također na metaforu gladaju kao na kognitivni koncept. Prema Cameron, metafora je fenomen ljudskog misaonog procesa. Shvatanje kako se metafora koristi može pomoći boljem razumijevanju načina kako ljudi misle, kako bi se lakše razumio svijet ili kako bi ljudi jedni druge lakše razumijeli i olakšali komuniciranje (Cameron, 2003:2). Prema Lakoffu i Johnsonu suština metafore je shvatanje i doživljavanje neke stvar u odnosu na drugu (1980:5). Metafore su dio svakodnevnog jezika i misli (Lakoff, 1980: XI), jer obični ljudi koriste metafore nesvjesno, automatski, čak ne primjećujući ih. Lakoff i Turner (1989: XI) navode da je metafora toliko obična i učestala da se čak nesvjesno i automatski koristi, s tako malo truda da ju je lakše producirati nego prepoznati u govoru. Metafora je u osnovi kognitivni proces, koji zahtijeva obrazloženje za tumačenje. S tim u vezi, metafora je iznad jezika jer uključuje energiju, trud i kreativnost za svoje tumačenje. Korpus na koji će se primjeniti teorija konceptualne metafore i metonimije obuhvata bosanskohercegovačke sevdalinke koje su se od XVI stoljeća, u vremenu naglašenih imagoloških tendencija, vjerskih, kulturnih i običajnih, uspijele samodefinirati u pitomom obrascu odašiljača ljubavnih stihova, pri tome u službi pomirenja starih i novih prilika, stvaranja izvijesnog vida homogenizacije, izmiješanog etnosa ili konfesija, na bosanskome jeziku, narodnome izrazu i u duhu narodne predaje. U strogo definiranom topiku ljubavnih dešavanja, nailazimo na produkcije humora, veselja, ljubavi, tuge, jada i čežnje, ali isključivo u domeni širokogrudnosti i humanosti. Sevdalinka je opjevala ljubavne zgode koje su se odigrale u gradskim sredinama i zapamtila djevojke i mladiće, vedre ili tužne junake opjevanih zbivanja ili individue čuvene zbog svoje ljepote, držanja ili gizdavosti. Sa takvom intencijom u sevdisanju pronalazimo metaforičko vrelo, koje ne doprinosi samo pjesničkoj figurativnosti već i obrazuje način pogleda na svijet, razmišljanja o njemu i projiciranja u njemu. Svijet sevdalinke je ogoljena ljubav, koja se bez retuša reflektuje kikotom u zanosu, i kletvom u osamljenosti. Ljubav je važna emocija, i vrlo česta motivika kod tekstopisaca različitoga pisanja. Zbog apstraktnosti ljubav nije lako definirati ali upravo zbog toga u prvi plan stupa kreativnost i domišljatost u 106 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics opisivanju, u odabiru sredstava za izražavanje, pri tome se među plodonosnijim sredstvima nameće metafora. Stoga ne čudi što pisci pri izražavanju osjećanja i emocija o "ljubavi" pišu kroz metafore (Lakoff i Johnson, 1980: 85). Prema Prasit Karpklon u Language and Thought (1980: 145), metafore mogu potaknuti maštu i stvoriti osjećaje u ljudima učinkovitije nego doslovni izrazi.Sa čitanjem prve sevdalinke jasno je da je metafora osnovna kognitivna struktura koja omogućuje shvatiti apstraktni čulni koncept na temelju konkretnijih koncepta. U shvatanju europske kulture osjećanja se skrivaju kako bi se zaštitila. Sve što je vidljivo vanjskome svijetu, izloženo vanjskim podražajima je u potencionalnoj opasnosti. Zato se osjećanja skrivaju „pakirajući” ih u posude ili spremnike. Shodno ovakvome shvatanju očekivana je izrazita frekventnost konceptualne metafore SRCE JE SPREMNIK OSJEĆANJA u definiranome korpusu, jer se sevdalinke interpretiraju isključivo u kontekstu osjećanja. Također, kako bi se osjećanja skrila i zaštitila od vanjskih podražaja, potrebno ih je uvući u nutrinu, što dalje od epiderme, zato se najadekvatnijim lokalizatorom predočava SRCE jer se ono nalazi u samom središtu tijela. U odnosu na svoj položaj srce je i dobilo naziv. To je stara slavenska riječ, koja je najprije imala oblik srdce, jer je označavala ono što je u sredini. Da je tu nekada bio fonem d, pokazatelji su izvedenice: srdačno, srdašce, ili množinski oblik za srce – mnogo srdaca. U knjizi Vocabulary, Culture, Cognition, lingvistica Danica Škara defnira odnose okoline, kulture i jezika u kognitivnoj lingvistici, s posebnim naglaskom na metaforu, metonimiju i utjelovljenje. Empirijski ukazuje se na nasredišnje mjesto ljudskog tijela u konceptualizaciji svijeta. Pri tome ljudsko tijelo je konceptualizirano na temelju predodžbenih shema SPREMNIKA, NUTRINE, VANJŠTINE, PREDNJE I ZADNJE, GORNJE I DONJE STRANE I RAVNOTEŽE. Posebno se ističe povezanost konceptualizacije osjećaja i dijelova tijela, kao što je slučaj različitih oblika metafore SRCE JE SPREMNIK ZA OSJEĆAJE. U tekstovima sevdalinki emocije seuglavnom iskazuju fgurativno, u tom pogledu metafora predstavlja najkorisnije sredstvo izražavanja, pri tome je srcekao lokalizator osjećanja,najčešće korištena izvornadomena.Somatizam GLAVA uvijek nosi konotaciju razuma i razboritosti, s druge strane je SRCE s konotacijom osjećanja.Pogledom na metaforu kao na kognitivnu sposobnost povezivanja dviju domena, u sevdalijskom kontekstu uključuje i određena znanja u vezi sa datim korpusom, koja će omogućiti konceptualnu analizu stihova autohtone bosanskohercegovačke lirike - sevdalinke. Ta znanja se reflektuju kao sposobnost povezivanja dviju domena, koja istodobno omogućuje prepoznavanje ustaljenihveza. Ta se dvostrukost konceptualne metafore ocrtava i na razini kulturei utjelovljenja, gdje osim uobičajene motiviranosti putem fizičkih čimbenika (tj. utjelovljenjem) tvrdimo da je i kultura čimbenik koji je istodobno odgovoran za varijaciju i kulturna ograničenja. Model će biti utemeljen na Langackerovu i Kövecsesovu prijedlogu 107 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki središnjeg znanja. Dvostruki karakter metafore vidljiv je i u načinu njezine analize ponajprije kao ustaljene strukture znanja (u Lakoffovoj i Johnsonovoj prvotnoj teoriji konceptualne metafore) ili kao povezivanja domena u stvarnom vremenu (putem konceptualne integracije). U radu se nudi integracija te zagovara središnje rješenje u kojem se koriste oba modela ovisno o značajkama analiziranog materijala.