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IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD
Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
Istine o Bosni i Hercegovini, konflikt ili sinergija
Dr. Ciril Ribičič
Faculty of Law / University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, Full Professor
e-mail: ciril.ribicic@guest.arnes.si
Abstract: The author discusses the importance of the ECtHR
ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in terms of necessary
constitutional amendments that will establish Bosnia and
Herzegovina as a normal European democratic country,
which is independent and capable of integration in the EU.
According to the author, BH is facing an inter-personal
conflict of interests of constituent peoples which are harming
them and the development of the state they reside in. He agrees
the greater prominence of the constitutional system of BH
should be given civic on the account of the national principle,
however, this should not mean neglecting the concern for the
equality of the constituent peoples and entities. Since the last
war ended, these peoples have been living next to each other
far too separately, and several times still against each other. In
BH, various truths of the constituent peoples, "the others" and
the international community are fronting. So far they have
mostly been in conflict with one another rather than
cooperating in synergy. The international community is
undeniably accredited for terminating war-oriented hatred
and maintaining permanent peace in BH. However, the
"imposed" Dayton constitutional system has become the reason
for inhibiting the development of BH. For that reason, the
international community should transform its influence in
such manner that it still stays the peace guarantor, but at the
same time not jeopardize the BH independence to such an
extent that it continues to represent the insurmountable
obstacle to enter the EU. Strengthening the position and
influence of "the others", i.e. those who are not the members of
the constituent peoples, and considering their truths about
BH, may bring fresh solutions in current problems and in
searching for the new constitutional solutions. Therefore, the
realization of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci
represents a small, yet constructive step in the right direction.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
Keywords: Bosnia and Herzegovina,
constitutional amendments,
constituent peoples, minorities, the
electoral system, Dayton Agreement,
the Venice Commission, the High
Representative of the international
community, the European Union,
ECHR, ECtHR, Sejdić and Finci,
discrimination.
JEL Classification: K10, K40
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15211
Article History
Submitted: 27.10.2014.
Resubmited: 12.11.2014.
Accepted: 05.01.2014.
9
�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
Sažetak: Autor u radu razmatra značaj presude Evropskog
suda za ljudska prava iz slučaja Sejdić – Finci u pogledu
neophodnih ustavnih amandmana koji bi doprinijeli izgradnji
Bosne i Hercegovine kao normalne evropske demokratske
države, dovoljno nezavisne i sposobne za integraciju u
Evropsku uniju. Prema mišljenju autora, BiH se suočava sa
međuljudskim sukobom interesa konstitutivnih naroda koji
nanosi štetu i njima i razvoju njihove države. On se slaže da
bi najveći značaj ustavnog sistema Bosne i Hercegovine trebao
biti davanje prednosti građanskom u odnosu na nacionalni
princip, međutim, to ne bi trebalo značiti zanemarivanje
brige konstitutivnih naroda i entiteta za jednakošću. Otkako
je posljednji rat završio, ovi narodi su živjeli jedni pored
drugih previše odvojeno, i mnogo puta jedni protiv drugih. U
BiH se sukobljavaju različita poimanja konstitutivnih naroda,
„ostalih“, te međunarodne zajednice. Do sada su najčešće bili
u konfliktu jedni s drugima, nego li su zajednički sarađivali.
Međunarodna zajednica je neosporno zadužena za prekid
ratno orjentisane mržnje i održavanje trajnog mira u BiH.
Međutim, „nametnuti“ Daytonski ustavni sistem je postao
razlog za kočenje razvoja BiH. Iz tog razloga, međunarodna
zajednica bi trebala promijeniti svoj uticaj u BiH na takav
način da i dalje ostane garant mira, ali da u isto vrijeme ne
ugrozi nezavisnost BiH do te mjere da nastavi biti
nepremostiva prepreka za njeno članstvo u EU. Jačanje
pozicije i uticaja „ostalih“ tj. onih koji nisu pripadnici
konstitutivnih naroda, i uzimajući u obzir njihova poimanja
o BiH, može dovesti do svježih rješenja trenutnih problema i
do iznalaženja novih ustavnih rješenja. Stoga, provođenje
odluke Evropskog suda za ljudska prava u slučaju Sejdić –
Finci predstavlja mali, ali konstruktivan korak u pravome
smijeru.
10
Ključne riječi: Bosna i Hercegovina,
ustavni amandmani, konstitutivni
narodi, manjine, izborni sistem,
Daytonski sporazum, Venecijanska
komisija, Visoki predstavnik
međunarodne zajednice, Evropska
unija, Evropski sud za ljudska prava,
Sejdić – Finci, diskriminacija.
JEL klasifikacija: K10, K40
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15211
Historija članka
Dostavljen: 27.10.2014.
Revidiran: 12.11.2014.
Prihvaćen: 05.01.2014.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
1. Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy –
Conclusions
I evaluate that successful execution of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić
and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) is, at best, only the first, smaller step in
the right direction.1 Therefore, I consider this high-profile case as a starting point for
discussion on addressing various truths about BH, and as an opportunity to start
making them merge in a common synergetic flow, without which the country’s
stagnation will continue along with a reinforced atmosphere of no prospect,
helplessness and apathy of the people. Discussing the “small step”, I do not think of
it as unimportant, after all the first steps are usually the hardest and may trigger
positive “tectonic movements”. With this in mind, I am referring to movements that
would enable replacing the current imposed constitutional system with another
system that is comparable with those of democratic and sovereign European
countries. With “the right direction” I am suggesting a determination for BH to
become a normal European country to the extent that it could genuinely count on
becoming a member to the European Union (EU). Promises about joining the EU
have been around for years, however, they are not realistic without a thorough
constitutional reform. Today, BH is neither independent nor sovereign and what is
more, it does not guarantee autonomous internal powers for normal functioning of
state institutions. Particularly striking is the fact that those countries, which triggered
the war against BH2 at the beginning of the 1990s, are much more successful in their
way to European integration than BH.
In the EU there are countries that did not ratify the Protocol No. 12 to the
ECHR which was the foundation for the conviction of BH in the case Sejdić and
Finci. In this matter, BH was convicted (also) because only the members of three
constituent peoples may run for the Presidency of BH, excluding the members of
minorities. Information on ratification of the Protocol No. 12 proves that the
minority status in BH cannot be the most imperative obstacle that is preventing BH
from entering the pre-phase of joining the EU which leads to the accession process
to the EU. There are several countries in the EU that cannot be convicted in the
same way as BH because they have not ratified the Protocol No. 12. Among ten
founding members of the Council of Europe, only two countries ratified this
1
Amicus Curie Brief, the Venice Commission, No. 483/2008.
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Geneza jedne zablude, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija, Jesenski in Turk, 2001,
pp. 23, 24, where I describe negotiations between Slobodan Milošević and Dr. Franjo Tudjman on
dividing BH.
2
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protocol – Luxembourg and the Netherlands!3 Since 2010, when Slovenia ratified
the Protocol No. 12, none of the ratifications has happened. In the EU there are
some countries, which generally have inappropriate attitudes towards national and
other minorities, however, no one is arguing against their membership in the EU.
Therefore, the reason for BH not being able to become a full member of the EU lies
somewhere else. No European democratic country that wants to enter the EU does
not practice a system, which allows a High Representative of an international
community to force them with adopting legislative acts, even those of the
constitutional nature as well as relieving the highest positions of their duties, or a
system that has one-third of foreign constitutional judges.
Ten years ago, the Venice Commission quite nobly and not very
diplomatically answered the question whether the status and jurisdiction of the High
Representative of an international community is in conflict with the European
democratic traditions. The Venice Commission, however, had to admit that forcing
regulations by the High Representative, which the representative organs of BH were
not able to adopt, is exactly what is responsible for the advancement that BH made
after the Dayton Agreement. Although, the Commission emphasized that the
Representative’s jurisdiction and activity are not compliant with the European
democratic standards, which provide that laws are adopted by the authority that was
elected by the people. Fairly similar goes for the jurisdiction of the High
Representative in the field of relieving them of their duties. It was quite common to
replace the elected officials due to non-compliance with international obligations,
namely the essence of Dayton Agreement, or due to corruption which led to
prohibiting these officials to run for the same function. This is, however, completely
unacceptable for independent and democratic countries as it represents a severe
interference in democracy of a system and in the voting right of those who were
elected and those who voted. In addition, the affected do not have a right to legal
remedies which could not withstand a serious ruling before the constitutional courts
of the European countries or before the European Court of Human Rights
(ECtHR). The right to efficient legal remedies is practically included in every
European constitution and it provides the Article 13 of the European Convention
for Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR). The Venice
Commission suggested immediate institutionalization of an independent panel of
3
The Protocol No. 12, which regulates the general prohibition of discrimination, has been ratified by
18 countries so far, however, since 2010, when Slovenia ratified it, until now there has not been
another signature or ratification anymore. The Protocol has been ratified by all of the former republics
of the former Yugoslav Federation, but not by many leading Members States of the EU.
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�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
legal experts which would temporarily substitute the absence of investing legal means
until the matter is solved, i.e. until they get the right to judicial protection.4
Regarding the preceding solutions of amending the status of the High Representative
of an international community, the Venice Commission advocated the Macedonian
experiences, which would substitute the High Representative of an international
community with the representative of the EU, who would mostly function as a
mediator.
In order to avoid any misunderstanding: The High Representative of an
international community has adopted many necessary legal acts as well as other
measures, without which BH would today be more ineffective and its functioning
would be even more irrational and expensive. An objective observer should admit
that the international community played a key role in BH in regards to ending the
war and maintaining peace as well as encouraging changes that would rationalize and
strengthen efficiency of political and economic system. Despite of that, the status
and the role of the international community representatives must fundamentally
change in order for BH to be considered as a country, which is returning to a path of
independence and sovereignty. A country that is led by the elected representatives of
the people, constituent peoples as well as minorities, and not by someone from the
outside.
The million dollar question remains: how can BH be placed on a map as a
normal democratic European country in a way that would eliminate BH’s
subordination to the international community, without creating new hostilities and
attacks but activating such amendments of the constitutional system that would
ensure stability, efficient functioning and development of BH. Let me repeat the
words of Dr. Trnka: “The presence of the international community, which has been
gradually decreasing since Dayton Agreement, may be missed only when a selfsufficient constitutional system will be established, which will provide valid answers
to obstructions and other blocks. During the transitional period and the accession
process of BH to Euro-Atlantic integrations, it would be wiser for the international
community to be present in BH through a special representative of the EU and not
through the High Representative of the international community.”5 Today, the
4
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Mišljenja Venecianske komisije i preporuke za promjene ustava, zbornik
radova, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
5
Kasim Trnka, Daytonski ustavni poredak protiv tradicionalnih vrijednosti bosansko-hercegovačkog
društva i države, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH (1910-2010), zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet
Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2011, p. 247.
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blockages may be overcome more successfully on the basis of the unfounded
reference to the vital interests of the constituent peoples than on the basis of vital
interests of the entities.
None of the peoples in BH represent majority, however, the three peoples of
Bosniacs, Serbs and Croats do not have the status of minorities either. In the former
Yugoslav system, these three peoples together had such status like any other
individual nation had in other republics, where a certain nation was a majority and
had a republic named after them: the Slovene nation in Slovenia, the Croatian
nation in Croatia, the Serbian nation in Serbia, the Macedonian nation in
Macedonia,6 the Montenegrin nation in Montenegro and Bosniacs, Serbs and Croats
together in BH. Those peoples who were constituent, each in their own republic,
had a right to self-determination, which also included the right to secession. The
three above-mentioned peoples were generally considered as constituent, yet, none of
them could realize activities that other constituent people from any other republic of
the former Yugoslav Federation could. This position was also taken by the Badinter
Commission, which among other things decided that the former borders between
the republics may only be changed with a common and free international agreement;
otherwise the former “inter-republic” borders adopt characteristics of borders that
are protected by international law.
During and after the last war in BH, the situation of the constituent peoples
changed by deepening differences and contradictions between them. Today these
peoples in BH are in different positions. The Serbs live strictly separated from the
others, they have an absolute supremacy in their entity the “Republika Srpska”, in
which the other two constituent peoples are in a severe subordinate positions; only
the international community may partly limit this entity. The Bosniacs have the
majority and political supremacy in the other entity, the Federation of BH; however,
they are in noticeable minority in the Republika Srpska. The Croats are in visible
minority in the Federation of BH,7 let alone in the Republika Srpska. Owing to their
6
In this text I do not use the name “the former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia”. Firstly, because
Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro are also former Yugoslav republics, and secondly, because in
Slovenia (and often elsewhere, for example the Slovenes in Italy) even the minorities may use their
names and symbols which they pick by themselves, among which also those kinds that are used by their
homelands. (Cf. decision by the Constitutional Court of Slovenia, in the case No. U-I-296/94, adopted
on 28th January, 1999).
7
Addressing that the position of the Croats in the Federation of BH is getting worse is also connected
to the candidacy and election of the Croatian member in the Presidency of BH with the Bosniac votes
and legal interpretation, according to which the third of Croatian representatives is prescribed in the
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�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
dissimilar positions, there are different prevailing point-of-views of the constituent
peoples’ representatives on BH as well as its establishment, past and future. Professor
Dr. Ibrahimagić stresses that there should be a possibility made for Croats and
Bosniacs to return to the Republika Srpska and for the Serbs to return to the
Federation of BH in order to restore the multi-ethnic structure in BH that was
distorted by the war.8
We could say there are extremely diverse possible truths in BH. These are
mostly various stories of BH experienced and displayed by the Bosniacs, the Serbs
and the Croats as well as their homelands. There is also the story of the “third”, i.e.
those people who do not belong to any of the constituent peoples. Perhaps they have
originated from mixed marriages or perhaps they feel loyalty from different reasons
to BH and not to any of the constituent peoples. Additionally, we may talk about
the story about BH portrayed by the representatives of the international community
and international institution.
At some point, before the last Balkan war, there was an impression that a
new people, a new nation was forming in BH and it would gradually take over the
role of the only constituent people and nation, respectively. Especially in Sarajevo,
where the majority of people spoke the same language and the peculiarities of the
Bosniac, Serbian and Croatian language as well as the minorities’ language that
helped shape one common language, lost their priority. During my meetings with
the members of different peoples and minorities, I could assume, mostly on the basis
of their names, what nationality they belonged to. Today, however, is fairly different:
associations among people are mostly within an individual nation, interactions
between the peoples are weakened, the peoples and minorities live separately next to
each other, past one another and frequently against each other.
The situation may be best illustrated in the case of the most important
marginal matter in the world and in the Balkans which is football. For example, the
BH national football team predominantly consists of Bosniac players who are almost
House of Peoples, which may propose candidates, and also if the candidate is proposed by five out of
seventeen Croatian deputies. (Ivica Lučić, Ustavni inženjering u BiH i njegove posljedice, in: Ustavi i
demokratija, strani utjecaji i domaći odgovori, HAZU, Zagreb, 2012, pp. 316, 317) Similar amateur
calculus mistake was made in Slovenia by the administrative Court. cf. Ciril Ribičič, Konstruktiven
odpoklic župana, Pravna praksa No. 23/2014.
8
Omer Ibrahimagić, Kontroverze savremenog ustavnog uredjenja BiH i njegove primjene u praksi, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 253.
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exclusively supported by the Bosniac fans and probably by the “others” as well, while
the Croats, who live in BH, play and support the Croatian national team. The same
applies for the Serbs who live in BH. Even at the European or the World Cup, the
Serbs and the Croats (who live in BH) would not support BH national team, even if
their first choice is not present at the championship anymore, which means that they
do not support the country in which they live and have its citizenship. Even the
President of the Republika Srpska, Dodik, stated that he would only cheer for the
BH national team if they played against Turkey. Dodik is an official who often
“threatens” that, in case Dayton Agreement changes, the Republika Srpska will “go
its own way.”
The international community, the highest organs of the European Union,
the Council of Europe, the UN representatives, the USA and the most important
European countries cannot, by any means, find a way to persuade the political
parties and authorities in BH to finally execute the ruling of the ECtHR in the case
of Sejdić and Finci.9 BH is undoubtedly bound by this ruling; after all, the 47
countries that have ratified the ECHR are committed to execute the rulings of
ECtHR in those cases, in which they acted as a defendant party. In this matter,
UEFA (Union of European Football Association) turned out to be much more
sufficient. By threatening to expel the BH national team and football clubs from the
international competitions, UEFA achieved changing the statute of the BH Football
Association in a few months. This meant that the three BH Football Association
presidents were substituted by one. Therefore, this was an “amendment of a system”
that rigorously reflects the construction of the BH Presidency and the UEFA
decision reflects the ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci.
The capability to motivate and threaten with sanctions (which have
financial consequences) is within international football community evidently much
greater than within its political structures. The foremost reason for this is that BH is
no longer a priority interest for the international community since the importance is
largely given to other world crisis focal points, except when political situations in BH
become intensified. After the war had ended, the international community tried to
help BH with financial support and by encouraging foreign investments to accelerate
re-constructions and to boost the economic growth. Such activities would today be
more than useful and needed or else BH is facing hopelessness and no prospects that
9
Ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci v. BH, complaint No. 27996/06 and 34836/06, adopted on 22nd
December, 2009.
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�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
made, otherwise “fabled” patient Bosniacs, protest a few months ago. Additionally,
the stability of BH and its improved development are also important in terms of
straining and armed conflicts in Muslim countries and between them.
In current situations, the truth about BH portrayed by “the others”, i.e.
those who are not solely associated with the language, culture and religion of any of
the constituent peoples, could potentially be quite important for solving existing
problems in BH. This, however, does not imply that belonging to a certain minority
or denying nationality is a progressive and prosperous matter. Nevertheless, it
implies that “the others” could potentially play a linking role between the entire
residents of BH, regardless of their nationality. The truth of “the others” is perhaps
the closest to the one perceived and promoted by the international community,
therefore, it is no coincidence that the representatives of minorities and the
international community also cooperated very well in the case Sejdić and Finci,
which took place before the Venice Commission and the ECtHR, much like a prewritten film screenplay.
The Venice Commission meticulously anticipated and routed the ruling of
the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci in its afore-mentioned Amicus Curie Brief
No. 483/2008. It credibly pointed out deviations in the constitutional system and
case-law in BH from the ECHR and emphasized the needed compliance of electing
the President of BH and the House of Peoples by prohibiting discrimination in
Article 14 of the ECHR and the general prohibition of discrimination in Protocol
No. 12 in the ECHR. From the viewpoints of the Venice Commission and the
ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci stems an evaluation that even
though the role and status of the constituent peoples have a special meaning in BH,
amendments might be and should be adopted which will consistently respect the
minority rights recognized in the Convention and not only the rights of the
constituent peoples. The Venice Commission considers the ruling in the case Sejdić
and Finci as a small step in the right direction. In a dissenting opinion the Venice
Commission considered different methods to overcome the incompliance of the
current system and case-law with the conventional provisions about the right to vote
and indiscrimination.
Part of the international community, the American one in particular,
wonders why there is not the phenomenon of “melting pot” in BH, similar to the
one in the USA, in which the American nation was born from extremely
heterogeneous crowd of diverse national traditions, which were brought to America
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by the European and other settlers. In BH today, any vigorous reinforcement of such
activities would represent to the majority of people the feeling of endangerment and
new conflicts. It could not, however, be expected that “the others” would be the core
that holds the positive message about loyalty to BH and emphasizes common
interests of everyone as citizens of BH and push aside the special interests and
contradictions, which are frequently and destructively brought into functioning of
BH by the representatives of the constituent peoples and entities. The proposals of
individual European countries are likewise useless since they propose that BH should
follow patterns of normal western European countries as a universal remedy for
solving situations in BH. Moreover, such “transferring” of patterns from elsewhere is
doomed to fail in advance since the Bosnian-Herzegovinian society is not “normal”,
it cannot be compared to other European societies neither by its establishment and
development nor its internal structure based on national and religious peculiarities
and contradictions.
Throughout the existence of the Yugoslav Federation, the same role of “the
others” was also given to those who defined themselves Yugoslavs, as members of a
newly-established Yugoslav nation. The majority of them were precisely in BH, in a
republic which was known for the fact that it may only survive in the frames of the
Yugoslav Federation. This attempt failed due to being exploited by the supporters of
unitary and hegemonic tendencies in the federal institutions of Yugoslavia. At the
beginning of the 1970s, it was decided that the accumulated contradictions would be
solved and common interests would be built on the basis of consideration and
association of special interests of all nations, and not on the basis of their negations.
At that time the theory of the decay of nations in socialism was abandoned and the
strengthening of the position of peoples and republics started. It was a decision that
was never confirmed as acceptable by an important part of the Serbian nation and
their leading centres of the Serbian Academy of Science and Arts (SANU)10, of the
political structures and also within the influential Belgrade constitutional law school.
Even today, the Serbian and Slovene constitutional law views clash on the topic of
what caused the split of the federation,11 either excessive autonomy of the republics
10
Cf. Kriza jugoslovenske federacije i Memorandum SANU, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 443.
Memorandum SANU, which is most commonly attributed to Dobrica Ćosić, evaluated that the
confederation came from federation which means victory of the republic etatisms and egoisms as well as
it turned Yugoslavia in a darkroom for the Serbian nation and Serbia which is divided in three parts
(The same, pp. 444, 445).
11
During the period of the “trust crisis” between the republics and provinces, I advocated the forming
of the asymmetric federation (I was the mentor of Mitja Žagar, who delineated this topic in his
18
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�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
or trying to recentralize and unitarize the country. Nonetheless, undeniably the
worse consequences of the war conflicts because of the tendencies for recentralization
and independence were mainly felt by the residents of BH, especially the Bosniacs.
Today, the status of the constituent peoples in the system and practice does
not enable normal, let alone efficient functioning of the country. Instead of having
fundamental guarantees in the system to respect equal status of all three peoples (and
“the others”) regarding crucial issues of their status, existence, conservation and
development of each of them, the system and practice of interpersonal relations
functions in a way that it disables, destabilize the country and it deactivates its
efficient functioning. Stops and blockades, to which this kind of system leads, have
extra severe consequences in the time of economic crisis. Equality should contribute
to mutual trust, but instead it deepens contradictions, strengthens distrust and it
questions every measure even if it is far from being vital for existence and equality of
a certain nation or entity in BH.
Comparable activities went on in the former Yugoslav federation when a
solution was introduced according to which delegations of republics and provinces in
the Chamber of the Republics and Provinces of the Federal Assembly consensually
decided on important economic and financial matters. However, the difference is
imperative: at the former federal level the blockade, which happened on the basis of
veto called by one of the republics, was solved at the political level where the key role
was played by the monopolistic party, League of Communists of Yugoslavia. Thus,
disagreements were overcome outside of the Parliament in the political “backstage”
with the help of the party forums that made decisions according to the principles of
democratic centralism, in other words, by outvoting them. Today BH is functioning
in the multi-party system, in which the political parties are divided according to
nationality, much like the members of these three constituent peoples and “the
others”.
The solution, however, does not lie in restricting democratic achievements,
but in limiting and narrowing veto on the basis of vital interests of the constituent
peoples and vital interests of the entities. The veto should be limited on the key and
doctorate dissertation that he defended at the Faculty of Law in Ljubljana). In this respect, I considered
that some republics, for example Slovenia, Macedonia and Montenegro, could be in a confederation
position, other republics, which are historically and mutually connected to each other differently, could
be in a position of the federal Member States of a common country.
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vital questions regarding equality and symbiosis of the peoples and entities. What
good is “the peoples equality” if it is implemented in a way that prevents functioning
and successful development of a mutual country and jeopardizes the future of them
all. The goal of communication between the representatives of the equal peoples is
not to block political decision-making in the country, but to function effectively in
the country which is a special interest of each of them and a mutual interest of them
all. In this respect, a proposition by the Venice Commission ought to be mentioned,
which conveys that the “vital national interest”, which is a foundation for veto and is
called by the representatives of the constituent peoples as well as the vital interests of
the entities, should be defined more precisely. These interests should be limited to
key national interests, especially in the fields of language, education and culture.
In accordance with the Venice Commission, BH is supposedly based largely
on the civic principle and no longer on the principle of ethnic affiliation and
representation. I assert that it is justified to demand strengthening of the civic
principle on the account of the national one and it is also necessary to intervene
within the position of the constituent peoples as it was implemented so far.
Accordingly, at this point a warning is appropriate on how far this “movements”
should reach. I disagree with the approaches that perceive the special status of the
constituent peoples as a transient solution, i.e. a thing that is justified only at times
of awakened dangers of rebuilding hatred. The equal status of the constituent
peoples is not something that was fictionally created by the authors of the preamble
added to the Dayton constitution to reach peace or the Constitutional Court of BH
more easily,12 but it has a long-term positive constitutional and legal tradition in BH.
Therefore, the general attacks on the institutions, which “rest” on the representation
of the constituent peoples, are not the right way, instead they raise suspicion, which
is already too prevailing because of the war still being close to the present-day.
Therefore, from the long-term perspective, it would be prosperous for BH to
establish more effective federal constitutional model, founded on the civic principle
and on the special status and equality of the constituent peoples and entities.
A country like B&H should be observed from the point-of-view of interests
of every constituent people or from the perspective of the position of “the others”,
12
The Constitutional Court determined that the peoples in BH have the constituent position
throughout the entire territory of BH and for that reason it is unconstitutional to justify the Republika
Srpska as a state of exclusively the Serbian nation and the Federation of BH only as a community of
Bosniac and Croatian nation. More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Interpretativna moć preambula ustava,
Pravna misao, No. 3-4/2004, p. 13.
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dominance of the principle “one person, one vote” is not acceptable. Additionally, it
is not acceptable that such important questions, for instance constitutional
amendments, be decided on the basis of this principle in the parliament or in the
general referendum. In the last period of the Yugoslav federation’s functioning, this
kind of attempts of forcing recentralization with outvoting by Milošević had severely
accelerated breaking-up the country.13
Despite that, in the former federation, at least from the 1970s onwards,
there was not a similar problem that the ECtHR ruling, in the case Sejdić and Finci,
has determined about the status of “the others” in BH. The Chamber of Peoples
became a semi-chamber in the 1960s and thus lost its rank14, because they tried to
“tame” the centrifugal forces by emphasizing the role of self-governance, delegate
system, communal system and the principle of democratic centralism in the leading
political party on the account of the equal position of the republics. Discontent in
the republics and provinces, which were afraid of losing their hard-earned
independence or autonomy, brought to strengthening the republics, demanding the
complete ensuring of equality as well as parity representation and communication.
Even some confederate elements were introduced, the more important level of
centralization was mostly preserved in the field of defence and international
relations.15 However, this decision did not lead to the anew implementation of the
Chamber of Peoples of the Federal Assembly, which stagnated as a semi-chamber for
a while, but it led to the establishment of the Chamber of the Republics and
13
The Serbian leadership of that time, in accordance with the principle “one person, one vote”, tried to
perform constitutional amendments in the direction of centralisation with the help of all-Yugoslav
referendum, while on the other hand, by unilateral moves, for instance printing money and political
prohibition of purchasing products of Slovene economy, they were convincing the Slovene people to
find the way to European integrations independently. In a similar way, Milošević tried to push out of
BH, or at least narrow completely, the space taken by the Bosniacs in order to undisturbedly discuss
division of BH with Tudjman. Cf. also Ivan Kristan, Federalizem v ustavnem sistemu nove Jugoslavije,
Prispevki za zgodovino delavskega gibanja, Ljubljana, 1982.
14
It was about regulating the Chamber of Peoples as a very weak “semi-chamber” which was not
capable to provide the protection of equality and special rights of the peoples and republics,
respectively. This solution is also proposed by some as an amendment of the Chamber of Peoples in
BH. Cf. Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in: Ustavno
pravni razvoj BiH, p. 417.
15
These confederate elements were decision making on economic questions in the Chamber of the
Republics and Provinces, a parity composition of both Chambers, the way of functioning of the
collective leader of the country, the Presidency of SFRY, the equality of the republics’ constitutions to
the Federal Constitution, etc. More on that: Ciril Ribičič in Zdravko Tomac, Federalizam po mjeri
budućnosti, predgovor Milan Kučan, Globus, Zagreb 1989.
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Provinces that is composed of their delegations. This is similar as if BH would be
organized as a federative country of three entities that would guarantee the rights of
“the others”, among which would be the right to run for the membership of the
second parliamentary chamber. In the republic delegations there were mostly the
representatives of the constituent, majority people after whom the individual
republic carried its name. At the principle level, they were not considered as “onenation” representatives, but as the representative of the people of the republic,
therefore, of all the residents in the republic. In this respect, Slovenia attributed a
special role to autochthonous national communities, the Italians and the
Hungarians,16 which it even mentioned regarding to the self-determination of the
Slovene nation. In addition, the Federal Constitution and the constitutions of all the
republics provided same rights to all of its residents, regardless which republic
citizenship they had.
The afore-mentioned principled stance was a part of Slovenia even
throughout the time of independence17 as it promised, during the preparations to
perform the plebiscite, not to degrade the position of the minorities or those people
who came to Slovenia from other parts of the Federation. On top of that, it
promised that everyone who had permanent residency in Slovenia during the
plebiscite will acquire Slovene citizenship without any further conditions. For the
majority of these people Slovenia kept its promise,18 unfortunately there were also
demands to call a referendum for deprivation of such citizenships which was
prevented by the Constitutional Court. Additionally, the “silent” erasure of the
permanent residency happened to those who did not acquire Slovene citizenship, for
which the Constitutional Court determined, only after several years, that it did not
have the basis for that in the Constitution and statutes. The erasure of permanent
16
Section I of the Basic principles of the Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia, adopted on 28th
February, 1974, the National Gazette of the SRS No. 6/1974.
17
The constitutional and legal theory defines the right to self-determination as pre-constitutional and
above-constitutional right that would not need to be regulated in the normative part of the
Constitution since the formation of an independent country took place and the adoption of its
constitution on its basis. More in that: Kristan, Ribičič, Grad, Kaučič, Državna ureditev Slovenije,
National Gazette RS, Ljubljana, 1994, p. 16.
18
N. Kogovšek Šalamon argues that on the basis of Article 40 of the Citizenship of the Republic of
Slovenia Act, 170 996 individuals acquired Slovenian citizenship – almost twice as much as expected.
2417 applications were denied and many others, for various reasons, did not apply for the citizenship.
Those who did acquire the citizenship were from Bosnia and Herzegovina (46%), Croatia (34%),
Serbia (13%), Macedonia (3%) and Montenegro (3%) respectively. 30% of them were born in
Slovenia. See: N. Kogovšek Šalamon, Pravni vidiki izbrisa iz registra stalnega prebivalstva, pp. 77-82.
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residency to those people who did not acquire Slovene citizenship was a shameful
and cowardly act. Worse than the erasure alone, were the consequences of hesitation
by the Slovene authorities whether to admit and start repairing the calamitous
wrongs, which affected the Erased and their families, after they were “converted”
from the equal residents and citizens to unwanted aliens. Only the pilot ruling of the
Grand Chamber of the ECtHR in the case Kurić v. Slovenia provided the realization
of the Constitutional Court’s decision and also set the basis for fair compensations to
the Erased for violating their rights recognized in the Convention.
Diverse truths about BH reflect also in discussions on constitutional
amendments. At the principle level, it is by no means possible to deny that it is high
time for the “imposed” constitution, whose authentic text is in English (and not in
the degradingly named “local” languages), is replaced by a new one, which will not
be forced by the international community, but it will be democratically adopted by
the elected representatives of the people, the constituent peoples and minorities. It is
clear that the current constitution is not at a level that can be expected from other
European countries’ constitutions and that it is becoming obsolete and harmful.
However, it is evident that the rule about “temporary solutions becoming
permanent” has once again been demonstrated. Amongst the Bosniacs, the Serbs, the
Croats and others, there is not even a slightest indication on how and into what
direction the constitution should be amended. The Bosniacs support the
reinforcement of the civic principle on the account of the system, in which the key
role have the constituent peoples and the elimination, or at least a fading of the
entities’ position; the Serbs will continue to disable every attempt of limiting their
entity, the Republika Srpska19; the Croats see their solution in strengthening their
position20 by forming their entity that will have parity representation and equal role
of the authority at the level of the common country.
19
Their representatives, for instance Milorad Dodik, loudly stress that the republika Srpska will stay in
the frame of Bosnia and Herzegovina only until the implementation of the Dayton constitutional
system, otherwise it is going its own way. Dr. Zlatan Delić warns that the Republika Srpska imposed as
a quasi-state that “climbed over” BH. (Nedopustivo identificiranje nacionalnog, etničnogi religijskog
identiteta kao politička prepreka izgradnji novog ustava BiH, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 381),
while Dobrica Ćosić considers it as the greatest addition to the Serbian nation on the basis of the wars
at the ending of the previous century (Nermin Tursić, Suverenitet BiH u postdejtonskom periodu,
kontroverze tumačenja, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, pp. 477, 478).
20
Ivica Lučić warns that the High Representatives of the international community on one hand very
critically evaluated the Dayton system, and on the other hand, they dismissed those officials who acted
against the Dayton. According to him, the Croatian people had already been “deconstitutionised” – lost
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�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
What can the Constitutional Court of BH do in the current situations? For
the court instances of the highest rank, like constitutional and European courts, it is
typical that their creative role in developmental interpretation of law stands out
exactly when there are no conditions to renovate regulations. This may be illustrated
with the cases of “brave decisions” adopted by the Court of Justice the EU , with
which the supranational position of the EU strengthened during the time when the
Member States did not want to support the propositions for transferring new
jurisdictions onto EU institutions. Similar goes for many rulings by the ECtHR with
which it maintained the existence and functioning of the ECHR in changed
circumstances that the ECHR, by changing protocols, could not follow in any way.
Finally, the same tendencies may be recognized in several decisions of some of the
most distinguished European constitutional courts (German, Polish, Slovene, and
lately also Portuguese), which on behalf of the protection of human rights and
freedoms, do not consider to creatively and developmentally interpret the
constitution, but also reach for the functions of the positive legislator, particularly
when the parliament hesitates to respect the constitution. Namely, I am convinced
that it may every so often be harmful for the protection of the constitutionality to
conservatively persist reading the constitution letter by letter, however, such
developmental interpretation and positive activism by the constitutional judges may
be beneficial since they keep the spirit of the constitution alive in changed
circumstances and spread its influence on the protection and development of human
rights and freedoms. I wonder whether the creative and developmental interpretation
of the Dayton constitution would be this relieving.
For the constitutional court to take such a role it is particularly important
what its independent position is like, its high professional reputation and general
recognition of its legitimacy. In my opinion, legitimacy of its decisions would be
stimulated by changing the voting method, which would provide that the decisions
on the merit are adopted by two-thirds majority vote, hence by six votes out of nine.
When there was a proposition at hand that the decision made by the constitutional
court is adopted only if at least one of the judges from each of the constituent
peoples vote for it, the Venice Commission, at the time when I was not their
member yet, listed a number of convincing objections against such amendment.21
My proposition is different; however, it does consider that the Constitutional Court
its position as constituent people in the Federation of BH with the decisions of the High Representative
of the international community and with the decisions made by the courts (The same. p. 311 and seq.)
21
The Venice Commission, in its Opinion No. 344/2008, adopted on 22nd October, 2005, referred to
principled and practical reasons, for which it does not advise the proposed amendments.
24
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of BH is composed of three judges, who are appointed, according to foreign experts,
by the president of the ECtHR. This makes the questioning of decision legitimacy of
the Constitutional Court of BH be ruled differently than in every other European
country. Perhaps, a warning as well, which proved to be of relevance when shaping
the starting point for amending the Constitution of the Federation of BH: due to
the difficulties encountered in the operation of the executive authority bodies, we
should not be resorting to the excessive strengthening of the representative bodies on
the account of the principle of separation of powers and independence of the
Government.
Ensuring the stronger influence of “the others”, i.e. those residents that do
not belong to any of the constituent peoples, is not in a special interest of any of the
constituent peoples. The differences may be that the Bosniacs support the changes to
some extent; the Croats are unenthusiastic, whereas the Serbs quite often openly
contradict them. Regarding the question on how to realize the ruling in the case
Sejdić and Finci, a warning raises that along the three constituent peoples and two
entities, there should not be the existence of the subject, which would additionally
contribute to disable an efficient functioning of BH. For adopting decisions in the
Presidency of BH, it would be even worse to keep things the way they are and add
the fourth member to represent “the others” and the vital interests of those residents
that do not belong to any of the constituent peoples. Considering this, it is worthy
to mention the convincing point-of-view by the Venice Commission, saying that in
the event when the introduction of an individual president is not realistic (who may
continuously originate from the constituent peoples and from “the others”), all
major executive jurisdictions should be transferred from the Presidency of BH to the
Government. This warning should already be considered in the realization of the
ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci, not only in the frames of contemplation on global
constitutional reform.
In 2009, professor Dr. Kasim Trnka22 advocated for the three most urgent
amendments that would represent an introduction to more comprehensive
constitutional reform: (1) eliminating those solutions that are not compliant with
the ECHR, (2) constitutionalisation of already executed reforms and (3)
amendments in jurisdictions of state authorities that are obligatory due to coming
22
Kasim Trnka, Specifičnosti ustavnog uredjenja Bosne i Hercegovine, Revus, No. 11/2009, ed. C.
Ribičič, p. 45. In the same issue, an article is published by Dženeta Miraščić and Zlatan Begič, Pravna
priroda bosanskohercegovačkog pluralnog društva i najznačajnije specifičnosti njegovog savremenog
ustavnog uredjenja, p. 73.
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close to Euro-Atlantic integrations. These amendments seemed fairly restricted at
that time and not ambitious enough. Today, five years later, it can be observed that
they were too optimistic according to political and other conflicts, which rule BH. If
this continues, the predictions and desires about coming close to European
integrations23 will become increasingly utopian and will lose strength in stimulating
the necessary constitutional amendments.
Regarding its constitutionality, BH has rich historical traditions and quite
uncertain future. The experts of the constitutional and legal development talk about
more than a hundred years old development of BH which supposedly already started
with the adoption of the “vilajeta bosanskog” Constitutional law in 1867 and with
the adoption of the Constitution of BH on 17th February in 1910 when the
territorial integrity of BH was recognized by the Austro-Hungarian monarchy with
the “zemaljski statut”, titled “constitution for BH” 24 by professor Imamović.25
The Venice Commission already warned in 2005 that the founding problem
of the system and functioning of BH is linked to the fact that this country, unlike
other European countries, is not independent, its constitutional system is not a
reflection of the people, the constituent peoples and “the others”, therefore the
members of minority groups. It is a system that was forced to this country so it
would stop military attacks, which took 200.000 casualties, and keep peace
permanently. If any war, than the war in BH in the 1990s is an example that those,
who started this war from the outside, were aware of the long-term consequences
before the outbreak of hatred (hundred thousands of dead, ten times more wounded
and forced to migrate (ethnical cleansing), not even mentioning the emotional scars
that the war aftermath leaves on the transnational relations and the possibility of
constructive cooperation between peoples who were at war due to hegemonic
tendencies of their homelands).26 Undoubtedly, the historical credit goes to the
23
The Venice Commission already warned in 2005 that the EU would not negotiate with two entities
on BH entering the EU, for which it advocated the state jurisdiction strengthening on the account of
the entities.
24
Cf. Mustafa Imamović, Historija Bošnjaka, Preporod, Bošnjačka zajednica kulture, Sarajevo, 1997, p.
433 and seq.
25
More on that: Bećir Macić, Ustav BH iz 1910 i aktuelne ustavne rasprave, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj,
p. 107 and seq.
26
After the war, data came out on conscious undermining of BH sovereignty in order to conquer a part
of the territory and divided it, respectively. In this respect, a transcript between the Croatian party
HDZ and HDZ BH delegation is very convincing, in which the Croats from Sarajevo warn about the
catastrophic consequences of the attacks bound to happen due to tendencies for affiliating Herzeg-
26
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Dayton Agreement and the constitution written in it as well as to those who
successfully implemented it in order to restore peace, without which it would not be
able to renew the functioning of BH. One of the fundamental questions regarding
the role of international community in today’s BH is whether it can autonomously
ensure permanent peace and cooperation between the peoples as well as successful
functioning of the country which will not require repeating peacekeeping missions
from the outside?
Is there a sufficient level of mutual trust so there is no danger for another
wave of new conflicts and attacks? In my opinion, sudden retreat of the international
community from BH could potentially lead back to restoring hatred and attacks,
which would not only be political but it could also once more lead to attempts to
conquer territories by military force and with the help of the extremists from the
outside. Without active functioning of the international community’s
representatives, even today it is still impossible to form contemporary constitutional
and legal solutions as a foundation for successful functioning of a democratic
country, and there are even less possibilities to ensure the kind of level needed to
adopt new constitution. From up close, on the invitation by an experts group, and
partly also from within,27 I have observed the work of the experts group for the
constitutional amendments in the Federation of BH where the role of the
international community, in this case the Embassy of the USA, was exemplary as
well as constructive and most certainly it was much more diplomatic than we have
been used to over the past years, unfortunately also in Slovenia. Their role, namely,
was focused on the financial and other support to try and search for better
Bosnia to Croatia as well as they advocate the preservation of BH sovereignty and that together with the
Bosniacs defend its independence and integrity. They warned about standing up to all-Serbian
tendencies that wish for the Bosniacs to be pushed out of BH as well as they want Slovenians leaving
the Yugoslav federation. They stumbled upon two answers by Dr. Tudjman and his followers. The first
was that in public they can still talk about supporting the united BH, however, secretly they should
continue with the preparation for secession, which will allow for the unification of the Croatian people
in its maximum possible extent in the Republic of Croatia. The second answer was that the
independent BH cannot sustain, but if it could, it would make ties with Serbia rather than Croatia.
More or less, it was also very clearly said that, in the event of the Bosniacs actually do stand up to the
mutual offer of the Serbs and the Croats about a miniature state around Sarajevo, which would be a
“buffer zone” between Serbia and Croatia, there would be a military attack on them. Cf. Zapisnik sa
sastanka predsjednika Republike Hrvatske dr. Franje Tudjmana s delegacijom HDZ BH, in: Ciril
Ribičič, Geneza jedne zablude, Ustavnopravna analiza nastanka in delovanja Hrvaške skupnosti HercegBosne, Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija, 2001, p. 113 and seq.
27
Ciril Ribičič, Mišljenja Venecianske komisije i preporuke za promjene ustava, zbornik radova, Pravni
fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
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constitutional solutions at the level of the Federation of BH, without dictating the
experts group that formed, what should the content of the final result of their work
look like.
The ruling of the ECtHR in the case Sejdić and Finci addressed the
professional and general public in BH about the meaning of the protection of
human rights and freedoms and within this context also the consideration of the
minimal standards that ECHR sets as a commitment for all the Members States of
the Council of Europe. This is the question that within the context of contemplating
on new constitutional system should not be disregarded. My assessment is that the
best introduction to a deepened debate on human rights and freedoms would be if
the new constitution exemplified the German Constitution and the Charter of
Fundamental Rights of the EU at the very beginning of the normative work and
analysed the meaning of human dignity (mentioned in the preamble) and
emphasized it a restriction provided by the constitution, which should not be crossed
by any authoritative body. In those countries, where such an approach is not
implemented in the constitution, for instance in Slovenia, only with the help of the
Constitutional Court the principle of human dignity raises to the constitutional goal,
meaning and a boundary of a democratic country.
Strengthening the functions of the state level of BH and in this respect also
the strengthening of the executive jurisdictions of the Government is likewise
important from another perspective. BH does not have enough opportunities to
implement the holders of common interests, the interests that consider every special
and vital interest, but at the same time build on the necessity of their relations and
overcoming differences. Much like the football team cannot be successful if it does
not include its best players regardless of their nationality, the Government likewise
cannot be at the level of extremely demanding measures if it does not include its best
politicians, regardless of the entity they come from and regardless of whether they
belong to any of the constituent peoples or “the others”. Those who have lived in the
Federal regulated countries understand what I am talking about. Despite that, let me
mention a comparison which includes functioning of international organizations and
their bodies. At first glance, it is evident that the most successful officials of the
influential European countries do not see their political careers continue as the
bodies of the EU or the Council of Europe. This is even more obvious at the global
level. How come it is not probable that none of the current Presidents of the USA,
Russia, France or the chancellor of Germany at the end of their mandates do not see
a logical advancement of their political careers as the UN Secretary General, or as the
28
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President of the European Commission, or as the Secretary General of the Council
of Europe?
The position of the electoral system is also connected to the question of the
position of the constituent peoples and “the others”. When referring to it as the
representative chamber, it should be regulated according to the rules that apply for
the general political representation, therefore the lower chamber in the parliamentary
federative regulated countries. Current system, among other things, opens the
question on respecting equal voting right, considering that the parity representation
of the constituent peoples is provided (two-third from the Federation of BH and
one-third from the Republika Srpska).28 Dr. Zlatan Begić advocates the introduction
of the German combined electoral system, in which each voter has two votes and
with that the power of partytocracy is limited and the personalisation of the elections
is strengthened.29 Among other things, the advantage of this system is that the
personalisation, unlike the majority system, is achieved in a way that it does not lead
to the polarization of the political space into two blocks.30
In my opinion, for BH the most appropriate electoral system would be the
Irish one (single transferable vote) that has more or less same effects as the German
combined system, and on top of that, it also gives large importance to the second,
third, fourth… selection of the voters. This would contribute to the success of those
candidates who would also be acceptable by the members of other peoples,31 not just
to those people to which the voter and the candidate belong to. In this way, it would
contribute to the structure that would be more appropriate from the perspective of
communication and overcoming the special interests of the nations.
In BH, the reputation and influence of the official at the state level should
be strengthened in different ways in comparison to the position in the entities and
cantons. This may be achieved by raising the awareness that without the
constitutional reform, strengthening the jurisdictions of the national authorities,
28
More on that: Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, pp. 404-408.
29
The same, p. 417.
30
More on that: Ciril Ribičič, Primerjava prednosti in slabosti volilnih sistemov, Zbornik znanstvenih
razprav, Pravna fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2013, p. 57 and seq.
31
Mirjana Kasapović, Izborni leksikon, Politička kultura, Zagreb, 2003, pp. 20, 21. The author stresses
that in this kind of electoral system, the least unpopular candidates are elected.
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amendments of the electoral system and the successful cooperation between the
representatives of the constituent peoples and others, there will not be an effective
development of BH, its entities and local communities. Even the successful
realization of the ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in this field cannot change
much. Despite that, it cannot be denied that the most successful people, at the BH
state level, could be exactly those who belong to “the others” since they have always
been underestimated and unequal at all levels to the extent that they are motivated
for more responsible functioning at the state level.
