310 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72676f27111c243c67dac9e53f956aac.pdf f4eed375923f668a72087dbe4fda61b4 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Mirna Koričan Zagreb School of Economics and Management Zagreb, Croatia mirna.korican@zsem.hr Zoran Barac Zagreb School of Economics and Management Zagreb, Croatia zoran.barac@zsem.hr Ivija Jelavić Zagreb School of Economics and Management Zagreb, Croatia ivija.jelavic@zsem.hr Abstract: Strategy researchers believe that the better the Keywords: Merger, strategic fit or relatedness between the bidding and acquired firms, the greater should be the economic gain from the merger. Although merger performance has been widely researched we recognized that empirical results on merger performance are inconclusive and that there are research gaps related to geographical settings, time frame and methodological approach. Thus, the research question examined in our study was to find out if acquisition strategy or relatedness of merging companies increases performance of the bidding company. Also we considered moderating effect of premerger bidder profitability on the performance of the merger. Our study predicts that relatedness between merging companies has a positive impact on the merger’s performance. Results of 49 mergers completed in 2008 in EU member countries and Switzerland show that related mergers have better merger scores than unrelated mergers. We also predict that the impact of the related acquisition strategy becomes more positive as bidder premerger performance decreases. Acquisition, Acquisition strategy, Company performance JEL Classification: M10, M16, G34 Article History Submitted: 17 December 2012 Resubmitted: 24 October 2013 Resubmitted: 23 January 2014 Accepted: 27 January 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JE COSS11422 31 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Introduction According to the Thompson One Banker database, in 2010, the total value of merger and acquisition transactions amounted to 555 Mil USD which encompassed more than 11 thousand deals worldwide. Because of such practical relevance, mergers and acquisitions have been studied from multidisciplinary perspectives. This field attracted interest of practitioners and academics within a broad range of management disciplines taking into account its financial, strategic, behavioral, operational and cross-cultural aspects. Mergers and acquisitions could be explained as strategically planned transactions in which the target company and the bidding company jointly create a new entity to gain competitive advantage in the market place. This term describes either the purchase or sale of corporate assets and shares (an acquisition), or the act of combining two or more companies in a single corporate entity (a merger; Ernst and Häcker, 2007). On the surface, the distinction in meaning of “merger” and “acquisition” may not really matter, since the net result is often the same: two companies (or more) that had separate ownership are now operating under the same roof, usually to obtain some strategic or financial objective. According to Marks and Mirvis (2001), less than one quarter of mergers and acquisitions achieve their financial objectives, as measured by share value, return on investment and post combination profitability. Gugler et al. (2003) compared the performance of merging companies with a control group of non-merging firms, focusing on profitability and sales. The results show that 43% of all merged companies worldwide reported lower profits than comparable non-merged firms. Likewise, more than 50% of U.S. mergers earned negative cumulative abnormal returns (Agrawal et al., 1992). Given these outcomes, it is not surprising that more than half of the merged companies end up being divested (Porter, 1987). Because of the negative financial results in post-mergers special emphasis in different research has been put on successes and failures of merger and acquisition activities. According to Straub (2007) and Larsson and Finkelstein (1999) mergers and acquisitions have been studied on the basis of several theories. First, there are studies on mergers and acquisitions as a method of diversification, from the strategic perspective, focusing on both the motives for different types of combinations and the performance effects of those combinations. Second, finance scholars have studied mergers and acquisitions by focusing on factors such as economies of scale and 32 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance market power as the motives and on the acquisition performance, based on stockmarket measures. Third, mergers and acquisitions have been studied from the viewpoint of organizational behavior as well. Furthermore there is also ‘process’ literature which focuses on the important role of the choice of integration strategy and the acquisition process itself. This approach emphasizes that the acquisition process itself is a factor, in addition to the strategic and organizational fit, that affects the outcome. In our research, we assumed the last mentioned approach also called the strategic perspective. The research question in this paper was to find out if acquisition strategy of relatedness of merging companies increases the performance of bidding companies. Our hypothesis was that relatedness between merging and bidding company will have an impact on the merger performance. Literature Review In the literature it is often found that the primary purpose of merging and acquiring new companies is to improve overall performance by achieving synergy (Lubatkin, 1983). Synergy is thus, the main motive and the source of value creation in mergers. Synergies can be used to explain performance differences among the various merger types (Lubatkin, 1983). There are various typologies of synergies that exist in the literature. For example, according to Lubatkin's typology, (1983) there are three basic kinds of synergies, i.e. technical economies, pecuniary economies and diversification economies. Technical economies occur when the same amounts of inputs, or factors of production, produce a higher quantity of outputs. Pecuniary economies are achieved by the firm's ability to dictate prices by exerting market power, achieved primarily through size and diversification economies, are achieved by improving a firm's performance relative to its risk attributes. Furthermore, Chatterjee (1986) uses broader categories of synergies. First, collusive synergy represents the class of scarce resources leading to market power. Second, operational synergy represents the class of scarce resources that leads to production and/or administrative efficiencies. Lastly, financial synergy represents the class of scarce resources that leads to reductions in the cost of capital. 33 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Finally, Seth (1990) emphasizes that according to the value-maximizing hypotheses, positive synergy, or value creation, may be evidenced and value is created on the basis of market power, economies of scale and economies of scope, coinsurance and financial diversification. Market power is the ability of a market participant or group of participants to control the price, the quantity or the nature of the products sold, thereby generating extra profits. Economies of scale can be production-linked or functional. Product linked economies of scale may be achieved in the areas of purchasing or inventory management in the case of mergers involving companies using common raw materials or components. Functional economies of scale may be present in other functional areas of a business such as advertising, distribution, service networks and research and development. Economies of scope are said to exist when the cost of joint production of two goods by a multiproduct company is less than the combined costs of production of these goods by two single-product firms. A Coinsurance effect appears in a merger between companies whose earning streams are less than perfectly correlated. Financial diversification is created when a company acquires another with a different business cycle to its own, resulting in its income stream being stabilized and the variance of the firm's returns reduced. Regardless of the description of particular synergies and details in their typologies, the mutual feature is that all those synergies provide the basis for value creation measured by financial indicators. Companies with better company performance in post-merger period are considered to have had better synergy effects. Acquisition Strategy Companies are able to create better synergies by implementing acquisition strategy. Several researches showed that acquisition strategy had an impact on the company performance in the post-merger period (Rumelt, 1947, Ramaswamy, 1997, Altunbas and Ibanez, 2004). Acquisition strategies have been usually classified by the US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) of merger classification. According to FTC classification, mergers can be horizontal, vertical, product and market concentric or conglomerate mergers. A horizontal merger or related diversification takes place between companies in the same industry, where the two combining companies produce identical products and/or are competitors. Vertical mergers are transactions that take place between companies at different levels of the industry value chain and occur when two companies combine, each working at different stages in the production and distribution of the same good (e.g. buyer-seller, client-supplier). Product or market concentric mergers are transactions involving businesses that 34 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance share similar in production or marketing technologies. Conglomerate takes place when the two combining companies operate in unrelated businesses (unrelated diversification). From the theoretical strategic perspective, researchers believe that the better the strategic fit between the bidding and acquired firms, the greater should be the economic gain from the merger. Strategic fit is described as the level of relatedness of merged companies. According to Rumelt (1974) merging companies may be considered related 'when a common skill, resource, market or purpose applies to each', i.e. if they employ similar production techniques, serve similar markets, use similar distribution systems, and employ similar science-based research. Lubatkin (1988) outlines the advantages of related mergers. First, related mergers provide opportunities to reduce cost and/or enhance differentiation through exploiting the economies of scale and scope in various operational areas such as manufacturing, distribution, and administration. Second, related mergers provide the potential for power gains and, by becoming larger, can influence the price of its outputs or inputs. Furthermore in his paper Lubatkin (1988) argues that unrelated mergers involve the combination of noncompeting products that utilize different product and market technologies, thus offering fewer advantages than related mergers. Therefore, while they may provide allocation efficiencies, they will be less able to provide tangible and intangible efficiencies and power gains than related mergers. In other words, according to Lubatkin (1988), related mergers have greater potential to create shareholder value than unrelated mergers. In studying the impacts of related and unrelated diversification effects on the shareholder wealth, two approaches have been used. One stream of research has examined the accounting performance of companies following different diversification strategies. A second research stream has used market based measures and the event study methodology. An event study is a statistical method to assess the impact of an event on the value of a firm. For example, the announcement of a merger between two business entities can be analyzed to see whether investors believe that the merger will create or destroy value. The basic idea is to find the abnormal return attributable to the event being studied by adjusting for the return that stems from the price fluctuation of the 35 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić market as a whole. The market-based measures intrinsically differ from the accounting-based measures as they focus on the present value of future streams of income, i.e. on expected value, whereas the latter focus on the past performance. Most of the research on takeover performance has focused on the use of marketbased measures. One reason for this is the susceptibility of accounting information to managerial manipulation through earnings management and changing accounting policies (Stanton, 1987). Also, because of different accounting standards, accounting performance measures are harder to compare. Generally, literature of strategy has argued that companies following related diversification strategies should outperform the unrelated diversifiers (Salter and Weinhoid, 1979; Rumelt, 1974). Likewise, Walker (2000) investigated strategic objectives and stock performance of bidding firms. His analysis shows that bidding firm’s shareholders earn positive returns following related acquisitions and negative returns following unrelated takeovers. Relatedness in his definition encompass geographic expansion (bidding company seeks economies of scale by expanding its operations geographically), product line extensions (bidding company seeks economies of scope by expanding its product line), and market share increase (bidding company buys its competitor). However, broader empirical evidence is mixed (Lubatkin and O’Neill 1988; Seth, 1990). For instance, Chatterjee (1986) found that unrelated targets significantly outperformed related, non-horizontal targets. On the other hand Lubatkin (1987) found no significant difference in the performance levels of related and unrelated bidders and targets and concluded that related mergers do not create more value than unrelated mergers. So, strategic fit does not have an important effect on success of acquisitions. Many mergers are consummated on the premise that the two companies have a natural "fit." In reality, this fit is often illusive (Lubatkin and O’Neall, 1988). Because of the inconclusive results, we considered that it would be interested to test the effect of acquisition strategy on merger performance. Research gaps Understanding merger performance on the basis on current review on merger research is complex and inconclusive task (Tuch and O’Sullivan, 2007). Since researchers are employing both, market-based and accounting metric, covering a range of time periods, and using different sample sizes, it is not easy to make generalizations on this phenomenon. 36 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance On the basis on our identification of before mentioned inconclusive evidence in current empirical research in mergers’ performance, we recognized certain gaps related to geographical settings, time frame and methodological approach (Table 1). Table 1. Gaps in Previous Researches of Mergers Geographical gap Time-frame gap Methodological gap Most of the research was done on US and UK companies. Research mostly covers mergers in 1980s and 1990s with few of them at the beginning of 2000. Analysis of mergers mostly done by event studies, with focus on market based measures. Most empirical research in the leading academic research journals has been done in Anglo-Saxon geographical settings. For example, in their paper, Tuch and Sullivan (2007) present a review of empirical research on the impact of acquisitions on company performance. Out of 78 presented empirical studies 51 merger studies are from the US market, 24 mergers are from the UK market, and the remaining 3 merger studies are from the other EU countries. To cover the geographical gap that exists in previous research, which encompasses mainly companies in Anglo Saxon countries, we selected companies involved in mergers and acquisitions activities within EU countries and Switzerland. Switzerland was chosen because of the highest number of multinational companies per capita. Furthermore, research on mergers and acquisitions has been done extensively in 1980s and 1990s and a relatively low number of studies have been done recently. It is believed that mergers performed prior to 1990’s are quite different than those done later because of the different economic and other factors outside of the company (Kukalis, 2007). For mentioned reasons, and to be able to look at the results of two years before and after the merger, we selected mergers that have been completed between January 1st and December 31st 2008. Also the majority of these empirical studies are using event study methodology with market based measures. In order to measure mergers’ success, we decided to use accounting metrics. As an argument for accounting metrics Ramaswamy (1997) emphasizes that some surveys of merger decisions have indicated that managers primarily seek to improve profitability through mergers (Ingham, Kran, and Lovestam, 1992; Rose, 1989). As profitability measure we used Return on Assets (ROA). 37 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Model, Data Set and Measures Model Our research was developed on studies of Ramaswamy (1997) and Altunbas and Ibanez (2004). Ramaswamy (1997) analyzed the impact of relatedness between US banks on their performance after the mergers. Altunbas and Ibanez (2004) examined the impact of strategic similarities between bidders and targets on post-merger financial performance. Our model proposes that merger performance is in function of acquisition strategy, premerger bidder performance and relative size. Research model was as following: Merger performance = F (Acquisition strategy, premerger bidder performance, relative size). The research question examined in our study was to find out if acquisition strategy or relatedness of merging companies increases the performance of bidding companies. The main hypothesis was the following: H1: Relatedness between merging companies has a positive impact on merger performance. Given the results of previous researches, that included acquisition strategy and premerger bidder performance, we assumed that those two variables will have a positive effect on merger results. In other words, we expected that the best merger results will be presented by companies that had related acquisition strategies and lower premerger bidder performance. H2: Premerger bidder performance moderates the impact of related acquisition strategy on merger performance. The impact of related acquisition strategy becomes more positive as bidder premerger performance decreases. Data set To find relevant mergers and conduct the analysis, the Thompson One Banker database on mergers was used. Following criteria were used to screen merging companies: 38 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance (1) Merging companies should be from the EU member countries and Switzerland and mergers should be effective in the period between January 1st and December 31, 2008. (2) Mergers in which the bidding companies had between 50 and 100% of ownership have been selected. According to International Accounting Standards, control is presumed when the parent acquires more than half of the voting rights of the entity (Mackenzie et al., 2011). Also, control is the power to govern the financial and operating policies of an entity so as to obtain benefits from its activities (Mackenzie et al., 2011). Consequently it is reasonable to expect that control over subsidiary should impact performance of bidding firm. (3) In order to obtain financial data, only publicly listed companies had been selected. (4) We limited the sample with the requirement for market capitalization of bidding company above 5 Mill USD. The resulting sample comprised of 81 mergers. Out of 81 mergers, only 49 mergers had full set of required financial data. So a final sample of 49 mergers as a unit of analysis (comprising 98 companies) meeting the above conditions was identified. Measures As dependent variable, we measured merger performance as the difference between the bidding firm's two-year average return on assets (ROA) after the acquisition and the average of the ROA of the bidding company two years before the acquisition. We considered two years time window to avoid the effect of other economic factors or other mergers which could distort the results if we would take longer time span. According to the Meeks and Meeks (1981) when using accounting measures in assessing impact of merger on efficiency, the problem of extracting the effect of efficiency changes on profit from that of changes in bargaining power resulting from the merger arises. In their paper, among other profitability measures, ROA is the least sensitive in the case of enhancement of leverage or bargaining power resulting from a merger. Acquisition strategy, as an independent variable, was measured by a dummy variable. If an acquisition was categorized as a 'horizontal merger' (i.e., related acquisition; meaning in the same industry), the variable 'related acquisition' was coded '1'. All other mergers (i.e., unrelated acquisition meaning from different industries), were 39 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić coded '0'. Horizontal or related mergers in our sample encompass all mergers in which bidder and target are operating in the same macro industry defined within the Thompson One banker database. This approach was used in several other researches (e.g. Gerbauld and York, 2007) Two control variables, namely, average premerger ROA of the bidder for two years prior to merger (premerger bidder performance) and the size of a target vis-a-vis the bidder (relative size) were used in the analysis. The level of the bidder’s premerger performance, measured as its return on assets, is likely to influence post-merger performance. Altunbas and Ibanez (2004) argue that if a bidder already possesses a high-level of profitability before the merging process, it is more likely that the profitability of the new institution will decrease in the short term due to the process itself. Alternatively, it is probable that bidders with a lower level of performance will manage to increase their profitability after merging with a target. As a consequence, a negative relationship between bidders’ premerger performance and post merger performance is expected initially. This effect is also known as a “floor-ceiling” effect (Ramaswamy, 1997). Relative size was used as a control variable since various studies show that it may impact post merger bidder performance. Some researchers show that larger companies might acquire smaller companies to realize scale-related synergies that would otherwise be difficult to obtain (Datta et al., 1991; Kusewitt, 1985). Chaterjee (1986) states that the smaller the acquired firm, relative to the bidding firm, the greater the potential for synergy. Tuch and O’Sullivan (2007) state that there are a number of reasons why acquiring larger targets might result in better post-acquisition performance. First, larger targets are more difficult to assimilate into a combined organization, so the pool of potential acquirers is expected to be smaller. This may result in acquirers being able to acquire large targets on more advantageous terms (Roll, 1986). Secondly, the economic impact of acquiring a larger target is likely to have a stronger impact on the post-bid performance of the combined company (Bruner 2002). Finally, Moeller et al. (2004) argue that the contrasting findings from some studies examining the impact of size arise as a result of the different levels of care exercised by smaller bidders in the acquisition process. Small acquirers need to be more careful when making a potentially risky bid, as there will be a relatively larger economic impact on their company. The authors therefore argue that the size effect is due to smaller acquirers rather than to larger targets. Since data is not conclusive on the direction of the effect, but research shows impact of relative size on the merger performance, this variable is used as control variable. 40 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Relative size was calculated as a relative number representing difference in sales between target and bidder. In order to give better understanding to variables and their Operationalization but also to connect them with the hypotheses formed, latter table has been prepared (Table 2). Table 2. Operationalization of the Variables and Hypotheses Variables Control variables Operationalization Hypothesis premerger bidder performance Average premerger ROA of the bidder for two years prior to merger. relative size Relative number representing difference in sales between target and bidder. H2: Premerger bidder performance moderates the impact of related acquisition strategy on merger performance. The impact of related acquisition strategy becomes more positive as bidder premerger performance decreases. Independent variable acquisition strategy Dependent variable merger performance If an acquisition was categorized as a 'horizontal merger' (i.e., related acquisition; meaning in the same industry), the variable 'related acquisition' was coded '1'. All other mergers (i.e., unrelated acquisition meaning from different industries), were coded '0'. H1: Relatedness between merging companies has a positive impact on merger performance. Difference between the bidding firm's two-year average return on assets (ROA) after the acquisition and the average of the ROA of the bidding company two years before the acquisition. 41 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Results Prior to testing of hypotheses, we performed correlation analysis which is shown with descriptive statistics in Table 3. Generally, we can conclude that after the merger performance results are on average lower (x=-4,38) than before the merger (x=5,70). Table 3. Univariate Statistics and Correlation Matrix for Explanatory Variables 1. Merger performance 2. Acquisition strategy 3. Premerger bidder performance 4. Relative size Mean s.d. -4.38 0.65 5.70 1.38 6.19 0.48 8.36 6.57 1 2 .14 -.32* .15 -.33 .12 3 -.12 *p< .05 To test our model we decided to calculate hierarchical regression analysis which is usually used when variables are determined by past research and analysis (Field, 2009; Cohen and Cohen, 1984). Some other researchers also used this hierarchical regression analysis to show how an additional set of variables are affecting independent variables, besides used control variables (Altunbas and Marques Ibanes, 2004; Ramaswamy, 1997). Even though data shows respectful standard deviation, the OLS regression was run for both models to generate variance inflation factors (VIF’s). Average VIF’s for the first model were below 1.014 which is considered acceptable. Second model primarily included two control variables, one independent and 3 interaction effect but VIF’s and eigenvalues proved that there is a presence of multicollinearity. Since there is proof that, in the case of multicollinearity, the dropping of the highly collinear variable can often make other variables statistically significant (Gujarati, 2002; Allison, 1998), we decided to drop out the relative size which had high correlations with other variables and had no predictive effect in the first model. Thus the second model was calculated with one control variable, one independent variable, and 3 interaction effects. The results of the two regression models are showed in the Table 4. 42 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Table 4. Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Model 1 Control variables premerger bidder performance relative size Independent variables acquisition strategy acquisition strategy x premerger bidder performance acquisition strategy x relative size premerger bidder performance x relative size Model R2 F *p< .05 -0.31* 0.11 Model 2 -1,09** -0.54** 1.12** -0.07 -0.30 0.12 3.05 0.54 10.25** **p< .001 The results of the hierarchical regression analysis provide support for the first study hypothesis. The first model shows that the control variable, named relative size as the difference in sales between target and bidder does not have a significant impact on merger performance. Premerger bidder performance, as the second control variable, negatively impacts mergers performance and explains 12% of the variance. The merger performance was calculated as the difference of post-merger and premerger ROA, thus capturing floor – ceiling effect mentioned earlier. In other words, companies that were performing better prior to merging cannot be expected to have results after the merger as high as the companies that were performing poorly (Figure 1). These results are similar to the results of other authors (Harrison et al, 1991; Ramaswamy, 1997; Altunbas and Ibanes, 2004). 43 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Figure 1. Effect of Premerger Bidder Performance on Merger Performance Merger performance -2.40 -6.28 low high premerger bidder performance The second model brings the same effect of the control variables and proves the effect of acquisition strategy, explaining additional 42% of the variance. Results also show that related mergers have better merger scores than unrelated mergers (Figure 2). Figure 2. Effect of Acquisition Strategy on Merger Performance Merger performance -3.77 -5.53 unrelated 44 acqusition strategy related Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Hypothesis 1 predicts that relatedness between merging companies has a positive impact on merger performance. Model 2 tests this hypothesis and coefficient for the acquisition strategy is negative and strongly significant (b = -0.54; p < .001) which indicates support for Hypothesis 1. Hypothesis 2 in our research predicts a negative interaction between relatedness of merging companies and premerger bidder performance expecting that the most successful mergers will be among related companies with low premerger bidder performance. Results show positive interaction (b = 1.12; p < .001) and therefore hypothesis 2 is supported. Figure 3 graphically shows interaction among acquisition strategy and premerger bidder performance that was not predicted by the Hypothesis 2. Figure 3. Two-Way Interaction between Acquisition Strategy and Premerger Bidder Performance Merger performance 1.56 low premerger bidder performance -3.45 -4.24 high premerger bidder performance -8.49 unrelated related acqusition strategy Discussion and Conclusion One purpose of this research was to deal with found gaps in previous researches. Selection of mergers was geographically put in EU countries and Switzerland, only completed mergers in 2008 were included in the sample and premerger and post merger success was measured in a two year frame prior to and after the merger. 45 �Mirna Koričan, Zoran Barac, Ivija Jelavić Results of the hierarchical regression analysis show that independent variables in the second model can explain a significant variance in merger performance. Acquisition strategy has an impact on merger performance and generally the more successful are companies that are merging with target companies in the same industry. This can be explained by creation of collusive and operational synergies in related mergers (Chatterjee, 1986). Since related acquisition may involve utilization of economies of scale and/or scope both in production and distribution, this may lead to reduced costs (i.e. operational synergies), as well as achievement of collusive gains, i.e. advantages based on the market power. Our study also shows that related acquisition strategy and lower premerger performance has a positive effect on the merger’s performance as well. On the other hand, unrelated strategies combined with lower premerger performance have an even better impact on merger performance than related ones do. Our results provide the answer that the most successful companies in mergers are those that had lower premerger bidder performance and that had unrelated diversification strategy. These results can be explained by previous research which showed that in unrelated acquisitions, value creation occurs and is associated with the coinsurance effect (Seth, 1990). Some other empirical evidence shows coinsurance effect for conglomerate mergers (Kim and McConnell, 1977; Asquith and Kim, 1982; Choi and Philippatos, 1983; Shrieves and Pashley, 1984). Coinsurance effect appears in merger between companies whose earnings streams are less than perfectly correlated i.e. unrelated mergers. In effect, one company can supply funds following the merger to make up for the other's concurrent deficiency and thus creating higher cash flows (Seth, 1990). Also better performance of unrelated mergers combined with low premerger bidder profitability may be explained with exploiting more financial synergies in unrelated mergers than operational and collusive synergies in related acquisitions. According to Chatterjee (1986) unrelated mergers are likely to have one form of synergy present, i.e. financial synergy. That means that on average a large company has cheaper access to capital than a small company does. Unrelated mergers may create financial diversification when a company acquires another with a different business cycle to its own, its income stream will be stabilized and the variance of the firm's returns reduced (Steiner, 1975). 46 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Limitations There are certain limitations which have to be discussed. First problem we will mention is the problem of conceptualization and measurement of relatedness. In our paper we defined relatedness on the basis of the same macro industry in the Thompson One Banker data base because of the availability of this statistic. Also, although readily available and widely used, the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) and Federal Trade Commission (FTC) classifications of mergers into groups such as horizontal, vertical, product, conglomerate, are limited in their ability to provide insights into the complex nature of relatedness (Lubatkin, 1983, 1987). Besides of standard product-based definitions of relatedness, it implies connectivity of critical organizational and strategic factors such as resource allocation patterns (Harrison et al., 1991), management philosophy (Datta, Grant, & Rajagopalan, 1991), and organizational culture (Chatterjee et al., 1992; Jemison & Sitkin, 1986; Nahavandi & Malekzadeh, 1993), but a problem arises when researchers have to decide on measurements of relatedness and availability of data. Also, as Meeks and Meeks (1981) also stressed in their research, limitation arise when using accounting measures as a metric of merger success. The central issue is distinguishing the effect of the profit of efficiency changes, resulting from a merger, from that of changes in bargaining power. For instance, if the participants' bargaining power is on average enhanced by a merger, then profitability could rise even though efficiency remained unchanged or actually fell. One of the limitations could be the number of mergers used. As noted earlier, in our research we only focused on 49 mergers out of 81 because for the remaining number of mergers we could not find the needed data. If we would have this data, maybe the results would show some other effects. Finally, limitation may be related to the measurement time frame. 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Tuch, S. & O’Sullivan, N. (2007). The Impact of Acquisition on Firm’s Performance: A Review of the Evidence, International Journal of Management Reviews, 9, 141-170. Walker M. M. (2000). Corporate Takeovers, Strategic Objectives, and AcquiringFirm Shareholder Wealth. Financial Management, 29, 53-66. 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2405 Title A name given to the resource Impact of Related Acquisition Strategy on Bidding Company Performance Author Author KORICAN, MIRNA BARAC, ZORAN JELAVIC, IVIJA Abstract A summary of the resource. : Strategy researchers believe that the better the strategic fit or relatedness between the bidding and acquired firms, the greater should be the economic gain from the merger. Although merger performance has been widely researched we recognized that empirical results on merger performance are inconclusive and that there are research gaps related to geographical settings, time frame and methodological approach. Thus, the research question examined in our study was to find out if acquisition strategy or relatedness of merging companies increases performance of the bidding company. Also we considered moderating effect of premerger bidder profitability on the performance of the merger. Our study predicts that relatedness between merging companies has a positive impact on the merger’s performance. Results of 49 mergers completed in 2008 in EU member countries and Switzerland show that related mergers have better merger scores than unrelated mergers. We also predict that the impact of the related acquisition strategy becomes more positive as bidder premerger performance decreases. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c4031b55b2ca08c76b2801fc1e6813a.pdf d45fd97255d4e797ed1d0b03868489b8 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies 20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Vildan Jusufović Karışık Fatih University Turkey vjusufovic@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: The popularity of product placement as a Keywords: Product placements, viable alternative to traditional commercials has been brand placements, movie placements, increasing rapidly. Latest PQ Media report (2012) video game placements, TV noted that global spending on product placement has placements already reached $8.25 billion. However, despite its popularity, extant academic research on product placement lags behind its practice. The aim of this paper is to review, categorize and analyze exhaustively the existing product placement literature with the purpose of identifying possible research gaps for academics and guidelines of effective product placements for practitioners interested in the field. 