(Stanojević, 2009:340) Dakle, metaforu smatramo kognitivnom sposobnošću koju koristimo u stvarnosti, a koja nam omogućuje povezivanje dviju domena znanja, i to tako da ciljnu domenu (ili neke njezine aspekte) shvaćamo pomoću (nekih aspekata) izvorne domene. Moguća preslikavanja s izvorne na ciljnu domenu ograničena su našim središnjim znanjima o izvornoj domeni i nekim znanjima o ciljnoj domeni (načelo nepromjenjivosti). Odnosno, konceptualnu metaforunajlakše je definirati kao kognitivni mehanizam pomoću kojeg se teško dostupni (apstraktni) entiteti konceptualiziraju preko lakše dostupnih (konkretnih) entiteta. Primjenimo li to na naš korpus sevdalinki unutar kojih se naročito tematizuju ljubavne refleksije u produkciji humora, veselja, ljubavi, tuge, jada i čežnje, pri tome isključivo u domeni širokogrudnosti i humanosti, lahko nam je zaključiti da čulne entitete konceptualiziramo konkretnijim entitetima. Važno je naglasiti da se konceptualnom metaforom povezuju slični elementi dviju različitih domena, izvorne i ciljne. Izvorna domenapruža osnovne informacije za stupanje u korelaciju s drugom, ciljnom domenom, koja se treba definirati. Kako bi taj proces bivao izravniji i lakši, izvorne domene uglavnom bivaju konkretni entiteti, a u sevdalinci to su orijentacija, materija, temperatura,životinje, biljke, tijelo, dijelovi tijela, primjerice srce što je unaprijed zadana domena ovoga rada. Ciljna domena, koja je predmetmetaforičkog preslikavanja i predmet koji se treba objasniti, su većinom apstraktni pojmovi kao um, emocije (ljubav, čežnja, žalost), namjere i sl. Važno je istaknuti da izvorna domena pomaže pobliže označiticiljnu, ali ne i obrnuto, jer proces preslikavanja kod metafore nikadane teče od ciljne prema izvornoj domeni. Na sljedeći način funkcionira konceptualna metafora unutar lirskog sevdisanja: kad je netko zaljubljen umire od sevdaha, srce je puno rahatluka, ono gori i od sevdaha puca,u ašikluk se hodi, pod prstenom se završi. Svaki put kad se upotrijebi koji od tih konvencionalnih metaforičkih izraza, u umu se odvija proces kognitivnog povezivanja dviju domena na principu sličnosti, analogijom čije uspostave zapravo nismo svjesni. Sevdah se kao apstraktan pojam može konceptualizirati preko domene bolest. Sličnosti koje prepoznajemo svode se na osjećaj povrijeđenosti i boli, psihičke i fizičke. Konceptualna metafora u pozadini tog konvencionalnog izraza jest SEVDAH JE BOLEST, pri čemu je bolest izvorna domena preko koje objašnjavamo teže dostupan pojam, a sevdah je ciljna domena, odnosno pojam koji je na zadatku konceptualizacije. 108 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Prepoznavanje konceptualnih metaforičkih tipova i njihovih modela, podredit će se podjeli koju su koncipirali Lakoff i Johnson (1980), začetnici kognitivne lingvistike kao zasebne naučne dicipline. Lakoffova teorija konceptualne metafore podrazumijeva dvodomenski pristup i povezanost prema načelu A je B. Svaka metafora se sastoji od izvorne domene (engl. source domain) i ciljne domene (engl.target domain), i pri tome izvorna omogućava shvatanje ciljne domene, dok među njima postoje brojne motivacijske poveznice (Lakoff, 2004: 7‒14). JE A B SRCE EMOCIJA PREDMET PROSTOR Ontološke metafore (ontological metaphors) koje dozvoljavaju da se događaji, aktivnosti, osjećanja, ideje i sl. shvataju kao entiteti i supstancije, odnosno nematerijalne stvari se materijalizuju, apstraktne konkretiziraju (Lakoff i Johnson, 1980: 25‒29). Metafore koje referiraju na apstraktno neki nazivajureifikacijama(Pérez, 2008: 33). S intencijom konkretizacije srce može biti dobro i zlo, veliko i malo, hladno i vatreno, ozeblo, ledeno itoplo, kameno i mehko, lavlje i zečije, hrabro i kukavno, zaljubljeno, viteško,kraljevsko, djevojačko, ludo, srcemože da boli, igra, kliče, raste, ludi, udara, kuca, (h)lupa, skače, puca, vehne,topi se, daje, poklanja, gori, hladi, razbija, lomi, čupa, pripada, itd. Ah, da mi se u cvijet pretvoriti, ja bih znao gdje bih zimovao! U njedrima među dukatima. Dukat zveči, meni srce ječi! 109 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki (Blago tebi cvijet karanfile) Mene boli i srce i glava, otkad Ahmo u haremu spava! (Čudna jada od Mostara grada) Srce traži, aman, srce traži, zaman, srce traži čista drugovanja, usne traže pusta sevdisanja. (Dvore gradi Komadina Mujo) Čuj kako srce umilno tepa, ljubim te, ljubim, đaurko l’jepa. (Đaurko mila) ja b’ volila kugu bolovati, nego dragog drugoj pokloniti. Jer u kugi samo boli glava, a za dragim i srce i glava. (Kad Morija mimo Mostar prođe) Prema arhetipu čovjek-karakter, srce može biti dobro i zlo, vatreno i kameno, lavlje, zečije, junačko. Metafora SRCE JE HRABROST vezuje srce s određenim vještinama i time ovaploćuje prisustvo ili nedostatak hrabrosti. Nije isto imati junačko srce (hrabro i divlje) i kukavno srce: Ja sam cv’jetak mirisao kao s tvojih b’jelih grudi. Bajan miris što ’no pjesme u junačkom srcu budi. (Sjećaš li se kad si lani) Većina ovih konkretizacija ostvaruje se preko shvatanja da srce čine osjećaji, a osjećaji ako se svedu na materijalno oni se mogu darivati, što definira konceptualni tip SRCE JE POKLON/PREDMET DARIVANJA: Srce više nije moje, tebi, dragi, pripalo je! (Ah, što ćemo ljubav kriti) Dala bih mu, mamo, dala bih mu, joj mamice, dala bih mu srce iz njedara, joj mamo, mamice! (Crven fesić, mamo) Kao i emocije, srce je osjetljivo i krhko, za posljedicu se lomi i razbija, takva postavka definira koncept SRCE JE LOMLJIV PREDMET: 110 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Da sam