2. References
30
Brewer-Carias, Allan R. (ed.), Constitutional Courts as Positive Legislators – A
Comparative Law Study, Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Zlatan Begić, Medjunarodni demokratski standardi u izbornom sistemu BiH, in:
Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH (1910-2010), zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet
Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2011, pp. 401 and seq.
Zlatan Delić, Nedopustivo identificiranje nacionalnog, etničnog i religijskog
identiteta kao politička prepreka izgradnji novog ustava BiH, in: Ustavno pravni
razvoj BiH, p. 381 and seq.
European Court of Human Rights: Ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci v. BH,
complaint No. 27996/06 and 34836/06, adopted on 22nd December, 2009.
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Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
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demokratija, strani utjecaji i domaći odgovori, HAZU, Zagreb, 2012, pp. 316
and seq.
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pluralnog društva i najznačajnije specifičnosti njegovog savremenog ustavnog
uredjenja, Revus, No. 11/2009, ed. C. Ribičič, p. 73.
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Hrvatske zajednice Herceg-Bosne, Jesenski i Turk, Zagreb, Sarajevo, Idrija,
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Ciril Ribičič, Interpretativna moć preambula ustava, Pravna misao, No. 34/2004, p. 13 and seq.
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zbornik radova, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, Tuzla, 2014, (in print).
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Rights Protection in Europe: A View from Central and Eastern Europe, in: L.R.
Basta Fleiner, T. Marinković (eds.), Key Developments in Constitutionalism and
Constitutional Law, Eleven, Utreht 2014.
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znanstvenih razprav, Pravna fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 2013, p.
57 and seq.
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bosansko-hercegovačkog društva i države, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 247
and seq.
Kasim Trnka, Specifičnosti ustavnog uredjenja Bosne i Hercegovine, Revus, No.
11/2009, ed. C. Ribičič, p. 45 and seq.
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tumačenja, in: Ustavno pravni razvoj BiH, p. 475 and seq.
Venice Commission, Opinion and studies on Bosnia and Herzegovina:
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
31
�Dr. Ciril Ribičič
32
No. 736/2013 - Amicus Curiae on the compatibility with the nondiscrimination Principle of the section of the Republic Day of Republika Srpska,
No. 723/2013 - Opinion on the Draft Law on the Courts of Bosnia and
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located on the territory of the Republika Srpska and under the disposal ban,
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and of the statute of the City of Mostar,
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Bosnia and Herzegovina,
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and Herzegovina,
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
No. 375/2006 - Opinion on the Draft Amendments to the Constitution of
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
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Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
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Herzegovina,
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of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
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Chamber and the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
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Ethnic Minorities: the European Context, in: Slovenia & European Standards for
the Protection of National Minorities, INV, Ljubljana 2002.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
33
�
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Truths about Bosnia and Herzegovina, Conflict or Synergy
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Abstract: The author discusses the importance of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci in terms of necessary constitutional amendments that will establish Bosnia and Herzegovina as a normal European democratic country, which is independent and capable of integration in the EU. According to the author, BH is facing an inter-personal conflict of interests of constituent peoples which are harming them and the development of the state they reside in. He agrees the greater prominence of the constitutional system of BH should be given civic on the account of the national principle, however, this should not mean neglecting the concern for the equality of the constituent peoples and entities. Since the last war ended, these peoples have been living next to each other far too separately, and several times still against each other. In BH, various truths of the constituent peoples, "the others" and the international community are fronting. So far they have mostly been in conflict with one another rather than cooperating in synergy. The international community is undeniably accredited for terminating war-oriented hatred and maintaining permanent peace in BH. However, the "imposed" Dayton constitutional system has become the reason for inhibiting the development of BH. For that reason, the international community should transform its influence in such manner that it still stays the peace guarantor, but at the same time not jeopardize the BH independence to such an extent that it continues to represent the insurmountable obstacle to enter the EU. Strengthening the position and influence of "the others", i.e. those who are not the members of the constituent peoples, and considering their truths about BH, may bring fresh solutions in current problems and in searching for the new constitutional solutions. Therefore, the realization of the ECtHR ruling in the case Sejdić and Finci represents a small, yet constructive step in the right direction.
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Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Stanimir Rakić
Non-affiliated, Serbia
Submitted: 17.04.2014.
Accepted: 06.11.2014.
Abstract
Following the earlier works of Booij (1985) and Nespor & Vogel (1986) I provide further
evidence that English compounds are made up of prosodic words. The length of the first
components must be preserved because they are identical to basic lexical forms. In some other
languages, as for example in Serbian, the length of the first components may be shortened
because the inclusion of linking vowels can contribute to the building of the required ‘derived
environment’ (Kiparsky 1985). This invoking of the strict cyclicity condition is however
necessary only for those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily
closed. In this paper I discuss the prosodic status and quantity of English compounds.
Keywords: English Compounds, prosodic structure, trochaic shortening, quantity, stric cyclicity
The introduction of prosodic phonology has shown that besides grammatical hierarchy there also
exists prosodic hierarchy (s. Selkirk 1978, Nespor & Vogel 1982, 1986, Booij 1983, 1985).
These hierarchies are in most cases parallel, but still they do not coincide. The parallelism
between these hierarchies can be represented as in the following table:
(1)
prosodic hierarchy
grammatical hierarchy
segment
segment
syllable (σ)
morpheme
foot (F)
prosodic word (ω)
morpho-syntactic word
prosodic phrase (φ)
syntactic phrase
(Booij 1985, p. 29)
According to Selkirk (1978, 1980) the units of prosodic hierarchy are exactly those domains in which
phonological rules processes apply. The grammar must determine what relations exist between
prosodic and grammatical hierarchies. In the languages such as English and Dutch every syntactic
word is usually also a prosodic word, but this is not always the case. Booij (1985, p. 29) notes that in
the languages such as English and Dutch the following differences are possible:
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�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
(2a)
(b)
In compounds every component is an independent prosodic word;
Some affixes, which may be denoted as non-coherent, make particular, independent
prosodic words.
Besides the Dutch examples, Booij cites the following English ones:
(3)
[blackAboardN]N - (black)ω (board) ω
[publicAity]N
(publicity)ω
[king Ndom]N
- (king) ω(dom) ω
The first example represents compound components, while the following two are respectively the
derivatives with coherent and non-coherent suffixes. The coherent suffix –ity combines with the
stem 'public into a prosodic word pu'blicity, while the non-coherent suffix -dom makes a separate
prosodic word. With non-coherent suffixes there is no resyllabification across morphem
boundaries that mark separate prosodic words. A particularly impressive example is the
derivative with non-coherent suffix -achtig in Dutch. In the adjective roodachtig ('reddish') the
principle of the maximal onset rule does not apply:
(4)
roodachtig - (rood)w(achtig)w
The compelling evidence is the devoicing of the syllable-final /d/ showing that this segment
belongs to the coda, not to the onset – there is no resyllabification over the boundary of prosodic
words (Booij, 2002, p. 189).
Kiparsky (1979) also cites examples showing that the compound components in English
are separate prosodic words. In the following English compounds the principle of maximal onset
does not apply:
(5a)
beef eater - (beef)w(eater)w / *(bee)w(feater)
(b)
bee feeder - (bee)w(feeder)w
In (5a) the components are separate prosodic words – the coda of the first component /f/ does not
go over into the onset of the second component, although /f/ is a possible onset, as the example
feeder shows. The examples (5a) and (5b) are clearly different as the first /i/ is phonetically
shorter in beef than in bee.
In this paper we intend to show further evidence that the components of English compounds are
separate prosodic words.
2. In many languages the compounds are understood as combining of prosodic words. This means that
all phonological rules whose domain is a prosodic word can be applied separately on the compound
components, but not on the whole compound. This is true for phonotactic restrictions as well as for
segmental and prosodic rules. In English there is a phonotactic restrictions that geminated consonants
cannot appear inside prosodic words. The geminated consonants are not possible inside the compound
components, but they can appear at the components boundary as is shown in (6):
(6)
back.cloth /'bæk-kl/ n.
big game /bg'gem/ n.
bird dog /'b:ddɒg/ n.
black comedy /blæk'kɒmdi/ n.
fast track /'fɑ:sttræk/ n.
goosestep /'gu:s-step/ n.
etc.
However, in lexicalized compounds degemination is possible. Thus in granddaughter
/'grænd:t/, the /d/ from the end of the first component is lost. The simplification of the
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
pronunciation reflects the lexicalized meaning of this compound, which deviates from the
compositional meaning implied by the components.1
Another phonotactical restriction refers to the agreement of obstruent in voicing. In the interior
of prosodic words the adjacent obstruents must agree in voicing, but at the boundary of
components this is not be the case. This property of English compounds may be illustrated with
the following examples.
(7)
back.bit.ing /'bækbatƞ/ n.
back.bone /'bækbn/ n.
baggage car /'bægdkɑ:/ n.
bag.pipes /'bægpaps/ n.
band.stand /'bændstænd/ n.
bank.book /'bæƞkbk/ n.
bank draft /'bæƞkdr:ft/ n.
news.stand /'nju:zstænd/ n.
etc.
These examples clearly show that the given phonotactic restriction does not hold in English
compounds, although they do hold in prosodic words. In some lexicalized compounds however
the adjacent obstruents may agree in voicing. Thus for newspaper the variant pronunciations
/'nju:zpep/ and /'nju:spep/ are possible, but for the noun gooseberry pronunciation is
normally /'gzbri/. Note however that newspaper and gooseberry are lexicalized compounds their meaning does not follow compositionally from the meaning of their components.
The third known restriction refers to the velarization of nasals in prosodic words. In English, the
alveolar /n/ is velarized before velars (e.g.. finger /'fƞg/, uncle /'ƞkl/, pancreas
/'pæƞkris/) in prosodic words (Gimson 2001, p. 199). In English compounds velarization does
not apply across morpheme boundary:
(8)
corn.cob /'k:nkɒb/ n.
corn.crake /'k:nkrek/ (the bird) n.
man.kind /mæn'kand/ n.
green.grocer /'gri:ngrs/ n.
bean counter /'bi:nkant/ n.
pan.cake /'pænkek/ n.
etc.
In lexicalized compounds velarization can occur as in hand.ker.chief /'hæƞktʃf/ (Allen 1978,
p. 129).
In English, as in many other languages, syllabification does not apply across the compound
boundaries because of the assumed principle that the syllable boundary must coincide with the
morphem boundary (Gimson 2001, p. 52).2 Wells, who also assumes this principle, explains this
principle in his introduction to the LPD (1990) in the following way:
(11)
The syllable boundary coincides with the word boundary, and also with the morpheme
boundary between the compound components.
1
In American English the compound granddad may be also written grandad, which means that lexicalization is also reflected
in the spelling.
2Gimson (2001, p. 244) invokes four criteria for the word division: morphemic, phonemic, phonotactic and alophonic, but he
adds that these criteria sometimes do not agree, and then we may additionally use the principle of maximal onset.
269
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Booij (2007) cites Dutch examples that show that the sequence /lk/ is divided inside prosodic
words (e.g. kal.koenen 'turkey'), but is included in the coda if it occurs at the end of prosodic
words (e.g. balk 'beam'). When lk is at the end of the first compound component, as for example
in balk anker ( 'a support for the beam'), there is no resyllabification across the components
boundary, and the sequence /lk/ remains in the coda of the first component. It is not difficult to
find similar examples for English:
(12a)
abundant /.'bn.dnt/ adj. (b)
land owner /'lndn/ n.
advantage /d.'vɑ:n.td/ n. current account /'k.rnt..kant/ n.
franchise /'frn.taz/ n.
lunch hour /'lnt. a/ n.
bolster /'bl.st/ v.
false alarm /f:s.'l:m/ n.
alternate /:l.'t:.nt/ adj.
adult education /.dlt.e.dj.ke./ n.
Moldova /'ml,dv/
field officer /'fi:ld.:fs/ n.
Atlanta /t.'ln.t/ n.
battleaxe /'bt.l.ks/ n.
temper /'tem.p/ n.
stamp office /'stmp.:fs/ ,n.
Amundsen /':.mnd.s n/
Land's End /lndz.'end/
In (12a) the underlined consonant sequences nd, nt, nt, ls, lt, ld, tl, mp and ds are divided in
prosodic words, while in (12b) they remain in the coda of the first component in compounds
because there is no resyllabification across morphem boundary. Note however that there is no
resyllabification when the second order suffixes are added, either, even in the cases when they
begin with vowels (e.g. land.ed adj., land.ing n., thorn.y adj., stamp.ing n., Booj 1983, p. 267).
The impossibility of resyllabification across the morpheme boundary in compounds also affects
the realization of affricates in English. The affricates in English are complex segments produced
by combining plosives and fricatives. In English these are the combinations /tʃ/, /d/, /tr/ i /dr/.
Inside prosodic words, the combinations of these voices are pronounced as affricates, but at the
conjunction of compounds they remain separated because they belong to different syllables.
Table 1. The place of affricates in prosodic units
In the Interior of
At the Compound Conjunction
Words
butcher
lightship
/t/
/tr/
mattress
Footrest
/dr/
tawdry
Handrail
Gimson (2001: 172)
The example for the affricate /d/ is difficult to find because only some words of French origin
begin with //, and these rarely appear as the second components in compounds.
Further evidence that English compounds are not prosodic words is provided by the allophony of
the alveolar approximant /l/. In English, the alveolar approximant /l/ appears in two allophonic
forms: palatalized and velarized (Gimson 2001, p. 203, Čubrović, p. 2011, 60). In the compounds
in which the first component ends with /l/, and the second begins with a vowel, /l/ is not
palatalized:
(13)
battleaxe /'bt.l.ks/ n.
barrel organ /'b.r.l.:.gn/ n.
capital assets /k.p.tl.'s.et/ n.
real estate /'rl..stet/ n.
270
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
travel agent /'trv.l.ed.nt/ n.
waffle iron /'w:f.l.ar.n/ n.
bottle opener /'bt.l.p.n'/ n.
mail order /'ml.:d./ n.
It is possible that in some cases the /l/ from the end of the first component is nonetheless palatalized.
This will be the signal that the compound in question is lexicalized – it is understood as one whole. In
fact, this is how Booij (1994, p. 8) interprets the observation of Durand (1990, p. 181) that in the
compound mail order the /l/ is palatalized. In lexicalized compounds, resyllabification across
morpheme boundary is possible, and, as usual in a such cases, the compound mail order is divided in
syllables as a monomorphemic word, i.e. mai.lor.der.3
2. The vowel length of the first component in English compounds usually does not shorten,
although it may shorten in Serbian and some other languages. In this paper, I try to explain why this
shortening is lacking in English.
It is well known that in trochaic systems, feet may be ordered by the following hierarchy:
(14)
(LL), (H)
>
(HL) >
(L),
where H denotes heavy syllable, and L light syllable (Prince 1990, p. 8).
According to Prince (1990), in trochaic systems the trochaic shortening (HL) → (LL) produces the
preferred foot structure because (LL) and (H) are the optimal feet in trochaic systems. The trochaic
shortening is a lexical rule that applies in derived environments; however, it never applies in English
compounds.
In English, each compound component represents a separate prosodic word. As nouns and
adjectives in English may contain long vowels, the first compound components may also contain such
vowels. In (15), the point marks the syllable division, which normally does not cross the morpheme
boundary.
(15a) boot.leg /'bu:tleg/
pea.nut /'pi:nt/
cheek.bone /'tʃi:kbn/
(b)
auc.tion bridge /':kʃәnbrd/
for.tune cook.ie /'f:tʃәn.kki /
(c)
ba.na.na peel /bә'nɑ:nәpi:l/
beau.ti.ful /'bju:t.fl/
fea.ture film /'fi:tʃә.flm/
LDCE (2003)
In the examples provided in (15), the length of the first components does not shorten. In the examples
of (15a), the first components consist of one foot of the type (H), which does not undergo shortening
because it is optimal according to the hierarchy (14). In the example (15b) the first components
auc.tion and for.tune consist of two heavy syllables (H)(H), and with this foot structure no shorting is
possible. The shortening is only possible if there is the foot (HL) in a prosodic word, and the first
syllable is not closed. In (15a) and (15b) this condition is not fulfilled.
The conditions for trochaic shortening are not fulfilled in (15c), either, because every component
behaves as a separate prosodic word that keeps its lexical form. The first components banana
/bә.'nɑ:.nә/, beauty /bju:.t/ and feature /'fi:.tʃә/ are lexical words, and the environment in which the
3
In EPD the compound mail order is devided into syllables with mail.or.der where /l/ is velarised. Obviously some
dictionaries, as well as some speakers, may differently asses (estimate) whether a particular compound is lexicalized or not.
271
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
length occurs in (15c) has not been changed. The principle of strict cyclicity bans the application of
lexical rules in a non-derived environment. Kiparsky (1985) explains that ‘derived environment’ means
“an environment which satisfies the structural description of the rule either by virtue of a
morphological operation on the same cycle, or by virtue of the prior application of a phonological rule
on the same cycle” (p. 137). The domain of foot formation as well as the domain of syllabification is a
prosodic word. The first components banana, beauty and feature are respectively divided into feet
(bә)F('nɑ:.nә)F, ('bju:.t)F and ('fi:.tʃә)F. The feet ('nɑ:n.ә)F, ('bju:t)F and ('fi:.tʃә)F contain the heavy, but
also open, first syllables. The conditions for trochaic shortening are satisfied, but the trochaic
shortening cannot apply because the first components of compounds in (15c) do not occur in a derived
environment. Therefore, the shortening of the vowel length of the first components in these compounds
is not possible. Because of the principle of strict cyclicity, the shortening of the vowel length of the
second components in English compounds is also impossible.
If the compound is lexicalized, the vowel shortening of the first component may be possible in English.
The compound gooseberry is pronounced /'gzbәri/ in the standard which reflects Received
Pronunciation. Because of lexicalization, in the basic form /'gu:sbәri/, the adjacent obstruents undergo
agreement in voice and the whole word is divided into syllables as a monomorphemic word –
gu:.zbә.ri. The first two syllables make up a foot, and the third syllable is extrametrical. In the metrical
structure (gu:.zbә)F<ri>, the foot (gu:.zbә)F satisfies the conditions for trochaic shortening which as a
result produces the outcome /gu.zbәri/. The alternative pronunciation /'gu:sbәri/ survives in those
English dialects in which this compound is not completely lexicalized (s. LDCE). In the pronunciation
/'gu:sbәri/, the components are separately divided into syllables, which provides the division 'gu:s.bә.ri.
The foot division gives ('gu:s)F(bә)F<ri> where the final syllable is extrametrical. The first foot is
heavy, and therefore optimal, which means that no trochaic shortening is possible.
In Serbian, the length of the first component in compounds is often shortened, and this shortening is
simply accounted for as trochaic shortening in the words with long-falling accents.4
(16)
kȓv ’blood’ > kȑvotōk ’bloodstream’
vid ’sight’ > vidokrug ’field of vision’
In (16), the compounds are constructed with a linking vowel -o-, which provides for the required
derived environment. The underlying structures for the compounds in (16) are parsed into feet with
(kȓvo)F(tōk)F and (vido)F(krug)F. Here the first components fulfill the conditions for trochaic
shortening, and the result are the forms kȑvotōk and vidokrug with short syllables in the first
component. In (16), the linking vowel has the crucial role as it provides a derived environment. If
there is no linking vowel in compounds, the shortening is impossible:
(17)
prah-šečer ’powdered sugar’, ton-film ’soundfilm’, gol-razlika ’goal difference’ (in
sport).
In (17), the components keep their accents and length, and, in particular, the first components prah
’powder’, ton ’tone’, gol ’goal’ keep their long-falling accent. In the grammars, the compounds of
this type are called semi-compounds (’polusloženice’) because they do not make prosodic words.
In standard Serbian, as in the other standard languages based on Neoštokavian dialects of former Yugoslavia, the four
different accents are commonly distinguished:
short-falling
long-falling
short-rising
long-rising
riba ’fish’
grad ’town’
selo ’village’
glava ’head’
The case of the long-falling accent is somewhat more complicated because its shortening involves a change of tone, the reason for
which is not completely clear (e.g. hvalospēv ’eulogy’ < hvála ’praise’-o-spêv ’poem’, s. Rakić 2012).
4
272
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
3. I must however note that the accent of the words in (15c) is marked differently in different
dictionaries. For example, in LPD (1990), the accented syllables are always closed. In this dictionary,
the first components in (15c) have the transcriptions banana /bә.'nɑ:n.ә/, beauty /'bju:t./, feature
/'fi:tʃ.ә/, where the accented syllables are closed, and no trochaic shortening is possible. On the other
hand, in CALD (2008) the same words are phonetically transcribed with /bә.'nɑ:.nә/, /'bju:.t/ and
/'fi:.tʃәr/ suggesting that there may exist dialectal differences in the syllabification of these words. In
those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily closed, we are free to recall
the principle of strict cyclicity in order to account for the lack of shortening of the first components in
compounds, because the conditions for trochaic shortening are fulfilled. The observations made in this
paper may have some explanatory value for these dialects only.
References
Allen, M. (1978) Morphological Investigation. University of Connecticut. Unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Booij, G. (1983) Principles and parameters in prosodic phonology. Linguistics, 21, p. 249-280.
Booij, G. (1985) The Interaction of Phonology and morphology in Prosodic Phonology. In E.
Gussmann (Ed.) Phono-Morphology. Studies in the Interaction of Phonology and
Morphology, Lublin, Poland, p. 23-35.
Booij, G. (1994) Lexical phonology: a review. In R. Wiese (Ed.) Theorie des Lexikons. Arbeiten des
Sonderforschungsbereichs, 282. Düsseldorf, Germany: Heinrich-Heine-Universität, p. 287305.
Booij, G. (2007) Construction morphology and the lexicon. In F. Montermini. G. Boyé & N.
Harbout (Eds.) Selected proceedings of the 5th Décembrettes Morphology in Toulouse.
Somerville, Mass.: Cascadilla Press, p. 34-44.
Durand, J. (1990) Generative and Non-Linear Phonology. London: Longman.
EPD, English Pronouncing Dictionary (2003) Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Gimson, A.C. (2001) Gimson's Pronunciation of English, 6th edition, revised by A. Cruttenden.
London, England: Arnold.
Hayes, B. (1995) Metrical Stress Theory. Principles and Case Studies, Chicago, IL: The
University of Chicago Press.
Kiparsky, P. (1979) Metrical structure assignment is cyclic, Linguistic Inquiry, 10, p. 421-441.
LDCE (2003) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 3rd edition. Essex, England:
Longman.
LPD, J.C. Wells (1990) Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Essex, England:
Longman.
Nespor, M. & I. Vogel (1982) Prosodic domains of external sandhy rules. In H. van der Hulst &
N. Smith (Eds.), The Structure of Phonological Representation, vol. 1. Dordrecht,
Holland: Foris Publications, p. 222-255.
Nespor, M. & I. Vogel (1986). Prosodic Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris.
273
�The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Prince, A. (1990) Quantitative consequences of Rhythmic Organization. In CLS 26, Chicago
Linguistic Society, IL, p. 355-398.
Rakić, S. (2012) Trochaic Lengthening in Neoštokavian. In Junghanns, U. et al. (Eds.) Formal
Description of Slavic Languages: The Ninth Conference, Proceedings of FDSL 9,
Göttigen 2011.Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Peter Lang, p. 237-258.
Selkirk, E. (1978) On prosodic structure and its relation to syntactic structure. In T. Fretheim
(ed.) Nordic Prosody II. Trondheim, Norway: TAPIR. 111-140.
Selkirk, E. (1980) The role of prosodic categories in English word stress. Linguistic Inquiry, 11,
3, p. 563-605.
274
�
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The Prosody and Quantity of English Compounds
Author
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Rakić, Stanimir
Abstract
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Following the earlier works of Booij (1985) and Nespor & Vogel (1986) I provide further evidence that English compounds are made up of prosodic words. The length of the first components must be preserved because they are identical to basic lexical forms. In some other languages, as for example in Serbian, the length of the first components may be shortened because the inclusion of linking vowels can contribute to the building of the required ‘derived environment’ (Kiparsky 1985). This invoking of the strict cyclicity condition is however necessary only for those English dialects in which the accented syllables are not necessarily closed. In this paper I discuss the prosodic status and quantity of English compounds. Keywords: English Compounds, prosodic structure, trochaic shortening, quantity, stric cyclicity
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International Burch University
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2015
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P Philology. Linguistics,PB Modern European Languages,PE English,PN Literature (General),PR English literature
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Text
Pregledni naučni rad
Doc. dr Darko Radić
Docent na Pravnom fakultetu
Univerziteta u Banjoj Luci
ZAŠTITA IMOVINSKIH PRAVA I INTERESA DJETETA
Apstrakt: Autor u ovom radu raspravlja o zaštiti imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta, preispitujući pozitivnopravni okvir kojim se ureĎuju
imovinskopravni odnosi izmeĎu roditelja i djece, odnosno kojim se utvrĎuju
mehanizmi zaštite prava djeteta imovinske prirode, nastojeći da utvrdi da li
postojeća zakonska rješenja osiguravaju efikasnu zaštitu prava maloljetnika. Pored
razmatranja cilja i sadržaja mjera kojima se ograničavaju prava roditelja na
imovini djeteta, autor ukazuje na značaj i ulogu izdržavanja djeteta, ali isto tako
identifikuje probleme u ostvarivanju ovog prava. Konačno, zaštita imovinskih
prava djeteta u značajnoj mjeri zavisi od odreĎenih institucija koje sa stanovišta
svojih ovlašćenja i odgovarajućih kompetencija mogu značajno doprinijeti pravnoj
zaštiti djeteta, pa je ovim istraživanjem obuhvaćena i analiza njihovog položaja,
mogućnosti i nedostataka u njihovom funkcionisanju.
Ključne riječi: imovinska prava djeteta, prava roditelja na imovini djeteta,
pravo djeteta na izdržavanje, institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta.
1. Uvod
Prava djeteta zagarantovana su meĎunarodnim pravnim dokumentima –
prije svega Konvencijom o pravima djeteta1, odnosno ustavima i zakonima
entiteta, dok su uslovi, način i postupak njihovog ostvarivanja ureĎeni
odgovarajućima zakonskim i podzakonskim propisima. Ipak, ostvarivanje različitih
prava djeteta, i pored pravnih garancija i društvene institucionalne podrške, u
značajnoj mjeri zavisi od materijalno-finansijskog stanja djeteta i njegovih
roditelja. Roditelji su obavezni da, pored ličnih, angažuju i imovinske resurse u
izvršavanju svojih obaveza, odnosno radi ostvarivanja prava djeteta. S druge
strane, dijete je, pod odreĎenim uslovima, dužno da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje,
ali ima i mogućnost da u izvjesnim slučajevima zaključuje pravne poslove i tako
utiče na sopstvenu materijalnu situaciju. U tom smislu, u ovom radu preispituje se
relevantni pravni okvir za ureĎenje imovinskopravnih odnosa izmeĎu roditelja i
djeteta, naročito sa stanovišta zaštite imovinskih prava djeteta, kako bi se utvrdilo
da li postojeća zakonska rješenja obezbjeĎuju efikasne mehanizme kontrole i
ograničenja prava roditelja na imovini djeteta. Naročito važnim smatramo institut
izdržavanja djeteta, od čega u stvari u velikoj mjeri zavisi stvaranje osnove za
ostvarivanje ostalih prava i uopšte razvoj djeteta. S tim u vezi, predstavljena su
1
Usvojena je rezolucijom Generalne skupštine Ujedinjenih nacija 20.11.1989. godine - dalje:
Konvencija (Službeni list SFRJ- Međunarodni ugovori, br. 15/09).
85
�osnovna rješenja i identifikovani neki problemi u vezi sa ostvarivanjem prava
djeteta na izdržavanje.
U razmatranjima postavljenog problema, a poštujući zakonodavne
nadležnosti u oblasti ureĎenja porodičnih odnosa u Bosni i Hercegovini,
obuhvaćena su zakonodavstva Republike Srpske (dalje: RS), Federacije Bosne i
Hercegovine (dalje: FBiH) i Brčko Distrikta Bosne i Hercegovine (dalje: BD).
Pored toga, ukazano je i na sličnosti, a posebno na izvjesne razlike u odnosu na
istovrsne propise u Republici Srbiji, odnosno Republici Hrvatskoj.
2. Imovinskopravni odnosi roditelja i djeteta
2.1. Prava roditelja na imovini djeteta
Dijete kao subjekt prava ima imovinskopravnu sposobnost2, može sticati i
imati imovinu. U tom smislu važan je pravno-politički interes da se pravno uredi
upravljanje i raspolaganje takvom imovinom sve do sticanja potpune poslovne
sposobnosti titulara imovine (djeteta). Budući da dijete nema potpunu poslovnu
sposobnost, njegovi roditelji imaju dužnost i pravo da ga zastupaju. Ako
maloljetnom djetetu treba nešto uručiti ili saopštiti, to se može punovažno učiniti
jednom ili drugom roditelju, a ako roditelji ne žive zajedno, onom roditelju sa
kojim dijete živi.3 Dakle, roditelji u smislu vršenja roditeljskog prava imaju
dužnost i pravo da štite prava i interese djeteta, pa je sasvim opravdano rješenje da
roditelji imaju dužnost i pravo da u interesu djeteta upravljaju njegovom imovinom
i, pod odreĎenim uslovima, koriste prihode sa te imovine i raspolažu istom sve do
punoljetnosti ili emancipacije djeteta.4
Odnosi izmeĎu roditelja i djeteta povodom imovine djeteta ureĎeni su
zakonskim propisima koji obuhvataju pravila o pravima i dužnostima roditelja da
upravljaju i raspolažu imovinom djeteta, odnosno pravila o odgovornosti roditelja
za štetu koju oni pričine na imovni djeteta. Primjena navedenih propisa zavisi od
uzrasta djeteta i načina na koji je ono steklo imovinu.
Dakle, način sticanja imovine djeteta i njegov uzrast kriterijumi su za
(ne)primjenjivanje imovinskopravnih ovlašćenja roditelja da upravljaju i raspolažu
djetetovom imovinom. Ukoliko je dijete imovinu steklo svojim radom, onda ovako
2
O imovinskopravnoj sposobnosti opširnije Vodinelić, V., Građansko pravo (Uvod u građansko
pravo i opšti deo stvarnog prava), Pravni fakultet Univerziteta Union u Beogradu i Službeni
glasnik, Beograd, 2002, str. 332-333 i 338-342.
3
Čl. 84 st. Porodičnog zakona – dalje: PZ RS (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 54/02, 41/08 i 63/14).
4
Vid. Čl. 285 – 287PZ RS. Gotovo identično rješenje prihvaćeno je i u porodičnim
zakonodavstvima u okruženju: čl. 264 – 266 Porodičnog zakona FBiH – dalje: PZ FBiH (Službene
novine FBiH, br. 35/05, 41/05 i 31/14 ), čl. 241 – 243 Porodičnog zakona BD – dalje: PZ BD
(Službeni klasnik BD, br. 23/07), čl. 192 – 193 Porodičnog zakona Srbije – dalje: PZS (Službeni
glasnik Srbije, br. 18/05, 72/11‚i 6/15), čl. 259 – 261 Obiteljskog zakona – dalje: OZ (Narodne
novine, br. 116/03, 17/04, 136/04, 107/07, 57/11, 61/11, 25/13, 05/15). Ovde ne treba zaboraviti da
roditeljsko pravo može prestati (a samim tim i razmatrane dužnosti i prava roditelja na imovini
djeteta) ili biti ograničeno, odnosno da dijete može biti usvojeno ili stavljeno pod starateljstvo, što
ima izuzetno značajne implikacije po prava i dužnosti roditelja na imovini djeteta..
86
�stečenom imovinom dijete samostalno upravlja, ali i raspolaže.5 „Ako može više,
teže (da zaradi i stekne imovinu), onda može i manje, lakše (da upravlja i raspolaže
takvom imovinom).“6 Budući da zakonodavac u propisima koji govore o
izdržavanju djece, roditelja i drugih srodnika govori o maloljetniku koji je navršio
15 godina i koji radom ostvaruje prihode,7 te da je prema pozitivnom
radnopravnom zakonodavstvu u RS minimalna starosna granica za zaključivanje
ugovora o radu 15 godina,8 onda proizlazi da je za primjenu pomenutog pravila
neophodno da su kumulativno ispunjena dva uslova: starost maloljetnika od
najmanje 15 godina i rad maloljetnika.9
Za razliku od nekih porodičnih zakonodavstava u okruženju, porodično
zakonodavstvo RS ne pravi razliku izmeĎu maloljetnika u pogledu njihovog
uzrasta10, a koja bi se ticala sticanja ograničene poslovne sposobnosti.11 Ipak,
pozitivno pravo priznaje maloljetniku pravo da u odreĎenim slučajevima
punovažno zaključuje pravne poslove koji imaju imovinski karakter. Tako, pored
mogućnosti zasnivanja radnog odnosa i upravljanja i raspolaganja ostvarenom
zaradom, maloljetnik sa navršenih 15 godina koji je sposoban za rasuĎivanje može
raspolagati svojom imovinom mortis causa - stiče testamentarnu sposobnost.12
5
Čl. 84 st. 3 i čl. 285 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 137 st. 3 i čl. 264 PZ FBiH, čl. 120 st. 3 i čl. 241 PZ BD, čl.
64 st. 3, čl. 192 st. 1 i čl. 193 st. 1PZS, čl. 259 st. 2 OZ.
6
Panov, S.,Porodično pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu i Službeni glasnik, Beograd,
2008, str. 416.
7
Riječ je o odredbi da je dijete starije od 15 godina koje radom ostvaruje prihode i koje ima
imovinu, dužno da pod zakonom propisanim uslovima doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje i za
izdržavanje članova porodice u kojoj živi (čl. 234 PZ RS).
8
Čl. 14 st. 1 Zakona o radu (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 38/00, 40/00, 47/02, 38/03, 66/03 i 20/07), čl.
15 st. 1 Zakona o radu FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 43/99, 32/00 i 29/03). U pravo BD i
hrvatskom pravu se pored ovih uslova zahtijeva da maloljetnik ima dozvolu zakonskog zastupnika
da zaključi ugovor o radu; vid. čl. 10 Zakona o radu BD (Službeni glasnik BD BiH, br. 8/03, 33/04,
29/05, 19/06 – prečišćeni tekst, 19/07, 25/08, 20/13, 31/14 i 1/15), odnosno čl. 20 st. 1 – 3 Zakona
o radu (Narodne novine, br. 93/14)
9
Maloljetnik mlaĎi od 15 godina, u pravu RS, ne može zaključiti ugovor o radu, ali ne može
punovažno zaključiti niti bilo koji drugi ugovor, jer nema ni ograničenu poslovnu spospobnost, a u
tom smislu otpada mogućnost da svojim radom stiče imovinu, odnosno istom upravlja i raspolaže.
10
Mada je tako bilo previĎeno Nacrtom zakona o izmjenama i dopunama Porodičnog zakona.
MeĎutim, ove odredbe nisu našle svoje mjesto u prijedlogu istog zakona, odnosno u noveli PZ RS
iz 2014. godine (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 63/14).
11
U PZ FBiH maloljetnik koji je navršio 14 godina može sam sklapati pravne poslove kojima stiče
prava, dok pravne poslove kojima raspolaže imovinom ili preuzima obaveze maloljetnik može
sklapati samo uz saglasnost roditelja (čl. 137 st. 2). U PZ BD prihvaćeno je gotovo isto rješenje, uz
različito odreĎenu starosnu granicu - 16 godina, mada je istim zakonom propisano da maloljetnik
sa navršenih 14 godina stiče ograničenu poslovnu sposobnost (vid. čl. 120 st. 2 i čl. 139 st. 5). U
porodičnom zakonodavstvu Srbije pravne poslove kojima se stiču prava, pravne poslove kojima se
ne stiču ni prava ni obaveze i pravne poslove malog značaja može preduzimati i maloljetnik mlaĎi
od 14 godina, dok maloljetnik stariji od 14 godina može preduzimati sve ostale pravne poslove uz
saglasnost roditelja, odnosno organa starateljstva (čl. 64 st. 1 i 2 PZS). Opširnije Bubić, S.; N.
Traljić, Roditeljsko i starateljsko pravo, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u sarajevu, Sarajevo, 2007,
str. 154 i 155 ; Panov, S., op. cit., str. 412 – 416.
12
Čl. 64 st. 1 Zakona o nasljeĎivanju (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 1/09), čl. 62 st. 1 Zakona o
nasljeĎivanju FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 80/14).
87
�U pogledu imovine djeteta koju ono nije steklo svojim radom, vrijedi
pravilo da tom imovinom upravljaju roditelji djeteta, u njegovom interesu.13 Od
roditelja se očekuje da postupaju sa pažnjom dobrog domaćina (bonus pater
familias).14 Razumije se, roditelji, u slučaju zajedničkog vršenja roditeljskog prava,
imovinom djeteta upravljaju sporazumno. Ako meĎu njima postoji nesporazum o
ovom pitanju, onda će spor riješiti sud na zahtjev jednog od njih. U slučaju da
roditeljsko pravo vrši samo jedan od roditelja, onda isti roditelj ima dužnost i
pravo upravljanja i raspolaganja imovinom djeteta.
Za razliku od poslova upravljana imovinom djeteta u pogledu kojih je
zakonodavac roditeljima dao „indikaciono upustvo“ – da upravljaju u interesu
djeteta, poslovi raspolaganja djetetovom imovinom trpe veća ograničenja. Tako,
prihode sa imovine djeteta roditelji mogu koristiti za njegovo izdržavanje,
liječenje, vaspitanje i obrazovanje.15 Dakle, u svrhu zaštite života i zdravlja,
odnosno u svrhu ostvarivanja ostalih prava i interesa djeteta. Izuzetak u odnosu na
citirano pravilo predstavlja mogućnost da se pomenuti prihodi koriste za
izdržavanje članova porodice, što predstavlja dosljednu primjenu načela porodične
solidarnosti, ali i principa uzajamnosti.16
OtuĎiti ili opteretiti imovinu djeteta roditelji mogu samo uz odobrenje
organa starateljstva i kada je to radi izdržavanja djeteta, njegovog liječenja,
vaspitanja i obrazovanja, ili kada to zahtijeva drugi važan interes djeteta.
Smatramo da bi pravno korektna formulacija trebala da umjesto termina
„odobrenje“ sadrži pojam „dozvola“, jer to proizlazi iz ciljnog tumačenja norme.17
Ovo pravilo vrijedi kada se radi o vrijednijim stvarima iz imovine djeteta, što u
praksi najčešće podrazumijeva nepokretnosti i pokretne stvari veće vrijednosti.18
MeĎutim, efikasna zaštita imovinkih prava i interesa zahtijeva da se polje dejstva
razmatranog propisa proširi na cjelokupnu imovinu djeteta, osim kada se radi o
pokretnim stvarima male vrijednosti, što je ujedno i prijedlog de lege ferenda.
13
Čl. 285 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 264 PZ FBiH, čl. 241 PZ BD. Isto rješenje, osim navoĎenja „interesa
djeteta“ kao kriterijuma za preduzimanje akata upravljanja, prihvaćeno je u PZS (vid. čl. 192 st. 2)
14
Bubić, S,; N. Traljić, op. cit., str. 167.
15
Čl. 286 st. 1 PZ RS, 265 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 242 st. 1 PZ BD.
16
Čl. 286 st. 2 PZ RS, 265 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 242 st. 2 PZ BD.
17
Prema odredbama čl. 29 Zakon o obligacionim odnosima (Službeni list Socijalističke
Federativne Republike Jugoslavije, br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89 i 57/89; Službeni glasnik RS, br. 17/93,
3/96, 39/03 i 74/04), dozvola je saglasnost koja se daje prije zaključenja ugovora, dok je odobrenje
saglasnost koja se daje nakon zaključenja ugovora.
18
Čl. 287 PZ RS, čl. 266 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 243 st. 1 PZ BD. Kada se u PZ RS (čl. 191 st. 1) govori
o pravu staraoca da raspolaže imovinom štićenika, onda se saglasnost organa starateljstva zahtijeva
za: otuĎenje ili opterećenje nepokretne imovine štićenika; otuĎenje iz imovine štićenika pokretne
stvari veće i posebne lične vrijednosti, ili raspolaganje imovinskim pravima veće vrijednosti;
odricanje od nasljedstva, legata ili odbijanje poklona; preduzimanje drugih mjera odreĎenih
zakonom. Zakonodavc u Srbiji primjenu ovog pravila vezuje za „nepokretnu imovinu i pokretnu
imovinu veće vrijednosti“ (čl. 193 st. 3 PZS), dok se u Hrvatskoj saglasnost organa starateljstva
zahtijeva u svakom slučaju raspolaganja imovinom djeteta, „ne sužavajući“ polje dejstva
posmatranog ograničenja u vidu saglasnosti organa starateljstva na samo vrijedniju imovinu, ili
vrijednije dijelove imovine djeteta (čl. 261 st. 1 OZ). Isto tako, u pogledu preduzimanja procesnih
radnji pred sudom ili drugim organima, a koje se odnose na imovinu djeteta, vrijedi pravilo da ih
roditelji mogu preduzimati samo sa odobrenjem organa starateljstva (čl. 266 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl.
243 st. 2 PZ BD, čl. 261 st. 2 OZ).
88
�Dakle, za razliku od prihoda sa imovine djeteta, gdje se jasno postavljaju razlozi
radi kojih se mogu koristiti (trošiti), ovde se pored navedenog uvodi i dodatni
uslov, a to je saglasnost organa starateljstva. Na ovaj način zakonodavac je
smatrao da bi prije otuĎenja ili opterećenja imovine djeteta organ starateljstva
trebao da ispita nužnost i/ili opravdanost namjeravanog pravnog posla kojim se
raspolaže imovinom djeteta, štiteći tako privatni interes (interes djeteta) i, budući
da se radi o kategoriji lica koja prema ustavu i zakonu uživaju posebnu zaštitu,
opšti interes (interes društva).
Konačno, forma pravnih poslova kojima se raspolaže imovinom
maloljetnika potvrĎuje stav da je zakonodavac imao intenciju da se obazbijedi
efikasna zaštita prava i interesa djeteta i pravna sigurnost u pravnom prometovanju
imovine djeteta. Sljedstveno tome, novelom porodičnog zakonodavstva RS iz
2008. godine, propisano je da pravni poslovi raspolaganja imovinom maloljetnika
moraju biti notarski obraĎeni.19 U suprotnom, pravni posao je ništav.20
2.2. Mjere zaštite imovinskih prava djeteta
Propisi kojima se ureĎuje upravljanje i raspolaganje imovinom djeteta već
sadrže izvjesna ograničenja za roditelje, koji bez saglasnosti organa starateljstva ne
mogu da preduzimaju pravne poslove raspolaganja nekim dijelovima dječije
imovine, odnosno koji ne mogu prihode iz imovine djeteta koristiti za potrebe
drugačije od zakonom propisanih.
MeĎutim, pored pomenutih ograničenja prava roditelja i ustanovljene
obaveze roditelja da imovinom djeteta upravljaju u njegovom interesu,
zakonodavac je predvidio i niz posebnih mjera kojima se štite imovinska prava
djeteta. Ovakav set mjera zapravo upotpunjava pravnu zaštitu djeteta, jer su pored
navedenih, zakonom propisane i mjere zaštite ličnih prava djeteta. Izricanje i
primjena mjera kojima se štite imovinska prava djeteta u nadležnosti su suda i
organa starteljstva, zavisno od vrste mjere.21
U okviru vršenja pojačanog nadzora roditelja, organ starateljstva može
zahtijevati od roditelja u svako doba da polože račune o upravljanju imovinom
djeteta.22 Na ovaj način, organ starateljstva nastoji preventivno djelovati i spriječiti
19
Čl. 288 st. 1 PZ RS,odnosno čl. 68 st. 1 t. 2 Zakona o notarima RS (Službeni glasnik RS, br.
86/04, 2/05, 74/05, 91/06, 37/07, 50/10, 78/11, 20/14). U zakonodavstvima FBiH i BD forma
navedenih pravnih poslova propisana je zakonima kojima se ureĎuje notarijat. Vid. čl. 73 st. 1 t. 2
Zakona o notarima FBiH (Službene novine FBIH, br. 45/02), čl. 47 st. 1 t. 2 Zakona o notarima BD
(Službeni glasnik BD, br. 9/03 i 17/06).
20
Čl. 288 st. 2 PZ RS.
21
Razumije se, organ starateljstva nadležan je da preduzima mjere za zaštitu imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta kada se dijete nalazi pod starateljstvom. Tako organ starateljstva: vrši popis i
procjenu imovine prije nego što je preda staraocu na upravljanje; preduzima mjere za osiguranje
imovine štićenika prije donošenja rješenja kojim se ono stavlja pod starateljstvo, odnosno
zahtijeva zabilježbu u zemljišno-knjižnim evidencijama o pokretanju postupka za stavljanje pod
starateljstvo; odlučuje o davanju saglasnosti na akte raspolaganja imovinom štićenika. Vid. čl. 187,
188 i 191 PZ RS; čl. 172, 173 i 179 PZ FBiH, čl. 153, 154 i 160 PZ BD.
22
Čl. 100 st. 1 PZ RS. Isto rješenje je prihvaćeno i u drugim porodičnim zakonodavstvima - čl.
155 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl. 137 st. 1 PZ BD, čl. 118 st. 1 OZ, čl. 80 st. 2 t. 3 PZS.