73 academic studies that in particular focus on product placements within movies, television (TV) programmes and video games were examined. The exhaustive review revealed that studies in the US investigating product placement effectiveness through memory related measures and consumer attitudes dominate the product placement literature. However, studies investigating effects of product placement on measures other than memory related and attitudinal ones are extremely scarce. Based on the identified research gaps, an agenda for future studies is suggested. Also, factors that were evidenced to trigger product placement effects throughout the literature are revealed and outlined for practitioners use. JEL Classification: M370, M310, M300. Article History: Submitted: 7 March 2014 Resubmitted: 6 May 2014 Accepted: 15 May 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS 114210 253 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Introduction Product placement can be defined briefly as the inclusion of brand and/or brand identifying items within mass media programming such as cinema and TV (Karrh, 1998). The practice was first seen in the mid-1890s i. Product placement became a subject of interest for academia during the 1980s following the release of Spielberg’s blockbuster film E.T. (1982). It was suggested that Hershey experienced a 66% increase in sales of their Reese’s Pieces candy as a result of product placement in the film (Gupta and Lord, 1998; Gupta and Gould, 1997). Practitioner and scholarly interest in product placement has skyrocketed since then and product placement on the silver screen has spread to other mass media vehicles, particularly, TV. Product placement on TV was rapidly adopted. The introduction of the DVR ii, which is blamed for decreasing the effectiveness of traditional commercials, has encouraged advertisers to constantly search for viable alternatives. Product placement offers an alternative with several advantages over the venerable 30-second commercial. First, product placement ensures that the advertiser’s message is integrated within the program content. Thus, the TV audience, who mostly opt to zap to other channels when commercials begin (Altaş and Öztunç, 2013), cannot easily avoid product placements. Second, product placement is less intrusive. Placed products are perceived as more natural and credible by the audience, generating favorable consumer associations and goodwill. Traditional commercials are liable to activate the Persuasion Knowledge Model iii that is referenced in the marketing literature (Reijmersdal et al., 2007; d’Astous and Chartier, 1998). Third, placements are often more economical than traditional commercials. A season-length placement within a prime-time TV program costs, on average, $200,000 in the United States; whereas a single 30-second commercial within the same type of prime-time programing costs approximately $475,000 (Wells, 1996, in Law and Braun, 2000). Soon, product placements began appearing within media vehicles other than movies and TV programmes. Especially, video games iv started to use very often product placements as a way to add verisimilitude to their virtual worlds. Dole branded bananas in Super Monkey Ball (2001), Sony Ericsson phones in Splinter Cell (2002), Nike, Adidas, Umbro uniforms, crampons in Pro Evolution Soccer (PES) and FIFA games (2008) are examples of video game product placements. Notwithstanding this, there are also instances in which product placements appear 254 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media within songs (Volvo cars, Aldo shoes in I don’t give a named song by Madonna, 2012), music videos (Sony Xperia in Avril Lavigne’s music video Rock N Roll), even novels. To illustrate, British writer Fay Weldon accepted financing from Italian jewellery company, Bulgari, in return to prominently mention the firm and its products in her novel. In fact, Weldon did more than merely mention Bulgari; she integrated Bulgari to the plot and named her 2001 book “The Bulgari Connection”, thus earning the renown as the first novel with paid product placement. Prevalence of product placement practice on different media channels has thus been on rise. However, just as Karrh (1998) noted, academic research on product placement could not keep pace with the growth of its practice. Consequently, a review of the extant literature on product placement research that will provide the current status and identify research gaps will be of high value for both scholars and practitioners. This paper aims at fulfilling this purpose through reviewing, categorizing and analyzing studies which investigated product placement practice particularly in movies, TV programmes and video games. Paper is further organized in four main sections. The next section presents the analysis of the reviewed literature that was adopted for the purposes of this study, with its scope, methodology, and framework detailly explained. While the third section presents results of the analysis, the fourth discusses them exhaustively. Finally, the fifth section concludes, as well as, notes limitations along with suggestions for future product placement studies. Literature Analysis The analysis of the product placement literature is conducted as in the following. First, the scope of and the methodology adopted for this literature review study are presented. Next, the framework of the literature analysis is explained. Scope of the Literature Analysis and the Analysis Methodology For the purposes of this study, keyword search and reference search were performed. First, keyword search was carried out for full text, peer-reviewed research studies written in English through using keywords like, “product placement”, “brand placement”, “TV product placement”, video game placement”, “advergame” within refereed academic journals of EBSCOHOST database. Only the EBSCOHOST 255 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık database was scanned because it is the database that included the most relevant studies for the selected subject amongst those the researcher had full access to. In addition, to evaluate if all key academic studies within the selected subject area were included, reference search was conducted via the "snowball method" by reviewing the references of the articles found in the database. Again, only published, peer-reviewed articles were selected with the exception of two studies that were neccessarily taken into consideration to provide a better picture of the research theme v. Studies reviewing product placement literature (e.g. Kureshi and Sood, 2010), as well as, those dealing with product placement history (e.g. Newell et al., 2006), regulation (e.g. Gupta et al., 2000) were not considered relevant for the purposes of this review and thus were excluded. Additionally, studies that have investigated product placements within other alternative media such as novels, songs, music videos were scarce vi and thus they were also excluded from this review study. Description and Framework of the Literature Analysis A total of 73 out of 266 accessed studies that were published between 1993 and 2013 were considered to be relevant to the selected suject area. Most of them were published in Journal of Advertising (n=8, 11%), Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising (n=5, 6.8%) and International Journal of Advertising (n=4, 5.4%). The majority of the studies were focused on the movie medium (n=38, 52%), followed by TV (n=19, 26%) and lastly by the video game medium (n=14, 19%). Their methodologies, in general, were either experimental research design (n=39, 53 %), or survey (n=20, 27 %) and, in a few cases, content analysis (n=8, 11%). Additionally, sample of the majority of studies involved university students (n=30, 41%). While with the experimental research design the effectiveness of product placement question was investigated, surveys, in general, investigated product placement acceptability and the content analyses, were employed for investigating prevalence and characteristics of the product placements. Although in partial, findings of the experimental research studies provided invaluable insights for answering the product placement effectiveness question for all three media. Since the majority of the product placement effectiveness studies investigated the effect of placements on consumer memory and attitude in particular, their effects 256 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media on behavioural outcomes, such as purchase intention and preference for placed products remained indeterminate. Surveys, on the other hand, enabled to discover that men are more accepting product placements than women, as well as, that countries do not differ drastically in relation to their acceptability of ethically charged goods. Finally, researchers that administered content analysis were able to reveal the nature, characteristics and prevalence of product placements for the medium they were interested with their chosen research method. In the following pages, first results from the analysis of product placement studies on movie medium is given, to be followed by TV and then video game product placements, respectively. Results of the Analyses Research on Product Placements in Movies Movies are the most investigated product placement medium in the literature. 38 out of 73 studies that were reviewed for this study were focused on movie product placements. In most of the studies investigating product placement effectiveness through memory related measures (n=13, 34.2%), attitude (n=4, 10.5%) or both (n=5, 13.15%) was the aim. Practitioners’ views (n=5, 13.15 %), ethics and acceptability of product placements and their cross-national comparison (n=7, 18.4%) were other frequently investigated subjects, whereas, brand consciousness (n=2, 5.2%), consumer interpretations (n=2, 5.2%), purchase intention for placed products were seldom examined for movie product placements. Thus, research on movie product placements can be categorized roughly under three streams: • Studies on movie placement effectiveness • Studies dealing with ethics, acceptability of movie placements and their crossnational comparison • Studies examining practitioners’ views on movie placements Discussion of main findings for the above mentioned streams are provided next. 257 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Movie placement effectiveness Majority of scholars attempted to measure movie placement effectiveness through examining its effect on consumer memory. Recall (Gupta and Lord, 1998; Nelson and Devanathan, 2006; Bressoud and Lehu, 2007; Lehu and Bressoud, 2008; 2009), and recognition (Brennan and Babin, 2004), which are known as explicit memory measures, as well as, brand salience vii (Babin and Carder, 1996a; Johnstone and Dodd, 2000) were the most widely applied memory-related effectiveness measures. Often, together with consumer memory, consumer attitude toward movie product placements and placed products were investigated as well (Panda, 2000; Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007; Dens et al., 2012; d’Astous and Chartier, 2000; Cholinski, 2012). Results of these studies, in general, reported that movie placements do have significant effect on enhancing consumer memory (Gupta and Lord, 1998; Nelson and Devanathan, 2006; Lehu and Bressoud, 2007; 2008; 2009; Brennan and Babin, 2004; Babin and Carder, 1996; Johnstone and Dodd, 2000; Argan et al., 2007) and generating positive consumer attitude for products being placed (Panda, 2000; Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007; Dens et al., 2012; d’Astous and Chartier, 2000; Cholinski, 2012). Strong connection of the product placement to the movie plot was found to be vital for ensuring both high recall rates and positive consumer attitude. Even in cases when the strong plot connected placements viii were seen only for a short period (4-6 sec) on the screen, unaided recall rate was reported to reach 86.6% (Argan et al., 2007). Nonetheless, the product placement strategy that involves combination of strong plot connection with high prominence ix was widely acknowledged to generate even better results but only for retrieval of the placed brand in consumer memory (Gupta and Lord, 1998; Bressoud and Lehu, 2007; Lehu and Bressoud, 2008; 2009; Panda, 2010; Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007; Brennan and Babin, 2004; d’Astous and Chartier, 2000; Cholinski, 2012). The same combination was not found to generate positive consumer attitude (Dens et al., 2012; d’Astous and Chartier, 2000; Cholinski, 2012) since highly prominent placements were often being criticized by the audience for being irritating and distracting from their viewing experience. Strong plot connected but less prominent placements (Dens et al., 2012; d’Astous and Chartier, 2000) were evidenced to attract positive consumer attitudes, especially when they were embedded within humorous film scenes (Jin and Villegas, 2007),. 258 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Additionally, audio-visual placements were found to generate better memory results than visual-only placements (Brennan and Babin, 2004). However, adding an audio and/or visual reference to an already high prominent and high plot connected placement was found to generate mixed results on consumer memory. Since Cholinski (2012) found that if a highly prominent and plot integrated placement is an audio-visual one, then regardless of all other executional variables, it will generate high recall and recognition rates. Nonetheless, when Gupta and Lord (1998) added an audio reference to an already visual highly prominent and plot connected placement, they did not observe enhanced recall rates, whereas, when Brennan and Babin (2004) did the same, they observed enhanced recognition scores. Furthermore, other factors that were reported to enhance explicit memory of the placed brand/product were use of the product by the main character (Yang and Roskos-Ewoldsen, 2007), familiarity with the product (Brennan and Babin, 2004; Panda, 2004), first viewing of the film at the cinema as well as its second viewing at home on a large screen, liking of the movie, its genre, its director (Lehu and Bressoud, 2008 ;2009; Bressoud et al., 2010) and brand consciousness (Nelson and Devanathan, 2006) which was also found to be highly effective in generating “the most favourable” consumer attitude towards placements (Nelson and McLeod, 2005). Conditions that were reported to increase brand salience were liking the film and being high self-monitor (Johnstone and Dodd, 2000). On the other hand, although purchase intention is an important effectiveness measure, it has been seldom considered when tapping movie placement effectiveness (Ong and Meri, 1994; Vollmers and Mizerski, 1994; Morton and Friedman; Jin and Villegas, 2007). Also, the results of the few studies are far from reputing significant effects of movie placement on purchase intention. Since while Ong and Meri (1994), as well as, Vollmers and Mizerski (1994) did not observe enhanced purchase intention for products integrated within a movie, Jin and Villegas (2007) did observe enhanced purchase intention for placed products but in particular for positively preevaluated brands/products. Auty and Lewis (2004), who examined preference for placed products by children of ages ranging from 6 to 12, reported that children showed higher preference for placed brands but their preference, in addition to placement, was found to be affected by their prior exposure to the brand as well. Therefore, it can be concluded that based on the reviewed studies the effect of movie placements on consumer memory and attitude is appreciable but their effect on 259 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık behavioural outcomes, such as purchase intention and preference for placed products is as yet indeterminate. Ethics, acceptability of movie product placements and their cross-national comparison This stream of scholars opted to investigate placement effectiveness indirectly rather than directly, through dealing with placement acceptability and ethical issues which in turn were assumed to have impact on consumer attitudes (Nebenzahl and Secunda, 1993; Gupta and Gould, 1997; Gould et al., 2000; Brennan et al., 2004; Eisend, 2009; Delorme and Reid, 1999). Ethical concerns regarding placements are twofold: objecting to product placements in general since they are perceived to have subliminal effects and objecting to placements of specific products. First, in general, positive attitudes toward movie placements (Nebenzahl and Secunda, 1993) especially by non-students (Sung et al., 2009) and those who value perceived realism, fewer restrictions (Gupta and Gould, 1997) were evidenced. Although subtle placements of familiar brands were perceived as enhancing realism (Delorme and Reid, 1999), there were also those, though in minority, who perceived this subtlety as deceptive and expressed negative attitudes (Nebenzahl and Secunda, 1993). Also excessive placements of generic brands were evaluated as being irritating and distracting from their viewing experience (Delorme and Reid, 1999). On the other hand, perceived (un)acceptability of movie placements was found to differ based on the nature of products, gender and movie watching frequency of the audience. First with regard to their nature, products in the product placement literature were distinguished by Gupta and Gould (1997) as being ethically charged and non-ethically charged ones. Ethically charged goods were defined as those that arouse ethical concerns and differences across consumers regarding their marketing and consumption, such as alcoholic beverages, guns and tobacco. On the other hand, all goods other than ethically charged ones were called as non-ethically charged goods or neutral goods, such as fatty foods, cars, beverages etc. Next, it was evidenced consistently across product placement literature that placement of ethically charged goods are less acceptable than placement of neutral products in US (Gupta and Gould, 1997; Brennan et al., 2004). Despite this, US 260 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media consumers perceived the regulation need for placement of ethically charged goods only for the sake of non-adult audience members (Sung et al., 2009). Additionally, in US, males and frequent movie watchers were found to tolerate and accept placement of ethically charged goods more than females and infrequent movie watchers. Thus, it can be noted that the earlier studies dealing with placement ethics and acceptability of placements were mainly based on data gathered from US respondents. Fortunately, Gould et al. (2000) took an initiative and compared their findings generated from a US sample in 1997 with those they had generated from Austrian and French samples. Also, other studies that compared attitudes towards and acceptability of product placement by American consumers to those by Chinese, Australian, Austrian, French (McKehnie and Zhou, 2003) and Italian consumers (Nelli, 2009) emerged. All of these studies revealed that US consumers were more accepting and more likely to purchase placed products (country-based difference) than the French, the Austrian, the Australian, the Italian and the Chinese consumers. Nevertheless, ethically charged goods, regardless of country, were found to be less accepted by females and infrequent moviegoers (product difference). Similarly, regardless of country, males were evidenced to purchase the placed product more than females (gender difference). Furthermore, data of the above mentioned studies by Gould et al. (2000) and Brennen et al. (2004) McKehnie and Zhou (2003) were combined with the one by Mouskourova et al. (2006) in another study that attempted to generalize acceptability of ethically charged and neutral goods over seven different countries (Eisend, 2009). The seven different contries were USA, France, Austria (Gould et al., 2000), Australia (Brennan et al., 2004), China (McKehnie and Zhou, 2003), Germany and Bulgaria (Mouskourava, 2005). As a result, Eisend (2009) reported that acceptability of ethically charged goods was generalizable and it was described as “indifferent” (between acceptable and unacceptable) consistently across seven countries. Also gender related product placement acceptability was generalizable. However, acceptability of neutral products was not generalizable as its accepting levels differed across seven countries. Finally, Torrano and Flores (2009), who compared attitudes toward product placement by French and Spanish consumers, did not also observe significant differences between the Frenchs and the Spanishs in relation to their product placement attitudes. 261 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık So, based on the above mentioned exceptional studies, countries do not differ drastically in relation to their acceptability of ethically charged goods. Nonetheless, there is still a gap regarding the ethical concerns and acceptability of product placements within countries other than US. Practitioners’ views on movie product placements Some scholars, alternatively, showed a special interest in the practitioners’ beliefs when examining product placements on the silver screen (Karrh, 1995; McKee and Pardun, 1996; 2000; Karrh, McKee and Pardun, 2003; Jan and Martina, 2013) . Karrh (1995) was the first to investigate practitioners’ views. His seminal study involved a survey of 23 ERMA x members, who described the most effective brand placements as those that were “easily recognized”, “portrayed positively in the movie plot”, as well as, “being accompanied by further promotional support”. Moreover, practitioners in his study generally noted recall and recognition as the best measures of brand placement effectiveness. Subsequently, Pardun and McKee (1996) surveyed 89 advertising agency media directors and examined factors most important in making product placement decision for a feature film. “National viewing potential”, “price of the placement” and “theme of the movie” were noted as the most important ones, while “action in the movie”, “international viewing potential”, “movie producer” as the least important ones out of 10 listed factors. Practitioners noted further positive and long term roles as well as increased use of movie placements in future. Pardun and McKee (2000) later repeated the same study with 106 public relations (PR) professionals. PR professionals reported “international viewing potential” instead of national one together with “price of the placement” and “theme of the movie” as the most important factors. Later on, Karrh together with McKee and Pardun (2003) repeated his seminal study conducted in 1995 to reveal the evolution of practitioners’ product placement views. The survey items from Karrh’s study was responded 28 ERMA members and results revealed that effective placements in 2003 mandated a more expanded set of both executional factors and brand characteristics. Also, the importance attached by practitioners to each executional factor and brand characteristic increased. More practitioners in 2003 believed that product placements have a subliminal dimension 262 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media than in 1995. Additionally, practitioners’ belief regarding the future rise in product placements was reinforced in 2003. With the exception of a recent study, in which Jan and Martina (2013) revealed that Czech practitioners are sure of product placement efficiency and regard it as longterm marketing field that involves brand-building efforts, studies investigating practitioners’ views, especially those of other than US, are extremely hard-to-comeby. Research on Product Placements on TV TV product placements have been attracting scholarly interest especially in the last decade, when 16 out of 19 reviewed TV placement studies were conducted. Studies on TV product placement mostly focused on its effectiveness (n=10, 52.6%) through attitude (n=5, 26.3%), memory related measures (n=3, 15.7%) or both (n=2, 10.5%) at the same time. On the other hand, another stream of studies investigated its prevalence and characteristics (n=7, 36.8%). It can be noted that scholars mainly employed either experiment (n=9, 47.3%) or content analysis (n=7, 36.8%) method to investigate product placement applications on TV programmes. Those who investigated its effectiveness used the experiment method, while those who aimed at shedding light on its nature and characteristics employed the content analysis method. Academic studies on TV product placements can be examined under two categories: • Studies on TV placement effectiveness • Studies investigating prevalence, nature and characteristics of TV placements TV placement effectiveness Just as movie placement effectiveness, effectiveness of TV placements was generally tapped through consumer attitude and memory related measures. The methodology utilized most frequently was viewing by a sample of students a whole TV programme or an excerpt from it with product placements. This viewing experience was immediately followed by a questionnaire that probed recall, recognition levels and/or attitudes towards the placed products by the sample audience (Law and Braun, 2000; Reijmersdal et al., 2007; Tiwsakul et al., 2005; 263 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Cowley and Barron, 2008; Homer, 2009). In general, overall enhancement of recall and recognition levels for placed products (Law and Braun, 2000) and positive attitudes towards TV placements as well as placed products were noted (Tiwsakul et al., 2005; Schmoll et al., 2006). Results with regard to effective placement strategies revealed that products that were placed as visual-only were least recalled but mostly preferred, whereas products that were placed central to the plot were most recalled but least preferred ones on the TV screen (Law and Braun, 2000). It was also evidenced that incongruences between modality (visual or audio) and plot connection attracts consumer attention and thus improves memory for placed product. However, persuasion was found to enhance by congruency, therefore the said incongruence was reported to affect consumer attitude negatively (Russell, 2002; d’Astous and Seguin, 1998). High prominence was not found to be a promising characteristic for TV placement effectiveness as it was for movie placements. Highly prominent TV placements were found to diminish positive consumer attitudes, especially in case of being repeated frequently for known brands and being displayed in favourite programmes. On the contrary, subtle placements were evidenced to generate positive consumer attitudes (Cowley and Barron, 2008; Homer, 2009). Moreover, placements of ethically charged goods were found to arouse ethical concerns and negative attitudes on TV screen as well. Females were once more found to evaluate placements of ethically charged goods more negatively than males (Tiwsakul et al., 2005; Schmoll et al., 2006). Additionally, subliminal, implicit and passive placements were found to arouse negative attitudes and ethical concerns, especially when they were within information and services TV programme type (Tiwsakul et al., 2005). On the other hand, congruity between placement sponsor and the program was found to generate positive ethical and evaluative reactions for all TV program types except for mini-series and dramas, in which placements were evidenced to generate most negative attitudes (d’Astous and Seguin,1998). Additionally, genre of the TV programme was found to influence effectiveness of product placement as well. Russell and Stern (2005a) studied US sitcoms and they found out, based on their Product-Character Association (PCA) model, that US audience associate products placed within sitcoms with the sitcom characters and their attitudes toward placed products was found to be driven by their attitude 264 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media toward the characters. The same association was evidenced to occur in case of US soap operas as well (Russell and Stern, 2006). On the other hand, Gupta and Gould (2007) examined placements within TV game shows in particular. First, they studied how consumers evaluate game shows and products placed in them and subsequently their effectiveness on consumer memory in relation to traditional advertising. While location and price of the product within a game were found to be the factors enhancing recall the most, overall traditional advertisements were recalled better. Effectiveness studies that do not employ memory based measures are scarce for TV product placements as well. Only one study which investigated the effect of TV product placements on brand image was reviewed. The said study evidenced that brand image starts to change in the direction of the TV programme after -at least- a second exposure (Reijmersdal et al., 2005). So, there is a need in the literature for more studies that shed light on effectiveness of product placement practice on TV screen through measures other than memory and attitude related ones. Prevalence, nature and characteristics of TV product placements This stream of researchers opted to examine characteristics of product placements appearing on the TV screen. Their research method, content analysis, chiefly involved analysis of TV programming on major TV networks of the countries to be studied. Very often prime-time, which represents largest number of viewers in relation to any other time period of the day, was chosen as the period to be analysed (Avery and Ferraro, 2000). Most of these studies were conducted in the US (Ferraro and Avery, 2000a; 2000b; La Ferle and Edwards, 2006) with the notable exceptions by Smit et al. (2006), who examined TV placements on Dutch TV networks and Wouters and Pelsmacker (2011), who provided comparison of placements on US and Flemish TV networks. The study by Avery and Ferraro (2000a) was among the earliest ones examining prevalence and nature of TV product placements. The authors content analysed 112 hours of US prime-time programming (April, 1997) and reported that brands are prevalent on prime time television (one placement every two-minutes of TV programming) with the majority appearing in real-life events, such as sports, news, 265 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık feature magazine and game shows. Moreover, most of them were found to be visually prominent, with extended portrayals (75%) and foreground placements (79%) and almost half of the visual placements involving interaction with the programme character (40%) (Ferraro and Avery, 2000b). In addition, the content analysis of the nature of TV placements revealed that their commercial intent was overshadowing the intent for enhancing realism. Despite this, still 60% of the viewers were found to perceive placements as adding realism to the TV programmes (Schmoll et al., 2006). Five years later, when La Ferle and Edwards (2006) content analysed US prime time TV programming (January, 2002), they observed relatively less prevalence of brand placements (one placement every three-minutes TV programming) in relation to 1997. Visual TV placements in 2002 were also observed to be less prevalent in relation to 1997 (52.8%). Also, in 2002 the type of US TV programmes that involved most brand appearances was found to be sitcoms and dramas rather than real life events as they were in 1997. Real life events, such as news and feature magazines, took the second place. (La Ferle and Edwards, 2006). On the other hand, in another study, frequency and nature of US TV placements were compared with Flemish TV placements (Wouters and Pelsmacker, 2011). It was found that the difference between placement frequencies on Flemish and US TV programmes was not statistically significant. Nonetheless placements were embedded mostly within non-scripted TV programmes in US, whereas they were integrated generally within scripted TV programmes in Belgium. Additionally, Pervan and Martin (2002) investigated product placements within soap operas of US and New Zealand. They found that while placements within US soap operas were mainly produced for promotion of leisure and appearance related products, those in New Zealand soap operas were largely promoted transport and food related products. In addition, soap opera viewers in New Zealand found to show more positive emotional outcome towards placements in soap operas than US viewers. Only two studies that inspected characteristics of TV placements in a country other than US were found (Smit et al., 2005, La Pastina, 2001). First, Smit et al.., (2005) focused on Dutch TV placements and observed placements to be more prevalent on commercial Dutch TV networks than on public networks. Additionally, those on commercial networks were found to be more prominent than those displayed on public networks. On the other hand, La Pastina (2001) who studied TV viewers in a 266 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Brazilian rural area revealed that the products placed within soap operas were not perceived as promotional efforts but rather as portrayals of daily life necessities by those in upper class. Alternatively, a theoretical study conducted by Russell and Puto (1999) content analysed viewers' opinions regarding TV placements expressed via focus groups, internet fan forums, phenomenological interviews and tapped audiences' relationships with TV programs. As a result, a construct named "connectedness" was revealed, which denotes the intense relationships between the audience and a TV program that touches to individuals' personal and social lives. Research on Product Placements in Video Games The extant literature on video game placements is currently scarce but promising. Nevertheless, 16 studies on in-game placements, all of which were conducted during the last decade, were examined. The review of the literature revealed that effectiveness was the most investigated subject also for video game placements. The effectiveness studies on in-game placements were also found to be based mostly on explicit memory related measures (Lee and Faber, 2007; Nelson, 2002; Glass, 2007; Walsh et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2006; Winkler, 2006; Kuhn et al., 2007; Chaney et al., 2004; Acar, 2007; Wise et al., 2008) and players’ attitudes toward placed products (Nelson, 2002; Nelson et al., 2004; Winkler, 2006). Moreover, the methodology of video game effectiveness studies was also the same; an experiment followed by a questionnaire. In case of video games, the experiment involved playing of a game that encompasses product placements by participants and following this game session a survey was conducted delving into their memory of and/or attitudes toward placements in the game. Effectiveness of video game placements Consistent with the previous literature on the effectiveness of movie and TV product placements, effectiveness of video game placements were also attempted to be tapped through memory related measures mostly. Main findings illustrate that placements as billboards in video games were recalled better than those in real outdoor billboards (Chaney et al., 2004), however, recall rates for placements in a live sport event outperformed those in a sport game (Walsh 267 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık et al., 2008). On the other hand, congruency between the game setting and the brand was found to generate a positive attitude both toward the game and the brand, if it is noticed by the player (Wise et al., 2008). Hence, Lee and Faber (2007) and Nelson (2002) proposed that the placement, which involves high incongruency between the game setting and the placed brand, generated higher recall rate than those in which high congruency is present. Moreover, it was validated in several studies that the proximity of the product/brand to the focal area in the game scene is vital for its recall and recognition (Acar, 2007; Lee and Faber, 2007). Besides, recall rate was found to be higher when the placed brand is a local one (Nelson, 2002) and the player is an experienced and skilled one who has been acquainted with the game (Kuhn et al., 2007), as well as, being moderately involved at that game play (Lee and Faber, 2008). However, there were contradictory results for the recall of brands that were new. Nelson (2002) found out that the recall rate of the brand placed in a video game would be enhanced if that brand was a new one. Whereas, Winkler (2006) proposed that placement of a brand that was already known by the player would be better recalled in relation to a new one. On the other hand, with regard to attitudes, it was found that players in general held positive attitudes toward placements in games and they do not think that placements are deceptive. It was observed that generally players believe placements enhance realism, except for the study conducted by Chaney et al. (2004) who reported only limited support. Moreover, Nelson et al. (2004) evidenced that there was a direct relationship between attitudes toward advertising in general and placements in games, meaning that if a player had positive attitude toward advertising he/she had a positive attitude toward placements in games as well or vice versa. However, Winkler (2006) found that this direct relationship generates stronger outcomes in case of having negative attitudes toward advertising. Furthermore, just as it is with movie and TV media, placements of ethically-charged goods within a video game were found to be less acceptable than placements of non-ethically charged goods among gamers consistently (Kim and McClung, 2009). Recently, Mackay et al. (2009), who examined whether brand placements in video games can shift pre-existing consumer attitudes towards a specific brand, evidenced that after exposure to a placed product during game-play, positive brand attitudes did not but recall rates did increase for those who had already positive attitude 268 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media towards the placed product. Jeong et al. (2011), on the other hand, reported psychological arousal in a game (with violence cues) had positive effect on consumer attitude, but did not on brand logo memory. Rather high engagement in a violent video game enhanced recall rates, but generated negative attitude toward the placed brand logos. Yang and Wang (2008), alternatively, assert that product placements should take into account the type of product, placement and the game for enhancing effectiveness. They proposed that within shooting/sport games, tool products xi should be placed as feedback placements xii, while within role-playing/strategic games; tool and enhancement products should be placed as operator placements. Goal placements, on the other hand, were proposed to appear when the player passes a new level. Two studies that did not investigate effectiveness were the ones by Acar (2007) and Choi et al., 2013). Acar (2007) examined the incidental exposure and evidenced that high proximity to the focal area had but message content did not have incidental effects for video game placements. Choi et al., (2013), on the other hand, examined the effect of sensory distractions on implicit memory and they found that while auditory distractions did visual ones did not inhibit implicit memory for the placed brand within a video game. Discussion The review of 73 academic studies on product placement yielded invaluable results and implications. This review study revealed factors that trigger product placement effectiveness for all three media. The extended list of factors that influence product placement effectiveness for all three media vehicles are categorized and outlined within tables that are provided in the following (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3). In the three tables that follow (Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3), factors that influence product placement effectiveness are categorized as those related with placed product/brand, respective medium, product placement execution and audience characteristics. Next, the said factors are outlined, primarily, in relation to their effects on explicit memory measures and attitude, which were revealed to be the most investigated effectiveness measures in the product placement literature. Nonetheless, 269 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık as it was mentioned previously, though being extremely rare, the researcher came across studies that investigated product placement effects on measures other than explicit memory and attitude as well. The findings regarding said rare effectiveness measures are provided under the column named other effectiveness measures. In addition, factors that were evidenced to generate favourable/positive outcomes for those effectiveness measures were denoted with a (+) sign, whereas those that generated unfavourable/negative outcomes were denoted with a (-) sign. To illustrate, familiarity, which is determined as a product/brand related factor affecting explicit memory for movie placements (Table 1), has a (+) sign and thus implies that familiarity with the placed product/brand was evidenced to increase explicit memory for the placed product/brand. On the other hand, the mini-series and drama are displayed as TV programme genres under the attitude and acceptability column within Table 2. The (-) sign implies that product placements within these TV programme genres generate unfavourable consumer attitudes (Table 2). 270 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Table 1. Factors Influencing Effectiveness of Movie Product Placements Factors affecting on…. Explicit memory product/brand related - - familiarity (+) first viewing of the movie at the cinema (+) 2. viewing at home on a large home cinema screen (+) respective medium related execution related audience charactersitics strong plot connection (+) high prominence (+) used by main character (+) audio-visual (+) high film involvement (-) brand consciousness (+) liking the film (+) liking film genre (+) liking director (+) Attitude and acceptability Other effectiveness measures ethically charged goods(-) familiarity (+) - humorous scenes (+) - used by main character (+) multiple simultaneous placements (+) strong plot connection but less prominent (+) subtlety (+) high repetition frequency (-) - - - gender (males (+)), movie watching frequency (+) postive attitudes towards advertisments (+) appreciating realism and fewer restrictions (+) brand saliance: repeated display of high prominent placement (+) purchase intention: prior brand evaluation (+) brand saliance: liking the film (+), being high self monitors (+) In a similar way, in the following tables factors influencing effectiveness of product placements on TV and video game media are presented respectively (Table 2 and Table 3). 271 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Table 2. Factors Influencing Effectiveness of TV Product Placements Factors affecting on…. product/ brand related Explicit memory Attitude and acceptability - - location (central to the scene (+)) - respective medium related - - execution related - explicit, non-integrated placements (-) high plot integration (+) visual placements (-) congruency between plot and the product (+) - - - audience characteristics 272 - ethically charged goods(-) familiarity (+) TV programme genre (mini-serie and drama (-)) program liking (prominent and high repetitive placements in liked TV programmes ()) passive and implicit placements in information/services programmes (-) sponsor-programme congruity, explicit, nonintegrated placements (+) subliminal; prominent placements in favourite programs (-) subtlety (+) high repetition levels (-) gender (males) positive attitude toward TV programme characters (+) Other effectiveness measures - choice: visual placements (+); brand image: (when repetition frequency of placement is 2 or more (+)) Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Table 3. Factors influencing Effectiveness of Video Game Product Placements Factors Explicit memory affecting on... product/ brand related respective medium related - execution related gamers' characteristics - product type (symbolic, tool and enhancement) brand origin (local (+)) introductory footage to game (+) game genre (shooting/sport games, role playing/strategi c games) incongruency between the product and the game content (+) experience (+) game skill (+) moderate game involvement (+) pre-existing positive attitude (+) Attitude and acceptability Other effectiveness measures ethically charged goods(-) strong thematic connection between game and brand (+) - implicit memory: auditory distraction(-) - incidental exposure: high proximity (+) positive attitude towards advertising (+) psychological arousal (+) purchase intention:positive attitudes towards placements (+) Then based on these results, first for movie placements briefly it can be said that practitioners should formulate strong plot connected and at the same time highly prominent product placements to enhance consumer memory of the placed brand. In order to generate favourable consumer attitudes at the same time, practitioners should be cautious of the prominence dose of the placement since its perceived excessiveness may easily prompt negative consumer attitudes. Also, it can be said that practitioners will most probably not regret executing placements that are audiovisual and involve interaction with the main character of the movie. Second, for TV placements; practitioners can easily attract consumer attention and enhance the recall of placed brands through use of strong plot integrated placements. However, practitioners should take into consideration that attitude towards and preference for the strong plot integrated and prominently placed brands weakens on 273 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık TV screen, especially for known ones within favourite programs, with the exception of those placed in an information and services programmes, where, on the contrary, implicit placements are negatively evaluated (Tiwsakul et al., 2005). Moreover, although product placements were found to be most prevalent within mini-series, sitcoms and dramas (LaFerle and Edwards, 2006), it was also evidenced that these TV programme genres were the ones, in which placement of products generated most negative consumer attitudes (d’Astous and Seguin,1998). So, practitioners should devote high attention when planning for product placements within the said TV programme genres. Third, for video game placements; billboard placement strategy can be advised as an effective one for in-game placements. Incongruence between the game plot and the placed brand together with proximity of the placed brand to the focal area will attract consumer attention and enhance his memory of the placed brand. On the other hand, congruence between the game plot and the placed brand, as well as, psychological arousal during the gameplay are the factors that do not enhance the consumer memory on placed brands but generate positive attitudes. So, practitioners should make a detailed assessment of objectives (enhancing consumer memory and awareness of placed brands vs. positive consumer attitudes towards placed brands) before formulating in-game placements. Lastly, for all three media, formulation of product placements of ethically charged goods, which are less accepted in relation to neutral ones, should be conducted with high care and vigilance. Conclusion, Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Studies This study reviewed and analyzed product placement studies of the last two decades exhaustively. Analysis results contributed to the advancement of knowledge for both academicians and practitioners that are interested in the field of product placement. First for practitioners; the presented extended list of factors that influence product placement effectiveness for all three media vehicles will help practitioners in formulating and executing most striking product placements and thus at the same time help saving the financial resources and time of the whole industry that is wasted every year by ineffective marketing communications campaigns all around the world. For researchers; it was revealed that despite its intensified practice, the literature accumulated on the product placement field during the last two decades is far from providing a complete picture of the phenomenon. Nonetheless, this review study 274 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media provided a complete picture and the current state-of-the-art of the product placement literature for researchers by its attempt to analyse the to date accumulated literature on product placement. However, this study, just as most academic studies, was subject to some limitations, which can be classified as direct and indirect ones. Direct limitations were those limitations that stemmed from this study, while indirect ones were those that stemmed from limitations of reviewed studies. First, with regard to limitations of this study, it should be noted that only product placement studies on movie, TV and video game media vehicles that were accessed from journals available only on the EBSCOHOST database were reviewed since EBSCOHOST database is the one that was most relevant with the selected subject topic amongst those that the researcher had full access to. Moreover, studies regarding product placement history, definitions, review, and its practice on other than the said media were beyond the scope of this study and thus were excluded. Also only the peer reviewed articles were considered, whereas other forms of published materials such as dissertations, conference proceedings etc. were not included in this review study. With regard to limitations stemming from reviewed studies, it was revealed that majority of to date conducted studies were either concentrated on particular countries or on investigating effects on particular measures. First, product placement studies on all three media used mostly US based data (n=46, 63%). Only 17.8% (n=13) and 13.7% (n=10) of the reviewed studies were conducted in European countries and rest of the world (e.g. India, Australia, and China) respectively, while 5.4 % (n=4) of the studies were comparing product placement practices in US with other countries (e.g. New Zealand, Belgium) (see Table 4). Although it can be noted that European interest to product placement research, in particular on TV medium, has been on rise, still there is a huge gap in the placement literature regarding its practice in countries other than US. Then, future studies that will concentrate on this issue will also contribute to the academic literature largely. 