drvce, puklo bi mi srce, da sam kamen, bih se rastopio! (Ašikovah tri godine dana) Što ti pršte sahat na četvero, to će naša srca popucati, rastajuć’ se jedno od drugoga! (Draga dragom na ruci zaspala) O moj dragi, živa željo moja, živom sam te željom poželjela! Živoj mi je srce ispucalo, baš k’o zemlja ljeti od sunašca. (Drino vodo, živa žeđo moja) Reci meni, Ajko mila, voliš me da mi srce od sevdaha ne pukne. (Po mjesečini kraj šimšira) Sokole, pitom sokole, puče mi srce na dvoje! (Široka kita, rakita) Od sevdaha i žalosti, kraj pendžera svog, prepuče joj bolno srce, neće za drugog. (Zmaj od Bosne) Gledalo je momče preko Drine Gledalo je, pa je dozivalo: Sapni puce, dilber udovice, Sapni puce, puknutće mi srce. (Nasred Foče studena vodica) U ovakvoj interpretaciji osjećanja se lokalizuju u srcu kao vrijedonosnome objektu. Koncept skladišenja prisutan je još od starih vremena. Za Egipćane je srce bilo izvor cjelokupnog života i mišljenja i vjerovalo se da u njemu boravi ono što se može nazvati "dušom srca", tj. dušom fizičkog tijela. Babilonci su vjerovali da središte svih strasti nije srce već jetra i da svaka strast, uzbuđenje ili osjećanje ima svoj vlastiti, posebni odjeljak u jetri.U Turskoj se, primjerice, lokalizuju u jetri My liver,my soul (Moja jetra, moja duša). 111 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki Konceprualna metafora omeđenog prostora(engl. container metaphors) ima korijene u sljedećem iskustvu: osjećanja se skrivaju kako bi se zaštitila. Sve što je vidljivo vanjskome svijetu, odnosno izloženo vanjskim podražajima je u potencionalnoj opasnosti. Zato se osjećanja skrivaju „pakirajući” ih u posude ili spremnike. Shodno ovakvome shvatanju očekivana je izrazita frekventnost konceptualne metafore SRCE JE SPREMNIK OSJEĆANJA. Kako bi se osjećanja skrila i zaštitila od vanjskih podražaja, potrebno ih je uvući u nutrinu, što dalje od epiderme, zato se najadekvatnijim lokalizatorom predočava SRCE jer se ono nalazi u samom središtu tijela. Srce je projicirano kao POSUDA/SKLADIŠTE s jasno definiranim granicama, limitirano i ograničeno, s unutra prožetim in-out orijentacijama i s vanjskim i unutarnjim stranama. (Lakoff i Johnson, 1980:29) Iz Bosne se tužna pjesma čuje, to djevojka u srcu tuguje, za lijepo momče Sulejmana, jer ga voli tri godine dana! (Iz Bosne se tužna pjesma čuje) Zbogom, moja sliko bajna, suzama ću da te rosim, bolnoj duši zaft da dadnem, i u srcu da te nosim! (Što je život, Safvet-beg Bašagić) Kad mi sanak spokoj dade i duša se miru sprema, kroz srce se glasak krade, što te nema, što te nema? (Što te nema? Hasan-agin sevdah) U Omera šargija tambura, kad god svira u srce me dira. (Banjaluko i ravnine tvoje) Konceptualna metafora SRCE JE STROJ počiva na principu on-off kojim oplodotvorava mentalna iskustva i psihološka stanja kao unutarnji mehanizam, izvor energije, pogonsko stanje, razinu učinkovitosti i proizvodnje kapaciteta. Ako srce jače, više ili življe kuca ono je zaljubljeno, veselo i živahno, ako slabo kuca ili naposlijetku prestane kucati, u tom slučaju srce je na izmaku snage ili mrtvo. Sreži meni bejzan anteriju pa mi kiti puca niz njedarca, česta puca, gđeno srce kuca (Kad se ženi Ćurčiću Lutvaga) Još da nije te Velež planine, 112 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics čulo bi se ravnom Nevesinju, čulo bi se Fazlagića Kuli, čuo bi ga Ibro Fazlagiću! Po kucanju sahta od čelika, on bi čuo kucaj srca moga. (Falila se Šarića kaduna) Ljubav i ašikovanje su često nemogući i spriječeni nekim preprekama: daljinom, porodičnim ili društvenim razlozima. U takvim prilikama ljubav se manifestira kao najveći jad, a srce trpi bol, podnosi rane i definira se žrtvenikom. S tim u vezi, strukturnim tipom definira se konceptualna metafora SRCE JE PACIJENT/BOLESNIK/ŽRTVENIK: Ti ne haješ za bolove, za bolove srca moga. (Kradem ti se u večeri) U ruci mu dvije dunje žute, a na srcu dvije rane ljute. (Mjesečina, mjesec u oblaku) Ne bi li mu na srce pa’nula i na srcu ranu načinila. (Što sam mlada, da sam voda hladna) Probiću ti granu na fermanu, A kroz ferman muhtli koporan, Kroz koporan svilenu košulju, Kroz košulju tilo na petero, A kroz tilo srce na sedmero. (U Saraj'vu devetera vrata) Zarobljeno srce moje, prelazeći br’jeg i do. Tražilom je ne bi l’ našlo da ublaži srcu bol. (Zarobljeno srce moje) Bejturane, Bog t’ ubio grane, tvoje grane, po mom srcu rane! (Bejturane, Bog t’ ubio grane) U mog babe dosta blaga ima, ali nema pare carevice. Carevica na srcu ranica! Kupuj, ago, srmali kanicu da zavijem na srcu ranicu! (Crven katmer niz bezistan sađe) 113 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki Dualnost toplo-hladno ima i negativne i pozitivne konotacije. Deignan (1995: 161) ističe da se toplina uglavnom koristi za razgovor o jakim emocijama, prijateljskim i pozitivnim, dok su hladna osjećanja također često jaka, ali inegativna. Prema Lakoffu i Johnsonu (1980) metafore se temelje na ljudskomiskustvu. Primjerice, vrlo česta metafora PRIVRŽENOST JE TOPLINA pro-izlazi iz ljudskog osjećaja topline kada nas netko zagrli. Najvjerojatnije, većini ljudi na svijetu ne bi bilo iznenađujuće: takvo poimanje U Stambolu, na Bosforu, a u silnog cara dvoru, zaplakala Šećer Đula, Osman-paše vjerna ljuba: "Osman-pašo, đe si mori, za tobom mi srce gori? (U Stambolu, na Bosforu) Na jagluku milo ime piše, Koje ona žarom srca ljubi I vjeruje da za njega diše. (Vezak vezla dilber Ernevaza) Kono mila, plav zumbule za oči tvoje srce izgorje. (Po mjesečini kraj šimšira) Sad se srce grije kraj moje Rabije! Ja zapalim škiju, poljubim Rabiju, oj, Bože moj! (Nema ljepše cure od malene Đule) Da znaš, dragi, za bol i jad, doš’o bi mi bar ponekad. Nemoj, dušo, takav biti, srcećeš mi zalediti! (Bere cura plav' jorgovan) Dok se kod metafora radi o supostojanju dvaju različitih domena, kod metonimije se radi o istoj konceptualnoj domeni s aktivnim dvama zonama: ciljni koncept, ono na šta se misli i svi elementi na koje se cilja, koji su istaknuti. 