89
�nastupanje štetnih posljedica po imovinska prava i interese djeteta ili reagovati na
već preduzete pravne poslove od strane roditelja u pogledu kojih činjenice ukazuju
na nepravilnosti i/ili nesavjesno upravljanje imovinom djeteta.23 Izricanjem ove
mjere roditelji se dovode u položaj vrlo sličan položaju staraoca, jer su u smislu
polaganja računa obavezni da predstave stanje u kojem se nalazi imovina djeteta,
da evidentiraju sve prihode i rashode, obrazlože korišćenje prihoda sa imovine
djeteta.24
Druga mjera, u pogledu čije nadležnosti mogu da se iznesu različiti
argumenti, podrazumijeva da organ starateljstva, a radi zaštite imovinskih interesa
djeteta, može zahtijevati od suda da odluči da se roditelji u pogledu upravljanja
imovinom djeteta stave u položaj staraoca.25 U zakonodavstvima FBiH i BD
prihvaćeno je drugačije rješenje. Ovu mjeru izriče organ starateljstva, a ne sud, što
smatramo opravdanim, jer efikasnost i pravovremnost ove mjere u smislu efekata
njene primjene zahtijevaju jednostavan postupak, brzo odlučivanje i brzo
djelovanje.26 Iako u pravu RS o prijedlogu organa starateljstva da se roditelji u
pogledu upravljanja imovinom djeteta stave u položaj staraoca odlučuje sud, ipak
će njihov rad i postupanje, u slučanju usvajanja ovog prijedloga, biti kontrolisani
od strane organa starateljstva, što u smislu pravnog finala ovog rješenja govori o
(ne)cjelishodnosti uspostavljene nadležnosti suda.27 S druge strane, razmatrana
mjera predstavlja ograničenje vršenja roditeljskog prava, što je u nadležnosti
organa starateljstva, dok se za sud rezerviše oduzimanje i vraćanje roditeljskog
prava. Uvažavajući princip najmanjeg posezanja, organ starateljstva će se odlučiti
za konzumiranje ovog ovlašćenja u situacijama kada primjenom prethodne mjere
nije ostvarena adekvatna zaštita imovinskih interesa djeteta, odnosno kada je
izvjesno da zahtijevanje od roditelja da polože račune o upravljanju dječijom
imovinom neće predstavljati dovoljnu zaštitu imovinskih interesa djeteta in
concreto.
Konačno, sud na zahtjev organa starateljstva, radi zaštite imovinskih
interesa djeteta, može dozvoliti mjere obezbjeĎenja na imovini roditelja.28
Izricanju ove mjere pristupa se u slučajevima kada su imovinska prava i interesi
djeteta ozbiljno ugroženi ili povrijeĎeni, odnosno kada su roditelji nasavjesnim
upravljanjem ili raspolaganjem dječijom imovinom prouzrokovali štetu. Popisom i
procjenom imovine roditelja, konstituisanjem hipoteke i založnog prava na
pokretnim stvarima, polaganjem kaucije od strane roditelja, nastoji se pružiti
efikasna zaštita imovinskih prava djeteta, odnosno omogućiti obeštećenje djeteta u
slučaju nesavjesnog ponašanja njegovih roditelja.
23
Cvejić – Jančić, O., Porodično pravo, Pravni fakultet u Novom Sadu, Novi Sad, 2009, str. 327.
Iako nije zakonom propisano u kojoj formi i koje elemente mora da sadrži „polaganje računa“,
nema prepreka da se primjeni zakonska odredba kojom je propisano koje elemente treba da sadrži
izvještaj staraoca koji se odnosi na imovinu štićenika (čl. 195 st. 3 PZ RS, čl. 180 st.3 PZ FBiH, čl.
161 st. 3 PZ BD).
25
Čl. 100 st. 3 PZ RS.
26
Čl. 155 st. 2 PZ FBiH, 137 st. 2 PZ BD.
27
Ovo zakonsko rješenje preuzeto je iz ranije primjenjivanog Porodičnog zakona SRBiH (Službeni
list SR BiH, br. 21/79 i 44/89).
28
Čl. 100 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 155 st. 3 PZ FBiH, čl. 137 st. 3 PZ BD.
24
90
�2.3. Odgovornost roditelja za štetu
Roditelji osim prava na imovini djeteta, mogu imati i graĎanskopravnu
odgovornost, i to za štetu koju pričine na imovini djeteta, odnosno za štetu koju
dijete prouzrokuje trećem licu.
Prilikom preduzimanja akata upravljanja i raspolaganja imovinom djeteta,
roditelji mogu pričiniti štetu svojom krivicom. 29 Ukoliko su, dakle, roditelji
namjerno ili nepažnjom prouzrokovali štetu na imovini djeteta, roditelji će
solidarno odgovarati za naknadu štete. Solidarna odgovornost u ovom slučaju je
graĎanskopravni izraz zajedničkog vršenja roditeljskog prava. Odgovornost za
naknadu štete snosiće jedan roditelj, ukoliko samo on vrši roditeljsko pravo i
upravlja imovinom djeteta.30 Roditelji će odgovarati i bez njihove krivice, prema
pravilima o objektivnoj odgovornosti, ukoliko šteta na imovini djeteta potiče od
opasne stvari ili opasne djelatnosti čiji su imaoci, odnosno vršioci upravo roditelji
djeteta.31 U smislu ostvarivanja potraživanja koje glasi na naknadu štete, važno je
ukazati i na pravilo prema kojem izmeĎu roditelja i djece ne teku rokovi
zastarjelosti sve dok traje roditeljsko pravo.32
Roditelji odgovaraju i za štetu koju prouzrokuje njihovo maloljetno dijete
trećem licu, i to prema pravilima o odgovornosti za drugoga. Ukoliko štetu
prouzrokuje dijete mlaĎe od 7 godina, njegovi roditelji odgovaraju bez obzira na
krivicu.33 Roditelji se ne mogu osloboditi odgovornosti dokazujući da su vršili
potreban nadzor nad djetetom, odnosno pretpostavka krivice je neoboriva
(praesumptio iuris et de iure). OslobaĎanje roditelja od odgovornosti je moguće,
ako postoje razlozi za isključenje objektivne odgovornosti ili ako je dijete u
vrijeme prouzrokovanja štete bilo povjereno drugom licu i ako je to lice odgovorno
za štetu.34
Za razliku od prethodne situacije, odgovornost roditelja za štetu koju
prouzrokuje dijete starije od 7 godina i mlaĎe od 14 godina temelji se na krivici.
Budući da je pretpostavka o krivici roditelja oboriva (praesumptio iuris tantum),
roditelji se mogu osloboditi odgovornosti, ukoliko dokažu da je šteta nastupila bez
njihove krivice.35 Dijete u navedenom uzrastu će odgovarati samo ako se dokaže in
concreto da je prilikom prouzrokovanja štete bilo sposobno za rasuĎivanje.36 Ako
pored roditelja za štetu odgovara i dijete, onda je njihova odgovornost solidarna.37
29
Čl. 158 ZOO.
U postupku naknade štete koji se vodi protiv jednog ili oba roditelja (zavisno do načina vršenja
roditeljskog prava), a zbog sukoba interesa, djetetu se postavlja kolizijski (naročiti) staralac.
31
Čl. 173 i čl. 174 st. 1 ZOO.
32
Čl. 381 t. 2 ZOO.
33
Čl. 160 st. 1 i čl. 165 st. 1 ZOO.
34
Čl. 165 st. 2 i 3 ZOO. MeĎutim, drugo lice kome je povjeren maloljetnik neće odgovarati za
štetu, ako dokaže da je vršio potreban nadzor ili da bi šteta nastupila i pri vršenju potrebnog
nadzora, odnosno isto lice neće odgovarati za štetu, ako je ona nastala usljed lošeg vaspitanja
djeteta, rĎavih primjera ili poročnih navika koje su mu roditelji dali (čl. 167 st. 1 i čl. 168 ZOO).
35
Čl. 165 st. 4 ZOO.
36
Čl. 160 st. 2 ZOO.
37
Čl. 166 ZOO.
30
91
�Konačno, dijete starije od 14 godina je deliktno sposobno i odgovara
prema opštim pravilima o graĎanskopravnoj odgovornosti.38 MeĎutim, vrlo često
djeca nemaju (dovoljno) imovine iz koje bi oštećeno lice bilo obeštećeno, pa sud
može, kada to pravičnost zahtijeva, a naročito s obzirom na materijalno stanje
roditelja i oštećenika, da obaveže roditelje na naknadu štete, potpuno ili
djelimično.39
3. Izdržavanje djeteta
Jedno od najvažnijih prava djeteta jeste pravo djeteta na izdržavanje. Ovo
pravo djeteta, odnosno njemu korelativna dužnost roditelja (i, pod odreĎenim
uslovima, drugih srodnika) ima neposredan materijalno-finansijski značaj za
položaj djeteta. Ono van svake sumnje bitno determiniše podizanje i razvoj djeteta
u opštem smislu, odnosno posredno utiče na ostvarivanje drugih prava djeteta.
Upravo imajući u vidu ovo, kao i činjenicu da je riječ o pravu ličnog karktera, ali i
imovinske prirode, mišljenja smo, da je ovom pitanju neophodno posvetiti naročitu
pažnju.
Dužnost je roditelja da svoju maloljetnu djecu izdržavaju, na način i pod
uslovima kako je to zakonom propisano. Roditelji se ove obaveze ne mogu
osloboditi, pa čak ni u situaciji kada im je ograničeno vršenje roditeljskog prava ili
im je roditeljsko pravo oduzeto.40 Iako dužnost izdržavanja postoji izmeĎu svih
članova porodice i drugih srodnika, a što se temelji na principu porodične
solidarnosti, roditelji su prvenstveno dužni da izdržavaju maloljetnu djecu i u
izvršavanju ove obaveze moraju iskoristiti sve svoje mogućnost.41 Pri tome, ne
treba izgubiti iz vida pravilo u skladu sa kojim je maloljetnik (u pravu RS sa
navršenih 15 godina) koji radom ostvaruje prihode, odnosno dijete koje ima
imovinu i prihode od te imovine dužno da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje.42
MeĎutim, roditelji imaju dužnost da u odreĎenim situacijama izdržavaju i
punoljetnu djecu. Roditelji, prema svojim mogućnostima, izdržavaju djecu koja se
nalaze na redovnom školovanju (najduže do navršene 26. godine života).43 S druge
38
Čl. 160 st. 3 ZOO.
Čl. 169 st. 3 ZOO.
40
Čl. 235 PZ RS, čl. 218 PZ FBiH, čl. 197, PZ BD, čl. 81 st. 4 PZS, čl. 212 OZ.
41
Čl. 232 st. 1 PZ RS, čl. 215 PZ FBiH, čl. 194 PZ BD, čl. 154 st. 1 PZS, čl. 209 st. 1 OZ.
42
Čl. 234 PZ RS, čl. 217 PZ FBiH, čl. 196 PZ BD. Odredbom čl. 154 st. 3 PZS ova dužnost, kao
supsidijarna u odnosu na roditelje i ostale krvne srodnike, vezuje se za djecu koja ostvaruju
sopstvenu zaradu ili imaju imovinu, dok se u čl. 211 OZ govori o dužnosti djeteta koje ima
prihode.
43
Čl. 233 st. 1 PZ RS, čl. 216 st. 1 PZ FBiH, čl.195 st. 1 PZ BD, čl. 155 st. 2 PZS. U odredbama
OZ osim što nije propisana gornja starosna granica za izdržavanje djeteta koje se nalazi na
redovnom školovanju, ova je obaveza roditelja produžena i za vrijeme nezaposlenosti njihovog
djeteta u periodu od 1 godine od završetka školovanja (čl. 210 st. 1 i 2). U odnosu na pitanje
„redovnosti školovanja“ nailazimo na interesantan stav sudske prakse prema kojem za redovno
školovanje nije od presudne važnosti status studenta (redovni ili vanredni student), niti je bitan
uspjeh studenta, već se cijeni rad, priprema i pokušaji polaganja ispita: „Za sticanje prava na
izdržavanje nije od presudne važnosti da li dete ima formano status redovnog ili vanrednog
studenta, već okolnost da se školovanje odvija kontinuirano i bez velikih prekida... Pri tome je
nebitno ako ispite i ne položi jer se to smatra prolaznim neuspehom koji ne može dovesti do
39
92
�strane, ako se radi o punoljetnom djetetu koje zbog bolesti, fizičkih ili psihičkih
nedostataka nije sposobno za rad i nema dovoljno sredstava za život ili ih ne može
ostvariti iz svoje imovine, roditelji su dužni da ga izdržavaju sve dok ta
nesposobnost traje.44 U većini slučajeva, produženju ove obaveze roditelja prethodi
produženje roditeljskog prava ili oduzimanje (potpuno ili djelimično) poslovne
sosobnosti njihovom djetetu.
Ukoliko se izdržavanje ne može ostvariti od roditelja, ova obaveza prelazi
na krvne srodnike, odnosno na adoptivne srodnike - očuha i maćehu45, pa čak i
nakon smrti roditelja djeteta ako je u času smrti postojala porodična zajednica
izmeĎu očuha/maćehe i pastorka/pastorke.46
U smislu odreĎivanja izdržavanja, primjenjuje se opšte pravilo da se
izdržavanje odreĎuje prema mogućnostima davaoca izdržavanja i u skladu sa
potrebama primaoca izdržavanja.47 MeĎutim, pored opšteg pravila i propisanih
kriterijuma za odreĎivanje izdržavanja, zakonodavac je opravdano predvidio da se
u pogledu odreĎivanja izdržavanja za dijete imaju primjeniti i neka posebna
pravila. Tako, zakonodavac obavezuje sud da u navedenoj situaciji u obzir uzme
uzrast djeteta, kao i potrebe za njegovo školovanje,48 odnosno da rad i brigu
roditelja kojem je dijete povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje posebno cijeni kao
doprinos za izdržavanje djeteta.49
Za zaštitu interesa djeteta od posebne ja važnosti pravilo prema kojem je
sud obavezan da, kada utvrdi da roditelji nisu u mogućnosti da zajednički
podmiruju potrebe izdržavanja svog djeteta, o tome obavijesti organ starateljstva
radi obezbjeĎenja sredstava za izdržavanje djeteta.50 TakoĎe, u funkciji zaštite
interesa djeteta je ovlašćenje organa starateljstva da može u njegovo ime da
odbijanja zahteva za izdržavanje.“ – Presuda Vrhovnog kasacionog suda, Rev. 471/2014 od
15.05.2014. godine, objavljena u Paragrafova zbirka sudskih odluka, januar 2015, Beograd, 2015,
str. 25.
44
Čl. 233 st. 2 PZ RS, čl. 216 st. 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 195 st. 2 PZ BD, čl. 155 st. 1 PZS, čl. 210 st. 3 OZ
( s tim da se ne postavlja uslov da punoljetno dijete nema dovoljno sredstava za život ili ih ne
može ostvariti iz svoje imovine).
45
U pravu RS očuh i maćeha dužni su da izdržavaju pastorke, ako ovi nemaju srodnika koji su ih
po zakonu dužni izdržavati (čl. 237 st. 1 PZ RS), dok se u pravu FBiH i BD očuh i maćeha
pozivaju na izdržavanje djeteta nakon roditelja, a prije ostalih srodnika (čl. 220 st. 1 PZ FBiH i čl.
199 st. 1 PZ BD).
46
Čl. 237 PZ RS, čl. 220 PZ FBiH, čl. 199 PZ BD, čl. 159 st. 1 i 2 PZS, čl. 214 st. 1 i 2 OZ.
47
Čl. 253 PZ RS, čl. 235 PZ FBiH, čl. 214 PZ BD, čl. 160 PZS, čl. 231 OZ.
48
Za razliku od ostalih porodičnih zakonodavstava u okruženju, odredbama OZ propisano je da
resorno ministarstvo najkasnije do 1. aprila tekuće godine objavljuje minimalne novčane iznose
potrebne za mjesečno izdržavanj djeteta, koje je dužan platiti roditelj koji ne živi sa djetetom.
Pomenuti minimalni iznos odreĎuje se u procentu od prosječne mjesečne isplaćene neto plate po
zaposlenom u pravnim licima u Hrvatskoj za proteklu godinu. Pri tome, zakonodavac je odredio
procentualne iznose u zavisnosti od uzrasta djeteta (do 6 godina – 17%; od 7 do 12 godina – 20%;
od 13 do 18 godina 22% prosječne plate). Obaveza izdržavanja može biti odreĎena i u manjim
iznosima od navedenih, ako davalac izdržavanja izdržava više djece ili kada maloljetnik, imajući
prihode, ispunjava uslove da doprinosi za svoje izdržavanje Vid. čl. 232 st. 4-6 OZ.
49
Čl. 253 st. 2 i čl. 254 PZ RS, čl. 236 st. 1 i 2 PZ FBiH, čl. 215 st. 1 i 2 PZ BD, čl.
50
Čl. 255 PZ RS, čl. 237 PZ FBiH. Nažalost, ovakav zaštitni mehanizam, makar u ravni
normativnog, izostao je u porodučnom zakonodavstvu BD.
93
�pokrene spor o izdržavanju i povećanju izdržavanja, odnosno da podnese sudu
prijedlog za izvršenje kada roditelj ne traži izvršenje dosuĎenog izdržavanja.51
Ipak, praksa pokazuje da u ostvarivanju prava djeteta na izdržavanje
postoji mnogo problema. Kada je riječ o RS, na to je posebno ukazano u
izvještajima Ombudsmana za djecu RS koji prima veliki broj podnesaka upravo
zbog ove vrste problema. U svojim godišnjim izvještajima Omudsman za djecu RS
ističe da se pravosnažne presude o razvodu braka, u dijelu u kojem se utvrĎuje
obaveza izdržavanja djeteta, ne izvršavaju. U slučaju da dužnik obaveze
izdržavanja istu ne ispunjava, povjerilac (odnosno roditelj u ime djeteta) mora
pokrenuti sudski postupak.52
Problemi za tražioca izdržavanja u izvršnom postupku mogu nastati zbog
činjenice da je neophodno označiti adresu dužnika obaveze izdržavanja, mjesto
gdje radi i njegovog poslodavca, odnosno navesti imovinu u odnosu na koju se
predlaže izvršenje. Pored toga, troškovi sudskog postupka53 nisu rijedak motiv koji
determiniše odluku tražioca izdržavanja (odnosno njegovog zakonskog zastupnika)
o ostvarivanju ovog prava u sudskom postupku. Sve ovo bitno utiče na obim
ostvarivanja prava djeteta na izdržavanje, što najčešće svoj metapravni rezultat ima
u dodatnom opterećenju onog roditelja sa kojim dijete živi, odnosno kojem je
dijete povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje.
4. Institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta
Ne umanjujući značaj i ulogu ostalih institucija koje u okviru svojih
nadležnosti imaju pravo i/ili dužnost da preduzimaju mjere i vrše aktivnosti u
pravcu zaštite prava i interesa djeteta (resorna ministarstva, republički odnosno
kantonalni organi uprave, organi uprave u jedinicama lokalne samouprave i u BD,
te nevladnine organizacije), posebnu pažnju u ovom radu posvećujemo onim
institucijama čija je djelatnost i djelokrug poslova isključivo ili pretežno vezan za
zaštitu prava djeteta, a od značaja su za imovinskopravne prilike djeteta i uopšte za
zaštitu i unapreĎenje materijalnog položaja djeteta.
4.1. Ombudsman za djecu Republike Srpske
Za razliku od ostalih pravnih sistema u BiH, u RS je 2008. godine osnovan
Ombudsman za djecu RS (dalje: Ombudsman). Ombudsman je utemeljen
posebnim zakonom - Zakonom o Ombudsmanu za djecu Republike Srpske54 kao
51
Čl. 256 PZ RS, čl. 239 PZ FBiH, čl. 217 PZ BD, čl. 278 st. 3 PZS, čl. 234 st. 1 i 2 OZ.
Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2013. godinu, Ombudsman
RS, str. 29 – 31; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2012.
godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 31 – 33, Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike
Srpske za 2011. godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 35 – 37.
53
I pored odredbe čl. 268a PZ RS kojom je predviĎeno da dijete ima pravo na besplatnu pravnu
pomoć bez obzira na socijalni status u svim postupcima za ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje, neki
roditelji imaju percepciju da je ostvarivanje prava u sudskom postupku nužno povezano sa
značajnim troškovima.
54
Službeni glasnik RS, br. 103/08 i 70/12.
52
94
�nezavisna institucija koja štiti, prati i promoviše prava djeteta. U tom smislu,
Obudsman je, izmeĎu ostalog, nadležan: da prati primjenu i usklaĎenost propisa u
RS koji se odnose na zaštitu prava djeteta s Ustavom RS i meĎunarodnim pravnim
dokumenatima55; da prati izvršavanje obaveza RS iz Konvencije; itd.56
Ombudsman je ovlašćen da Vladi RS, odnosno Narodnoj skupštini RS podnese
inicijativu za izmjenu ili dopunu zakona i drugih propisa i opštih akata, ako smatra
da do povrede prava djeteta dolazi zbog nedostataka u propisima; odnosno da
nadležnim organima koji obavljaju poslove u vezi sa djetetom, predlaže
preduzimanje mjera za sprečavanje štetnih postupanja koja ugrožavaju njihova
prava i interese, te da zahtijeva da dobije izvještaje o preduzetim mjerama.57
Dakle, riječ je o nezavisnoj instituciji koja štiteći javni interes, a u ovom
slučaju u pogledu prava, interesa i položaja djece, ima specifična ovlašćenja čije
vršenje u stvari predstavlja svojevrsni pritisak na regulatorno tijelo ili organ
primjene prava u pravcu korigovanja propisa ili postupanja u pružanju pravne
zaštite djetetu. S druge strane, pored ostvarivanja saradnje sa djecom (savjetovanje,
podsticanje na iznošenje mišljenja), Ombudsman ima obavezu da obavještava
javnost o stanju prava djeteta, kao i o mjerama koje se preduzimaju za zaštitu i
poboljšanje položaja djeteta.58 Upravo koristeći ova ovlašćenja, Ombudsman je u
svojim izvještajima, pored ostalog, ukazao na probleme u ostvarivanju prava
djeteta na izdržavanje.
4.2. Javni fond za dječiju zaštitu Republike Srpske
Javni fond za dječiju zaštitu Republike Srpske (dalje: Fond) osnovan je
1996. godine radi ostvarivanja opštih ciljeva iz sistema dječije zaštite: stvaranje
osnovnih uslova za približno ujednačavanje nivoa za zadovoljavanje razvojnih
potreba djece; planiranje, podsticanje i unapreĎenje dječije zaštite; pomoć porodici
u ostvarivanju njene reproduktivne, zaštitne, vaspitne i ekonomske funkcije;
posebna zaštita trećeg djeteta u porodici sa više djece; kao i druge aktivnosti i
prava iz oblasti dječije zaštite.59 Rad Fonda finansira se iz doprinosa za dječiju
zaštitu, donacija, poklona, domaćih i inostranih kredita, odnosno iz budžeta RS,
ukoliko Fond iz izvorne stope doprinosa ne uspijeva obezbijediti sredstva potrebna
za realizaciju prava od opšteg interesa.60
Uloga Fonda je značajna u ostvarivanju zakonom utvrĎenih prava u oblasti
dječije zaštite, a koja su većim dijelom od značaja za materijalni položaj djeteta
(naknada plate za vrijeme korišćenja porodiljskog odsustva; materinski dodatak;
55
U nadležnosti Ombudsmana je i da pokrene postupak pred Ustavnim sudom RS za ocjenu
ustavnosti i zakonitosti zakona i drugih opštih akata kada utvrdi da nisu usklaĎeni sa Ustavom RS,
odnosno zakonom (čl. 8 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS).
56
Čl. 5 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
57
Čl. 7 - 9 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
58
Čl. 6 - 16 Zakona o ombudsmanu za djecu RS.
59
Čl. 2 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti (Službeni glasnik RS, br. 15/96, 10/98, 26/01, 61/01, 4/02 –
prečišćeni tekst, 17/08 i 1/09).
60
Čl. 70 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
95
�pomoć za opremu novoroĎenčeta; dodatak za djecu; itd.).61 Naime, prvostepeni
organ – organ starateljstva odlučuje o navedenim pravima koristeći informacioni
sistem Fonda. S druge strane, Fond postupa po reviziji izjavljenoj protiv
prvostepenog rješenja, pa Fond može prvostepenoi rješenje potvrditi ili izmjeniti,
poništiti ili ukinuti.62
Dakle, Fond ima značajna ovlašćenja, ali i dužnosti u pogledu različitih
kategorija korisnika odreĎenih prava i na taj način u velikoj mjeri utiče na
materijalni položaj djeteta u porodici, ali i djeteta bez roditeljskog staranja, pri
čemu su naročito važni posebni projekti i aktivnosti Fonda koje imaju za cilj da se
obave analize i istraživanja koja se odnose na pojedine kategorije djece, radi
unapreĎenja njihove zaštite i njihovog položaja.
4.3. Centar za socijalni rad
Sistem socijalne zaštite, kao djelatnost od opšteg interesa, podrazumijeva
osnivanje i rad različitih ustanova socijalne zaštite, a posebno mjesto u tom
sistemu, i ne samo sa stanovišta socijalne, već i sa aspekta pravne zaštite prava i
interesa djeteta, zauzima centar za socijalni rad (dalje: Centar). Riječ je o ustanovi
socijalne zaštite koju osniva jedna ili više jedinica lokalne samouprave i koja
primjenjujući savremena naučna i stručna znanja, odnosno pozitivne propise vrši
javna ovlašćenja (rješava u prvom stepenu o ostvarivanju prava iz oblasti
porodično-pravne zaštite i starateljstva, vrši nadzor nad hraniteljskim porodicama,
vrši isplatu novčanih prava utvrĎenih zakonom i drugim propisima, itd.) i stručne
poslove (otkriva i prati socijalne potrebe graĎana i probleme u oblasti socijalne
zaštite, organizuje i sprovodi odgovarajuće oblike socijalne i dječje zaštite, prati
stanje u oblasti dječje i porodično-pravne zaštite, itd.).
Centar ima značajnu ulogu u zaštiti imovinskih prava djeteta i u tom
smislu zakonom su mu povjerena važna ovlašćenja. Kao što je već gore navedeno
Centar daje saglasnost roditeljima/staraocu na akte raspolaganja imovinom djeteta,
odnosno preduzima mjere u pogledu zaštite imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta
koje istovremeno predstavljaju ograničenje prava roditelja na imovini djeteta.
Pored toga, Centar je aktivno legitimisan da pokrene postupak za izdržavanje
djeteta, odnosno spor o povećanju izdržavanja (ukoliko roditelj kojem je dijete
povjereno na zaštitu i vaspitanje bez opravdanih razloga ne koristi ovo pravo), te
da u ime djeteta predloži sudu izvršenje kada roditelj ne traži izvršenje dosuĎenog
izdržavanja.
MeĎutim, i pored značajnih zakonskih ovlašćenja koja su mu data, stanje u
praksi i stavovi zvaničnih institucija pokazuju da se Centar suočava sa značajnim
problemima u ostvarivanju svoje funkcije i društvene uloge, a pogotovo u pogledu
finansiranja. To je, izmeĎu ostalog, potvrĎeno i u stavu Ombudsmana da je
neophodno unaprijediti kapacitet centara za socijalni rad, jer broj i struktura
61
62
Čl. 10 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
Čl. 36 – 39 Zakona o dječijoj zaštiti.
96
�stručnog osoblja ne mogu odgovoriti nadležnostima i ovlašćenjima koja Centar
ima.63
5. Zaključak
Pozitivnopravna i ograničena uporednopravna analiza relevantnih propisa
upućuje na zaključak da zakonodavstva u BiH - prevashodno porodičnopravna sadrže solidna rješenja i odgovarajuće mehanizme zaštite imovinskih prava i
interesa djeteta, predviĎajući posebna ograničenja za njihove zakonske zastupnike
(roditelje i staraoce) i priznajući maloljetnicima u odreĎenim slučajevima
ograničenu (djelimičnu) poslovnu sposobnost.64 Zakonom propisana forma pravnih
poslova izmeĎu roditelja i djece, odnosno roditelja kao zastupnika djeteta i trećeg
lica, takoĎe doprinosi pravnoj zaštiti imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta, kao i
pravnoj sigurnosti uopšte. Solemnizacijom navedenih pravnih poslova zahtijeva se
postupanje organa starateljstva i promoviše pravna zaštita prava djeteta, odnosno
provjerava se opravdanost posla sa stanovišta njegovih interesa.
Budući da ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje predstavlja veliki i značajan
problem, nameće se potreba da se razmotre mogućnosti za unapreĎenje ili
reformisanje postojećih zakonskih rješenja kojima bi se obezbijedila nužna
efikasnost u ostvarivanju prava na izdržavanje. U pravcu zaštite interesa djece čiji
roditelji neuredno izvršavaju ili neizvršavaju ovu svoju obavezu, bilo bi korisno
preispitati perspektive formiranja i djelovanja posebnog vanbudžetskog fonda u
okviru nadležnosti entiteta (i BD) iz kojeg bi se obezbijeĎivalo izdržavanje za ovu
djecu, a koji bi po isplati iznosa izdržavanja imao pravo na regresni zahtjev prema
roditelju ili licima dužnicima obaveze izdržavanja. Na ovaj način, u značajnoj
mjeri bi se amortizovale brojne i raznovrsne posljedice neplaćanja alimentacije i
istovremeno bi se obezbijedio mehanizam za provoĎenje zakonske norme prema
kojoj je društvena zajednica obavezna da neobezbijeĎenim članovima porodice
(koji ne mogu u cijelosti ili djelimično ostvariti pravo na izdržavanje) pruži
sredstva neophodna za izdržavanje. S druge strane, rješavanje naplate nekih drugih
zakonskih obaveza (fiskalnog i penalnog karaktera) pokazuje da postoje efikasni
mehanizmi prinude i da je moguće u istom pravcu razmišljati i kada je u pitanju
izmirivanje obaveze plaćanja izdržavanja (u smislu predviĎanja da uredno
izvršavanje obaveze izdržavanja predstavlja uslov za regulisanje odreĎenih
statusnih ili drugih pitanja, koja su od interesa za dužnika obaveze izdržavanja).
Iako su institucionalni kapaciteti, naročito u RS, solidno postavljeni u
opštem sistemu zaštite djeteta, njihove zakonske nadležnosti i očekivane stručne
kompetencije nisu adekvatno praćene finansijskim i ljudskim resursima, što bitno
utiče ne ostvarivanje njihove društvene uloge i redukuje njihovu efikasnost u radu.
63
Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2013. godinu, Ombudsman
RS, str. 33 i 34; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike Srpske za 2012.
godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 33 i 34; Godišnji izvještaj o radu Ombudsmana za djecu Republike
Srpske za 2011. godinu, Ombudsman RS, str. 37 i 38.
64
Stanje u realnosti ne prati nužno normativu, pa bi istraživanje prakse i iskustava centara za
socijalni rad u pogledu razmatranih pitanja pružilo dragocjene podatke koji bi pomogli u
identifikovanju i kvantifikovanju raskoraka izmeĎu stvarnog i normativnog.
97
�Darko Radić, Assistant Professor,
Faculty of Law, University of Banja Luka
PROTECTION OF PROPERTY RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
Abstract:In the context of protection of children's rights, author considers
protection of children's property rights and interests. Consideration of positive
legislation which regulates relationship between parents and child regarding child's
property is particularly important to make analyses instruments of protection of
children's property rights. Autor made efforts to determine whether positive
legislation ensures effective protection of children's property rights and whether
measures that restrict parents' rights adequate the child's best interest. In terms of
child's right to be supported, author has pointed some rules and identifies certain
problems in exercising right to support. Protection of children's property rights and
interests is well connected to some institutions which may contribute to protection
of children's property rights. Consequently, author has analized the institutions in
terms of their role, capacities and lack in functioning.
Key words: children's property rights, parents' rights on child's property ,
child support , institutional capacities for protection of children`s rights.
98
�
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2990
Title
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ZAŠTITA IMOVINSKIH PRAVA I INTERESA DJETETA
Author
Author
RADIĆ, Darko
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Autor u ovom radu raspravlja o zaštiti imovinskih prava i interesa djeteta, preispitujući pozitivnopravni okvir kojim se uređuju imovinskopravni odnosi između roditelja i djece, odnosno kojim se utvrđuju mehanizmi zaštite prava djeteta imovinske prirode, nastojeći da utvrdi da li postojeća zakonska rješenja osiguravaju efikasnu zaštitu prava maloljetnika. Pored razmatranja cilja i sadržaja mjera kojima se ograničavaju prava roditelja na imovini djeteta, autor ukazuje na značaj i ulogu izdržavanja djeteta, ali isto tako identifikuje probleme u ostvarivanju ovog prava. Konačno, zaštita imovinskih prava djeteta u značajnoj mjeri zavisi od određenih institucija koje sa stanovišta svojih ovlašćenja i odgovarajućih kompetencija mogu značajno doprinijeti pravnoj zaštiti djeteta, pa je ovim istraživanjem obuhvaćena i analiza njihovog položaja, mogućnosti i nedostataka u njihovom funkcionisanju. Ključne riječi: imovinska prava djeteta, prava roditelja na imovini djeteta, pravo djeteta na izdržavanje, institucionalni kapaciteti za zaštitu prava djeteta.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7129ff892f9416c63176b0d4250ed70c.pdf
17b4ef75d65b69fdd6728d07d0033f14
PDF Text
Text
IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD
Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača izazov za nacionalne zakonodavce
Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer
rights - A challenge to national legislators
Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Tuzli, docent
e-mail: anita.petrovic@untz.ba
Sažetak: U oblasti europskog ugovornog prava, pravno
područje najviše zahvaćeno procesom harmonizacije, a
slijedom toga i procesom revizije jeste oblast zaštite
potrošača. To iz razloga što se u posljednjih nekoliko
desetljeća
najintenzivnija
legislativna
djelatnost
manifestirala u donošenju potrošačkih direktiva.
Implementacijom istih države članice su prepoznale priliku
vlastitog ekonomskog prosperiteta, s obzirom da je
unapređenje trgovinske razmjene jedino moguće ukoliko
potrošači uživaju ista prava bez obzira gdje na teritoriji
Europske unije sklapaju ugovore.
Pažnja ovog rada usmjerena je na novi horizontalni
instrument europskog prava zaštite potrošača, Direktivu
2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača. Direktiva 2011/83/EU
predstavlja pionirski korak na putu izgradnje koherentnog
europskog prava zaštite potrošača, te u tom svjetlu ukazat
će se na problemska pitanja koja se javljaju u postupku
harmonizacije propisa država članica sa Direktivom
2011/83/EU, imajući u vidu klauzulu maksimalne
harmonizacije. Također, kritički će se razmotriti i proces
harmonizacije pozitivnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom u
oblasti zaštite potrošača.
Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 2 | Broj1
Keywords: Consumer protection,
harmonization, Directive
2011/83/EU.
JEL Classification: K12, K39
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15215
Article History
Submitted: 29.05.2014.
Resubmited: 18.11.2014.
Accepted: 23.01.2015.
109
�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area
most affected by the process of harmonization, and
consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer
protection. Because in the last few decades most intense
legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer
directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have
recognized the opportunity of their own economic development,
since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers
enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the
European Union conclude contracts.
This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of
European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer
rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards
building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in
this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in
the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with
Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum
harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the
process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis
in the field of consumer protection.
110
Keywords: Consumer protection,
harmonization, Directive
2011/83/EU.
JEL Classification: K12, K39
http://dx.doi.org/
10.14706/DO15215
Article History
Submitted: 29.05.2014.
Resubmited: 18.11.2014.
Accepted: 23.01.2015.
Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu
�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
1. Uvod
Unutarnje tržište Europske unije (dalje: EU, Unija) još uvijek počiva na
divergentnim pravnim sistemima država članica, što se u kontekstu ekonomske
integracije i realizacije proklamiranih gospodarskih sloboda, slobode kretanja roba i
usluga smatra bitnom preprekom. U svim svojim segmentima unutarnje tržište treba
funkcionirati kao nacionalno, i mada se već duže vrijeme provodi proces
harmonizacije propisa država članica, što je posebice evidentno u oblasti prava zaštite
potrošača, ipak ovaj proces nije rezultirao potpunim ujednačavanjem pravnog okvira
na razini EU.1 Mozaik nacionalnih propisa kojima se reguliraju ugovorni odnosi
implicira niz negativnih posljedica na razvoj prekogranične trgovine, to posebno ako
se ima u vidu da na unutarnjem tržištu djeluje oko 500 mil potrošača, a krajnja
potrošnja čini oko 56% GDP EU.2 Stoga ne iznenđuje činjenica da se
najintenzivnija legilsativna djelatnost u smislu harmonizacije propisa odvija u oblasti
zaštite potrošača, jer u tome su države članice prepoznale priliku svog ekonomskog
rasta i razvoja. Različiti nacionalni propisi u znatnoj mjeri povećavaju troškove
poslovanja, stvaraju pravnu nesigurnost, a kod potrošača izazivaju nepovjerenje.3
Mnogi razlozi zašto harmonizacija propisa koja se u oblasti zaštite potrošača
provodi od sredine 80-tih godina do danas nije polučila željene rezultate, čak vice
versa unutarnje tržište je rascjepkano divergentnim propisima država članica, mogu
se svesti na zajdnički nazivnik, a to su potrošačke direktive temeljene na klauzuli
minimalne harmonizacije.4 Primjena načela minimalne usklađenosti nije rezultirala
stvaranjem potpuno unificiranog sistema zaštite potrošača na razini EU,5 već
stvaranjem zajedničkog okvira minimalne zaštite potrošača, gdje se pravne razlike ne
uklanjaju već samo minimaliziraju tako da ne ometaju funkcioniranje unutarnjeg
1
V.: S. Weatherill, Why Harmonise?, in: T. Tridimas, P. Nebbia, (ed.) European Union Law for the
Twenty-First Century, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland Oregon, 2004., 11-33.
2
A European Consumer Agenda-Boosting confidence and growth, Brussels, 22.5.2012 COM(2012) 225
final.
3
Green Paper from the Commission on policy options for progress towards a European Contract Law for
consumers and businesses, COM(2010) 348 final, Brussels, 1.7.2010., 4-6.
4
O ostalim razlozima koji su detrminirali otpočinjanje procesa revizije europskog prava ugovora cfr.: E.
McKendrick, E., Harmonisation of European Contract Law: The State We Are In, in: S. Vogenauer, S.
Weatherill, (ed.), The harmonisation of European Contract Law, Implications for European Private Laws,
Business and Legal Practice, Hart Publishing, Oxford and Portland, Oregon, 2006., 14-19.
5
S. Jelinić, D. Akšamović, Ugovorno pravo Europske unije na prekretnici, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u
Zagrebu, 60-1/2010, 214.
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tržišta.6 Drugim riječima, na jedinstvenom tržištu ne postoje jedinstvena pravila, zato
što države imaju slobodu da prilikom transponiranja direktive odstupe od njenog
sadržaja, već upravo suprotno stvoreno je toliko harmoniziranih, a ipak različitih
pravnih područja koliko EU ima članica.7 Sektorski pristup harmonizaciji, budući da
su potrošačke direktive usvajane kao ad hoc odgovori na konkretne barijere slobodi
kretanja roba i usluga bez naročite sistematike i međusobne konzistentnosti, kao i
prethodno spomenuti problem klauzule minimalne usklađenosti, implicirali su proces
revizije consumer acquisa8 i postavljanje novog kursa u daljem razvoju prava zaštite
potrošača koncem 2000-tih godina.9 Taj zaokret predstavljaju direktive nove
generacije koje se temelje na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije,10 no rezultat
6
Minimalna harmonizacija omogućava stvaranje različitih sistema zaštite potrošača, stoga potrošači ne
mogu biti sigurni da li će im nivo zaštite koji uživaju u svojoj zemlji, biti osiguran ukoliko kupuju
negdje drugo na području EU. Ova nesigurnost u „jednaka prava“ implicira nepovjerenje potrošača u
prekogranične transakcije i samim tim zadržava ih u „sigurnim“ granicama nacionalnih tržišta. Stoga, za
europske potrošače najidealnije bi bilo kada bi se moglo reći „wherever you are in the EU or wherever you
buy from it makes no difference: your essential rights are the same.“ V.: Green Peper on the Review of the
Consumer Acquis, COM(2006), 744 fin., 3.
7
Sloboda koja je ostavljena državama članicama prilikom transponiranja odredaba direktiva minimalne
harmonizacije dovela je do stvaranja tzv. „sivih pravnih područja.“ C. Twigg-Flesner, The
Europeanization of Contract Law: Current controversies in law, Routledge-Cavedish, London & New
York, 2008., 105.
8
Proces revizije je usmjeren na osuvremenjavanje postojećih potrošačkih direktiva, na način da se
pojednostavi i unaprijedi pravni okvir za oba subjekta, poduzetnika i potrošača, te unaprijedi stupanj
zaštite potrošača. Revizijom je bilo obuhvaćeno 8 ključnih potrošačkih direktiva, no sama revizija nije
donijela očekivane rezultate, o čemu najbolje svjedoči i sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU. V.: Green Paper
on the Review of the Consumer Acquis, 4. O reperkusijama, koje je Zelena knjiga polučila na reviziju
consumer acquisa opširnije: Z. Meškić, Harmonizacija Evropskog potrošačkog prava – Zelena knjiga 2007.
godine i Nacrt zajedničkog referentnog okvira, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Splitu, 3/2009, 543569.; E. Čikara, Novosti u razvoju europskog prva zaštite potrošača-Osvrt na Zelenu knjigu o reviziji pravne
stečevine na području zaštite potrošača Europske zajednice, Hrvatska pravna revija, VIII:1/2008, 60-70.;
C. Poncibò, The Challenges of EC Consumer Law, European Univerity Institute Working paper Max
Weber Programme No. 2007/24, 5-9., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1028218, 12.03.2013.
9
V.: J. Karsten, G. Petri, Towards a Handbook on European Contract Law and Beyond: The Commission’s
2004 Communication ‘‘European Contract Law and the Revision of the Acquis:The Way Forward“, Journal
of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 32-33.
10
Prva direktiva zasnovana na principu maksimalne harmonizacije jeste Direktiva 2002/65/EZ o
marketingu financijskih usluga na daljinu (Directive 2002/65/EC of 23 September 2002 concerning
distance marketing of consumer financial services and amending Directive 90/619/EEC and Directives
97/7/EC and 98/27/EC, OJ L 271/16/02), potom Direktiva 2005/29/EZ o nepoštenoj poslovnoj praksi
(Directive 2005/29/EC of 11 May 2005 concerning unfair business-to-consumer commercial practices in the
internal market and amending Council Directive 84/450/EEC, L 149/22), Direktiva 2008/48/EZ o
ugovorima o potrošačkom kreditu (Directive 2008/48/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
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zakonodavce
koji je privukao najviše pažnje jeste Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača11
(dalje: Direktiva 2011/83/EU).
2. Transponiranje
Direktive
2011/83/EU
u
nacionalna
zakonodavstva
a) Razlozi za usvajanje prve horizontalne direktive
Antagonizam između pravnih propisa iz područja zaštite potrošača,12 koje su
država članica usvajale tijekom više decenijskog perioda, konačno bi trebao biti
otklonjen. Fragmentaran pravni okvir, dodatno pogoršan primjenom klauzule
minimalne harmonizacije nije pogodovao poslovnim subjektima, a još manje
potrošačima. To iz razloga što je poduzetnicima koji žele trgovati prekogranično
iziskivao troškove usaglašavanja propisa, a potrošačima nije davao dovoljan stupanj
sigurnosti i povjerenja u prekogranične transakcije. Poduzetnici koji žele trgovati na
tržištima drugih država članica izloženi su dodatnim troškovima koji poskupljuju
proizvode i samim tim umanjuju njihovu konkurentnost. S druge strane, nizak nivo
povjerenja u kupovinu preko granice impliciran je činjenicom da potrošači nisu
upoznati sa svojim pravima u drugoj državi i smatraju da je ista teško ostvariti u
praksi.13 Troškovi poslovanja i nepovjerenje potrošača ocijenjeni su kao ključni
razlozi koji sprečavaju da unutarnje tržište zaživi u svom punom opsegu. Nova
Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima za cilj postojeći nekonzistentni i rascjepkani consumer
acquis transformirati u jedinstven i unificiran sistem pravila, koji će svojom
koherentnošću pomoći tržišnim akterima da što bolje koriste potencijal unutarnjeg
tržišta. Ovim pravnim aktom otpočeo je proces moderniziranja europskog prava
zaštite potrošača na potpuno nov, sistematiziran i sveobuhvatan način.
of 23 April 2008 on credit agreements for consumers and repealing Council Directive 87/102/EEC, OJ L
133) i dr.
11
Directive 2011/83/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on consumer rights, amending
Council Directive 93/13/EEC and Directive 1999/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
and repealing Council Directive 85/577/EEC and Directive 97/7/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council, 25 October 2011, OJ [2011] L 304/64, 22 November 2011.
12
N., Reich., Crisis or Future of European Consumer Law, in: D. Parry, A., Nordhausen, G., Howells,
C., Twigg-Flesner, C., (ed.), The Yearbook of Consumer Law 2009, Ashgate Publishing, 2008., 40.
13
V.: Flash Eurobarometer No. 299, Consumer attitudes towards cross-border trade and consumer
protection, March 2011, 6., http://ec.europa.eu/ consumers/ strategy/ docs/ consumer
eurobarometer2011en.pdf, 14.04.2014.
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Najadekvatniji način za otklanjanje ovih barijera predstavljen je u formi
horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU temeljene na klauzuli ciljane maksimalne
harmonizaciji. Horizontalna harmonizacija podrazumijeva usvajanje okvirnog akta u
kojem su integrirane sve zajedničke i opće odredbe sadržane u većini potrošačkih
direktiva, pritom niti jedno konkretno pitanje koje je predmet normiranja neke
posebne direktive ne bi bilo uključeno. Horizontalna direktiva predstavlja potpuni
novum u oblasti zaštite potrošača,14 jer sve direktive iz područja zaštite potrošača
imaju karakter vertikalnih mjera. Pored toga, potrošačke direktive trpile su i
prigovore međusobne nekonzistentnosti kada su u pitanju ključni pojmovi, što se čak
javljalo i unutar iste direktive,15 kao i to da predmetno polje primjene direktive
obuhvaća vrlo usko pravno pitanje (primjerice određeni ugovor, ili čak samo jedan
aspekt nekog ugovora ili nekog drugog pravnog instituta), odnosno strogo su
funkcionalno orjentirane.16
Za razliku od Prijedloga Direktive 2011/83/EU iz 2008. godine,17 koji je
trebao promijeniti i sjediniti sadržaje četiri potrošačke direktive, Direktiva
14
U naučnim krugovima javljaju se mnoge nedoumice vezano za primjenu horizontalne direktive u
praksi, kao i to da li se toliko željena puna usklađenost divergentnih pravnih propisa može postići
direktivom kao pravnim aktom, jer puno adekvatniji instrument bila bi uredba. Nadalje, kako će se ova
direktiva uklopiti u postojeći komunitarni poredak, odnosno kakav će odnos imati naspram drugih
direktiva iz oblasti ugovornog prava. V.: M., Loos, Full harmonisation as a regulatory concept and its
consequences for the national legal orders: The example of the Consumer rights directive, Centre for the
Study of European Contract Law, Working Paper Series,
No. 2010/3, 3.,
http://ssrn.com/abstract=1639436, 14.04.2014.