275 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Table 4. Locations of the Reviewed Product Placement Studies Location of the Reviewed Studies Number/percentage of studies conducted in this location out of 73 reviewed studies US Europe n=46 63% n= 13 17.8% Rest of the World n=10 13.7% US vs Other Countries n=4 5.4 % Second, majority of studies, across all three media vehicles were concentrated on tapping product placement effectiveness through either explicit memory related measures, namely recall and recognition, or consumer attitude. Studies to date on effects of product placements on behavioural outcomes, (e.g. purchase intention, preferences), and attention are extremely scarce and inconclusive. Also the effects of demographics, such as age and level of education, were rarely taken into consideration. Therefore, there is a need for academic studies that will investigate effects of product placements on measures other than memory and attitude related ones, as well as, for those that will focus on demographic characteristics and reveal the impact of product placements on different groups in the society. In addition, especially those studies that had investigated product placement effectiveness, performed experiments as the research methodology and used students as their samples. However, the application of experimental methodology and mainly to student samples has some general limitations that might have influenced the findings. First of all, the artificial setting usually results in more attention to the stimuli, which in turn can generate higher recall and recognition rates, as well as, different behaviours (Van Reijmersdal et al., 2007). Second, the student samples involved mostly young and highly educated respondents, who might have been better at noticing product placements and understanding their commercial intents than less educated ones. Hence, the said methodology might have biased findings. Therefore, future studies which employ a mix of different methods to samples that are more representative of the product placement audience can provide additional insights into brand placement effects. 276 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media References Altaş, D., & Öztunç, H. (2013). An Empirical Analysis of Television Commercial Ratings in Alternative Competitive Environments Using Multinomial Logit Model. 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Receptiveness of Gamers to Embedded Brand Messages in Advergames: Attitudes towards Product Placement. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 7(1), 37-46. 281 �Vildan Jusufović Karışık Wise, K., Bolls, P. D, Kim, H., Venkataraman, A., & Meyer, R. (2008). Enjoyment of Advergames and Brand Attitudes: The Impact of Thematic Relevance. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 9(1), 27-36. Product placement in motion pictures is as old as the motion picture industry itself. Both events were generated by the Lumière brothers in the mid-1890s (Karrh, 1998; Newell et al., 2006; Galician and Bourdeau, 2004; Avery and Ferraro, 2000; Hudson and Hudson, 2006; Dens et al., 2013). The Lumière brothers exhibited their newly invented projected motion pictures to the first paying audience ever in the basement lounge of the Grand Café in Paris on December 28, 1895. This event is credited as the world's first public film screening and heralded the birth of the film industry (Pearson, 1996). A few months later, in the spring of 1896, the Lumière brothers conducted an arrangement with the UK soap producer Lever Brothers (today’s giant multinational company, Unilever) that would constitute the first prototype of product placement that displayed a Lever Brothers leading product, “Sunlight Soap”, in a Lumière brothers’ film. ii DVRs, also known as time-shifting devices, include a hard drive that enables the audience to record their favorite programs for playback at any time. The devices can also fast forward through traditional commercials. iii According to this widely cited model by Friested and Wright (1995), if consumers perceive that advertising messages have the intent to affect their judgement, then they may generate negative attitudes towards those commercials. iv Video game term denotes all game genres including, computer and on-line games since most of the time these terms were used interchangeably in the product placement literature (Winkler, 2006; Nelson, 2002; Yang et al., 2006). v Two key studies that were not published in refereed academic journals but nonetheless were reviewed in order to provide a complete picture of the “Practitioners’ view on movie placements“ research theme (see page 7). The said studies were proceeding papers by Karrh (1995), Pardun and McKee (1996). vi Although its practice in alternative media (those other than movies, TV programmes and games) is not scarce, academic studies that focus on product placements in the said media are extremely rare. To illustrate, with regard to placements in novels, only one study was found in which Nelson (2004) examined the product placement practice within the novel named “The Bulgari Connection”. vii Brand salience is also considered among memory-related measures since it involves the recognition of a brand in relation to other brands in that product category. viii Plot connection of placements refers to the degree to which the brand/product is integrated into the plot of the story (Russell, 1998). i 282 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media In high prominent placements the product is made conspicuous either through its size, position on the screen or centrality to the plot, integration to the plot, number of mentions, and/or duration on the screen (Gupta and Lord, 1998). x Entertainment Resources and Marketing Association is a leading product placement industry group. xi Tool products are high-utility but low price products such as food and fuel, whereas, symbolic products are high price but low utility such as jewellery and enhancement products are high price and high utility such as white electronic goods (Yang and Wang, 2008). xii Goal in a videogame describes the milestone that players attempt to achieve. For example, in a shooting game, the goal may be rescuing hostages whereas feedback is a kind of reinforcement. If some predetermined desirable or undesirable player behaviours are demonstrated, a reward or punishment is provided for positive or negative feedback. Operators, on the other hand, indicate those instruments, such as knife, cape, and magic that players can apply to achieve their objectives (Yang and Wang, 2008). ix 283 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2413 Title A name given to the resource 20 Years of Research on Product Placement in Movie, Television and Video Game Media Author Author Jusufovic-Karisik, Vildan Abstract A summary of the resource. The popularity of product placement as a viable alternative to traditional commercials has been increasing rapidly. Latest PQ Media report (2012) noted that global spending on product placement has already reached $8.25 billion. However, despite its popularity, extant academic research on product placement lags behind its practice. The aim of this paper is to review, categorize and analyze exhaustively the existing product placement literature with the purpose of identifying possible research gaps for academics and guidelines of effective product placements for practitioners interested in the field. 73 academic studies that in particular focus on product placements within movies, television (TV) programmes and video games were examined. The exhaustive review revealed that studies in the US investigating product placement effectiveness through memory related measures and consumer attitudes dominate the product placement literature. However, studies investigating effects of product placement on measures other than memory related and attitudinal ones are extremely scarce. Based on the identified research gaps, an agenda for future studies is suggested. Also, factors that were evidenced to trigger product placement effects throughout the literature are revealed and outlined for practitioners use. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6d99c5d670f191432cb78777289c240f.pdf bcad4637b70d3524dff8830715bc34e0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2408 Title A name given to the resource Combating Poverty towards Actualizing the Millennium Development Goals and Beyond: Do Cash Transfer Programmes add up to the Agenda? Author Author Ibrahim , Muazu Yeboah, Tomas Abstract A summary of the resource. The Millennium Development Goals (MDG) among other things have not only brought poverty reduction onto the global development agenda but have also urged countries to help halve poverty by 2015. Various policy initiatives have been implemented towards actualizing the first MDG. Ghana, through its policy programmes is at the verge of meeting MDG 1 well before 2015. One of such programmes is the Livelihood Empowerment against Poverty (LEAP) which provides direct cash transfers to extreme poor and vulnerable. Do cash transfers add up to the agenda? By invoking a non-parametric chi-square test, we find evidence of the contribution of the cash transfer programme in LEAP-ing beneficiaries out of poverty by supplementing their income levels as well as improving their livelihoods. At least in our study area, we found a 29% decrease in the number of beneficiaries earning below the lower poverty line while 61% have been able to meet part of their basic needs. To ensure a continual reduction in poverty, we argue for the need to fundamentally go beyond short-term gains through co-ordinated, purposeful social and complementary services that will create opportunity for empowerment among the poor and vulnerable households. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3f29632c2e2cc3be76a638633a891e7.pdf e0f8eabdf2f3b49019d1b3e5b9f2dee1 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies Yi-Hui Ho Department of International Business Chang Jung Christian University Tainan, Taiwan vicky@mail.cjcu.edu.tw Chieh-Yu Lin Department of International Business Chang Jung Christian University Tainan, Taiwan jylin@mail.cjcu.edu.tw Jung-Shun Tsai Yuh-Ing Junior College of Health Care & Management Kaohsiung, Taiwan jstsai@ms.yuhing.edu.tw Abstract: As environmental considerations have become a fundamental part of business strategies, there is a challenge for managers and academicians to explore the integration of environmental concepts and business operations. Although a number of studies on green practice adoption can be found in the literature, few of them analyzed the infusion of green practices in organizations. Furthermore, most prior research of green management focused on manufacturing sectors; scarce attention was paid on research in service sectors. This paper focuses on the green practice infusion in logistics companies because many logistics operations often lead to several environmental impacts. The main purpose of this paper is to explore the factors that affect organizational infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics companies. Drawing on the innovation diffusion theory, this paper groups the determinant factors into technological, organizational and environmental dimensions. We explored the influences of determinant factors on green practice infusion by conducting a questionnaire survey on logistics companies in China. The regression analysis is used to test proposed research hypotheses in the study Research findings reveal that complexity, compatibility and relative advantage of green practices, quality of human resources, organizational support, governmental support and regulatory pressure exhibit significantly influences on green practice infusion for the logistics companies in China. The influences of adoption cost, company size, environmental uncertainty and customer pressure on logistics companies’ green behavior are not significant. This paper can extend the scope of research on green management in service industries and green practice infusion. Keywords: Green practice infusion, Logistics companies, Determinant factors, China JEL Classification: M140 Article History Submitted: 26 January 2014 Resubmitted: 22 March 2014 Accepted: 27 March 2014 http://dx.doi.org/10.147 06/JECOSS11427 159 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai Introduction To pursue sustainable development, many companies are attentive to enhancing their competitiveness through improvements in the environmental performance and mitigating the environmental impact of their production and service activities. As implementing green practices can be regarded as an important means of solving firms’ environmental problems, it is particularly important to learn more about the factors influencing green practice implementation. Green management also becomes critical concerns of business research. Many researchers have surveyed firms’ implementation of environmental management practices, and proposed various explanations as to what factors influence firms’ adoption of green practices. However, scarce attention has been paid on analyzing the infusion behaviors associated with green practices. Companies may be able to achieve considerable environmental performance by successfully implementation green practices into their work systems. Green practice implementation is a multiphase process consisting of adoption and infusion phases (Winn and Angell, 2000). Infusion refers to the extent to which an innovation's features are in widespread usage in a complete and sophisticated way (Fichmen 2001; Yan and Fiorito, 2007). Green practice infusion is the incorporation of green practices into work structures. Successful implementation of green practices requires significant involvement in developing operational responses to environmental issues. It is important to understand the infusion of green practices within organizations. Some researchers have analyzed the infusion of green practices within organizations, concerning with the extent to which these practices have been implemented (Fussel and Georg, 2000; Stead et al., 1998; Winn and Angell, 2000). However, these studies focused on exploring the infusion process of green practices within an organization. Much remains to be learned empirically about the factors influencing organizational infusion of green practices. To fill the research gap, this paper studies the infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics service providers. This study focuses on the logistics industry because many logistics operations often lead to several negative environmental impacts. Although there is a burgeoning body of literature concerning with environmental issues in a variety of business disciplines such as manufacturing and marketing, the corresponding literature involving logistics has been still small but expanding (Gunasekaran and Cheng, 2008; Murphy and Poist, 2000). Furthermore, while China continues to develop into a global manufacturing base and a huge consumer 160 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies market, it suffers from various serious environmental problems such as air pollution, energy waste, and water pollution. Several researchers have investigated the implementation of environmental management in Chinese manufacturing companies. Scant attention has been paid to the environmental issues in Chinese service sectors. The main purpose of this paper is to study the factors that affect organizational infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics service providers. An understanding of the determinant factors of green practice infusion is essential for researchers to best understand the issues that need to be addressed as well as for practitioners to best implement green practices. Due to the lack of research on determinants of organizational infusion of green practices, this paper can broaden the scope of research on environmental management by providing some explanations as to what factors influencing green practice infusion. Furthermore, as the implementation of green practices not only relates to the logistics industry, but also needs the attention of the government, manufacturers and consumers, verifying possible factors influencing the organizational infusion of green practices can give the government some valuable suggestions in designing environmental policies for the logistics industry, and help manufacturers, consumers, and logistics service providers themselves appreciate the drivers and barriers to implementing green management practices. Literature Review Organizational infusion of green practices To achieve environmental performance, many companies attempt to implement several green practices. Applying environmental criteria into corporate operations requires exploring new resource combinations and deploying existing resources in new ways (Hart, 1995). Green practice implementation involves using new or modified processes and techniques to reduce environmental harms. As innovation is the use of new technical and administrative knowledge (Kimberly and Evanisko, 1981; Damanpour, 1991), the implementation of green practices can be regarded as an innovation process. Several researchers (e.g., Hansen et al., 2002; Henriques and Sadorsky, 2007; Lin and Ho, 2011; Rothenberg and Zyglidopoulos, 2007; Ziegler, and Seijas Nogareda, 2009) have analyzed environmental issues from the perspective of innovation. 161 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai From the innovation diffusion perspective, implementing innovations is a multiphase process and has been divided into a variety of phases (Damanpour and Schneider, 2006; Rogers, 2003). Innovation diffusion is a stage-based process of spreading a new technology within a universe of potential adopters. The adoption of an innovation does not guarantee that there is a widespread usage of the innovation within the organization to fulfill the full potentials of the innovation. A new technology may be introduced with a great enthusiasm and widespread initial acquisition; nevertheless it may fail to be thoroughly deployed among many firms (Fichman and Kemerer 1999). Cooper and Zmud (1990) suggest a six-stage model of innovation diffusion, consisting of (1) initiation: scanning organizational problems, collecting and evaluating the information for innovation solutions, and finding the “right” innovation application for the organization, (2) adoption: getting organizational support and resource commitment for innovation implementation by negotiation, (3) adaptation: installing the innovation application, adjusting both the innovation and organizational procedures to achieve a good fit, and preparing employees to use the innovation, (4) acceptance: encouraging employees to commit to using the innovation application in their work, (5) routinization: using the innovation application to become a part of the working procedures and employees’ habit, and (6) infusion: using the innovation application in a more integrated manner to obtain its full potential in supporting the organization’s work. Rogers (2003) summarizes that the adoption process of innovations can be grouped into three more general phases of pre-adoption, adoption decision, and post-adoption. Zhu, Kraemer and Xu (2006) simplified above six stages into three stages of initiation, adoption, and infusion. Damanpour and Schneider (2006) suggest a three-stage model of diffusion process consisting of initiation, adoption decision, and infusion. Like the implementation of other kinds of innovation, green practice implementation is also a process consisting of multiple stages, i.e. initiation activities, the managerial decision to adopt the green practices, and infusion activities. Companies may be able to achieve considerable environmental performance by successfully diffusing green practices into their work systems in all diffusion stages (Fussel and Georg, 2000). Winn and Angell (2000) address that corporate greening starts with top management awareness of the need for corporate responses to environmental issues, leads to policy commitment, and ideally, ends with implementation at the operational level. The infusion stage is the conclusion of technology implementation and is a post-adoption behavior. It means that 162 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies technology has been embedded and routinized in organization (Chang and Lung, 2002). Green practice infusion is the incorporation of green practices into work structures. Infusion refers to the extent to which an innovation's features are in widespread usage in a complete and sophisticated way (Fichmen 2001; Yan and Fiorito, 2007). The extent to which innovation infusion is reached is positively related to the performance of the work that the innovation supports (Yu et al., 2009; Taylor and McAdam, 2004). Successful implementation of green practices requires significant involvement in developing operational responses to environmental issues (Stead et al., 1998). It is important and necessary to understand the infusion of green practices within organizations. Prior literature has focused more on the issues of green management adoption decision For example, Del Brio and Junquera (2003) summarized some factors influencing green innovation in small and medium-sized enterprises, including financial resources, management style, human resources, manufacturing activity, technological approach, innovative capacity, and external cooperation. Rothenberg and Zyglidopoulos (2007), in a study of the printing industry, found that the adoption of green innovations was positively associated with the dynamism of the company’s task environment. Henriques and Sadorsky (2007) found that total quality management and external stakeholder pressure would increase the likelihood that Canadian manufacturing companies implement cleaner technical innovations. Liu et al. (2010) argue that Chinese firms’ adoption of green practices is influenced by the coercive pressure from the organizations holding mandatory power, normative pressure from the industrial association and the public, and mimetic pressure from the competitors. Stakeholder pressure, environmental regulation, company size, managers’ characteristics, human resources and industry sector are relevant variables frequently appeared in studies on green practice adoption decision (Etzion, 2007; Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006). Little attention has been paid on analyzing the infusion behavior associated with green practices. Some researchers have analyzed the infusion of green practices within organizations, concerning with the extent to which these practices have diffused (Fussel and Georg, 2000; Stead et al., 1998; Winn and Angell, 2000). However, these studies focused on exploring the infusion process of green practices within an organization. Fussel and Georg (2000) explore how an environmental management tool becomes embedded in a Danish public university hospital, 163 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai including how a green idea travels from one setting to another and becomes an object, how the green idea is translated and mobilized into action by the hospital managers and made to perform in different contexts, and how hospital managers develop a new sense of identity. Stead et al. (1998) suggest that infusion (institutionalization) is a pivotal organizational process which determines whether a firm's environmental performance results in improved operating efficiency and market opportunities or in increased legal and regulatory hassles. In a study of the implementation of the 1991 German Packaging Ordinance, Winn and Angell (2000) propose an internal process model of corporate greening that integrates policy commitment and implementation dimensions. Corporate greening process starts with awareness of the need for corporate responses to environmental issues, leads to policy commitment and, ideally, ends with infusion (implementation) at the operational level. Although Christmann and Taylor (2006) and Darnall (2006) have analyzed the factors influencing a firm’s decision to totally or partially mandate its operational units to certify to ISO 14001, they did not explore the degree of infusion of environmental management practices within the organizations. In a study of Chinese companies, Christmann and Taylor (2006) conclude that ISO-certified companies in China select their level of compliance depending on customer preferences, customer monitoring, and expected sanctions by customers. Drawing on institutional theory and the resource-based view of the firm, Darnall (2006) analyzes the influences of regulatory pressures, market pressures, complementary resources, experiences with quality management systems, and experiences with pollution prevention on U.S. firm’s decision in mandating ISO 14001 totally or partially. These two studies focused on the adoption decision regarding to whether a firm implements ISO 14001 substantively. A review on current research on environmental management reveals that, up to date, there is no literature give an analysis on the factors influencing infusion of green management practices in organizations. Factors influencing organizational infusion of green practices To fill the research gap, this paper attempts to study the factors affecting the infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics service providers. Although a body of research has proposed several factors influencing green practice adoption, factors affecting adoption decision may actually have the opposite effects upon infusion behavior (Cooper and Zmud, 1990; Damanpour and Schneider, 2006; Tornatzky and 164 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies Fleischer, 1990; Zhu et al., 2006). For example, in a study of the diffusion of Internet-based e-business innovations, Zhu et al. (2006b) address that firm size are positively related to e-business adoption, but negatively related to infusion. The costs in implementing innovations have been a barrier for the adoption of innovations, but the higher adoption costs could motivated the infusion of innovations in organizations (Cooper and Zmud, 1990). In general, the infusion of green practices could be influenced by a variety of factors. Because implementing green practices can be seen as an innovation process, studies on explanations as to what factors influence innovation infusion will be helpful for modeling green practice infusion in this paper. Several studies have proposed a variety of factors influencing innovation infusion. Meyer and Goes (1988) address that organizational assimilation of innovations in hospitals is influenced by environmental, organizational, and innovation variables. According to meta-analysis results, Damanpour (1991) conclude that organizational innovation is significantly associated with a firm’s specialization, functional differentiation, professionalism, centralization, managerial attitude toward change, technical knowledge resources, administrative intensity, slack resources, and external and internal communication. Fichman and Kemerer (1997) explore the influence of organizational learning capability on the infusion of software process innovations. Eder and Igbaria (2000) explore the influences of earliness of adoption, top management support, organizational structure, organizational size, information technology (IT) infrastructure, and IT structure on organizational infusion of intranets. Frambach and Schillewaert (2002) suggest that the determinants influencing organizational implementation of innovations include perceived innovation characteristics, adopter’s organizational characteristics, and environmental influences. The availability and quality of internal resources and external knowledge, the knowledge transfer activities, and the political and legal environment are relevant for the adoption of technical innovations. Ranganathan et al. (2004) argue that managerial IT knowledge, unit structure, supplier interdependence, competitive intensity, and IT activity intensity would affect internal infusion of Web technologies in supply chain management. In a study of public organizations in the U.S., Damanpour and Schneider (2006) analyze the influences of environmental, organizational and top managers’ characteristics on the adoption and infusion of innovations in organizations. Zhu et al. (2006) suggest that technology readiness, technology integration, firm size, global scope, managerial obstacles, competition intensity and regulatory environment would influence e165 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai business infusion. Yan and Fiorito (2007) analyze the influences of external pressures, internal pressures, and firm size on the infusion of computer aided design/computer aided manufacturing in the U.S. textile and apparel industries. Yu et al. (2009) address that procurement process readiness, business knowledge of IT managers, organizational integration, organizational slack resources would influence the infusion of e-procurement applications. While a variety of determinants of innovation infusion have been proposed in the previous studies, these factors can be grouped into technological, organizational and environmental context. According to the innovation diffusion theory (Rogers, 2003; Tornatzkey and Fleischer 1990), a model for any innovation diffusion needs to consider different factors that can influence the inclination to use the innovation in its specific technological, organizational, and environmental contexts of an organization. The technological, organizational, and environmental (TOE) framework (Tornatzkey and Fleischer, 1990) is widely used in studying innovation adoption and infusion from contextual perspectives. Lin and Ho (2011) have also utilized the TOE framework in analyzing green practice adoption decision for Chinese logistics companies; however, their study did not investigate the infusion of green practices in the firms. The TOE framework identifies three aspects of a firm’s context that have influences on innovation infusion. Technological dimension includes technology issues associated with the firms. Organizational dimension refers to descriptive measures such as company size, the quality of human resources, top management strategic behavior, and the availability of slack resources. Environmental dimension is the arena in which a firm conducts its business, including competitors, access to resources, industrial environment, and government regulations (Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990). Therefore, based on the TOE framework (Lin and Ho, 2011), this paper attempts to study the influences of technological, organizational, and environmental factors on the infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics service providers. Figure 1 illustrates the research framework of the study. The technological factors include the adoption cost, complexity, compatibility and relative advantage of green practices; the organizational factors include quality of human resources, organizational support, and company size; and environmental factors include environmental uncertainty, governmental support, regulatory pressure, and customer pressure. 166 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies Figure 1. Research framework Technological factors Adoption cost Complexity Compatibility Relative advantage Organizational factors Quality of human resources Organizational support Company size Organizational infusion of green practices Environmental factors Environmental uncertainty Governmental support Regulatory pressure Customer pressure 167 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai Technological factors Characteristics of an innovation such as compatibility, complexity, and relative advantage may affect innovation diffusion (Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Rogers, 2003; Tornatzky and Klein, 1982). Frambach and Schillewaert (2002) place the perceived characteristics of the innovation at the heart of their organizational innovation diffusion model. Boiral (2002) argues that characteristics of environmental knowledge are relevant in environmental management. Therefore, technological characteristics should be taken into account when analyzing the infusion of green practices. The perceived technological characteristics of an innovation can be considered as cognitive beliefs reflected in an attitude towards the innovation. Several technological characteristics of an innovation can affect its diffusion, including complexity, compatibility, relative advantage, triability, observability, ease of use, perceived usefulness, information intensity, uncertainty, and so on (Frambach and Schillewaert, 2002; Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Taylor and McAdam, 2004; Tornatzky and Klein, 1982; Zhu et al., 2006). The present study only considers adoption costs, complexity, compatibility and relative advantage because these characteristics have consistently been found to be more important in influencing innovation adoption behavior than the other characteristics (Rogers, 2003; Sia et al., 2004; Tornatzky and Klein, 1982). Adoption costs include the required financial and human resources in implementing and using green practices. Costs have been long posited as a barrier for the adoption of innovations (Rogers, 2003; Iacovou et al., 1995; Torantzky and Klein, 1982). However, some researchers argue that high adoption costs may motivate innovation adopters to treat the innovation more seriously and implement it more actively in order to make the innovation more cost-effective (Cooper and Zmud, 1990; Rogers, 2003). Unfortunately, there is still lack of empirical evidence for this argument because previous studies on innovation infusion have not yet taken adoption costs into account. The present study argues that high adoption cost will make a firm treat the green practice more seriously and reinforce the infusion of the green practice within the firm. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: Adoption cost of green practices has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be relatively difficult to understand and use. It will increase the difficulty in knowledge transfer and 168 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies innovation diffusion (Rogers, 2003), and is usually hypothesized to be negatively related to innovation diffusion (Tornatzky and Klein, 1982). Green practices incorporate both tacit and explicit knowledge. The tacit knowledge may be inherent in identifying sources of pollution, reacting quickly to accidental spills, and proposing preventive solutions (Boiral, 2002). It leads to the ambiguity of the practices. Ambiguity is a major barrier to the transfer of best practice within a firm (Szulanski, 1996). A firm is apt to implement innovation when knowledge is shared easily within the organization. Efficient knowledge sharing can lead to better innovative capabilities in terms of higher order learning, and consequently can improve organizational performance including environmental management effectiveness (Etzion, 2007). A green practice with high complexity contains a lot of tacit knowledge that requires laborious efforts to learn and diffuse. The difficulty in learning and sharing tacit knowledge makes it relatively difficult to infuse a green practice. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Complexity of green practices has a negative influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, experiences, and needs of the firms (Rogers, 2003). Compatibility is relevant to green practice diffusion. Because several green practices are additions to companies’ current technologies and processes, diffusion of green practices is not a single event but can be described as a process of knowledge accumulation and integration. Green practices that are more compatible to a company’s current technologies and processes will be more easily to be diffused within the organization. Dupuy (1997), in a study of Ontario organic chemical industry, found support for the notion that innovations that are additions to existing technology, such as abatement equipment, are most likely to adopt earlier than technologies that are more difficult to incorporate into the production process. Fit between previous experiences and environmental actions may generate a greater environmental effectiveness (Etzion, 2007). To lessen possible objection against the infusion of green practices, a company will be more likely to implement a green practice that is more compatible with the company’s current operational knowledge. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3: Compatibility of green practices has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. 169 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai Relative advantage is the perception that an innovation is more advantageous than its substitute idea. The perceived benefits may be measured in economic and social terms like convenience and satisfaction. Companies are more likely to implement a technology which is able to provide better performance and higher economic gains than the other technologies. Relative advantage is positively related to the diffusion of innovation (Rogers, 2003; Tornatzky and Klein, 1982). Potential organizational benefits of green practices include reduced energy and natural resource consumption, reduced waste and pollutant emission, improved environmental and financial performance, and greater responsiveness to social environmental expectation (Etzion, 2007; Hart, 1995). In a study of the Spanish pulp and paper industry, Del Rio Gonzalez (2005) suggests that economic and financial advantages are important technological characteristics that influence the adoption of clean technologies. The perceived net benefits that the green practice offers will serve as motivations for companies to implement the green practice. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4: Relative of green practices has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Organizational factors The organizational context implies the processes and attributes that constrain or facilitate innovation. Several studies have discussed the influences of a variety of organizational characteristics such as quality of human resources, top management’s leadership, organizational support, organizational culture and organizational size on innovation diffusion (Damanpour and Schneider, 2006; Taylor and McAdam, 2004), and environmental strategy (Etzion, 2007; Gonzalez-Benito and GonzalezBenito, 2006). Sufficient organizational resources and qualified organizational capabilities are two relevant organizational characteristics advancing innovation (Damanpour, 1991; Jeyaraj et al., 2006) and environmental performance (Hart, 1995; Russo and Fouts, 1997). The availability of resources, management support, organizational learning capabilities, and human resources will influence the adoption of green practices (Alvarez-Gil et al., 2007; Lee, 2008). The followings only introduce the quality of human resources, organizational support, and company size because they are organizational resource-related variables widely analyzed in the literature. 170 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies The quality of human resources is an essential factor influencing innovation diffusion (Fichman and Kemerer, 1997; Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990). Qualified human resources are helpful to diffuse innovations because of their competent learning capabilities. Implementing green practices is a complex process requiring cross-disciplinary coordination and significant changes in the existing operation process (Russo and Fouts, 1997). It is intensive in human resources and depends on the development and training of tacit skills through the employees’ involvement (Hart, 1995; Del Brio and Junquera, 2003). A company with higher innovative capacity will be more likely to successfully implement an advanced environmental strategy (Christmann, 2000; Judge and Elenkov, 2005). The recipient’s lack of absorptive capacity is one of the major barriers to the transfer of technical knowledge within a firm (Szulanski, 1996). To overcome knowledge barriers to green practice infusion, employees need extensive, specialized training to learn the principles underlying the innovation. Employees with competent learning capabilities will be apt to increase their absorptive capacity through training programs that can advance green practice infusion. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H5: Quality of human resources has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Organizational support is the extent to which a company helps employees use green practices. Providing incentive for innovation diffusion and ensuring the availability of financial and technical resources for innovation have positive effects on the implementation of innovation (Damanpour and Schneider, 2006; Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2005). For the development of environmental management, organizational support is essential because the employees will be motivated to implement green behavior and the resources required for adopting green practices will be more easily available. Also, the top management plays an essential role in organizational support. Many green practices require the collaboration and coordination of different departments and divisions during diffusion process. To ensure successful diffusion, green initiatives are usually endorsed and encouraged from the top management (Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006). The central task of top management is to obtain resources and assemble them into organizational capabilities so that the company is able to implement green practices to achieve environmental competitive advantage (Judge and Elenkov, 2005). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: 171 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai H6: Organizational support has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Company size has been repeatedly taken as a relevant organizational characteristic influencing companies’ innovation diffusion (Frambach and Schillewaert, 2002; Rogers, 2003) as well as environmental activities (Del Brio and Junquera, 2003; Etzion, 2007; Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006). In general, large companies tend to adopt innovations and green practices more easily than small ones because they have sufficient resources and strong infrastructures. Small companies, in contrast, may suffer from the lack of financial resources and professionals, which results in difficulties in adopting green practices. However, some researchers argue that, due to less flexible structure, lower ability to adapt and more difficulty in assimilating change, larger companies may be more difficult than smaller companies in the infusion of innovations (Dampour and Schneider, 2006; Zhu et al., 2006). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H7: Company size has a negative influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Environmental factors The environmental factors in this study refer to the standard conceptualization of external environment in the organizational behavior literature. The external environment in which a company conducts its business is an important factor affecting innovation adoption and environmental strategy. Certain environmental variables such as environmental uncertainty, environmental munificence, governmental support, industry type, competition, and network relations are often discussed in the literature of innovation diffusion (Frambach and Schillewaert, 2002; Damanpour and Schneider, 2006; Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990; Zhu et al., 2006) and environmental management (Etzion, 2007; GonzalezBenito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006a). Environmental uncertainty and external resource availability are consistently regarded as two primary environmental factors influencing innovation diffusion and environmental strategy (Aragon-Correa and Sharma, 2003; Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Rothenberg and Zyglidopoulos, 2007; Tornatsky and Fleischer, 1990). The government plays an important role in supporting resources for innovation adoption (Lee, 2008; Li and Atuahene-Gima, 2002; Scupola, 2003). Stakeholder pressure is another relevant environmental factor influencing organizational environmental behaviors, and is widely involved in 172 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies research on environmental issues (Buysse and Verbeke, 2003; Sharma and Henriques, 2005). The present study analyzes possible influences of environmental uncertainty, governmental support, and stakeholder pressure on green practice infusion. Environmental uncertainty refers to frequent and unpredictable changes in customer preferences, technological development, and competitive behavior perceived by the managers. It has been viewed as the most relevant environmental characteristic that affects a firm’s decision making (Li and Atuahene-Gima, 2002). Managers facing uncertain business environments tend to be more proactive and use more innovative strategies than managers in less turbulent environments. Under high environmental uncertainty, companies will attempt to gather and process information frequently and rapidly to address environmental changes (Gupta and Govindrajan, 1991), and also tend to pay more efforts on innovation and increase the rate of innovation to maintain a competitive advantage (Damanpour, 1991; Kimberly and Evanisko, 1981; Zhu and Weyant, 2003). Implementing green practices can be regarded as a technical innovation process that can improve a company’s environmental performance. Companies are more likely to invest in resources to implement green practices to generate the capacity to improve environmental performance in uncertain environments (Aragon-Correa and Sharma, 2003; Rothenberg and Zyglidopoulos, 2007). The infusion of green practices is expected to be positively associated with the perceived environmental uncertainty. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H8: Environmental uncertainty has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Governmental support is a relevant environmental factor influencing technical innovation. The governments can advance technical innovation through several encouraging policies such as providing financial incentive, technical resources, pilot projects, and tax breaks (Tornatzky and Fleischer, 1990; Scupola, 2003). Implementing green practices relies to some extent on the availability of external resources. Munificence of resources in the business environment increases the degree to which a company engages in environmental management (Aragon-Correa and Sharma, 2003; Rothenberg and Zyglidopoulos, 2007). The government can raise the munificence by providing governmental subsidies or tax incentives for alternative energy technologies, bank financing at lower rates for environmentally friendly technologies, and lower insurance premiums for lower environmental risks (Aragon173 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai Correa and Sharma, 2003). Lee (2008), in a study of Korean small and mediumsized enterprises, also suggests that governmental support in green initiatives has a positive influence on the company’s willingness to participate in the green supply chain. A positive association between green practice infusion and governmental support is expected. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H9: Governmental support has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Stakeholders are individuals or groups who affect a company’s activities and are also affected by the company’s activities. Stakeholder pressure is regarded as the most prominent factor influencing a company’s environmental strategy (Buysse and Verbeke, 2003; Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006a; Sharma and Henriques, 2005). According to the stakeholder theory, organizations carry out activities to satisfy their main stakeholders. Among various groups of stakeholders, customers and regulators are arguably viewed as a company’s most important stakeholders (Christmann, 2004; Etzion, 2007). A body of research reveals the positive relationships between firms’ environmental activities and customer and regulatory pressure (e.g., Christmann, 2004; Lee, 2008; Wong and Fryxell, 2004). The infusion of green practices will be positively associated with customer and regulatory pressure. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: H10: Regulator pressure has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies H11: Customer pressure has a positive influence on green practice infusion in Chinese logistics companies. Methodology To examine the influences of determinant factors on green practice infusion, this paper collected data by means of mailing questionnaires to logistics service providers in China. The logistics industry plays an important role in the Chinese economy. Logistics companies provide logistics services for their customers, which include warehousing, transportation, inventory management, order processing, and packaging. With the fast growth in economy, the demand for logistics services has been growing significantly in China. Also, the environmental impact of the logistics practices has been an important issue in China. Many logistics operations often leads 174 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies to several negative environmental impacts, including air pollutants, waste disposal, and fuel consumption. Logistics companies need to address much effort on environmental issues. Samples were randomly drawn from a list of logistics companies provided by the logistics associations in China. Logistics companies carry out logistics activities for their customers, including warehousing, transportation, inventory management, order processing, and packaging. The sampled companies were contacted via telephone and e-mail to confirm the names of respondents and their mailing addresses. One thousand samples were randomly drawn from a list of logistics companies in Shanghai. Questionnaires were mailed to these sampled companies’ owners or senior managers who are familiar with the company’s environmental activities. Two weeks after the questionnaires were mailed, a follow-up to the sampled companies was conducted to remind them of the importance of their responses and thank them for their assistance. In total, 314 completed questionnaires were returned. Of these respondents, 21 unusable questionnaires were excluded. The overall response rate is 29.3 percent. Among the respondents, approximately 82 percent of them have less than 300 employees. Most logistics companies in China belong to small and medium-size enterprises. To evaluate the non-response bias, the wave analysis was used which assumes that late respondents tend to be more similar to non-respondents than early respondents in mail surveys (Armstrong and Overton, 1977). The non-response bias was tested by comparing respondents who responded readily to the survey with those who responded after the follow-up step is taken. Because comparisons of survey results reveal no significant differences between the two groups in the level of variables, the non-response bias is not significant in the study. The questionnaire was developed in a two-stage process. First, an initial questionnaire was designed based on a review of related literature and a discussion with some experts in environmental management. Second, the initial questionnaire was modified by accommodating some logistics managers’ suggestions to ensure that each item adapts to the logistics industry and is interpreted as expected. Afterward the final version of the questionnaire was administered to sampled logistics companies with business models conforming to the logistics services. The major constructs outlined in the present research framework include green practice infusion, and determinant factors. The green practices commonly used in 175 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai the logistics industry include consolidating shipments, disposing waste responsibly, purchasing ecological products, reducing energy consumption, reducing solid/water waste and emissions, using cleaner transportation methods, and using recyclable packaging (Gonzalez-Benito and Gonzalez-Benito, 2006; Lin and Ho, 2011; Murphy and Poist, 2003). Infusion refers to the extent to which an innovation's features are in widespread usage in a complete and sophisticated way (Fichmen 2001). According to innovation infusion literature (Cooper and Zmud, 1990; Yan and Fiorito, 2007; Yu et al., 2009; Zhu et al. 2006; Zmud and Apple, 1992), we conceptualized infusion as the extent to which major logistics operations have integrated with green practices. Each sampled company was asked to score the degree of infusion of green practices according to a seven-point scale anchored by “not at all” and “to a great extent”. The measurement of determinant factors was developed according to innovation diffusion literature (Rogers, 2003; Tornatzkey and Fleischer 1990) and green practice adoption model proposed by Lin and Ho (2011). Adoption cost was measured according to the financial resources required to evaluate the green practices and start to utilize the green practices. Complexity was measured by whether the green practices would be learned and used easily. Compatibility was measured based on the degrees of perceived fitness between the green practice and the company’s existing technologies and processes. Relative advantage was measured by whether the green practice could increase environmental and economic performance. The quality of human resources was measured according to employees’ learning capabilities. Organizational support was measured according to the degrees of the company’s resource supports and leaders’ attitudes toward environment issues. The company size was measured by the number of employees. The environmental uncertainty was measured according to the degrees of changes in competitors’ innovative abilities, customers’ requirement, and the development of new technologies. Governmental support was measured by whether the government provides financial and technical supports for adopting green practices. Customer pressure and regulatory pressure was measured by asking the respondents to score the environmental pressure exerted by customers and regulators. The determinant factors were measured using seven-point Likert scales anchored by “strongly disagree” and “strongly agree”. The measurement items of determinant factors were submitted to factor analysis with varimax rotation. Factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 are summarized in Table 1. The result of factor analysis confirms the construct validity of this study. According to the reliability coefficients, 176 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies the smallest value of Cronbach’s alpha for this study is 0.7743, which implies that the sampling results are reliable (Nunnally, 1978). Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations and correlations for the variables. The determinant factors are not highly correlated, which implies that multicollinearity may not be significant in the following regression analysis. Furthermore, the high correlations between green practice infusion and most of the determinant factors give initial evidence of the hypotheses: technological, organizational, and environmental factors are associated with the organizational infusion of green practices. Table 1: Measurement Items for the Determinant Factors Determinant Factors Factor Loading Cronbach’s α Technological Factors (Total explained variance = 72.63% ; Cronbach’s α = 0.8598) Adoption cost We spend a lot of money to evaluate the green practices. The cost in starting using the green practices is expensive. We spend a lot of time to evaluate the green practices. Complexity Using the green practices needs many experiences. Learning the green practices is difficult. Sharing the knowledge of the green practices is difficult. Compatibility The green practices are compatible with our existing logistics operations. The green practices are consistent with our company’s values. Integrating the green practices with company’s existing system is easy. Relative advantage The green practices can provide better environmental performance. The green practices can provide higher economic benefits. The green practices can enhance our company’s reputation. 0.788 0.762 0.705 0.8179 0.804 0.759 0.698 0.8663 0.826 0.767 0.701 0.8802 0.793 0.775 0.689 0.8395 Organizational Factors (Total explained variance = 75.87% ; Cronbach’s α = 0.8906) Quality of human resources Employees are capable of using new technologies to solve problems easily. Employees are capable of providing new ideas for our company. Employees are capable of learning new technologies easily. Employees are capable of sharing knowledge with each others. Organizational support Top management encourages employees to learn green knowledge. Our company provides rewards for employees’ green behavior. Top management can help employees dealing with environmental issues. Our company provides resources for employees to learn green knowledge. 0.841 0.812 0.739 0.694 0.8847 0.850 0.809 0.758 0.706 0.8951 Environmental Factors (Total explained variance = 71.89% ; Cronbach’s α = 0.8297) Environmental uncertainty Predicting competitors’ behavior is difficult. Customers’ preferences vary frequently. 0.738 0.667 177 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai The advance in new logistics service modes is quickly. Governmental support Government provides financial support for adopting green practices. Government helps training manpower with green logistics skills. Government provides technical assistance for adopting green practices. Regulatory pressure Government sets environmental regulations for logistics operations. Industrial associations require us to conform to environmental regulations. Customer pressure Our customers require us to improve environmental performance. Caring for the environment is an important consideration for our customers. 0.605 0.7743 0.842 0.834 0.725 0.8035 0.793 0.718 0.8674 0.813 0.745 0.8317 Total Cronbach’s α = 0.8693 Table 2: Result of correlation analysis Variables 1. Adoption cost 2. Complexity 3. Compatibili ty 4. Relative advantage 5. Quality of human resources 6. Organizatio nal support 7. Company size a 8. Environmen tal uncertainty 9. Governmen tal support 10. Regulatory pressure 11. Customer pressure 12. Green practice infusion a Mea ns 4.52 Std 1 2 3 4 5 1.7 9 1.9 0 2.0 6 1.0 0 0.1 1 0.1 2 1.0 0 0.0 3 1.0 0 1.2 8 1.3 4 0.0 9 0.0 6 0.0 6 0.0 8 0.1 1 0.0 7 1.0 0 0.0 4 1.0 0 4.97 1.1 5 0.1 2 0.0 5 0.0 8 0.1 0 0.1 9 1.0 0 4.81 1.4 7 2.0 5 0.0 4 0.0 2 0.0 2 0.0 6 0.0 4 0.0 2 0.0 9 0.0 1 0.1 3 0.0 9 4.86 1.7 2 0.0 6 0.0 9 0.0 6 0.0 8 5.17 1.5 8 0.0 3 0.0 3 5.03 1.8 4 0.0 2 0.0 5 0.0 7 4.79 1.6 3 0.2 1 0.3 6 4.41 4.25 4.92 4.73 4.08 6 7 8 9 10 0.1 8 0.1 2 1.0 0 0.0 5 1.0 0 0.1 1 0.1 5 0.0 6 0.0 2 1.0 0 0.0 6 0.0 7 0.1 6 0.1 2 0.0 7 1.0 0 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0 9 0.1 0 0.1 1 0.5 4 0.5 9 0.5 1 0.6 4 0.1 4 0.0 3 0.1 6 0.0 6 0.0 2 0.5 6 0.4 6 0.0 9 11 12 1.0 0 0.2 9 1.0 0 Natural logarithm of the number of employees 178 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies Because a single informant technique was used in data collection, the study may be subjected to the potential for common method bias by artificially inflating observed relationships between variables. We used Harman’s single factor test (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee and Podsakoff, 2003) to check the potential common method bias. If common method bias exists, a single factor will emerge from a factor analysis of all survey items, or one general factor that accounts for most of the variance in an unrotated factor structure will result. The analysis revealed more than one factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0, and the first factor accounted for only about 32 percent of the variance. The results indicated that common method bias was not a problem in the study. Research Findings and Discussions To test proposed research hypotheses, the regression analysis is used in the study, which takes the eleven determinant factors as independent variables and the infusion of green practices as the dependent variable. The regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationship between a dependent variable and several independent variables. Before conducting the regression analysis, the regression assumptions of homoescedasticity, linearity, normality, independence of residuals, and the absence of multicollinearity are tested, and these assumptions are all satisfied. Table 3 shows the standardized results of the regression analysis. The regression results reveal that complexity, compatibility and relative advantage of green practices, quality of human resources, organizational support, governmental support and regulatory pressure exhibit significantly influences on green practice infusion for the logistics companies in China. The influences of adoption cost, company size, environmental uncertainty and customer pressure on logistics companies’ green behavior are not significant. Except the hypotheses H1, H7, H8 and H11, all the other hypotheses are supported. 179 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai Table 3: Standardized Regression Results for the Infusion of Green Practices Dependent variables: Infusion of Green Practices Predictors Technological factors Adoption cost Complexity of technology Compatibility of technology Relative advantage of technology Organizational factors Quality of human resources Organizational support Company size Environmental factors Environmental uncertainty Governmental support Regulatory pressure Customer pressure R2 adj R2 F * p<0.05 ** p<0.01 Standardized Coefficient β t 0.089 -0.124 0.184 0.187 1.135 -2.109* 3.274** 3.986** 0.179 0.201 -0.061 2.979** 4.211** -1.004 -0.074 0.183 0.175 0.098 0.617 0.592 24.33** -1.084 3.315** 2.843** 1.241 To advance green practice infusion, companies can attempt to improve their organizational learning capabilities, and make organizational resources easily available for their employees. In addition to being a regulator, the government should provide sufficient financial, technical and educational resources for green practice infusion within the company. Adoption costs include the required financial and human resources in implementing green practices. Costs have been long posited as a barrier for the adoption of innovations. However, some researchers argue that high adoption costs may motivate innovation adopters to treat the innovation more seriously and implement it more actively in order to make the innovation more cost-effective (Rogers, 2003). The present study found that adoption cost did not have significantly influences on green practice infusion. Complexity is the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be relatively difficult to understand and use. It will increase the difficulty in knowledge transfer. Green practices incorporate both tacit and explicit knowledge. The tacit knowledge may be inherent in identifying sources of pollution, reacting quickly to accidental spills, and proposing preventive solutions (Boiral, 2002). A green practice with high complexity contains a lot of tacit knowledge that requires laborious efforts to learn and diffuse. The difficulty in learning and sharing tacit knowledge makes it difficult to infuse a green practice. Compatibility is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, experiences, and 180 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies needs of the firms. Because several green practices are additions to companies’ current technologies and processes, diffusion of green practices is not a single event but can be described as a process of knowledge accumulation and integration. Green practices that are more compatible to a company’s current technologies and processes will be more easily to be diffused within the organization. Relative advantage is the perception that an innovation is more advantageous than its substitute idea. The perceived net benefits that the green practice offers will serve as motivations for companies to implement the green practice. The quality of human resources is an essential factor influencing innovation diffusion. Qualified human resources are helpful to diffuse innovations because of their competent learning capabilities. Implementing green practices is a complex process requiring cross-disciplinary coordination and significant changes in the existing operation process. To overcome knowledge barriers to green practice infusion, employees need extensive, specialized training to learn the principles underlying the innovation. Organizational support is the extent to which a company helps employees use innovations. Providing incentive for innovation diffusion and ensuring the availability of financial and technical resources for innovation have positive effects on the implementation of innovation. For the development of environmental management, organizational support is essential because the employees will be motivated to implement green behavior and the resources required for adopting green practices will be more easily available. Company size has been repeatedly taken as a relevant organizational characteristic influencing companies’ innovation diffusion as well as environmental activities. In general, large companies tend to adopt innovations and green practices more easily than small ones because they have sufficient resources and strong infrastructures. Small companies, in contrast, may suffer from the lack of financial resources and professionals, which results in difficulties in adopting green practices. However, some researchers argue that, due to less flexible structure, lower ability to adapt and more difficulty in assimilating change, larger companies may be more difficult than smaller companies in the infusion of innovations (Dampour and Schneider, 2006). The present study found that company size did not have significantly influences on green practice infusion. Environmental uncertainty refers to frequent and unpredictable changes in customer preferences, technological development, and competitive behavior perceived by the managers. It has been viewed as the most relevant environmental characteristic that affects a firm’s decision making. The present study found that environmental 181 �Yi-Hui Ho, Chieh-Yu Lin, Jung-Shun Tsai uncertainty did not have significantly influences on green practice infusion. Governmental support is a relevant environmental factor influencing technical innovation. Implementing green practices relies to some extent on the availability of external resources. The government can raise the munificence by providing governmental subsidies or tax incentives for alternative energy technologies, bank financing at lower rates for environmentally friendly technologies, and lower insurance premiums for lower environmental risks (Aragon-Correa and Sharma, 2003). Stakeholder pressure is regarded as the most prominent factor influencing a company’s environmental strategy. According to the stakeholder theory, organizations carry out activities to satisfy their main stakeholders. The infusion of green practices was positively associated with regulatory pressure. Conclusions More than two decades of economic reforms have brought China unprecedented economic growth. While China continues to develop into a global manufacturing base and a huge consumer market, it suffers from various serious environmental problems such as air pollution, energy waste, and water pollution. The environmental crisis has led to some moral doldrums in China. To mitigate the environmental degradation in China, the Chinese government has stipulated several environmental policies, and many companies operating in China have begun to adopt a variety of environmental management practices. To help organizations implementing green practices successfully, it is necessary to give an analysis on the factors influencing green practice infusion in organizations. An understanding of the determinant factors is essential for practitioners to best implement green practices. Although a body of research has proposed several factors influencing green practice adoption, none of them analyzed the factors influencing green practice infusion. This study conducts a questionnaire survey on the factors affecting green practice adoption for logistics companies in China. The determinant factors are classified into environmental, organizational and technological factors. The research findings reveal that regulatory pressure, governmental support, organizational support, quality of human resources, and relative advantage and compatibility of green practices have significantly positive influences on organizational infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics companies. Therefore, green practice providers should pay more efforts to increase the explicitness and benefits of green practices while providing green technologies, equipments and services for their clients. Logistics companies themselves need to sustain more organizational support for employees’ 182 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies green behavior, and improve their quality of human resources. In addition to being a regulator, the government can provide sufficient resources for logistics companies to implement green practices The contributions of this paper include providing logistics service providers guidelines for increasing their green competitiveness, providing the government suggestions in designing environmental policies for the logistics industry, contributing to an insight into the infusion of green practices in the logistics industry, and broadening the scope of research both on environmental management and logistics issues. One limitation to this study is that the results may suffer from the respondent bias because the questionnaire survey was used in the study. 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Acknowledgements We are grateful to the National Science Council of the Republic of China for the financial support of this work under the grant NSC 100-2410-H-309-013. 189 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2410 Title A name given to the resource An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green An Empirical Study on Organizational Infusion of Green Practices in Chinese Logistics Companies Author Author Ho, Yi-Hui Lin, Chieh-Yu Tsai, Jung-Shun Abstract A summary of the resource. As environmental considerations have become a fundamental part of business strategies, there is a challenge for managers and academicians to explore the integration of environmental concepts and business operations. Although a number of studies on green practice adoption can be found in the literature, few of them analyzed the infusion of green practices in organizations. Furthermore, most prior research of green management focused on manufacturing sectors; scarce attention was paid on research in service sectors. This paper focuses on the green practice infusion in logistics companies because many logistics operations often lead to several environmental impacts. The main purpose of this paper is to explore the factors that affect organizational infusion of green practices in Chinese logistics companies. Drawing on the innovation diffusion theory, this paper groups the determinant factors into technological, organizational and environmental dimensions. We explored the influences of determinant factors on green practice infusion by conducting a questionnaire survey on logistics companies in China. The regression analysis is used to test proposed research hypotheses in the study Research findings reveal that complexity, compatibility and relative advantage of green practices, quality of human resources, organizational support, governmental support and regulatory pressure exhibit significantly influences on green practice infusion for the logistics companies in China. The influences of adoption cost, company size, environmental uncertainty and customer pressure on logistics companies’ green behavior are not significant. This paper can extend the scope of research on green management in service industries and green practice infusion. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c57c6b3a0910a190e8e235e17518eb70.pdf b78f0d690c52f83da99a5a47904d0eb0 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2409 Title A name given to the resource The High-Speed Rail and the Productivity of Freeway Bus Service Industry: Taiwan’s Case Author Author Chen, Chih Cheng Abstract A summary of the resource. This study explores the productivity of Taiwan’s freeway bus service (FBS) industry in response to competition from the Taiwan High-Speed Rail (THSR). We employ the Malmquist index to investigate the productivity of Taiwan’s FBS industry and apply the dynamic panel data (DPD) model to identify the factors influencing its productivity. The emergence of THSR initially worsened the total factor productivity of the FBS industry firstly and stimulated it in a longer time period. We also find that year 2007, sales and management expense, the total assets, and capital/asset ratio of an FBS company are the primary factors positively influencing the productivity. However, lagged 1 period Malmquist index service and service diversity reversely influence it significantly. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/695d574b822d84b3f77087f3713666e7.pdf 4f3e40a5a5e4c77dce84ae313f7615e5 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Ramazan Arslan Bartın University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Turkey rarslan@bartin.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims to look into the economic Keywords: Bartın district, structure of Bartın province, located in West Black Temettüat Registers, 19th Century, Sea Region in Turkey, in the 19th century. The main Ottoman Empire, Viranşehir resource of the study is the temettüat register no Sanjak, Economic Structure. 02824 that belongs to Bartın, which was formed on the basis of the census in 1844-1845. Temettüat registers are significant archive resources that provide statistical information about the period studied as well as the region itself. Moving from data suc as the income resources, distribution of land, husbandry and labor, this study examines the economic structure of Bartın, which used to be a District of Viransehir Sanjak during the time. The study will also contribute to the literature by giving insights into the economy of Ottoman rural area in the 19th century. In addition to forestry products, the economy of Bartın depended on agriculture and husbandry during the time period studied. Agricultural production included such main products as wheat and barley while agricultural enterprises were mediumscale businesses. JEL Classification: N00, N30, N50 Article History Submitted: 02 August 2013 Resubmitted: 24 October 2013 Accepted: 29 October 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS 11429 221 �Ramazan Arslan Introduction In the periods before the reign of Ottoman Empire, states used to keep a set of inventories in order to produce social, economic, financial and military policies. It is known that one of these inventories was made in Old Egypt between 2500 – 3000 B.C. (Barkan, 2000, p. 181). In order to keep the Empire under control, Ottoman Empire developed a set of specific inventory systems (İnalcık, 1996, p.IX). Rapid increase in the number of soldiers with permanent salaries in Ottoman army was putting a serious burden on the budget (Pamuk, 2007a, pp. 119-121). In order to resolve these problems in the financial structure, various measures such as creating lease holding system and transferring resources from the treasure were taken (Genç, 2000, p.101) and as it is known, finally, foreign borrowing was used (Tabakoğlu, 1985, pp. 296-297). Although Ottoman bureaucracy was hesitant about foreign borrowing for a long period, in a short time foreign borrowing turned out to be the most frequently used method for budget deficits (Pamuk, 2007b, pp.144-145). Besides, attempts to devise solutions in financial field continued through reforms in budget and tax issues (Güran, 1989, pp 717), and instead of civil tax, a new single tax called “Proportionate Tax” was introduced. In the 19th century, there had been significant differences in the economic structure of the government and significant changes occurred in traditional Ottoman regime (Pamuk, 2002, p.241). Beginning with Tanzimat, possession inventories were made in Hüdâvendigar (Bursa), Ankara, Aydın, Izmir, Konya and Sivas cities (Çadırcı, 1987, p.190). Again in the same period tax resources were determined again by new tax regulations (Tabakoğlu, 2003, p.169), Temettüat inventories were made in order to determine the financial situation of the public, to establish a fair tax system and to increase public revenues; and thus it was attempted to tinker disrupted financial system was tried to be tinkered (Öztürk, 2000, p.550). After the inventory in 1840, all personal assets, real estate, land, cattle, product etc. information were recorded for each house in 1844 in each residential area like districts and villages. Classification of Temettüat registers were grounded on administrative partition and these registers were alphabetically prepared for each province. Total number of Temettüat 222 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Registers between 1844- 1845 is 17.747 (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi Rehberi, 2000, p.254). Bartın, which was a significant coastal city of Ottoman Empire during the period (especially in lumbering) is chosen as the sample field for this study. Bartın, today, is one of Turkey’s cities in the West Black Sea Region. Rumor has it that the name Bartın comes from the mythological Greek word “Parthenios”, which means “river”. Bartın, which had fallen under the domination of various states at different times in history, was annexed to the Ottoman Empire with the conquest of Amasra by Mehmet the Conqueror (Mehmed II) in 1460 (Bartın Guide, 1927, p.8). After annexed to the Ottoman Empire, Bartın was affiliated to Bolu district of Anatolian Governorship; it became a town in 1867 and its municipal organization was founded in 1876. After Zonguldak became a city in 1924, Bartın turned to be a district of the city and in 1991, Bartın itself became a city. Today Bartın has 4 districts, namely: Center, Amasra, Ulus and Kurucaşile; 9 municipalities including Arıt, Kozcağız, Kumluca and Abdipaşa towns; and 260 villages (Bartın Valiliği, 2011). Income Sources Income sources in an economy differ according to sectors and locations. Villages or if we are to say it with a more general expression, rural areas are small residential areas where there is no specialization in economic life and indeed, it is not necessarily needed, where production is at the level of earning one’s keep, and where agriculture and husbandry are important income sources (Öztürk, 1996, p.109). These residential areas also inform us about the agriculture in the Ottoman Empire. The economic structure of Ottoman Empire which was based on agriculture in general also stands out in the 11 residential area we work on. Besides, it is also seen that lumbering ranks high on the top as a source of income. In this study, the records of 11 villages annexed to Bartın township, selected as the sample field of the study, and registered to Temettüat Register no 02824 recorded at the ML.VRD.TMT. were examined and it was intended to 223 �Ramazan Arslan demonstrate the features of the economic structure in a rural area of the Ottoman Empire in the midst of the nineteenth century. The villages used in this study are: “Mekeçler” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.4-10), “Kurtköy” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, p.11-16), “Receb Beşeoğlu” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp. 17-21), “Gedikler” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.22-24), “Çayır” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.25-32), “Bonlar” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.32-34), “Kıran” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.35-39), “Hoşafçılar” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.40-41), “Emiroğlu” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.42-43), “Pınarlı” (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.44-49) and “Akmescid’’ (BOA, ML.VRD.TMT No:02824, pp.49-50). Aforementioned rural area had 154 taxpaying houses and all of the residents of these houses were Muslim. Income from lumbering has an important share in the distribution of income sources in the rural area and it takes the first place. We put all lumbering-relevant incomes in Temettüat register under the same topic. Revenue from lumbering within the total product was 59,69% in 1260/1844 in Bartın rural area (graphic 1). This shows that lumbering is an important income source in our study field. Forestland in Bartin is one of the most interesting and among the richest forestlands in Turkey in terms of plant and tree species diversity (Bartın Valiliği, 2011). Agricultural income is the second income source for rural areas. The rate is 33.51%. In this context, income generated from fields, vegetable gardens and grape vines are included in agricultural income sources. The reason for agricultural income to take the second place as an income source can be explained with the economic properties of the region. Income rate generated from being a laborer is 4.66%. Laborer which means worker (Devellioğlu, 2005, p.31) has been a considerable income source in villages. Income from husbandry, on the other hand, ranks last in income resources in the region with a rate of 2.14%. Due to rich pastures and humid climate, bovine breeding is widespread in the region. In the distribution of incomes, large amount of income is obtained from lumbering in villages. Lumbering transportation has an important share in all villages. It is 38, 89%. Income obtained from lumber milling has the second place with a ratio of 36,65%. Income from both lumbering and its 224 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period transportation takes the third place as an income source. Lumber trading is only done in Akmescid village. In all village settlements income from lumbering has an important share as a source of income. Mekeçler Village had the highest agricultural income among total product across the villages. Income from lumbering amounted 58.04% in this village. The lowest agricultural income was in Kıran Village with a rate of 30,04%. Income from husbandry among total product was the highest in Akmescid Village with the rate of 2,14% and lowest in Mekeçler village with 0,21%. There was no income obtained from husbandry in Hoşaflar Village. There was no laborer income in three villages in all sources. Laborer income was the highest in Recep Beşoğlu Village. When income from lumbering is looked into in total product in all villages, it has a big share of 59,69%. Among villages, Kıran village had the highest income from lumbering with a rate of 66,52% (Table 1). Table 1. Distribution of Income Sources by villages Villages Agricultural Income (Kurus) Husbandry Income (Kurus) Labour Income (Kurus) Mekeçler 5.914 50 Kurtköy 4.512 Receb Beşeoğlu 4.392 Karagedikler Lumbering Income (Kurus) Total (Kurus) 450 9.330 15.744 125 500 6.807 11.944 144 1.600 6.551 12.687 2.649 44 700 3.950 7.343 Karaçayır 4.166 59 1.250 6.550 12.025 Bonlar 2.467 36 0 3.700 6.203 Kıran 4.019 111 150 8.901 13.381 Hoşafçılar 761 0 0 1.250 2.011 Emiroğlu 2.269 154 0 3.930 6.353 Pınarlı 4.646 132 150 8.900 13.828 Akmescid 11.153 713 1.550 19.870 33.286 TOTAL 46.948 1.568 6.350 79.739 134.805 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50. Income per house in the rural area was found as 931 kurus (The main currency used in the Ottoman Empire in the first half of the XIX. century). Among the total 11 villages 6 of the villages were recorded to have an income above 225 �Ramazan Arslan the average and 5 of them were recorded to have an income below the average. Table 2. Total Income of the Villages and Income per House Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Kıran Hoşafçılar Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid TOTAL Number of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total Income 23.426 11.944 12.687 7.343 12.025 6.203 13.381 2.011 6.353 13.828 33.286 142.487 Income per House 1.171 664 1.057 918 547 1.034 1.029 402 1.059 813 1.280 931 In Village Average + + + + + + Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Income per house was the highest in Akmescid Village with an average income of 1,280 kurus per house. And, the lowest average income, on the other hand, was in Hoşaflar Village with 402 kurus per house. The reason behind the high rate of average income in Akmescid village was that lumbering trade was only made in this village. In general, there are no significant differences between the averages of plus and minus income groups. It is possible to say that the income levels of the houses in the same group are close to each other. Land Distribution Total area of land recorded for agricultural purposes (as fields and vegetable gardens) in village settlements was 2033 decares (1 decare equals to one thousand square meters, 0,247 acres). These lands are 100% planted areas. All the lands in the villages were used for planting cereals, vineyards, vegetable gardens. 93,21% (1895 decare) of the agricultural lands were fields and 6,79% (138 decare) of the lands were vegetable gardens. This shows that agricultural production was the second source of income in the region after lumbering. 226 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period In this section, land shares, amount of planted areas and their shares among the total 2033 decare agricultural area will be emphasized. 100% of the 2033 decare land that villages had were planted areas. There were no lands allowed to lie for fallow. Total land amount per taxpaying houses was 13, 29 decares (Özlü, 2008, p.118). Akmescid Village had the highest share in land distribution. Total land amount of this village was 422 decares. The village with the lowest amount of land was Hoşafçılar village with 21 decares. When we look into the amount of land per house, Bonlar Village had the highest rate with 20,33 decares per house. Again Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest amount of land with 4,20 decares per house. In terms of planted area, again Akmescid had the highest amount while Hoşafçılar had the lowest amount of planted area. The amount of planted area in Akmescid Village was 422 decares and the same amount was 21 decares in Hoşafçılar Village. The amount of planted area per house was the highest in Bonlar Village with 20.33 decares per house. The lowest amount was in Hoşafçılar Village with 4.20 decares per house. The total land amount of all villages, the amount of planted and fallow land, amount of land per house is given in detail in Table 3. Table 3. Land Distribution Villages Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Kıran Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid TOTAL Nr. of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total Planted Area (Decare) 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Planted Area per House (Decare) 14,00 11,44 15,75 14,63 8,86 20,33 14,31 4,20 15,67 11,82 16,23 13,29 Total Land (Decare) 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Land per House (Decare) Planted Area % Unplanted land % 14,00 11,44 15,75 14,63 8,86 20,33 14,31 4,20 15,67 11,82 16,23 13,29 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 - Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 227 �Ramazan Arslan In their distribution by the type of agricultural production and villages, it is seen that the total land reserved for branches of production is used to full capacity. The usage rate of fields reserved for such products as wheat, barley, oat and flax were close to one another. The largest land use in grains production was in Akmescid Village with 380 decares while the least land amount was in Hoşafçılar Village with 17 decares. The land distributed for vegetable gardens was the highest again in Akmescid Village with 42 decares and lowest in Bonlar Village with 5 decares (Table 4). Table 4. Distribution of Agricultural Production Land Village Nr. Of Houses Fields where grains are planted (Decare) % % Total Production (Decare) % 97,50 Vineyard, orchard and vegetable production (Decare) 7 Mekeçler 20 273 2,50 280 100 Kurtköy 18 198 96,12 8 3,88 206 100 Receb Beşeoğlu 12 178 94,18 11 5,82 189 100 Karagedikler 8 110 94,02 7 5,98 117 100 Çayır 22 184 94,36 11 5,64 195 100 Bonlar Village 6 117 95,90 5 4,10 122 100 Kıran Village 13 177 95,16 9 4,84 186 100 Hoşafçılar Village 5 17 80,95 4 19,05 21 100 Emiroğlu 6 83 88,30 11 11,70 94 100 Pınarlı 17 178 88,56 23 11,44 201 100 Akmescid Village 26 380 90,05 42 9,95 422 100 TOTAL 153 1895 93,21 138 6,79 2033 100 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 In all villages a large amount of the land was reserved for grain production. The income from a 1895-decare-field reserved for field crops was 38.352 kurus. The highest revenue was obtained in Akmescid village with 9.155 kurus. The lowest income level was at Hoşafçılar village with 545 kurus. An area of 138 decare was left for vineyards, gardens and vegetable gardens. The revenue from this area was 1998 kurus. The highest revenue was obtained from Kurt Köy with 1.245 kurus. Again, the lowest revenue was at Hoşafçılar Village with 216 kurus. 228 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The total area reserved for wheat, barley, oat, flax, vineyard and fruits& vegetable was 2033 decares. 46.948 kurus revenue was made from an area of 2033 decares in all villages (Özlü, 2008, p.118). When we compare this income with Akçakoca on the same period, we find a significant difference between the two. It was figured that 46757 kurus revenue would be earned from 746,5 decares area in Akçakoca rural area (See Özlü, p.188). This means 62,63 kurus per decare. On the other hand, 46948 kurus revenue was generated from 2033 decares in Bartın rural area, and such a low number as 23,09 was found per decare. The highest income was obtained in Akmescid Village in all villages with 11.153 kurus. The lowest income was obtained in Emiroğlu Village with 2.269 kurus. Table 5. Distribution of Land by Villages in terms of their usage area and value, 1844 Village Mekeçler Fields where grain production is made Decare Income (Kurus) 273 4.802 Vineyard, orchard and vegetable garden Decare Income (Kurus) 7 1.112 Total Decare 280 Income (Kurus) 5.914 Kurtköy 198 3.267 8 1.245 206 4.512 Receb Beşeoğlu 178 3.681 11 711 189 4.392 Karagedikler 110 2.118 7 531 117 2.649 Çayır 184 3.446 11 720 195 4.166 Bonlar 117 2.125 5 342 122 2.467 Kıran 177 3.407 9 612 186 4.019 Hoşafçılar Village 17 545 4 216 21 761 Emiroğlu 83 2.017 11 252 94 2.269 Pınarlı 178 3.789 23 857 201 4.646 Akmescid 380 9.155 42 1.998 422 11.153 TOTAL 1895 38.352 138 8.596 2033 46.948 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 When we compared Bartın rural area with Bilecik, Bursa and Akçakoca rural areas in the same period, we found totally different ratios. Among the three districts, Bilecik had the highest rate. Bartın rural area had the lowest level of productivity among the four districts. 229 �Ramazan Arslan Table 6. Comparison of Bartın rural area with surrounding districts’ rural areas in terms of productivity (Kurus) City Bilecik Bursa (Öztürk, 1996, p.134) Akçakoca (Özlü, 2008, p.207) Bartın Grain Productivity Level 68,95 44,22 38,50 20,24 The productivity of crops in agricultural land varies according to the type of product; and geographical properties, on the other hand, effect productivity. Differences in practice in the production phase and use of fertilizers also effect productivity. When we leave all other factors aside except the geographical factors and make an evaluation; it is possible to set forth in which productive product a residential area should specialize in by determining in which product a village gets the highest revenue per decare (Öztürk, 1996, p.132). Table 7. Productivity of Agricultural Products by Villages (Kurus) Village Grains Vegetables 347 Grape vine 765 Fruit Tree - Miscellaneous Fruits - Mekeçler 4.802 Kurtköy 5.914 3.267 253 792 - - 4.312 Receb Beşeoğlu 3.681 324 351 - 36 4.392 Karagedikler 2.118 189 306 - 36 2.649 Karaçayır 3.446 234 360 126 - 4.166 Bonlar Village 2.125 117 225 - - 2.467 Kıran Village 3.407 162 387 63 - 4.019 545 72 81 63 - 761 Emiroğlu 2.017 162 - 63 27 2.269 Pınarlı 3.789 324 243 290 - 4.646 Akmescid Village 9.155 713 533 702 - 11.103 38.352 2.897 4.043 1.307 99 46.698 Hoşafçılar Village TOTAL Total Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 The village with the highest productivity in grain production in rural area was Akmescid Village. With a 9.155 kurus revenue Akmescid was the village 230 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period with the highest revenue among all villages and it was also the village with the highest revenue in vegetable and fruit growing. Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest revenue in grain production with 545 kurus revenue. Highest revenue in vegetables belonged to Akmescid Village with 713 kurus revenue. Hoşafçılar village where the lowest revenue was obtained was also the village with the lowest grain and grape revenue. Kurtköy had the highest grape income with 792 kurus and Hoşafçılar had the lowest grape income with 81 kurus. Grapevine and cloth trading income was only obtained in Kurtköy with 100 kurus each. In miscellaneous fruits 99 kurus revenue was obtained in three villages in total. Size of Agricultural Enterprises In Ottoman agricultural statistics, enterprises were divided into three groups according to their size. Companies with an area below 10 decares were grouped as “imalât-ı sağire”(small scale enterprise), those with an area between 10-50- decares were grouped as “ imalât-ı mutavassıta”( medium-sized enterprise), and those with an area more than 50 decares are grouped as “imalât-ı cesime (large-scale enterprise)’’ (Güran, 1998b, p. 242). According to this division the rate of small businesses in Bartın rural area was 18.15% while the rate of medium-sized businesses counts for 81.85%. There were no big-sized enterprises (with an area over 50 decares) among agricultural businesses. And this showed that there were mostly medium-sized enterprises in the villages. According to a study in 2007, when the ratio of the sizes of the agricultural businesses and the area they cover is looked into the total rate of three group business with 50-100 and 100-200 and 200-499 decares (da) size make 60,75%. In Bartın, on the other hand, the number of businesses with 0-20 da make up 29,2%.And the companies with 20-100 da make up the 68,7%. Besides, there are no companies larger than 500 da in Bartın (Sarı, 2007, p.45). 231 �Ramazan Arslan Table 8. Size of Agricultural Enterprises 1-10 Decare % 10-50 Decare % % 87.81 Over 50 decare - Planted field 231 12.19 1664 Vegetable garden 138 100 - 0 - 0 TOTAL/AVERAGE 369 18.15 1664 81.85 - 0 0 Grain Production We see that grain production, which was the most important source of income for Ottoman Empire (Keyder and Tabak, 1998, p.182), had been an important source of income in Ottoman rural areas, a small reflection of the empire, as well. Moving from the data regarding the grain production of eleven villages chosen, numbers about the type of grain and their amounts (table 8) will be presented. All the fields in the Temettüat register, the main source of our study, were planted areas. There were no fields allowed to lie for fallow. Wheat, barley and oat were grown in all villages. Besides, reed plant and flax oil grew in Akmescid too. The highest wheat production was made in Akmescid village with 880 bushels while the lowest production was made in Hoşafçılar village with 50 bushels. As is seen, wheat production took the first place in grain production. In the villages we realized our study, a total amount of 3840 bushels wheat production was made. After wheat, the second most produced grain was barley. Barley was most produced in Kıran Village and least produced in Hoşafçılar Village. The total production of field products was 8315 bushels. The highest share was at Akmescid Village with 1900 bushels and the lowest share was at Hoşafçılar Village with 85 bushels. 232 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Table 9. Distribution of Grain Production according to their amounts (Bushel) Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL Wheat 370 310 340 230 480 240 390 50 180 370 880 3840 Barley 390 220 270 160 290 120 220 30 140 190 390 2420 Oat 190 120 200 50 190 110 80 5 30 130 350 1455 Reed Plant 120 200 280 600 Total 950 650 810 440 960 470 690 85 470 890 1900 8315 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 We can find if there is a surplus product in the total agricultural production amount of the villages. When doing this, we can use the tithe paid for one year in the villages. Total tithe from wheat in the villages was 384 bushels. Since this tax in-kind corresponds to 10% of the total product, moving from this information we can find the total wheat production as 3840 bushels. When 384 bushels, the tithe, is deducted from the total production, the amount of wheat the villagers would consume in a year is found; and this amount corresponds to 3456 bushels (88.354 kg). Does this amount supply the villagers with the necessary amount they need? When we consider that a person can consume almost 8 bushels (205 kg) of wheat in a year (Güran, 1998 a, p.16), wheat consumption of the villages in the same year is calculated as 6120 bushels (156.978 kg) (Özlü, 2008, pp. 195196). 153 houses, the population of the village is found as 765 by calculating 5 people living in each house. As it is known that each person consumes 8 bushels of wheat every year, total consumption is found as 765 x 8 = 6120 bushels (Barkan, 1953: 1-26). Ömer Lütfi Barkan’s thesis stating that each Ottoman house’s population is five people. The same calculation can be made for Akçakoca rural area. There were 294 houses in Akçakoca. And accordingly, the total population is 1470. Total annual wheat consumption is 1470x8= 11.760. However, the total wheat production in Akçakoca was 1790 bushels. Thus, all dwellings of Akçakoca produce less wheat than 233 �Ramazan Arslan they need. And this brings in mind that the people in the villages provide their wheat need from the districts in the neighborhood partially (Özlü, 2008: 195-196). According to this calculation, it is revealed that villagers cannot even supply their own wheat amount for themselves and their families let alone merchandise it (For similar and comparative calculations see Öztürk, 1996: 146; Küçükkalay & Efe, 2006: 252). The required amount of wheat-deficit for aforementioned villages to nourish themselves is 2.280 bushels or in other words 58.482 kg. However, this deficit should be approached with precaution because in those aforementioned villages such supporting products as barley, oat, reed plant, flax and flax oil were also grown. Husbandry Husbandry is at the bottom of the list as an income source in the region. Its share in the total revenue was 2.14% (Özlü, 2008: 82). In Özlü’s study on Akçakoca, the share of husbandry in Akçakoca rural area was found to have 3% share in total revenue. Between 1811-1864, Akçakoca was a town attached to BoluSafranbolu (Viranşehir) Has Voyvodalığı (Özlü, 2008: 32). Existing husbandry, as far as it seems, was for meeting needs. It is not possible to say that production for the market was made and that husbandry was done as an occupation. It appears that only ox among cattle was used in plowing. Such pack animals as bear, horse, donkey and hinny were not found in the villages. Table 10. Ovine and Cattle Distribution Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL 234 Ovine (Number) Incomegenerating ovine (Number) Total Revenue Cattle (Number) 9 15 10 0 3 24 61 3 14 6 3 14 40 6 14 12 4 29 65 56 35 43 26 23 25 63 5 32 32 110 450 Incomegenerating cattle (Number) 2 6 4 2 2 3 8 8 5 28 68 Total Revenue (Kurus) 20 75 40 20 50 30 80 150 105 598 1168 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The number of bovine in rural area was 61. Among these 61 animals, 40 of them brought in money; the income generated from these 40 animals was 65 kurus. Akmescid Village ranked in the first place in raising ovine with 24 ovine. Again the highest income from ovine was generated in Akmescid Village with 29 kurus. The total number of cattle was 450. There were cattle in all rural areas. The highest number of cattle was in Akmescid Village. The number of cattle in this village was 110. The income generated from these 110 cattle was recorded as 1168 kurus. An important part of this revenue was generated from milk cows and milk buffalos. The rate of ovine among all animals was 11.94% while the rate of cattle was 88.06%. When we grouped the animals raised in rural areas according to their species (Table 10) we saw that cattle species had the highest share. It is seen that ovine breeding did not develop in the villages in rural areas while bovine breeding significantly improved. Table 11. Total Animal Distribution in Villages by their species Animal species Goat Sheep Cattle Number 15 46 424 % 3,09 9,48 87,42 It is seen in the records that goat and sheep were the animal species in which ovine breeding developed. There was no information on poultry so we cannot comment on poultry. The total number of goats and sheep that we assessed in total ovine was 61. Among these 61 ovine, 15 of them were goats and 46 of them were sheep. Among both species sheep had a predominant place. Annual revenue from 61 ovine was 65 kurus. And 18 kurus of this amount was earned from goats and 47 of it was earned from sheep. It seems that when annual revenue from each animal is considered, sheep was a more productive animal. Among goat species mostly milk goats were raised. Goat was only raised in Emiroğlu (3) and Akmescid (12) villages. And in sheep species again mostly milk sheep were raised. It is seen that these animals were mostly raised in Recep Beşeoğlu village. 235 �Ramazan Arslan The distribution of bovine breeding in the rural area is as follows; Number of cattle was higher than the number of pack animals. Except from milk cow and milk buffalo, no income was generated from the other animals among cattle. The number of draught animals among cattle was high. And among pack animals there were no donkeys in all rural areas except 1 in Emiroğlu village. When we looked into the animal species used for ploughing and packing and those which should be regarded as capital, we saw ox and water buffalo on the top of the list. Only donkey was recorded carrying and apart from donkey, was no other animal like horse and hinny. The total number of bovine animals in the rural area raised for various purposes and used in various areas was 370. Among these animals 369 of them were cattle and 1 on them was pack animal. Annual revenue from 50 milk cows in cattle group was 643 kurus. Average annual revenue per animal was found as 12.86 kurus. In terms of annual revenue, income from milk buffalo took the second place. While income was 10 kurus per milk cow, the same income from each milk buffalo was two and a half times higher than it. The annual revenue from each milk buffalo was 25 kurus (Özlü, 2008, p.165). In a research on Plovdiv city, it was found that 60 kurus income is generated from a buffalo and 5-6 kurus income is generated from a milk cow annually. (Özlü, p.165). The total revenue from cattle was 1193 kurus. The highest number of milk cows was in Akmescid Village. There were 17 milk cows in the village. There were two milk buffalos in each Çayır, Emiroğlu and Ponar villages, and one in both Kurtköy and Kıran Villages. There were no milk buffalos apart from the mentioned ones. The highest number of cattle used for ploughing was in Akmescid village. The total number of cattle used for ploughing in this village was 30. When the number of houses in this village is considered (a total of 24 houses) it is obvious that there are more than one cattle for each house. During the times before mechanization and in fields where mechanization did not apply, cattle was the main agricultural tool and there was almost one cattle for each house in the rural area. According to our calculations, there were 1.02 cattle per house. When we accept that each house had one cattle, it 236 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period means that all household heads in all villages have a cattle. The rate of cattle, used as draught animal, per house in the rural area is shown in Table 11. In the table, we see that the number of draught animal per house is 1.02. The highest number of cattle per house was in Bonlar Village and the number was 1.67 per house, which means there was more than one cattle for each house in this village. The highest number of cattle was in Mekeçler Village and the total number of cattle was 33. However, since the population of the village was high, the number of cattle per house was 1.65. The lowest number of cattle was in Emiroğlu Village and there were 5 draught animals in the village. In Hoşafçılar Village, where there were only 5 houses, there were no draught animals. Table 12. Draught Animal per House Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/AVERAGE Number of Houses 20 18 12 8 22 6 13 5 6 17 26 153 Total cattle number 33 19 19 12 16 10 16 5 9 17 156 Cattle per House 1.65 1.06 1.58 1.50 0.73 1.67 1.23 0.00 0.83 0.53 0.65 1.02 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 When we looked into the amount of agricultural land per cattle in our sample study field, we saw quite different numbers. As seen in Table 12, village averages differs. On all planted areas scale, the average land per cattle is 13.03. The highest amount of land per cattle was in Akmescid Village. Pınarlı Village followed Akmescid Village with an average land per cattle among all planted area as 22.33 decare. The village where a cattle had the lowest land was Mekeçler Village. The average land for a cattle among all planted area in this village was 8.48 decare. 237 �Ramazan Arslan According to the calculations made, a couple of horses plough 6-7 decare area while a couple of cattle plough 2-3 decare area (Güran, 1998 a, p.86). Accordingly, it was found that a cattle in Bartın rural area was only used for two work days for ploughing. Table 13. Land per cattle Village Number of Total cattle Planted area (Decare) 33 19 19 12 16 10 16 0 5 9 17 156 280 206 189 117 195 122 186 21 94 201 422 2033 Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/AVERAGE Planted Land per Cattle (Decare) 8,48 10,84 9,95 9,75 12,19 12,20 11,63 0 18,80 22,33 24,82 13,03 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Although beekeeping was not accounted as a source of living, still some villages were engaged in beekeeping. All villages were engaged in beekeeping except from Hoşafçılar and Emiroğlu villages. The total number of bee hives in all villages was 43 and the total annual revenue from beekeeping was 299 kurus. The annual revenue from each bee hive was 6 kurus in all villages except Pınarlı and Akmescid villages. Distribution of Labor Force In village settlements, there were not many occupational diversity as in urban areas. In villages, where main source of income was based on agriculture and husbandry, there was no need for occupational differentiation (Güran, 1985, p.318). However, in rural areas there were reasons to do agricultural and non-agricultural activities together. Because of the density of population in the rural area, not everyone could engage in agriculture (Güran, 1998 b, p.271). 238 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The rate of agricultural revenue in total revenue in the rural area used as the study field was 35.51%, while the same rate for lumbering was 59.69%. In other words, we see that the income rate earned from an occupation other than agriculture and husbandry and which can be regarded as occupational income had a quite high level in total revenue. This shows that Bartın, located in the West Black Sea Region, was rich in terms of forests. According to Forest Management Map Database of General Directorate of Forestry, Bartın city has 98.578 ha forest area and 13.229..029 cubic meter planted forest. Most of the existing forest areas are high forests (Sarı, 2007, p.23). It can be said that the large amount of forest areas in the region developed lumbering activities. When the occupations of the household heads were specified in the registers their being “erbâb-ı ziraat”(farmer) was indicated clearly. Since almost all of the people engaged in a business other than agriculture had agricultural lands, it is understood that these people were engaged in farming. Recent studies show that almost all of the people living in the villages of Bartın are somehow engaged in agricultural activities (Sarı, 2007, p.44). It is indicated that 10 household heads among 153 in all villages did not have any income. These people without any income were recorded as “Sa'ile”, “unemployed”, “orphan”, “Lunatic”, “Diseased and Alone” and “Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. Only in Çayır Village there was a record of one people as “Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. This person had no property, land or animals and was engaged in merchandising in Adapazarı and later came to Bartın to attend Asâkir-i Nizâmiye-i Şâhâne”. There were other 9 people without any income and without any kind of property. It is stated that those people live off with the support of other people. Apart from these 10 people, all other household heads have some piece of agricultural lands that they work. Most of these household heads were earning their income from lumbering apart from agricultural activities. The share of income obtained from lumbering among total revenue was 59.15%. The number of people with an income from an occupation income breakdown and the share of will be assessed. In all the villages examined, income from lumbering apart from agricultural highest occupation income was Akmescid Village. occupation; total and average this income in total revenue all household heads earned activities. The village with the 239 �Ramazan Arslan Their occupation revenue had 40.70% share in total revenue The rate of occupational income in total revenue in Akçakoca in the same period was quite higher than Bartın and it was 87 % (Özlü, 2008, p.180). Rural area had a total 54.866 kurus occupation income. The village with the highest occupation income was Akmescid Village, which also had the highest number of household heads having an occupation income. The average revenue in all villages was 386.38 kurus. The highest average was again in Akmescid Village with 536.64 kurus. 25 houses out of a total of 26 had an occupation revenue in this village. Distribution of Taxes Tax is transfer of fund to the government from economic resources with a political decision in order to carry on public works (Milliyet Genel Ekonomi Ansiklopedisi I-II, 1988, p.920). And it was the basis of income distribution in pre-industrial economies. This financial system, which was one of the basic dynamics of the empire took its unique place in world finance history with the collapse of the empire (Genç, 1975, p.231). There had been various implementations of tax in Ottoman Empire in terms of how it was imposed, how it was collected and its diversity. In the period before Tanzimat, there were taxes with different rates and collection methods under the main headings of “Tekâlif-i Şer’iye” and “Tekâlif-i Örfiye”. 19th century had been a totally different period for Ottoman society and economy compared to the previous periods. One of the most significant improvements during the century was the reform movements that the Ottoman executives initiated (Pamuk, 2007a, p.238). With Tanzimat, as in other institutions, many reforms were made in financial structure too. Financial institutions and tax system had been the main focus of Tanzimat reforms (Ortaylı, 1974, p.2). In tax practice religious taxes were remitted and substituted by tithe at a rate of one of a tenth in agricultural products and “adet-i ağnam” (literally meaning “sheep tax”) in ovine, jizya taken from non-Muslim citizens. And civil tax was also substituted with “vergü-yi mahsusa” (a private tax) (Güran, 1989, p.13). Jizya was a per capita tax levied on non-Muslim citizens in Ottoman Empire (Karaman and Pamuk, 2010, p.599). 240 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Vergü-yi Mahsusa (Private tax) This tax which was allocated somehow considering the income of the people and which was substituted for civil tax during Tanzimat period began to be implemented as of 1840. The amount of this tax was determined in sanjak scale and the total amount was divided between the districts. Later the members of the town council used to determine the amount that each town or village had to pay in a meeting where, according to the ethnicity of the population, imam and priest were participating; finally the tax was allocated according to the abilities of the people to pay. In determining the amount of the tax, the total amount of removed civil tax was based on and the ability of the taxpayers to pay which was used when allocating the tax among taxpayers was determined by a census. In this new practice, real estate, land, animal and if the person is engaged, their trade income was grounded on. In order to determine this financial strength fairly and to allocate the tax in a just manner according to people’s ability to pay, inventories were taken in 1844 in a large part of the country. And as a result of these inventories “Property, Land, Animal and Temettüat Registers” were prepared. During the inventories taxman began tax registering from the villages and registered every single person’s name and reputation, their property, land and animals, average amount of revenue of the merchants and tradesmen. And a notable person would be appointed by the city council to each town to help the taxman for registry and a secretary would be appointed to them. Registries were to be made on a properly and fairly, and those who make wrong or incomplete register would be punished. During the collection, the mukhtar of the village or neighborhood, imam or clerk registered the collection they made to the register book with a name of the household head and would bring the book and money to the district. The taxes that people paid were registered to the book at the district and the amount money and date of the payment were written and sealed by the principal and presiding officer. During the collection and the delivery of the tax to the taxman, zaptiah soldiers were also appointed for security reasons. 241 �Ramazan Arslan The collection of this tax was made in two installations as “ruz-ı Hızır” and “ruz-ı kasım” until 1261/1845. And each installation was collected in three other installations. However, since these collection periods were not appropriate for collection, from this date on the tax was to be collected step by step from the farmers from harvest period till the end of the year, and from merchants and tradesmen it was to be collected in a year in installations. With this regulation in 1864, paying the tax in 10 installations was introduced. This tax which was based on identifying property, land and other income resources of the public and taxation according to their ability to pay was abolished in 1860 and instead, land and income taxes were brought (Öztürk, 1996, p.176). After all these general information about taxes, we will now put an emphasis on the shape of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in Ottoman rural area. From the Temettüat register sequence no: 02824, we know the amount of tax allocated to villages in the rural area. Here we will look into the allocation of taxes in the villages from the registers belonging to the villages. When we look into the average amount of tax levied per house, it is seen that the amount is 187,10 kurus in total rural scale. And when we look at village averages we see that 6 villages are above this average and 5 villages are below the averages. Highest average tax was seen in Akmescid Village as 241,73 kurus. The lowest average tax was seen in Hoşafçılar Village as 98 kurus. Total vergü-yi mahsusa in all villages is 28.627. Tithe The word tithe means a one tenth part of something (Akdağ, 1999, p.408); and in Islam land law it means a land tax at a rate of 1/10 and 1/20 taken from the products raised in lands whose owners converted to Islam with their own will and from the lands which were won after a war and divided among the war veterans. Tithe taken directly from the producers (Keyder and Tabak, 1998, p.146) is like a religious service and regarded as the zakat of the land and was only taken from Muslims and the owned land. Tithe in the Ottoman Empire was the name of the money taken from demesne. Since the word exaction would not 242 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period be approved among the public, it was called as tithe and thus, had been used for centuries. Tithe was taken from all products in agriculture. It was taken from all grains and grain types, products raised in vegetable gardens, fruits, vineyards and grape products, pastures and other agricultural products; and the collection of this tax was made in three ways: in kind, in cash and fixed. This tax was not previously transferred to the national treasury but paid to the land owner by rayah working on the land. After the corruption of manorial system the authority of demesne was given to tacksman, taxman and civil servants. During Tanzimat tithe was collected at a rate of one tenth. Tithe, the most efficient source for the finance of socio-economic development, was remitted in 17 February 1341 (1925) and was replaced by “mahsulat-ı araziye (land income)” (Öztürk, 1996, pp. 184-185). Following these historical improvement phases of tithe, the tithe per house, its share in total tithe and the rates of tithe in Bartın rural area will be highlighted. Burden of tithe tax varies in each house according to the capacity of agricultural lands in rural area and according to the products. In all rural areas, the total tithe occurred as 5.366 kurus. The average tithe burden per house is 35.07 kurus. The highest tithe average per house was seen in Akmescid Village. Here the average tithe per house was 47.04 kurus. The highest tithe tax burden in rural area was also seen in Akmescid Village which had the highest average tax burden per house. The lowest average was found in Hoşafçılar Village as 84 kurus. Since the total number of tax payers in Hoşafçılar Village was only 5, the total tax amount was low. The Share of Taxes in Total Revenue The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in total revenue in rural area was 20.09, and the share of tithe was 3.77. Among villages, the village with the highest Vergü-yi Mahsusa was Çayır Village. The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa in total revenue in Çayır Village was 243 �Ramazan Arslan found as 26.25%. And the lowest rate was found in Mekeçler Village. The highest rate of tithe among the total revenue was again found in Çayır Village with 4.94% and the lowest rate was found in Mekeçler Village with 2.84%. When we looked into rural areas in terms of net revenue, it was found that Mekeçler village had the highest net revenue with 79.54% excluding tithe and tax and Hoşafçılar Village had the lowest revenue with 71.46%. The average of all rural area was 76.14%. The share of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in total revenue and the rate of net revenue is given in Table 14 below on village scale. Table 14. Vergü-yi Mahsusa, Tithe and Net Revenue Rates Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/ AVERAGE Total Revenue (Kurus) 23,426 11,944 12,687 7,343 12,025 6,203 13,381 2,011 6,353 13,828 33,286 142,487 Vergiyi Mahsusa (Kuruş) 4,128 2,660 2,558 1,296 3,156 1,252 2,546 490 1,332 2,924 6,285 28,627 Tithe (Kuruş) 665 485 525 302 594 277 434 84 254 523 1,223 5,366 Net Revenue (Kuruş) 18,633 8,799 9,604 5,745 8,275 4,674 10,401 1,437 4,767 10,381 25,778 108,494 Vergü-yi Mahsusa % 17.62 22.27 20.16 17.65 26.25 20.18 19.03 24.37 20.97 21.15 18.88 20.09 Product Tithe % 2.84 4.06 4.14 4.11 4.94 4.47 3.24 4.18 4.00 3.78 3.67 3.77 Net Revenue % 79.54 73.67 75.70 78.24 68.81 75.35 77.73 71.46 75.04 75.07 77.44 76.14 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Vergü-yi Mahsusa and Tithe in Tax Burden Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe burden in total revenue developed at different levels in different villages. The rate of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in all tax expenditures in all rural area was 84.21% and 15.79%, respectively. The highest Vergü-yi Mahsusa was at Mekeçler Village with 86.13% and the lowest was at Karagedikler Village with 81.10%. The situation with tithe regarding the highest and lowest levels was vice versa. It was the lowest in Mekeçler Village and highest in Karagedikler Village. 244 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period The rates of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and tithe in total tax burden realized in the villages are given in Table 15 below. Table 15. The rate of Vergü-yi Mahsusa and Tithe in Total Tax Village Mekeçler Kurtköy Receb Beşeoğlu Karagedikler Çayır Bonlar Village Kıran Village Hoşafçılar Village Emiroğlu Pınarlı Akmescid Village TOTAL/ AVERAGE Vergiyi mahsusa (Kuruş) Tithe (Kuruş) Total (Kuruş) 4,128 2,660 2,558 1,296 3,156 1,252 2,546 490 1,332 2,924 6,285 28,627 665 485 525 302 594 277 434 84 254 523 1,223 5,366 4,793 3,145 3,083 1,598 3,750 1,529 2,980 574 1,586 3,447 7,508 33,993 Vergü-yi Mahsusa % 86.13 84.58 82.97 81.10 84.16 81.88 85.44 85.37 83.98 84.83 83.71 84.21 Product Tithe % 13.87 15.42 17.03 18.90 15.84 18.12 14.56 14.63 16.02 15.17 16.29 15.79 Total Tax % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Source: BOA, ML. VRD. TMT, 1844, 02824, pp. 4-50 Conclusion Bartın is a province located in the West Black Sea in Turkey today. The surface area of the province is 2.143 km2, while the total population is 188.436 according to the address-based population registration system of Turkey Statistical Institute dated 31.12.2012. The province became an Ottoman land in 1460 and became a town attached to Zonguldak province in 1924 and a province status in 1991. The province today has 4 districts, 8 municipalities and 260 villages. In the socio-economic development rank among the provinces in Turkey, Bartın ranks the 48th province. The main elements identifying its economic structure are mining, industry, agriculture, tourism and forestry. There are also such handicrafts as embroidery, traditional flattened metal threads (a kind of embroidery), weaving, wood engraving as well as ship building. The most important city in terms of tourism is Amasra. Agricultural and industrial goods make up the domestic and foreign trade of the city. Leading agricultural products are wheat, barley, corn and oat, apple, pear, quince, medlar, cherry, plum, walnut, chestnut, nut, peach, cranberry, strawberry, kiwi and mulberry. This study examined the economic structure of Bartın province in the mid 19th century and it was found that agriculture, husbandry and forest products were 245 �Ramazan Arslan significant in the economic structure of the city. First of all, income resources of these chosen villages was found to be including 5 items which are agricultural, husbandry, being a laborer, lumbering and unexpected. It was observed that in a rural area chosen as the study field in Ottoman Empire, which was an agrarian state, lumbering was at the top of the list with 59.69% and on the contrary, agricultural income was in the second line of the list with 33.51% and husbandry was at the bottom of the list with 2.14%. It was found that there were differences in the distribution of income sources in different villages and that average revenue per house was 931 kurus. It was also found that 6 of those 11 villages were above the average and 5 of them were below the average and that there were no big differences in the averages of income groups. When the agricultural production is looked into, it was found that such grains as wheat, barley, oat and flax were raised as well as vineyards, fruits and vegetables; and the total land amount in village scale was 2033 decare. All those land were planted; 93.21% of the land was used as fields (1895 decare), 6.79% (138 decare) was used as vegetable gardens. The land for each tax-paying house was 13.29 decare, and the land used for grain production was 8315 bushel. Wheat is raised in large part of this grain production area. In terms of the size of agricultural enterprises, the share of small businesses was 18.15% and share of medium-sized businesses was 81.85%. In those sample eleven villages, it was found that there were mostly medium-sized businesses and that there were no large-scale businesses. It was seen that husbandry was not practiced as an occupation but as a means to meet the needs. In all villages, bovine breeding was in the forefront (88.06%). The share of ovine breeding was 11.94%. Annual income was obtained from milk cows and milk buffalos. Buffalo oxen were used as draught animals. In 153 houses in the rural area there were 156 oxen; which means there were 1.02 draught animal per house. This rate shows that each household heads had one draught animal. The average amount of land for one ox in planted areas was 13.03 and the days that each ox was used for ploughing was two working days on average. 246 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period With regards to occupational income, there are 10 household heads among 153 who did not have any income source. And these people were recorded under “beggar”, “unemployed”, “orphan”, “lunatic”, “diseased and lonely” names. The total occupational income in the rural area was 54.866 kurus and the income average was 386.38 kurus. The share of occupational income in total revenue was found as 40.70%. The total revenue of the rural area was calculated as 142,487 kurus and the Vergü-yi Mahsusa was calculated as 28.627 kurus. As a result of the calculations, tax burden imposed per house was found as 187.10 kurus. It was stated that six villages were taxed above this village average and five villages were taxed below the average. On the other hand, tithe burden in the rural area was 5,366 kurus and tithe per house was calculated as 35.07 kurus. Finally, when the total amount of wheat and the tithe paid in the villages is taken into account, it is determined that there are no surplus product in agricultural production amount. This finding showed that in the sample rural area of Ottoman Empire in this study, the villagers could not even provide themselves with the amount of wheat they need for a year let alone they merchandise it. In short, Bartın a town of Viranşehir Sanjak in mid-19th century during the Ottoman period was a settlement with an economy based heavily on forestry products, agriculture and husbandry. References Akdağ, M. (1999). Türkiye’nin İktisadî ve İçtimaî Tarihi (1243-1453), c.1, Barış Kitabevi, Ankara. Barkan, Ö.L. (1953). Tarihi Demografi Araştırmaları ve Osmanlı Tarihi, Türkiye Mec., C:X, İstanbul. Barkan, Ö.L. (2000). Osmanlı Devleti’nin Sosyal ve Ekoonmik Tarihi, Tetkikler, Makaleler, c.1, Yayına Hazırlayan Hüseyin Özdeğer, Dilek Ofset Matbaacılık, İstanbul. 247 �Ramazan Arslan Bartın Rehberi (1927). Publication of Bartın Chamber of Commerce and Industry, (Printed with Ottoman letters), Şirket-i Mürettebiye Matbaası. Bay, G.E. (2010). 19. Yüzyılda Banaz Kazası’nın Sosyo-Ekonomik Yapısı, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Çadırcı, M. (1987). Tanzimat Döneminde Anadolu Kentlerinin Sosyal ve Ekonomik Yapısı, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara. Devellioğlu, F. (2005). Osmanlıca-Türkçe Ansiklopedik Lûgat, Aydın Kitabevi, Ankara. Genç, M. (1975). Osmanlı Maliyesinde Malikane Sistemi, Türkiye İktisat Tarihi Semineri, Mart Matbaası, Ankara. Genç, M. (2000). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Devlet ve Ekonomi, Ötüken Yayınları, İstanbul. Governorship of Bartın, Retrieved July 07, 2011, from http://www.bartin.gov.tr Güran, T. (1985). On Dokuzuncu Yüzyıl Ortalarında Ödemiş Kasabası’nın SosyoEkonomik Özellikleri, İÜİF, Ord. Prof. Dr. Ömer Lütfi Barkan’a Armağan Özel Sayısı, İstanbul. Güran, T.(1989). Tanzimat Döneminde Osmanlı Maliyesi: Bütçeler ve Hesapları (1841-1861), Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayını, Ankara. Hazine Güran, T. (1998a). 19.Yüzyıl Osmanlı Tarımı, Eren Yayıncılık, İstanbul. Güran, T. (1998b). Osmanlı Tarım Ekonomisi 1840-1910, 19. Yüzyıl Osmanlı Tarımı Üzerine Araştırmalar, Eren Yayıncılık, İstanbul. İnalcık, H. (1996). Tarihi İstatistikler Dizisi Başlarken, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ve Türkiye’nin Nüfusu 1507-1927”, Tarihi İstatistikler Dizisi, c. II, Yayına Hazırlayan: Cem Behar, T.C. Başbakanlık DİE, Mayıs. Karaman, K.K. & Pamuk, Ş. (2010). “Ottoman State Finances in European Perspective, 1500-1914”, The Journal of Economic History, Vol.70, No.3 (September 2010). 248 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Keyder, Ç. & Tabak, F. (Ed) (1998). Osmanlı’da Toprak Mülkiyeti ve Ticari Tarım, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul. Küçükkalay, A. M. & Efe, A. (2006). Osmanlı Ziraî Sektörünün Ticarileşebilme İmkânı Üzerine Bir Deneme:1844-45 Alpu Village Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi Osmanlı Tarihi Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi,20, 245-279. Milliyet Genel Ekonomi Ansiklopedisi (1988). I-II, c. 2, İstanbul. Ortaylı, İ. (1974). Tanzimattan Sonra Mahalli İdareler (1840-1878), Sevinc̦ Matbaası, Ankara. Özlü, Z. (2008). XVIII. Ve XIX. Yüzyıllarda Karadeniz’de Bir Kıyı Kenti Akçakoca, Yeditepe Yayınevi, İstanbul. Öztürk, S. (1996). Tanzimat Döneminde Bir Anadolu Şehri: Bilecik, Kitabevi Yayınları, İstanbul. Öztürk, S. (2000). Temettüat Tahrirleri, Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl:2, Sayı:4-5 (Osmanlı Özel Sayısı), İstanbul. Pamuk, Ş. (2002). Küreselleşme Çağında Osmanlı Ekonomisi (1820-1914), Türkler, C.14, Ankara. Pamuk, Ş. (2007a). Osmanlı-Türkiye İktisadî Tarihi 1500-1914, İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul. Pamuk, Ş. (2007b). Osmanlı Ekonomisi ve Kurumları, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul. Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives (BOA): BOA, ML (Maliye, VRD ( Vâridât Muhasebesi Defteri), TMT (Temettüat), Nr: 02824, Yıl: 1844(1260). Prime Ministry Ottoman Archives Directory (2000). Republic of Turkey Prime Ministry General Directorate of State Archives, Publication No: 42, İstanbul. 249 �Ramazan Arslan Sarı, S. (2007). Bartın İli Tarım Coğrafyası, Unpublished Post Graduate Thesis, Sakarya University Institute of Social Sciences. Tabakoğlu, A. (1985). Gerileme Dönemine Girerken Osmanlı Maliyesi, Dergah Yayınları, İstanbul. Tabakoğlu, A. (2003). Türk İktisat Tarihi, Dergâh Yayınları, İstanbul. Appendices Appendix 1. Map of Turkey (Bartın indicated). Source: http://www.hgk.msb.gov.tr/english/downloads.php Retrieved on October 24, 2013. 250 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Appendix 2. Map of Zonguldak (Bartın indicated). Source: BOA, HRT, h, 00589-00001: Zonguldak'ı gösteren harita, Year: 1311 (Rumi calendar) / 1894 (Julian calendar) 251 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2412 Title A name given to the resource Economic Structure in Bartın District of Viransehir Sanjak in late Ottoman Period Author Author Arslan , Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims to look into the economic structure of Bartın province, located in West Black Sea Region in Turkey, in the 19th century. The main resource of the study is the temettüat register no 02824 that belongs to Bartın, which was formed on the basis of the census in 1844-1845. Temettüat registers are significant archive resources that provide statistical information about the period studied as well as the region itself. Moving from data suc as the income resources, distribution of land, husbandry and labor, this study examines the economic structure of Bartın, which used to be a District of Viransehir Sanjak during the time. The study will also contribute to the literature by giving insights into the economy of Ottoman rural area in the 19th century. In addition to forestry products, the economy of Bartın depended on agriculture and husbandry during the time period studied. Agricultural production included such main products as wheat and barley while agricultural enterprises were medium-scale businesses. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-07-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/40bbc90ba9a72c4a34e6785cff9e3877.pdf 2dcd2ef28957dcdde41cbfdaf93f7195 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Aida Tarabar University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 24.11.2014. Abstract The paper offers an insight into the highlights of the ESP teaching practice at the University of Zenica, the university with the longest ESP tradition in the country. This type of language instruction started as part of an optional course at the Faculty of Metallurgy in 1970s. During the following decades – especially in recent times – the teaching has been developed and organized into several obligatory ESP courses that are taught during the final four semesters of undergraduate studies at technical faculties. The training finishes with so called Public Lecture – a series of presentations delivered by the students themselves. The main characteristics of ESP instruction at these faculties are total flexibility and adaptability. This means the ESP teacher not only tends to follow the most recent findings in the realm of the ELT, but also observes the specific educational and social circumstances within which the learning/teaching process takes place. In a country such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the legacy of war includes a brain drain and a complex situation at all three educational levels, it is important to design innovative practices that can compensate for the aforementioned deficiencies. By being responsive to students’ needs, we try to bridge and/or fill in the gaps in their knowledge. In the course of our ESP instruction the students are equipped with the most appropriate and practical tools they can use when they encounter the problem of translating a technical text – a simplified 'translation technology'. Thus, they are encouraged to enter the language arena. Without such a scaffold, they would most probably remain only spectators. Key words: ESP, translation technology, vocabulary, syntax, morphology Introduction We are all aware of a growing tendency for universities to provide courses in English. In his book, The Future of English, a British linguist David Graddol describes this trend and its consequences in the following words: 7 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties 'One of the most significant educational trends world-wide is the teaching of a growing number of courses in universities through the medium of English. The need to teach some subjects in English, rather than the national language, is well understood: in the sciences, for example, up-to-date text books and research articles are obtainable much more easily in one of the world languages and most readily of all in English ... English-medium higher education is thus one of the drivers of language shift, from L2 to L1 Englishspeaking status’ (Graddol 1997: 45) Indeed, such education presents an invaluable advantage for those who can afford it. But the question remains: Is such education possible in most countries? If not - What should be done? How can the grounds for such education be set or how can we speed up its implementation? Having been a language teacher at different technical faculties for fifteen years now, I have become quite familiar with the situation in B&H education. The University of Zenica provides more English teaching at its technical faculties than any other university in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was the management of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering that first recognized the importance of the English language for their students and their professional development. They introduced English as a subject during each year of studies. Soon afterwards, the other faculties, i.e. the Faculty of Metallurgy and Materials and The Faculty of Polytechnics, followed suit. Due to these actions, conditions were met for an adequate instruction in English for Specific Purposes (hereinafter: ESP). The results of such a praxis proved to be so good that the University opened its 'doors' to quite modern approaches in foreign language teaching such as Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). During the academic year 2012/2013, CLIL was tested at technical faculties and the outcome was exceptionally good. However, CLIL is not the topic of this paper. I mention it only because one of the researchers’ conclusions was that CLIL would not have produced such good results at our faculties had it not been supported by the ESP teaching in the first place.1 In other words, the time is not ripe for modern approaches such as CLIL at the majority of our universities. This is because students who enrol in the faculties generally arrive with poor English proficiency. This situation is mainly the legacy of war. Over the last 10 years, some of the deficiencies in English teaching have been overcome, but many of them remain, particularly those related to vocational or technical schools. The majority of students recruited by technical faculties have graduated from schools where English doesn't have the status it deserves. 1 This paper's discussion of ESP instruction focuses exclusively on the kind that is currently practiced at our technical faculties. 8 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Therefore, we wish to share our experience, particularly in terms of ESP, in order to help others find their way to contemporary types of English language teaching. Is a Different Approach to ESP Teaching Needed at Technical Faculties? There is nothing new about the idea that ESP is reserved for professional discourse and university-level education. Although ESP instruction is also offered in certain secondary schools and in companies that prepare professionals for tasks that require proficiency in English, universities pose a special challenge for ESP. There are few reasons for this. It is expected that students' proficiency at this level of education is high – intermediate at the very least. Also, students are expected to demonstrate a significant level of enthusiasm for studying English, because it is the language that will help them understand the content of the books and texts from their reading lists in the course of their studies as well as in their further specialization through Life Long Learning (LLL). However, the situation in B&H falls far short of these expectations. When referring to foreign language knowledge, we must appreciate that students studying at these faculties typically come from rural areas where, up until recently, foreign languages at primary school level were taught by unqualified staff. The same goes for teaching the mother tongue. A similar situation prevails in secondary technical schools, which supply the most students to the technical faculties.2 The language instruction has been deficient, substandard and irregular, which has generated resistance amongst students towards learning foreign languages in particular. Turnover among teachers is often high, which adds to the students’ uneasiness about dealing with foreign language texts. However, aware of the importance of the English language, these students are keen to fill in the gaps in their knowledge. Given a low number of hours allocated to teaching foreign languages (2 hours per week) and a high number of students, it was not possible to apply the usual foreign language teaching methods and expect high achievement rates across the student population. Therefore, we decided to: a) introduce the General English classes in the first two years of studies, b) start with the ESP in the third year (when there are fewer students compared to Years 1 and 2) and to c) offer 'a new beginning' to students by adopting an approach that is designed to give them a badly needed boost. 2 The number of students coming from gymnasiums (general secondary schools) is negligible. 9 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties In other words, we knew that students needed a different, or enstranged3 approach to reading technical texts. More precisely - they required a different ‘language narrative’. Bearing all this in mind, we designed the ESP, which includes, amongst other things, an analysis of a limited range of simple sentence structures, as well as some phrasal forms, which is necessary for basic understanding of a technical text. Particular focus is given to simple sentence forms, such as SV, SVO, SVA and SVSC, and to simple and easily recognisable phrasal forms, such as NP, PP, and VP. This seemed to be the only way to give students a sense of a new beginning and motivation to start learning and using English in a practical manner. Our current experience of teaching ESP suggests that students with basic foreign language knowledge find this aspect of ESP most helpful in gaining confidence when translating an English technical text. A Short Overview of ESP Activities at the University of Zenica At the time the ESP starts, students are supposed to have already passed their exams in General English (1, 2, 3 and 4). The General English courses take place during the first four semesters and are designed to provide an elementary basis for students' further development in the field of Technical English (ESP). In the fifth semester, students are instructed to use the basic vocabulary and syntax related to technical English, both orally and in writing. In this semester, they translate simple technical texts while using bilingual dictionaries. In the sixth semester, the texts to be translated are more complex, both in terms of vocabulary and in their morphological and syntactic structures. In the seventh semester students are developing their oral skills by means of repetition, reformulation, substitution of certain elements in given constructions etc. Writing skills are developed mainly through translating longer texts from English into BHS4 and vice versa. Students are expected to master vocabulary and grammar typical of technical-register sentence constructions. Special attention is paid to writing summaries of different technical texts. 3 This term, quite appropriate for the purpose, was coined by a literary critic and theorist V. Shklovsky. The term is found in Russian Formalists who posited that something attracts attention only if it is 'enstranged' or unusual. (see: Petković, N. 1988: 71-111). 4 BHS stands for Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian. It is the mutual language of the people of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The eighth semester is reserved for assignments that lead to Public Lecture - the final activity where students deliver their own lectures in English on different technical topics. The Technology of Translation From the overview, it is evident that translating technical texts from English into BHS and other way round is one of the priorities for ESP teaching at the technical faculties in Zenica.5 In an attempt to bring the process of translating closer to the students’ experience, we sometimes call it ‘Technology of Translating a Technical Text’. Namely, the use of this technical term (technology) has a significant positive effect on removing the barriers that the students have towards language teaching and on raising their motivation levels, which very often result in high achievement. In the following paragraphs we will explain how using the ESP methodology can help students overcome problems they encounter when translating technical texts. In this process, the grammatical explanations are adapted to technical discourse that these students are familiar with, and the use of technical vocabulary and descriptions resonate with the familiar content of technical subjects that they have learnt in their mother tongue. As typical for any technology, the starting point is basic materials. In our case, basic materials are word classes (parts of speech). This is one of the most difficult problems our students must overcome, as they are not sufficiently familiar with the word classes and their functions. Therefore, at the very beginning of the course we introduce word classes and provide basic information about them. During this process we try to avoid overburdening the students with unfamiliar linguistic jargon or excessive information. Our aim is to achieve maximum results with minimum means. We therefore carefully assess the quantity of information, or technically speaking ‘the volume of information input’, in order to avoid excess information that may discourage students from continuing, or even cause them to drop out.6 In the next phase we try to address the structure of sentences. Our starting point is the foundation, i.e. basic 'materials', which are then combined into more complex 'structures'. In order to bring these language phenomena to life, we often use graphic representations, such as diagrams, graphs, tables, technical drawings, photographs, etc. This approach has very positive results on students’ motivation. Grammar stops The ESP Curriculum Plan at the technical faculties places the greatest emphasis on building students’ knowledge and skills to enable them to translate technical texts. 6 The academic strength of individual student cohorts is often a deciding factor for selecting ESP teaching materials. 5 11 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties being a collection of prescriptive rules that must be learnt in order to translate a technical text and becomes a toolbox that facilitates translation. That is what the students need. Successes during this phase of teaching encourage students to achieve more later on. It is important to emphasise that initially students are not expected to translate paragraphs. Instead they concentrate on singular simple sentences, which are then broken down into smaller constituent parts. For that purpose it is important for students to learn how to move from the sentence level down to a phrase level. 7 In order to learn this, the students have to understand how phrases are connected into sentences, i.e. how lower-level constituent parts link together to form higher-level parts, thereby forming a sentence structure. Students are introduced to the simplest sentence types, e.g. SV, SVO, SVA, SVSC, and SVOA, which are selected from textbooks suitable for this level.8 In the process of identifying sentence types, or their individual constituent parts that perform certain functions within those sentence types, students are advised to use certain ‘road signs’ or ‘ signals’. Learning to recognise them makes it easier to divide sentences into smaller constituent segments (phrases), which are then individually translated before they are connected again and translated as a whole sentence. The following are examples of these ‘road signs’: A) Students are asked to start analysing a sentence by identifying the predicate in the main sentence. They are advised to first identify all verbs, both finite and non-finite ones, and after that to exclude the following9: 1. all non-finite forms i.e. those verbs that they identify as incomplete to form a Tense and then: 2. finite forms appearing in dependent/subordinate clauses after the dependent clause markers, such as which, that, when, because, where, who, when, if, etc. with which they would be familiar from the previous year of study. The remaining verb is then identified as the predicate of the main sentence. 7 In our explanations we often use technical terminology the students have already learned in their Machine Elements syllabus, which is as important for their chosen study as Anatomy is for medicine. 8 The textbooks used in our ESP classes are: English for Metallurgy and English for Mechanical Engineering. See: Šestić, L. (1985.), (1994.) 9 It is worth noting that during lessons we do not use linguistic terminology, such as constituent, finite or non-finite verb form, or markers, because this would create barriers and disengage the students. 12 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Here we are only referring to selected examples. The students are never given difficult sentences. The examples we give our students illustrate the above methodology very clearly10. Here are a couple of examples: 1) The factory producing steel needs iron ore. 2) The conveyor belt which carries raw material to the plant is very expensive. Applying the above methods the students will exclude from the first sentence the non-finite form producing and will deduce that the predicate can only be needs, which is also confirmed by its affix –s. In the second sentence, the students will exclude the clause beginning with the marker which, thereby concluding that is is the only finite form of verb, which therefore represents the main verb (linking verb) and introduces the subject complement. B) The identification of the subject in the sentence is made easy by explaining the fixed word order in English sentences in which the subject precedes the predicate, especially in affirmative sentences. Such sentences are typical in technical texts. For instance, A vast quantity of energy has been lost in the process. S V A C) Students are also alerted to the possibility of adverbials appearing at the beginning of the sentence, which can also be positioned in the middle or at the end of the sentence. The comma is cited as the most common ‘road sign’, albeit not the only one, for differentiating an adverbial from the subject. However, technical texts are often riddled with mispunctuation, which makes the comma an unreliable ‘road sign’. For that reason, the students are asked to check if an adverbial is placed at the very start of the sentence before they mark another segment as the subject of the sentence and start translating it as such. The students are also advised that it is possible to have an adverbial in the form of a prepositional phrase at the beginning of the sentence, or a dependent clause starting with e.g. when, how, which, or if which precedes the main clause. At this point, we The aim is to provide simple examples for sentence analysis, which would boost the students’ confidence. Otherwise, it would become obvious very quickly that such 'road signs' are not always present in more complex examples. 10 13 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties do not introduce the notion that clauses with the aforementioned markers can act as the subject of the main sentence, as that may cause a degree of confusion. Let us look at some examples we use in the syllabus: Over the past few years, the laboratory has been performing regular inspections. A S V O If the temperature does not rise, the speed of molecules will not increase A S V When this ideal condition is obtained, we start the process. A S V O It is, of course, possible to have an adverb, functioning as an adverbial and ending with -ly at the start of the sentence, which the students recognise easily, such as the following example: Usually, the process starts upon the completion of the prerequisites. A S V A In parallel with learning how to identify the subject, the students are also introduced to noun phrases and the functions they perform in the sentence. The basic elements are covered as well as the importance of their meaning for the correct translation of a sentence. By using the technical terminology, the noun phrase is referred to as a subsystem 'meshing' with other similar subsystems to form a whole sentence, which is a system in itself. To help identify a noun phrase, the students are introduced to signals such as determiners that precede it.11 Students can easily remember that this function is performed by indefinite and definite articles, a, an and the. In order to help them memorise as many determiners as possible, we draw a parallel between the indefinite article a and number one, which also introduces numbers, as well as quantifiers such as some, any, much, little, many, few etc. as possible determiners. Similar methodology is used with the definite article the, and the students are taught to regard demonstrative pronouns this and that as determiners. This number of words signalling a noun phrase is enough for the students’ translation needs. From our experience it is evident that the students have no difficulties in identifying other similar determiners, although they were not explicitly mentioned during the course. 11 In the ESP syllabus, the term determiner is used to designate both a pre- and a post-determiner in order to avoid unnecessary confusion that such complexity may cause amongst the students. 14 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The absence of determiners is also referred to, but not elaborated on. The students accept the possibility of nouns not being signalled by determiners. They regard the presence of a determiner as an aid for easier identification of a text segment, such as a noun phrase. In the next step students are informed that the following element within the noun phrase can be a noun premodifier (usually adjective), the task of which is to modify i.e. to change the meaning of the noun while preceding it. In other words, we explain that the premodifier unites its meaning with the meaning of the noun, whereby the reference of the noun is narrowed down. In order to reduce the probability of their making mistakes in determining the noun head within a noun phrase, students are made aware of a possibility that the noun head can be preceded by another noun (noun adjunct) that also functions as a premodifier (e.g. metal part). The majority of students make mistakes while translating such phrases. When they encounter two nouns, one next to another, they usually go in the wrong direction and use the first noun as a noun head of a phrase. Then they try to adjust the rest of the phrase to the initially inaccurate translation. Such errors normally occur in the series of nouns that the students are not familiar with. When informed of a possibility that a noun can be a premodifier to a noun head, they become more careful and consequently make fewer mistakes. It becomes evident to them that the second noun to the right in the linear series of two is actually the noun head of the phrase. Of course, this refers to situations when there is neither a preposition nor a hyphen between the nouns. As far as the intensifier is concerned, we explain to the students that it has the same influence on the premodifier as the premodifier has on the noun. Namely, the premodifier inherently modifies and narrows down the meaning of the related noun, so does the intensifier modify the meaning of the premodifier. For instance, in the phrase very successful production the premodifier successful modifies the meaning of production and the intensifier very further modifies the preceding premodifier. Most common intensifiers are identified, such as adverbs with the suffix -ly (e.g. successfully conducted experiments). However, as students expand their vocabulary over time, they begin to recognise other, non-derivative forms of adverbs. In this phase of their learning, it is important to help the students understand the linear nature of language, where the words appearing in a linear order are interconnected and interdependent. In this respect, our approach has had positive results. Because we provide a short repository of word classes (parts of speech) at the beginning of ESP teaching, the students become quite successful in identifying them. 15 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Although they are not expected to have an extensive vocabulary, these students display a fairly good grasp of morphological markers, which enables them to identify the key word classes. Therefore, we pay particular attention to affixes of derived nouns, adjectives and adverbs, which also has positive results on student attainment. In this phase, the students become very aware that the knowledge of basic elements of noun phrases will be very useful for their future work. As to the role of noun postmodifiers, students are told that they modify meaning of a noun, similarly to noun premodifiers, the only difference being that they are placed after, not before the noun. The students are acquainted with the most frequent postmodifiers: 1. Relative Clause with its markers: which, where, who, that (N+ which...) e.g.: the conditions which/that can be obtained 2. Reduced form of Relative Clause in Active Voice (N+Ving) e.g.: the power plant producing energy (obtained by reduction of: the power plant which produces energy) 3. Reduced form of Relative Clause in Passive Voice (N+Ved) e.g: metallurgical phenomenon observed in cold worked metals (obtained by reduction of: metallurgical phenomenon which was observed in cold worked metals) 4. Prepositional Phrase (N + PP) e.g: a support for rotating elements A special attention is paid to the last type of postmodification (N + PP). When we first introduce a prepositional phrase in our classes, students are told that this phrase consists of preposition and a new noun phrase. This information usually arouses a feeling of satisfaction among the students because it brings them back into the noun phrase domain, which – in their opinion – they know well by then. Also, the students are constantly warned to be careful about the scope that a noun phrase can take within a sentence. The warning makes them more concentrated and analytical, especially when a more complex noun phrase is in question – particularly the one with prepositional phrase as a postmodifier to a noun head, i.e. N + PP. It should be highlighted that this type of postmodification is rather frequent in technical texts. It is interesting to note that students easily discern the difference between the noun head in a noun phrase and the noun in the noun phrase within a prepositional phrase that serves as a postmodifier to noun head. Namely, the students immediately observe that the position of a noun after a preposition indicates that the noun is not 16 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics the head noun of the phrase (N+PP) but only a part of its postmodifier (PP=prep+NP). With regard to the appositive adjective phrase and infinitive phrase, we rarely mention them as possible postmodifiers in order to avoid information overload, which could have negative effect on students. D) When identifying the object (O) of a sentence, the emphasis is given to its position after the sentence predicate. Nevertheless, this position can be occupied by an adverbial in the form of a prepositional phrase (e.g. The slag layer remains on the surface), or by an adverb (e.g. The process develops slowly). For that reason, students are advised to analyse closely what comes after the predicate before they move on to translating the sentence. Thus, if the position is taken by a noun phrase, the students know it can only be the object of the sentence. It is well known that sentences of the SVOA structure are quite frequent. It is difficult for the students to quickly determine where the object ends and where the adverbial starts, which slows down their translation process. However, a number of them manage to do this correctly thanks to their knowledge of noun phrases as well as the context of a subject area with which they are familiar. One of the things that we always insist on is for students to rely on the context and general technical knowledge. E) Finally, when introducing the subject complement (SC) to students, we underline that the best indicator of its presence in the sentence is the linking verb to be.12 It is also stressed that this verb, as the main verb in the sentence, is followed by either noun phrase or adjective phrase.13 The name of subject complement is derived from the word subject, as they can be interchangeable in function. Therefore, this relation is easily explained by using the ‘equals’ sign between the subject and its complement, as in the following example: Arcelor Mittal is the biggest company in this region. → Arcelor Mittal = the biggest company in this region. 12 In the initial phase of the ESP course we do not mention other linking verbs such as seem, prove, appear etc. 13 Of course, other constructions that may serve as subject complements, such as: infinitive, gerund or noun clause, are not mentioned at this stage, because the complexity of information could potentially confuse students. 17 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Although seemingly simple, this sentence type (SVSC) leads to plethora of incorrect translations. Namely, students that are not acquainted with it see the verb to be as an auxiliary verb, i.e. as a part of predicate. While looking for the main verb of the predicate, they identify the coming word (usually noun or adjective) as a verb, and translate it accordingly. Then, confused by the remainder of the text, which obviously does not fit the translation, they start improvising and end up with inaccurate translations. It is for this reason that a special attention is paid to the SVSC type of sentence. We should mention here that once the students get enough skill in translating simple sentences, more complex structures are introduced. In the end, it is worth mentioning that the students are warned of exceptions to all rules, including the ones provided by the course, as well as of the necessity to always check out the truth-value of their translations. If they feel that their translation does not fit the logic of the text, they are advised revise it. Conclusion Our approach to teaching English for Special Purposes (ESP) focuses on functional sentence analysis with the aim of simplifying the translation process. We try not to overburden our students with more linguistic information than they would find useful in their future engineering careers. With that in mind, we have introduced relatively simple examples of individual sentences, or texts specifically adapted for this purpose. When introducing this teaching methodology, we were concerned that the ‘technology of translating technical texts’ might be problematic, but we were prepared to take the risk in consideration of other factors such as the students’ very low level of English proficiency. We were pleased to note very positive results. Our experience, as well as numerous student surveys, confirmed that the students are very satisfied with this approach. They are mindful of the fact that they are future engineers, not linguists. They are aware that their linguistic knowledge will be limited but they are still keen to learn. The students approach translations with pragmatism and logic. The methodology used in ESP classes enables them to engage in the process of translation without fear, and to translate simple texts independently. This is a good basis for translating more complex texts in the future. Their progress is evident even after the initial translation exercises. This boosts the students’ motivation, as well as self- confidence. 18 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics In conclusion, the approach described above empowers the students to translate technical texts from and into English with a degree of confidence and ease. Our experience confirms that it is better to encourage students to use their limited linguistic knowledge than not to try at all for fear of the reaction of their tutors or peers. The guidance we offer them, and continue to do so, is not aimed at producing proficient translators but at enabling future engineers to take important steps towards interrogating technical literature in English with confidence, thereby using the language as a tool for furthering their professional knowledge. References Graddol, D. (1997). The Future of English. London: British Council. Huskanović, A.; Tarabar, A. (2009). The Importance of Foreign Language in Teaching Mathematics at Technical Faculties. Proceedings: 13th International Research/Expert Conference - TMT 2009. Tunisia: Hammamet, 265-267 Šestić, L. (2013). Forme sa nastavkom –ing u engleskom tehničkom registru i njihovi prevodni ekvivalenti u bosanskom/hrvatskom/srpskom. Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici Šestić, L. (2002). Gramatika tehničkog engleskog sa rječnikom. Zenica: Minex Šestić, L. (1994). English for Mechanical Engineering Students, Engleski za studente mašinstva. Zenica: Univerzitet u Sarajevu Šestić, L. (1985). English for Metallurgists - Engleski za metalurge. Zenica: Univerzitet u Sarajevu Tarabar, A. (2013). Jezička komponenta CLIL-a na univerzitetskom nivou. (Doctoral dissertation) Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici Tarabar, A. (2010). Nastava engleskog jezika i upotreba lokaliziranog softvera na tehničkim fakultetima. Zbornik radova III Međunarodni naučno-stručni skup: Edukacija nastavnika za budućnost, Zenica: Univerzitet u Zenici, 679-686. Tarabar, A. (2003). EFL and ESP Teaching Practice at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. Proceedings of the 11th International Scientific Conference COMAT-TEC, Bratislava: Slovenska tehnická univerzita v Bratislave 19 �ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Petković, N. (1988). Poetika avangarde kao avangardna poetika: teorijska načela ruskih formalista. Moderna tumačenja književnosti, ur. Đurčinović, M. et al. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 71-111. Trimble, L. (1985). English for Science and Technology: A Discourse Approach, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 20 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2779 Title A name given to the resource ESP Teaching Practice at Technical Faculties Author Author TARABAR, Aida Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper offers an insight into the highlights of the ESP teaching practice at the University of Zenica, the university with the longest ESP tradition in the country. This type of language instruction started as part of an optional course at the Faculty of Metallurgy in 1970s. During the following decades – especially in recent times – the teaching has been developed and organized into several obligatory ESP courses that are taught during the final four semesters of undergraduate studies at technical faculties. The training finishes with so called Public Lecture – a series of presentations delivered by the students themselves. The main characteristics of ESP instruction at these faculties are total flexibility and adaptability. This means the ESP teacher not only tends to follow the most recent findings in the realm of the ELT, but also observes the specific educational and social circumstances within which the learning/teaching process takes place. In a country such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the legacy of war includes a brain drain and a complex situation at all three educational levels, it is important to design innovative practices that can compensate for the aforementioned deficiencies. By being responsive to students’ needs, we try to bridge and/or fill in the gaps in their knowledge. In the course of our ESP instruction the students are equipped with the most appropriate and practical tools they can use when they encounter the problem of translating a technical text – a simplified 'translation technology'. Thus, they are encouraged to enter the language arena. Without such a scaffold, they would most probably remain only spectators. Key words: ESP, translation technology, vocabulary, syntax, morphology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-11-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PN Literature (General),PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/00c3d5566e97718f8e4f468fcea0936a.docx d04bd84a4bbd2599cf122c6d26de14b3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fafccda765bde4c113258c4b13f6afc9.pdf 3f83fe37b22615d6cca4bd34513e1264 PDF Text Text Pregledni naučni rad Izv.prof.dr.sc. Mirela Župan, Pravni fakultet Osijek Martina Drventić, mag. iur. SUSTAV SREDIŠNJIH TIJELA KROZ EUROPSKI MODEL NAPLATE PREKOGRANIČNOG UZDRŢAVANJA Saţetak: Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem (kako na nacionalnoj, tako i na meĎunarodnoj razini), u okviru kojega se u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, naglasak stavlja na rad i funkcioniranje sustava središnjih tijela. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju meĎunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te u kontekstu Hrvatske konkretna obrada relevantnih propisa, poglavito Uredbe br. 4/2009. Ključne riječi: sustav središnjih tijela, uzdržavanje,Uredba o uzdržavanju. 1. Uvod Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta, uključivo i predmeta uzdržavanja. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem: usvajaju se moderniji nacionalni zakoni o meĎunarodnom privatnom i procesnom pravu,1 dok se u okviru rada meĎunarodnih organizacija iznalaze i donose novi pravni okviri. Vodeći globalni akter za meĎunarodne konvencije u području meĎunarodnog privatnog prava je Haška konferencija za meĎunarodno privatno pravo,2 dok značajnu regionalnu poziciju danas zauzima Europska unija.3 Normiranje se u svojoj osnovi dogaĎa u sferi metoda uvriježenih za rješavanje meĎunarodno obilježenih situacija: propisivanje pravila o meĎunarodnoj nadležnosti, propisivanje mjerodavnog prava, uvoĎenje pravila o meĎunarodnoj litispendenciji, odreĎivanje postupka i pretpostavki za priznanje i ovrhu stranih odluka. Ipak, u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, odavno je na meĎunarodnoj sceni u okviru rada Ujedinjenih naroda usvojen još jedan pristup: uvoĎenje sustava središnjih tijela (tada prijemnih i otpremnih). Sustav središnjih tijela danas doživljava svoju renesansu u svim novijim meĎunarodnim i europskim aktima namijenjenim rješavanju prekograničnih predmeta. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te 1 Symeon C. Symeonides, Codifying Choice of Law Around the World. An International Comparative Analysis (Oxford University Press 2014). 2 www.hcch.net 3 Geert Van Calster, European Private International Law (Hart Publishing, Oxford) 2013. 151 �time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju meĎunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te konkretna obrada nadležnosti, rada i funkcioniranja u kontekstu Uredbe br. 4/2009. 2. Sustavi središnjih tijela – pravni izvori Suvremeni trend prema kojem se zbog unapreĎenja pravosudne suradnje u obiteljskim predmetima prakticira mehanizam središnjih tijela nije inovacija našeg vremena!4 UN Konvencija o ostvarivanju alimentacijskih zahtjeva u inozemstvu iz 1956. jedna je od najstarijih konvencija kojom je uspostavljena globalna mreža središnjih tijela.5 U radu Vijeća Europe takoĎer se koristi ovaj vid pravosudne suradnje u prekograničnim obiteljskim predmetima.6 Konvencije Haške konferencije u kojih je korišten mehanizam središnjih tijela7 poslužile su kao prototip širokom prakticiranju u instrumentima EU. EU acquis prihvaća ovaj model, štoviše, u domeni pravosudne zaštite djeteta daje prednost mehanizmu meĎuvladine administrativne suradnje putem središnjih tijela u odnosu na klasične mehanizme meĎunarodnog privatnog i procesnog prava. Središnja tijela u svakoj su državi članici bazična struktura u učinkovitom pristupu pravnim i upravnim postupcima u kojima se mogu naći djeca i njihovi roditelji, kako u okviru Uredbe 2201/2003 (dalje Brisel II. bis),8 ali i Uredbe br. 4/2009. o 4 Sardenber, M., Judicial and administrative cooperation in family law matters: introduction, u Wybo P. Heere ur., International law and the Hagues 750th anniversary (The Hague, T.M.C. Asser Press 1999). 5 Implementacija ove konvencije bilježi značajne poteškoće. Više vidi Duncan, W., The Development of the New Hague Convention on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintennace, 38 Family Law Quarterly (2004), str. 666. 6 Poglavito su to slijedeće tri konvencije: The European Convention on recognition and enforcement of decisions concerning custody of children and on restoration of custody of children (the Custody Convention) [ETS No. 105 - Luxembourg 20.05.1980]; The European Convention on the exercise of children"s rights [ETS No. 160 - Strasbourg, 25.01.1996]; Convention on contanct concerning children, Strasbourg, 15.V.2003. 7 Convention of 19 October 1996 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition, Enforcement and Co-operation in Respect of Parental Responsibility and Measures for the Protection of Children. Proceedings of the Eighteenth Session 1996 II. (The Hague 1996) str. 615; Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child AbductionActes et documents de la Quatorzième session 1980, III. (The Hague 1980) str. 481; Convention of 29 May 1993 on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Session 1993, II. (The Hague, 1993) str. 659; Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance, Final Act of the Twenty-First Session, The Hague 23. November 2007. dostupno na: http://www.hcch.net/index_en.php, (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) 8 Uredba Vijeća (EZ) br. 2201/2003 od 27. studenoga 2003. o nadležnosti, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka u bračnim sporovima i u stvarima povezanim s roditeljskom odgovornošću, kojom se stavlja izvan snage Uredba (EZ) br. 1347/2000, OJ L 338, 23.12.2003. 152 �uzdržavanju.9 Sukladno čl. 53. Brisel II. bis, odnosno članku 49. Uredbe o uzdržavanju svaka država članica odreĎuje središnje tijelo kojemu su povjerene brojne opće i posebne zadaće. U načelu ova tijela promiču razmjenu informacija o nacionalnom zakonodavstvu i postupcima, meĎusobnu suraĎuju u primjeni odnosnih uredaba; olakšavaju komunikaciju izmeĎu sudova, i drugo. 3. Središnja tijela u prekograničnim postupcima uzdrţavanja sukladno Uredbi o uzdrţavanju 3.1. Prekogranična suradnja u predmetima uzdržavanja Sam se sustav središnjih prijemnih i otpremnih tijela prvo pojavio u kontekstu predmeta uzdržavanja kroz New Yoršku konvenciju.10 Mehanizam je prihvaćen i bitno pojačan kroz sustav Haških konvencija.11 Ključna je pregovaračka točka kod usvajanja HK o uzdržavanju 200712 bila upravo u općim i posebnim zadacima povjerenim središnjim tijelima, u kontekstu nužnih promjena nacionalnih sustava koji bi trebali osigurati takav sveobuhvatan, brz i učinkovit rad središnjih tijela.13 U okvirima acquisa, Uredba o uzdržavanju do sada je najsveobuhvatnije normirala rad središnjih tijela.14 Posebne zadaće u okviru Uredbe o uzdržavanju odnose se na prijem i prijenos zahtjeva, pokretanje postupaka za donošenje odluke ili izmjenu odluke o uzdržavanju ili za ovrhu odluke o uzdržavanju, pomoć u nalaženju dužnika ili vjerovnika, i drugo (članak 50. – 53.). U prvoj je godini primjene Uredbe o uzdržavanju na razini EU zaprimljeno više od 4000 zahtjeva putem središnjih tijela.15 Ipak, isto je istraživanje pokazalo da se sve države članice teško nose s kratkim rokovima koje Uredba predviĎa ili ih ne uspijevaju ispoštovati.16 9 Uredba Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 od 18. prosinca 2008. o nadležnosti, mjerodavnom pravu, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obvezu uzdržavanja, OJ L 19, 10.1.2009. 10 Curry-Sumner, I., International Recovery of Child Maintenance Administrative Cooperation in in-coming child maintenance cases, dostupno na http://www.voorts.com/wpcontent/uploads/Publicatie-C.13.pdf (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) str. 44. 11 Duncan, W., The Hague Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance Comments on its Objectives and Some of its Special Features, u Bonomi, A. i Volken, P. ur., X Yearbook of Private International Law (2008) str. 321, 325. 12 13 Borrás, A., Degeling, J., Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance, Explanatory Report (Hague, 2013) str. 77. 14 Curry Sumner, I., Transnational Recovery of Child Maintenance in Europe: The Future Is Bright, The Future is Central Authorities, dostupno na http://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/Days-ofpublic-law/files/pdf/mep/Curry-Sumner.pdf (posjećeno: 15.3.2015.) 15 Walker, L., Beaumont, P., Empirical Study on the Early Operation of the EU Maintenance Regulation,u Beaumont, P., Hess, B., Walker, L., Spancken, S. (eds), The Recovery of Maintenance in the EU and Worldwide (Hart Publishing, 2014) str. 339 et.seq. 16 Walker i Beaumont, ibid, str. 354-359. 153 �3.2. Postupanje središnjih tijela povodom zahtjeva po Uredbi o uzdržavanju 3.2.1. Zahtjevi putem središnjih tijela Opće i posebne funkcije središnjih tijela utvrĎene u člancima 50. i 51. Uredbe o uzdržavanju u praksi se ponajviše ostvaruju kroz zahtjeve utvrĎene u članku 56. Zahtjevi se ulažu preko središnjeg tijela države članice u kojoj podnositelj zahtjeva boravi središnjem tijelu zamoljene države članice. U Republici Hrvatskoj kao središnje tijelo za provedbu Uredbe o uzdržavanju odreĎeno je ministarstvo nadležno za poslove socijalne skrbi.17 Uzdržavanoj osobi koja nastoji naplatiti uzdržavanje na raspolaganju stoji šest vrsta zahtjeva: (a) zahtjev za priznavanje ili za priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke; (b) zahtjev za izvršni postupak sudske odluke donesene ili priznate u zamoljenoj državi članici; (c) zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici kad nema odluke, uključujući prema potrebi utvrĎivanje roditeljstva; (d) zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici kad priznavanje i izvršivost sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica, nije moguće; (e) zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke donesene u zamoljenoj državi članici; (f) zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica. Dok obveznik uzdržavanja protiv kojeg je donesena postojeća odluka o uzdržavanju može uložiti zahtjev za: (a) priznavanje sudske odluke na temelju koje se izvršenje prethodne sudske odluke suspendira ili ograničuje u zamoljenoj državi članici; (b) izmjenu sudske odluke donesene u zamoljenoj državi članici; (c) izmjenu sudske odluke donesene u državi koja nije zamoljena država članica. Očekivano je da će glavninu postupaka po ovoj Uredbi činiti zahtjevi za priznavanje ili za priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke. Ovaj zahtjev primjenjiv je u slučajevima u kojima podnositelj zahtjeva posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju i želi njezino priznanje ili izvršenje u zamoljenoj državi članici. Zahtjev uklanja potrebu za donošenjem nove odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici i omogućuje da postojeća odluka o uzdržavanju bude priznata u zamoljenoj državi članici na istom pravnom temelju na kojem je donesena u državi porijekla. Kao primjer ćemo navesti majku koja ima uobičajeno boravište u državi članici A i posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju kojom se utvrĎuje obaveza njezinog bivšeg supruga na plaćanje uzdržavanja za njihovo troje djece. Bivši suprug ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice B. Država A proslijedit će zahtjev za priznavanjem i proglašenjem izvršivosti sudske odluke državi B. Središnje tijelo države B proslijedit će zahtjev tijelu nadležnom za 17 Zakon o provedbi Uredbe Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 o području nadležnosti, mjerodavnog prava, priznanja i izvršenja odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obveze uzdržavanja, Narodne novine br. 127/13, čl. 3. st. 1. 154 �priznavanje i izvršenje sudske odluke. Bivši suprug bit će obaviješten o pokrenutom postupku priznavanja i proglašenja izvršivosti te će imati priliku osporiti takvu odluku sredstvima koje mu na raspolaganje daje Uredba. Ukoliko bivši suprug dobrovoljno ne pristane na plaćanje uzdržavanja, nadležno tijelo države B poduzet će potrebne mjere za izvršenje odluke i u konačnici proslijediti naplaćenu novčanu tražbinu državi A.18 U Republici Hrvatskoj tijela nadležna za postupanje na području primjene Uredbe o uzdržavanju su sudovi i centri za socijalnu skrb, sukladno s propisanim djelokrugom i nadležnostima tih tijela.19 Tako će, postupajući po ovakvom zahtjevu, središnje tijelo Republike Hrvatske potpuni zahtjev proslijediti nadležnom centru za socijalnu skrb koje će o okolnostima obavijestiti obveznika uzdržavanja i proslijediti zahtjev nadležnom sudu. Zahtjev za priznavanje ili priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke podnosi se na obrascu iz Priloga VI Uredbe o uzdržavanju. Ostalu potrebnu dokumentaciju Uredba utvrĎuje u Poglavlju IV kojim je ureĎeno priznavanje, izvršivost i izvršenje sudskih odluka pri čemu se dokumentacija razlikuje s obzirom na to je li odluka donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine ili u državi koju ne obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine.20 Druga je vrsta zahtjeva za izvršni postupak sudske odluke donesene ili priznate u zamoljenoj državi članici. Radi se o najjednostavnijem zahtjevu na temelju Uredbe. Njime se želi ostvariti da zamoljena država članica izvrši vlastitu sudsku odluku ili odluku koju je ranije priznala. Uredba na ovaj način omogućuje podnositelju zahtjeva ishoĎenje izvršenja odluke, bez odlaska u državu koja je donijela ili priznala odluku, podnošenjem zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela države u kojoj ima uobičajeno boravište. I u ovom slučaju, ukoliko obveznik uzdržavanja dobrovoljno ne pristane ispuniti svoju obvezu, zamoljeno će središnje tijelo poduzeti mjere potrebne za izvršenje sudske odluke. Zahtjev se takoĎer podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VI i dokumentacije utvrĎene u Poglavlju IV Uredbe. Zahtjev za izdavanjem sudske odluke u zamoljenoj državi članici podnosi se u svrhu ishoĎenja odluke o uzdržavanju. Podnositelj zahtjeva se obraća središnjem tijelu države u kojem ima uobičajeno boravište koje njegov zahtjev prosljeĎuje središnjem tijelu države u kojoj obveznik uzdržavanja ima uobičajeno boravište, s ciljem donošenja odluke o uzdržavanju u toj državi, što po potrebi uključuje i utvrĎivanje očinstva. Uredba poznaje dva razloga za podnošenje ovog zahtjeva – kada nema odluke o uzdržavanju i kada postoji 18 Lortie, P., Groff, M., Practical Handbook for Competent Authorities : the 2007 Hague Child Support Convention, the 2007 Hague Protocol on Applicable Law (Maintenance) and the 2009 European Union Maintenance Regulation(CIP National Library of Romania, 2013) str. 34. 19 Zakon o provedbi Uredbe Vijeća (EZ) br. 4/2009 o području nadležnosti, mjerodavnog prava, priznanja i izvršenja odluka te suradnji u stvarima koje se odnose na obveze uzdržavanja, op. cit. (bilj. 1.), čl. 5. 20 Pismena za potrebe izvršenja odreĎena su u čl. 20. Uredbe o uzdržavanju za odluke donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. godine, a u čl. 28. odreĎeno je koje se isprave prilažu zahtjevu za proglašenju izvršivosti za odluke donesene u državi članici koju obvezuje Haški protokol iz 2007. 155 �odluka o uzdržavanju donesena u državi članici koja nije zamoljena državi, ali postoje razlozi zbog kojih nije moguće njezino priznavanje i izvršivost u zamoljenoj državi članici. Uzmimo za primjer majku maloljetnog djeteta koja ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice A. Majka nije bila udana za oca djeteta i isto tako očinstvo maloljetnog djeteta nikada nije utvrĎeno. Otac djeteta ima uobičajeno boravište na području države članice B. Majka želi ostvariti pravo na uzdržavanje maloljetnog djeteta od strane oca te se obraća središnjem tijelu države članice A. Središnje tijelo države A proslijedit će zahtjev za izdavanjem odluke o uzdržavanju državi B. Središnje tijelo države B poduzeti će sve potrebne mjere s ciljem izdavanja sudske odluke što će svakako uključivati prosljeĎivanje zahtjeva nadležnom tijelu. Nadležno tijelo u državi B poduzet će potrebne radnje za utvrĎivanje očinstva. Nakon donošenja odluke središnje tijelo države B će se pobrinuti i za njezino izvršenje te u konačnici proslijediti naplaćenu novčanu tražbinu državi A. U ovako provedenom postupku više neće biti potrebe za podnošenjem dodatnih zahtjeva od strane majke.21Kod podnošenja ovog zahtjeva u slučajevima kada odluka o uzdržavanju postoji ali nije moguće njezino priznavanje ili izvršivost, postupak je isti osim što je isključena potreba utvrĎivanja očinstva. Razlozi za odbijanje priznanja ureĎeni su u članku 24. Uredbe o uzdržavanju, a temelje se na Uredbi Vijeća (EZ) br. 44/2001 od 22. prosinca 2000. o nadležnosti, priznavanju i izvršenju sudskih odluka u graĎanskim i trgovačkim stvarima. Ovaj se zahtjev podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VII uz koji se prilažu svi drugi potrebni podaci ili dokazi o pravu podnositelja na pravnu pomoć. Zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke primjenjiv je u slučajevima kada postoji odluka o uzdržavanju, ali podnositelj zahtjeva želi njezinu izmjenu. Razlozi podnošenja zahtjeva su promjena životnih potreba na strani vjerovnika, ili pak promjena financijske sposobnosti na strani obveznika uzdržavanja. Podnositelj zahtjeva (vjerovnik ili obveznik uzdržavanja) zahtjev podnosi putem središnjeg tijela države u kojoj ima uobičajeno boravište središnjem tijelu države članice u kojoj druga strana ima uobičajeno boravište. Za primjer uzmimo majku koja posjeduje odluku o uzdržavanju donesenu u državi A kojom se odreĎuje uzdržavanje za njeno dvoje djece od strane njenog bivšeg supruga. Bivši suprug boravi u državi B. Odluka o uzdržavanju priznata je u državi B. Majka želi povećanje iznosa uzdržavanja budući da su se primanja njezinog bivšeg supruga povećala nakon donošenja odluke. Majka će putem središnjeg tijela države A proslijediti za zahtjev za izmjenom odluke središnjem tijelu države B. Bivši suprug bit će o svemu obaviješten te saslušan pred nadležnim tijelom u državi B. Nakon donošenja, izmijenjena odluka biti će izvršiva u državi B.22 Zahtjev za izmjenom sudske odluke takoĎer se podnosi putem obrasca iz Priloga VII. 3. 2. 2. Zahtjevi za posebne mjere 21 22 Lortie, op. cit. (bilj. 18.), str. 37. Lortie, op. cit. (bilj. 18.), str. 38. 156 �Uz navedene zahtjeve Uredba o uzdržavanju ureĎuje i dodatne vrste zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela, zahtjeve za posebnim mjerama, koji podnositelju zahtjeva stoje na raspolaganju samo u slučaju kada u skladu s člankom 56. nije podnesen ni jedan zahtjev. Tako Uredba o uzdržavanju u članku 53. odreĎuje kako središnje tijelo može uz odgovarajuća obrazloženja dati zahtjev drugom središnjem tijelu za poduzimanjem odgovarajuće posebne mjere ukoliko bi poduzimanje takve mjere pomoglo pri pronalaženju obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavane osobe; pomoglo pri pribavljanju podataka o dohotku i drugih potrebnih financijskih okolnosti obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavane osobe, uključujući lokaciju imovine; olakšalo pribavljanje dokaza u obliku isprava ili u drugom obliku, ne dovodeći pritom u pitanje Uredbu (EZ) br. 1206/2001; osiguralo pomoć pri utvrĎivanju roditeljstva kad je to potrebno za naplatu tražbina za uzdržavanje; pokrenulo postupak ili olakšalo njegovo pokretanje i ostvarilo potrebne privremene mjere teritorijalnog karaktera i čija je svrha osigurati ishod neriješenog zahtjeva za uzdržavanje te olakšalo uručivanje pismena, ne dovodeći pritom u pitanje Uredbu (EZ) br. 1393/2007. Zamoljeno središnje tijelo poduzet će prema potrebi ove mjere, ako je uvjereno da su korisne i ako smatra da su potrebne kako bi potencijalnom podnositelju zahtjeva pomogle pri podnošenju zahtjeva iz članka 56. ili utvrĎivanju treba li uopće zahtjev uložiti. Glavnina je ovih zahtjeva usmjerena na pronalaženje obveznika uzdržavanja te na pribavljanje podataka o dohotku i drugim financijskim okolnostima obveznika. Ovaj zahtjev najčešće se podnosi kada je podnositelju zahtjeva poznato na području koje države boravi obveznik uzdržavanja, ali mu nije poznata njegova adresu. Nerijetko podnositelju zahtjeva nije poznato niti u kojoj državi članici obveznik uzdržavanja ima boravište, ali s obzirom na okolnosti koje su mu poznate pretpostavlja koja bi to država ili države mogle biti. U tom slučaju moguće je uputiti zahtjev za posebnim mjerama u središnja tijela više država. Nakon što zamoljeno središnje tijelo zaprimi zahtjev za posebnom mjerom sa svrhom pronalaženja obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavanje osobe ili sa svrhom pribavljanja podataka o dohotku i drugim potrebama financijskih okolnosti obveznika uzdržavanja ili uzdržavanja osobe, uključujući lokaciju imovine, ono će od nadležnih nacionalnih institucija ili putem službenih evidencija pokušati pribaviti tražene podatke. Ukoliko su takve informacije dostupne, zamoljeno će središnje tijelo priopćiti pribavljene informacije središnjem tijelu koje je podnositelj zahtjeva.23Ako zamoljeno središnje tijelo ne može osigurati tražene informacije, o tome odmah izvješćuje središnje tijelo koje je podnijelo zahtjev te razloge svoje odluke. Zahtjev za posebnim mjerama podnosi se putem obrasca iz Priloga V. Središnje tijelo molitelj popunjava „Dio A“ obrasca. U zahtjevu je poželjno navesti što više informacije o osobi na koju se zahtjev odnosi, kao što su puno ime i prezime, datum roĎenja, adresa, kako bi nadležne institucije zamoljenog središnjeg tijela 23 Uredba u čl. 53. st. 2. odreĎuje da kad su zatražene informacije pribavljene u skladu s člankom 61. Uredbe u priopćenju se navodi samo adresa potencijalnog tuženika u zamoljenoj državi članici. U slučaju zahtjeva u svrhu priznanja, izvršivosti ili izvršenja, u priopćenju se dodatno može navesti samo ima li obveznik uzdržavanja dohodak ili imovinu u toj državi članici. 157 �u što kraćem vremenskom roku i sa što većom sigurnošću utvrdile tražene informacije. „Dio B“ obrasca ispunjava zamoljeno središnje tijelo nakon što utvrdi činjenice tražene u zahtjevu te ispunjeni zahtjev vraća središnjem tijelu molitelju. 3.2.2. Slanje, primanje i obrada zahtjeva Osim slanja, primanja i obrade zahtjeva središnja tijela takoĎer imaju važnu zadaću koja podrazumijeva pomoć podnositelju zahtjeva prilikom podnošenja samog zahtjeva. Ona se očituje u davanju jasne upute o potrebnim podacima i ispravama, dostavljanju praznih obrazaca podnositelju i pomoći pri ispunjavanju istih, naputku o tome koje je isprave potrebnu prevesti na jezik zamoljene države i sl. Po primitku dokumentacije od strane podnositelja zahtjeva središnje tijelo će pregledati je li potpuna te ukoliko nije zatražiti dopunu ili ispravak. Središnje će tijelo proslijediti zahtjev središnjem tijelu zamoljene države tek kad smatra da zahtjev ispunjava sve uvjete iz Uredbe. Po zaprimanju zahtjeva zamoljeno će središnje tijelo pregledati zahtjev i zaprimljenu dokumentaciju prije nego li je proslijedi tijelu nadležnom za postupanje. Vezano uz to, Uredba u čl. 58. st. 2. nameće i obavezu zamoljenom središnjem tijelu da u roku od 30 dana od datuma zaprimanja zahtjeva, potvrdi primitak na obrascu iz Priloga VIII, te izvijesti središnje tijelo države članice moliteljice koje su početne mjere poduzete, ili će biti poduzete, te po potrebi zatraži potrebne dodatne dokumente i podatke. Isto tako, kroz obrazac iz Priloga VIII priopćit će središnjem tijelu molitelju i kontakt podatke osobe ili jedinice nadležne za odgovaranje na upite o napretku pri obradi zahtjeva. Osim toga, zamoljeno središnje tijelo dužno je izvijestiti središnje tijelo države moliteljice o stanju obrade zahtjeva u roku od 60 dana od datuma potvrde primitka. Zamoljeno središnje tijelo ne smije odbiti zahtjev isključivo zbog toga što su potrebni dodatni dokumenti ili podaci. MeĎutim, zamoljeno središnje tijelo može od središnjeg tijela molitelja zatražiti da predoči te dodatne dokumente ili te podatke. Ako središnje tijelo molitelj to ne učini u roku 90 dana ili tijekom duljeg razdoblja koje je odredilo zamoljeno središnje tijelo, zamoljeno središnje tijelo može odlučiti da više ne obraĎuje zahtjev. U tom slučaju o tome odmah obavješćuje središnje tijelo molitelja na obrascu iz Priloga IX. 3.2.3. Komunikacija između središnjih tijela Uredba inzistira na učestaloj i brzoj komunikaciji izmeĎu središnjih tijela, stoga su ona dužna primijeniti najžurnija i najučinkovitija sredstva priopćavanja koja im stoje na raspolaganju. Kao najbrži i najpovoljniji način komunikacije najzastupljenija je komunikacija putem elektroničke pošte. Ova vrsta komunikacije najlakši je i najbrži način za dobivanje informacija o statusu predmeta pred središnjim tijelom i pred tijelima nadležnima za postupanje po Uredbi. Isto tako, dok država ne stekne praksu u postupanju po Uredbi s odreĎenom državom članicom, na ovaj način najbrže može saznati zahtjeva li 158 �možda zamoljena država dodatne isprave u skladu sa svojim nacionalnim pravom izuzev onih koje propisuje Uredba. Na taj način izbjeći će se moguća potreba za dopunom dokumentacije nakon podnošenja zahtjeva. 3.2.4. Troškovi podnositelja zahtjeva Osim što Uredba za cilj ima ubrzati postupak za ostvarivanjem prava na uzdržavanje, za cilj ima i maksimalno smanjiti troškove podnositelja zahtjeva, koji je u većini slučajeva ekonomski slabija strana. Svi zahtjevi u skladu s člankom 56. omogućuju podnositelju zahtjeva da svoje pravo ostvari bez odlaska u stranu državu. Isto tako podnošenje zahtjeva putem središnjeg tijela ne zahtjeva osobni dolazak podnositelja zahtjeva u središnje tijelo. Podnositelj zahtjeva će sve potrebne informacije i upute od središnjeg tijela dobiti telefonski, elektroničkom poštom ili pisano poštom, a svoj će zahtjev u konačnici dostaviti središnjem tijelu putem redovne pošte. U skladu s člankom 54. Uredbe središnja tijela ne smiju podnositelju zahtjeva naplaćivati svoje usluge, osim izvanrednim troškova koji proizlaze iz zahtjeva za posebnim mjerama. Troškovi manjeg opsega za stranku bi mogli nastati jedino prilikom prikupljanja dokumentacije potrebne za pojedini zahtjev. Tako nerijetko za stranku nastaju troškovi zbog potrebe prevoĎenja odreĎene dokumentacije.24U takvim se slučajevima podnositelju zahtjeva savjetuje da u tu svrhu pokuša ostvariti pravo na jednokratnu naknadu u skladu sa Zakonom o socijalnoj skrbi.25 MeĎutim, rješenje o pravu na jednokratnu naknadu diskrecijskom ocjenom donosi centar za socijalnu skrb, što podnositelju zahtjeva i dalje ne pruža sigurnost da će njegovi troškovi biti nadoknaĎeni. Stoga je, zbog socijalne osjetljivosti stranaka u većini predmeta uzdržavanja, nužno na nacionalnoj razini utvrditi pravni mehanizam koji će podnositelju zahtjeva dati pravo na djelomičnu ili potpuno naknadu troškova ove vrste. Prijevodi obrazaca kojima se podnose zahtjevi – Prilozi V, VI, VII neće stvarati dodatan trošak stranci, zahvaljujući veoma dobroj i razvijenoj informatizaciji europskog zakonodavstva. Naime, službenicima u središnjim tijelima dana je mogućnost da korištenjem Internet stranice „The European e-Justice Portal“, ispune željeni obrazac na svom jeziku te po završetku ispunjavanja obrasca odaberu jezik države članice na koji žele da obrazac bude preveden.26 24 U skladu s čl. 20. st. 1.(d) i 28. st. 1.(c) Uredbe o uzdržavanju, kada je potrebno, kod podnošenja zahtjeva za priznavanje ili priznavanje i proglašenje izvršivosti sudske odluke, izvod iz odluke koju je donio sud podrijetla uporabom obrasca iz Priloga I ili priloga II mora biti transliteriran ili preveden na službeni jezik države članice koja obavlja izvršenje ili kad u državi članici ima više službenih jezika, na službeni jezik ili na jedan od službenih jezika sudskog postupka mjesta u kojem je uložen zahtjev u skladu s pravom te države članice ili na drugi jezik koji je predmetna država članica navela kao prihvatljiv. Čl. 20. st. 3. i 28. st. 3. odreĎuju kako svaka država članica može navesti službeni jezik ili jezike institucija Europske unije, a koji je drukčiji od njezina jezika, koji prihvaća za ispunjavanje obrazaca. Svaki prijevod mora učiniti osoba kvalificirana za prevoĎenje u jednoj od država članica. 25 Čl. 46.-48., Zakon o socijalnoj skrbi, Narodne novine br. 157/13 i 152/14. 26 Bitno je napomenuti da ovaj sustav prevodi samo formu obrasca, dok će ispunjeni tekst obrasca ostati na jeziku na kojemu je upisan, stoga je uobičajena praksa izmeĎu središnjih tijela da se tekst 159 �4. Zaključak Učinkovitost prekogranične naplate uzdržavanja već je gotovo cijelo stoljeće u fokusu kako nacionalnih država, tako i meĎunarodne zajednice. Europska unija je prekogranični pravni promet odlučila urediti brojnim tradicionalnim metodama prvenstveno procesnog prava, ali u njihovim unaprijeĎenim varijantama: primjerice ukidanje egzekvature za priznanje odluka drugih država članica,27 ili zamrzavanje računa kao privremena mjera osiguranja prekograničnog potraživanja, eklatantni su primjerci.28 Nadalje, u odnosu na uzdržavanje djece EU predviĎa besplatnu pravnu pomoć u predmetima uzdržavanja. Ipak, suvremeni intenzivni prekogranični pravni promet stavlja na kušnju uvriježene pravne mehanizme meĎunarodnog privatnog i postupovnog prava. Klasična parnica i postupak postaju u velikoj mjeri neučinkoviti u kontekstu zaštite najranjivijih: oni su skupi i spori. MeĎunarodna zajednica je prije više od pola stoljeća prvi puta prakticirala sustav logističke podrške koji pomaže ostvarenju pravosudne zaštite najranjivijih, a taj je mehanizam danas obilno preuzela i koristi EU. Stranke same niti mogu niti znaju kako locirati dužnika, utvrditi imovinu, pokrenuti postupak, naplati tražbinu – za to im danas kao servis treba služiti središnje tijelo na koji se prebacuje taj teret. Prednosti EU u odnosu na sve ostale sustave središnjih tijela (poglavito one usvojene u okvirima Haških konvencija) je učinkoviti nadzor primjene, redoviti monitoring i izvješćivanje o radu, te mogućnost sankcioniranja države članice koja bi zakazala u provedbi svojih obveza. Unatoč teškoćama u radu središnjih tijela, njihovo funkcioniranje ukazuje na progresiju prava usmjerenu smanjenju siromaštva djece, a koja su u inferiornoj socio-ekonomskoj poziciji u predmetima uzdržavanja. ispunjava na engleskom jeziku. Budući da ispunjavani dio obrasca obično čine samo nazivi, brojke i eventualno kratka pojašnjenja takva praksa do sada nije naišla na poteškoće. 27 Župan, M., Osobitosti ovrhe strane odluke o uzdržavanju, u: Rešetar, B., Župan, M., Imovinskopravni aspekti razvoda braka – hrvatski, međunarodni i europski kontekst (Osijek, 2011) str. 331-367. 28 Župan, M., Cross-border recovery of maintenance taking account of the new European Account Preservation Order (EAPO), radni materija predstavljen na ERA ANNUAL CONFERENCE ON EUROPEAN FAMILY LAW, Trier 2014 ( u postupku objave). 160 �Mirela Župan, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Osijek Martina Drventić, mr. iur. Faculty of Law, University of Osijek SYSTEM OF CENTRAL BODIES THROUGH EUROPEAN MODEL OF CROSS-BORDER PAYMENT OF MAINTENANCE Summary: One of the consequences of modern intensive mobility is a significant increase in the number of cross-border family cases. Legal systems correspond to this phenomenon by introducing new/improved legal norms (both at national and international level). In the field of legal protection of the most vulnerable, especially children, emphasis is placed on norms that present a legal framework for functioning of the central authority system. System of central authority has a crucial role in cross-border payment of maintenance and thus constitutes one of the key levers in reducing poverty of support creditors. This paper speaks of positioning of the system of central bodies in resolving international family matters, clarifying the scope of their work in the case of maintenance and in particular Maintenance Regulation no. 4/2009. Key words: central authority system, maintenance obligations, Maintenance Regulation. 161 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2994 Title A name given to the resource SUSTAV SREDIŠNJIH TIJELA KROZ EUROPSKI MODEL NAPLATE PREKOGRANIČNOG UZDRŽAVANJA Author Author ŽUPAN, Mirela Abstract A summary of the resource. Jedna od konzekvencija suvremene intenzivne mobilnosti je značajno povećanje broja prekograničnih obiteljskih predmeta. Pravni sustavi na ovu pojavu odgovaraju normiranjem (kako na nacionalnoj, tako i na međunarodnoj razini), u okviru kojega se u području pravne zaštite najranjivijih, prije svega djece, naglasak stavlja na rad i funkcioniranje sustava središnjih tijela. Sustav središnjih tijela ima presudnu ulogu u prekograničnoj naplati uzdržavanja, te time čini jednu od ključnih poluga u smanjenju siromaštva vjerovnika uzdržavanja. Predmetom je ovoga rada pozicioniranje sustava središnjih tijela u rješavanju međunarodno obilježenih obiteljskih predmeta, pojašnjenje djelokruga njihova rada u predmetima uzdržavanja te u kontekstu Hrvatske konkretna obrada relevantnih propisa, poglavito Uredbe br. 4/2009. Ključne riječi: sustav središnjih tijela, uzdržavanje,Uredba o uzdržavanju Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Law faculty of University Džemal Bijedić Mostar Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/205d02bedb2d25f0e43139d0aafd4239.pdf bbc1ba6a6300ab73e2846c2de5e8ca32 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Amela Šehović & Đenita Haverić University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 03.11.2014. Abstract Before it was fully adopted by the Bosnian language, a Persian loanword, from the moment it was borrowed from the source (Persian) to the receiver (Bosnian) language, would undergo various stages of adaptation on the phonological, morphological, and semantic plane. Due to the fact that many Persian words entered the Bosnian language through Turkish as the mediator language, a great number of semantic changes occurred when the word was borrowed from Persian and later used in Turkish. Later on, the same meaning from Turkish would be transferred to Bosnian language. Words of eastern origin, i.e. words from Turkish, Arabic or Persian, made their way into the Bosnian language due to various influences and during various periods of time. These words were introduced to the Bosnian language mostly through Turkish and are, for that reason, referred to as turcisms. However, a more scientifically approved term is orientalisms since not all of these words belong to the Turkish lexical material, and since they involve a great number of Arabic and Farsi phrases. This paper examines the significance and role of the Turkish language as the language mediator in the case of words of Persian origin entering the Bosnian language. As loanwords, turcisms were used mainly during the 500-year-long Ottoman rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina, when the contact with the Turkish language and culture was most immediate. For that reason, the number of turcisms in the Bosnian language is quite impressive. For instance, Škaljić’s Rječnik turcizama (Dictionary of Turcisms) contains 8,742 words (expressions) and 6,878 terms (1979: 23). During the Ottoman period, Persian was the language of literature, especially poetry. The most of the lexis of Persian origin entered the Bosnian language owing to great Iranian classics, but also, indirectly - through Turkish. Compared to Turkish and Arabic, lexis of Persian origin is the least present – more than 600 words in Škaljić’s Dictionary of Turcisms (Akopdžanjan 2010: 18). Keywords: Persian loanwords, Turkish language, Bosnian language, semantics changes 21 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Introduction The Bosnian language contains a number of words of Persian origin, mainly received through Turkish as the relay language during Ottoman rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Today, these words are mainly part of the passive lexis of modern Bosnian, which is primarily a consequence of the disappearance of the notions and phenomena they denote, but also a result of their replacement with other forms. However, quite a number of these lexemes appear in conversational Bosnian, where they are used for the purpose of greater expressive force. They are most frequently nouns, followed by adjectives and verbs – parts of speech that carry the largest amount of information. This paper will focus on verbs derived from words of Persian origin, usually nouns. This is no surprise in light of the fact the majority of loanwords are nouns. This is because nouns’ function is to name phenomena and objects – both those that do not have adequate local equivalents, and those that do have local equivalents, but are for some reason less prestigious and are therefore replaced with a borrowed noun. Since Persian loanwords no longer enter our language, due to the influence of different factors, the corpus of this research comprises dictionaries of modern Bosnian language1. Namely, we thought that such lexicographical sources would represent a reliable source for a derivation and style-based analysis of verbs in Bosnian. However, since the root of such verbs is Persian, we consulted dictionaries of the Persian language in order to determine their origin and semantics. These dictionaries were used as an auxiliary tool in this derivation and style-focused analysis of verbs in the lexical stock of the Bosnian language. Derivative features of verbs of Persian origin in Bosnian Most verbs in our language derived from Persian words are dominative, i.e. derived from nouns. Although prefixal derivation is indeed the most productive type for They include: Rječnik bosanskoga jezika (2010) by Senahid Halilović, Ismail Palić and Amel Šehović, published by the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo, further referred to in this paper as RBJ, as well as Rječnik sarajevskog žargona (2003) by Narcis Saračević, published by Vrijeme Zenica, further referred to in this paper as RSŽ. 1 22 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics derivation of verbs, this paper will first look at verbs of suffixal derivation, since the meaning of verb suffixes is far more precise than that of verb prefixes. Suffixal derivation of verbs As a method of word formation, suffixal derivation is more frequent in nouns than in verbs. Still, there are numerous verbs derived in this way. Suffixal derivation of verbs from nouns The most prominent are verbs derived with the following suffixes (according to: Barić – Lončarić i dr., 1979:293–294): 1. the suffix -a-, used to form verbs related to the meaning of the noun, a) as object: erendati – ‘to grate potato, cheese etc.’ (RBJ: 272), hujati – ‘conversat., expr. to cause anger, fury, to anger, upset’ (RBJ: 373); i.e. those whose meaning can be described by transforming nouns: noun + ati → verb + noun in the accusative case (Babić, 1986:449), for example: džumbusati – ‘conversat., expr. to cause džumbus, excitement, noisy celebration’ (RBJ: 253). The verb erendati is interesting in terms of norm, since the former Serbo-Croat norm recognised only the form rend(e)isati (MS2: 506–507), and erende was marked as pokr. [regional, provincial] (MS – MH3: 858), indicating its non-normative status and forwarding the entry to the noun rende. The situation is the opposite in modern Bosnian – the form rende is non-preferred in the norm of contemporary Bosnian (RBJ:1142), as indicated by the marking v. [see], forwarding the lexicographical entry to the noun erende. b) as substance or object used as a tool or a device for a particular action: pandžati – ‘scratch and hurt with pandže [claws]’ (RBJ: 872); tamburati – ‘rare, to play the tamboura’ (RBJ: 1316); testerati – ‘to cut using testera [saw], to saw’ (RBJ: 1327). Derivatives of this meaning are the most frequent among verbs derived using the suffix -a-. c) as a name of a state: beharati – ‘to be in behar [spring blossom] (fruit trees), to blossom’ (RBJ: 54); This abbreviation is used to refer to Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika, vol. 5 (P – S) (1973), published by Matica srpska Novi Sad. 3 This abbreviation refers to Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika, vol. 1 (A – E) (1967), published by Matica srpska Novi Sad and Matica hrvatska Zagreb. 2 23 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language d) in various other meanings: pendžerati – ‘conversat., expr. to go to someone’ pendžer [window] for the purpose of courtship’ (RBJ: 889); 2. suffix -i-, used to derive verbs: a) whose meaning can be described by a transformation: noun + -iti → verb + noun in the accusative case, for example abdestiti se – ‘to take abdest, to conduct the ritual of ablution’ (RBJ: 1); divaniti – ‘expr. 1. to speak, discuss, present, etc.; i.e. to conduct divan – meeting, discussion’ (RBJ: 193); or when related with the starting noun: b) as substance or object used as a tool or a device: sirćetiti – ‘to season with sirće [vinegar]’ (RBJ: 1194); šećeriti – ‘to sweeten with šećer [sugar]’ (RBJ:1288); c) as an object resulting from the action denoted by the verb: ćariti – ‘conversat., expr. to acquire ćar [gain], to earn, e.g. through trade’ (RBJ: 148); ćemeriti – ‘arch. to build as ćemer [type of roof]’ (RBJ: 149), jagmiti – ‘trying to reach or grab something by fighting others’ (RBJ: 454); kauriti – ‘to turn into a kaur’ (RBJ: 495); pazariti – ‘to conduct pazar, to purchase or sell, to trade’ (RBJ: 885); šićariti – ‘conversat., expr. to gain šićar [profit, gain] easily or quickly, (u)ćariti’ (RBJ: 1292); zijaniti – ‘conversat., expr. to suffer damages or loss’ (RBJ: 1523); d) expressing the same thing as the base noun: bećariti – ‘to live the life of a bećar [carefree, sociable, enjoying a good time, etc.]’ (RBJ: 53); e) expressing a feature: jaraniti (se) – ‘conversat., rare, to become friends, to maintain friendship, to spend time together, to socialise’ (RBJ: 457– 458); f) denoting a particular job or profession: pehlivaniti – ‘to be pehlivan, to perform the acrobatics of a pehlivan’ (RBJ: 888); piljariti – ‘to be a piljar, a (green)grocer’ (RBJ: 898); g) in various other meanings: meziti – ‘conversat., to be served or eat meze’ (RBJ: 648); nišaniti – ‘mil. to take aim (nišan)’ (RBJ: 770); timariti – ‘to clean and groom (esp. a horse) using a brush or a comb’ (RBJ: 1331). The last set of verbs belongs to a large group of derivatives from inanimate nouns of unidentifiable general semantic definition. 3. with the suffix -ira-, used to derive verbs that mean: a) to play or seek amusement: šahirati – ’1. conversat., to play chess for fun, 2. To attack the opponent’s king in chess’ (RBJ: 1284). 24 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Most nouns used as the base for verbs derived using the suffix -ira- are of foreign origin, primarily Latin and French, and less frequently from Classical Greek and Italian, with numerous colloquial examples from German and more recently from English (data from: Klajn, 2003:355), and this kind of verbs derived from a noun originally from Persian is thus particularly interesting in terms of derivation. 4. the suffix -isa- used to derive verbs meaning: a) to be or resemble the meaning of the noun: dembelisati – ‘expr. to live like a dembel [lazy person]’ (RBJ: 169).4 If the base noun is labelled pejorative, the verb inevitably carries with it a pejorative connotation, despite the fact that the source may not register the pejorative meaning with the verb, but rather only with the noun. b) to perform a particular job or craft: dunđerisati – ’1. to be a dunđer [builder], , 2. pejor. to perform building or construction work poorly’ (RBJ: 240); c) an action or the result of an action expressed by the noun: mahanisati – ‘to find mahana [fault]’ (RBJ: 619); d) a substance or an object used as a tool or a device: testerisati – ‘to cut with a saw’ (RBJ: 1327). As for verbs derived using the suffix -isa-, particularly interesting are those which use the Turkish -le(n)- or -la- before this one, itself of Greek origin (cf. Muftić, 19601961:23), such as: muhurleisati – ‘arc. to place a muhur [stamp, seal], to certify with a stamp’ (RBJ: 680). 5. the suffix -ova-, used to derive verbs meaning: a) to be or resemble the meaning of the noun: bećarovati (bećariti) – ‘to live the life of a bećar’ (RBJ: 53). Verbs ending in -isa- and -ova-, derived from animate nouns, such as the one listed in example a), denote behaviour. b) to perform a particular task or craft: šegrtovati – ‘to be a trainee craftsman, šegrt’ (RBJ: 1288).¸ Suffix-based derivation of verbs from adjectives Verbs are derived from adjectives using the following suffixes: 4 Although Bosnian classifies this word as both a noun and an adjective (RBJ: 169), here it appears as a noun and it is treated accordingly. 25 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language 1. with the suffix -i-, when they mean ‘to develop a feature expressed by the adjective’, as in ćoraviti – ‘to make ćorav [blind], to go blind’ (RBJ: 151); 2. with the suffix -je-, when they mean ‘to develop a feature expressed by the adjective’, as in ćelavjeti – ‘to become ćelav [bald], to lose hair’ (RBJ: 149); ćoravjeti – ‘to become ćorav; to lose sight’ (RBJ: 151). Prefix and suffix-based verb derivation Some of the verbs we looked at in the previous chapter also use prefixes, hence they can be considered prefix-based derivatives. Although some authors (cf. Babić, 1986:495) restrict prefix-based derivation to a limited number of prefixes (o-, ob-, po-, pod-, pre-, u-) and suffixes (-nuti, -jeti, -iti, -ati), we decided to accept a more comprehensive treatment of this form of derivation, as elaborated in Priručna gramatika hrvatskoga književnog jezika, and include all the prefixes and suffixes that appear in verb derivation. However, unlike verb suffixes5, which, in most cases, render clearly defined meanings, the meaning of verb prefixes do not entail such precision. Klajn even insists that ‘as language developed, certain prefixes were combined with certain verbs in a more or less arbitrary fashion’, influenced by different factors, rendering an ‘entirely unpredictable’ result (Klajn, 2002:248). In light of this fact, we will try to offer explanations of prefixes noted in the verbs included in our analysis: A typical meaning of verbs derived using the prefix iz- is completion of an action, as evident in the verb istimariti, which also includes sound assimilation [z into s]. The primary perfective meaning is evident in the use of the verb prefix na-, which can also express completion of an action (narendati [to complete grating, cf. above]), though not necessarily (nanišaniti [to take aim]). The verb narendati deserves an additional comment: the prefix na- is added to a form which is not preferred in the Bosnian language – rende, probably caused by the tendency to avoid the initial hiatus. Also, the verb narendati is opposed to the form izrendati, derived under the same principle as narendati: prefix + root rend- + suffix -a- + suffix -ti, though not confirmed through sources. 5 The meaning of these will not be added, since they were covered in the preceding section. 26 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Performing an action on the surface of another object is expressed using the prefix po- in verbs such as posirćetiti [to drizzle with vinegar (sirće)] and pošećeriti [to sprinkle with sugar], whereas pokauriti [to convert to Christianity] presents the meaning of completion of the action denoted (perfective). Although verbs derived using the prefix pro- on a noun are not that numerous, our corpus incudes the verb probeharati [cf. above], denoting a completed action (perfective). The prefix s- is used to derive transitive and reflexive verbs, mainly from nouns, as evident in the example sjaraniti se, meaning to come together. The meaning of the prefix u- in verbs such as ućariti, ujagmiti and ušićariti is identical – completion of the action denoted. The prefix za- has numerous meanings, and those noted in the corpus include: – inchoative: zameziti, zamezetiti; – completed action (perfective): zabeharati; – perform an action on the surface of an object: zasirćetiti, zašećeriti; but also possible with a nuanced majorative meaning. – Therefore, it can be concluded that prefixes may change the aspect of the verbs they are attached to – they may shift their meaning from imperfective to perfective, which is the primary feature of verbs derived by prefixation. Derivational synonymy A number of verbs derived from words of Persian origin display a relationship of derivational synonymy – be it that suffixes are synonymous, as they are in examples such as: bećarovati, bećariti; testerati, testerisati (only in the 1st meaning) or prefixes with synonymous meaning, such as: probeharati: zabeharati (perfective meaning); posirćetiti: zasirćetiti (perform an action on the surface of an object), posoliti: zasoliti (perform an action on the surface of an object); narendati: izrendati (perfective). In principle, all these verbs are used frequently in everyday communication, since their roots denote objects, notions and phenomena present in everyday life – ‘two or three derivational forms would not have appeared in case of a rarely used item’ (Šehović, 2012:413) and the explanation of this phenomenon should certainly be sought in light of this fact. Stylistic features of Bosnian verbs derived from words of Persian origin 27 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language There are numerous verbs derived from words of Persian origin that belong to conversational Bosnian. These include the following6: jagmiti – ‘2. trying to be ahead of others in something; rush, hasten’ (RBJ: 454); jaraniti se (with an added label rarely), meziti, pekmeziti – ‘pejor. whine (RBJ: 889)’; šahirati (in the 1st meaning), tezgariti – ‘pejor. to earn money on the side, doing part-time or honorarium-based work in addition to regular employment (often in art or intellectual services)’ (RBJ: 1328); some of them are also expressive, such as: ćariti, džumbusati, hujati, pendžerati, šićariti, zijaniti – ‘to suffer damages or loss’ (RBJ: 1523). We may add to this group additional examples of jargon, thus completing their assignment in terms of style. This group includes the following: lešiti – ‘hit, beat’ (RSŽ: 146); lešiti se – ‘drink heavily, use drugs, participate in a fistfight’ (RSŽ: 146); mezetiti – ‘abuse verbally, ridicule’ (RBJ: 648); olešiti – ‘beat up someone’ (RSŽ: 190); ‘hit hard, beat up with great force’ (RBJ: 822); olešiti se – ‘get drunk’ (RSŽ: 190); ‘get very drunk’ (RBJ: 822); tamburati – ‘hit someone, beat up someone’ (RBJ: 1316); testerati – ‘be very boring to someone, annoy someone’ (RBJ: 1327); zijaniti – ‘sport. experience defeat; lose a game’ (RBJ: 1523). All these are examples of metaphoric meaning, as is evident in the following examples, unmarked in terms of which functional style to which they belong: beharati – ‘(humorous) turning grey [hair]’ (RBJ: 54); pehlivaniti – ‘a. managing to survive in a complex situation; b. pejor. be a turncoat’ (RBJ: 888); šegrtovati – ‘be a beginner in a job and trying to learn from more experienced ones’ (RBJ: 1288); testerati – ‘snore very loudly (resembling the sound of a log being sawed)’ (RBJ: 1327); interestingly, pejorative meaning seems to have developed parallel to the metaphoric one, as evident in the following examples: dunđerisati (in the 2nd meaning); piljariti – ‘work as a petty merchant’ (RBJ: 898); tamburati – ’speak incessantly, bore the interlocutors with pointless talk’ (RBJ: 1316). Some of these verbs are certainly marked for their expressiveness. One of them is certainly the verb horoziti se, derived in Bosnian from a word of Persian origin, horoz, which means: ‘1. rooster, 2. trigger on a firearm’ (RBJ: 368), whereas xorūs in Persian means: ’1. zool. rooster’ (PBR7: 406). In Bosnian, the verb horoziti se belongs to the conversational style, and its figurative meaning is based on the meaning of the word it is derived from: ’1. to become angry 2. to rise in anger, to be upset’ (RBJ: 368). The same features can be found in the verbs dembelisati; pandžati se – ‘enter suspicious relations’ (RBJ: 872), and divaniti, which also includes an element of pejorative meaning: ‘talk nonsense, speak pointlessly, fantasize’ (RBJ: 193). 6 meaning will be added for verbs described previously: they will be listed for illustration only. This abbreviation refers to Perzijsko-bosanski rječnik (2010) by Mubina Moker and Đenita Haverić, published by the Ibn Sina Research Institute Sarajevo Sarajevo 7 28 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conclusion This analysis of verbs in the Bosnian language derived from words of Persian origin leads to the following conclusions: 1. These verbs are usually derived using suffixes and prefixes, with clear evidence of derivational synonymy in certain cases. 2. Many of these verbs have developed figurative meaning, often pejorative and expressive, sometimes arising from the expressiveness of the root word itself. 3. The verbs included in this analysis are present in Bosnian mainly in the conversational style, but they can be entirely neutral in terms of affiliation with a particular functional style. This however is quite rare. Therefore, these conclusions indicate a clear need for further research in relation to words of Persian origin in the Bosnian language, and linguists should focus in particular on their various derivatives. That is why we hope that this paper will open new avenues for more comprehensive research in this segment of our language. 29 �Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language References Babić, Stjepan (1986). Tvorba riječi u hrvatskom književnom jeziku. Zagreb: Jugoslavenska akademija znanosti i umjetnosti – Globus. Barić, E., Lončarić, M. i dr. (1979). Priručna gramatika hrvatskoga književnog jezika. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. Dehhoda (Loġatnāme-ye Dehxodā). See: http://www.loghatnaameh.org/. Halilović, Senahid; Palić, Ismail; Šehović, Amela (2010). Rječnik bosanskoga jezika. Sarajevo: Filozofski fakultet. Jahić, Dževad (1999). Školski rječnik bosanskog jezika. Sarajevo: Ljiljan. Klajn, Ivan (2002). Tvorba reči u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Deo prvi, Slaganje i prefiksacija. Beograd – Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva – Institut za srpski jezik SANU – Matica srpska. Klajn, Ivan (2003). Tvorba reči u savremenom srpskom jeziku. Deo drugi, Sufiksacija i konverzija. Beograd – Novi Sad: Zavod za udžbenike i nastavna sredstva – Institut za srpski jezik SANU – Matica srpska. Moker, Mubina; Haverić, Đenita (2010). Perzijsko-bosanski rječnik. Sarajevo: Naučnoistraživački institut „Ibn Sina”. Muftić, Teufik (1960–1961). „O arabizmima u srpskohrvatskom jeziku”. Prilozi za orijentalnu filologiju. X–XI. Pp. 5–29. Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika. Vol. 1 (A – E) (1967). Novi Sad – Zagreb: Matica srpska – Matica hrvatska. Rečnik srpskohrvatskoga književnog jezika. Vol. 5 (P – S) (1973). Novi Sad: Matica srpska. Saračević, Narcis (2003). Rječnik sarajevskog žargona. Zenica: Vrijeme. Šehović, Amela (2012). „Univerbacija u bosanskom jeziku”. In: Tvorba reči i njeni resursi u slovenskim jezicima, a conference book (ed. Rajna Dragićević). Filološki fakultet: Beograd. Pp. 407–417. 30 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2782 Title A name given to the resource Derivative and Stylistic Features of Verbs of Words of Persian Origin in the Bosnian Language Author Author Šehović, Amela Haverić, Đenita Abstract A summary of the resource. Before it was fully adopted by the Bosnian language, a Persian loanword, from the moment it was borrowed from the source (Persian) to the receiver (Bosnian) language, would undergo various stages of adaptation on the phonological, morphological, and semantic plane. Due to the fact that many Persian words entered the Bosnian language through Turkish as the mediator language, a great number of semantic changes occurred when the word was borrowed from Persian and later used in Turkish. Later on, the same meaning from Turkish would be transferred to Bosnian language. Words of eastern origin, i.e. words from Turkish, Arabic or Persian, made their way into the Bosnian language due to various influences and during various periods of time. These words were introduced to the Bosnian language mostly through Turkish and are, for that reason, referred to as turcisms. However, a more scientifically approved term is orientalisms since not all of these words belong to the Turkish lexical material, and since they involve a great number of Arabic and Farsi phrases. This paper examines the significance and role of the Turkish language as the language mediator in the case of words of Persian origin entering the Bosnian language. As loanwords, turcisms were used mainly during the 500-year-long Ottoman rule in Bosnia-Herzegovina, when the contact with the Turkish language and culture was most immediate. For that reason, the number of turcisms in the Bosnian language is quite impressive. For instance, Škaljić’s Rječnik turcizama (Dictionary of Turcisms) contains 8,742 words (expressions) and 6,878 terms (1979: 23). During the Ottoman period, Persian was the language of literature, especially poetry. The most of the lexis of Persian origin entered the Bosnian language owing to great Iranian classics, but also, indirectly - through Turkish. Compared to Turkish and Arabic, lexis of Persian origin is the least present – more than 600 words in Škaljić’s Dictionary of Turcisms (Akopdžanjan 2010: 18). Keywords: Persian loanwords, Turkish language, Bosnian language, semantics changes Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PI Oriental languages and literatures https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1db6da12c3aebd73203492ac143522af.pdf feaf10f8675d124fdb22fa139a792fb6 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Monika Černá University of Pardubice, Czech Republic Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 08.11.2014. Abstract The paper discusses the challenges of test design in the context of a research project focusing on the analysis of tertiary students’ spoken production in English. One of the project aims is to create a corpus of learner-spoken English. The participants in the study are Czech first-year students in English language teacher education study programmes at three universities. In order to elicit samples of the students’ oral production, a test of speaking, including a pronunciation subtest,was designed with respect to the research aims and objectives and in accordance with the current trends in the field. The challenges faced by the research team may be divided into three groups – those pertinent to the construction phase of the research instrument, the pilot phase, and the data-collection phase. The paper discusses how the team responded to the perceived challenges.The process of test designing was informed by relevant literature (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004);the team strove to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, i.e. test qualities including reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality, as introduced by Bachman and Palmer (2009). Consequently, the decisions regarding the abilities that the candidates, prospective English teachers, should demonstrate, as well as the decisions about the test format (elicitation techniques, number of tasks, etc.), were made with respect to the proposed ‘test usefulness’. The pilot phase confirmed the usability of the tool to elicit the required data, but also necessitated a few content- and procedure-related modifications. They reflected the results of the analysis of the performances recorded during the trial testing as well as the analysis of feedback questionnaires.Having revised the test, the researchers then implemented it in the data-collection processin three universities in the Czech Republic. The number of studentstested was 176. Keywords: Diagnostic test, speaking, English, tertiary students, research Introduction 213 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Data elicitation is inherent to any research, not excluding second language research. Depending on the aims of a study, various data elicitation techniques are used. Gass and Mackey (2011) place techniques on a continuum ranging from naturalistic data to prompted-production data and prompted-response data. Regarding the investigations of input and interaction, there has been a gradual move away from studying those aspects in natural settings (Ellis, 2008). Researchers often rely on clinical elicitation, i.e. prompted production and prompted response, through which samples of learner language are obtained. Gass and Mackey (2011) suggested specific examples of diverse elicitation techniques. Additionally, language tests may also be utilised to elicit data for a variety of research purposes such as ‘research into the language ability itself, including the effects of different test taker characteristics on language test performance’ (Bachman & Palmer, 2009, p. 99). This matches the focus of the research project1 designed to investigate the influence of the Czech students’ mother tongue on their communicative competence in spoken English in relation to the students’ individual learning histories (Černá, 2013). The project is discussed in the paper with an emphasis on the challenges of test designing within its context. Achieving a high level of communicative competence in the target language has been the core of the language teacher’s expertise. Therefore, the project of a diagnostic nature has been targeted at Czech students’ spoken production in English on the onset of university teacher education. The findings of the project will provide insights into the processes and outcomes of learning English as a foreign language in the Czech Republic, which may be found beneficial by educational institutions operating at all levels from the pre-primary to upper-secondary, namely for the purpose of curriculum design. The results will also function as feedback for Czech authors of English textbooks and as a basis for the design of new research-based teaching materials. Most importantly, the outcomes will be utilised in teacher education, research-based evidence will allow for the development of methodologies leading to a sound content knowledge base of trainee teachers. The project started in 2013; actions in the first year were centred on data-elicitation tools. Challenges of test design Testing or formal assessment in general is a complex and challenging matter; it is even more so with testing spoken language. Davis (2009) attributes the complexity to the interaction of different factors and their influence on a final score. It is far beyond the scope of the paper to attempt to reiterate all the relevant factors, therefore, the major challenges perceived in the particular testing situation will be in focus. 1 A three-year project, Aspects of English Language Acquisition of Czech Students on the Onset of Teacher Education, has been supported by the Czech Science Foundation (GA ČR 13-25982S). 214 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Designing a test for research purposes The priority of research is obvious in the testing situation explored in the paper. The team was supposed to construct a diagnostic test of spoken language that would elicit samples of learner language for the subsequent investigation of its variability. A set of structures to be included in the analysis has been identified on the basis of the following criteria(a) relevance of particular features to the grammar of spoken language, and (b) potential negative transfer from the mother tongue. Selected syntactic and discourse features comprise word order deviations (both incorrect and systemic caused by the nature of conversation), distribution of verbs typical of spoken discourse (functioning as discourse markers, main clauses or comment clauses), structures with non-finite verb complementation and the use of vagueness hedges (Ježková, 2012). Regarding pronunciation, the segmental and suprasegmental features of interest include the following: the front open vowel ‘ash’, the weak central mid vowel ‘schwa’, the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives, the labiovelar approximant /w/, the velar nasal, the pronunciation of word-final voiced consonants and non-initial primary word stress(Nádraská, under review). Apart from data elicitation the test administration is expected to impact on the students in the first year of the English major bachelor study programmes at three universities in the Czech Republic involved in the project. Being a diagnostic tool, the test should uncover the students’ strengths and weaknesses in performing oral communication tasks. The diagnosis on entry to the programmes may lead to possible adjustments of syllabus objectives of relevant courses, e.g. language development courses, phonetics, phonology and syntax. Furthermore, the performance on the test is likely to influence the setting of the students’ autonomous language development goals. Considering the features of the particular testing situation, the research team aimed to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, which was proposed by Bachman and Palmer as ‘a function of several different qualities, all of which contribute in unique but interrelated ways to the overall usefulness of a given test’ (2009, p. 18). These include reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact, and practicality; out of the listed qualities, authenticity will be at the centre of attention. Bachman and Palmer consider authenticity a critical quality of language tests (2009, p. 23) and define it ‘as the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of a given language test task to the features of a TLU [target language use]task.’ (ibid.). In order to achieve the highest possible level of authenticity, the team attempted to design a test that would be relevant to the target language use domain, i.e. that of teaching English as a foreign language. Reflecting the variety of the target language-use tasks, it was desirable to design test tasks 215 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design capable of eliciting samples of both monologic production and of student-student spoken interaction. Therefore, the paired format proved a necessity. The researchers were aware of the advantages and caveats of the paired format reported in the papers on testing speaking (e.g. Galacsi, 2010). In discussing various task types O’Sullivan (2012) concluded that there were issues for less outgoing studentsin relation to interactive tasks. However, there seem to be other assets of the paired format that are worth considering. Galacsi (2010) enumerates studies that support the finding that oral paired tasks were more symmetrical in the interaction possibilities they created. Brooks (2009) reports that subjects in her study performed better in the paired format than they did in the individual format. While the latter tended to result in asymmetrical discourse, a variety of interactive features was distributed in a more balanced way in the former paired format. With the research aims in mind, those findings provided a substantial argument for involving the paired format. Nevertheless, there were other questions to answer, namely those related to the ways of pairing the test-takers. Two factors, reflecting the project aims, will be mentioned: the influence of interlocutor proficiency and learner acquaintanceship. The subjects in the study are students on entry to the tertiary education, i.e. the diagnosis is scheduled as soon as possible after the beginning of the academic year to prevent the impact of university education to contaminate the data. Before the diagnosis there is virtually no possibility for the researchers to learn either about the students’ proficiency in English or about their social relationships in the newly constituted groups. Although there is some research evidence that subjects achieve higher scores when working with a friend (O’Sullivan, 2009), the acquaintanceship effect was ignored in this particular testing situation. The examinees could choose a partner, but it was based on availability rather than personal preference;however,thepotential existence of some interpersonal relationships cannot be excluded. Regarding a variety of proficiency levels, it was considered in the light of the study by Davis (2009) in which he investigates the effects of the proficiency level of an examinee’s partner in a paired oral test. Davis concludes that the level of proficiency has little influence on scores, but in some cases the pairing type appears to influence language quantity or interaction characteristics (ibid.). In the context of the research project, a potential decrease of language quantity or eliciting a type of response other than expected would have detrimental impact on the obtained data. In order to prevent this, two information-exchange tasks with precisely defined roles were included together with an informal discussion. Whether the three interactive tasks provide space for each test-taker to produce the expected response should be verified in the pilot phase of the test construction process. Reflecting the research aims and with reference to relevant resources (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hewings, 2004, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004) and preliminary studies (Černá, Urbanová, &Vít, 2010, Ježková, 2012), the team constructed a diagnostic speaking test with a pronunciation 216 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics subtest. The table below presents selected test tasks’ characteristics based on the framework proposed by Bachman and Palmer (2009). INPUT EXPECTED RESPONSE Warm-up Individual Sustained monologue Individual Aural, Target language*, Language input: sentences, prompt = open-ended questions, Unspeeded*, Live* Aural, Language input: sentences, prompt = open-ended questions, Oral*, Target language*, Limited production response, Unspeeded*, Live* Extensive production response, Individual long turn Information transfer (asking/ giving detailed information about events, processes; telling what to do) Information transfer (see Task 2) Paired Visual, Language input: words, phrases, sentences, prompt = task sheet, Non-language input: pictures Co-constructed, extensive production response, Transactional and interactional language Reciprocal, Broad scope, Direct see Task 2 see Task 2 see Task 2 see Task 2 Informal discussion Paired Visual, Language input: phrases, sentences, prompt = issue to discuss, clues given Co-constructed, extensive production response, Transactional and interactional language Reciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect Introduction FORMAT Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 SPEAKING INPUT – RESPONSE RELATION SHIP Reciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect TYPE OF TASK Nonreciprocal, Narrow scope, Indirect 217 �Reading aloud: text Individual Visual, Language input: extended discourse, prompt = text (152 words) Extensive production response Nonreciprocal, Broad scope, Direct Reading aloud: word list Individual Visual, Language input: words, prompt = wordlist (27 words) Limited production response Nonreciprocal, Broad scope, Direct Task 5 Task 6 PRONUNCIATION Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design *The characteristics that remain the same are not repeated for each task. Not only the test characteristics but also the topical content of a test plays an important role with respect to its authenticity. In this particular testing situation, the researchers explored a range of topics that would be appropriate to the test-takers with the following characteristics: young adults on the onset of their university teacher education, native speakers of Czech, the level of communicative competence approximately B2 according to the Common European Framework (Council of Europe, 2001). Topical knowledge was deliberately excluded not to favour certain test takers; all the information necessary to complete the tasks was prompted in the input or personal experience was called for. The topics were carefully considered to avoid those that might be perceived as sensitive by the test-takers; for example, the following topics were finally involved in the test: experience with learning English, renting a flat, student mobility, part-time jobs, the role of social networks in one’s life, healthy eating, and plagiarism. Although overreaction to any of the topics was not expected, topic relevance was also examined in the pilot phase. Trial testing Challenges of the pilot phase were manifold. Since the respondents were recruited on a voluntary basis, the main challenge was to attain a sufficient number of cooperating students with such a set of characteristics that would be close to those of the prospective cohort. Furthermore, the implementation of the trial version of the test was seriously constrained by the schedule of the academic year. In spite of all the problems the test was piloted with a group of first-year students. The performances were recorded and four of them were selected for a detailed analysis (fivewomen, three men). All the participants in the pilot study completed a feedback questionnaire after the performance and were invited to discuss any aspects of the performance with the researchers. The questionnaires and outcomes from the discussions were investigated too. Consistent with the objectives of this paper, only selected outcomes 218 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics of the analyses will be presented, i.e. those focusing on the quantity of language produced by individual students inthe interactive tasks and topic relevance. The analysis of the recorded performances was primarily targeted at testtakers’ participation in the interactive tasks. Individual students varied in the total time spent onthetasks, and individual students alsospent a different amount of time on each of the tasks (see Chart 1 below). However, to judge the language quantity, the number of words is used as a criterion. When considered in relation to time, the difference between student 1 and student 2 (S1 – S2) in pair 1 has slightly diminished, the variation in pair 2 (S3 – S4) remained roughly the same but the differences in pairs 3 (S5 – S6) and 4 (S7 – S8) have magnified considerably (see Chart 2). Overall, the testees’ personal attributes, along with thetopic and task characteristics, may account for the variation. Given that tasks 1 and 2 are in principle the same, the difference may be attributed to the topic (e.g. S8). Task 3 is of a dissimilar nature; therefore, it is uneasy to uncover the reasons for variation. Hypothetically, they may be linked to the task characteristics or topical content. Chart 1 Chart 2 To find out the subjects’ opinions about the topics, feedback questionnaires were analysed. Topics of individual tasks were evaluated positively; the respondents characterised them as relevant, useful and adequate to their life experience. Several topics initiated a certain level of emotional arousal; however, it concerned only positive emotions and the students appreciated it. No sensitive or inadequate topics were identified. Critical comments concerned the topic of plagiarism; interestingly, it was marked as irrelevant by pair 3. Obviously, none of the students had problems discussing it (S5 – S6, Task 3). Observed quantitative differences in language production may be attributed to topic-related personal preferences. Regarding the task characteristics, a few respondents pointed out that there was too much information on a task sheet. Consequently, all the sets of task sheets were revised in terms of language, informational relevance, and layout before the datacollection phase. 219 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Test administration Finally, the challenges experienced in the data collection phase should be mentioned. Since the research was conducted in three institutions located in diverse regions in the Czech Republic, it was demanding to prepare a schedule suitable for the participants as well as for the research team. Standardising the process of the test administrationwas another issue. It concerned not only testing conditions in the three institutions but also procedural aspects of the test. The total number of recorded students was 176. Threeacademics were involved in the data collection. As implied by the charts above, they occasionally failed to maintain internal consistency of time management. In situations when the discussion was evolving smoothly, the researchers provided discussants with unlimited time to finish the task. Conclusion The paper has deliberated the process of test construction in the context of a research project. While test has proved a valid technique of data elicitation, at the same time there seem to emerge certain tensions or potential conflicts. Most importantly, there exist conflicting needs of the research and those of the cooperating institutions. For example, the project required testing the students who meet the criteria to be included in the research sample; however, the test could fulfil its diagnostic function only if all the students were involved in the assessment. Thus there was an increased workload on the part of the researchers on the one hand but a positive impact on the studentson the other hand. Obviously, the research benefits the cooperating institutions, but at the same time interferes with their established procedures. Furthermore, the schedule of the research project is not necessarily in harmony with the academic-year schedule and time becomes a real issue.Lastly, there is an internal conflict of the two identities of the same person – that of a test designer and that of a researcher. The conflict is manifested in making decisions throughout the entire process of test construction. Apparently, project aims are prioritised and the decisions tend to be ‘researchfriendly’. References Bachman, L. F. (1990).Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (2009). Language Testing in Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 220 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Brooks, L. (2009). Interacting in pairs in a test of oral proficiency: Co-constructing a better performance. Language Testing,26 (3), 341 – 366. doi: 10.1177/0265532209104666 Černá, M. (2013). Aspekty osvojování si anglického jazyka u českých studentů při vstupu do přípravného vzdělávání učitelů.In Sborník příspěvků 21. výroční konference ČAPV Efektivita vzdělávání v proměnách společnosti.Ústí nad Labem: UJEP. Černá, M., Urbanová, Z., & Vít, M. (2010). Pronunciation awareness of students in English language study programme. In S. Válková (Ed.),New trends in educating future teachers of English VI. Olomouc: Palacký University. Council of Europe (2001).Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davis, L. (2009). The influence of interlocutor proficiency in a paired oral assessment. Language Testing,26 (3), 367 – 396. doi: 10.1177/0265532209104667 Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Galacsi, E. D. (2010). Paired Speaking Tests: An Approach Grounded in Theory and Practice. In J. Mader, &Z. Ürkün (Eds.), Recent Approaches to Teaching and Assessing Speaking. IATEFL TEA SIG Conference proceedings. Canterbury: UK: IATEFL Publications. Gass, S. M., &Mackey, A. (2011). Data Elicitation for Second and Foreign Language Research. New York: Routledge. Hewings, M. (2004). Pronunciation Practice Activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hughes, A. (2003).Testing for Language Teachers. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ježková, Š. (2012). Syntactic Deviations and Mistakes in Learners’ Spoken English Language. In R. Trušník, K. Nemčoková, &G. J. Bell(Eds.), Theories and Practices – Zlín Proceedings in Humanities, Volume 3(pp. 223-232). Zlín: Tomáš Baťa University. 221 �Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nádraská, Z. (under review) A Pre-Diagnostic Stage of a Research Project: Selected Features of University Students’ Pronunciation of English. O’Sullivan, B. (2002). Learner acquaintanceship and oral proficiency test pair-task performance. Language Testing,19 (3), 277 – 295. doi: 10.1191/0265532202It205oa O’Sullivan, B. (2012). Assessing Speaking. In C.A. Coombe, P. Davidson, B. O’Sullivan, & S. Stoynoff (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Second Language Assessment. New York: Cambridge University Press. 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2795 Title A name given to the resource Data elicitation through language testing: Challenges of test design Author Author Černá, Monika Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper discusses the challenges of test design in the context of a research project focusing on the analysis of tertiary students’ spoken production in English. One of the project aims is to create a corpus of learner-spoken English. The participants in the study are Czech first-year students in English language teacher education study programmes at three universities. In order to elicit samples of the students’ oral production, a test of speaking, including a pronunciation subtest,was designed with respect to the research aims and objectives and in accordance with the current trends in the field. The challenges faced by the research team may be divided into three groups – those pertinent to the construction phase of the research instrument, the pilot phase, and the data-collection phase. The paper discusses how the team responded to the perceived challenges.The process of test designing was informed by relevant literature (e.g. Bachman, 1990, Hughes, 2003, Luoma, 2004);the team strove to achieve the highest possible level of ‘test usefulness’, i.e. test qualities including reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality, as introduced by Bachman and Palmer (2009). Consequently, the decisions regarding the abilities that the candidates, prospective English teachers, should demonstrate, as well as the decisions about the test format (elicitation techniques, number of tasks, etc.), were made with respect to the proposed ‘test usefulness’. The pilot phase confirmed the usability of the tool to elicit the required data, but also necessitated a few content- and procedure-related modifications. They reflected the results of the analysis of the performances recorded during the trial testing as well as the analysis of feedback questionnaires.Having revised the test, the researchers then implemented it in the data-collection processin three universities in the Czech Republic. The number of studentstested was 176. Keywords: Diagnostic test, speaking, English, tertiary students, research Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English