114 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Metonimija SRCE ZA OSOBU, pripada metonimijskome tipu DIO ZA CJELINU i sljedeći su tipični primjeri ovoga vida: pripadanje srce srca, davanje srce srcu ili pri obraćanju srce moje, čime se blago skreće i ka hiperboli. Gledalo je momče s one strane, sve gledalo, za njom uzdisalo: Srce, dušo, Pembo Atlagića, sedi sene, pogledaj na mene! (Kolika je viš' Travnika Bojna) Nju mi nađe Morić Mustaf-aga, pa je njojzi tiho govorio: ”Srce, dušo, Odundžina Hato, digni skute bejaz-anterije, da ja prođem i čibuk pronesem!” Njemu veli Odundžina Hata: ”Srce, dušo, Morić Mustafaga, Ti podigni samur-ćurku skute, da je prođem i kolo provedem!” (Podigli se mladi Vratničani) Odgovara Begza Himzagina: Srce, dušo, Pridor-kapetane, jagluk ću ti u ruhu donijeti, a dukate pod bijelim vratom! (Poručuje Pridor kapetane) Govorila dilber Ćima mlada: Mehemede, šta ćeš večerati? Ćimo, srce, tvoje bijelo lice! (Razbolje se gondže Mehmede) Zaključak Rad se bavi dvama pitanjima: pojavnošću konceptualne metafore i njezinim postavkama unutar sevdalinki. Iz razloga što je čovjekova somatska dimenzija često inferiorna emocionalnoj, u radu se nastoji prikazati učestalost metafora sa somatskim sastavnicama koje su u službi osjećanja. Da bi se definirala stanja likova koji sevdišu, potrebno ih je maksimalno približiti recipientu, toliko da ih je moguće osjetiti u prostoru, što se najpodesnije shvata dekodiranjem orijentacijskih metafora (engl. orientational metaphors), odnosno tipova RACIO JE GORE, EMOCIJE SU DOLJE. U nastojanju da čulno učini toliko stvarnim i pipljivim javljaju se ontološke metafore (engl. ontological metaphors), kojima se nematerijalne stvari objašnjavaju kao materijalne, pa s tim u vezi srce boli i zarobljeno je, ili kuca i lomi se, pri čemu su definirane konceptualne metafore SRCE JE STROJ ili PREDMET (često lomljiv, 115 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki krhak). Metaforom omeđenog prostora (engl. container metaphors) srce postaje SKLADIŠTE. Najfrekventniji metaforički tip biva strukturalna metafora (engl. structural metaphors). Univerzalna metaforizacija producira srce paralelno osjećanjiva, pa je ono uvijek u vezi s ljubavlju, osjetljivo i krhko, za posljedicu se lomi i razbija. Srce uglavnom biva materijalizirano kao STROJ ili SKLADIŠTE OSJEĆANJA u funkciji osjećanja spram GLAVE koja je u službi RACIJA. Definiraju se i konceptualne metafore SRCE JE BOLESNIK/ŽRTVENIK jer u službi emocija, u kontekstu neuzvraćene ljubavi, srce boli, ranjeno je i podnosi žrtvu, s druge strane, ako je ljubav uzvraćena definira se koncept PRIVRŠENOST SRCU JE TOPLINA. 116 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Literatura Ćumurija, Ismet: Tumač ibaštenik sevdalinke, Povodom godišnjice smrti Himze Polovine,Most broj 117-118, Mostar, 1999. Džibrić, Amila: Leksičko-semantičke varijante leksema u sevdalinkama (metafora i metonimija), Behar broj 103, Zagreb, 2011. Gezeman (Gesemann) Gerhard: Prolegomena povodom gramofonskog snimanja bosanske narodne pesme, Prilozi proučavanju narodne poezije. Knj. IV, Sv. 12, Beograd 1937, 222-240. Gutiérrez Pérez, Regina, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, A Cross--Cultural Analysis of Heart Metaphors, Revista Alicantina de EstudiosIngleses 21 (2008): 25-56 Kreševljaković, Hamdija: Ahmed Dževdet-pašina pisma o Bosni iz 1864. godine, Behar broj 109, Zagreb, 2012. Kulenović, Sena: Sevdah i sevdalinka, razvoj i uloga bosanske gradske pjesme u životu i kulturi Bošnjaka i BiH, Behar 103, Zagreb, 2011. Lakoff, George (1987):Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: WhatCategories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Lakoff, George and Mark Johnson (1980): Metaphors We Live By.Chicago: Chicago University Press. Maglajlić, Munib: 101 sevdalinka, Mostar 1978. Nametak, Alija: Od bešike do motike, Narodne lirske i pripovijedne pjesme bosansko- hercegovačkih muslimana, Sarajevo, 1970. Petrović, Bernardina, „Glagoli emocionalnih stanja u kolokacijskim strukturama i leksikografskom opisu”, u: Srdoč-Konestra et al. (ur.) Riječki flološki dani, Filozofski fakultet, Rijeka, 2008, str. 589–599. Prasit Karpklon. 1980. Language and thought. Bangkok: Ramkhamhaeng Printing Press. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibánez, Francisco J. (1999): Introductióna la TeoríaCognitiva de la Metonimia. Granada: Granada Lingvistica y Método Ediciones. 117 �Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki Smajlović-Šabić, Indira: Kolokacijska i konceptualna analiza jedinica sa somatskom sastavnicom srce, Lingua montenegrina, god. V/2, br. 10, Podgorica, 2012. Stanojević, Mateusz-Milan, 2009. „Konceptualna metafora kognitivnojlingvistici: – pregled pojmova“.Suvremena lingvistika, br. 2, str. 339‒369. u Stojić, Aneta, Sanela, Murica, „Kolokacije – teorijska razmatranja i primjena u praksi...