15
Problem nekonzistentnosti sadržaja potrošačkih direktiva, te poteškoće koje su se neminovno javljale
prilikom transponiranja njihovih odredaba u pravne sisteme država-članica, bili su predmet istraživanja
posebnog znanstvenog projekta, kojeg je Europska komisija povjerila međunarodnoj skupini pravnih
eksperata, a kao rezultat čega je nastala studija pod nazivom „EC Consumer Law Compendium“ (dalje:
EC Compendium). Nekonzistentnost je najbolje uočljiva kod pojmova potrošač (consumer) i trgovac
(business), zati trajanja i računanja prava na bezrazložni raskid ugovora (right of withdrawal), kao i
dužnosti informiranja (information duties) V.: H., Schulte-Nölke, C., Twigg-Flesner, M., Ebers, (ed.),
EC Consumer Law Compendium, The Consumer Acquis and its transposition in the Member State, Sellier,
Munich, 2008.
16
Cfr.: D., Staudenmayer, The Place of Consumer Contract Law Within the Process on European Contract
Law, Journal of Consumer Policy, 27/2004, 270-271.; Slično i: T., Josipović, Izazovi harmonizacije
građanskog prava putem direktiva, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i
analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat, 2010., Knjiga I, Beograd 2010., 291-296.
17
Naime, određeni autori Prijedlog direktive su vidjeli kao idealnu podlogu za donošenje onog što se u
znanstvenoj javnosti često naziva Europski zakonik prava potrošača (European Code of Consumer
Rights). Tako, u narednih 10 do 15 godina Direktiva o pravima potrošača na sveobuhvatan način će
regulirati sve potrošačke ugovore. Istovremeno, potrošači će se u tolikoj mjeri navići na takav oblik
zaštite, da će Komisiji postati sasvim racionalno da umjesto Direktive o pravima potrošača predloži
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2011/83/EU derogira samo Direktivu 85/577/EEZ o ugovorima sklopljenim izvan
poslovnih prostorija, i Direktivu 97/7/EZ o ugovorima sklopljenim na daljinu, dok u
određenoj mjeri revidira Direktivu 93/13/EEZ o nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama u
potrošačkim ugovorima, te Direktivu 99/44/EZ o prodaji potrošačke robe i povezanim
garancijama. Direktiva 2011/83/EU sastoji se iz dva dijela, općeg ili uvodnog, te
posebnog. U uvodnom dijelu sadržana su opća i zajednička načela, te definicije
ključnih potrošačkih pojmova koji su dijelom postojećih direktiva koje ovaj
instrument zamjenjuje ili dopunjava, dok u posebnom dijelu regulirane su pojedine
vrste ugovora, koji su nekad bile predmet regulacije posebnih direktiva. Pravni
pojmovi i instituti koji su zajednički svim potrošačkim direktivama prvo su
apstrahiran, a potom jednoznačno integrirani u novi dokument.
Nesporno je da Direktiva 2011/83/EU po prvi put uvodi jedinstvene
zajedničke definicije osnovnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim sadrži iscrpna pravila o
obavezi predugovornog informiranja potrošača, o jednostranom bezrazložnom
raskidu i posljedicama, o mjerama koje trebaju spriječiti prikrivene terete za
potrošača, no činjenica da se navedeno primjenjuje samo na dvije vrste B2C (business
to consumer) ugovora umanjuje značaj koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU trebala imati u
procesu ujednačavanja prava zaštite potrošača. No, ipak iz same strukture Direktive
2011/83/EU donekle se može nazrijeti intencija europskog zakonodavca, a to je da
Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja dobru polaznu točku za buduće aktivnosti u
pravcu stvaranja jedinstvenog ugovornog prava zaštite potrošača. Ovo iz razloga što
struktura Direktive 2011/83/EU dozvoljava da se vremenom interpoliraju i ostali
segmenti potrošačkog acquisa, a da se pritom ne izgubi ratio. Na taj način bi
postepeno došlo do diferenciranja sadržaja, koji bi bio podijeljen na dva dijela, opći i
posebni. Jedinstvene, konzistentne definicije i zajedničko pravo na informiranje
potrošača i jednostrani bezrazložni raskid bi vremenom poprimili izgled općeg dijela
potrošačkog ugovornog prava, dok bi posebni dio činili različiti modaliteti
potrošačkih ugovora.18
Iako je ova horizontalna direktiva u znatnoj mjeri trebala doprinijeti
smanjivanju ukupne građe consumer acquisa i lakšoj preglednosti ove opsežne
Uredbu o pravima potrošača, a time bi izravno na snazi bio Europski potrošački zakonik. O tome: M.
W., Hesselink, The Consumer Rights Directive and the CFR: two worlds apart?, 5(3) ERCL 2009, 5-7.;
Slično i: N., Reich, A European Contract Law, or an EU Contract Law Regulation for Consumers?, Journal
of Consumer Policy, 28/2005, 398-403.
18
V.: Z., Meškić., Direktiva 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača od 25. oktobra 2011. godine, Sl. list EU
2011, L 304/64, Nova pravna revija, 1/2012., 48.
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materije, to se ipak nije dogodilo, budući da je van snage stavila samo dvije direktive.
S druge, pak, strane Direktiva 2011/83/EU je otklonila postojeće terminološke
probleme i ponudila jednoznačne definicije ključnih potrošačkih pojmova, zatim
izbjegnuto je višestruko a različito reguliranje određenih prava potrošača, te došlo je
do modernizacije određenih pravnih rješenja kako bi se uhvatio korak s razvojem
novih tehnologija. Iz tog razloga se i smatra da je horizontalni instrument najbolji
način da se reguliraju zajednički aspekti prava potrošača, kao i to da se pojednostave i
ažuriraju postojeći propisi, otklone neujednačenosti i popune praznine.
b) Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija i njezine posljedice
Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija19 znači da se potpuna usklađenost
pravnih propisa odnosi samo na određene, ključne aspekte potrošačkog acquisa,
odnosno države članice prilikom transponiranja direktive ne smiju odstupiti od
odredbi koje su „pogođene“ maksimalnom harmonizacijom, u smislu usvajanja i
zadržavanja strožijih mjera zaštite potrošača.20 Ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija
predstavlja svojevrsnu simbiozu između minimalne harmonizacije, gdje države imaju
slobodu transponiranja i maksimalne harmonizacije gdje je ta sloboda isključena, na
način da je maksimalna harmonizacija ublažena ciljanjem samo na određena pitanja
koja se usklađuju.21
Iako bi maksimalna usklađenost trebala obuhvatiti samo određene, ciljane
aspekte ugovornog odnosa, ipak iz analize Direktive 2011/83/EU evidentno je da su
obuhvaćeni gotovo svi segmenti predmetnih ugovora. Iz tog razloga skoro da se i ne
može govoriti o ciljanoj, nego samo o punoj harmonizaciji, ili još slikovitije rečeno
Direktiva 2011/83/EU više cilja na punu harmonizaciju, nego što stremi ciljanoj
harmonizaciji.22 Međutim, sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU predviđa niz odstupanja od
19
Izraz „ciljana maksimalna harmonizacija“, Komisija je počela prvi put upotrebljavati u svom Izvještaju
o Zelenoj knjizi o reviziji pravne stečevine (Report on the Green Paper on the Review of the Consumer
Acquis, OJ 2008 C 187/E231).
20
Princip ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije reguliran je odredbom člana 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU, što
znači da „države-članice ne smiju zadržati ili propisati u svom nacionalnom pravu, odredbe koje odstupaju
od onih propisanih u ovoj Direktivi, uključujući manje ili više striktne odredbe da se osigura različit nivo
zaštite potrošača.“
21
V.: E., Mišćenić, Usklađivanje prava zaštite potrošača u Republici Hrvatskoj, Godišnjak Akademije
pravnih znanosti Hrvatske, 1/2013, .
22
V.: G., Howells, R., Schulze, Overview of the Proposed Consumer Rights Directive, in: G., Howells, R.,
Schulze (eds.), Modernising and Harmonising Consumer Contract Law, Sellier, European law publishers,
Munich, 2009., 24.
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principa maksimalne harmonizacije, tako primjerice dozvoljava se državama
članicama da reduciraju polje primjene,23 zatim da u određenim slučajevima pruže
veći stupanj zaštite potrošačima, kao i to da pojedine odredbe nisu obavezne
inkorporirati u svoj pravni sistem. Iz čega proizlazi da načelo maksimalne
harmonizacije ipak trpi niz odstupanja i da načelo minimalne harmonizacije nije u
potpunosti nestalo.24
Odlučujuća činjenica koja je generirala primjenu načela maksimalne
harmonizacije jeste nedovoljno iskorišten potencijal prekogranične elektronske
trgovine. 25 U posljednjih par godina unutarnja distanciona prodaja bilježi svoj rast,
dok se to isto ne može reći kada su u pitanju prekogranične transakcije.26 Međutim,
pored razloga navedenih u preambuli Direktive 2011/83/EU koji opravdavaju punu
harmonizaciju, treba uzeti u obzir i praktične posljedice koje će ovaj nivo
harmonizacije implicirati na nacionalna zakonodavstva.27 Drugim riječima, kako će
puna usklađenost propisa u oblasti potrošačkih ugovora utjecati na dalji razvoj
ugovornog prava država članica, posebice ako se zna da su određene države članice
23
Tako primjerice, države članice mogu odlučiti ne primijeniti, zadržati postojeće ili uvesti nove
odredbe vezano za vrijednost ugovora zaključenog izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca, budući da se
odredba člana 3., stav 4. Direktive 2011/83/EU neće primjenjivati ako vrijednost ugovora ne prelazi 50
€. Nadalje, odredbom člana 5. propisana je lista informacija koje trgovac mora pružiti potrošaču u
predugovornom stadiju, a koja se odnosi na sve ugovore o prodaji robe ili pružanju usluga, pri tome u
stavu 4., navodi se da države-članice mogu proširiti ovu listu informacija. Odredba člana 7., propisuje
formalne zahtjeve koji moraju biti zadovoljeni kod ugovora sklopljenih izvan poslovnih prostorija, dok
države-članice imaju mogućnosti da stav 4. navedene odredbe uopće ne transponiraju u svoje
zakonodavstvo.
24
O prednostima i nedostatcima primjene principa minimalne, odnosno maksimalne harmonizacije
kroz analizu slučajeva iz prakse ESP vidi: G., Howells, N., Reich, The current limits of European
harmonisation in consumer contract law, ERA Forum, 2010.
25
V.: točku 7. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU.
26
Kada se radi o prekograničnom sklapanju ugovora svega 25% Europljana je u 2007. godini zaključilo
ovakvu transakciju. Pritom, ove transakcije se najčešće sklapaju neposrednim kontaktom između
trgovca i potrošača (face-to-face), i to za vrijeme odmora i poslovnih putovanja (70%), organiziranih
shopping tura (36%) i sl. U posljednje vrijeme distancioni ugovori zaključeni putem interneta, pošte,
telefona i sl., sve više zauzimaju mjesto kod EU populacije. Tako, u 2008. godini 33% Europljana je
obavilo kupovinu putem interneta, 28% posredstvom pošte, 16% putem telefona, 9% Europljana je
zaključilo ugovor na kućnom pragu. Međutim, značajno je istaći da većina distancionih ugovora ipak
ima tuzemni karakter (30%), odnosno prekogranična distanciona trgovina javlja se tek uzgredno (7%).
V.: European Commision, Special Eurobarometer 298, Consumer protection in the Internal Market,
October 2008., 4., http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_298_en.pdf, 13.10.2013.
27
Cfr.: J., Smits, Full Harmonization of Consumer Law? A Critique of the Draft Directive on Consumer
Rights, European Review of Private Law, 1/2010, 8–10.
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potrošački acquis inkorporirale u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su iz tog razloga
već bile podvrgnute procesu modernizacije?28
Odnos između Direktive 2011/83/EU i nacionalnih pripisa može se
analizirati sa dva aspekta. Prvi aspket, jeste odgovor na pitanje koje je sve propis
potrebno ukinuti da bi se udovoljilo zahtjevu pune harmonizacije? Drugi aspekt,
jeste odgovor na pitanje da li će puna harmonizacija imati „efekat preljevanja“,
odnosno da li će njome biti zahvaćene i one oblasti prava, koje direktno ne ulaze u
predmetno polje primjene Direktive 2011/83/EU?29
No, jedno je sigurno Direktiva 2011/83/EZ će na određeni način doprinijeti
europeizaciji ugovornog prava, dok razlozi koji opravdavaju princip pune
harmonizacije, a koje je Europska komisija navela nakon ispitivanja javnog mnijenja,
su samo iluzija, jer nivo pravne sigurnosti koji se proklamira neće biti povećan, već će
zasigurno biti smanjen.30 Zato što većina država članica zahvaljujući principu
minimalne harmonizacije svojim potrošačima je pružala veću razinu zaštite nego što
to sada predviđa Direktiva 2011/83/EU.31 Jedina sigurnost koju će potrošači imati
jeste to što će se isti korpus pravila primjenjivati svugdje na području EU, dakle, bez
obzira na mjesto sklapanja ugovora. Na taj način eliminirana je glavna prepreka
prekograničnoj trgovini i nepovjerenju potrošača. Potpuna harmonizacija će značiti
kraj pravnom eksperimentiranju nacionalnih zakonodavaca, s tim da izraz
eksperimentiranje ovdje nema negativnu konotaciju kao što to ima pravna
28
Za države članice obaveza implementacije određenog normativnog akta nameće obavezu izbora
adekvatnog modela implementacije, odnosno da li sadržaj primjerice određene direktive inkorporirati u
postojeću kodifikaciju građanskog prava, ili opredijeliti se za usvajanje novog zakona (lex specialis).
Države članice da bi uskladile svoje propise sa komunitarnim aktima, a pri tome očuvale koherentnost
pravnog sistema, odnosno spriječile pojavu kontradiktornih rješenja povodom istih pravnih problema,
najčešće pristupaju temeljitim pravnim reformama. Najbolji primjer za to je izmjena njemačkog
Građanskog zakonika iz 2002. godine (Gesetz zur Modernisierung des Schuldrechts, 26. 11. 2001. (BGBl.
I S 3138), zatim noveliranje nizozemskog Građanskog zakonika iz 1992. godine (Burgerlijk Wetboek)
Međutim, usvajanje velikog broja komunitarnih akata u vrlo kratkom periodu, ukazuje na to da se
legislativne reforme vremenom pretvaraju u začarani krug. Cfr.: M. W., Hesselink, The New European
Private Law: Essays on the Future of Private Law in Europe, Kluwer Law International, 2002., 37-42.; S.,
Vogenauer, S., Weatherill, 71-83.
29
G., Howells, R., Schulze (2009), 41.; M., Loos, (2010), 15-16.
30
O implikacijama i poteškoćama s kojim će se susresti nacionalni zakonodavci prilikom i nakon
transponiranja Direktive 2011/83/EU detaljnije vidi i kod.: H. G. Howells, R., Schulze R. (2009), 5661.
31
V.: H. W., Micklitz, N., Reich, N., Crónica de una Muerte Anunciada: The Commission Proposal for a
"Directive on Consumer Rights", Common Market Law Review, 46/2009.
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zakonodavce
fragmentacija koja nastaje kao njegov rezultat.32 Ujednačena, iako evidentno
smanjena razina zaštite potrošača, zasigurno će u velikoj mjeri pogodovati
poduzetnicima jer iako se radi o imperativnim propisima postoje mnoge pravne
praznine, koje će poduzetnici iskoristiti u svojim općim uvjetima poslovanja koji će
sada biti identičnim za cijelo tržište EU kako bi sebi osigurali ekstra profit.33
c) Problem izbora adekvatnog modela implementacije
Bez obzira na to što Direktiva 2011/83/EU nije ispunila očekivanja
projicirana nizom programskih akata koje je Europska komisija donosila posljednjih
desetak godina, ipak ne smiju se zanemariti reperkusije koje će nova Direktiva
2011/83/EU proizvesti nakon što države članice transponiraju njen sadržaja, budući
da je taj rok istekao 2013. godine.
Velike razlike u pravnim režimima zaštite potrošača ocijenjene su glavnom
preprekom za efikasno funkcioniranje unutarnjeg tržišta, a da bi se ostvarilo
jedinstvo pravnog režima izabrana je maksimalna harmonizacija.34 Primjena klauzule
maksimalne harmonizacije znači da će sada određene države članice morati sniziti
stupanj zaštite koji su osiguravale svojim potrošačima, dok će neke tu razinu podići.
U većini slučajeve države članice su pribjegavale usvajanju izuzetno strogih mjera
zaštite potrošača svaki put kada bi direktiva minimalne harmonizacije šutila o
određenom pitanju. Iako će nivo zaštite koji europski potrošači uživaju od sada biti
isti za sve fizičke osobe koje djeluju na unutarnjem tržištu, mnogo kompleksnije
32
Prema: G., Howells, R., Schulze R., (2009), 77.
Cfr.: V., Mak, Review of the Consumer Acquis – Towards Maximum Harmonisation?, TICOM,
Working paper No. 2008/6, August 2008, 12-13., http://ssrn.com/abstract=1237011, 20.04.2013.
34
Potrošačke organizacije nisu iskazale oduševljenje zbog primjene klauzule maksimalne harmonizacije,
već su svoju naklonost usmjerile mješovitom pristupu implementacije. Iz perspektive potrošača
maksimalna harmonizacija je poželjna samo ukoliko se istom osigurava izuzetno visok stupanj zaštite, a
to je jedino moguće kada su u pitanju odredbe procesnog karaktera, zatim kada se radi o pojmovima
koji se provlače kroz sve potrošačke direktive, kao što su primjerice definicije potrošač, trgovac, trajni
medij i sl., zatim u pogledu pitanja tzv. „tehničke prirode“ poput dužine roka za jednostrani bezrazložni
raskid ugovora. S druge strane, određene potrošačke oblasti bi trebale i dalje biti podvrgnute principu
minimalne harmonizacije, to se posebice odnosi na nepoštene ugovorne odredbe, odgovornost za
nedostatke na proizvodu, garancije i sl. O tome detaljnije v. istraživanje provedeno od strane Gallup
organizacije, na zahtjev DG HCP objavljeno u Special Eurobarometer, Business attitudes towards crossborder
sales
and
consumer
protection,
July
2008,
No
224,
20-28.,
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/flash /fl_224_en.pdf, kao i reakciju organizacije za zaštitu potrošača
BEUC na Prijedlog direktive o pravima potrošača dostupnu na www.beuc.eu., 10.03.2014.
33
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pitanje tiče se samog izbora adekvatnog metoda implementacije Direktive
2011/83/EU u nacionalna zakonodavstva.
Izbor odgovarajuće normativne tehnike naročito je pogodio one države
članice koje su potrošački acquis ugradile u svoje građanske kodifikacije, koje su zbog
toga već bile podvrgnute krupnim nomotehničkim zahvatima. Direktiva
2011/83/EU neminovno će imati određeni utjecaj na opće ugovorno pravo država
članica.35
Pravo zaštite potrošača, iako u sebi sadrži i javnopravne i privatnopravne
elemente, ipak se razvija i čini sastavni dio općeg ugovornog prava država članica,
tzv. „spontana harmonizacija.“ Iz tog razloga ne može se promatrati kao izolirana
cjelina, budući da se u velikoj mjeri prava i interesi potrošača štite propisima općeg
ugovornog prava, na što upućuju i same potrošačke direktive. S obzirom da se
Direktiva 2011/83/EU temelji na principu pune harmonizacije to može dovesti do
tzv. „efekta zamrzavanja“ europskog potrošačkog prava, koje će postati statično, dok
europsko ugovorno pravo će se nastaviti razvijati prateći suvremeni gospodarski
razvoj. U budućem periodu može se dogoditi da pravni propisi ugovornog prava
budu povoljniji za potrošača, nego propisi koji su stricto sensu namijenjeni njegovoj
zaštiti. Nadalje, u samoj Direktivi 2011/83/EU navodi se da ista neće utjecati na
ugovorno pravo država članica kada su u pitanju one oblasti koje nisu predmet njene
regulacije. Direktiva 2011/83/EU ne bi smjela utjecati na određene aspekte općeg
ugovornog prava, kao što su primjerice opći uvjeti zaključenja ugovora, dejstva
ugovora, tumačenje, nevažnost ugovora, pravni lijekovi za slučaj povrede ugovornih
obaveza, naknadu štete i sl.36 Međutim, to ipak otvara određena pitanja, budući da i
sama Direktiva 2011/83/EU upućuje na primjenu nacionalnih propisa, i to ne samo
kada su u pitanju ugovorni aspekti isključeni iz predmeta njenog djelovanje, već i
kada se radi o aspektima koji su djelomično predmet njene regulacije. Iz toga
proizlazi da bez obzira što je došlo do potpunog ujednačavanja određenih segmenata
ugovornog prava iz oblasti zaštite potrošača, ipak divergentni propisi obligacionog
prava država članica i dalje će se primjenjivati kada su u pitanju potrošački
ugovori.37 Prema tome, potpuna je zabluda da Direktiva 2011/83/EU neće dovesti u
35
Opširnije: M., Loos, The Influence of European Consumer Law on General Contract Law and the Need
for Spontaneous Harmonization, European Review of Private Law, 2007/4.
36
V.: točku 14. preambule Direktive 2011/83/EU.
37
V.: G., Howells, N., Reich, 50-52.
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zakonodavce
pitanje postojeće propise ugovornog prava država članica, već upravo suprotno,38
države članice kako bi očuvale unutarnje jedinstvo i sistematičnost propisa
građanskog prava morat će pristupiti izmjenama određenih instituta. To dalje znači
da neće biti uspostavljen potpuno koherentan pravni okvir kojim se štite potrošači,
jer se propisi obligacionog prava država članica razlikuju. Direktiva 2011/83/EU o
mnogim pitanjima šuti i ostavlja državama članicama da ih urede u skladu sa svojim
propisima ugovornog prava, npr. pitanje sankcija za slučaj kršenja obaveze
informiranja potrošača, kakve su pravne posljedice bezrazložnog raskida ugovora u
slučaju da jedna od ugovornih strana ne ispuni svoju obavezu restitucije, prestanak
povezanih ugovora i sl.
U većini slučajeva da bi zadržale koherentnost općeg ugovornog prava države
članice morat će optirati u smislu da li ići u postupak izmjene općeg ugovornog
prava ili stvoriti poseban korpus pravila namijenjen isključivo potrošačima koji će
biti u interakciji s propisima općeg ugovornog prava kada se radi o
neharmoniziranim pitanjima.39 Tako, ukoliko bi se određeni nacionalni zakonodavci
ipak odlučili da Direktivu 2011/83/EU transponiraju u svoje građanske kodifikacije
to znači da su gotovo prisiljeni spontano harmonizirati i ostale propise koji se
primjenjuju na nepotrošačke, odnosno na B2B i C2C ugovore, u cilju održavanja
unutarnje konzistentnosti ugovornog prava. Mada se od država članica ne očekuje da
primjene „copy-past“ tehniku transponiranja, ipak većina njih će se odlučiti upravo za
ovaj metoda kako bi se izbjegle nepotrebne greške i previde.40 No, pored pitanja
kako, javlja se i pitanje gdje implementirati ovu okvirnu horizontalnu direktivu: u
okviru postojećih građanskih zakona ili potrošačkih zakona?41
38
V.: M. W., Hesselink, Towards a sharp distinction between b2b and b2c? On consumer, commercial and
general contract law after the Consumer rights directive, European Review of Private Law, 2010/1, 81.
39
V.: M., Loos, (2010), 3.
40
V.: Z., Čađenović, E., Čikara, et al., Transponovanje predložene Direktive o pravima potrošača u
nacionalne zakone zemalja učesnica, Forum za građansko pravo za jugoistočnu Europu, Izbor radova i
analiza Prva regionalna konferencija, Cavtat 2010., Knjiga III, Beograd, 2010., 722 i d.
41
Po pitanju izbora tehnike transponiranja države članice su pretežno prihvatile mješoviti model, tako
išlo se u pravcu izmjena i dopuna postojećih propisa o zaštiti potrošača, uključujući i građanske
zakonike, ali i donošenje potpuno novih obvezujućih akata (zakonskih, podzakonskih) u skladu sa
odredbama Direktive 2011/83/EU. Primjerice, u Nizozemski građanski zakonik (Dutch Civil Code)
interpolirani su novi dijelovi kompatibilni sadržaju Direktive 2011/83/EU, kako bi se i dalje održala
sistematizacija i struktura građe Zakonika, redaktori su vodili računa da transplantati budu u vezi sa
općim pravom ugovora. Tako, u Knjigu 6 Zakonika smješten je odjeljak o obavezi informiranja i to u
dijelu koji se odnosi na opće uvjete za sklapanje ugovora, ili Knjiga 7 Zakonika pored redovnog ugovora
o prodaji sada ima i novi odjeljak o distancionoj i prodaji na kućnom pragu i sl. O implementaciji
Direktive 2011/83/EU u Nizozemski građasnki zakonik opširnije vidi: A. J., Luzak, V., Mak, The
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Pred državama članicama je veliki izazov u pogledu izbora odgovarajućeg
modela implementacije, no postoji opravdana bojazan da će nakon što snize
nacionalne nivoe zaštite potrošača države članice se susresti s paradoksalnim
problemom da su im odredbe općeg ugovornog prava povoljnije od posebnih pravila
o zaštiti potrošača. Drugi problem s kojim se mogu susresti države članice jeste
pitanje pravnih praznina, naime Direktiva 2011/83/EU harmonizira određeno
pravno područje, ali ne do kraja iscrpno. Tako primjerice, kada je u pitanju obaveza
predugovornog informiranja potrošača, Direktiva 2011/83/EU je izričita i ne
dozvoljava državama članicama odstupanja od propisanih informacija, no s druge
strane sankcije za kršenje ove obaveze potpuno prepušta državama članicama. Što
znači da su države članice i dalje obavezne ona pitanja koja nisu potpuno
harmonizirana ipak dopunjavati propisima općeg ugovornog prava. Stoga, bi bilo
potpuno naivno misliti da će maksimalna harmonizacija povećati stupanj zaštite
potrošača kada postoje evidentni primjeri da će taj nivo biti umanjen, jer su države
članice obavezne derogirati sve propise koji prelaze maksimalnu granicu zaštite
propisanu Direktivom 2011/83/EU.
d) „Visok stupanj zaštite potrošača“ – hoće li i dalje ostati visok?
Mnoga pitanja bitna za zaštitu potrošača Direktiva 2011/83/EU je ispustila
iz predmetnog polja primjene, odnosno i dalje ih je ostavila dejstvu vertikalnih mjera
minimalne harmonizacije. Što znači da je de facto i dalje zadržan pravni
partikularizam i nekonzistentnost u ovoj oblasti i pored toga što je Direktiva
2011/83/EU puno obećavala kada je u pitanju otklanjanje ovih barijera.
Dugogodišnji napori akademske i stručne javnosti ipak nisu urodili
očekivanim plodom kada se radi o uspostavljanju jedinstvenog seta propisa koji će
biti jamac visokog stupnja pravne sigurnosti potrošača na unutarnjem tržištu. S tim u
vezi značajno je naglasiti da nakon što je Lisabonski ugovor stupio na snagu, visok
nivo zaštite potrošača „promoviran“ je na rang ustavnog načela.42 Stoga, postavlja se i
pitanje da li naziv Direktiva o pravima potrošača zaista odgovara Direktivi
2011/83/EU, s obzirom da ista regulira veoma uzak segment potrošačkog acquisa, tj.
sadrži pravila koja se primjenjuju jedino na ugovore sklopljene na daljinu i ugovore
sklopljene izvan poslovnih prostorija. Iz tog razloga sam naziv Direktive 2011/83/EU
Consumer Rights Dirctive, Centre for the Study of European Contract Law Working Paper Series No.
2013-01, University of Amsterdam, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstractid= 2192603.
15.03.2014.
42
V.: odredbu člana 114., stav 3. UFEU.
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zakonodavce
lako može zavarati da se radi o Zakoniku ugovornog potrošačkog prava, što zapravo nije
slučaj, odnosno naziv direktive ne odgovara njenom sadržaju.43
Jako je teško osigurati visok stupanj zaštite potrošača naročito u onim
oblastima gdje taj nivo Direktiva 2011/83/EU snižava u odnosu na postojeće
nacionalne propise, stoga se čini da je klauzula minimalne harmonizacije ipak bila
prihvatljivije rješenje kada se radi o zaštiti potrošača. Nesporno je da je princip
minimalne harmonizacije implicirao sve one negativne pojave u smislu divergencije
materijalnih propisa država članica. Upravo iz tog razloga, države članice koje
njeguju dugu tradiciju zaštite potrošača morat će se odreći svojih visokih standarda i
usvojiti standarde propisane Direktivom 2011/83/EU.44 Nadalje, postavlja se pitanje
kako će potpuna harmonizacija utjecati na povjerenje potrošača u jedinstveno
europsko tržište. Tako primjerice, potrošači mnogih europskih zemalja će sigurno
biti razočarani kada Direktiva 2011/83/EU postane dio njihovog pravnog sistema,
zato što će se nivo zaštite značajno srozati a to nikako neće doprinijeti njihovom
povjerenju u funkcioniranje unutarnjeg EU tržišta. Upravo suprotno!
Međutim, ne smije se zaboraviti da Direktiva 2011/83/EU ima i političke
ciljeve, i to što se određene države članice moraju odreći svojih visokih standarda bit
će kompenzirano sveukupnim povećanjem razine zaštite potrošača u EU. Zaštita
koju osigurava Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja na određeni način „zlatnu
sredinu“, odnosno mjeru kojom će se uspostaviti stvarna ravnoteža između zaštite
interesa potrošača i konkurentnosti poduzetnika. 45
3. Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU u domaći pravni poredak
Potpisivanjem Sporazuma o stabilizaciji i pridruživanju između europskih
Zajednica i njihovih država članica (dalje: SSP) 2008. godine, preuzeta je obaveza
ispunjenja niza političkih, gospodarskih, institucionalnih i pravnih kriterija kako bi
se Bosna i Hercegovina (dalje: BiH) pridružila europskim integracijama. Proces
43
D. A., Chirita, The Impact of Directive 2011/83/EU on Consumer Rights, 3., http://ssrn.com
/abstract=1998993, 10.06.2013.
44
V.: M., Loos, (2010) 18-19.
45
O tome cfr.: V., Reding, An ambitious Consumer Rights Directive: boosting consumers’ protection and
helping businesses, speech/10/91, European Consumer Day 2010, Madrid, 15 March 2010,
http://europa.eu/rapid/
pressReleasesAction.do?reference=SPEECH/10/91&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLang
uage=en, 10.06.2013.
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harmonizacije domaćih pravnih propisa sa pravnom stečevinom (acquis
communautaire) jedan je od temeljnih uvjeta za pristup novih država u članstvo EU.
Iz tog razloga i BiH već određeno vrijeme provodi proces usklađivanja pozitivnih
propisa sa pravnim naslijeđem EU i to u raznim oblastima. Usklađivanje domaćih
propisa odvija se na bitno drugačiji način nego u državama članicama, jer BiH nema
aktivnu ulogu u izradi uredbi, direktiva i drugih akata, već se samo radi o
jednostranoj obavezi preuzimanja već usvojene regulative.
Obaveza harmonizacije pozitivnopravnih propisa u domenu zaštite
potrošača sa zajedničkim pravom EU proizlazi iz odredbe člana 76., stav 1. SSP.
Stoga, i našem zakonodavcu predstoji obaveza transponiranja Direktive
2011/83/EU, to iz razloga što Direktiva 85/577/EEZ i Direktiva 97/7/EZ već čine
sastavni dio pozitivnog sistema zaštite potrošača. Iako se naš zakonodavac na početku
opredijelio za tzv. „mješoviti model implementacije“, s obzirom da su iste potrošačke
direktive istovremeno bile transponirane u lex specialis propis, odnosno u Zakon o
zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini46 (dalje: ZZP BiH), ali i u Nacrt Zakona o
obligacionim odnosima iz 2004. godine. Ovakav način „uvođenja“ komunitarnih
propisa u nacionalni pravni sistem imao bi za posljedicu unutarnji sukob zakona.
Paralelna, ali ne i istovjetna pravna rješenja, stvorila bi nepotrebnu konkurenciju
pozitivnih propisa u domenu zaštite potrošača, što bi u praksi rezultiralo mnogim
negativnim reperkusijama. To je donekle riješeno Prijedlogom ZOO iz 2010.
godine, budući da je iz istog apstrahiran znatan dio propisa o zaštiti potrošača, tako
da je ZZP BiH postao i ostao temeljni propis kojim se na sistemski način uređuje
oblast zaštite potrošača.
Kada je u pitanju transponiranje horizontalne Direktive 2011/83/EU koja
zahtijeva potpunu harmonizaciju u naš pravni poredak, važno je naglasiti da to nije
nimalo jednostavan postupak. To naročito ako se ima u vidu (ne)primjena ZZP BiH
u praksi. Tako, mada je ZZP BiH usvojen 2006. godine, a pritom je naslijedio ZZP
BiH iz 2002. godine, i dalje je ostao samo slovo na papiru. Sasvim uzgredna
primjena ZZP BiH u praksi ne znači da naši potrošači ne trebaju zaštitu, već govori o
tome da je na donošenje ovog zakona gledano isključivo kao na jedan od političkih
ciljeva koji je u datom trenutku trebalo ispuniti. No, iako pozitivne odredbe o zaštiti
potrošača trpe brojne kritike, budući da po svom sadržaju i jezičkoj formulaciji često
odstupaju od odredaba i samog cilja implementiranih direktiva, ipak i primjena
takvog pravnog propisa bolja je od njegove neprimjene. On što je evidentno jeste
46
„Sl. glasnik BiH“, broj: 25/06.
124
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
činjenica da se na potrošačke ugovore primjenjuju opći propisi obligacionog prava,
odnosno duga tradicija Zakona o obligacionim odnosima47 nadvladala je primjenu
ZZP BiH kao lex specialisa. Na taj način odstupilo se od generalnog principa lex
specialis derogat legi generali i umjesto da potrošački ugovori čine poseban režim, i
dalje se u pravnom prometu i sudskoj praksi isti tretiraju kao „obični“ obligacioni
ugovori. Najbolji pokazatelj ignoriranja ZZP BiH jeste oskudna sudska praksa.
Bez obzira na činjenicu što je izostala primjena ZZP BiH u praksi, ipak ovo
je poseban propis namijenjen isključivo zaštiti potrošača, stoga bi nova Direktiva
2011/83/EU svoje mjesto trebala naći u istom. To našem zakonodavcu u budućem
periodu nameće obavezu korjenitih izmjena i dopuna ovog lex specialis propisa. Ovo
posebice iz razloga što se već sad većina odredbi ZZP BiH temelji na odredbama
direktiva koje su stavljene van snage, pritom se misli na Direktivu 87/102/EEZ o
potrošačkom kreditu, zatim Direktivu 94/47/EZ o timeshare ugovorima, a sada i
Direktivu 85/577/EEZ i Direktivu 97/7/EZ, dok su Direktiva 93/13/EEZ o
nepoštenim ugovornim odredbama i Direktiva 99/44/EZ o odgovornosti za
materijalne nedostatke izmijenjene i dopunjene. Imajući u vidu sve promjene koje su
se u posljednje vrijeme dogodile u oblasti zaštite potrošača, kao i činjenicu da sve
direktive nove generacije predstavljaju mjere maksimalne harmonizacije, to se i pred
našeg zakonodavca stavlja zahtjev stvaranja takvog pravnog okvira, koji će osigurati
onaj nivo zaštite koji predviđaju nove direktive.
Postupak transponiranja potrošačkog acquisa dodatno se usložnjava s
obzirom da Direktiva 2011/83/EU predstavlja horizontalni instrument, po svom
sadržaju izuzetno opsežan i kompleksan, a klauzula ciljane maksimalne harmonizacije
ne dozvoljava bilo kakva odstupanja kada se radi o odredbama koje su njome
pogođene. Pravilna implementacija Direktive 2011/83/EU nije nimalo jednostavan
zadatak, to je izazov kojem domaći zakonodavac do sada i nije baš najbolje znao
udovoljiti. Naime, i samo europsko pravo zaštite potrošača trpi brojne kritike zbog
svoje iscjepkanosti i različitosti, stoga je i domaćem zakonodavcu bilo jako teško
redigirati koherentan, homogen i sistematiziran korpus pravila o zaštiti potrošača.
Koliko se u tome uspjelo najbolje svjedoče neadekvatni prijevodi mnogih pojmova,
neujednačena terminologija, izrazi koji nisu svojstveni našoj pravnoj tradiciji,
nezgrapne i nejasne zakonske formulacije, pravne praznine i sl. Sve navedeno je
47
Zakon o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list SFRJ”, br. 29/78, 39/85, 45/89 i 57/89), koji je preuzet u
domaće zakonodavstvo Zakonom o preuzimanju Zakona o obligacionim odnosima („Sl. list R BiH”,
br. 2/92, 13/93 i 13/94 i „Sl. novine FBiH“, broj: 29/03) i Zakonom o izmjenama i dopunama
Zakona o obligacionim odnosima, objavljenom u („Sl. glasniku RS”, br. 17/93 i 3/96).
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�Dr. sc. Anita Petrović
posljedica toga da je ZZP BiH de facto nastao „spajanjem“ odredaba pojedinih
direktiva, pritom se nije previše vodilo računa o ciljevima i dosezima tih direktiva.48
Upravo da bi se izbjegle navedene slabosti i uskladio položaj potrošača u
nacionalnom pravu sa standardima postavljenim u pravnom poretku EU, domaći
zakonodavac mora poduzeti ozbiljan korak i upustiti se u proces revizije postojećih
pravnih rješenje. Drugim riječima, potrebno je učiniti novi kvalitativni korak u
razvoju prava zaštite potrošača što je nemoguće ukoliko se ne pristupi izmjeni i
dopuni postojećih propis u svjetlu novih direktiva, a naročito Direktive
2011/83/EU. To je neophodan preduvjet za uključenje BiH u unutarnje tržište.
No, ako se uzmu u obzir mnogobrojne izmjene i dopune pravnih rješenja
koje tek predstoje, to bi puno jednostavnije i kvalitetnije rješenje bilo da se pristupi
donošenju potpuno novog Zakona o zaštiti potrošača. S nomotehničkog aspekta to je
složen postupak, ali isto tako ne kreće se od nule budući da već postoji ZZP BiH, što
zasigurno predstavlja dobar temelj da se sistem zaštite potrošača u BiH samo
nadogradi.49 Nadalje, ne bi trebalo ostati samo na općem zakonu, već određene
aspekte zaštite potrošača potrebno je regulirati i posebnim zakonima, kao što se to
primjerice već događa u oblasti financijskih usluga. Isto tako druge oblasti koje nisu
isključivo potrošačke potrebno je uskladiti s propisima općeg ugovornog prava. U
suprotnom, ukoliko bi i novi Zakon o zaštiti potrošača predstavljao samo doslovan
prijevod i spajanje odredaba Direktive 2011/83/EU sa odredbama drugih
48
Naime, svaka direktiva je samostalan pravni akt, koji ima svoje posebne ciljeve koji nisu sadržani
samo u normativnom dijelu direktive, već i u preambuli. Stoga, za razumijevanje sadržaja određene
direktive važno je uzeti u obzir i njen normativni ali i nenormativni dio, te potom ga prilagoditi
specifičnim karakteristikama i načelima konkretnog pravnog sistema. V. opširnije: S., Petrić, Kritički
osvrt na Zakon o zaštiti potrošača u Bosni i Hercegovini, Zbornik radova Aktualnosti građanskog i
trgovačkog zakonodavstva i pravne prakse, br. 2, Mostar, 2004.,195.
49
Sasvim je jasno da Direktiva 2011/83/EU u određenim situacijama i nije znatnije odstupila od
rješenja Direktive 85/577/EEZ i Direktive 97/7/EZ. Pritom, kada su u pitanju odredbe ZZP BiH koje
se tiču ugovora o prodaji izvan poslovnih prostorija trgovca i ugovora o distancionoj prodaji, pozitivna
zakonska rješenja u određenoj mjeri odstupaju od sadržaja transponiranih direktiva, ali se zato u
određenoj mjeri približavaju rješenjima nove Direktive 2011/83/EU. Tako primjerice, jedna od novina
predviđena Direktivom 2011/83/EU odnosi se na definiciju ugovora zaključenih izvan poslovnih
prostorija, koja je znatno proširena, a jedno od proširenja obuhvaća i ugovore sklopljene u sredstvima
javnog prijevoza ili nekom drugom javnom mjestu. Pritom, ova situacija je već bila redigirana odredbom
član 39., stav 1., slovo c) ZZP BiH. Nadalje, Direktiva 2011/83/EU uvodi jedinstven rok za raskid
ugovora u trajanju od 14 dana, dok i ZZP BiH također sadrži unificirani rok za raskid ugovora u
trajanju od 15 dana. Po pitanju trajanja roka za raskid ZZP BiH je već dostigao standarde zaštite koji
uvodi Direktiva 2011/83/EU.
126
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�Transponiranje Direktive 2011/83/EU o pravima potrošača - izazov za nacionalne
zakonodavce
potrošačkih direktiva, ponovno bi zakonodavac potvrdio da ne postoji jedinstvena i
do kraja artikulirana koncepcija kako regulirati ovu oblast.50 Na taj način bi i po treći
put bilo potvrđeno pravilo da ratio donošenja Zakona o zaštiti potrošača u BiH jeste
samo nastojanje da se na zakonodavnoj razini uskladimo sa standardima EU
usvojenim u oblasti zaštite potrošača, a ne i osiguranje da se usvojena pravila zaista i
primjenjuju u praksi.
4. Zaključna razmatranja
Imajući u vidu da je tek koncem 2013. godine istekao rok za transponiranje
Direktive 2011/83/EU to je još uvijek rano govoriti o posljedicama koje je ostavila
na nacionalna zakonodavstva i samim tim na položaj potrošača, a još uvijek nije
istekao ni rok kada ista postaje obvezujuća u državama članicama (13.6.2014). No, i
nakon ovog roka trebat će proći određeni period tijekom kojeg će potrošači testirati
jedinstveni regulatorni okvir u praksi, tek tada mogu se dati konkretni odgovori o
utjecaju koji je Direktiva 2011/83/EU ostavila na pitanje pravne sigurnosti i
povjerenje potrošača. Drugim riječima, ostaje da se vidi da li je ovim jednoobraznim
pravilima dovršen posao izgradnje unutarnjeg tržišta u oblasti zaštite potrošača i
otklonjena pravna fragmentacija.
Iako su države članice pribjegle različitim metodama transponiranja, neke u
okviru postojećih građanskih kodifikacija, određene su se odlučile na donošenje
potpuno novih specialis zakona kojim se implementira Direktiva 2011/83/EU, dok
su se neke države odlučile na modernizaciju i usvajanje novih kodifikacija
potrošačkog prava u svjetlu horizontalne direktive, ipak sve države su morale proći
fazu provjere i preispitivanja svog zakonodavstva kako bi se i ostali propisi usaglasili
sa Direktivom 2011/83/EU.
Pravo zaštite potrošača predstavlja funkcionalnu pravnu oblast koja se
postepeno etablira i u bosanskohercegovačkom pravnom poretku, stoga sve novine
koje se posljednjih godina događaju na europskoj potrošačkoj sceni ne smiju ostati
nezamijećene od strane domaćeg zakonodavca.
50
Cfr.: S., Petrić, 196.
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5. Literatura
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Transposition of the Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights - A challenge to national legislators
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Petrović, Anita
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Abstract: In the area of European contract law legal area most affected by the process of harmonization, and consequently the process of revision is the area of consumer protection. Because in the last few decades most intense legislative activity is manifested in the adoption of consumer directives. Transposing consumer directives member states have recognized the opportunity of their own economic development, since the improvement of trade is only possible if consumers enjoy the same rights no matter where in the territory of the European Union conclude contracts . This paper is focused on new horizontal instrument of European consumer law, Directive 2011/83/EU on consumer rights. Directive 2011/83/EU is a pioneering step towards building a coherent European consumer protection law, and in this light will be indicated the problem questions that arise in the process of harmonization of regulation Member States with Directive 2011/83/EU, keeping in mind the maximum harmonization clause. Also critically will be considered the process of harmonization of positive legislation with the Acquis in the field of consumer protection.
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International Burch University
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2015
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Izvorni naučni rad
Dr Dušica Palačković, redovni profesor,
Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Kragujevcu
PROCESNI INSTRUMENTI U FUNKCIJI ZAŠTITE PRAVA NA
ZAKONSKO IZDRŽAVANJE DETETA
Autorka u radu, polazeći od značaja procesnih rešenja za ostvarenje
svakog supstancijalnog prava, pa i prava dece na zakonsko izdržavanje, analizira
zakonodavna rešenje jednog broja država regiona i iznosi teorijske stavove o
specifičnim načelima koja se u parnicama za zakonsko izdržavanje prihvataju i
primenjuju. Prati način regulisanja i primenu, putem konkretnih procesnih
instituta, pre svega istražnog i načela oficijelnog postupanja sudova, kao i
prava na pristup pravosuĎu, posebno principa suĎenja u razumnom roku. Pri
tome, pokušava da odgovori na pitanja koliko su, i da li su, adekvatni usvojeni
procesni instrumenti koji se primenjuju u postupcima za izdržavanje, a pre svega
da omoguće brzu, efikasnu, a onda i potpunu zaštitu dece kojima je izdržavanje
neophodan, a često i jedini, izvor sredstava za egzistenciju i razvoj. TakoĎe,
nastoji da prepozna nedostatke regulative i predlaže izvesne smernice za izmenu
propisa koji regulišu ovu oblast.