“ FLUMINENSIA, god. 22 (2010) br. 2, str. 111‒125. Ungerer, Friederich and Hans Jörg Schmid (1996): An Introduction toCognitive Linguistics. London: Longman 118 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2811 Title A name given to the resource Konceptualna metaforizacija stihova sa somatskom sastavnicom srce unutar sevdalinki Author Author Smajlović-Šabić, Indira Nikolić, Marijana Abstract A summary of the resource. Sažetak: Rad će se baviti iznalaženjem odgovora dvama pitanjima: dinamikom mogućeg udjela metaforiziranih stihova sevdalinke sa somatskom sastavnicom srce, u kognitivnoj perspektivi, s jedne strane, i pojavnošću odgovarajućih konceptualnih modela, s druge strane. Kognitivna lingvistika u ovom smislu obuhvata teoriju pojmovne metafore kao sredstava da se konceptualizuje svijet, ali i uže specifično, kao sredstvo perspektivizacije i usmjeravanja pažnje s dvojakim ciljem: da se naglase željeni stavovi, pogledi i mišljenja i da se odagnaju nebitni i nepoželjni aspekti ostalih pojava. Na taj način sevdalinka konceptualizuje svijet oko sebe, svijet primarno bošnjačko-muslimanski, sa mnogim socijalnim netrpeljivostima koje u ovoj perspektivi bivaju odagnane, jer ne umire se od njih već od sevdaha. Ključne riječi: sevdalinka, sevdisanje, kognitivna lingvistika, konceptualna metafora i metonimija, domene izvora i cilja Abstract The purpose of the study will be to explore the following questions: the dynamics of the possible contribution of metaphorical lyrics in sevdalinka song with the heart as a somatic component, in a cognitive perspective, on the one hand, and the occurrence of corresponding conceptual models, on the other hand. In this sense, cognitive linguistics covers the theory of conceptual metaphor as means of conceptualizing the world, but also in the narrow sense specifically, as means of perspectivisation and directing the attention with a twofold purpose: to emphasize the desirable attitudes, views and opinions, and to dispel unimportant and undesirable aspects of other phenomena. In this manner, sevdalinka conceptualizes the world around it, primarily a Bosniak-Muslim world, with many social animosities being dispelled in this perspective because one dies, in figurative sense, because of sevdah and not because of them. Keywords: sevdalinka, sevdah, cognitive linguistics, conceptual metaphor and metonymy, domains of source and purpose Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b503c0a12a7e69f64c5a739e600ca8c4.pdf eea289ad23e21ef3e2df4d36928b5af6 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Metaphor translation in subtitling Goran Schmidt University of Osijek, Croatia Submitted: 13.04.2014. Accepted: 13.11.2014. Abstract The paper aims to shed light on how subtitlers cope with metaphor translation. The paper presents the results of a case study on a set of English subtitles of one Croatian movie. Metaphor translation procedures were analyzed using Conceptual Metaphor Theory. There are four basic ways to translate metaphors: a. using the same conceptual metaphor, b. using a different conceptual metaphor, c. using a nonmetaphorical paraphrase; and d. deleting the metaphor. In addition, a nonmetaphorical expression can be translated by a metaphorical expression. Metaphors are mental, linguistic, but also cultural entities. Since translation in the contemporary age is recognized as both linguistic and cultural transfer, translating metaphors is at the core of the translation task. Many conceptual metaphors are universal and can be found in (almost) all languages, but some are culturally specific, appearing in just one language (group). This case study shows that the universality of metaphor influences the choice of a metaphor translation procedure, in a way that shared metaphors are mostly translated using the same conceptual metaphor, whereas nonshared metaphors are translated by a different metaphor or a non-metaphorical paraphrase. The paper also explores the ways in which the specifics of subtitling as a constrained type of translation influence the choice of a translation procedure. The results are compared to the results of a previous study, which dealt with the translation of metaphors in literature. Keywords: conceptual metaphor, translation, conventionality, temporal and spatial constraints subtitling, universality, Introduction This paper deals with translation of metaphors in interlingual subtitling. The focus is on the kinds of procedures (solution types) for the translation of metaphorical expressions. In addition, the distribution of the procedures in the TT (target text) is explored, as well asfactors potentially motivating the use of a particular procedure. One of the examined motivating factors is the universality of metaphor, i.e. to what 95 �Metaphor translation in subtitling extent is the choice of a particular procedure conditioned by the fact that a certain conceptual metaphoror metaphorical expressionis or is not shared between the SL (source language) and the TL(target language). Other explanatory variables are connected with the characteristics of subtitling as a special kind of translation. The typology of procedures is basedon the methodological apparatusof Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT),formulated by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). The results are compared to the results of our previous research on metaphor translation in the context of literary translation (Schmidt, 2012). Conceptual metaphor and its linguistic expression In the cognitive-linguistic view, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain (Kövecses, 2002: 4ff.). A convenient shorthand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is called a conceptual metaphor. It is important to distinguish conceptual metaphors (in this paper labeled ‘M’)from metaphorical linguistic expressions (lowercase ‘m’), the latter resulting from mapping of elements of one domain onto the corresponding elementsof another domain. For example, ARGUMENT IS WAR is a conceptual metaphor, while expressions like ‘Your claims are indefensible’,‘He attacked every weak point in my argument’, etc. are metaphorical linguistic expressions, i.e. linguistic manifestations of that conceptual metaphor. Typology of metaphor translation procedures The translation solutions were classified according to a new typology, which combines CMT with the typologies developedwithin translation studies. Specifically, our typology combines the one by the translation scholar Gideon Toury(cf. Prunč, 2002: 244) and the one by the cognitive linguist Zoltan Kövecses (2004).1 The following typology of metaphor translation procedures is proposed: 1. (M → M)2 a.m → m 1 a metaphorical expression is translatedbyametaphorical expression of the sameconceptual metaphor with the same mapping and the same meaning For a detailed description of Toury's and Kövecses's typologies, and the way they were combined, see Schmidt, 2012: 88-91. 2 M → M and M → M1 refer to the higher, conceptual level, i.e. whether the target expression belongs to the same conceptual metaphor, or to a different one, respectively. This higher level is in a way superimposed on a typology based on the more basic level of metaphorical expressions. 96 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics b.m → m’ 2.(M → M1) m → m1 3.m → non-m 4.m→Ø 5.non-m → m 6.Ø→ m a metaphorical expression is translated by a metaphorical expression of the same conceptual metaphor with a different mappingand a similar meaning a metaphorical expression is translated by a metaphorical expression of a different conceptual metaphor with a different mapping and a similar meaning a metaphorical expression is translated by a nonmetaphorical expression with a similar meaning (also known as a paraphrase) a metaphorical expression is translated by a zero-element (also known as deletion, omission or zero-translation) a non-metaphorical expression is translated by a metaphorical expression with a similar meaning a zero-element is translated by a metaphorical expression Each type (1-6)isexemplified and defined in Section 4. The above typology was tested on a corpus of literary translations (Schmidt, 2012), and it proved to be adequate for the analysis of metaphor translation; no further types were recorded. Research design As the source text (ST) we used the Croatian movie Što je muškarac bez brkova?('What Is a Man without a Moustache?'). As the TT we useda set of English subtitles of that movie. The identified ST metaphorical expressions were matched with their TT equivalents. The ST-TT segments were thenanalyzed and the translation procedures were classified. The corpus was analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Analysis Altogether6 types of translation procedures (solution types) were identified. In the following sections each of the identified procedures isexemplified anddefined. M→M 1.1.1. m → m (1a) 97 �Metaphor translation in subtitling ST: ne znaš ti šta sam ja sve proša u životu3('you don't know what I've been through in life')4 TT: You have no idea what I'vebeen through in my life. [00:39:25,500]5 The metaphorical expressionsin the ST and TT are the same;they belong to the same M and have the same meaning. (1) 1.1.2. m → m’ (1b) (2) ST: đava te odnija Luka ('May the devil take you away, Luka') TT: Go to hell, Luka! [00:59:32,740] The metaphorical expressions in the ST and TT are different, but they belong to the same M and have a similar meaning. m → m1 (3) ST: reci meni dal ću biti tvoja ('tell me ifI'll be yours') TT: Tell me will you always hold my hand [00:00:53,660] The metaphorical expressions in the ST and TT are different; they belong to differentMs, but their meaning is similar. m → non-m (4) ST: [to je] sve naopako! (‘[it is] all upside down/reversed/inverted/wrong side out’) TT: [This is] all totally wrong![01:04:57,340] The ST metaphorical expression is translated by a non-metaphorical expression with a similar meaning. m→Ø (5) ST: ...na nebu misec mlad(‘up in the sky the moon is young’) TT: the moon is up[01:22:10,940] The ST metaphorical expression is omitted (deleted) in the TT. 3 The ST examples are written without observing the spelling and punctuation conventions because they were transcribed directly from the spoken dialogue. 4 In round brackets is a rough, literal translation of the ST. 5 The numbers in square brackets indicate the exact time the subtitle appears on the screen. 98 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics non-m → m (6) ST: čuo sam da je sestra progovorila (‘I heard [your] sister started to talk’) TT: I heard your sister broke her silence. [00:11:02,300] The ST non-metaphorical expression is translated by a metaphorical expression with a similar meaning. Ø→m This procedure implies an appearance of a metaphorical expression in the TT which cannot be matched to anything in the ST.No examples of this procedure were found in the corpus. In comparison with our previous research on metaphor translation in literature, the types of procedures used are largely the same. The only procedure not used in subtitling is the addition of a footnote, since this is technically impossible for the lack of space. Distribution of translation procedures Table 1. Distribution of metaphor translation procedures in the TT Procedure 1a M→M 1b 2 (M→M1) 3 (m→non-m) 4 (m→ Ø) total N 52 32 31 17 6 138 % 38 23 23 12 4 100 61 The left-hand column in Table 1lists the types of procedures. Five procedures were used (procedure 5, Ø → m, is not included, since it does not refer to the translation of metaphor butinto metaphor).The middle column shows the number of times a particular procedure was used. For example, procedure 1a was used 52 times. The total number of identified metaphorical expressions is 138. The right-hand column shows the same data expressed in percentages. The most frequently used procedure was 1a (38%). Procedures 1a and 1b are grouped together, since both imply translation by an expression of the same M. Together, 1a +1b were used in 61% of the cases. Procedure 1 is followed by procedure 2 (23%), 3 (12%) and 4 (4%), respectively. 