Ključne reči: parnični postupci za izdržavanje, istražno načelo,
oficijelnost, suĎenje u razumnom roku, hitnost postupanja
1. Uvodna razmatranja
Pravo na izdržavanje svakako je jedno iz korpusa dečijih prava mada se
na meĎunarodnom nivou, ne formuliše kao samostalno. Ipak, posredno, kroz
"pravo svakog deteta na životni standard koji odgovara fizičkom, mentalnom,
duhovnom, moralnom i socijalnom razvoju" (pravo na primereni standard, čl. 27
st. 1 Konvencije o pravima deteta),1 ono se može prepoznati, a izričito se
pominje u kontekstu konkretizacije obaveza, odnosno odgovornosti država
članica na preduzimanju svih neophodnih mera kako bi dete "dobilo izdržavanje
od roditelja..."(čl. 27 st. 4). Uz to, u realnim životnim okolnostima su brojne, a
kriza braka i porodice upućuje na zaključak da su i sve brojnije, situacije u
kojima su doprinosi za izdržavanje (zakonsko), nažalost, jedina sredstva kojima
se obezbeĎuje i opstanak i razvoj dece. Sve veće lično siromaštvo, koje je
posledica dugotrajne ekonomske krize na nacionalnim i globalnom, svetskom
1
Konvencija o pravima deteta, usvojena od strane Generalne skupštine UN 20. novembra 1989.
godine, ratifikovana 1990. godine, Službeni list SFRJ - MeĎunarodni ugovori, br. 15/1990 (u
daljem tekstu "Konvencija"); Videti Implementation Handbook for Convention oh the Rights the
Child, Article 27:Child´s Right to an Adequate Standard of Living, General Measures of
Implementation, dostupno na:
http://www.crin.org/docs/resources/publicationa/hrbap/IHCRC/art27Checklist.doc, 10.02. 2015.
133
�nivou, uzrokuje da se, najčešće, kroz doprinose za zakonsko izdržavanje ne
mogu obezbediti sredstva u obimu neophodnom za postizanje oba pomenuta
cilja - opstanka ili životne egzistencije deteta i njegovog svestranog razvoja u
skladu sa potencijalima.2
Narušeni sklad bračnih i porodičnih odnosa
onemogućava spontanost u staranju o zajedničkoj deci, finansijske neprilike
onemogućavaju da izdržavanje dece bude na potrebnom nivou, a, uz to, država,
takoĎe siromašna, nije u poziciji da kroz različite vidove socijalnih davanja ili
privilegija zameni ili nadomesti obavezu izdržavanja primarnih kategorija.3
Krećemo se u začaranom krugu!?! Ipak, odnos izmeĎu dve pomenute kategorije
dužnika je ključni. Kada roditelji i druga lica nemaju, ili nemaju dovoljno
sredstava, država mora da ih obezbedi.
Pravo na zakonsko izdržavanje prati se prvenstveno u kontekstu
sadržine "roditeljskog prava", čiji su smisao, zapravo, mnogo pre i mnogo više,
roditeljske dužnosti,4 one koje slede iz veoma široko postavljene obaveze
staranja o deci. Možda je najbliže istini da je reč o skupu odgovornosti, dužnosti
i prava koja imaju za cilj zaštitu ličnih i imovinskih prava i interesa (maloletne)
dece,5 stoga što staranje, kao pojam ili već po sebi, upućuje na odgovornosti,
obaveze. Ne treba zaboraviti da se, po pravilu, obaveza izdržavanje dece
produžava i nakon punoletstva, u različitim modalitetima, ali najčešće uslovljeno
2
Up. st. 2 čl. 27. Konvencije; Videti Harju, A, Thorǿd, A.B, Child Poverty in a Scandinacian
Welfare Context - From Children´s Point of View, Child Ind Res, 2010, DOI 10.1007/s12187-0109092-0, dostupno na: www.nfbo.org/getfile.ashx?cid=323121&cc=3&refid=1, odnosno stav da čl.
27 promoviše obavezu države, da, ukoliko roditelji, kao prvenstveno odgovorni nisu u situaicji da
obezbede adekvatne uslove života za dete, država mora preuzeti tu obavezu; Videti i Let´s Talk
About Rights, National Human Rights Consultation Toolkit, 2009, Australian Human Rights
Commission, str. 3, dostupno na:
http://www.humanrights.gov.au/sites/files/content/letstalkaboutrights/downloads/HRA_young.doc,
10.02.2015, gde se, nrp., kao jedan od nedostataka na nacionalnom nivou navodi nepostojanje
posebnog komesara za decu i mlade koji bi promovisao i štitio sva prava dece (postoje u smislu
promovisanja najboljeg interesa deteta, dakle, partikularno) , kao i da se dečija zaštita primarno
ostvaruje kroz regulativu na nižem nivou a ne na federalnom.
3
Ipak, videti, u ovom kontekstu, čl. 69 st. 2 Prednacrta GraĎanskog zakonika RS, Knj. III,
dostupno na: http://arhiva.mpravde.gov.rs/lt/articles/zakonodavstvo-aktivnost/gradjanski-zakonik,
10.02.2015, str. 32, gde se "država i roditelji", i to upravo tim redom, utvrĎuju kao odgovorni za
obezbeĎenje maksimalnih uslova za ostvarivanje prava deteta.
4
Čl. 67. Porodičnog zakona Republike Srbije (u daljem tekstu "PZ RS"), Službeni glasnik RS, br.
18/2005, 72/2011 - dr. zakon i 6/2015, kao i Draškić, M, Porodično pravo i prava deteta,
Beograd, 2009, str. 276-277. Prema Ponjavić, Z, Porodično pravo, Beograd, 2014, str. 272, reč je,
pre svega , o pravu roditelja prema deci koje proističe iz roditeljskih dužnosti, slično, kao o "pravu
i dužnosti", uz opravdanje da se na ovaj način ističe način vršenja ovog prava, odnosno "aktivno
vršenje sadržaja prava", te da ono, zapravo i ne podrazumeva izbor da se nešto ne uradi, što bi
sledilo iz apsolutnog karaktera ovog prava, Komar-Janjić, M, Porodica sa stanovišta prava, Pravni
život, br. 7-8, 1995, str. 71.
5
Čl. 129 Porodičnog zakona Federacije Bosna i Hercegovina (u daljem tekstu "PZ F BiH"),
prečišćeni tekst, Službene novine Federacije BiH, br. 35/05, Zakon o izmenama i dopunama
Porodičnog zakona Federacije BiH, Službene novine Federacije BiH, br. 31/14, dostupno na
https://advokat-prnjavorac.com/zakoni/porodicni_zakon_Federacije_BiH.pdf, 22.01.2015.
134
�redovnim školovanjem, koje bi se moralo tumačiti kao "uredno", a ne kroz
svojstvo "redovnog" školovanja, npr. "redovnog studenta" 6
Činjenica da se pravo na primeren životni standard Konvencijom
direktno povezuje uz pravo deteta na razvoj, koje se, opet, formuliše i u
kontekstu prava na život (čl. 6 st 2), takoĎe upućuje na zaključak o izuzetnoj
važnosti ovog prava. On je, u praksi, najmanje nivo standarda dužnika kada su
dužnici roditelji, ali i više od toga.7 Nacionalna zakonodavstva ga načelno
promovišu, ali su problem i njegova konkretizacija u svakom pojedinačnom
slučaju i nepovoljne društvene i porodične okolnosti. Praksa pokazuje da sudovi,
u parničnim postupcima o zakonskom izdržavanju, često, ali i osnovano, vodeći
računa o (nepovoljnim) okolnostima na strani dužnika izdržavanja, dosuĎuju
iznose kojima se teško može obezbediti i sam opstanak, pa svojim odlukama idu
kontra potrebi obezbeĎenja "primerenog standarda" dece.
Ostvarivanje ovog pravu u sudskim postupcima, adhezionim ili
samostalnim,8 naročito kada su u pitanju deca, ima niz posebnosti. Čini se, pri
tome, da odluka o njegovom egzistiranju nije poseban problem, s obzirom da je
zakonom regulisano u pogledu poverioca i dužnika kao i redosleda lica koja,
osim roditelja, imaju ovu obavezu. No, već pri utvrĎivanju obima sud mora
iskoristiti sve dopuštene, specifične procesne instrumente kako bi odlučio u
najboljem interesu deteta, naročito u uslovima regulative koja obiluje pravnim
standardima. Specifičan procesni instrumentarij posledica je primene niza
posebnih načela koja su u postupcima za zakonsko izdržavanje, a najčešće i u
svim postupcima iz porodičnih odnosa, relevantna. Adekvatnost jednog broja
procesnih instituta cilju, a to je, generalno, pomenuti najbolji interes deteta, u
6
Više, Winkler, S., O uzdržavanju punoljetne djece, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Rijeka
(1991) v. 35, br. 2, 2014, str. 610, kao i sudske odluke iz napomena br. 41-46, dostupno na:
http://hrcak.srec.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=10631, 10. 03. 2015.,
7
Videti, npr, Odluku 8 Broj: P-675/2012-23, Općinskog suda u Vukovaru, od 10. veljače 2015,
dostupno na: http://e-oglasna.pravosudje.hr/sites/default/files/os-vu/1446493.pdf, 10. 03. 2015, u
kojoj se poziva na odluku Ustavnog suda Republike Hrvatske, U-III-2688/05, od 29. XI 2007,
kojom se utvrĎuje obaveza roditelja da izdržavaju svoju maloletnu decu pri čemu ta obaveza nije
ograničena materijalnim mogućnostima roditelja, što znači da su roditelji dužni izdržavati svoju
maloletnu decu makar to bilo i nauštrb ličnog materijalnog standarda. Videti i odredbu čl. 215 PZ
F BiH, odnosno da su roditelji dužni angažovati sve svoje mogućnosti i sposobnosti u izdržavanju
dece.
8
Inače, postojanje parnice za razvod braka nije, prema stavu teorije, smetnja za to da zajedničko
dete (ili deca) pokrene protiv jednog od roditelja samostalan postupak radi plaćanja izdržavanja,
videti, Triva, S; Dika, M.,Gradjansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, , 2004, str. 784, koji
prihvataju stav sudske prakse izražen u odluci Vrhovnog suda RH, Rev 1383/82 - NZp 22-97. Ili,
ne primenjuju se pravila o zabrani dvostruke litispendencije. Ipak, mogao bi se otvoriti problem
kod izričitih zahteva istaknutih u bračnom sporu ili sporu za utvrĎivanje očinstva ili materinstva.
On se, pak, u teoriji shvata samo kao "predlog o sadržini odluke" i nije obavezujući, stoga što o
ovakvim pitanja koja se tiču dece sud odlučuje po službenoj dužnosti, tako Poznić, B, RakićVodinelić, V., GraĎansko procesno pravo, Beograd, 2010, str. 460. Dakle, reč je o odstupanju od
načela dispozicije. Ovo utoliko pre vodi zaključku da nema zabrane paralelnog voĎenja bračnog
spora, npr, i spora o izdržavanju, kao samostalnog.
135
�kojoj su meri i takva, ekskluzivna rešenja, primerena i dovoljna, da li je i u kom
vidu moguće dalje prilagoĎavanje ili uvoĎenje novih, pitanja je koje se moraju
stalno, iznova postavljati
2. Pravna priroda prava na zakonsko izdržavanje
Obaveza (obligacija), odnosno pravo na (zakonsko) izdržavanje proističe
iz za pravo relevantnih činjenica - brak, srodstvo i vanbračna zajednica, dakle iz
porodičnih odnosa, a posledica je porodične solidarnosti, odnosno obaveze
uzajamnog pomaganja u okvirima uže ili šire grupe lica povezanih porodičnim
vezama.9 Obaveza je ureĎena zakonima koji regulišu porodične odnose, otuda i
predznak "zakonska." 10 Tako, PZ RS, odredbom čl. 8 st. 1, izdržavanje odreĎuje
kao "pravo i dužnost članova porodice odreĎenih ovim zakonom".11 Cilj
zakonskog regulisanja ove obaveze (odnosno prava) svakako je, minimalistički
gledano, obezbeĎenje osnovnih životnih potreba12 kada lice ne može samostalno
da ih obezbede ili to ne može da učine u neophodnom obimu. 13 Čini nam se,
9
Ponjavić, Z, op cit, str. 353, 354.
Draškić, M, op. cit, str. 355.
11
Prema odredbi čl. 281 Obiteljskog zakona Republike Hrvatske (u daljem tekstu "OZ RH"), iz
2014, dostupno na: http://www.narodne-novine.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeni/2014_06_75_1404.html, 10.
03. 2015: "Uzdržavanje je dužnost i pravo roditelja i djece, bračnih i izvanbračnih drugova i
srodnika u ravnoj lozi, kad je to predviĎeno ovim zakonom", odnosno u prvom je planu obaveza,
dužnosti, što je u skladu sa konstatacijama teorije da je reč o izrazu porodične solidarnosti,
odnosno dužnosti uzajamnog pomaganja u okvirima porodice (PZ RS, npr, samo u slučaju
obaveze izdržavanja majke deteta, čl. 153, izlazi iz okvira porodičnih odnosa). Slično i odredba čl.
213 PZ F BiH, kao i čl. 231 PZ R Srpske.
12
Definicije izdržavanja su unekoliko različite u pravnoj literaturi. Vujović, R, Pravo na zakonsko
izdržavanje po novom Porodičnom zakonu, Zbornik radova "Novine u
porodičnom
zakonodavstvu", Niš, 2006, str. 178, zakonsko izdržavanje objašnjava kao pravnu vezu (juris
vinculum) koja je utemeljena na realnim porodičnim vezama koje nastaju iz braka, odnosno
vanbračne zajednice i iz odnosa srodstva"; Ponjavić, Z, op. cit, str. 356, smatra da je reč o obavezi
jednog lica da obezbedi sredstva za život drugom licu kome je to potrebno, dodajući konstataciju
da u pravnom smislu izdržavanje predstavlja samo onu obavezu koja je snabdevena sankcijom,
odnosno mogućnošću intervencije države koja joj mora obezbediti poštovanje, ali i da, pored
podmirivanja osnovnih životnih potreba obuhvata i elemente koji zavise od načina života
pojedinca i nivoa razvoja društva; Draškić, M, op. cit, str. 355, izdržavanje shvata kao pravni
odnos izmeĎu dve odreĎene strane u kome jedna strana (poverilac izdržavanja) ima pravo da
zahteva od druge strane (dužnika izdržavanja) odreĎeno davanje, koje se sastoji u obezbeĎenju
sredstava za zadovoljenje osnovnih životnih potreba. Nalazimo i stav da je osnovni cilj ovog
instituta "održanje života i zdravlja putem zadovoljavanja nužnih potreba člana porodice", dakle
minimum minimuma, videti Jović, O., (Ne)mogućnost raspolaganja pravom na zakonsko
izdržavanje, str. 280, Zbornik radova "Harmonizacija graĎanskog prava u regionu", Pravni fakultet
Univerziteta u Prištini sa privremenim sedištem u Kosovskoj Mitrovici, 2003, dostupno na:
http://pravnifis.rs/Download/Zbornik-Harmonizacija/HGPIII4.pdf, 02.03.2015
13
Indikativno je da se u starijoj literaturi govori o "potrebama", a ne osnovnim, egzistencijalnim
ili nužnim. Tako, "Izdržavanje znači redovno snabdevanje jednog lica materijalnim dobrima u cilju
podmirivanja njegovih potreba", Gams, A, Bračno i porodično imovinsko pravo, Beograd, 1966,
str. 110; Mladenović, M, Porodično pravo, Knj. II, Beograd, 1981, str. 561-562, pod zakonskim
izdržavanjem razume "dužnost i pravo članova porodice, kojim se obezbeĎuje redovno davanje u
novcu ili u drugim materijalnim dobrima licu koje ne može samo obezbediti svoju egzistenciju, u
10
136
�ipak, da ovakav pristup, posebno kada su deca poverioci, mora ustupiti mesto
širem ili onom koji promoviše standard "primerenih uslova".
Pravo zakonskog izdržavanja je lično imovinsko pravi regulisano
imperativnim normama. Posledica lične prirode ovog prava je, u okviru
materijalnopravnih dejstava, nemogućnost prenošenja prava bilo kojoj vrstom
pravnog posla, zatim da smrt primaoca ili davaoca izdržavanja vodi gašenju
prava,14 a potraživanje na osnovu zakonskog izdržavanja ne mogu biti predmet
kompenzacije sa drugim obavezama izraženim u novcu.15 Dalja konsekvenca je
da se strane u ovom obligacionom odnosu koji je zakonom ureĎen u pogledu
prava i obaveza, ne mogu o samom pravu na izdržavanje sporazumevati,
konkretnije ne postoji mogućnost odricanja od prava na izdržavanje.16
Pravo na zakonsko izdržavanje ne zastareva,17 a isplaćeni iznosi se ne
vraćaju, što se u slučaju izdržavanja dece opravdava izvršavanjem zakonske
obaveze u okviru staranja o deci.18 Nadalje, ovo pravo se ostvaruje za buduće
vreme, ali se, s obzirom na situacije kada se u adhezionim postupcima odlučuje
o izdržavanju dece, može pojaviti problem od kog momenta se izdržavanje
dosuĎuje (npr, od momenta podnošenja tužbe za razvod braka ili od momenta
isticanja zahteva za izdržavanje, ako je izričito istaknut).19 Pomenimo u tom
smislu čl. 306 OZ RH, upravo kada je izdržavanje dece u pitanju, kojim je
dopušteno da maloletno dete zahteva izdržavanje za prošlo vreme (up. čl. 289.
OZ RH).
Visina dosuĎenog izdržavanja je promenljiva, odnosno može se povisiti ili
umanjiti usled promene okolnosti na osnovu kojih je doneta odluka o visini
sume izdržavanja.20
cilju podmirivanja svih njegovih potreba (potpuno izdržavanje), ili samo jednog dela njegovih
potreba (delimično izdržavanje)";
14
Videti odredbu čl. 167 st. 1 t. 2 PZ RS Tako i sudska praksa, npr., Gž br. 6803/99 - P. br.
8993/89, kao i Gž. 7405/00, presuda Okružnog suda u Valjevu, od 14. 03. 2000, da je pravo na
izdržavanje lično imovinsko pravo, ne ulazi u zaostavštinu i ne prelazi na naslednike, dostupno na:
http://www.advikatsimic.rs/html/sudska_praksa.html, 23.01.2015.
15
Videti odredbu čl. 341 t. 5 Zakona o obligacionim odnosima (u daljem tekstu "ZOO"), Službeni
list SFRJ, br. 29/78, 39/85, 57/89, Službeni list SRJ br. 31/93, Službeni list SCG, br. 1/2003 Ustavna povelja SCG
16
Videti, npr, čl. 8 st. 2 PZ RS; čl. 286 st. 1 OZ RH, kao i st. 2, da se: "Ovlašćenici prava na
uzdržavanje mogu odreći već stečenih prava po osnovi uzdržavanja, odnosno mogu s njima
raspolagati na neki drugi način", pri čemu se odricanje ili raspolaganje na drugi način ne
primenjuje na izdržavanje maloletne dece i čl. 23 st. 3 Porodičnog zakona Republike Srpske (u
daljem tekstu"PZ R Srpske"), Službeni glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 54/02, dostupno na:
http://advokat-prnjavorac.com/zakoni/porodicni_zakon_RS.pdf, 10. 03. 2015, kao i čl. 213 st. 3
PZ F BiH.
17
Videti čl. 373 st. 3 ZOO, ali mogu zastareti pojedinačna davanja koja su dospela u roku od tri
godine za svaki pojedinačno, zatim i čl. 372 st 1 i čl. 381 st. 1 i čl. 372 st. 1 ZOO i specifična
pravila za dete kao poverioce prema roditelju koji ne živi sa njim iz čl. 289. OZ RH,
18
No, pravo regresa postoji za lice koje je faktički davalo izdržavanje, a nije imalo takvu obavezu,
i to od lica koje je bilo dužno da daje izdržavanje, npr., čl. 165 st. 1 PZ RS
19
Draškić, M, op. cit., str. 357 i Ponjavić, Z, op. cit., str. 360, kao i sudske odluke koje autori
citiraju.
20
Čl. 164 PZ RS, čl. 285 OZ RH, čl. 263 st 1 PZ R Srpske, čl. 245 PZ F BiH
137
�3. Posebnosti primene procesnih načela, istražno načelo
Delotvorna sudska zaštita svih prava iz okvira porodičnih odnosa, koja
podrazumeva efikasnost postupka u kome se odlučuje o samom supstancijalnom
pravu, ali i postupka prinudnog izvršenja, svakako je imperativ i obaveza prema
čl. 6. Evropske konvencije o zaštiti ljudskih prava i osnovnih sloboda.21 Odnosi
se na sve postupke, nezavisno od toga koja se prava štite, ali značaj pojedinih
prava uslovljava i potenciranu zaštitu na nacionalnom i meĎunarodnom nivou.
To se, primarno, postiže specifičnostima u odnosu na primenu niza načela
graĎanskih sudskih postupaka, a kako je, pri tome, parnični postupak osnovni
vid zaštiti porodičnih prava, pa i prava na uzdržavanje, to će pažnja biti
usmerena na njegove posebnosti. Uobičajeno se, u ovom kontekstu, prati
primena istražnog načela, načela poverljivosti, hitnosti i oficijelnosti, odnosno
izuzeci od primene opštih načela parnične procedure, što korespondira okolnosti
da su svi sudski postupci o pravima iz korpusa porodičnih prava i normirani kao
posebne procedure.
U okviru teme ovog rada zapravo je i najvažnije pomenuti prevagu 22
istražnog načela u odnosu na raspravno. Posebno se ovo tiče ovlašćenja suda pri
utvrĎivanju iznosa zakonskog izdržavanja, odnosno potreba poverioca i
mogućnosti dužnika od koji direktno zavisi. Kako su i u ovim postupcima
stranke svakako ovlašćene da iznose činjenice i predlažu dokazna sredstva,
uloga suda suštinski je dvojaka - on je dužan da, u skladu sa raspravnim
načelom, podstiče, odnosno inicira da stranke prikupljaju i iznose procesni
materijal, ali i da ga samostalno prikuplja. O tome da li je u oba slučaja reč o
primeni inkvizitorskog metoda nema, meĎutim, u teoriji, saglasnosti. 23
Načini formulisanja ovog načela u zakonodavstvima država našeg
regiona unekoliko se razlikuju, i mogu biti predmet tumačenja, ali i njegovo
situiranje u sporovima iz oblasti porodičnih odnosa, ali je pravilo u postupcima
za izdržavanje.24 Tako, PZ RS (čl. 205), ovlašćenje sud da utvrĎuje činjenice
koje nisu sporne meĎu strankama, a može i samostalno istraživati činjenice koje
21
Konvencija je, uz dodatne Protokole, ratifikovana Zakonom objavljenim u Službenom listu
SCG, MeĎunarodni ugovori, br. 9/2003 i 5/2005
22
Izraz koristi Poznić,B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V, Građansko procesno pravo, Beograd, 2010, str.
456, a na sličan način, kao o "pojačanim" inkvizitorskim ovlašćenjima suda" govore i Triva, S;
Dika, M, Građansko parnično procesno pravo, Zagreb, 2004, str. 760.
23
Stanković, G, Osnovna načela parničnog postupka Republike Srbije, Zbirka radova
"UnapreĎenje u sprovoĎenju ZPP: praksa u Srbiji i regionu", Beograd, 2006, str. 5; Čalija, B;
Omanović, S, Građansko procesno pravo, Sarajevo, 2000, str. 55, koji konstatuju da se aktivna
uloga suda u prikupljanju procesne graĎe odvija u dva stepena, ili u okviru raspravnog načela, tzv.
nepotpuna inkvizitorska ovlašćenja, ili kroz tzv. potpuna inkvizitorska načela; Triva, S; Dika, M,
op. cit, str. 178, 179, pak, vide ulogu suda u prvom slučaju kao "aktivnu poticateljsku" u okvirima
raspravnog načela.
24
Tako, PZ RS, čl. 205, npr, prihvata za sve postupke "u vezi sa porodičnim odnosima", isto i PZ
F BiH, (čl. 278 st. 4), za sve posebne parnične postupke (up. odredbu čl. 272) kao i Porodični
zakon Republike Crne Gore (u daljem tekstu "PZ RCG"), dostupno na: http://media.cgocce.org/2013/06/10-Porodicni_zakon.pdf, 23.01.2015, (čl. 318), dok OZ RH (čl. 350, up. čl. 349
st. 1) ograničava primenu na statusne stvari, stvari roditeljskog staranja, ličnih odnosa i mera
zaštite prava i "dobrobiti" deteta.
138
�ni jedna stranka nije iznela,25 dok, npr. OZ RH (čl. 350), ovlašćuje sud da
utvrĎuje činjenice koje stranke nisu iznele u postupku i da dokazuju i činjenice
koje su stranke priznale u postupku.26 Primetimo da je primena "ovlašćenje"
suda, normativno gledano, ali obaveza zaštite najboljeg interesa deteta, njegove
"dobrobiti", uslovljava, zapravo, obavezu suda da primeni istražni metod kada
god proceni, posumnja, da stranke izbegavaju iznošenje procesne graĎe
relevantne za spor, kada posumnja da je priznanje, ili prosto neosporavanje
činjeničnih tvrdnji protivne stranke suprotno najboljem interesu dece. TakoĎe,
utvrĎivanje najboljeg interesa deteta, kao načelo najvišeg ranga, uslovljava
primenu istražne maksime u njenom najširem značenju, bez obzira na okolnost
da stranke u sporu, po pravilu iznose svoje, različite verzije dogaĎaja, i predloge
dokaznih sredstava. Praktična konsekvenca je da sud mora sve relevantne
činjenice koje nisu iznesene u sporu da "istražuje", otkriva, a onda i "utvrĎuje",
prikupljajući dokazna sredstva.27 Ili, istražno načelo ostvaruje cilj pojačane
zaštite dece samo ukoliko se tiče i prikupljanja činjenične graĎe i dokazivanja
spornih, nespornih, odnosno priznatih činjenica. 28 MeĎu nespornim svakako su
u fokusu priznate činjenica, ali je, takoĎe, moguće pretpostaviti, da stranke koje
samostalno učestvuju u postupku, iz najrazličitijih razloga - neznanja,
neprepoznavanja, nesnalaženja, ne osporavaju navode protivnika. Ovo je,
najčešće, posledica nemogućnosti plaćanja stručnog punomoćnika, a posebno je
izraženo u uslovima nepostojanja funkcionalne besplatne pravne pomoći.
Istražna uloga suda posebno je značajna u primeni standarda
"mogućnosti dužnika" i "potrebe poverioca", 29bez obzira na to da nacionalna
zakonodavstva daju izvesne kriterijume sudu za njihovu ocenu, utvrĎivanje
konkretne sadržine u praksi.30 Za dužnika izdržavanja ovi se odnose na
imovinsko stanje, primanja, mogućnosti sticanja uvećane zarade, mogućnosti
zaposlenja, lične potrebe i dr., a za poverioca, posebno kada je to dete, najčešće
na starosnu dob, lične prihode, imovinsko stanje, sposobnost za rad, mogućnosti
za zapošljavanje, zdravstveno stanje, obrazovanje i dr.31 Parametar za
25
Identičnu formulaciju daje i PZ RCG (up. čl. 318)
Identično reguliše i PZ F BiH, odredbom čl. 278 st. 4, uz ograničenje koje se tiče situacija u
kojima se zahteva sporazumni razvod braka
27
Up. čl. 205 PZ RS i čl. 350. OZ RH
28
PZ RS prihvata ovakav, ekstenzivan pristup, dok, npr., OZ RH obavezuje sud samo da dokazuje
priznate, kao nesporne, činjenice. Interesantan je, u ovom kontekstu stav koji iznose Triva, S;
Dika, M, op. cit., str. 760, koji, govoreći o primeni istražne maksime u postupcima iz porodičnih
odnosa, pominju da je to u cilju "sprečavanja nedopuštenih dispozicija stranaka", mada kasnije
generalizuju primenu na prikupljanje svih pravno relevantnih činjenica koje stranke nisu iznele i
dokaza koje nisu predložile.
29
U teoriji se, sasvim ispravno, o visini alimentacije u konkretnom slučaju govori kao o jednačini
sa dve nepoznate, videti Panov, S., Određivanje i promena visine izdržavanja - nekoliko dilema,
Zbornik "Ostvarivanje i zaštita prava na zakonsko izdržavanje", Kragujevac, 2002, str. 77.
30
Ibidem, str. 77-80
31
Nivo obaveza dužnika izdržavanja nije, prema stavu sudske prakse, razlog umanjenju njegove
obaveze koja je već utvrĎena, tako za "tekuća ulaganja" videti Gž 2639/11, od 19. 10. 2011, Bilten
sudske prakse Apelacionog suda u Novom Sadu, br. 3/2011, a za "svojevoljno promenjene
okolnosti", Gž 2 394/13, od 17- 07. 2013, Bilten sudske prakse Apelacionog suda u Novom Sadu,
26
139
�odreĎivanje sume izdržavanja je "najmanje" životni standard roditelja.32
Različita je i uloga suda, dok PZ RS govori o utvrĎivanju "visine izdržavanja",
OZ RH, npr., obavezuje sud da utvrdi "ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta" koje
se "odnose na: troškove stanovanja, prehrane, odijevanja, higijene, odgoja,
obrazovanja i skrbi o djetetovom zdravlju" (čl. 311). Zaštitnu ulogu ima i
regulisanje tzv. minimuma ukupnih materijalnih potreba za mesečno izdržavanje
deteta, kao i minimalni iznos izdržavanja u Srbiji o kome, meĎutim, sud samo
"vodi računa".33 34
Obaveza suda da utvrdi ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta ima smisla
samo uz dodatni mehanizam proširenja njenih dejstava na druge obveznike
izdržavanja, pa i državu, u slučaju da roditelj kao dužnik nema dovoljno
sredstava ili ne ispunjava obaveze uredno.35 Jedan od procesnih mehanizama u
ovom smislu je i proširenje tužbe na druga lica (tužene) od strane tužioca ili
organa starateljstva, kako bi se obezbedilo dejstvo presude i na njih, ali ova vrsta
suparničarstva uslovljena je pristankom novih tuženih.36 Obaveza dostavljanja
odluke o ukupnim sredstvima za izdržavanje organu starateljstva ili centru za
socijalni rad, po sebi je, meĎutim, nedovoljna.37 Tek ukoliko bi, kada se utvrdi
ukupna suma neophodna za izdržavanje i da dužnik (dužnici) nisu u mogućnosti
da je i podmire, sud morao da obavesti o tome ex offo, npr., organ starateljstva,
kao što to predviĎa PZ F BiH,38 odnosno da se tada sredstva moraju osigurati iz
budžetskih (utvrĎuje ovo kao dužnost države), postigao bi se viši nivo zaštite
dece. U svakoj drugoj soluciji dostavljanje odluke pa makar i o ukupnim
sredstvima potrebnim za izdržavanje vodi postupku za ostvarenje zakonom
predviĎenih socijalnih davanja koji je dug i neizvestan.
Pojačavajući uticaj istražne maksime u ovom kontekstu, dakle u
utvrĎivanju ukupnih mogućnosti roditelja kao dužnika izdržavanja, OZ RH je,
uz obavezu da sam prikaže ukupne neto prihode, odnosno sva stalna i
br. 6/2014, dostupno na: http://www. sudskapraksa.com/bilten-sudske-prakse-apelacionog-suda-unovom-sadu.html, 15.03 2015.
32
Videti, npr., čl. 162 st. 3 PZ RS i čl. 311 st. 2 OZ RH, kao i čl. 160 PZ RS, čl. 307, odnosno i čl.
311 OZ RH, na osnovu koga se ukupne materijalne potrebe deteta odnose na "troškove stanovanja,
prehrane, odijevanja, higijene, odgoja, obrazovanja i skrbi o zdravlju".
33
Videti čl. 160 st. 4 PZ RS, da se minimalna suma izdržavanja odreĎuje kao naknada za
hranjenika odnosno lice na porodičnom smeštaju, a periodično je utvrĎuje resorno ministarstvo, ali
Zakon ne koristi, kako je rečeno, pojam "ukupna suma potrebna za izdržavanje. Pomenuti
minimalni iznos trenutno je 23 267, 00 dinara, na osnovu odluke Ministarstva za rad,
zapošljavanje, boračka i socijalna pitanja, br. 339-00-00002/2015, dostupno na:
demo.paragraf.rs/documents/editorial/statistika/27_stat.htm, 12. 03. 2015.
34
Način izigravanja pravila o "zaradi"odnosno plati od koje se procentualno odreĎuje iznos za
izdržavanje pokazuje primer Ministarstva spoljnih poslova RS kada je u slučaju jednog
ambasadora osnovica bila plata od 600 evra, ali ne i naknade koje je primao po osnovu uvećanih
troškova života i uslova rada i naknade za izdržavanje članova porodice koje su iznosile ukupno 3
412,2 evra, dostupno na:http://www.teleprinter.rs/
razotkriveni-kako-ambasadori-plaćaju-manju-alimentaciju-tvrdeći-da-im-je-plata-600-evra.htnl,
10.01.2015
35
Videti Prednacrt GraĎanskog zakonika Srbije, Knj. III, op. cit., str. 79,80, čl. 193-197
36
Panov, S., op. cit., str. 81.
37
Prema čl. 427. OZ RH, čl. 308. st. 3 PZ F BiH, čl. 282 PZ RS
38
Čl. 237 PZ FBiH
140
�privremena novčana primanja, kao i popis imovine po zahtevu suda, dao
ovlašćenje sudu da od relevantnih državnih organa i drugih nadležnih institucija,
fizičkih i pravnih lica, traži sve podatke, ali i da uzme u obzir sve druge
mogućnosti sticanja zarade u skladu sa godinama, obrazovanjem i radnom
sposobnošću.39 Pri tome, njegove novčane obaveze mogu biti uzete u obzir samo
ako traju duže vreme i nužne su za zadovoljenje osnovnih životnih potreba. Za
pretpostaviti je da i onde gde nema ovakvih izričito utvrĎenih ovlašćenja suda on
može, u okviru generalne primene istražnog načela, da traži podatke od
nadležnih organa ili službi, ali zakonsko regulisanje potencira i daje na značaju.
U ovom kontekstu može se pratiti i uloga Centra za socijalno staranje,
odnosno organa starateljstva.40 Tako, OZ RH, reguliše i njegovu ulogu kao
pomoćnog organa suda,41 odnosno obavezuje ga da po nalogu suda "utvrĎuje i
dostavlja" podatke o porodičnim, imovinskim i socijalnim prilikama stranaka što
upućuje na ulogu pomoćnog istražnog organa.42 Da je značaj Centra za socijalno
staranje u Hrvatskoj u stvarima izdržavanja dece posebno potenciran govori i
odredba čl. 319, o obavezi upozoravanja roditelja koji je pravnosnažno osuĎen
da daje izdržavanje, posebno da ima i pravo na podnošenje krivične prijave za
neispunjavanje obaveze.43 I PZ F BiH utvrĎuje dužnost organa starateljstva da na
zahtev suda "pribavi sve podatke od značaja za donošenje odluke o
izdržavanju.44 Nasuprot tome, PZ RS ne odreĎuje precizno ulogu organa
starateljstva.45 U delu o postupcima za izdržavanje obavezuje se sud da mu
dostavi odluku, a sam organ vodi evidenciju i dokumentaciju o izdržavanim
licima (čl. 282). Da je njegova uloga prilično fluidna pokazuje i regulisanje
postupka posredovanja, koji može biti poveren organu starateljstva,46 u kome je
jedan od ciljeva, čak najvažniji, postizanje sporazuma o vršenju roditeljskog
39
Čl. 313 st 2,3 i4. OZ RH
Čl. 12 PZ RS
41
Čl. 356 t. 2 OZ RH
42
Triva, S, Dika, M, op. cit., str. 182. Prethodni OZ RH, (NN, br. 116/03, 17/04, 136/04, 107/07,
57/11, 25/11, 25/13, 05/15, čl. 278, dostupno na: http://www.zakon.hr/z/88/Obiteljski-zakon, 20.
03. 2015, da brižljivo ispituje imovinske prilike stranaka, a posebno odgovaraju li iskazani prihodi
stvarnom stanju.
43
Iz ove odredbe sledi i da dete ima pravo na privremeno izdržavanje u skladu sa posebnim
propisom.
44
Vidi odredbu čl. 241 PZ F BiH
45
Teorija u Srbiji ga vidi kao "učesnika sui generis“, videti Poznić, B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V, op. cit,
str. 105, a u sudskoj praksi, npr., u uslovima primene čl. 355 starog ZBPO RS, zauzet je stav da je
dužan dati mišljenje o tome u kakvim se uslovima za život i razvoj nalaze zajednička deca i šta je
potrebno preduzeti da se obezbedi njihovo vaspitanje, zbrinjavanje i izdržavanje, u situaciji kada
jedan od bračnih drugova odbije da učestvuje u postupku mirenja, pa i samo na osnovu ostvarenih
kontakata da drugim bračnim drugom koji saraĎuje, Gž. br. 5286/98 - P. br. 2713/98, kao i Gž. br.
146/2000 - P. br. 5162/99, da mišljenje Centra za socijalni rad o poveravanju deteta posle razvoda
braka nije mišljenje veštaka, presuda Okružnog suda u Beogradu, dostupno na:
www.advokatsimic.rs/html/sudska_praksa.html, 23. 01. 2015.
46
Čl. 232 st. 3 PZ RS
40
141
�prava.47Ovaj organ pominje se samo u kontekstu "psiho-socijalnog savetovanja"
po pristanku supružnika, dakle, uloga je savetodavna.
Pokazuje se nužnim da se preciziraju istražna ovlašćenja suda u
utvrĎivanju stvarnih, realnih materijalnih prilika dužnika izdržavanja, preko
specifičnih zadataka, ali i organa starateljstva, kada je reč o zakonodavstvu u
Srbiji.48
Treba, svakako, podsetiti da se istražna ovlašćenja suda odnose na
situacije u kojima nije postignut sporazum roditelja o vršenju roditeljskog prava,
a kada je do sporazuma došlo, na ispitivanje da li je on u najboljem interesu
deteta, kao i pri utvrĎivanju mišljenja deteta odreĎenog uzrasta u saradnji sa
referentnim institucijama.49
4. Ograničenja načela dispozicije (oficijelnost)
U osnovi se ograničenje primene načela dispozicije različito reguliše u
porodičnim zakonima država u regionu. Uglavnom, jedinstveno se reguliše
princip da sud nije vezan granicama tužbenog zahteva za izdržavanje, ali su u
odnosu na dispozitivne radnje kojima se okončava parnični postupak priznanje i odricanje od tužbenog zahteva, sudsko poravnanje, presuda zbog
propuštanja ili izostanka rešenja i dijametralno suprotna.
Tako, PZ RS, pre svega, ne pominje ovakve vidove disponiranja u
okvirima samostalnog postupka za izdržavanje. Sistematika zakona, odnosno
isključenje ovih (svih ili samo nekih) načina okončanja za pojedine postupke iz
porodičnih odnosa upućivala bi na zaključak da su svi oni dopušteni u postupku
za izdržavanje, stoga što nisu izričito zabranjeni.50 Ovakvo zaključivanje
problematizuje, meĎutim, način normiranje postupka za vršenje roditeljskog
prava, u kome su pomenute dispozicije isključene odredbom čl. 271, a sud, ako
nema sporazuma roditelja, odlučuje ovde, uz ostalo, i o izdržavanju (čl. 272. st. 2
PZ RS). Istovremeno, u teoriji je izrečen stav da se u svim sporovima za
izdržavanje primenjuju pravila samostalnih parnica, što odgovara pravnoj
sigurnosti, odnosno jednakim pravilima postupanja u istim pravnim stvarima.51
Pristup PZ F BiH (čl. 278 st. 1,2) je potpuno isključenje mogućnosti
donošenja ovih presuda kao i zaključenja sudskog poravnanja. Izričita zabrana, u
srpskom pravu,52 sledi jedino za presudu zbog propuštanja, stoga što se u
sporovima iz porodičnih odnosa tužba ne dostavlja na odgovor tuženom (čl. 204
47
Videti čl. 241 st. 1,2 PZ RS, o svrsi nagodbe, odnosno čl. 245 st. 1 PZ RS, kojim se kao
obavezni element nagodbe odreĎuju sporazum o vršenju roditeljskog prava, uz sporazum o deobi
zajedničke imovine
48
Inače, odredba čl. 270, o davanju "nalaza i mišljenja" od strane organa starateljstva na zahtev
suda tiče se samo postupka za zaštitu dečijih prava i postupka o vršenju roditeljskog prava, a ne i
samostalnih postupaka za izdržavanje, npr. što sledi iz metoda regulisanja u PZ RS
49
Čl. 65 st. 6 PZ RS
50
Suprotno Poznić, B, Rakić-Vodinelić, V., op. cit, str. 472, odnosno formulacija "kao i u drugim
bračnim i porodičnim sporovima".
51
Triva, S, Dika, M., op. cit, str. 784.
52
Videti i čl. 317 st. 2 PZ RCG
142
�st. 2 PZ RS).53 Čini nam se da i ovo rešenje za jedan broj posebnih parničnih
postupaka, pa i za izdržavanje, treba analizirati sa aspekta povoljnosti i mana,
imajući u vidu da u nizu zakona država u regionu nema ovog ograničenja u
postupcima u vezi porodičnih odnosa uopšte.
Jedno od prihvatljivih rešenja u odnosu na pomenute načine okončanja
parničnih postupaka svakako daje OZ RH, koji, pre svega, prepoznaje razliku
odricanja od prava ili dužnosti izdržavanja u odnosu na odricanje od tužbenog
zahteva, dakle po pravnoj prirodi samih radnji.54 Dopušteno je donošenje
presuda zbog propuštanja i izostanka ukoliko je dete tužilac, što ima smisao
zaštite deteta, ali i sankcionisanja tuženog koji izbegava uključivanje u postupak.
Generalno, u sporovima o izdržavanju deteta dopuštene su i presudu na osnovu
priznanja i odricanja. U svim ovim situacijama opšti uslov je da je to u skladu sa
"dobrobiti" deteta.55 Ili, disponiranje predmetom spora dopušteno je "uz nadzor
suda". 56 Isti princip važi i u odnosu na izričito predviĎenu mogućnost
zaključenje sudskog poravnanja u svim ovakvim postupcima.57
Pri tome, čini nam se, sudsko poravnanje je i najmanje sporna radnja
disponiranja58 stoga što se svaki sporazum o poveravanju dece ili vršenju
roditeljskog prava, a onda i o izdržavanju, proverava sa aspekta najboljeg
interesa deteta, a predmet je način i(ili) visina izdržavanja.59 Uz to, treba uzeti u
53
Čl. 350 ZPP RS, odnosno uslove za donošenje presude zbog propuštanja
Čl. 349, st. 1,3 OZ RH. U teoriji procesnog prava se odricanje i priznanje tužbenog zahteva,
prema većinskom stavu, shvataju kao materijalne dispozitivne parnične radnje koje su odlučujući
osnov za donošenje presuda, Poznić, B; Rakić-Vodinelić, V., op. cit, str. 366, 365., odnosno kao
materijalne procesne dispozicije ili raspolaganja stranaka koje se odnosi na sam predmet spora,
Triva, S; Dika, M., op. cit, str. 601, a šire videti kod Dika, M., Građansko parnično pravo, Knj. V,
Parnične radnje, Zagreb, 2008, str. 307-311, kao i Dika, M., Presuda na osnovu priznanja,
Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, br. 5-6, 2012, ste. 1885-1911, dostupno
na:http://hrcak.srec.hr/index.php?show=toc%id_broj=8118, 15. 03. 2015.
55
Videti odredbe čl. 425 OZ RH, kao i Aras, S., Dispozitivne presude u sporovima o uzdržavanju
djece, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta Sveučilišta Rijeka (1991) v. 30, br. 2, 2009, dostupno na
http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=4210, 10. 03. 2015, posebno str. 914-916, o
mogućnostima za donošenje delimičnih presuda na osnovu priznanja i na osnovu odricanja, kao i
Aras, S., Donošenje kontumacijskih presuda u sporovima o izdržavanju djece, Zbornik Pravnog
fakulteta u Zagrebu, br. 1, 2010, str. 255-314, dostupno na:
http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=toc&id_broj=3953, 15.03.2015. U Srbiji se stavovi kreću u
rasponu od potpunog negiranja mogućnosti da se u ovim sporovima donosi presuda zbog
izostanka i zaključi sudsko poravnanje, npr, Poznić, B., Presuda zbog izostanka, Anali Pravnog
fakulteta u Beogradu, 4, br. 3, 1956, str. 289, do dopuštanja takve mogućnosti, uz odreĎene uslove,
npr, Vasić, Presuda zbog izostanka kao novi institut u našem pozitivnom zakonodavstvu, Naša
zakonitost, 10-12/1955, str. 15-21;
56
Opšta kontrolna ovlašćenja suda u pogledu najboljeg interesa i eventualnu saglasnost centra za
socijalni rad, kada je ona potrebna, prepoznaju se kao ograničavajući faktori, videti Aras, S., op.
cit, str. 917.
57
Videti čl. 349 st. 5, kao i čl. 426. OZ RH
58
Petrušić, N, Konstantinović-Vilić, S., Ostvarivanje prava na zakonsko izdržavanje pred
pravosudnim organima u Vranju, Bujanovcu i Bosilegradu, Vranje 2012, dostupno na:
http://hrcvr.org/attachment/13/Istrazivanje%20%PRAVO%20NA%20ZAKONSKO%IZDRZAVANJE. pdf, 12.03.2015, str. 32.
59
Sudsko poravnanje je dopušteno o graĎanskim pravima kojima stranke mogu slobodno
raspolagati, što pravo na izdržavanje nije, ali je ovde i reč samo o dogovoru o načinu i visini
54
143
�obzir i prednosti koje ovakav vid okončanja spora ima u odnosu na presudu, pa i
u pogledu izvršnosti.
Obaveza suda da po službenoj dužnosti štiti najbolji interes deteta
najopštijeg je karaktera i stoga barijera svim nedopuštenim stranačkim
dispozicijama koje su mu suprotstavljene, a sud je izvršava primenom istražne
maksime. To je i osnovni razlog uvoĎenju mogućnosti disponiranja predmetom
spora u postupcima za izdržavanje, uopšte, pa i dece, u varijanti koja obezbeĎuje
najpotpuniju zaštitu interesa dece. Kojoj, to bi moglo biti predmetom šire
analize, s obzirom na prednosti i nedostataka dispozitivnih presuda. Izrada
GraĎanskog zakonika Srbije u kome, u trenutnoj verziji, kao i u važećem PZ RS,
nema o ovome izričitih rešenja, pravo je vreme za to. Napomenimo da su i u
opštoj parnici radnje disponiranja tužbenim zahtevom predmet ocene suda u
smislu protivnosti prinudno pravnim propisima, javnom poretku, pravilima
morala i dobrim običajima (čl. 3 st. 3). Ne ulazeći u raspravu na temu javnog
poretka, pa i javnog poretka u porodičnim odnosima, nameće se zaključak da je
načelo najboljeg interesa deteta ovim pojmom zapravo obuhvaćeno, što
potvrĎuje da sud po službenoj dužnosti o tome mora voditi računa.60
U kontekstu primene oficijelne maksime nužno je prokomentarisati i
problem odreĎivanja privremenih mera u postupcima o izdržavanju (ali i šire, u
postupcima u koje su, načelno, involvirana deca, odnosno njihova prava). PZ
RS, naime ne reguliše izricanje privremenih mera, osim u postupku u sporu za
zaštitu od nasilja u porodici.61 Stoga se moraju primeniti odredbe Zakon o
izvršenju i obezbeĎenju.62 Nasuprot tome PZ F BiH odredbom čl. 249 st. 1
iznosa izdržavanja (up. odredbu čl. 161 sr. 2 PZ RS, npr.). Prednacrtom GraĎanskog zakonika RS
(čl. 184) precizira se da se poverilac i dužnik mogu sporazumeti o visini doprinosa i načinu
davanja, u pisanoj formi pred organom starateljstva, a overu vrši sud ili javni beležnik i da ima
snagu
izvršne
isprave,
Prednacrt
GraĎanskog
zakonika
RS,
dostupno
na:
http://arhiva.mpravde.gov.
rs/lt/articles/zakonodavna-aktivnost/gradjankski-zakonik, 10. 02. 2015. Sporazumi, odnosno
ugovori dobijaju sve više na značaju u regulisanju ličnih odnosa, o tome, npr., Ponjavić, Z.,
Ugovori kojima se uređuju lični odnosi u porodičnom pravu, Pravni život, br. 9/1998; Ponjavić,
Z., Novo porodično zakonodavstvo - Proces privatizacije porodičnog prava, Novo porodično
zakonodavstvo, 2006; Abramowisz, S., Contractualizing custody, dostupno na:
http://www.google.rs/search?q=contactualization+in+family+law&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-i, 20.02.2015;
Weinrib, L, Reconstructing Family: Constructive Trust at Relational Dissolution, 2002, dostupno
na http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles, 20 .02.2015; Hamilton, V., Principles of
U.S. Family Law, 2006, str. 64, o štetnosti previše strogih imperativnih normi u odnosu na slobodu
supružnika da regulišu svoje odnose ugovorom, a time i ograničenje njihovih prava, dostupno na:
http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1183&context=facpubs, 15.02. 2015.
60
Tako, npr., Hauser, J., Javni poredak u porodičnim odnosima, Pravni život, br. 9, 2000, str. 482.,
koji u okvire javnog poretka u porodičnim odnosima, shvatajući ga kao centar konvergencije
individualnih interesa, svrstava vrednosti kao što su: monogamija, jednakost, sloboda volje,
poštovanje ličnosti, interes deteta.
61
Čl. 198 st. 2 PZ RS
62
Zakon o izvršenju i obezbeĎenju, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 31/2011, 99/2011- dr. zakon.
109/2013 - odluka US, 55/2014 i 139/2014, čl. 293-297, privremene mere radi obezbeĎenja
novčanog potraživanja, a o tome i npr., Rešenje Višeg suda u Novom Sadu, posl. br. Gž261/2013, od 30.12.2013., kojim je potvrĎeno Rešenje Osnovnog suda u Novom Sadu, posl. br. P2-
144
�ovlašćuje ne samo na izricanje ovih mera, nego i na izricanje po službenoj
dužnosti u postupcima za izdržavanje maloletnog deteta ili deteta nad kojim je
produženo roditeljsko pravo. I OZ RH predviĎa odreĎivanje privremenih mera u
postupku za izdržavanje63 ali i druge specifičnosti, pa i izricanje ex offo u sporu
u kome se rešava o izdržavanju deteta. Uslovi su uobičajeni, kako ih vide zakoni
o izvršnim procedurama, ali je jedno od prihvatljivih rešenja da se smatra da
postoji opasnost za lične ili druge važne interese predlagača ako se mere
obezbeĎenja izdržavanja odreĎuju u korist dece, osim u slučaju povećanja
iznosa izdržavanja u skladu sa povećanim mogućnostima roditelja.64 Kao
podnosilac predloga može se pojaviti i Centar za socijalni rad, ako je ovlašćen
na podnošenje predloga za izvršenje, a obim privremenog doprinosa je, načelno,
koliko je neophodno za zadovoljavanje osnovnih životnih potreba poverioca.
Pomenimo da je sasvim prihvatljivo i rezonovanje PZ FBiH (čl. 249. st. 3), u
odnosu na uslove izricanja privremene mera, odnosno da je jedini uslov da se
učini verovatnim postojanje činjenica od kojih zavisi pravo na izdržavanje, osim
u postupku za utvrĎivanje očinstva ili materinstva. Porodični zakon Crne Gore,
takodje, predviĎa izricanje privremenih mera ex offo, u postupku za izdržavanje
dece i drugim postupcima u kojim se po službenoj dužnosti odlučuje o njihovom
izdržavanju i ako u izdržavanju ne učestvuju oba roditelja sa odgovarajućim
doprinosom.65
Čini se neophodnim da se i u porodičnom pravu Srbije reguliše izričito
izricanje privremenih mera u postupcima za izdržavanje, a kada je tužilac dete i
ex offo, bez obzira na to da osnov ovakvom postupanju suda može biti i Ustav
RS, odnosno načelo posebne zaštite, 66kao i čl. 6 PZ RS, odnosno dužnost
"svakoga" da se rukovodi najboljim interesom deteta "u svim aktivnostima koje
se tiču deteta". Razlog više je sadašnja primena opštih pravila izvršne procedure
o privremenim merama, o čijoj se adekvatnosti može diskutovati.67 Morale bi se
precizirati i posebne vrste privremenih mera, ili, barem odrediti da li su to one za
novčane ili nenovčane tražbine.68
2721/13, od 26.11.2013, Elektronski bilten Osnovnog suda u Novom Sadu, 2015, dostupno na:
http://www.bilten.osns.rs/presuda/sentenca?url=privremena-mera-3, 17.02.2015
63
Čl. 537-359 OZ RH, kao i čl. 536 o ostalim situacijama
64
Videti i čl. 538 st. 1 OZ RH, a u slučaju postupka za osporavanje očinstva ili materinstva, kada
se mora učiniti verovatnim da je lice protiv koga se mera odreĎuje roditelj deteta (st. 2)
65
Čl. 369 st. 1 PZ RCG
66
Čl. 66 Ustava RS, Službeni glasnik RS, br. 98, 2006 - posebna zaštita odreĎenih kategorija lica,
ali i dece.
67
Istraživanja pokazuju da se privremene mere retko traže, a kao razlog prepoznaje se hitnost
alimentacionih parnica (navodno brzo ostvarenje trajne zaštite) i nedovoljna informisanost i
neznanje stranaka, Petrušić, N., Privremene mere radi izdržavanja u parnicama iz
porodičnopravnih odnosa, u: Ostvarivanje i zaštita prava na zakonsko izdržavanje, Pravni fakultet
u Kragujevcu, 2002, str. 157-172. Organ starateljstva bi, takoĎe, imao pravo kao učesnik sui
generis i da ih zahteva i da zahteva sprovoĎenje, ali je pitanje koliko to i čini u praksi, pa bi i ulogu
organa starateljstva trebalo precizirati u ovom smislu.
68
Ibidem, str. 164-167.
145
�5. Hitnost postupanja, pravo na pravično suđenje i suđenje u
razumnom roku
Hitnost postupanja svakako je jedna od garantija efikasnom ostvarenju
sudske zaštite. U postupcima o zakonskom izdržavanju načelo hitnosti,69
odnosno naročite hitnosti70 je stoga ne samo prihvaćeno već se nizom posebnih
procesnih rešenja nastoji na njegovoj primeni. Tako, PZ RS, predviĎa da se prvo
ročište u postupku za izdržavanje zakazuje u roku od osam dana od dana prijema
tužbe u sudu, a da sud drugog stepena mora odlučiti u roku od 15 dana od dana
dostavljanja žalbe. I iz zajedničkih odredaba PZ RS o sudskim postupcima u
vezi sa porodičnim odnosima sledi hitnost postupanja kroz odredbe o
nedostavljanju tužbe tuženom na odgovor, sprovoĎenju postupaka koji se odnose
na dete ili roditelja koji vrši roditeljsko pravo na najviše dva ročišta, od kojih se
prvo zakazuje tako da se održi u roku od 15 dana od prijema tužbe ili predloga u
sudu i o dužnosti suda drugog stepena da o žalbi odluči u roku od 30 dana od
dana dostavljanja žalbe.71 Ipak, evidentno je da u praksi postoje problemi
pridržavanja rokova od strane suda pa se zaštita ostvaruje u postupku zbog
povrede prava na suĎenje u razumnom roku, ali je to dug i put sa neizvesnim
ishodom.
Jedno od mogućih rešenja za ubrzanje postupka u stvarima izdržavanja
dece svakako je poseban "pojednostavljeni" vanparnični postupak u stvarima
izdržavanja deteta predviĎa OZ RH (čl. 474-477) u kome je dete tužilac, a
roditelj sa kojim dete ne živi tuženi. Pored posebnih pravila nadležnosti, u cilju
zaštite prava deteta, zakon naznačuje i da u predlogu mora biti odreĎen iznos u
skladu sa čl. 314, skraćeni su rokovi dostavljanja predloga protivniku i
podnošenja prigovora na predlog na osam dana, a ako se ne prigovori, sud bez
održavanja ročišta i neobrazloženim rešenjem prihvata predlog. Ako protivnik
prigovori postupak se nastavlja po pravilima posebnog parničnog postupka za
izdržavanje. Rešenje se može pobijati samo zbog apsolutno bitnih povreda
odredaba parničnog postupka ili pogrešne primene materijalnog prava. I neki
dugi posebni vanparnični postupci iz OZ RHG imaju isti cilj. Tako, postupak za
odobravanje sporazuma o izdržavanju (čl. 470-473)72 i postupak za odobravanje
plana o zajedničkom roditeljskom staranju (čl. 461-469). I niz opštih odredaba
za vanparnične postupke iz OZ RH ima značaja u kontekstu efikasne zaštite
dečijih prava, npr., o mogućnosti da se rešenjem odredi neodložno izvršenje
činidbe (čl. 443 st. 2), ovlašćenje suda da odluči da žalba ne zadržava izvršenje
69
Videti čl. 268 st. 3 PZ FBiH i čl. 263 st. 2 OZ RH
Čl. 280. PZ RS, dok se za sve postupke u vezi porodičnih odnosa predviĎa hitnost postupanja
ako se odnose na dete ili roditelja koji vrši roditeljsko pravo, videti odredbu čl. 204 st 1 PZ RS,
kao i odredbu čl. 21 st. 2 Prednacrta Zakona o pravima deteta PS, dostupno na:
http://www.ombudsman.rs/attachments/nacrt%2009.11-11-doc, 10. 03. 2015.
71
Videti i čl. 347 OZ RH
72
PZ RS u delu o samostalnom postupku za izdržavanje ne pominje sporazum o izdržavanju
deteta, ali se iz konteksta odredaba o sporazumima roditelja o vršenju roditeljskog prava, posebno
o samostalnom vršenju u kome se mora naći, uz ostalo, i sporazum o visini doprinosa za
izdržavanje deteta od roditelja koji ne vrši roditeljsko pravo, mora zaključiti da je sporazum
moguć.
70
146
�ako se izriču mere kojima se štite prava i dobrobit dece (čl. 445 st. 4), odredbe o
sredstvima prisile u postupcima, kakvo je prisilno dovoĎenje, oduzimanje
isprava, zatvorske kazne i sl. za lica koja protivno nalogu suda ne preduzimaju
neophodne procesne radnje (čl. 441), pravila dokazivanja (čl. 440) i niz drugih.
73
Efikasnosti parničnih postupaka uopšte, pa i onih za izdržavanje
doprinose rešenja o tzv. vremenskom okviru za sprovoĎenje postupka,74 uz
pomenuto ograničenje da će se postupak sprovesti "po pravilu" na najviše dva
ročišta, pri čemu odrednica "po pravilu" svakako ne doprinosi hitnosti i
omogućava sudijama odstupanja na koja je već upozoreno. No, postojanje
vremenskog okvira ne znači da se ročišta ne mogu odlagati.75 Svako odlaganje,
pak, uslovljava novi vremenski okvir. I drugi mehanizmi koji služe ubrzanju
postupaka, npr., o tome da sud, opet "po pravilu", zakazuje jedno ročište za
glavnu raspravu radi izvoĎenja svih dokaza ili da, ukoliko je potrebno održati
više ovakvih ročišta, sud ih zakazuje "u najkraćem vremenskom razmaku" (čl.
309 st. 2,3 ZPP), svakako su od koristi, ali ne i dovoljna.
No, bez obzira na to da su ustanovljeni izvesni procesni mehanizmi koji
treba da doprinesu efikasnosti postupaka u vezi dečijih prava, pa i za
izdržavanje, čini se da, barem u Srbiji, još uvek nisu u primeni najadekvatniji
procesni instrumenti, a posebno se ovakav zaključak odnosi na adhezione
parnice za izdržavanje. Odluke Suda za ljudska prava donesene protiv Srbije
ukazuju na to da je u postupcima o poveravanju dece, a onda i izdržavanju, česta
povreda čl. 6 Evropske konvencije o zaštiti ljudskih prava, odnosno prava na
suĎenje u razumnom roku, nedopuštenom dužinom trajanja parničnih, ali i
izvršnih postupaka, kao i izvršavanja privremenih mera. 76 Posebna tema, kojom
se zbog ograničenog obima ne možemo baviti je neizvršavanje sudskih odluka o
izdržavanju, odnosno uskraćivanje izdržavanja.77
73
Prethodni OZ RH imao je takoĎe posebno pravilo i tome da će se podaci o adresi tuženog kada
je tužilac dete tražiti po službenoj dužnosti od policijske uprave, a ako dostava ni tada nije
moguća, postaviće se tuženom privremeni zastupnik (čl. 305b, 305c i 305d OZ RH), a ovakvo
rešenje ima smisla s obzirom da je i dostavljanje tuženom u ovim postupcima otežano zbog
različitih načina izbegavanja prijema.
74
Čl. 308 ZPP RS, inače svi zakoni država regiona predviĎaju primenu zakona o parničnom
postupku za sva pitanja koja nisu posebno regulisana
75
Čl. 329 ZPP RS
76
Npr., odluke u slučajevima: Veljkov protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 23087/07, presuda od 19. 04.
2011, dostupno na: http://pescanik.net/up-content/PDF/Presude/Veljkov.pdf, 12. 03. 2015;
Dimitrijević i Jakovljević protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 34922/07; Ristić protiv Srbije, predstavka
br. 32181/08, presuda od 18. 01. 2011; M.V. protiv Srbije, predstavka br. 45251/07, presuda od
22. 09. 2009, dostupno na: http://www.zstupnik.mpravde.gov.rs. Uglavnom, odluke se odnose na
postupke poveravanja, odnosno staranja o deci i njihovo izvršavanja, ali ne i na samostalne
postupke o izdržavanju.
77
Petrušić, N., Konstantinović-Vilić, S, Ostvarivanje prava na izdržavanje - (ne)moć države,
Zbornik radova "Vladavina prava i pravna država regionu", Istočno Sarajevo, 2014, o tzv.
ekonomskom nasilju koje, u slučaju uskraćivanja izdržavanja posebno pogaĎa decu. Interesantne
podatke daje istraživanje o (ne)efikasnosti parničnih i izvršnih postupaka za izdržavanje (obj. u
radu iz napomene br. 57 ovog rada).
147
�TakoĎe, u kontekstu prava na pristup pravosuĎu (pravdi), koje ima rang
osnovnog pravnog principa, obaveza je država da obezbede da niko ne bude
"sprečen ekonomskim preprekama u svom nastojanju da ostvari ili odbrani svoje
pravo pred sudom",78 izdvajaju se dva značajna pitanja. Prvo je pitanje besplatne
pravne pomoći, drugo, osloboĎenje od prethodnog plaćanja troškova parničnog
postupka. Zakoni o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći su već doneseni u nekim
državama u regionu, 79 negde su, već nedopušteno dugo, u fazi izrade.80 O
njihovom značaju ne treba posebno govoriti u odnosu na postupke koji se tiču
prava dece, pa i one o izdržavanju, u okolnostima sve većeg siromaštva kao
posledice globalne ekonomske krize, a posebno u tranzicionim, pa i državama
našeg regiona. VoĎenje sudskih postupak je, opšte je mesto, veoma skupo, a to
značajno negativno utiče na realizaciju prava na pristup sudu.
OsloboĎenje od prethodnog plaćanja troškova parničnog postupka je, u
pravnom sistemu Srbije, pre svega, povezano uz mogućnost da se stranci prizna i
pravo na besplatnu pravnu pomoć (besplatnog punomoćnika), odnosno ukoliko
je stranka potpuno osloboĎena od plaćanja troškova postupka (takse i predujam
za izvoĎenje dokaza i objavljivanje sudskih oglasa), ali se i ovo nerado koristi u
praksi.81 Samo osloboĎenje, pak, uslovljeno je okolnošću da stranka nije, prema
svom opštem imovnom stanju, u mogućnosti da ovakve troškove snosi.82 No,
sud odluku o osloboĎenju donosi isključivo po predlogu stranke, ali može
prikupljati podatke i obaveštenja o imovnom stanju stranke i po službenoj
dužnosti.83 Uz konstataciju da su ovakva zakonska rešenja značajna garantija
olakšanju procesnog položaja lica koja nemaju, ili nemaju dovoljno finansijskih
sredstava za život, a onda i za voĎenje sudskih postupaka, treba reči da
istraživanja pokazuju da do oslobaĎanja relativno retko i dolazi u praksi. Uzrok
se prepoznaje u nedovoljnoj informisanosti stranaka o ovoj zakonskoj
mogućnosti i ignorisanju zahteva od strane sudova, koji su posledica nedostatka
sredstava iz kojih bi se troškovi predujmili.84
78
Petrušić, N., Pravo na pristup pravdi u svetlu novog ZPP, u: Pristup pravosuđu - instrumenti za
implementaciju evropskih standarda u pravni sistem RS, Knj. 2, Zbornik radova, Niš, 2007, str.
167.
79
Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći RH, NN, 143/13, dostupno na:
http://www.zakon.hr/z/286/Zakon-o-besplatnoj-pravnoj-pomoći, 13. 03. 2015; Zakon o besplatnoj
pravnoj
pomoći
CG,
Službeni
list
CG,
br.
20/2011,
dostupno
na:
http://www.sluybenilist.me/PravniAktDetalji.aspx?tag={7AE2D296-5FF0-4907-9A65AF3A97D0BD4, 13. 03. 2015; Zakon o besplatnoj pravnoj pomoći Republike Srpske, Službeni
glasnik Republike Srpske, br. 120/13, 63/14
80
Nacrt Zakona u RS, dostupno na: http://www.mpravde.gov.rs/sekcija/53/radne-verzijepropisa.php, 13. 03. 2015;
81
Čl. 170, u vezi čl. 168 i 169 ZPP RS, videti o tome kod Petrušić, N., op. cit, str. 167.
82
Čl. 168 ZPP RS
83
Čl. 169 st. 3 ZPP RS
84
Petrušić, N, Konstantinović-Vilić, S., op. cit, str. 33.
148
�6. Zaključak
Značaj ostvarenje prava na zakonsko izdržavanje ne treba posebno
potencirati, posebno u uslovima sve većeg siromaštva, pa i porodičnog i ličnog.
Često iznosi koje sud dodeljuje za izdržavanje jedina sredstva i način da se
obezbedi egzistencija izdržavanog lica. U odnosu na decu, specifičan problem
čini to da se pomenutim sredstvima, uz životni egzistenciju, moraju obezbediti i
ona koja imaju za cilj razvoj deteta - fizički, mentalni, duhovni, moralni i
socijalni. Obaveze u ovom smislu imaju, primarno, roditelji i druga lica
odreĎena nacionalnim zakonodavstvima, ali i država. sam sudski postupak, pak,
mora biti efikasan, a procesni mehanizmi adekvatni pravnoj prirodi prava na
izdržavanje i opštem cilju, odnosno odgovornosti delovanja u najboljem interesu
deteta. Primena istražnog načela u najširem smislu čini se, stoga, kao
neophodnost posebno pri utvrĎivanju ukupnih potreba deteta, ali i mogućnosti
dužnika izdržavanja, a ovda, u slučaju da primarni dužnici nisu u mogućnosti da
obezbede takva sredstva, neophodno je predvideti čvrste dopunske procesne
mehanizme za obezbeĎenje iz budžeta države i olakšan način isplate.
Analiza porodičnih zakona jednog broja država regiona ukazuje na
razlike u pristupu načelu dispozicije, posebno u odnosu na dispozitivne presude i
sudsko poravnanje. Povoljnosti, ali i mane ovih instrumenata su brojne, stoga je
neophodno analizirati ih sa aspekta dopustivosti u alimentacionim parnicama i
izričito normirati prihvatljivu varijantu koja omogućava zaštitu prava deteta na
najvišem nivou, odnosno uz proveru sa aspekta najboljeg interesa deteta. Postoje
i značajne razlike, dileme i problemi u primeni niza drugih procesnih instituta,
od koji je ograničen broj pomenut i analiziran u radu. Sa aspekta pravnog sitema
Srbije, moglo bi se zaključtiti da postojeća rešenja Porodičnog zakona nisu u
dovoljnoj meri garantija efikasne zaštite dece u postupcima za zakonsko
izdržaavnje pa je nužno, u postupku izrade GraĎanskog zakonika, koja je u toku,
predvideti niz novih ili postojeća prilagodi ovim ciljevima.
149
�Dr sc. Dušica Palačković, full professor
Law Faculty, University of Kragujevac
Republic of Serbia
RESUME
Realization of the right to legal child alimony is often the only way for
providing the means necessary for existence, as well as for the development of
the child – physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social. The obligations in this
regard have, primarily, parents and other parties determined by national
legislations, but also the state. Judicial proceedings, in circumstances where the
necessary resources are not provided spontaneously by the primary debtors of
the obligation, must be efficient, and the procedural mechanisms must comply
with the legal nature of the right to child support and the goal - the best interest
of the child. Therefore, by applying inquisitorial procedure in the broadest sense,
it is necessary to determine the overall needs of the child, and then, in the event
that the primary debtors are not able to provide such resources, provide
additional protection mechanisms - securing funds from the state budget and
easier method of payment..
The analysis of family law in a number of countries in the region
indicates differences in the approach to the disposition principle, particularly in
relation to the dispositive judgments and the court settlement. The advantages,
but also disadvantages of these instruments are numerous, therefore it is
necessary to analyze them in terms of admissibility in alimony lawsuits and
specifically standardize the acceptable option that enables the protection of the
rights of the child at the highest level, with the verification from the point of the
child’s best interest. There are considerable differences, dilemmas and problems
in the application of a numer of other procedural institutes, out of which a
limited numer was analized in this paper. From the aspect of the Serbian legal
system, it could be concluded that the existing solutions of the Family Law do
not sufficiently guarantee effective protection of children in proceedings for
legal child alimony, so it is necessary, in the drafting of the Civil Code, which is
in progress, to predict a series of new, or to adapt the existing solutions to these
goals.
Key words: civil proceedings for child alimony, inquisitorial procedure,
еx officio, public hearing within a reasonable time, urgency of action
150
�
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2993
Title
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PROCESNI INSTRUMENTI U FUNKCIJI ZAŠTITE PRAVA NA ZAKONSKO IZDRŽAVANJE DETETA
Author
Author
PALAČKOVIĆ, Dušica
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Autorka u radu, polazeći od značaja procesnih rešenja za ostvarenje svakog supstancijalnog prava, pa i prava dece na zakonsko izdržavanje, analizira zakonodavna rešenje jednog broja država regiona i iznosi teorijske stavove o specifičnim načelima koja se u parnicama za zakonsko izdržavanje prihvataju i primenjuju. Prati način regulisanja i primenu, putem konkretnih procesnih instituta, pre svega istražnog i načela oficijelnog postupanja sudova, kao i prava na pristup pravosuđu, posebno principa suđenja u razumnom roku. Pri tome, pokušava da odgovori na pitanja koliko su, i da li su, adekvatni usvojeni procesni instrumenti koji se primenjuju u postupcima za izdržavanje, a pre svega da omoguće brzu, efikasnu, a onda i potpunu zaštitu dece kojima je izdržavanje neophodan, a često i jedini, izvor sredstava za egzistenciju i razvoj. Takođe, nastoji da prepozna nedostatke regulative i predlaže izvesne smernice za izmenu propisa koji regulišu ovu oblast. Ključne reči: parnični postupci za izdržavanje, istražno načelo, oficijelnost, suđenje u razumnom roku, hitnost postupanja
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/93a75548e5e2bc5dce8962e9487a7f95.pdf
5d566ef5d73aa240f4a4729a47616cd7
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
at Tertiary Level
Melisa Okičić & Merima Osmankadić
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Submitted: 15.04.2014.
Accepted: 07.11.2014.
Abstract
Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to
teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are
expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target
language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three
(undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the
analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a
basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This
paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of
English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into
English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination
of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the
research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to
the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation,
which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other
hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an
efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation
competence of non-native learners.
Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing,
treatment
Introduction
An Introduction to Morphosyntax is a course delivered during the second year of study at the Faculty of
Philosophy in Sarajevo, English Department. It is one of the six mandatory grammar courses
introduced during a three-year undergraduate programme of study, listed as follows: 1st year:
Morphology and A Survey of English Grammar; 2nd year: An Introduction to Morphosyntax and Nonfinite Constructions; 3rd year: Syntax of the Simple Sentence and Syntax of the Complex Sentence. Each
course consists of lectures and practical classes, and is designed in the form of a structural syllabus.1
All the courses are aimed at the description of the target language grammar, which is done through
form-focused instructions in English.2 In addition, none of the course syllabi anticipate a contrastive
analysis unit. However, all the courses share the same goal: to increase students’ grammar competence
“A structural (or formal) syllabus is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of the forms and structures,
usually grammatical, of the language being taught. Examples of structures include: nouns, verbs, adjectives, statements,
questions, complex sentences, subordinate clauses, past tense, and so on, although formal syllabi may include other aspects of
language form such as pronounciation or morphology.”(Krahnke, 1987, p. 10)
2 The focus is on standard British English, but the students are made aware that there are other standard varieties of English.
1
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
in the target language, thus also enhancing both their communicative and translation competence.
Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that translation exercises are not done within grammar courses.
The translation exercises are done within a skill-based course titled Contemporary English Language.3
The syllabus for this course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures/exercises since the grammar
courses are expected to provide a solid basis for the purpose of translation.
An Introduction to Morphosyntax is focused on the description of morphosyntactic properties of the
English phrase structure (noun phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, verb phrase and prepositional
phrase). Upon the completion of the course, the students are expected to master the English phrase
structure, to recognize different kinds of phrases at both the phrasal and the clausal levels and to use
the accurate structure of a certain phrase for the purpose of translation. However, taking into account
that the course does not anticipate any contrastive lectures, the lecturer and the teaching assistant
decided to conduct research in order to assess to what extent the acquired knowledge of the English
phrase is useful in terms of translation. This research aimed at assessing the quality of translation of
those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the use of contrastive rules. The
research was restricted to the translation of verb phrases appearing in Bosnian
conditional/passive/Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences.
For the purpose of the research, the following hypothesis has been defined: teaching English grammar
to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and
the target language results in erroneous translations, being a consequence of negative transfer from
the source into the target language.
The paper is organized as follows: after the Introduction, which is given in the first section, the second
section gives a theoretical background and a short overview of the recent literature that is relevant to
the main objective of the paper. The third section presents details as to the methodology of the
research. The paper proceeds in the next section with the analysis of the results and the discussion
thereof. In the end we give some final remarks.
Theoretical Background
Contrastive Analysis (CA) is a foreign-language teaching theory that was born in the early 1960s,
which was the period when structural linguistics and behaviourist psychology enjoyed great popularity.
Proponents of this theory came to advocate that foreign language learning is actually a process of
acquiring different structures from the source into the target language. Such an approach gave birth to
the basic concept of CA known as the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH): “... in the comparison
between native and foreign language lies the key to ease or difficulty in foreign language learning (...)
Those elements that are similar to (the learner’s) native language will be simple for him and those
elements that are different will be difficult.” (Lado, 1957, pp. 1-2). In other words, contrastive analysis
is a way of comparing languages in order to identify potential errors for the purpose of determining
what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a situation of foreign or second
language learning (Gass & Selinker, 2008, p. 96). Numerous contrastive analyses that were undertaken
at that time resulted in different pedagogical materials. One such set of materials was the outcome of
the Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian – English Contrastive Project (YSCECP) that was carried out under the
leadership of Professor Rudolf Filipović, then Director of the Linguistic Institute of Zagreb University
and professor in the English Department of that University. There are several volumes of studies and
separate reports that were published under the auspices of the Project, and although contrastive analysis
has long been abandoned (unjustly, in our opinion), and these studies and reports neglected, we can see
3
During the undergraduate study, there are six courses of this kind (two per academic year) during which the students
translate selected texts from Bosnian into English and vice versa.
180
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
today how invaluable their contribution is both from the perspective of theoretical linguistics and from
that of teaching English as a foreign or second language to learners whose first languages are
Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian.
After the initial CAH had been defined, many CA proponents focused on a further development of the
CA theory in terms of describing the hierarchy of difficulties and the CA methodological framework.
Stockwell, Bowen, and Martin (1965) analysed the difficulties of an English speaker learning Spanish
and defined eight different degrees of difficulty for phonological and 16 degrees of difficulty for
grammatical structures of the two languages in contrast. The hierarchy was based upon the impact of
positive, negative, and zero transfer from the source into the target language.4 A few years later,
Whitman (1970) proposed the CA methodological framework comprising the following steps:
description, selection, contrast and prediction. In short, during the first phase (description), the teacher
describes the two language systems using standard grammar rules. In the second phase (selection), the
teacher selects a set of structures to be contrasted. This phase actually “reflects the conscious and
unconscious assumptions of the investigator” (Whitman, 1970, p. 193). In the third phase (contrasting)
the selected structures are contrasted and accordingly described. In the end, in the fourth phase
(prediction) the learning difficulties have been defined following a three-step procedure as previously
explained.
Although CA seemed to be a revolutionary theory, it soon became the subject of much discussion.
With reference to it, Wardhaugh (1970) severely criticized Lado’s CAH, defining it as the strong CAH
version, and additionally describing it as quite demanding and completely unrealistic: “at the very last,
this version demands of linguists that they have available a set of linguistic universals formulated
within a comprehensive linguistic theory which deals adequately with syntax, semantics, and
phonology. ... Does the linguist have available to him an overall contrastive system within which he
can relate the two languages in terms of mergers, splits, zeroes, over-differentiations, underdifferentiations, reinterpretations, and so on?” (Wardhaugh, 1970, pp. 125-126). Wardhaugh proposed
a new version of the CAH defined as the weak version. In Wardhaugh’s words, CA should not be used
a priori but during the process of foreign language learning where it should be primarily used for the
purpose of explaining errors that have been identified during the learning process. On the other hand,
some other authors claimed that both strong and weak versions should be viewed as a unique version of
the CAH. Therefore, Oller and Ziahosseiny proposed the so-called moderate version of CAH, defined
as follows: “The categorization of abstract and concrete patterns according to their perceived
similarities and differences is the basis for learning; therefore wherever patterns are minimally distinct
in form or meaning in one or more systems confusion may result.” (Oller & Ziahosseiny, 1970, p. 186)
The moderate version of the CAH was proposed on the basis of the study of spelling errors in which
the authors concluded the following: English spelling proved to be more difficult for people whose
native language used a Roman script (French, Spanish), than for those who used a non-Roman script
(Arabic, Japanese). This conclusion was actually quite surprising, and in opposition to the CAH strong
version, which predicts more difficult acquisition of those features that are different in the two
languages in contrast. On the other hand, this conclusion has also revealed some important
observations as to the complexity of human learning, thus outlining that interference should not
necessarily be caused by different, but also by similar features of the two languages (interlingual and
intralangual errors). Such conclusions actually announced the development of the so-called Error
Analysis approach, being quite popular mainstream in recent years. As for the current status of CA, it
can be said that this theory has not achieved a huge success as initially expected. Over the period of the
last fifty years, CA has been criticized for the lack of reliability of CA predictions. As a consequence of
such a situation, the CA approach has been largely disregarded from a standard practice of foreign
language teaching. Nevertheless, there are some recent studies that rely heavily on what was at the core
Ellis argues that negative transfer occurs when the learner’s first language is one of the sources of error in learner language,
whereas positive transfer occurs when the learner’s L1 facilitates L2 acquisition (Ellis, 1997, p. 51).
4
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
of contrastive analysis. Callies, for example, in his study of the tough-movement in German and
English, combines contrastive analysis with the Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) postulated
by Eckman (1977), which claims that L1 structures that are different from L2 structures and
typologically more marked will not be transferred, whereas those L1 structures that are different from
L2 structures and typologically less marked are more likely to be transferred (Callies, 2008, p. 37).5 We
can predict, on the basis of typological features, the order and difficulty of linguistic features in the
acquisition process: less marked structures will be acquired first and without difficulty, while more
marked structures will be acquired later or with greater difficulty. In other words, the MDH identifies
potential difficulties in the L2 learning process not merely on the basis of similarities and differences
derived from a contrastive analysis (CA) of two languages (as in traditional CA), but through a
combination of the concepts of typological markedness and cross-linguistic influence (Callies, 2008, p.
37). This is in accordance with the claim that there are cognitive constraints that govern the transfer of
L1 knowledge. Two of these constraints are learners’ perceptions of what is transferable and learners’
stage of development. Learners themselves are able to perceive some structures in their L1 as more
basic (less marked or more universal) and others as more unique to their own language (more marked).
They are more willing to transfer those structures that they perceive as basic than those that they
perceive as unique to their L1 (Ellis, 1997, p. 53). From Callies’ study we can see that contrastive
analysis has been recycled after a long period of hibernation, albeit combined with the new scientific
insights into the nature of foreign or second language acquisition.
There is no doubt that CA has revealed some important facts as to the complexity of language learning,
therefore remaining an available technique which can be used (in whichever form appropriate) for the
purpose of explaining interference, whenever such explanations might be required. We are of the
opinion that it is university level students of English that can greatly benefit from such contrastive
explanations.
Methods
Research Design
This study is defined as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test – (delayed)
post-test control – treatment group (Mackey & Gass, 2011). A mixed methodological approach has
been chosen due to the following reasons. According to Mertens, action research is the research ‘that is
done by teachers for themselves. It is truly a systematic inquiry into one’s own practice.’ (Mertens,
2012, p. 4) Since the research of this paper was primarily initiated by the lecturer and the teaching
assistant with the express purpose of reviewing our own teaching practice, our research has the
characteristics of action research. However, we wanted to create an experimental and a control group in
order to strengthen the methodological framework, and since action research does not usually imply the
creation of such groups, nor does it imply the questioning of a hypothesis statement, the action research
was additionally designed as a quasi-experimental pre-test - (delayed) post-test control-treatment
group.6 The quasi-experimental design has been selected due to inability to employ randomly selected
5
Eckman, F. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language Learning, 27, 315-330, as cited in
Callies.
Tough-movement is a uniform cross-linguistic phenomenon because it explicitly indicates topicalisation of the raised NP. In
spite of the fact that this phenomenon is universal, the formal linguistic means with which their function is expressed vary
from language to language (Callies, 2008).
6 “In an action research project you are not trying to prove anything. You are not comparing one thing to another to determine
the best possible thing. Also, there are no experimental or control groups, independent or dependent variables, or hypotheses
to be supported. The goal is simply to understand. As an action researcher you are creating a series of snapshots in various
forms and in various places to help us understand exactly what is going on.” (Johnson, 2005, p. 25)
182
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
sampling, which is one of the key features of a pure experiment.7 Randomly selected sampling could
not be employed, since the research took place during the regular teaching process, and therefore a
non-random method of sampling was used. The research was done with two intact classes, one being
defined as a control, another as a treatment group.8
Moreover, for the purpose of research, independent and dependent variables were also defined. A
common teaching practice (teaching English grammar without contrastive input) was considered the
independent variable, whereas a newly introduced teaching method (presentation of contrastive
analysis input) was considered the dependent variable. Furthermore, for the purpose of strengthening
the validity of the research, a special focus was also given to the analysis of extraneous variables, as
will be explained in the following section.9
Participants
The participants in the research were all the full-time second-year students (50), a lecturer (1) and a
teaching assistant (1). The students were the subject of the research while the lecturer and the teaching
assistant were the facilitators of the research. In order to identify general characteristics of the students
relevant for the validity of the study, prior to the pre-testing phase the following extraneous variables
were analysed: age, high-school profile, enrolment status, attending school in English-speaking
countries, spending more than six months in English-speaking countries, additional English language
learning activities (commercial English courses/private classes) and the most common practice of
studying grammar. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire, jointly created by the lecturer
and the teaching assistant. The results have been summarized in the following figures:
“Randomization is usually viewed as one of the hallmarks of experimental research. Design types can range from truly
experimental (with random assignment) to what is known as quasi-experimental (without random assignment).” (Mackey &
Gass, 2005, p. 146)
8 “However, there are situations when randomization of individuals may not be feasible. For example, in second
language research we often need to use intact classes for our studies, and in these cases the participants cannot be randomly
assigned to one of the experimental or control groups. Intact classes are commonly and often by necessity used in research for
the sake of convenience.” (Mackey & Gass, 2011, p. 142)
9 Strengthening the validity of the research is “an indication of accuracy in terms of the extent to which a research conclusion
corresponds with reality.” (White & McBurney, 2012, p. 143)
“Extraneous variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed extraneous variables. (...) Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must always be so designated that the effect upon the
dependent variable is attributed entirely to the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.”
(Kothari, 2004, p. 34)
7
183
�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
4% 2%
1986
4%
2%
8%
1989
16%
16%
Grammar
School
1990
1991
56%
1992
Vocation
al School
92%
1993
Figure 1. Age of students
Figure 2. High School Profile
1st
time
2nd
time
3rd
time
4% 0%
96%
Figure 3. Enrolment Status
Figure 4. Additional English Language Activities
(Commercial Courses)
0%
20%
No
Yes
80%
Yes
No
100%
Figure 5. Additional English Language Activities
(Private Classes)
Figure 6. Consulting Senior Fellow Students in
Studying Grammar
17%
12%
Yes
No
50%
33%
Internet Sources
- online
grammar
exercises
Cambridge
Grammar of
English
88%
Figure 7. Use of Additional Grammar Literature
commonly used
grammar sources (additional literature)
2%
184
No
98%
Yes
Figure 8. The most
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
2%
No
98%
Yes
Figure 9. Spending more than 6 months in
school in English-speaking
English-speaking countries
Figure 10. Attending
countries
Therefore, the general characteristics of the second year students can be summarized as follows: 56%
of the students are at the age of 20. 92% graduated from Grammar High School. 96% enrolled in the
second year of study for the first time. None of the students takes any additional learning activity in
parallel with studying (commercial English courses/private classes). 20% consult senior fellow students
in studying grammar. 12% use additional grammar literature, with Cambridge Grammar of English
being the most frequently used (50%). Only 2% of the students spent more than six months in Englishspeaking countries (one academic year).
Materials
During the research five kinds of materials were used: a questionnaire (1) (already explained in
Participants Section), two tests (pre-testing and post-testing phases), supporting teaching material
(treatment phase) comprising the handouts summarizing contrastive rules (3) and the translation
exercise handout (1). All the materials were jointly produced by the lecturer and the teaching assistant.
During the pre-testing and post-testing phases the testing method was employed with the test being a
key instrument of the research. The first test (henceforth Test 1) was designed to test the background
knowledge of the students in terms of assessing their translation competence (from Bosnian into
English). Test 1 consisted of three sets of sentences written in Bosnian (12 sentences/total), focusing on
the translation of the main verbs (verb phrases). Each set of sentences was selected following the wellknown contrastive differences between Bosnian and English (Dubravčić, 1985; Mihailović, 1985;
Riđanović, 2007; Riđanović, 2012). These sets of sentences were limited to the translation of verb
phrases in Bosnian conditional sentences (potential and hypothetical condition) (2), the translation of
verb phrases in Bosnian passive sentences (2), and the translation of verb phrases in Bosnian Perfect
Tense (6)/Present Tense (2) sentences.10 After the pre-testing data had been collected, additional
teaching material (henceforth treatment material) as well as the second test (henceforth Test 2) were
produced. Test 2 was distributed during the (delayed) post-testing phase.
Procedure
10
The figures in brackets indicate the exact number of examples in particular sets of sentences.
185
�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
The overall research took place during the regular teaching process (practical grammar classes). The
second year students attend practical grammar classes divided into two groups. During the first week of
the 2013/2014 academic year (winter semester), the data as to the general characteristics of the students
(extraneous variable analysis) were collected and analysed.
The pre-testing phase took place in the third week, before any lectures relevant for the purpose of
translation were delivered. The students were not previously informed about the task, nor were they
given any additional instructions during the completion of the task. The time for the pre-testing task
was 45 minutes.
Following the pre-testing results, the two groups of students were classified as a control and a
treatment group. The group that demonstrated weaker results was considered the treatment group,
whereas the group that achieved better results was defined as the control group. After the groups had
been established and the pre-testing data had been analysed, the supporting teaching material
(treatment phase) and Test 2 (post-testing phase) were produced.
Taking into account that the treatment material consists of two kinds of handouts, it is important to
outline the following: the treatment material was not presented during the lectures, but only during the
practical classes. In addition, the handouts summarizing contrastive rules were delivered only to the
treatment group of students, while the translation exercise handout was distributed to both groups
(treatment/control). Moreover, the handouts presented to the treatment group were not handed in to the
students for the purpose of avoiding their potential distribution (copying) among the students of the
treatment and the control group. The presentation of the contrastive rules was done as follows: using
the pre-testing examples, the teaching assistant would first write an example on the blackboard, at the
same time explaining the contrastive differences in terms of the structure of the verb phrase in Bosnian
and English. After all the examples had been presented, the students were given a translation exercise
handout and were asked to translate the sentences into English. During the translation, the students
were required to identify the main verb in the Bosnian sentence, briefly describe the verb phrase
(structure, tense, aspect, voice) and justify their translation choice recalling the rules previously
presented.
On the other hand, the control group was not exposed to the presentation of the contrastive rules. The
students were given the translation exercise handout and were asked to translate the sentences
immediately. In a case where the student provided a correct answer, no further discussion was initiated.
If a student faced a problem in translation, the elicitation of a correct answer was done through
explanations as to the use of English tenses.
A delayed post-testing was done in the first week of summer semester. Just like the pre-testing, the
post-testing was not previously announced to the students, nor were additional instructions given
during the task completion. The time for the post-testing task was 45 minutes. After the post-testing
phase, the findings were compared to the pre-testing results and final conclusion remarks were made.
For the purpose of the pre-testing and post-testing analysis, the three categories of answers were
defined: target translation (TT), descriptive translation (DT) and erroneous translation (ET). The
target translation was considered a correct translation realized by the use of a target verb phrase
structure (tense). The descriptive translation was considered a translation realized by the use of those
verbal tenses that do not significantly affect the meaning of a sentence. The erroneous translation was
considered an incorrect translation caused by an inappropriate use of the verbal tense that significantly
affects the meaning of a sentence.
Results and discussion
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Pre-testing
Since the research was divided into four phases (extraneous variable analysis, pre-testing, treatment
and (delayed) post-testing), and since the extraneous variable analysis has already been presented in
this paper (see Participants Section), in the following paragraphs we will discuss the results obtained
during the remaining phases of the research, focusing first on the pre-testing phase. The pre-testing
findings are summarized in Table (1):
Table 1. An overview of pre-testing findings
No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sentence
s
(includin
g target
translatio
n (TT))
Da imam
novca,
kupio bih
novi
kompjuter
.
(If I had
money, I
would
buy a new
computer.
)
Da sam
znala da
dolaziš,
ostala bih
kod kuće.
(If I had
known
you were
coming, I
would
have
stayed at
home.)
Ovaj
muzej je
izgrađen
prije tri
godine.
(The
museum
was built
three
years
ago.)
Ovaj
muzej se
gradio tri
godine.
(This
museum
was being
built for
three
years.)
Upravo je
stigla u
London.
(She has
just
arrived in
London.)
Vozio
sam
motor
samo
jednom.
Bosnian
GROUP 1 (25 students)
TT
DT
ET
n
%
n % n
%
GROUP 2 (25 students)
TT
DT
ET
n
% n %
n
%
BOTH GROUPS
DT
ET
n % n
%
n
Total
n
%
Conditiona
l
(potential)
16
64
0
0
9
3
6
18
7
2
0
0
7
2
8
34
68
0
0
16
32
50
10
0
Conditiona
l
(hypotheti
cal)
6
24
0
0
1
9
7
6
3
1
2
0
0
22
8
8
9
18
0
0
41
82
50
10
0
Bosnian
biti passive
13
52
0
0
1
2
4
8
11
4
4
0
0
14
5
6
24
48
0
0
26
52
50
10
0
Bosnian
se-passive
11
44
0
0
1
4
5
6
4
1
6
0
0
21
8
4
15
30
0
0
35
70
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
TT
%
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
(I have
driven a
motorbike
only
once.)
Već sam
pročitala
tu knjigu.
(I have
already
read that
book.)
Živim u
Sarajevu
od 2010.
(I have
lived/hav
e been
living in
Sarajevo
since
2010)
Radim na
fakultetu
već 5
godina.
(I have
worked/h
ave been
working
at the
faculty
for 5
years.)
Bio sam u
Americi
tri puta.
(I have
been to
America
three
times.)
Nisam ga
vidio ove
sedmice.
(I have
not seen
him this
week.)
Jesi li
vidio mog
asistenta
jutros?
(Have
you seen
my
assistant
this
morning?
)
Total
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Present
Tense
16
64
0
0
9
3
6
9
3
6
0
0
16
6
4
25
50
0
0
25
50
50
10
0
Present
Tense
15
60
0
0
1
0
4
0
12
4
8
0
0
13
5
2
27
54
0
0
23
46
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
21
84
0
0
4
1
6
18
7
2
0
0
7
2
8
39
78
0
0
11
22
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
22
3
74
0
0
7
7
2
6
20
0
6
7
0
0
10
0
3
3
42
3
70,5
0
0
0
17
7
29,5
0
60
0
10
0
The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following: As shown in Table (1), the same
examples appeared to be more or less equally problematic for both groups of students. In addition, the
translation difficulty can be defined as strictly an erroneous translation since no cases of descriptive
translations were confirmed. An additional in-depth analysis of the pre-testing findings has shown that,
compared to Group 1, Group 2 demonstrated weaker results and was therefore defined as the treatment
group. An overview of pre-testing findings per groups is given below:
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
26%
TT
0%
33%
TT
DT
DT
74%
ET
Figure 11. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET
Control Group)
0%
67%
ET
Figure 12. Pre-testing Results (TT, DT and ET
Treatment Group)
The Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences
The translation of Bosnian conditional sentences into English turned out to be quite problematic. The
errors were made in terms of an inappropriate choice of the tense form of the main verb appearing in
the English subordinate if-clause (Bosnian ako/da - clauses). Therefore, 32% of students translated the
example Da imam novca, kupio bih novi kompjuter (potential condition) by using the Present Simple
form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf. *If I have money I would buy a new computer
(instead of If I had money, ...). The same error (but having a much higher percentage) was identified in
the case of Da sam znala da dolaziš, ostala bih kod kuće (hypothetical condition). 82% of students
translated the sentence by choosing the Past Tense form of the main verb in the subordinate clause, cf.
*If I knew you were coming I would have stayed at home (instead of If I had known ...). Taking into
account that the main verbs in Bosnian subordinate clauses appear in the Present (potential condition)
and the Perfect tense (hypothetical condition), it becomes clear that the errors were made due to the
negative transfer from the source into the target language, cf. imam/1.sg.present > have/1.sg.present,
sam znala/1.sg.past > knew/1.sg. past.
The Translation of Bosnian Passive Sentences
Before we proceed with the analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences, it is important to
outline the following: Compared to English, Bosnian has two different structures of passive verb
phrases. The first one is known as biti-passive or jesam-passive11. This type of Bosnian passive is
formed by the proper enclitic form of the present/future of the auxiliary biti (Eng. be) and the passive
verbal adjective. A distinctive feature of the Bosnian biti-passive verb phrase is that “the present form
of the auxiliary jesam is used to form the passive past tense”, which means that this auxiliary cannot be
used to form the Bosnian present tense passive verb phrase (Riđanović, 2012, p. 356). The example of
biti-passive verb phrase in the past tense would be Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine/This museum
was built three years ago, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the present enclitic form of the
auxiliary biti > jesam > je + passive verbal adjective izgrađen (Eng. built). On the other hand, the
Bosnian se-passive can take the present, past and future tense forms. The example of the se-passive
verb phrase in the past tense would be as follows: Ovaj muzej se izgradio za tri godine/This museum
was built over a period of three years, in which the passive verb phrase is formed by the passive se and
the imperfective past form of the main verb izgraditi > izgradio (Eng. built). As Riđanović points out,
the key difference between biti and se passive verb phrases is as follows: “In sentences with
imperfective predicate verbs, the se passive is generally preferred, in all tenses and moods, over the
form with passive verbal adjective. (...) On the other hand, if the predicate is realized with a perfective
verb, we usually employ the jesam passive.” (Riđanović, 2012, p. 280)
As it is called by some linguists, cf. Riđanović (2012). For the purpose of a brief illustration of Bosnian passive verb
phrases we will use the term biti-passive.
11
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
The analysis of the translation of Bosnian passive sentences has revealed a high level of errors with
both structures of passive verb phrases. Here it is important to outline that the students were restricted
to the translation of the two Bosnian sentences containing the passive past tense verb phrase, one being
realized as the biti-passive, another as the se-passive sentence. In addition, for the purpose of a precise
illustration of the past time reference the adverbials prije tri godine/three years ago and tri godine/for
three years were also included.
The biti-passive sentence Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 52% of
students as *This museum is built three years ago, while the remaining 48% offered a proper
translation This museum was built three years ago. The error made is a consequence of the negative
transfer from the source language, i.e. the direct translation of the present enclitic form je by the same
(but inappropriate) Present Simple Tense form of the verb be > is in English.
On the other hand, the se-passive sentence Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was correctly translated by
30% of students as This museum was being built for three years, whereas the incorrect translation was
offered by 70% of students. 42 % (out of 70%) used the Present Perfect form of the passive verb phrase
as in *This museum has been built for three years, whereas the remaining 58% used the Present Simple
Tense form of the passive verb phrase, as in *This museum is built for three years. The offered
translation solutions were considered an error, since the choice of the tenses does not reflect the proper
time reference (past), thereby significantly affecting the original meaning of the sentence (cf. the
museum is still being built).
The Translation of Bosnian Perfect Tense/Present Tense sentences
Before we take a look at the pre-testing findings, we will first mention a few important facts as to the
selection of Bosnian sentences offered for testing the use of the English Present Perfect. First of all, it
is important to outline that the English Present Perfect does not have its corresponding tense in
Bosnian. Therefore it is not surprising that understanding the basic concept of this tense, as well as
mastering its use for the sake of translation (in particular from Bosnian into English) is usually quite a
problematic issue for Bosnian learners of English. In other words, Bosnian sentences containing the
main verb in the Perfect Tense are usually translated into English by the Past Simple Tense. Such a
situation is completely justified in cases where the translation by the Past Simple Tense is the only
available choice, as in Sreo sam je juče > I met her yesterday. However, Bosnian Perfect Tense
sentences sometimes may need to be translated by the Present Perfect Tense, e.g. Upravo je stigla u
London/ She has just arrived in London. Moreover, there are some cases in which Bosnian Present
Tense sentences require the English Present Perfect, e.g. Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in
Sarajevo since 2010. In addition, the use of the Present Perfect Tense differs in BrE and AmE. As is
widely documented in the linguistic literature, the main verbs appearing in sentences containing
adverbs such as just, ever, never, already, yet (signalling the use of the Present Perfect Tense in BrE)
are frequently realized in AmE by the Past Simple Tense (Hundt & Smith, 2009; Žetko, 2004; Žetko,
2010). This difference is explained by different cognitive processing of native (AmE and BrE)
speakers, i.e. a different perception of the time of an action expressed by the main verb. As pointed out
by Žetko “the difference between the two variants occurs because different conceptualizations are
possible. The BrE speaker conceptualizes just as almost reaching to, and therefore locates the situation
in a period that leads up to it and employs the present perfect. The AmE speaker, on the other hand,
conceptualizes just as lying completely before to, and therefore locates a situation in a period that lies
wholly before to and thus uses the preterit.” (Žetko, 2004, p. 520)
190
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
On the other hand, in the case of some other adverbials such as since + time expression and for + time
expression, the grammar books prescribe the use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE, cf. I have not
seen him since last week or I have lived in Sarajevo for 10 years.
In order to test the use of the English Present Perfect in translation, we employed the following criteria:
First of all, the examples of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences without adverbials such as Donio
sam konačnu odluku/I have made a final decision were disregarded, since we believe that at this stage
the students should first be introduced to the basic explanations as to the contrastive differences
between Bosnian and English through the systematization of typical Bosnian adverbials signalling the
use of the Present Perfect Tense.12 The students were offered the sentences containing the main verbs
in the Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense including adverbials, as follows:
a) upravo > just, već > already , signalling the perfect of recent past use of the Present Perfect Tense;
b) samo jednom > only once, signalling the experiential use of the Present Perfect Tense;
c) već (for) + time expression and od (since) + time expression , signalling the continuative use of the
Present Perfect Tense (Huddleston and Pullum 2002: 141-146).13
The analysis of the pre-testing findings has revealed the following observations: First of all, the most
common errors were identified in the case of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the
Present Tense (such as živim/live, radim/work, non-perfective, progressive aspect) and adverbials
realized by preposition od/since + time expression (2010) and preposition već/for + time expression (5
godina/5 years). The sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010/I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010 was
incorrectly translated by 50% of students, whereas the sentence Radim na fakultetu već 5 godina /I
have worked at the faculty for 5 years was incorrectly translated by 46% of students. The error is a
consequence of the negative transfer from the source into the target language by which the Present
Tense forms of the Bosnian verbs živim/radim (Eng. live/work) were translated by the same (but not
appropriate) tense in English as *I live in Sarajevo since 2010/*I work at the faculty for five years.
Bearing in mind that the presence of the adverbials since/for + time expression explicitly highlights the
duration of an action rather than the general characteristics, the translation in which the Present Simple
Tense was used was considered incorrect.14 In addition, it is worth mentioning that the correct
translation was mostly done by the Present Perfect Progressive Tense (instead of the Present Perfect
Tense). Therefore, the sentence Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was correctly translated by 50% of students.
16% (out of 50%) used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have lived in Sarajevo since 2010, while the
remaining 34% used the Present Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been living in Sarajevo since 2010. The
sentence Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was correctly translated by 54% of students. 13% used the
12
By selecting Bosnian sentences containing adverbials, our aim was not to focus exclusively on teaching the Present Perfect
through “adverbial-tense matching”, which is the most commonly used approach in many grammar books. Taking into
account that adverbials can rarely be linked to only one tense use (cf. I have lived in Sarajevo for three years (I still live in
Sarajevo) vs. I lived in Sarajevo for two years (but now I live in London)), as well as the fact that Bosnian learners experience
a lot of problems in terms of mastering this tense caused by the absence of a corresponding tense in Bosnian, the selection of
Bosnian sentences with adverbials should be viewed as an initial phase in teaching this tense for the purpose of clarification
the key concept of “merging” the past and the present time, being a typical feature of the English Present Perfect.
13 Huddleston and Pullum give the following classification of the Present Perfect in English:
The continuative perfect/universal (=states)
(1) She has lived in Berlin ever since she married.
The experiential perfect/existential (= occurrences within the time span up to now)
(2) His sister has been up Mont Blanc twice.
The resultative perfect (=change of state)
(3) She has broken her leg.
The perfect of recent past (=news announcements)
(8) She has recently/just been to Paris. (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p. 141f).
The resultative use of the Present Perfect has been disregarded in this research strictly for pedagogical reasons (this use has
already been illustrated by Donio sam konačnu odluku > I have made a final decision).
14 Expressing general characteristics is a typical feature of the English Present Simple Tense.
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have worked at the faculty for five years, whereas 41% used the Present
Perfect Progressive, cf. I have been working at the faculty for five years.
Another error (although having a much lower percentage) was identified in the case of the following
example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice/I have not seen him this week. 22% of students used the Past
Simple form of the main verb, cf. * I did not see him this week. Taking into account that the phrase this
week clearly indicates that the duration of the period is still ongoing, the use of the Past Simple Tense
was ruled out. As for the nature of the error made, it seems that the students were more focused on the
translation of the verb phrase, thus almost completely disregarding the meaning of the adverbial this
week and its impact on the action expressed by the main verb/translation.
In the end, it is worth mentioning that the Bosnian sentences containing the adverbials upravo/just,
već/already and samo jednom/only once were correctly translated by 100% of students. However, an
in-depth analysis has also revealed the following: although the target tense was the Present Perfect, in
some examples the students used the English Past Simple more frequently. Such translations were
considered correct due to the already mentioned frequent use of the Past Simple Tense in AmE. The
use of the Past Simple vs. the Present Perfect is summarized as follows. The example Upravo je stigla
u London was translated by 66% of students as She just arrived in London, while 34% used the Present
Perfect She has just arrived in London. The example Vozio sam motor samo jednom was translated by
78% of students as I drove a motorbike only once, while the remaining 22% used the Present Perfect as
in I have driven a motorbike only once. The example Bio sam u Americi tri puta was translated by 44%
of students as I was in America three times, while 46% used the Present Perfect I have been to America
three times. Finally Već sam pročitala tu knjigu was translated by 32% of students as I already read
that book, while the remaining 68% used the Present Perfect Tense, cf. I have already read that book.
However, since the students were not asked to explain their translation choices, it remained unclear
whether or not they were aware of a different use of the Present Perfect in AmE and BrE. This
observation was taken into consideration and was accordingly presented and explained during the
treatment phase.
Treatment Phase
During the treatment phase the handouts summarizing the contrastive rules were orally presented only
to the treatment group of students. Since the research procedure has already been explained earlier (see
Procedure Section), in this part we will briefly illustrate the content of the handouts presented to the
treatment group. The handout material was produced in accordance with the results of the pre-testing
findings.
Handout 1 – Translation of Bosnian Conditional Sentences (summary of contrastive rules)
Conditional
dependent clause
(Bosnian)
1) Da –clause
containing the
Present Simple
Tense form of the
main verb (Da
imam dovoljno
novca ...)
2) Kad-clause +
present conditional
(Kad bih imao
dovoljno novca)
192
Main clause
(Bosnian)
1) Present
conditional of
the main verb
(kupio bih
novo auto)
2) Present
conditional of
the main verb
(kupio bih nova
kola)
Conditional
dependent clause
(English)
Main Clause
(English)
Condition
Time
Reference
If - clause
containing the Past
Simple tense form
of the main verb (If
I had enough
money...)
Present
conditional of
the main verb
(would buy a
new car)
Open potential
Present
Translation
into English
BOS:
Da imam
dovoljno
novca, kupio
bih novo auto.
ENG:
If I had enough
money I would
buy a new car.
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Da-clause
containing the
Perfect Tense form
of the main verb
Da sam imala
dovoljno novca...
Present
conditional of
the main verb
(kupila bih
novo auto)
If - clause
containing the Past
Perfect Tense form
of the main verb (If
I had had enough
money...)
Past conditional
of the main
verb (would
have bought a
new car)
Unreal
Past
BOS:
Da sam imala
dovoljno
novca, kupila
bih novo auto.
ENG:
If I had had
enough money
I would have
bought a new
car.
Handout 2 – Translation of Bosnian Passive sentences (summary of contrastive rules)
Bosnian
Passive
Time
reference
Formation
Example
Bitipassive
Past
Ovaj muzej
je izgrađen
prije tri
godine.
Sepassive
Past
The Present form of the
auxiliary biti > jesam
(enclitic forms) >
je.sg/su/smo.pl + passive
verbal adjective (e.g.
graditi > građen)
Se-passive + past form of
the main verb
Ovaj muzej
se gradio tri
godine.
Corresponding
English
translation
This museum was
built three years
ago.
This museum was
being built for
three years.
Formation
Time
reference
Past form of the
auxiliary verb be >
was/were + passive
participle of the
main verb (build >
built)
Past continuous
form of the verb be
> was/were being +
passive participle of
the main verb (build
> built)
Past
Past
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�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
Handout 3 – Translation of Bosnian Perfect/Present Tense sentences
(summary of contrastive rules)
BOSNIAN
Example
Adverbial
English
Corresponding
Tense
AmE: Past Simple
Tense (more
frequently) and
Present Perfect Tense
(less frequently)
BrE: Present Perfect
(most frequently)
resultative use)
English Corresponding
Adverbials
Translation
Perfect Tense >
auxiliary verb
jesam (enclitic
form) + active
verbal adjective
Sam stigla,
sam vozio
Upravo, samo
jednom, već,
nedavno,
Upravo > just, samo
jednom > only once, već
> already
Jutros, ove
sedmice, danas
Present Perfect Tense
Jutros > this morning,
ove sedmice > this week,
danas today
Da li si
vidio
Jutros, ove
sedmice, danas
Present Perfect Tense
Jutros > this morning,
ove sedmice > this week,
danas today
Živim,
radim
Od + time
expression (eg.
od 1992.), već +
time expression
(e.g. već deset
godina), do sada
Present Perfect
(continuous use)
Od + time expression >
since + time expression;
već + time expression >
for + time expression, do
sada > so far, up to now
BOS: Upravo
sam stigla u
London.
BrE:
I have just
arrived in
London.
AmE:
I just arrived in
London.
BOS:
Nisam ga vidio
ove sedmice.
BrE/AmE:
I have not seen
him this week.
(NOTE: this
week is still
ongoing)
BOS:
Da li si vidio
mog asistenta
jutros?
BrE/AmE:
Have you seen
my assistant this
morning?
(it is still
morning)
NOTE:
I did not see him
this morning (it
is already
afternoon or
evening)
BOS:
Živim ovdje od
1992. godine.
AmE and BrE:
I have lived here
from 1992.
Perfect Tense
Vidio sam
(ga),
Nisam ga
vidio
Perfect Tense
(Questions)
Present Tense >
verb infinitive
base + present
tense suffixes (m, -š, -i/-a/-e, mo, -te, -ju/-u)
Delayed Post-testing
The delayed post-testing phase took place in the first week of summer semester (one month
after the completion of winter semester). During the practical grammar classes, the students
were asked to do the translation test (Test 2). The test comprised the same number of
sentences (12), but offered different examples. An overview of delayed post-testing findings is
given in Table (3):
194
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Table 2. An overview of delayed post-testing findings
N
o
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Sentences
(including
target
translatio
n (TT))
Da imam
problem,
razgovaral
a bih sa
svojom
majkom.
(If I had a
problem, I
would talk
to my
mother.)
Da nisi bio
tako lijen,
položio bi
taj ispit.
(If you
hadn’t
been so
lazy, you
would
have
passed the
exam.)
Taj
projekat je
završen
prije pet
godina.
(That
project was
completed
five years
ago.)
Ta cesta se
popravljala
pet godina.
(That road
was being
repaired
for five
years.)
Upravo
sam
završila
zadaću.
I have just
finished
my
homework.
(BrE)/I just
finished
my
homework.
(AmE)
Samo
jednom
sam bila u
Engleskoj.
I have been
to England
only once.
(BrE) /I
was in
England
only once.
(AmE)
Već sam
čula tu
priču.
I have
already
heard that
story.
CONTROL GROUP (25
students)
TT
DT
ET
Bosnian
TREATMENT GROUP (25
students)
TT
DT
ET
BOTH GROUPS
TT
DT
ET
Total
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
n
%
Conditiona
l
(potential)
14
56
0
0
1
1
4
4
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
39
78
0
0
1
1
22
50
10
0
Conditiona
l
(hypothetic
al)
7
28
0
0
1
8
7
2
22
88
0
0
3
1
2
29
58
0
0
2
1
42
50
10
0
Bosnian
biti passive
11
44
0
0
1
4
5
6
21
84
0
0
4
1
6
32
64
0
0
1
8
36
50
10
0
Bosnian
se-passive
12
48
0
0
1
3
5
2
23
92
0
0
2
8
35
70
0
0
1
5
30
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
195
�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
8.
9.
10
.
11
.
12
.
(BrE) /I
already
heard that
story.
(AmE)
Damir uči
njemački
od 2012.
Damir has
studied/has
been
studying
German
since 2012.
Ona spava
već tri sata.
She has
slept/has
been
sleeping
for three
hours.
On je
pobijedio
sedam
puta.
He has
won seven
times.
(BrE) /He
won seven
times
(AmE)
Nisam
dobio
nikakav
mail od
njega ove
sedmice.
I have not
got any
email from
him this
week.
Jesi li
jutros
razgovaral
a sa
profesorom
?
Have you
talked to
the
professor
this
morning?/
Did you
talk to the
professor
this
morning?15
Total
Present
Tense
12
48
0
0
1
3
5
2
20
80
0
0
5
2
9
32
64
0
0
1
8
36
50
10
0
Present
Tense
16
64
0
0
9
3
6
21
84
0
0
4
1
6
37
74
0
0
1
3
26
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
22
88
0
0
3
1
2
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
47
94
0
0
3
6
50
10
0
Perfect
Tense
25
10
0
0
0
0
25
10
0
0
0
0
0
50
100
0
0
0
0
50
10
0
21
9
73
0
0
8
1
28
2
94
0
0
1
8
6
50
1
83,5
0
0
0
9
9
16,5
0
60
0
10
0
2
7
An overview of post-testing findings per groups would be as illustrated in the following figures:
15
In the case of different time orientation.
27%
196
0%
TT
73%
DT
ET
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Figure 13. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Control Group)
0%6%
TT
DT
ET
94%
Figure 14. Post-testing results (TT, ET and DT - Treatment Group)
The findings have revealed the following: while the treatment group has demonstrated a significant
improvement, the control group has shown even slightly weaker results compared to the pre-testing
findings. In other words, the total of ET for the control group during the pre-testing was 26%, which
has been increased by 1% in the post-testing phase. In addition, a detailed analysis of post-testing
findings (control group) has revealed the following: the pre-testing example (potential condition) Da
imam novca kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 36% of students.16 On the other
hand, the post-testing example expressing the same kind of condition Da imam problem, razgovarala
bih sa svojom majkom was incorrectly translated by 44% of students *If I have a problem, I would talk
to my mother. The pre-testing example (hypothetical condition) Da sam znala da dolaziš kupila bih
novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 76% of the students, whereas the post-testing example Da
nisi bio tako lijen, položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated by 72% of students, *If you were not so
lazy, you would have passed the exam. The example of the Bosnian biti-passive sentence (pre-testing
example) Ovaj muzej je izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 48% of students. The
post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina was incorrectly translated by 56% of
students, *That project is finished five years ago. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive
Ovaj muzej se gradio tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas the post-testing
example Ta cesta se popravljala pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of the students, *That
road is being built for five years. When it comes to the translation of Bosnian sentences containing the
main verb in the present tense, the results for the control group are the following: during the pre-testing
phase, the example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by 36% of students, while
Radim na fakultetu već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 40%. The post-testing example Damir
uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated by 52% of students as *Damir studies German since
2012, whereas Ona spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 36%, cf. *She sleeps for three
hours. The only slight improvement has been confirmed in the translation of the Bosnian sentences
containing the time expression ove sedmice/this week. Compared to the pre-testing phase in which the
example Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 16% of students, the post-testing
example Nisam dobio nikakav mail od njega ove sedmice was incorrectly translated by 12 %, cf. *I did
not get any email from him this week. As for the translation of the Bosnian sentences containing
adverbials već/already, upravo/just, samo jednom/only once, tri puta/three times, sedam puta/seven
16
Out of 25/100 % students - control group. See Table (1): An overview of pre-testing findings.
197
�The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
times, 100% of students of the control group translated the sentences correctly, but with an increased
use of the Past Simple Tense. A parallel in terms of an overview of the use of the Past Simple tense in
pre-testing and post-testing phase is given in the following table:
Table 3. An overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences
containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – control group.
Example
Testing
Example
Past
Tense
Upravo je stigla
u London
Upravo
sam
završila zadaću
Pre-testing
Vozio
sam
motor
samo
jednom
Samo jednom
sam
bila
u
Engleskoj.
Već
sam
pročitala
tu
knjigu.
Već sam čula tu
priču.
Bio
sam
u
Americi tri puta.
Pre-testing
She just arrived
in London
I
have
just
finished
my
homework.
I
drove
a
motorbike only
once.
I was in England
only once. .
On je pobijedio
sedam puta.
Posttesting
Posttesting
Simple
Percentage
(out of 25 students
(100%)
80%
82%
72%
80%
Pre-testing
I already read
that book.
40%
Posttesting
Pre-testing
I already heard
that story.
I was in America
three times.
45%
Posttesting
He won seven
times.
50%
48%
Present
Tense
Perfect
She
has
just
arrived in London
She
has
just
arrived in London.
Percentage
(out of 25 students
(100%)
20%
18%
I have driven a
motorbike
only
once.
I have been to
England
only
once.
I have already
read that book.
28%
I have already
heard that story.
I have been to
America
three
times.
He has won seven
times.
55%
20%
60%
52%
50%
On the other hand, the post-testing findings of the treatment group have revealed a significant
improvement in translation compared to the pre-testing, summarized as follows: during the pre-testing
phase the example of the Bosnian conditional sentence expressing a potential condition Da imam novca
kupio bih novi kompjuter was incorrectly translated by 28% of students, while the post-testing example
Da imam problem, razgovarala bih sa svojom majkom was translated correctly by 100% of students, If
I had a problem, I would talk to my mother. The pre-testing example of the Bosnian conditional
sentence expressing a hypothetical condition Da sam znala da dolaziš, sačekala bih te kod kuće was
incorrectly translated by 88% of students, whereas the post-testing example Da nisi bio tako lijen,
položio bi taj ispit was incorrectly translated only by 12% of students (*If you were not so lazy, you
would have passed the exam). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian biti-passive Ovaj muzej je
izgrađen prije tri godine was incorrectly translated by 56% of students, whereas only 16% of students
incorrectly translated the post-testing example Taj projekat je završen prije pet godina (*That project is
finished five years ago). The pre-testing example of the Bosnian se-passive Ovaj muzej se gradio tri
godine was incorrectly translated by 84% of students. The post-testing example Ta cesta se popravljala
tri godine was incorrectly translated only by 8% of students (*That road is being built for three years).
The translation findings of the Bosnian sentences containing the main verb in the present tense and
adverbials od/since + time expression and već/for + time expressions have also revealed an immense
improvement. While the pre-testing example Živim u Sarajevu od 2010 was incorrectly translated by
64% of students, the post-testing example Damir uči njemački od 2012 was incorrectly translated only
by 20% (*Damir studies German since 2012). In addition, the pre-testing example Radim na fakultetu
već pet godina was incorrectly translated by 52% of students, whereas the post-testing example Ona
spava već tri sata was incorrectly translated by 16% of students (*She sleeps for three hours). The pre198
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
testing example containing adverbial ove sedmice/this week Nisam ga vidio ove sedmice was
incorrectly translated by 28% of students, whereas no incorrect translation was confirmed with the
post-testing example. As for the examples containing adverbials već/just, samo jednom/once,
upravo/already and sedam puta/seven times, all the examples were translated correctly by 100 % of
students. In addition, compared to the control group, the treatment group of students more frequently
used the Present Perfect Tense in translation, which was usually accompanied by a short comment on a
potential (correct) use of the Past Tense as an American variant. A summary of the translation per
percentage is given in Table (4):
Table 4. An Overview of pre-testing and post-testing findings in translation of Bosnian sentences
containing adverbs signalling the use of Past Tense in AmE – treatment group
Example
Testing
Example
Past
Tense
Upravo
je
stigla
u
London
Upravo sam
završila
zadaću
Vozio
sam
motor
samo
jednom
Samo jednom
sam bila u
Engleskoj.
Već
sam
pročitala
tu
knjigu.
Već sam čula
tu priču.
Bio sam u
Americi
tri
puta.
On
je
pobijedio
sedam puta.
Pretesting
She just arrived
in London
Posttesting
I just finished
my homework.
2%
Pretesting
84%
Posttesting
I
drove
a
motorbike only
once.
I was in England
only once.
Pretesting
I already read
that book.
24%
Posttesting
Pretesting
I already heard
that story.
I
was
in
America three
times.
He won seven
times.
10%
Posttesting
Simple
Percentage
(out
of
25
students (100%)
52%
20%
40%
10%
Present Perfect
Tense
She has just
arrived
in
London
I
have
just
finished
my
homework.
I have driven a
motorbike only
once.
I have been to
England
only
once.
I have already
read that book.
I have already
heard that story.
I have been to
America three
times.
He has won
seven times.
Percentage
(out of 25 students
(100%)
48 %
88%
6%
80%
76%
90%
60%
90%
Conclusion
In conclusion, the research has revealed that the use of contrastive analysis in teaching English as a
foreign language at university level can be viewed as a valuable technique in assisting students to
significantly reduce interfering effects, thus improving their grammar and translation competence.
Taking into account that the current grammar syllabi are focused on the description of the target
language, the results of the research have also highlighted the importance of the revision of the existing
syllabi in terms of an inclusion of a contrastive module within each undergraduate grammar course,
thereby creating a solid basis for more successful transfer of structural knowledge into the actual
language use.
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�
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2794
Title
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The Use of Contrastive Analysis in Teaching English as a Foreign Language at Tertiary Level
Author
Author
Okičić, Melisa
Osmankadić, Merima
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Teaching English as a foreign language at university level is quite a different challenge compared to teaching high school or young non-native learners. This is due to the fact that university students are expected to acquire specific grammar terminology in order to master the grammar system of the target language. At the English Department of the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, during the first three (undergraduate) years of study the students are introduced to several grammar courses, focusing on the analysis of English grammar through descriptive explanations given in English. The courses serve as a basis that is expected to improve both the grammar and translation competence of the students. This paper examines to what extent the acquired descriptive knowledge of morphosyntactic properties of English is helpful in terms of translation of those Bosnian sentences whose proper translation into English requires the knowledge of contrastive rules. The research has been designed as a combination of action research and a quasi-experimental pre-test (delayed) post-test control-treatment group. As the research findings have revealed, teaching grammar to non-native learners of English without input as to the contrastive differences between the source and the target language results in erroneous translation, which is a consequence of negative transfer from the source into the target language. On the other hand, grammar teaching supported by the presentation of relevant contrastive rules has proved to be an efficient learning technique in terms of reducing errors and improving both grammar and translation competence of non-native learners. Key words: verb phrase, erroneous translation, transfer, contrastive analysis, pre-testing, post-testing, treatment
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4884b2e1b1f5368ca1a71234c7054e0b.pdf
4b5d2e4ea1fe80a781706789a4ca7083
PDF Text
Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African
universities
Paul Nkuna
University of South Africa, South Africa
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 11.11.2014.
Abstract
Learning a language through another language is trivialto any type of language learning, whether it is
the learning of a local or a foreign language. South Africa’s language policy for higher education
recommends the study of foreign languages (FLs) and indigenous languages.A decade after its
adoption, the learning of a foreign or indigenous language in that foreign or that indigenous language,
respectively, at universities has been overlooked. In essence, the learning of foreign languages at the
country’s universities dates back to the 19th century, when the first higher education institution,the
South African College was established. At that College a Department of General Literature that offered
Dutch, English, Latin and Ancient languages was established. English and Dutch teachers provided
instruction in the English and Dutch language, respectively. The instructions involved theory, history
and practice of English grammar and literature or Dutch grammar and literature. The learning of
indigenous languages at the country’s universities began in the 20th century under the departments of
Bantu Studies. They were learnt through English, and then later through English andAfrikaans. The
instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature. The aim of this
study is to gain knowledge on the different approaches that may be used to learn a foreign language
and an indigenous language. The study focuses on the complex challenges facing the country’s
universities to adopt new, different and best models for the teaching of foreign and indigenous
languages after many decades of using English and Afrikaans mediums. A case study method is used
for this study. The emphasis is on the learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in South African
universities (SAUs). The paper consists of an introduction, the theory of Grammar Translation Method
(GTM), a case study on the learning of foreign versus South African indigenous languages (SAILs) at
the SAUs, and a conclusion.
Keywords: foreign language, indigenous language, learning, English, Afrikaans
223
�Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
Introduction
The Ministry of Education (2002) recommends “the development, in the medium to long-term, of
South African languages as mediums of instruction in higher education, alongside English and
Afrikaans”(p.15). Section 6(1) of the Constitution of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) confirms
that “the official languages of the Republic are Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda,
Xitsonga, Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa and isiZulu”(South Africa, 1996, p.14). The
Ministry of Education (2002) also recommends “the study of foreign languages” (p.15).Section 6(2) of
the Constitution of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) states, “recognising the historically
diminished use and status of the indigenous languages of our people, the state must take practical and
positive measures to elevate the status and advance the use of these languages”( South Africa, 1996, p.
14). By our indigenous languages, section 6(2) refers to nine of the 11 officialSouth African languages
- isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga, Sepedi,
Sesotho, Setswana, siSwati, Tshivenda, Xitsonga; including the Khoi, Nama and San languages; and
South African sign language. Therefore, in this study I examined whether the learning of indigenous
languages is different from the learning of foreign languages in the SAUs. TheGrammarTranslation
Method (GTM) emerged as one of the tools used by SAU senates to relegate the learning of South
African indigenous languages (SAILs) to the level of foreign language (FL) learning. The next section
is the theory of GTM. This will be followed by the Case study and the conclusion.
The theory of the Grammar Translation method
Abdullah (2013) says the GTM is “one of the key methods applied for the teaching of foreign
languages. It is a derivation of the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek
and Latin” (p.124). Therefore, GTM was “based on the belief that different kinds of knowledge were
located in separate sections of the brain” (Morales-Jones, 2011, p.64). Ducháčková (2006) says it is
“considered to be one of the oldest methods and approaches in foreign language teaching” (p. 8).
“Students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules fortranslating sentences between the
target language and their native language. Advanced students may be required totranslate whole texts
word-for-word” (Abdullah, 2013, p.124). Therefore, Brown concludes that the focus on GTM is “on
grammatical rules, memorisation of vocabulary and of various declensions and conjugations,
translation of texts, doing written exercises” (Chang, 2011, p.15).Morales-Jones (2011) says “the main
goal for learning was notfor speaking and/or communication. The driving force was to exercise the
mind and at the same time to be able to read in that language” (p.64). Therefore, GTM was mainly
designed to teach Latin and Ancient Greek, also known as ‘dead’ languages, “based on the fact that
people no longer speak Latin and Ancient Greek for the purpose of interactive communication”(The
Grammar Translation Method, 2010, p. 1). In addition, Morales-Jones (2011) says another reason for
studying those foreign languages, such as Latin or Greek was to appreciate the classics in their original
language, and education was the privilege of an elite class, thus it was amarkof an educated person to
be able to read the classics.
Abdullah (2013) confirms that GTM “by definition has a very limited scope. Because speaking or
any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at
speaking or even letter writing in the target language”(p.125). It is surprising that GTMis “still used for
the study of languages that are very much alive and require competence not only in terms of reading,
writing and structure, but also speaking, listening and interactive communication” (The Grammar
Translation Method, 2010, p.1).
Therefore, sources such as Morales-Jones (2011) and The Grammar Translation Method (2010)
provide important points to be noted about GTM, such as its emphasis on teaching grammar and
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
employing translation to ascertain comprehension; classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little
active use of the target language; GTM does not produce speakers of the languages studied; much use
of the native language is employed because the goal was not oral proficiency; teachers did not
necessarily have to be fluent speakers of the target language because the focus was not on
communication; it dominated public-school and university language teaching in the United States until
World War II; much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words; grammar provides the
rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words;
long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given; often the only drills are exercises
in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue; and little or no
attention is given to pronunciation.
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�Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
The Case study: learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in the SAUs
This case study comprises of five subsections: the problem, steps taken to review the problem, results,
challenges and lesson learned.
The problem
The SAUs are failing to distinguish between the learning of the country’s indigenous languages and the
learning of foreign languages. There is less research on what are the elements or ‘factors’ of the failure,
and how they relate to one another. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the problem. I will attempt
to do so in relation to language and race.Ashcroft (2001) says “to understand the link between language
and race, we must go back long before the emergence of race as a category of physiological
discrimination, to the uses of language in ‘othering’ the subjects of Europe’s colonial expansion”
(p.311). Section 9(3) of the South African Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996)explains that the state
may not unfairly discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on race and language; and section
29(2) of this Constitution provides everyone the right to “receive education in the official language or
languages of their choice in public educational institutions where that education is reasonably
practicable” (South Africa, 1996, p. 14).A year later, the White Paper 3 disclosed the existence in the
country’s higher education of an inequitable distribution of access and opportunity for students and
staff along lines of race, and proposed that all institutions of higher education develop mechanisms to
create a secure and safe campus environment that discourages harassment or any other hostile
behaviour directed towards persons or groups on any grounds whatsoever, but particularly on grounds
that include race and language(Ministry of Education, 1997a). Section 27 (2) of the Higher Education
Act 101 of 1997states that “the council, with the concurrence of the senate, must determine the
language policy of a public higher education institution” (Ministry of Education, 1997b, p.24). The
White Paper 3 also identifies a three-fold mandate of higher education: Human resource development;
high-level skills training; and production, acquisition and application of new knowledge (Ministry of
Education, 1997a). The Ministry of Education (2001) cites important fields of study that could play an
important role in contributing to the development of the African Renaissance that continues to be
marginalised in SAUs. In this case it identifies, in particular, fields of study such as African–South
African indigenous–languages and culture and African literature (not only in its English form). There
are also promises to encourage the development of programmes in marginalised fields of study such as
African (South African indigenous) languages as well as the more general restructuring of their
curriculums to reflect an orientation towards Africa, in particular, South Africa. In addition, the
Ministry of Education reveals the extension of the problem by the historically white Afrikaans-medium
institutions that “are gradually moving towards the adoption of a combination of dual and parallelmedium language strategies, language continues to act as a barrier to access at some of these
institutions”(Ministry of Education, 2001, p.37). Therefore, the language policy for higher education
was published in 2002 with its promising recommendations for indigenous languages and foreign
languages. This was followed by the Ministerial Committee (2005) report that singlesout conditions
significantly conducive to the successful use of South Africa’s neglected indigenous languages, not
only as mediums of instruction but also for their more enhanced use in the public domain, including the
extent of literacy in the South African indigenous languages, official recognition of South African
languages and use of South African languages in education.
Although the status of indigenous languages is raisedby the Constitution (supported by the Ministry of
Education with White papers, National plans, Acts, policies and reports), fields of study such as South
African indigenous languages are still marginalised in higher education. .
Steps undertaken to review the problem
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Providing comprehensive advice on the importance of SAUs rethinking new approaches to improve the
teaching of South African indigenous languages is an important part of the promotion and development
ofSouth African indigenous languages. Three steps are outlinedto help the SAUs raise the status of
SAIL learning.
Sensitising SAUs councils and their senates to the relationship of
power and GTM
This is the first step undertaken. Activities include a review of the use of power and GTM on SAIL
learning in the history of South African higher education system. The emphasis is on supplying
information on the impact of power and GTM on SAIL teaching to the SAU councilsand their
senatesto build evidenced-based arguments that will convince them. Power plays a role on the
relegation of SAIL learning to the level of FL learning in SAUs.
Observation and analysis of the present state
Thisis the second step undertaken. Activities involvetheobservation and analysis of the present state of
the South African indigenous-language teaching at SAUs. The emphasis is on supplying data on the
teaching of South African indigenous languages versus foreign languages to SAU councils and their
senates to build evidence-based arguments that will convince them.Power is still controlling the SAUs
on the teaching of South African indigenous languages as if the target language were a foreign
language.
Integration
This is the last step undertaken. Activities involve the integrating of the results from the first three
steps. It involves supplying information on the link of the colonial, apartheid and present teaching of
South African indigenous languages versus foreign languages to SAUcouncils and their senates.
Results
Results on power
Power relegates the teaching and learning of SAILs to the level of teaching FLs through GTM. Power
is one of the more contestable concepts in political theory, but it is conventional and convenient.Nye
defined it as “the ability to effect the outcomes you want and, if necessary, to change the behavior of
others to make this happen” (Gray, 2011, p.v).In power relations, “man has, through the ages, come to
recognize the importance of being able to coerce the weak into following the strong” (Meyer, 2007,
p.8).Nye (2006) identifies three basic ways to accomplish this – you can coerce them with threats,
induce them with payments or attract and co-opt them.There are two types of power: hard power and
soft power.Hard power is defined by Nye as the power that uses military or economic coercion to get
others to change their position; he definessoft power as the national resources that allow a country to
affect others through the co-optive means of framing the agenda, persuading, and eliciting positive
attraction in order to obtain preferred outcomes (Trunkos, 2013). Thus, Nye (1990) confirms thatAfrica
experienced hard power because the nineteenth-century great powers in Africa “carved out and ruled
colonial empires with a handful of troops” (p. 162). TheAfrican Union (2006, p.3) confirms that the
nineteenth-century great powers “led to the depersonalisation of part of the African peoples, falsified
their history, systematically disparaged and combated African values, and tried to replace progressively
and officially, their languages by that of the colonisers”.The British were part of the nineteenth-century
great powers. Nkuna (2010a) says the policy of the British colonies was “initially known as
‘guardianship’. It was renamed ‘partnership leading to independence within Commonwealth. It gave
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�Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
power to the English educated African elites” (Nkuna, 2010a, p.49).Louw and Kendal (1986) confirm
that the British colonised South Africa in 1806. They say, “in 1813, the Governor, Cradock, announced
that all future appointments would depend on the knowledge of English. From 1814 onwards, and
especially after the arrival of the English settlers in 1820, English-speaking officials were appointed in
increasing numbers and favoured in many ways. In 1822, English became the sole official language of
the Cape” (Louw and Kendal, 1986, p.23).In the context of this study, Christie (1991) discloses that
British authorities used education as “a way of spreading their language and traditions in the colony –
and also as a means of social control” (p.34). “English became the primary language or language of
tuition for the South African College (the first higher education institution) which was opened in 1829.
Colonisation influenced the choice of languages for the College programmes” (Nkuna, 2010b, p.30).
McKerron (1934) says that the College had a Department of General Literature (DGL) in which Dutch
literature andEnglish, Latin and Ancient languages were taught.The teaching of indigenous languages
was excluded at the College. A classical method was used to teach Latin and Ancient languages at the
DGL. Therefore, GTM was used to teach Latin and Ancient languages, and English and Dutch were
the mediums of instruction in the Latin- and Ancient-language classes.
It took about 92 years from 1829 to introduce the study of SAILs in SAUs. Maseko (2011) assumes
that “teaching, learning and research in these languages started in the early 1900s” (p.9). For instance,
according to Mandela (1994),Professor DDT Jabavu, the member of staff first appointed when Fort
Hare University opened in 1916, “was awarded a degree in English from the University of London…
taught Xhosa, as well as Latin, history and anthropology”(p.52). Therefore, Maseko (2011) also reveals
that the teaching of SAILs have “been through other languages, even when taught to mother-tongue
speakers” (p.9). Thus, GTM was used for teaching and learning SAILs. All these are rejuvenated by
Lalu (2011),who observes that The Milner Commission of Inquiry (1903 to 1905) is the first to “call
for scientific studies of natives of South Africa … The connection of knowledge with the exercise of
power may be gleaned in the formation in 1921 of the school of African life and languages at the
University of Cape Town” (p. 8). The languages referred to in the quotation were the SAILs.
Results on observation and analysis of the present state
There are 23 SAUs observed. Not all 23 SAUs have FL fields of study (seeFigure1).
Figure 1. Percentage of SAUs with and without FL Fields of Study
57%
43%
SAUs that have FLs SAUs that have no
Fields of Study FLs Fields of Study
From Figure 1, 13 (57%) of the 23 SAUs choose their offerings from languages representing hard
power (Arabic, Dutch, French, Italian, Portuguese, German and Spanish); Latin and Ancient languages
(Greek and Hebrew); and an emerging soft power in the global arena (Mandarin).The courses are
taughtat the beginner levelusing English as themedium of instruction and GTM.SAUs that do not have
FL Fields of Study are predominantly universities of technology (see Figure 2).“Universities of
technology focus on skills and professions” (Nkuna, 2010b, p.159). It means the learning of FLs is not
228
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
necessary for skills and professions, but it is necessary for theory and scientific research. However, the
GTM was adopted for teaching and learningSAILs in all three types of SAUs.
Figure 2. Percentage ofSAUs that do not have FL Fields of Study
60%
20%
Universities of
technology
Traditional
universities
20%
Comprehensive
universities
Figure 3. outlines the percentage of SAUs with and without SAIL fields of study.
229
�Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
Figure 3. Percentage of SAUs with and without SAIL Fields of Study
91%
9%
SAUs that have SAILs’
Fields of Study
SAUs that have no SAILs
Fields of Study
Only two (9%) of the SAUs do not offer SAILs. These are universities of technology that are expected
to produce skills and professions. However, the 21 (91%) of the 23 SAUs that have SAIL Fields of
Study include universities of technology, traditional universities and comprehensive universities.
Figure 4 outlines the percentage of SAUswithSAILfields of study.
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Figure 4. Percentage of SAUs that have SAIL Fields of Study
57%
24%
19%
Universities of
technology
Traditional
universities
Comprehensive
universities
From Figure 4, only the four(19%) of the 21 SAUs provide learning to students with skills for
professions. The remaining 17 (89%)provide theory and scientific research. The comprehensive SAUs
are dominated by traditional ones, even in their own space, and focus on theory and scientific research.
Most SAUs are now beginning to offer parallel courses for SAILs (see Figure 5).
Figure 5. Percentage of SAUs with or without SAIL parallel courses and others
62%
24%
14%
SAUs with parallel SAUs without
courses
parallel courses
Others
From Figure 5, 13 (65%) of the 21 SAUs provide SAIL learning as non-mother tongue and mothertongue courses.The non-mother tongue modules are mainly referred to as beginner’s courses. The
medium of instruction remains English.
Results on integration
I assessed the results on 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 to help thecouncils and their senates from the 23 SAUs to
understand the competition between FL learning and SAIL learning in the country’s universities. The
assessment indicates that FL and SAIL learning have equal status at SAUs. They are all learned as L2
or below L2 status. The hegemony of English is increasing and the Mandarin language of China is
already offered at three of the 23 SAUs.The Mandarin offerings arebacked by theChinese Confucius
Institute for Language and Arts, already established at three SAUs.
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�Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
Challenges
Power is the major challenge facing the SAUs on SAIL teaching. The hard power of the colonial
powers wassustained through English hegemony. The emergence of globalisation andthe information
age add to the sustainability of colonial power and create soft power.SAILs continue to diminish to the
level of Latin and the Ancient languages. In addition, there is no progress on the learning of SAILs and
students from SAIL classes do not know how to communicate using SAILs. Furthermore, the SAUs
prefer to offer an FL rather than offering SAILs.For instance, you may find an SAU offering all 12 FLs
and only one SAIL. In addition, FLs can have their own Departments,withpriority mostly given to
theEnglish language, but SAILs are grouped together to form African Languages Departments.
Beyond the results
An integrated approach to SAIL learning in SAUs should be established.This should be done in
consideration of their official status. All stakeholders should support such a project.
Lesson learned
The intervention showed that there is still a long way to go for SAIL learning at SAUs. Important
factors on the development and promotion of SAILs in SAUs are still overlooked. Inclusion of SAILs
for the sake of satisfying the call for their inclusion without commitment by the councils and their
senates in the country’s universities is common.
Conclusion
FL learning at SAUs surpasses the learning of SAILs. Hard power created in 19th century still prevails
and soft power is emerging. The hard power seems to have created African elites whoprefer English
rather than indigenous languages.
References
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Teaching. ICBEMBS, 26-27 January: 124-128. Retrieved from http://psrcentre.org/images.