99 �Metaphor translation in subtitling Figure 1 shows the same data ina pie chart. The identified procedures are numbered according to our typology, and the percentages represent the rates with which each procedure is used in the TT. Figure 1. Distribution of metaphor translation procedures in the TT 4 0% 4% 3 12% 1a 38% 2 23% 1b 23% Another frequent procedure in the corpus is Ø → m(not included in Table 1 and Figure 1), represented with 35 cases. It refers to cases in which a non-metaphorical expression was translated with a metaphor. One way of looking at this procedure is as a compensation procedure. It compensates for the loss of metaphorical expressions resulting from the use of procedures 3 (paraphrase) and 4 (deletion).Of the total 138 metaphorical expressions in the ST, 115 were translated by metaphorical expressions (procedures 1+2), while 23 were either translated non-metaphorically or deleted (procedures 3+4). However, if we bring the 35 cases of procedure 5into the equation, we can see that the TT actually contains more metaphors than the ST (115 transferred from ST + 35 new ones = 150). The loss was thus more than compensated by using procedure 5. In comparison with the previous study, procedures 2 and 4 arehere used more frequently, and procedure 3 less frequently. The reason for using m→m1 more than m→non-m could be that metaphorical language is more concisethan the non100 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics metaphorical, which is important given the time and space constraints of subtitling (see Section 5.8.2). Or, the subtitler wanted to keep the metaphoricity of the dialogue. Procedure 4 is used more often than in literature translation probably for the same reason of saving space and time. The number of occurrences of procedure 5 was not counted in the previous study, so there is no ground for comparison. In the following section we try to account for the motivation for using a particular procedure. Motivational factors Universality of metaphor If a metaphor is shared by most languages, we can call it universal. When we consider just a pair of languages, a metaphor can be either shared or non-shared. However, in some cases a conceptual metaphor is shared, but the particular mapping (and the linguistic expression) is not. This gives us three categories of ‘sharedness’/universality: 1. the metaphor is shared and so is the linguistic expression, 2. the metaphor is shared, but the linguistic expression is not, and 3. the metaphor is not shared. Consider Table 3 below. Table 3. Universality categories in relation to type of translation procedure ST metaphorical expressions 1a) (N) m→m (1) shared M, 81 52 shared m (2) shared M, 38 0 non-shared m (3) non-shared 19 0 M, nonshared m total N: 138 52 1b) m→m’ 6 2) m→m1 14 3)m→non- 4) m m→Ø 4 5 26 4 8 0 0 13 5 1 32 31 17 6 Table 3 shows the three universality categories in relation to the type of translation procedure used in our TT. For each category, first the total number of metaphors is given, then a breakdown by a particular procedure. For example, category (1) contains 81 metaphorical expressions, of which 52 were translated by procedure 1a, 6 by procedure 1b, 14 by procedure 2, 4 by procedure 3, and 5 by procedure 4.Thus, 101 �Metaphor translation in subtitling the majority of category 1 metaphors were translated by procedure 1a (52 out of 81, or 64%). The remaining 36% were distributed across other types of procedures (1b=7%, 2=17%, 3=5%, 4=6%). Other two categories also show a significant correlation with a particular type of procedure. Category(2) is most frequently translated by procedure 1b (26 out of 38, or 68%), followed by procedures 3 (21%) and 2 (11%). Category (2) shows zero correlation with procedures 1a and 4. Category(3) is most frequently translated by procedure 2 (13 out of 19, or 68%), followed by procedures 3 (26%) and 4 (6%). There is no correlation with 1a and 1b. In other words, if the TL had the same expression as the SL, that same expression was indeed used in the TT in most of the cases (1a); if the same expression was not used, it was most frequently substituted by an expression of a different M with similar meaning (2), and less frequently it was translated by a different expression of the same M (1b), or deleted (4), or paraphrased by non-metaphorical language (3), respectively.If the TL had the same M, but not the same expression, a different expression of the sameMwas used in most of the cases; alternatively, a nonmetaphorical paraphrase was used, or an expression of a different conceptual metaphor with similar meaning. Finally, if the TL did not have the same M, the STexpressionwas in most cases substituted in the TT by an expression of a differentM with a similar meaning; alternatively, a non-metaphorical paraphrase was used, or the ST expression was deleted. Thedataindicates that the category of universality of metaphor does have an impact on the choice of procedure; moreover, it allows us to predict to an extent which procedure will be used. However, there is also variation that we have to account for. In a number of cases, a procedure other than the ‘default’ was used, which means that there have to be other factors apart from universality influencing the choice of procedure. Table 3 can also be read vertically. The first column on the left shows the number of metaphorical expressions belonging to a particular universality category. Out of the total 138 expressions, 81 (or 59%) were attributed to category 1; 38 (27%) to category 2, and 19 (14%) to category 3.The second column from the left shows that procedure 1a was used 52 times, exclusively for the translation of category 1 metaphors; there was no correlation with categories 2 and 3, etc. In sum, there is