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Pretoria:
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�
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2796
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Learning foreign and indigenous languages: The case of South African universities
Author
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Nkuna, Paul
Abstract
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Learning a language through another language is trivialto any type of language learning, whether it is the learning of a local or a foreign language. South Africa’s language policy for higher education recommends the study of foreign languages (FLs) and indigenous languages.A decade after its adoption, the learning of a foreign or indigenous language in that foreign or that indigenous language, respectively, at universities has been overlooked. In essence, the learning of foreign languages at the country’s universities dates back to the 19th century, when the first higher education institution,the South African College was established. At that College a Department of General Literature that offered Dutch, English, Latin and Ancient languages was established. English and Dutch teachers provided instruction in the English and Dutch language, respectively. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature or Dutch grammar and literature. The learning of indigenous languages at the country’s universities began in the 20th century under the departments of Bantu Studies. They were learnt through English, and then later through English andAfrikaans. The instructions involved theory, history and practice of English grammar and literature. The aim of this study is to gain knowledge on the different approaches that may be used to learn a foreign language and an indigenous language. The study focuses on the complex challenges facing the country’s universities to adopt new, different and best models for the teaching of foreign and indigenous languages after many decades of using English and Afrikaans mediums. A case study method is used for this study. The emphasis is on the learning of foreign versus indigenous languages in South African universities (SAUs). The paper consists of an introduction, the theory of Grammar Translation Method (GTM), a case study on the learning of foreign versus South African indigenous languages (SAILs) at the SAUs, and a conclusion. Keywords: foreign language, indigenous language, learning, English, Afrikaans
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International Burch University
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania,PR English literature
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the
Slavic languages
Keti Miteva-Markovic
South East European University, Tetovo, Macedonia
Submitted: 16.04.2014.
Accepted: 20.11.2014.
Abstract
Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for 'ink' in the Slavic languages
This text will analyze the semantic and cultural motivation of the terms for ink in the
Slavic languages and their dialects, followed by an etymological analysis of the
corresponding terms in other European languages. The VIII Lexical volume of the
General Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA) will be taken as a foundation; it contains the
terms for ink in the Slavic dialects, i.e. approximately 850 settlements on the entire
Slavic territory. Namely, various terms are used to refer to ink in the different
linguistic areas of the Slavic territory, such as мастило, чернила, tinta, atrament,
inkoust etc. This text will analyze their geographic distribution while presenting the
semantic motivation of appropriate terms through etymological analysis. Taking the
geographic distribution of the various terms for ink into consideration, the
compatibility of areas is evident according to both the etymology of appropriate
terms and the cultural influence that encompassed the appropriate semantic
motivation.
By analyzing various terms for ink, my tendency is to illustrate that lexical diversity
does not depend only on lexical heritage, but on other factors as well, such as
civilization and culture.
Key words: language and culture, semantics, etymology, linguistic analysis
Geographical distribution
In terms of geographical distribution of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages and
their dialects, an impressive compatibility of the areals is noted. Thus, on the entire
Russian territory, the term чернила occurs (with several phonetic variants). On the
Belarus linguistic territory, чернило and чернила are used, along with атрамант in
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�Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages
several points of the western Belarus territory. On the Ukrainian language territory,
more precisely in its eastern and central part, чернило and чернила appear, whereas
in the west, in addition to the abovementioned terms, uses атрамент, антрамент,
leaving the southwest with тинта dominating.
On the Polish territory, the term atrament dominates, while northern Poland uses
tinta, inkost and inkast. On the Sorbian territory, tinta occurs. On the Czech territory,
inkoust dominates, while Slovakia is divided: the west uses atrament, while the east
uses tinta. The same form (tinta) appears on the entire territory of Slovenia.
However, in several points, different forms, such as ingjustri and črnilo are used. On
the territory of Bosnia and Croatia, tinta dominates. Nevertheless, mastilo is used in
some points of Bosnia and crnilo is used in some points of Croatia. The form mastilo
is dominant on the territory of Serbia, Montenegro and Macedonia. In several points
of Macedonia, муреќе and муруќуп are used, whereas the southern dialects use
каламар and мелан. To complete the picture, some of the terms for мастило will be
illustrated in several European languages. Namely, English uses ink, German: Tinte,
French: encre, Italian: inchiostro, Spanish and Portuguese: tinta, while Swedish,
Danish and Norwegian: black, blæk and blekk. In Latin, the term for ink is
atramentum, Greek: μελάνη and Turkish : mürekkep. It is important to state that in
two of the neighboring languages of the Slavic territory, there are accepted forms,
such as cerneală in Romanian and bojë (shkrimi) in Albanian.
Etymological analysis
Terms such as чернило, чернила, črnilo and crnilo, derive from Proto-Slavic and
Balto-Slavic adjective*сьrnь, meaning ‘black color’ (Skok 1971:277), from which
the term црнило is formed as a loan-translation from the Latin atramentum.
The term мастило is of a Proto-Slavic origin. Namely, it originates from a ProtoSlavic form *mast, with reference to ‘color’ and , along with maslo (oil), derives
from Proto-Slavic verbal root *maz- 'mazati' (Skok 1971:383; ЭССЯ 1993: в.18).
With the exception of these two terms (чернило and мастило), all terms for ink on
the Slavic territory are of a foreign origin. Thus, the following forms: атрамант and
atrament, from the Belarus, Ukrainian, Polish and Slovakian territories, derive from
the Latin term atramentum. Atramentum in Latin refers to ‘ink, black pigment’ which
itself derives from ater ('black, dark; dark-colored'), (OLD, 1982). Certain types of
terms, such as inkost, inkast, inkoust and ingjustri, which dominate on the Polish
territory, appear in the Czech and several points of the Slovenian territory; they
originate from the Latin encaustum, meaning ‘purple or red ink', which was used by
Roman emperors to sign official documents. This term is related to the ancient Greek
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�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
ἔγκαυστος ('burned-in'), from ἐν 'in' + καίω ('to burn'). This term illustrates the
common etymological thread with the terms ink in English, encre in French and
inchiostro in Italian. Forms such as tinta, occurring in the Ukrainian, Slovakian,
Polish, Sorbian, Slovenian, Bosnian and Croatian territories, result from infiltration
by the German Tinte (ink) and Italian tinta ('dye, color, paint'). The etymology of this
term leads to the Latin tinctus 'dyeing ' deriving from the verb tingō, tingere,
meaning 'color, dye'. As stated above, on the Macedonian territory, муреќе and
муруќуп occur in several points, whereas in the southern Macedonian dialects, the
form мелан is used, originating from the Greek term μελάνι, meaning ‘ink’. The
following forms: муреќе and муруќуп originate from the Turkish term for 'ink,' –
mürekkep, and symbolize a Balkan Turkish word with Arabic origin - muräkkäb
('compound, mixed’) (Skok 1971: 485). They can be encountered in Bosnia, Kosovo,
Bulgaria and Albania as well.
Semantic motivation
Considering the etymological analysis of the various terms for 'мастило' (ink), the
compatibility of the areals can be noticed through the cultural impacts, which include
a semantic motivation. Thus, the abovementioned terms for 'мастило' (ink) can be
mentioned under several semantic threads.
In all of the semantic threads, there is a semantic motivation ‘to dye, to color’,
including ‘color’ and types of color.
1.
'to dye, to color '
The primary use of ‘ink’ was not related to writing, but to the possibility of
‘dyeing, coloring’ a material – hence the relation of ‘painting’ to a subsequent use
of a certain liquid substances for writing.
This semantic thread encompasses the terms, such as мастило (from * mazati, to
paint ), and tinta. As stated above, the first term originates from the Proto-Slavic
*mazati, meaning 'to paint, dye color,' and the latter from the Latin tingō, tingere,
meaning 'color, dye'. The forms муреќе and муруќуп, from ‘muräkkäb,
('compound, mixed') can be included in this category.
2. 'black color'
The use of black pigment, more precisely black color for writing, is one of the
semantic motivations which, although through various terms, is encountered in a vast
European territory. Thus, vastly used terms in the eastern Slavic territory and,
partially on the rest of its territory, are чернило, чернила, črnilo and crnilo which, as
mentioned above, originate from the Proto-Slavic and Balto-Slavic adjective *сьrnь
153
�Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages
(black). The identical semantic motivation is present in the following terms:
атрамант and atrament, from the Latin term atramentum, deriving from ater
('black, dark-colored'). Similarly, the form мелан, originating from the Greek term
μελάνι, has an identical semantic motivation, deriving from μέλας ('black').
As mentioned, the introduction of чернила and чернило as 'ink' in the Slavic
languages has been motivated according to the Latin term atramentum. It is worth
mentioning that this semantic thread dominates in the Nordic languages (Swedish,
Danish and Norwegian), where forms, such as black, blæk and blekk occur.
1. 'red color, fire'
Along with black color as a basic color for ink, the languages covered terms that
derived from ‘dark red, burning red’ which was used as ink, as well.
This semantic thread covers terms, such as inkost, inkast, inkoust and ingjustri, which
occur in the Slavic territory, as well as terms in other languages: ink in English, encre
in French and inchiostro in Italian.
All of these terms originate from the Latin encaustum, meaning 'purple or red ink',
which was used by the Roman Emperors to sign official documents. Although this
type of ink was used primarily for official documents, its meaning developed through
history.
Conclusion
From this histogram of geographical distribution and the analysis of semantic
motivation of the terms for ‘ink’, several conclusions can be derived in the Slavic
languages and dialects. Regarding the geographical distribution, the compact areals
of the Slavic territory demonstrate both the linguistic and cultural history of proper
ethnicities. It can be concluded that in certain Slavic languages, regarding lexicology,
the linguistic heritage derives from material culture and written tradition. Thus, the
following terms: чернило, чернила, crnilo and mastilo, originating from the ProtoSlavic linguistic stratum, cover a vast territory. In the remaining areals, where the
terms атрамант, atrament, inkost, inkast, inkoust, ingjustri and tinta occur, it is
concluded that cultural impact has had a primary role for the infiltration of these
terms in proper languages.
The analysis of the semantic motivation of the terms for ‘ink’ illustrates the
expansibility and the richness of the semantic nucleuses, developed through the
history of civilizations. Similarly, this analysis demonstrates that lexical variety does
154
�Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
not depend only on the linguistic heritage, but on other factors as well, such as
civilization and culture. Thus, for instance, although on the Polish territory, there is a
foreign term атрамент, whereas on the Russian, Belarus and Ukrainian – чернила
is used, the semantic thread that connects them is identical – 'black color'. These
analyses of lexicological and cultural spheres can lead to further interesting
discoveries for the cultural and linguistic tradition of the Slavic ethnicities.
References
Общеславянский
лингвистический
атлас
:
Серия
лексикословообразовательная : Выпуск 8 : Профессии и общественная
жизнь, Warszawa 2003.
Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, P. Skok, Zagreb, 1971
Słownik etymologyczny języka polskiego, A. Bruckner, Warszawa,
1985
Български етимологичен речник, Българска Академия на науките,
София, 1971
Lexicon Palaeoslovenico-Graeco-Latinum, Franz Von Miklosich, Wien,
1865
Зтимологический словарь славянских языков, Випуск 18, РАН,
Москва, 1993
A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European
Languages,
Carl Darling Buck, University of Chicago, 1949, reprinted 1988
Słownik etymologyczny języka polskiego,
Wydawnyctwo Literacke, Kraków, 2005
Wiesław
Boryś,
Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1982 (http://www.latin-dictionary.net)
A Latin Dictionary, Charlton T. Lewis, Ph.D. and. Charles Short, LL.D.,
Oxford. Clarendon Press. 1879. (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/)
155
�
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Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages
Author
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Miteva-Markovic, Keti
Abstract
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Semantic and cultural analysis of the terms for 'ink' in the Slavic languages This text will analyze the semantic and cultural motivation of the terms for ink in the Slavic languages and their dialects, followed by an etymological analysis of the corresponding terms in other European languages. The VIII Lexical volume of the General Slavic Linguistic Atlas (OLA) will be taken as a foundation; it contains the terms for ink in the Slavic dialects, i.e. approximately 850 settlements on the entire Slavic territory. Namely, various terms are used to refer to ink in the different linguistic areas of the Slavic territory, such as мастило, чернила, tinta, atrament, inkoust etc. This text will analyze their geographic distribution while presenting the semantic motivation of appropriate terms through etymological analysis. Taking the geographic distribution of the various terms for ink into consideration, the compatibility of areas is evident according to both the etymology of appropriate terms and the cultural influence that encompassed the appropriate semantic motivation. By analyzing various terms for ink, my tendency is to illustrate that lexical diversity does not depend only on lexical heritage, but on other factors as well, such as civilization and culture. Key words: language and culture, semantics, etymology, linguistic analysis
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
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2015
Keywords
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Article
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature
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EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED
FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS
Igballe Miftari
State University of Tetovo, Macedonia
Article History:
Submitted: 08.06.2015
Accepted: 10.08.2015
Abstract: An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other
English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have
never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as
teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL
academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses
and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a
great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with
different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick
books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and
unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now
must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass
exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t
read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting
reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing
students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension
skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timedreading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be
conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading
instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous
experience with reading, motivation etc.
Keywords: reading rate, frustration, cognitive capacity, comprehension etc.
�An introduction to EFL academic reading
Reading as a general term refers to the process of “decoding words and their meaning on paper,
in written text.” Moreover, it is the interaction of one’s eyes, brain and many other
accompanying factors such as previous experience with texts, imagination, creativity, vocabulary
etc. As Richardson, Morgan and Fleener (2006) put it: “the physical process of reading requires
the eyes to move in a jerky pattern, over the page, stopping to let the brain take in information,
and then moving again. These eye fixations constitute the physical process of reading.” (2006, p.
263) What is important is how readers manipulate the information taken in with a fixation, or
“what goes on between the eye and the brain” rather than from the page to the eye.” (Smith,
1988) According to Ruddell (2005), “reading is the act of constructing meaning while transacting
with text. Just as we use information stored in schemata to understand and interact with the
world around us, so do we use this knowledge to make sense of print.” (2005, p. 30) Rosenblatt
(1994) further states that “every reading is an event, or a transaction, involving a particular
reader and a particular pattern of signs, a text and occurring at a particular time in a particular
context. Instead of two fixed entities acting on one another, the reader and the text are two
aspects of a total dynamic situation. The “meaning” does not reside ready-made “in” the text or
“in” the reader, but happens or comes into being during the transaction between reader and text.
(1994, p. 1063). The major difference between reading and academic reading may be explained
accordingly to why one reads. Grellet (1981) defines two main reasons for reading: reading for
pleasure and reading for information (in order to find out something or in order to do something
with the information you get). (1981, p. 4) Pleasure reading, skimming through a newspaper, a
comic strip etc. may be defined as “ just reading” since the reader in this case is not asked to
reproduce the information afterwards, whereas academic reading is usually reading done in
academic subjects during studies, which requires retaining of information, comprehension etc.
Academic reading requires a depth analysis of the written work i.e. full comprehension and is
usually based upon certain deadlines, exam sessions etc. The extent of comprehension further
“marks” students overall success in both oral and written exams. Therefore, practicing the skill
of retrieving information, managing rate and speed and improving comprehension is the key to
overall success in FL or L2 reading. However, as a separate skill that is usually practiced along
with the other skills, reading is usually “neglected” by teachers. Grabe (2009, 2010) concludes
that: “generally, in a second language (L2) or foreign language (FL) learning context, reading
fluency has been ignored.” However, as Anderson (1999) states, “reading is one of the most
important language skills for ensuring students’ success at all educational levels…” (1999, p.56),
by which practicing reading in a foreign language is mandatory. Therefore, reading should be a
skill taught and practiced throughout the whole learning process, and its’ implementation in
language acquisition should be thought of as a primary source in effectively learning a foreign or
second language.
�Reading speed/rate
Apart from neglecting reading in general, most teachers forget to consider reading rate/speed
which are tied to comprehension and overall frustration. Reading rate refers to how much one
has actually read i.e. ones’ experience with written texts, whereas reading speed refers to how
fast one can skim, scan and retain information i.e. how many w.p.m. (words per minute),
“knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to
this success (Anderson, 1999, p. 56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them
able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999, p.54) and also “as
reading teachers reflect upon the vital role of increasing students’ reading rates, they will be in a
better position to assist students improve their reading skills.” (1999, p. 64) Failure in improving
this issue results in students’ failure to satisfy themselves and also in frustration when foreign
students must succeed in academic subjects: “when they move into content area reading tasks ,
ESL/EFL students benefit from a fluent reading rate, because they will have increased reading
demands”… and “increased reading fluency can also improve performance on standardized
tests.”(1999, p. 56). Nuttall (1996) describes frustration that may be part of slower reading in her
description of the “vicious cycle of the weak reader” (1996, p. 127) In such cases students lack
of reading rate and comprehension skills make reading a very difficult task, due to which
students’ motivation lacks because: “to many second language readers, reading is a suffocating,
slow, process.” (Jensen, 1986) The optimal reading rate-the process of reading is different for
every individual. According to my own personal philosophy and experience, I would divide
students into 3 categories: those that enjoy reading, those that are neutral and those that dislike
reading. For some (1st group), reading is an enjoyable daily activity, a preferable hobby that
amuses them, neutral reading individuals (2nd group) are those which have nothing against
reading , but which do not have a passion for reading either (this group of students when needed
to complete a term paper will actually read the book), and in the last (3rd group) are those that
simply dislike reading and might have never actually read a book (these students won’t read even
when assignments are due and usually fail the course) All these personal feelings are deeply
related to the whole reading process because rather we like or dislike reading, every subject in
schools and universities is “tied” to reading: there’s no difference in between history and
literature field of studies, since both have “readings”. What differs here is the “reading burden.”
While those that read daily need less time to read through a page, those that never read need
more time, and the reading goes slower: “readers who do not understand often slow down their
reading rate and then do not enjoy reading because it takes so much time.” (1999, p. 59). Dubin
& Bycina (1991) state that: “a rate of 200 wpm (words per minute) would appear to be the
absolute minimum in order to read with full comprehension.” (1991, p. 198). On the other hand,
Jensen (1986) suggests that “300 w.p.m. is the optimal rate and recommends that second
language readers seek to “approximate” native speaker reading rates and comprehension levels in
order to keep up with the classmates.” (1986, p. 106). Whether it is 200 or 300 w.p.m. normally
depends on the text, upon familiarity with the vocabulary items and upon students’ interest. If
students are to read a long passage which contains known vocabulary items, it would normally
�take less time to go through, on the contrary, even if a passage was shorter in length, but
contained long, unfamiliar words, it would normally take longer time to go through. If students
lack interest in the reading, then presumably, both hypotheses fail. In short, reading
comprehension in a foreign or second language requires much more then knowing how to read. It
requires a certain interest, a certain speed and certain interaction with text.
Insufficient/inefficient reading rate causes frustration
The main aim of this article is to discuss issues that have a great impact on reading
comprehension, one of which is frustration caused by insufficient reading rate and speed. I
associate frustration caused during exams, during standardized tests etc. and suggest that reading
speed/rate should be relevant factors in the overall reading process. There are cases when our
students fail because we have not taught them how to extract information, how to focus on
relevant information and how to actually deal with written texts. I personally experienced
difficulty to an extent when passing TOEFL, not because I did not understand the texts, but
because they were too many in number and my time limit was too short. This experience made
me think of time-based tasks and activities that would help learners practice their reading skills
and made me aware of the frustration my students had with readings with limited amount of time
upon which the study was conducted. The study participants were 3rd year students of the English
department, a total of 55 of both genders and between the ages of 20-21. The study lasted over a
period of 4 weeks, during which participants were asked to read different passages and texts,
(Appendix 1) with different terminology and length as fast as possible and to answer
comprehension questions afterwards. The students were previously interviewed (Fig.1) as to
whether they believed that time-based reading caused frustration and if the actual meaning of the
text was lost. Students did not believe that timed-reading actually caused any frustration and
were very self-confident at the beginning however, the results obtained were quite different.
Study procedure
Part 1
Q1. Are
you
a
fast
reader?
Q2.
How
much do
you
read?
Q3. How
many
w.p.m.do
you think
you can
read?
Yes 44
Often
23
Don’t
know 23
Q4.
Do
you think
that timedreading
would
cause
frustration?
Yes 10
Q5. Would it
cause
insufficient
comprehension?
Q6.
Would Personal
your focus be assumption
on your speed,
the time or on
comprehending
the text?
Yes 12
Speed 6
�No 11
Rarely
15
Have
No 29
never
thought of
this issue
12
Never
Am
Don’t
17
curious to know 16
know 20
Fig. 1 Whole Class Interview Questions
No 43
Time 14
Comprehension
35
Study procedure part 2
The students were previously informed about the study, were interviewed and lastly tested, in
duration of 4 weeks. Week 1 proved to be a bit difficult in terms of students’ habit-formation
with the drills. The proceeding weeks were easier, enjoyable and proved to be more successful
once students’ clearly understood their role, the task and once I had pointed out time-consuming
factors that resulted in dissatisfaction (mouthing out words, stopping too long at unknown words,
movement of pens, and other distractions).
Students were seated individually and provided with texts. All students began at the same “start”
time and were to read as fast as they could. (Texts were adopted from “Reading power: reading
faster, thinking skills, reading for pleasure, comprehension skills” Mikulecky & Jeffries, 1986,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Longman, pgs.201/203, 205/206 etc.).
Instructions were clearly explained. Students had to write the start time and read the passage as
quickly as possible. They had to write down the finish time when they were done reading. Start
time minus finish time equaled students’ wpm time. Calculation of time served as a minor
distraction from text. Students were afterwards required to answer comprehension questions
without referring to the text for help. This served as an instrument to actually “measure” how
much students had understood relevant information and how many correct answers they could
provide.
Study hypothesis concluded
Study hypothesis were based upon previous experience while teaching reading comprehension
skills. The following hypotheses were concluded:
H.1. Practiced reading skills develop better comprehension.
My personal assumptions tied to reading were that the more students read, the better they
comprehended. This assumption stands not only for different texts, but even in content areas
�(imagine how little students know about a subject matter during week 1 of lectures, or even
during their whole first month). Even a whole semester can be frustrating. However, the more
students read, analyze and deepen their personal theory regarding the subject matter, the more
they comprehend and the better their results become. Similarly, practicing reading in e SL or FL
would normally enhance better comprehension and develop vocabulary acquisition. Regarding
my first hypothesis, even during timed-reading, practiced reading skills did develop better
comprehension. Even though texts provided always differed in topic, terminology and length,
students scored better results during week 3 and 4 than they did during week 1 or 2.
H.2. Time-based reading results in higher level of frustration.
During students’ interview, most students had self-confidence regarding their frustration level.
They believed that the matter of time would not at all bother them or their level of
comprehension and even denied focusing on their speed rather than on the text. Others believed
that they could manage both factors. Results obtained afterwards were quite different. Students
proved to be frustrated much more with timed-reading activities than during free reading. Their
focus on their speed de-concentrated them from the actual text, resulting in incorrect answers.
H3.Most students’ current optimal reading average is lower than 200 wpm.
My personal assumption regarding students’ optimal reading average was that they were lower
than 200 wpm was basically because students rarely read. Reading rate and speed depend on
students’ experience with written works, either on paper or on screen. Results provided below in
bold (Fig. 2) show that paper based comprehension scores were in their average, even though 20
out of the total were insufficient readers, 30 were average readers and only 5 were good readers
(the term good reader defines those individuals that can read 400 wpm and can comprehend 80%
of the text). Comprehending only 50% or 60% of the text is not efficient especially when
students’ want higher marks.
Screen
Paper
Comprehension
Reader profile
100 wpm
110 wpm
50% (20/55)
Insufficient
200 wpm
240 wpm
60% (30/55)
Average reader
300 wpm
400 wpm
80% (5/55)
Good reader
700 wpm
1000 wpm
85% (0/55)
Excellent, accomplished reader
Fig.2. A general idea of average reading scores
H4. Reading speed depends on terminology, on text length, and upon the fixation of the eyes and
their movement.
In cases when students lack previous knowledge, when they lack vocabulary and do not
understand terminology in texts, the reading normally becomes slower. Students’ stumble over
�unknown words and trying to comprehend texts the reading becomes frustrating and immensely
slow. When longer length texts are used, some things occur. For starters, students tend to focus
on all the information and usually remember only some; longer length texts might contain more
unknown words than shorter texts and normally have more information to remember. There are
some habits that can also slow down the reading for instance, trying to pronounce words while
reading, mouthing them out, and stopping for a longer period of time on the same word. Students
agreed that results during their second, third and fourth time were better after they had practiced
reading with their eyes and not involving other movements. Their reading speed had normally
undergone improvement to some extent.
Limitations of the study
Throughout the years of reading, research and teaching, I have concluded that our ideology,
point of view and personal theory change. We now think deeper and analyze issues that seemed
unnecessary then. Our personal theory has changed accordingly to our students and to their
expectations i.e. their overall success. I am aware of the fact that the instruments, number of
participants and elaboration might not be enough, though I have tried to be brief and to not over
exaggerate. The texts used, I agree could have been different and covered different topics,
however this was only a first attempt and the study is at its initial phase. Since academic reading
issues are part of my PhD dissertation, I aim at specifically designing other instruments and aim
at including a whole chapter on reading speed and rate and other issues. In spite of everything, I
believe that it will still inspire those that will read it and will provide a scope of information,
experience and contribution.
Conclusion and further recommendations
The focus of this paper was to address the issues of reading rate/ speed and reading
comprehension in a detailed description. It was addressed to learners’ needs and the
improvement of reading comprehension skills, with enhancing the practice of speed. The main
aim was to actually help learners develop the preciseness of reading habit and to make them
aware of certain issues that might affect either positively or negatively their overall scores and
marks. It was especially focused on time-based readings that might be found in national exams,
placement tests, TOEFL etc. and also on overall readings in English in different academic
subjects that were time consuming and frustrating for students. I advise further elaboration of the
issue wherever the English language is taught as an SL or FL.
�References
Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Heinle & Heinle
Publishers, An international Thomson Publishing Company.
Dubin, F., and D. Bycina 1991. Academic reading and the ESL/EFL teacher. In M. Celce-Murcia
(ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.). New York: Newbury House,
195-215.
Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. New York,
NY: Cambridge University Press.
Grabe, W. (2010). Fluency in reading—Thirty-five years later. Reading in a Foreign Language,
22, 71–83.
Grellet, F. 1981. Developing Reading Skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jensen, L. (1986). Advanced reading skills in a comprehensive course. In F. Dubin, D. E. Eskey,
and Grabe (eds.). Teaching second language reading for academic purposes. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 103-124.
Mikulecky, B. S., Jeffries, L. (1996). More reading power. Reading for pleasure, comprehension
skills thinking skills, reading faster. Addison- Wesley Publishing Company. Longman.
Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (new edition). Oxford:
Heinemann.
Richardson, J. S., Morgan, Ch. R., Fleener, Ch., (2006). “ Reading to learn in the content areas”.
Thomson Wadsworth, 6th edition.
Ruddell, M. R., (2005). Teaching content reading and writing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The transactional theory of reading and writing. In R.R. Rudell, M.R.
Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.) (pp.10571092). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Smith, F., (1988). Understanding reading: A psycholinguistic analysis of reading and learning to
read. (4th edition), Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.
Appendix
Note: The following text serves only as an example of similar texts that were used for the study.
���
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Title
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EFL ACADEMIC READING ISSUES: MANAGING READING RATE/SPEED FRUSTRATION AND COMPREHENDING TEXTS
Author
Author
Miftari, Igballe
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
An issue that until recently has been “irrelevant” for me personally and for many other English teachers, is the issue of reading rate/speed. I presumably believe that most teachers have never thought of this issue because of limited time for classroom instruction or simply because as teachers, the level of reading and preparation for classroom instruction is usually plenty. EFL academic reading however, involves reading different materials in different subjects and courses and being able to “interact” with them. The issue of interacting with books and texts depends a great deal on the level of comprehension. At university studies, students are overloaded with different materials and deadlines that are in fact frustrating. Students are obliged to read “thick books” in different academic subjects and courses and are over-flooded with known and unknown terminology, both scientific and professional in the specific field of study. They now must get the most out of books and must perfectly understand course books in order to pass exams and gain overall success. For such reasons, students either learn to read faster or don’t read at all. According to Anderson (1999) “knowing how to read more efficiently and adjusting reading speed to reading task are critical to this success. (1999:56). Therefore, “increasing students’ reading rates makes them able to devote greater cognitive capacity to comprehension skills” (1999:54). The study aims at testing students’ overall comprehension skills using timed-reading activities and questionnaires over a period of 4 weeks (12 instruction hours). It will be conducted with 3 and 4 year students of the English department during their English reading instruction classes. Other matters of study will be students’ anxiety, frustration, previous experience with reading, motivation etc.
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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Text
Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
Academic Writing Proficiency: The Role Of Academic Writing Instruction
In Efl Preparatory Programs
Ryan Mcdonald & Hannah Murtagh
Koç University, Turkey
Submitted: 19.06.2014.
Accepted: 22.11.2014.
Abstract
In studies of writing, linguistic proficiency has been assumed to play an important factor contributing
to writing proficiency (Raimes, 1987; Bereiter&Scardamalia, 1987; Hayes 1996). Additional factors
such as “cognitive” processes (i.e. planning and reviewing) (Ellis, 2005), memory (McCutchen, 1996,
Alamargot&Chanquoi, 2001), and the matter of the quality of writing and lexical fluency (Van
Gelderen&Oostdam; 2002, 2004) and error correction (Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Ferris;1999, 2002,
2004) have been among the focus areas. This study examines whether instruction in a university
preparatory EFL program increases the quality of writing. A typical criticism from university academic
writing classes often argues that short preparatory programs do not produce able, coherent, and
proficient writers as preparatory reading and writing programs face the dual challenge of integrated
skills instruction as well as covering many of the conventions of academic writing. In an effort to
evaluate the effects of teaching academic writing within an EFL preparatory program, this research
aims to compare the quality of writing within two groups of students, low level EFL students (preintermediate and intermediate levels) after a two-three semester program against students whose initial
fluency was significantly higher at the time of university entry (direct-entry students with an IELTS 6.5
equivalency or higher). To this aim, four factors which are readability, lexical density, coherence and
grammar complexity in 50 essays have been examined quantitatively. In this presentation, we aim to
highlight implications of the findings for academic writing instruction at EFL university settings and
for the broader context academic programs in EFL context. Our findings indicate that EFL students
graduating from the ELC score well below their direct-entry peers in a number of categories.
Keywords: linguistic proficiency, EFL program, instructions, integreted skills
Introduction
Our students are as diverse as their needs, and as Raime’s (1991) noted, “there is no such thing as a
generalized EFL student” (p. 420). Students arrive in our classrooms from a variety of heterogeneous
contexts, which adds an additional dimension of difficulty to an already challenging situation.
However, that does not mean we are reduced to helplessness. Ferris and Hedgecock( 1998) remind us
that “there are ways of identifying, categorizing, and working with these multiple variables” (p. 14).
Teachers often rely on their instincts, rubrics, and checklists to determine the overall quality of student
writing, but this can only provide a limited (and arguably biased) approach to assessment (Rezaei, A.
R., &Lovorn, M. 2010). As EFL preparatory teachers, we are concerned about our students’ writing
ability in relation to their peers. The question then becomes more about how to assess the quality of
writing and the ability of the student. Rather than focus on ways to improve qualitative analysis, this
study attempts to eliminate subjectivity and analytically evaluate student papers quantitatively. We are
aware of the challenges of quantifying a skill that is arguably qualitative in nature, and it’s not unusual
to find that students’ levels of proficiency differ from their writing ability (Raimes, 1985). However,
our university is relatively new (20 years) with an expanding EFL program. There has been a
reworking of past EFL curriculum to focus more on integration and production skills with common end
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goals for all students graduating from the English Language Center (ELC). Upon graduating from the
ELC, these students have to compete alongside direct-entry students who have greater faculty with
English. Therefore, research is needed to determine if and where students graduating from the ELC are
falling short of their direct-entry peers, and what we, as educators, can do to marginalize those
inequalities.
This study focused on two major questions:
1: Is there value in quantifying the quality of student compositions after graduation from the ELC
preparatory program?
2: What does the data suggest about the preparedness of our students when they graduate (in terms of
readability, lexical density, coherence, and grammar complexity) and what still needs to be improved?
While we attempted to stay focused on these two areas, we did occasionally find useful or interesting
data that varied slightly from our original goals.
Methods & Procedures
Data Collection
The participants in this study were 50 EFL college students,typically 17-19 years old, enrolled in
Academic Writing at a private Turkish university. They were selected based on a several control
factors. Direct entry students – a “control group” – comprised of 13 students who learned English
outside the university (typically in high school or international school settings) and directly entered the
university (bypassing the ELC) with a TOEFL IB test of 80 or greater or an academic IELTS score of
6.5 or greater. These students took the Academic Writing class in their first semester of university. The
second student group was chosen based on their successful completion of the ELC and consisted of two
sub-groups; 13 pre-intermediate students and 24 intermediate students. Both groups were chosen based
on the following factors: they had all successfully completed the program (none of the participants had
dropped out during the semester to participate in outside preparatory English classes) in 2-3 semesters
(Fall, Spring, and Summer semesters of 2012-13), they all participated in the Academic Writing class
during the first semester of their first academic year (2014), and they had all entered the university
directly after leaving the ELC, meaning they did not take a semester or year of leave (this does not
include the summer semester if they had passed out after semester two). All students were enrolled in
ACWR 101 with five instructors and nine classes. The student’s papers were chosen based on their first
written drafts in response to an academic article and discussions taken place during class time. The
topics of the articles and papers showed significant variety.
It should be noted that G1 will from this point refer to students who started the preparatory program at
pre-intermediate level students; G2 at the intermediate level; and G3 as students directly entering the
university.
Data Analysis
The data was viewed based on several factors: readability, lexical density, coherence and grammar
complexity, and each shall be observed separately.
*Note on parametric values:The research data gathered was run through the program for Statistical
Analysis in Social Sciences (SPSS) and tested for validity using the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality and
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a Q-Q plot for additional verification. Data that was found not to be parametric was considered for
further thought, but will be noted as non- parametric; unless otherwise noted, all data can be assumed
normal according to these measurements.
Readability
Considering readability, this project viewed several sub-groups, including words per sentence, passive
sentence use, academic vocabulary word use, Flesch Reading Ease, and the Flesch Kincaid Grade
Level.
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Vocabulary Usage
Students need to have a wide range of disposable vocabulary in order to be confident users of language.
While grammar can be understood as the framework of language, educators understand that grammar is
an arbitrary and meaningless construct without vocabulary (Dagut, 1977; Laufer, 1990; Meara 1996).
It is also well documented that students often consider vocabulary as one of the primary barriers to
communication and comprehension (Raims, 1985; Spack 1988;). This research looked at the rate in
which ELC students used frequent and academic vocabulary in relation to the direct-entry students.
Our primary concern was whether or not our students were using the vocabulary we were teaching
them. Over the course of a year, G1 and G2 students were provided with explicit instruction on as
many of the Coxhead570 semantic fields as possible, placing emphasis on academic vocabulary, while
addressing frequent words as they arise.
In terms of vocabulary usage, this study focused on three subgroups, K1 (1-1000), K2 (1001-2000),
and the Academic Word List, as measured by Lextutor.Surprisingly, the data showed that student
starting proficiency levels did not significantly influencevocabulary.Regardless of the slight mean
average difference between the groups, the percentage of common and academic words did not vary
greatly between the three groups. All three groups ranged from 74.7 – 77.6 percent of words on the K1
list; 4.5-5.9 on the K2 list;and 6.6 – 8.5 percent on the AWL. Similarly, the range in ability within
these groups did not significantly differ.
Sentence Length
In order to gain a general idea of how well students were able to write, in terms of complex and
compound sentences, the study briefly surveyed sentence length using Microsoft Word. Although this
is useful for an overview, in is by no means conclusive on the level or accuracy of the sentence
structure. This quick analysis does not validate grammar use, nor does it check for run-on sentences.
However, the study found a statistically significant difference between the ability to write more words
per sentence and the starting English level. Students from the G1 level were writing a mean average of
15 words per sentence (wps), while G2 were writing at 20wps, and G3 at 23 wps. Additionally, the
range of sentence length decreased significantly (18, 11, 12 respectively) between the lower and
advanced starting level as well.
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Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch Kincaid Grade Level
Using the Flesch Reading Ease scores and FleschKincaide Grade Level, as calculated in Microsoft
Word, this study compared the reading difficulty between the three groups of students. The results
confirmed our suspicion that students starting in G3 had an advantage over the G1 and G2 students.
Regarding the Flesch Reading Ease, while the average mean for students in G1 & G2 was very similar,
there was a statistically significant variance between the G1 – G3, G2 – G2 average means (see Chart 1
& Chart 2 below).
Chart 2
Chart 1
Mean
Pair 1
G1
40.0250
Pair 2
G3
G1
51.9417
Pair 3
G2
G2
G3
40.0250
52.1667
52.1667
51.9417
Sig.
tailed)
Pair 1 G1 – .006
G3
(2-
Pair 2 G1 – .942
G2
Pair 3 G2 – .018
G3
As expected then, the Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level showed similar correlations. G1 students were
typically writing at the high end of a ninth grade reading level (G2 scored slightly higher at just over
11th grade). However, the G3 level students were starting comfortably in the first year university level
at 13.2. Again, only the G1-G3 and G2-G3 pairs showed a statistical difference with a p value at .002
and .043 respectively, as can be seen in chart 3 and chart 4.
Chart 4
Chart 3
G1
G2
G3
Range
Mean
7.00
9.8250
5.40
11.0583
5.60
13.1583
Sig.
tailed)
Pair 1 G1 – .002
G3
Pair 2 G1 – .165
G2
Pair 3 G2 – .043
G3
(2-
Lexical Density
When considering lexical density, we again usedLextutor to compare functional word tokens with the
total number of tokens in each essay to determine lexical density. However, the mean average of each
group was almost identical, with G1, G2, and G3 scoring .556, .538, and .547 respectively.
Additionally, when compared using a SPSS paired sample t-tests, p value showed no statistically
significant difference.
Coherence
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This study looked specifically at the use of transitional devices and connectors to consider coherence,
which overlaps into the field of cohesive devices.We viewed these devices in four categories; additive,
adversative, causal, and temporal. Documents were searched in Microsoft Word and thenvisually
countedto find correct use of each device. Within each category, we looked at the use of specific
words: additive (also, and, for example, in addition, furthermore, moreover, for instance, in other
words, besides, likewise); adversative (however, but, on the other hand, in fact, on the contrary, as a
matter of fact, nevertheless, in contrast); causal (so, therefore, as a result, consequently, hence, then to
that end, in this case, thus); and temporal (first(ly), (second(ly), third(ly), then, following, in summary,
in conclusion, to conclude).
The data collected was viewed, using Shapiro-Wilks, and found to be non-parametric. The usage of the
different types of these devices did not seem to show and advantage or disadvantage in terms of ability
and starting level of the students. However, in the lower entry level, namely G1 and G2, we did see a
tendency to overuse certain devices. For example, the average mean of usage in additive device in G1
was about 34 uses per page. However, of these 34 uses, 27 were “and.” Additionally, 5 of the 13 G1
students exclusively used “and” and no other additive device. The same overuse was found with “but”
and “in conclusion” as well.
Grammar Complexity
In this study, we looked at grammar complexity by viewing relative clause use, used correctly, to help
determine the level of grammar ability in a student’s unedited writing. Clauses were separated into two
sections, the use of relative clauses using pronouns and those using adverbials. All of the relative
pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that) as well as relative adverbs (where, when, and why)
were counted only if they were used correctly, and there was no data collection for rate of error usage
with relative clause use.
The overwhelming majority of the data showed adverbial relative clauses to be sporadic, and while the
G3 students used these at a slightly higher and more consistent level, when the data was considered in
Shapiro-Wilk, it was found to be non-parametric. Therefore, while we have noticed some correct
usage, the same size was not such that we could compare the data.
When considering pronoun use in relative clauses, the results were considered parametric, and the
findings showed a significant difference between the three levels, when considering the mean and
range. We found that the accurate use of relative clauses increased significantly as the entry-level
increased and the range in use decreased, pointing to a more controlled ability to use this grammatical
structure. The average means ranged from 5.8, 8.9, and 13.2 in G1, G2, and G3, respectively.
Additionally, the p value showed statistically significant differences between all groups. This would be
a useful area to follow up in terms of what program values are lacking in terms of grammar usage and
advanced structures.
Results and discussion
1: Is there value in quantifying the quality of student compositions after they have graduated
from the EFL preparatory program?
At our institution, students are leaving the preparatory program and entering the university sometimes
after only one semester. The more traditional students remain in the program for two or three
semesters. There is a concern that students, when leaving the ELC, are not as capable as the students
who directly enter the university. New curriculum was developed and implemented last year, and this
is the first study to comparatively assess former ELC student’s compositional ability with that of their
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peers. Concern remains, even after the new curriculum shift, among faculty members that students are
not adequately prepared for university level composition, and this data may be useful in adjusting the
curriculum planning for upcoming years.
There is strong evidence to suggest that annual evaluation of students leaving the ELC program would
be beneficial to determine the overall quality of student writing, as a quantification of various factors.
Of particular use will be further assessment of the AWL list vocabulary as well as continuing
evaluation of Flesch-Kincaid analysis. With annual assessment ,this program will have a baseline
which can be measured against annually. This, when paired with qualitative assessment, can provide a
more complete overview of exactly what our students leaving the ELC can do in relation to their
direct-entry peers, and we can address curricular shortfalls and refocus specifically on skills which our
students lack proficiency.
2: What does the data suggest about the preparedness in our students when they graduate
(related to readability, lexical density, coherence, and grammar complexity) and what still needs
to be improved?
Readability
Vocabulary: In terms of vocabulary usage,our preparatory students performed well in use of the K1
and the AWL (which is heavily integrated into the pre-intermediate program).As the program has been
working specifically to increase both receptive and productive use of academic vocabulary during the
last school year, as well as vocabulary diversity, this is relatively good news. The assumption has been
that students with lower levels of English will have a more difficult time producing academic level
vocabulary. One of the major concerns is that students have only receptively learned vocabulary
throughout their 2-3 semester study in the preparatory program. However, although there is certainly
the unknown of how accurately the students were using this vocabulary, they do, even at the lower
levels, incorporate academic vocabulary into their draft writing.
Sentence Length: Our research found a significant difference in the sentence length of the students
relative to their starting level. This suggests perhaps additional research is warranted in order to
determine the actual complexity and grammatical accuracy of these sentences. However, it does
suggest more confidence or effort involved at the G3 level as they had a significantly higher wps use
while drafting.
Flesch Reading Ease and Flesch Kincaid Grade Level:Perhaps the most surprising data collected was
the vast level difference reported by the Flesch Kincaid analysis for grade level and readability. While
our pre-intermediate students were only writing at the ninth grade level during their first year of
academic classes, the expectation that they are writing at a level equivalent to direct-entry students may
be unreasonable. We recommend further study of this issue to look more closely at the samples to
determine specific ways to improve both the readability and grade level at which our students produce
academic writing. In order to focus on program evaluation, it may be useful to determine the reason
why the FleschReading Ease as well as the Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level results point to such a
difference in readability and what can be done to increase these levels.
Lexical Density: As stated above, the data for this section showed no real difference in use. Although
this is an encouraging sign when considering the level at which a student starts, further research is
needed to determine if this is, in fact, a point of no difference. If this data is actuate, it would suggest
that lower level entry students are able to compete, not necessarily at grade level, with higher-level
students and would be encouraging.
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Coherence: While the coherence data was found to be largely non-parametric, the fact that students are
clearly over relying on the conjunctions “and,” “but,” and “because” may speak to an underlying issue
in the way writing is taught. Although direct-entry students showed a slightly higher ability to diversity
their transitional markers, it would not be unexpected for ELC students to enter at a lower level;
however, it is concerning that part of the aim of the preparatory program is to help students learn
academic writing, and a significant amount of time is spent on writing ability, including the use of
transitional devices. This points to the need to further evaluate student writing in terms of markers in
order to determine if the program is lacking in the area coherence.
Grammar Complexity: Relative clause pronoun use was shown to be more than double in terms of
usage between G3 and G1&2. This points to a need for improvement in the way this skill is taught,
practiced, and reinforced in the program. Currently students spend time focusing on relative clause
pronouns mostly in their grammar classes, and reading and writing teachers do not explicitly check for
or expect students to accurately use such constructions. This data points to the consideration of the
incorporation of relative clause pronoun use into the writing curriculum.
Conclusions
It is clear to us that students graduating from the ELC still need writing support and scaffolding to
compete with direct-entry students. Not only are they writing at a dramatically lower level (according
to the Flesch-Kinkaid analysis) than other students, but they also score lower on a number of indicators
of quality writing such as sentence length and relative clause use. Both of these skills can be improved
through direct instruction and practice, and we advise the ELC to incorporate more time and focus on
those areas. We advise continued annual evaluation of students exiting the ELC both quantitatively
and qualitatively, as well as a continued measurement against direct-entry students, providing the ELC
with measurable yearly data which will inform curricular and assessment changes.
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2798
Title
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Academic Writing Proficiency: The Role Of Academic Writing Instruction In EFL Preparatory Programs
Author
Author
Mcdonald, Ryan
Murtagh, Hannah
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In studies of writing, linguistic proficiency has been assumed to play an important factor contributing to writing proficiency (Raimes, 1987; Bereiter&Scardamalia, 1987; Hayes 1996). Additional factors such as “cognitive” processes (i.e. planning and reviewing) (Ellis, 2005), memory (McCutchen, 1996, Alamargot&Chanquoi, 2001), and the matter of the quality of writing and lexical fluency (Van Gelderen&Oostdam; 2002, 2004) and error correction (Ferris & Roberts, 2001; Ferris;1999, 2002, 2004) have been among the focus areas. This study examines whether instruction in a university preparatory EFL program increases the quality of writing. A typical criticism from university academic writing classes often argues that short preparatory programs do not produce able, coherent, and proficient writers as preparatory reading and writing programs face the dual challenge of integrated skills instruction as well as covering many of the conventions of academic writing. In an effort to evaluate the effects of teaching academic writing within an EFL preparatory program, this research aims to compare the quality of writing within two groups of students, low level EFL students (pre-intermediate and intermediate levels) after a two-three semester program against students whose initial fluency was significantly higher at the time of university entry (direct-entry students with an IELTS 6.5 equivalency or higher). To this aim, four factors which are readability, lexical density, coherence and grammar complexity in 50 essays have been examined quantitatively. In this presentation, we aim to highlight implications of the findings for academic writing instruction at EFL university settings and for the broader context academic programs in EFL context. Our findings indicate that EFL students graduating from the ELC score well below their direct-entry peers in a number of categories. Keywords: linguistic proficiency, EFL program, instructions, integreted skills
Publisher
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International Burch University
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2015
Keywords
Keywords.
Article
PeerReviewed
L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English