a strong correlation between the universality category 1 and procedure 1a, category 2 andprocedure 1b, category 3 and procedure 2.Universality was found to be an important factor in the previous study as well. 102 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Other motivational factors Apart from the universality of metaphor, other factors potentially influencing the choice of translation procedure are the conventionality of the TL expression, and temporal and spatial constraints of subtitling. Due to the lack of space, each of the above factors is only briefly exemplified and defined. (7) ST: kad se podnapiju kao svinje (‘when they get as drunk as pigs’) TT: When they're totally pissed [01:15:43,900] In example (7) the translator chose the more conventional expression ‘to be totally pissed’ (m→m1) over the less conventional ‘to get drunk as a pig’ (m→m). Conventionality here means greater frequency of use. In certain contexts (e.g. in informal register), as shown in example (8), using a metaphorical expression is more conventional than non-metaphorical language. (8) ST: razumin, razumin (‘I understand, I understand’) TT: I get it, I get it [00:23:57,140] In example (9) the metaphor is omitted because the meaning is clear from the co-text: (9) ST: a vrime nikako okriće na jugo pa... (‘Well, the weather is turning to sirocco, so...’) TT: With this sirocco [...][00:37:08,980] Subtitlers frequently have to shorten the dialogue, omitting everything that is redundant, because of the technical constraints of subtitling. Namely, “people speak more quickly than they can read so most language needs to be summarized in subtitles. Space constraints arise [as well] because there is room for only about 30 or 40 characters/spaces across a screen”, and a maximum of two or three lines of text. (O’Connell: 129).This often confines subtitling to an auxiliary function, that of complementing the dialogue rather than duplicating it. Conventionality was significant for motivation in the previous study as well, while temporal and spatial constraints are specific to subtitling. Conclusion The proposed typology was found to be adequate for the description of metaphor translation in subtitling. There areindications that the universality of metaphor, the 103 �Metaphor translation in subtitling conventionality of expression and the technical constraints of subtitlinginfluence the choice of translation procedure. References Kövecses, Z. (2002). Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford, New York, etc.: Oxford University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2004). Metaphor in Culture. Universality and Variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G., Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live By. (+Afterword, 2003). Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press. O’Connell, E. (2007). Screen translation. In Kuhiwczak, P., Littau, K. (eds.) A Companion to Translation Studies. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters, 120-134. Prunč, E. (2002). Einführung in die Translationswissenschaft. Band 1: Orientierungsrahmen. Graz: Institut für Translationswissenschaft. Schmidt, G. (2012). A Cognitive-Linguistic Approach to the Translation of Metaphor from English into Croatian. Doctoral dissertation. Osijek: Filozofski fakultet.Available at:http://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/580531.Goran_Schmidt_disertacija-edited1_4.pdf Data sources Što je muškarac bez brkova?[Video file]. (2005). Directed by Hrvoje Hribar, based on a novel by Ante Tomić. Miskon (2007, March 21).What Is a Man without a Moustache?[.srt file]. English subtitles of the movie Što je muškarac bez brkova? Retrieved 13 January 2014 from http://www.podnapisi.net/sto-je-muskarac-bez-brkova-2005-subtitlesp496917 104 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2810 Title A name given to the resource Metaphor translation in subtitling Author Author Schmidt, Goran Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper aims to shed light on how subtitlers cope with metaphor translation. The paper presents the results of a case study on a set of English subtitles of one Croatian movie. Metaphor translation procedures were analyzed using Conceptual Metaphor Theory. There are four basic ways to translate metaphors: a. using the same conceptual metaphor, b. using a different conceptual metaphor, c. using a non-metaphorical paraphrase; and d. deleting the metaphor. In addition, a non-metaphorical expression can be translated by a metaphorical expression. Metaphors are mental, linguistic, but also cultural entities. Since translation in the contemporary age is recognized as both linguistic and cultural transfer, translating metaphors is at the core of the translation task. Many conceptual metaphors are universal and can be found in (almost) all languages, but some are culturally specific, appearing in just one language (group). This case study shows that the universality of metaphor influences the choice of a metaphor translation procedure, in a way that shared metaphors are mostly translated using the same conceptual metaphor, whereas non-shared metaphors are translated by a different metaphor or a non-metaphorical paraphrase. The paper also explores the ways in which the specifics of subtitling as a constrained type of translation influence the choice of a translation procedure. The results are compared to the results of a previous study, which dealt with the translation of metaphors in literature. Keywords: conceptual metaphor, translation, subtitling, universality, conventionality, temporal and spatial constraints Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-13 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature