285 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/32f419913bbd2bbecfce6f41bd56e60a.docx b2b215af21cb495c1d93ebb16dd0a799 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0183698b712bb8a67ef8a64b6a59bfc7.pdf 4abcac8ad3e19192dc381f5d8b0b3ece PDF Text Text Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice Orhan Adigüzel Süleyman Demirel University Turkey orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Hikmet Zeynep Batur Süleyman Demirel University Turkey hzeynepbatur@gmail.com Döndü Sönmez Özkan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey sumeyyeozkan81@gmail.com Adeviye Erdoğan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey adeviyester@gmail.com Nisa Ekşili Akdeniz University Turkey Abstract: The career development of individuals is a long and complex process. In this process, an individual may be affected by many factors. An individual's social environment, psychophysical dynamics, and factors such as the economic and cultural structure of the environment may shape (direct) the career choices and professions of the people. For this reason, the basis on which we decide and build our career path and profession, which may affect our entire life, is significant. Many theorists in this field have attempted to bring quite complex solutions to the question that on which basis and according to what criterion do we decide our career path. Among the most efficient theories comes John Holland's Theory of Career Choice. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individualenvironment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types. 157 �157 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2618 Title A name given to the resource Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice Author Author ADIGUZEL, Orhan BATUR, Kimet Zejnep OZKAN, Dondu Sonmez ERDOGAN, Adeviye Eksili, Nisa Abstract A summary of the resource. The career development of individuals is a long and complex process. In this process, an individual may be affected by many factors. An individual's social environment, psycho-physical dynamics, and factors such as the economic and cultural structure of the environment may shape (direct) the career choices and professions of the people. For this reason, the basis on which we decide and build our career path and profession, which may affect our entire life, is significant. Many theorists in this field have attempted to bring quite complex solutions to the question that on which basis and according to what criterion do we decide our career path. Among the most efficient theories comes John Holland's Theory of Career Choice. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individual-environment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9c7861f24af41b0ae69a812afe099235.docx eb7ef65e1d384fd3c7f8dec0e242c604 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/61627eb253b8dcb93b43901a71700ccd.pdf 36bae520150fb2f8926e6ecac16b7a05 PDF Text Text Gamification Apps in the Business Life and the Research of Business Firm’s Opinion towards Games Application Orhan Adigüzel Süleyman Demirel University Turkey orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Adeviye Erdoğan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey adeviyester@gmail.com Döndü Sönmez Özkan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey sumeyyeozkan81@gmail.com Hikmet Zeynep Batur Süleyman Demirel University Turkey hzeynepbatur@gmail.com Nisa Ekşili Akdeniz University Turkey Abstract: Except the area of the production of the game, gamification refers that basic elements and concepts are used in the process of game design and development. Business processes, which may sound boring, may become more enjoyable by the help of gamification. Moreover, feedbacks collected from individuals may accelerate thanks to such an approach. The purpose of gamification method is applying such approaches to business processes and improving the process quality and human interactions. This study also aim what priorities can be awarded, what type of behavior expected from individuals and most importantly what type of options can offer the connection between individuals and targeted systems to sustain health. This study targets to evaluate how the gamification apps influence the performance of personnels. The research method used in this study is action research approach. This method consists of two stages. At first, the performance level of individuals in firm can be fixed with the help of a survey. Then gamification apps were carried out for two months. After that time, the same survey was repeated. In the light of the findings, this study tries to fix how gamification impacts individuals and their performance. This study can be thought very helpful because of lack of research in the literature area in this context, and this study will also help the interested researchers in this area and managers who want to improve the performance of employees. Keywords: Gamification, game design, design patterns, business, performance. 158 �158 �158 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2619 Title A name given to the resource Gamification Apps in the Business Life and the Research of Business Firm’s Opinion towards Games Application Author Author ADIGUZEL, Orhan BATUR, Kimet Zejnep OZKAN, Dondu Sonmez ERDOGAN, Adeviye Eksili, Nisa Abstract A summary of the resource. Except the area of the production of the game, gamification refers that basic elements and concepts are used in the process of game design and development. Business processes, which may sound boring, may become more enjoyable by the help of gamification. Moreover, feedbacks collected from individuals may accelerate thanks to such an approach. The purpose of gamification method is applying such approaches to business processes and improving the process quality and human interactions. This study also aim what priorities can be awarded, what type of behavior expected from individuals and most importantly what type of options can offer the connection between individuals and targeted systems to sustain health. This study targets to evaluate how the gamification apps influence the performance of personnels. The research method used in this study is action research approach. This method consists of two stages. At first, the performance level of individuals in firm can be fixed with the help of a survey. Then gamification apps were carried out for two months. After that time, the same survey was repeated. In the light of the findings, this study tries to fix how gamification impacts individuals and their performance. This study can be thought very helpful because of lack of research in the literature area in this context, and this study will also help the interested researchers in this area and managers who want to improve the performance of employees. Keywords: Gamification, game design, design patterns, business, performance. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individual-environment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5efbe9269094dc33c37094851c965805.docx cca996b1f13116c15308452b0294ce5b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58445aabc17206417d392c6910cbb5c9.pdf bacc1901f108882ba72fb9177ac41ad7 PDF Text Text The Effect of Directors’ Index on Firm Performance: Evidence from BIST100 Firms Nida Abdioglu Balikesir University Turkey nidaabdioglu@balikesir.edu.tr Recep Kilic Balikesir University Turkey krecep@balikesir.edu.tr Abstract: Following corporate scandals including those effecting Enron, Tyco, and WorldCom, the implications of corporate governance principles have played a critical role in determining the success of the companies around the world. Turkish Capital Market Board also issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in July 2003. This study shed lights on the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance of firms listed in Borsa İstanbul 100 indexes (BIST100). With accepting corporate governance as a mechanism to reduce the agency conflicts between managers and shareholders, we assume that this reduction results with increased firm performance. We differentiate this study from the existing literature by accepting directors’ index (DINDEX) as a proxy for corporate governance quality for the companies existed in Bist100. We follow Bushee et al. (2010) to create DINDEX. This index examines the strength of board characteristics for a particular firm and includes five different dimensions: CEOchairman duality, the presence of board interlocks, attendance of board meetings, board size and the percentage of independent directors. We examine the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance for the firms listed in BIST100 1999-2013. We have 328 observations of firms per year in our Paneldata set. ‘Return on Assets’ is our proxy for firm performance. We use following specific characteristics of firms: total firm assets, operating expenses, liquidity, leverage, firm age and research and development expenditures. We use ‘Fixed Effect Panel Regressions’ in our analysis so that we account for time-invariant firm-level omitted variables that could bias our results. Our findings indicate that DINDEX does not have any effect on corporate performance of BIST100 firms. As a second step, we examine the relation between firm performance and DINDEX for each industry in our dataset. We find that among the firms in electricity industry, those that have high level of corporate governance quality also have high level of firm performance. We explain this result with the quick adjustments of these firms to the changes in corporate governance. Keywords: Firm Performance, DINDEX, Corporate Governance Quality, BIST100, Panel Data. 119 �119 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2579 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Directors’ Index on Firm Performance: Evidence from BIST100 Firms Author Author ABDIOGLU, Nida KILIC, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource.   Following corporate scandals including those effecting Enron, Tyco, and WorldCom, the implications of corporate governance principles have played a critical role in determining the success of the companies around the world. Turkish Capital Market Board also issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in July 2003. This study shed lights on the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance of firms listed in Borsa İstanbul 100 indexes (BIST100). With accepting corporate governance as a mechanism to reduce the agency conflicts between managers and shareholders, we assume that this reduction results with increased firm performance. We differentiate this study from the existing literature by accepting directors’ index (DINDEX) as a proxy for corporate governance quality for the companies existed in Bist100. We follow Bushee et al. (2010) to create DINDEX. This index examines the strength of board characteristics for a particular firm and includes five different dimensions: CEO-chairman duality, the presence of board interlocks, attendance of board meetings, board size and the percentage of independent directors. We examine the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance for the firms listed in BIST100 1999-2013. We have 328 observations of firms per year in our Panel-data set. ‘Return on Assets’ is our proxy for firm performance. We use following specific characteristics of firms: total firm assets, operating expenses, liquidity, leverage, firm age and research and development expenditures. We use ‘Fixed Effect Panel Regressions’ in our analysis so that we account for time-invariant firm-level omitted variables that could bias our results. Our findings indicate that DINDEX does not have any effect on corporate performance of BIST100 firms. As a second step, we examine the relation between firm performance and DINDEX for each industry in our dataset. We find that among the firms in electricity industry, those that have high level of corporate governance quality also have high level of firm performance. We explain this result with the quick adjustments of these firms to the changes in corporate governance. Keywords: Firm Performance, DINDEX, Corporate Governance Quality, BIST100, Panel Data.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee9864a1f1af8f8b60924c2ad2435d8c.pdf ff6c0dfd2f97b42d694564866aece017 PDF Text Text Hesitations in Speech Production in the Media Irena Zovko Dinković & Maja Banić Abstract Nowadays we are witnessing a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, as well as a simultaneous decline in the quality of the hosts’ speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas people may be quite tolerant of various hesitations in everyday conversations, listeners often find influences in the speech of radio hosts distracting and irritating, expecting the hosts to be skilled in controlling their output. This research paper therefore offers a contrastive analysis of hesitations in the speech production of English and Croatian radio hosts, with the aim of determining whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal training of hosts. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech may be achieved through practice. To this purpose we have analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of speech of 32 radio hosts, 16 American and 16 Croatian, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Also, half of the hosts work at public radio stations, and the other half at commercial ones. In order to obtain the most objective results possible, the analyzed samples were taken from different episodes of talk shows on various subjects, as well as from different parts of the episodes (beginning, middle and ending). The results indicate that there is no correlation between gender and fluency since there was no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted popular view that women are more fluent and verbal than men. More importantly, the results indicate that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be improved through practice and formal training. A surprisingly similar number of hesitations in the speech of American and Croatian hosts confirms the fact that speech fluency is a cognitive aspect of language, independent of language specific features. Keywords: hesitations in the speech, media, gender differences Article History: Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 17.11.2014. DOI Number: 10.14706/JFLTAL152226 �1. Introduction Although speech is often associated with images that suggest continuity in sound production1, it does not fill time continuously, especially when it is spontaneous. Thoughts are often unstructured and need to be organized into a linear stream of speech. However, one idea may shift to another without any obvious connection. Some ideas are spoken out of turn, and some need to be corrected or elaboratedupon (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999). Therefore, it is not surprising that human speech is highly dysfluent (Clark & Fox Tree, 2002; Kendall, 2009; Rose, 1998). This characteristic separates spontaneous speech from prepared discourse. We are witnesses today of a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, with an increased demand for hosts, which inevitably leads to a simultaneous decline in the quality of their speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas we as listeners can be quite tolerant of dysfluencies in everyday communication, we are less so when it comes to spontaneous speech in the media.The focus is this paper is therefore on the fluency of the speech of radio hosts. Given the fact that some hosts hesitate more than others, the aim of this paper is to see whethercertain aspects of speech, such as its fluency, can be influenced, and whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal education of the host. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech might be achieved through practice. This paper thus offers an analysis of hesitations in English and Croatian speech production on the radio, based on a research conducted on the speech of 32 American and Croatian radio hosts from private and commercial radio stations. 2. Theoretical background Spontaneous speech requires planning. More precisely, a speaker is continuously required to make three kinds of decisions while producing speech: a content decision, decisions of a syntactic nature and the selection of words (Goldman-Eisler, 1968). A content decision falls into the area of conceptualization and involves determining what to say. A speaker conceives an intention and selects relevant information either from memory or environment (Harley, 2001). The area of formulation comprises decisions about at least the broad outline of a syntactic structure, as well as the process of lexicalization. It also includes detailed phonetic and articulatory planning along with phonological encoding. Conceptualization and formulation are followed by articulation (Harley, 2001). Harley (2001) points out that a number of authors, such as Henderson, Goldman-Eisler & Skarbek (1966), stress the role of cognitive cycles in the planning of speech. According to them, phases of highly hesitant speech alternate with phases of more fluent speech. It is thought that most of the planning takes part in the hesitant phase, whereas in the fluent phase speakers merely say what they have just planned in the preceding hesitant phase. Field (2003) agrees with this assertion: ‘Research has suggested that speech proceeds in phases: a hesitant phase of about nine clauses is followed by a fluent one of about nine clauses. (…) If this is the case, it suggests that speech planning may take place on two levels. There may be short term planning, marked by relatively regular planning pauses and longer-term planning marked by a period of hesitant speech’. (p. 37) Hesitations are therefore put into direct relationship with planning (Clark & Wasow, 1998; Goldman-Eisler, 1968; Rose 1998) and theiranalysis is concerned with the distribution of a variety of dysfluent features in spontaneous speech (Harley, 2001).In this research we follow �Rose’s (1998) classification of hesitations into repairs (which include repeats, restarts and selfcorrections), false starts, lengthenings and pauses. Repairs usually consist of stopping the current flow of speech, inserting a pause or an editing expression, and providing new or modified information (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999). It is important to mention that repairs often occur even when there is nothing wrong to start with. We should also keep in mind that many repairs are not correct themselves, so they might lead to the appearance of additional repairs (Levelt, 1983). When a speaker iterates a lexical item in midsentence, it is called a repeat. Usually, just one word is repeated (Rose, 1998). According to Clark & Wasow (1998), repeated words are among the most common dysfluencies in spontaneous speech. Furthermore, in the English language function words2 are repeated far more often than content words (Clark & Wasow, 1998). If a speaker utters a few words and then suddenly returns to the beginning of the clause to iterate the same words, we are dealing with a restart (Rose, 1998). In order to make a self-correction, the speaker must notice that there is something wrong with the uttered word. The word is then followed by a replacement that is understood to constitute a retraction of that word (Rose, 1998). In other words, the speaker interrupts his own flow of speech and creates a new utterance (Levelt, 1983). Sometimes speakers discard the first attempt at lexicalization. They make a false start by uttering a few words and then stopping in mid-sentence, which may be followed either by a revised attempt to lexicalize the same idea or by silence in order to release the conversational turn (Rose, 1998). Lengthenings, on the other hand, refer to a prolongation of syllables beyond their normal or expected length (Clark & Fox Tree, 2002). Given the fact that there are various types of pauses, it is substantial to define them precisely and to determine which types of pauses will be taken into consideration for the purposes of this research. To begin with, we will distinguish four types of pauses: articulatory, respiratory, juncture and hesitation pauses. Articulatory pauses are associated with the articulatory closure of stop consonants and range, according to Rose (1998), from 50 to 250 milliseconds. At this point it should be mentioned that the duration of pauses considered to pertain to this group depends on researcher’s judgment. For example, Kendall (2009) argues that articulatory pauses are in fact shorter than 60 milliseconds. Whatever the case, articulatory pauses are short enough to pass unnoticed and not be counted as hesitations. The second type of pauses is associated with respiration. At least to a certain degree, speakers coordinate their breathing with language planning processes (Kendall, 2009). According to Goldman-Eisler (1968), breathing appears to be “a passive process fitting into given breaks in speech irrespective of whether or not these occur at grammatical junctures” (p. 98). These pauses are therefore not relevant for this research, either. Juncture pauses also do not imply hesitation. They are semantically determined and well integrated into the grammatical structure. These pauses occur at grammatical junctures, such as “natural” punctuation points (e.g. the end of a sentence, before a conjunction or relative and interrogative pronouns, when a question is indirect or implied, before all adverbial clauses of time, manner and place, and when complete parenthetical references are made (Goldman-Eisler, 1968). Pauses whose position cannot be explained by these rules are therefore non-grammatical and considered to be hesitations in speech. Such pauses are the object of our research. 2.1 Hesitation pauses Goldman-Eisler(1968) argues that the decisive factor in breaking up the linguistic groupings at non-grammatical places is hesitation. Such hesitation pauses may be silent (unfilled) or filled �(voiced).Mead (2000) claims that silent pauses are not necessarily dysfluencies, while filled pauses can almost certainly be regarded as such, according to his opinion, in the context of professional public speaking. However, Mead’s definition of silent pauses includes stops for breath and deliberate pauses for emphasis. We have already excluded these as respiratory and semantically determined pauses respectively. Therefore, non-grammatical silent pauses will be considered hesitations in this research. Harley (2001) defines an unfilled pause as a moment of silence, emphasizing that its duration shows a wide range of variance. Kendall (2009) says the minimal cut-off point for silent pauses, according to Kowal & O’Connell (1980), is 270 milliseconds, whereas Goldman-Eisler (1968) adopts various low threshold values from 100 to 250 milliseconds, depending on the experiment. Although speakers may use filled or voiced pauses in order to sound more fluent, they “generally serve as stalling acts to give speakers more time to prepare a near-future word or phrase” (Rose, 1998, p. 54). They can be unlexicalized or lexicalized. Unlexicalized pauses may be filled with any of the following phonetic combinations: /a/, /am/, /u/, /um/, /e/, /em/, /m/. By far the most common unlexicalized filled pause, according to Rose's research, was the short form of er, followed by the short form of erm (Rose, 1998). Filled (voiced) pauses may be lexicalized with expressions such as so, okay, let’s see, like, well, you know and I mean. The terminology differs when it comes to this kind of pauses. Harley (2001) calls them parenthetical remarks, whereas Fox Tree & Schrock (1999) categorize them as discourse markers. They may also be called editing expressions (Clark & Wasow, 1998). Clark & Fox Tree (2002) refer to them as part of performance additions. Their presence is one of the ways spontaneous speech differs from planned speech. Unlike spontaneous speech, prepared speech allows advance planning and extensive revision time, so the speaker does not need additional time or help in organizing and expressing ideas (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999), which is the general purpose of filled pauses. 2.2 The speech of radio hosts Although dysfluencies frequently appear in spontaneous speech and sometimes even go unnoticed, radio hosts are expected to show no hesitation on the air. Despite the fact that hesitations do not necessarily imply poor communication skills3, listeners often find them distracting and irritating (Rose, 1998). Goffman (1981) notices that “faults we would have to be trained linguistically to hear in ordinary talk can be glaringly evident to the untrained ear when encountered in broadcast talk” (p. 240).Furthermore, he argues that the skill of radio hosts is to control output; moments of doubt or distraction are expected to stay hidden from the listeners. By using fillers, professional speakersdo exactly the opposite –they indirectly announce that they are having preparedness problems. This can seriously undermine their authority, given the fact that professional speakers are expected to be knowledgeable and competent. In Goffman's (1981) opinion, an accomplished public speaker should not exceed “acceptable limits for pauses, restarts, repetitions, redirections (…)” (p. 172), and Mead (2000) explicitly emphasizes the importance of fluency as a determinant of interpretation quality. 3. A research into hesitations in speech production This paper focuses on the frequency of hesitations in the speech of Croatian and American radio hosts. It is easy to notice that the frequency of hesitations varies substantially from host to host, especially in the past decade or so, due to a rapid growth of the number of radio stations, followed by a simultaneous decline in the quality of hosts’ speech and in particular its fluency. �Our main assumption is that the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal education of the host, which would lead us to the conclusion that this aspect of speech can be influenced by increasing one’s awareness of the dysfluencies, and by practice. Throughout this research we rely on the differences between public and commercial stations, starting from the fact that the latter tend to hire less skilled persons with little or no professional training. The main fact about these two types of stations are shown in Chart 1:4 Station ownership Tax Status Revenue Programs Public radio Independent local stations that are members of a national organization. Non-profit. Revenue from individual members, corporations, foundations, and government sources. Programmed at the local level, with national program offerings as well as local news and other programs. Commercial radio Private/corporate owned stations and affiliated stations. For profit. Revenue from advertising. Varies; some local autonomy but show tendency for centralized programming. Table 1.An overview of radio station status One of the main areas, thus, in which radio stations differ significantly is the politics of the employment of radio hosts. Alongside the higher criteria that their future hosts have to meet, public radio stations provide formal education for their employees. Croatian Radio-Television (HRT) is a Croatian public broadcasting company that comprises both Croatian Television and Croatian Radio. In 1991, the Department for Language and Speech was founded at this broadcasting company, consisting of highly professional proofreaders and phoneticians who train HRT's hosts and journalists. The employees are obligated to cooperate with the Department on a regular basis. The professionals employed at the Department arehighly qualified and experienced announcers witha college degree in the relevant field. Novice hosts are always mentored for several months by professionals at the Department, whereupon they assist in the program until their supervisors decide they can start working on their own. Given the fact that the job in question is highly demanding, the hosts’ skills are checked on a daily basis. The situation in the US is somewhat different, but the importance of formal education can also be noted. Although radio hosts are not required to have any formal education beyond a high school diploma in order to get a job at a public radio station, they should have a bachelor’s degree in a related field to be competitive for entry-level positions. Short-term on-the-job training is required upon being hired, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics5. The Bureau defines it as “additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation”. Moreover, hosts are often required to complete long-term on-the-job training: trainees usually must have several years of experience in the industry before receiving an opportunity to work on the air. When it comes to commercial radio stations, the situation is radically different. These stations are more inclined to hire beginners, andnew, inexperienced employees are immediately given host positions, so they face difficulties in hosting a show without any prior training. These systems are not as developed as public ones, so the advancement within the same station is unlikely. It usually takes place when a host relocates to a larger, public station. Furthermore, if unskilled employees continue hosting without becoming aware of their deficiencies, their �progress over the years may become questionable. Therefore, the hosts included in this research were chosen on the basis of their workplace; hosts working at public radio stations comprise one group, as opposed to those who host shows at commercial radio stations. In this way, we have divided hosts into two groups: those who have some formal training, and those who do not. 3. Method Given the fact that we listen to radio hosts without being able to see them, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether their speech is spontaneous or whether they read some previously prepared material. To make sure that the analyzed speech is indeed spontaneous, the material included in this research consists of dialogues (interviews). Unlike monologues, dialogues cannot be prepared in advance. A host may have (and usually does have) some questions prepared for their interlocutor prior to the interview. However, in live conversations linguistic decisions are made on the spot. We have therefore analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of each host’s speech. In order to obtain objective results, the analyzed samples were taken from two to five episodes, in case there were some external factors momentarily influencing spontaneous speech6, as well as from different parts of episodes (beginning, middle and ending), given the fact that the level of concentration and stage fright changes during the show. We analyzed the speech of 32 radio hosts, both at public and commercial radio stations, 16 of them American and 16 Croatian. To be as objective as possible, half in each group were female, and half were male.Moreover, 16 hosts (50 % of the total number) work at public radio stations, whereas sixteen of them work at commercial radio stations. Each recorded sample was analyzed and the dysfluencies were categorized according to Rose's (1998) classification as different types of repairs or as hesitation pauses (see sections 2 and 2.1). The results were then statistically analyzed. The overall detailed results are presented in Table 2. 3.1 Radio stations/networks and radio shows included in the research The American public radio stations/networks whose official websites were used in this research in order to find podcasts of American radio talk shows are WNYC, American Public Media and NPR. They produce and distribute public radio programming. WNYC 93.9 FM and AM 820 are “New York's flagship public radio stations, broadcasting the finest programs from NPR, American Public Media, Public Radio International and the BBC World Service, as well as a wide range of award-winning local programming”7. American Public Media is “the largest owner and operator of public radio stations and a premier producer and distributor of public radio programming in the nation”8, whereas NPR is described on its official website as “a thriving media organization at the forefront of digital innovation”, which creates and distributes award-winning news, information and music programming to a network of 975 independent stations9. As for the Croatian stations/networks, Croatian Radio (HR), as part of the national broadcasting corporation, runs three national, one international and eight regional stations10. We have included in this research two national (HR 1 and HR 2) and three regional stations (Radio Sljeme, Radio Rijeka and Radio Osijek). Given the fact that HRT’s official website contains podcasts of many talk shows that are broadcast on the previously mentioned stations, we have �used them as the main source for this category of radio stations. We have also recorded some of the episodes via live streaming prior to the analysis. For the purposes of this research we have used podcasts from two American commercial radio networks: TogiNet and BlogTalkRadio. TogiNet is an Internet talk radio network that streams live web radio programming and provides podcasts that can be downloaded11, whereas BlogTalkRadio is described on its official website as “the world’s largest and most influential social radio network with thousands of talented experts hosting shows on every kind of topic”, attracting “a very significant audience of more than 21 million unique visitors per month”12. The program of a great number of Croatian commercial radio stations is also available via live stream. Eight talk shows broadcast on eight commercial radio stations from different parts of Croatia were recorded and analyzed. The stations included in the research were Petrinjski radio, Radio Jaska, Radio Martin, Radio Ritam, Radio Eurostar, Radio Šibenik, Free For Radio Hvar and Pomorski Radio Bakar. The radio shows analyzed in the research are characterized by a wide range of topics. They cover sports, religion, economics and business, art, ecology, entertainment and music, as well as politics and society. 4. Results and discussion �Croatian Croatian Croatian Calcio Desetica Klub žena / Mozaik Interviews* Treće poluvrijeme Šibenski kanal Ekološke teme i dileme Eliana Čandrlić Milorad Šikanjić Jana Haluza Zlatko Turkalj Sonja Šarunić Dorotea Brljak Sunajko Alen Čemeljić Zvonimir Mandić Jasminka Erdelj Katija Vučetić Ivica Mioković Rade Kristić Alenka Denona Mustapić Nikola Urukalo Denis Bašić Vedrana Kučina Mary Cimiluca Michael E. Stern 9 10 11 12 13 18 19 20 26 Mary Beth Wells Pat Sloan 31 32 27 Bruce Beikman 28 Barry Farber 29 Andrew Woodson 30 Helen Woo 22 23 24 25 21 15 16 17 14 Susan Page 8 Sridom u sridu Drobilica Istarski prvi Talksense Radio Build a Better Photograph Education2Excellence Breakthrough The Drew Show Self Aid Success Stories The Mary Beth Wells Hour American Patchwork and Quilting Radio Platforma Talk of the Nation On Point Fresh Air Tell Me More The Diane Rehm Show: Friday News Roundup U mreži Prvog U mreži Prvog Diskografija U pola dva, glazbene minute Na Sljemenu sa Sonjom Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Public Public Commercial Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial 4.1 Public vs. commercial radio stations As expected, the number of hesitations made by radio hosts working at commercial radio stations was substantially larger than the number of hesitations made by hosts at public radio stations. These data are presented in Table 3 and Chart 1. American Commercial American Commercial American American American American American Commercial Croatian Croatian Croatian American Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian American American American American American American Neal Conan Tom Ashbrook Terry Gross Michel Martin On Being Krista Tippett 4 5 6 7 American American TogiNet TogiNet TogiNet BlogTalkRadio BlogTalkRadio TogiNet TogiNet Radio Rijeka Radio Osijek Radio Jaska Free For Radio Hvar Petrinjski radio Radio Šibenik Pomorski radio Bakar Radio Ritam Radio Martin Radio Eurostar TogiNet Radio Sljeme Radio Sljeme Hrvatski Radio 2 Hrvatski Radio 1 Hrvatski Radio 1 Hrvatski Radio 1 NPR WNYC WNYC American Public Media NPR NPR NPR NPR Name RADIO STATION/ RADIO NETWORK Croatian/ Public/ American Commercial 3 Money Talking Please Explain SHOW Jeff Greenfield Leonard Lopate Before presenting a detailed analysis of the results of this research, two very important conclusions must be made. First, the results have confirmed that spontaneous speech is highly dysfluent; on average, one radio host made thirteen hesitations per minute.14 Secondly, it should be noted that the number of hesitations varies substantially from host to host – they made from 41 to 209 hesitations in 480 seconds (on average, five to 26 hesitations per minute). The factors potentially influencing the frequency of hesitations are discussed in this chapter. Our research involved an equal number of male and female radio host (16 male and 16 female, 32 in total). However, although women generally tend to be considered more fluent than men, the results indicate that there is no relevant difference in fluency, i.e. in the overall number or frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts (1728 and 1640 respectively). 1 2 HOST Table 2. Detailed results13. 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 12 13 22 9 11 10 6 3 2 0 9 0 0 4 7 3 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 6 1 5 8 5 9 24 6 32 43 57 17 29 7 10 1 16 0 3 15 16 8 2 1 1 0 5 1 2 1 6 21 16 11 13 23 0 3 9 13 29 1 3 4 2 0 3 0 0 5 3 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 2 4 3 7 4 4 4 0 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 4 2 1 1 1 0 7 12 4 0 1 3 7 27 24 56 6 55 21 59 9 8 25 35 22 44 0 8 3 12 2 0 8 3 3 0 14 20 17 5 0 9 15 7 10 0 7 1 0 8 1 2 2 3 5 1 9 1 10 4 7 1 6 7 9 5 40 59 52 39 83 50 38 46 50 81 53 56 145 45 112 43 9 103 26 21 17 41 29 27 19 52 20 20 11 18 49 19 55 27 10 35 21 13 15 24 26 16 38 30 2 3 0 22 5 1 7 9 16 7 9 0 4 15 9 6 HESITATION ANALYSIS (number of occurrences in the analyzed sample) Overall Repairs Pauses duration Voiced of the False Self Lengthenings Silent (filled) analyzed starts Repeats Restarts -corrections (unfilled) pauses samples unlexicalized lexicalized 480 sec 1 15 0 1 0 12 9 3 480 sec 7 4 1 2 7 2 43 12 146 135 192 137 192 126 121 109 114 163 124 130 209 169 153 69 41 166 62 71 43 63 66 55 57 80 67 69 55 65 41 78 Overall number of hesitations �Overall number of hesitations Public Commercial 982 2386 Average number of hesitations per host in one minute 7,67 18,64 Table3. The number of hesitations made by all hosts included in the research at public and commercial radio stations. Chart 1. The ratio between the number of hesitations made by hosts working at public and commercial radio stations. We have already explained that public radio stations provide formal education for their employees so that they become aware of dysfluencies, and then aim to eliminate them as much as possible. Commercial radio stations mostly do not offer this opportunity, leaving their employees to improve their skills themselves. Based on the results of this research, we can conclude that the frequency of hesitations in the speech of radio hosts depends on their formal education. Fluency is, therefore, an aspect of spontaneous speech that can be influenced by formal training and practice. When it comes to potential differences in fluency with regard to English and Croatian, the number of hesitations made by American and Croatian radio hosts was surprisingly similar – 1685 and 1683 respectively. This proves that fluency is a universal and cognitively based characteristic of human speech. 4.2 Individual types of hesitations The total number of different types of hesitations, based on Roses’s (1998) classification is given in Table4 and Chart 2. False starts Repairs Repeats Restarts Self-corrections Lengthenings Silent (unfilled) pauses Filled Phonetic (voiced) (unlexicalized) Public 54 129 35 25 145 83 405 Commercial 108 277 75 29 326 117 1,052 American 134 333 88 25 63 136 606 Croatian 28 73 22 29 408 64 851 Overall 162 406 110 54 471 200 1,457 �pauses Lexicalized 106 402 300 208 508 Table 4. The number of hesitations in the research by type. Chart 2. The ratio between the frequency of different types of hesitations. 4.2.1 Pauses We can see that silent pauses comprise only 6% of all hesitations in the analyzed samples. Taking into consideration the fact that filled pauses account for a relatively high 58% of the total, it can be argued that speakers consider silence to be the most inconvenient option because it implies a complete rupture in communication. As Brennan & Williams (1995) claim, when speakers use filled pauses, they create the illusion of greater continuity: a delay containing a filler is subjectively shorter than the same delay with dead silence. However, the research showed that American hosts are more prone to silent pauses than Croatian hosts, and use them around two times more often than Croatian hosts. As can be seen in Chart 2, filled unlexicalized pauses comprise 43% of all hesitations registered in the research. Without any doubt, we can claim that they are the most common type of hesitations. The research has confirmed the statement that the most common unlexicalized filled pause is, by far, the short form of er (Rose, 1998). This applies not only to the speech of American, but also of Croatian radio hosts. On the other hand, filled lexicalized pauses comprise 15% of all hesitations, occupying the second position when it comes to frequency. We can conclude that it is easier for a speaker to fill a potentially empty space in speech with an unlexicalized pause, given the fact that it requires less planning than a lexicalized one. The most frequent lexicalized pauses in the research among American hosts were filled byyou know and I mean. Well, so and like also occurred often. Croatian hosts included in the research mostly used dakle and evo. Fillers that also occurred, but were not nearly as frequent, �were ovaj, ovoga, ono, onako, zapravo, znači, recimo, eto and pa. Furthermore, filled lexicalized pauses were more frequent at commercial radio stations: they occupy the second position when it comes to the most frequent hesitations made by hosts at commercial radio stations (17% of all hesitations), and fourth position among hesitations made by hosts at public stations (11%). Moreover, the research showed that American hosts use filled lexicalized pauses more often than Croatian hosts. Pauses therefore comprise 64% of all hesitations made in the research and therefore occupy the highest position on the ladder of the most frequent hesitations of radio hosts. 4.2.2 Lengthenings Although not nearly as frequent as filled unlexicalized pauses, lengthenings occurred very often in the research as well: they comprise 14% of all registered hesitations. Women appear to be more prone to lengthenings (they make 17% of all the hesitations female hosts committed in this research, in comparison with male 11%).Furthermore, lengthenings can be considered a prominent characteristic of the spontaneous speech of Croatian radio hosts: they comprise 24% of all hesitations, occupying the second position on the ladder of the most frequent hesitations made by Croatian hosts. On the other hand, among the hesitations of American hosts they occupy the penultimate position, comprising only 4% of all hesitations. The only type of hesitations that Americans used less were self-corrections (1%). 4.2.3 Repeats As lengthenings have marked the spontaneous speech of Croatian hosts, repeats turned out to be the most prominent feature of the speech of American hosts, second to filled unlexicalized pauses, which were the most frequent type of hesitations among both American and Croatian hosts. This confirmed Clark & Wasow’s (1998) assertion that repeated words, in the English language, are one of the most common dysfluencies in spontaneous speech. Repeats thus comprised 12% of all hesitations registered in the research. Men tended to repeat words more frequently than women; repeats comprised 16% of hesitations made by male radio hosts, and only 8% of hesitations committed by female hosts. Furthermore, Clark & Wasow (1998) claim that function words in the English language are repeated far more often than content words. This research confirmed their assertion; the words that were repeated most frequently were function words such asconjunctions (and, or), prepositions (of, to, on), auxiliary verbs (has, are), pronouns (I, it, that) and articles (the, a).Function words establish a relationship between content words; they are short and easier to pronounce, so they make a perfect candidate for repetition.Repeats comprised 20% of all hesitations made by American hosts and only four percent of hesitations made by Croatian radio hosts. The explanation for such a difference may lie in the fact that English, unlike Croatian, has the category of articles, which are extremely frequent and contribute to a much higher ratio of repeats by American hosts. As we have already concluded, function words are repeated far more often than content words, so the difference in the frequency of repeats in English and Croatian may not be as surprising as it seems at first glance. 4.2.4 False starts and restarts False starts and restarts belong to hesitations that do not occur often. False starts comprised only 5% of the hesitations committed in the research. American radio hosts tended to be more �prone to making false starts than their Croatian counterparts (83% as opposed to 17% respectively). Restarts, on the other hand, comprised only 3%of all hesitations. However, there is a considerable difference in their usage between male and female radio hosts; for an unknown reason, male hosts used them three times more often than their female counterparts.This difference is even more prominent when it comes to the use of restarts in English and Croatian: American radio hosts use them four times more often than Croatian hosts. 4.2.5 Self-corrections Self-corrections occupy the lowest position on the ladder of frequency of hesitations, comprising only 2% of all hesitations made in the research. Such a low percentage may be understandable if we take into consideration the fact that, by using self-corrections, we admit in a very conspicuous way that we have made a mistake. As Goffman (1981) argues, moments of distraction are expected to stay hidden from the listeners. Otherwise, a speaker’s authority may be seriously undermined, given the fact that professional speakers are expected to be knowledgeable and competent (Goffman, 1981). 5. Conclusion This research examined the frequency of hesitation markers in the speech of American and Croatian radio hosts, starting from the assumption that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be influenced, primarily by formal training. The results showed a surprisingly similar number of overall hesitations committed by American and Croatian hosts. As for the correlation of gender and fluency that has also been examined in this paper, the results indicate that there is no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted view that women are more fluent than men. The most frequent type of hesitationwith all hosts was filled unlexicalized pauses because they require least planning and effort while bridginga potential silent gap on the air. Croatian hosts were more prone to lengthenings as the second most common type of hesitation, as opposed to American hosts who had repeatsin this position. This may be related to the fact that function words are repeated far more often than content words, and the presence of articles increases significantly the frequency of function words in English, as opposed to Croatian that doesn’t have this category. One of the major differences, however, between the radio hosts involved in our research is not related to their respective languages but to their formal training. Hosts who have had substantial training by professional phoneticians and other trained experienced announcers showed fewer hesitations and improved fluency. This speaks in favor of two of our initial claims – that fluency is acognitive rather than a language-specific aspect of speech, and that it can be improved through professional training.This indicates that such training is very important for speech production in all types of audio-visual media, and it concerns not only fluency and good articulation, but other aspects as well, ranging from the choice of appropriate vocabulary and syntactic structures, to the choice of appropriate style. 1 Goldman-Eisler (1968) mentionsthe even flow, fluency in speech, a flood of language, as well as gush, spout, stream, torrent and floodgates of speech. �2 Function words are used largely to express the relations between elements of sentences, or to indicate their discourse functions. They comprise articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and pronouns (Clark & Wasow, 1998). 3 Some hesitations may serve a communicative purpose, for example avoiding embarassing situations or drawing the interlocutor's attention (Rose, 1998). 4 www.isu.edu/kisufm/differences.html 5 www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/announcers.html 6 For example, fatigue or illness. 7 www.wnyc.org 8 americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org 9 www.npr.org 10 radio.hrt.hr 11 toginet.com 12 www.blogtalkradio.com 13 The information about the podcasts found on the official website of the radio station Free For Radio Hvar is limited due to the closure of the station in 2013. The name of the analyzed show was therefore not available. 14 The overall number of hesitations in this research, made by 32 radio hosts, is 3,368. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the duration of each host’s speech sample was eight minutes (480 seconds). 6. References American Public Media: americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org (21/04/2013) BlogTalkRadio: www.blogtalkradio.com(07/06/2013) Brennan, S. E., & Williams, M. (1995) The feeling of another’s knowing: prosody and filled pauses as cues to listeners about the metacognitive states of speakers.Journal of Memory and Language, 34 (3), 383–398. Bureau of Labor Statistics: www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/announcers.htm (20/07/2013) Clark, H. & Fox Tree, J. (2002) Using uh and um in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 84, 73111. Clark, H. &Wasow, T. (1998) Repeating words in spontaneous speech. Cognitive Psychology, 37 (3), 201–242. Field, John (2003) Psycholinguistics. London and New York: Routledge. Fox Tree, J. E., & Schrock, J. C. (1999) Discourse markers in spontaneous speech: oh what a difference an oh makes. Journal of Memory and Language, 40 (2), 280–295. Free For Radio Hvar: www.ffr.hr (19/04/2013) Goffman, E. (1981) Radio talk. In E. Goffman (Ed.), Forms of talk (pp. 197–327). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Goldman-Eisler, F. (1968) Psycholinguistics: experiments in spontaneous speech. New York: Academic Press. Harley, T. (2001) The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory. Hove and New York: Psychology Press Ltd. Henderson A., Goldman-Eisler, F. & Skarbek, A. (1966) Breath rate and the selective action of chlorpromazine on speech behavior. Psychopharmacologia, 8 (6), 415-427. Hrvatska radiotelevizija: radio.hrt.hr(16/05/2013) Idaho State University: http://www.isu.edu/kisufm/differences.shtml (06/03/2013) �Kendall, T. (2009) Speech rate, pause and linguistic variation: an examination through the sociolinguistic archive and analysis project. Duke University dissertation. Kowal, S. & O’Connell, D. (1980) Pausological research at Saint Louis University. In H. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal Variables in Speech. Studies in Honour of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. Den Haag: Mouton. Levelt, W. J. M. (1983) Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, 41–104. Mead, P. (2000) Control of pauses by trainee interpreters in their A and B languages. The Interpreters’ Newsletter, 10, 89−102. National Public Radio: www.npr.org (07/04/2013) Petrinjski radio: www.petrinjskiradio.hr (27/04/2013) Pomorski radio Bakar: www.pomorskiradio.hr (12/05/2013) Radio Eurostar: www.radioeurostar.hr (23/04/2013) Radio Jaska: www.radio-jaska.hr (13/05/2013) Radio Martin: www.radio-martin.hr (10/06/2013) Radio Ritam: www.radioritam.hr (16/04/2013) Radio Šibenik: www.radiosibenik.hr (22/05/2013) Rose, R. (1998) The Communicative Value of Filled Pauses in Spontaneous Speech, M.A. Diss., Univ. of Birmingham. Slobodna Dalmacija: arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20030213/televizija02.asp(09/05/2013) TogiNet: toginet.com(26/05/2013) WNYC: www.wnyc.org. (16/04/2013) Irena Zovko Dinković, PhD, is Assistant professor at the Department of English, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb. She obtained her PhD in linguistics in 2007, and is currently teaching courses in English syntax and psycholinguistics. Her scientific work focuses on the interrelation of syntax and semantics, the relationship of language, mind and culture, and language in use. Ms. Zovko Dinković has collaborated on several scientific projects and attended professional training programs in France and the US. She is currently Head of the Department of English at the University of Zagreb. Maja Banić holds a Master's degree in English and Spanish languages and literatures from the University of Zagreb. She also completed a one-year education program for hosts in the electronic media at the Experta Business School in Zagreb. Ms. Banić has worked extensively as author and host of various shows on several TV channels, including Croatian National Television and the Croatian Music Channel. She has also hosted a number of live events such as concerts, ceremonies, film festivals and sporting events. Maja Banić is currently working as interpreter/translator for Sermon d.o.o. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2838 Title A name given to the resource Hesitations in Speech Production in the Media Author Author Zovko Dinković, Irena Banić, Maja Abstract A summary of the resource. Nowadays we are witnessing a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, as well as a simultaneous decline in the quality of the hosts’ speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas people may be quite tolerant of various hesitations in everyday conversations, listeners often find influences in the speech of radio hosts distracting and irritating, expecting the hosts to be skilled in controlling their output. This research paper therefore offers a contrastive analysis of hesitations in the speech production of English and Croatian radio hosts, with the aim of determining whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal training of hosts. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech may be achieved through practice. To this purpose we have analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of speech of 32 radio hosts, 16 American and 16 Croatian, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Also, half of the hosts work at public radio stations, and the other half at commercial ones. In order to obtain the most objective results possible, the analyzed samples were taken from different episodes of talk shows on various subjects, as well as from different parts of the episodes (beginning, middle and ending). The results indicate that there is no correlation between gender and fluency since there was no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted popular view that women are more fluent and verbal than men. More importantly, the results indicate that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be improved through practice and formal training. A surprisingly similar number of hesitations in the speech of American and Croatian hosts confirms the fact that speech fluency is a cognitive aspect of language, independent of language specific features. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HA Statistics,HX Socialism. Communism. Anarchism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c45b2ddb1e01ee2cdf0310360b892875.pdf d84a7cb00d0dac65dd17a33f1814c5b9 PDF Text Text Gender Differences in Political Discourse Marijana Sivrić, University of Mostar Dijana Jurčić University of Mostar Abstract Public speakers have always had a sense of authority and power upon them, and this area was male area for a long time. Together with different social changes such as Women’s Movement, women became more emancipated, participating in public sphere to a larger extent influencing thus the area of political discourse too. Key question is whether gender and supposed gender characteristics and differences connected to interaction styles and public speaking affect creation of political discourse and differences in its structure between male and female politicians or they are not an important factor for political discourse. In other words, does gender affect a person’s political subjectivity? The thesis is that gender specific differences in language use and use of syntactic, semantic, pragmatic structures, lexical style and rhetorical strategies create differences in political discourse between male and female politicians. Can these differences help the hegemonic construction of female identity in political discourse? The aim of the paper is to analyze language differences in connection with supposed gender characteristics and place them into context of political discourse. Key words: gender, discourse, political discourse, language, interaction, female identity Article History: Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 17.11.2014. DOI Number: 10.14706/JFLTAL152227 �1. Introduction From the age of ancient civilizations up to present time, language has been and will continue to be a source of power and control. For example, Aristotle makes a very important connection between language and society by calling human beings “zoon politikon”. He emphasizes cultural and social role of language, not just its communicative purpose. Concept of politics in everyday communication is mostly presented as negative due to various social attitudes connected to politicians and their work. Politics and political discourse depend on the use of language, both for formulating their ideas and passing them onto their audience. Politicians must choose the right time and right manner in passing their ideas and beliefs onto the audience so that the process would have maximum effect. This can be done at the micro and macro level. Chilton analyses both levels: “At the micro level there are conflicts of interest, struggles for dominance and efforts at co-operation between individuals, between genders, and between social groups of various kinds” (Chilton 2004:3). This can be applied to everyday communication whereby people persuade or try to persuade other people to follow their opinions and approve their perceptions of various situations. Macro level requires specific use of language, language which will persuade masses and audience that beliefs and concepts of a certain party are right. This claim implies that there are certain strategies through which these aims are realized and they require specific use of language. Chilton and Schaffner (1997:211-15) introduce three strategic functions, namely coercion, legitimization and delegitimization and representation and misrepresentation. Coercion includes not only linguistic acts but it is closely connected to the power of speaker and different kinds of resources connected to this power such as laws, commands, edicts or other kinds of sanctions. Legitimization and delegitimization is connected to presentation of the ‘Self’, the inner group and the ‘Other’, world outside the Self. Actions and beliefs of the inner group must be perceived as right and proper, while the actions of the ‘outer’ group must be delegitimized, made wrong and inappropriate. Different linguistic and semantic ‘tools’ are used for this purpose and shall be further discussed later. As politics presupposes communication, it requires language use, which is also necessary to persuade the audience. This connection works both ways as language reflects conditions of the community and social changes, which again connects to the politics influencing social changes. New questions come out of these claims: what kind of language is used in politics and by politicians? What are the linguistic “tools” used? How does this specific language use operate within a wider social context? Sunderland (2004:7) discusses this in post-structuralism discourse context, expanding the definition of discourse: “Discourses are not themselves visible. However, as a ‘way of seeing the world’ a given discourse may be recognizable to analysts and other language users through its manifestation in characteristic linguistic ‘traces’ in talk or written text, i.e. speakers’ and writers’ own words.” Different discourses can thus be connected to various social area and phenomena, i.e. gender discourse, ideology discourse, legal discourse, political discourse etc. each having its own specific features, ‘rules’ and linguistic, semantic and lexical characteristics. Apart from political discourse, gender discourse is also brought to attention as a field which has quickly become an issue of everyday communication. Study of gender is relatively new, but views and perceptions of gender, gender differences and differences in speech between men and women were pointed out and emphasized for a long time before actual scientific study of gender. We will refer here to later work on language and gender which has produced three �frameworks: deficit, dominance and difference. The views of these three frameworks vary from men’s language seen as a norm (Lakoff 1975), through men dominating the world and thus dominating language (Spender 1985) to men and women perceived as two different cultures (Gumperz 1982, Tannen 1991). As for their conversational style differences, women are connected to their feminine side, acting sympathetic and listening to their interlocutor, they are supportive in conversation, accept the topic and help it with various linguistic tools. On the other hand, men are connected to their ‘primal role’ of showing strength and problem solving, whereas their conversational style is seen as public, which would possibly mean an advantage in public speaking. Sunderland (2004:170) claims that gender can be constructed through specific use of discourse, thus meaning intentionally constructed, not visible from certain ‘characteristics’ as earlier research proposes. Each person could create a wanted perception of themselves, also being able to create a gender for themselves. Matching of political discourse to gender discourse should be observed through media created identities of politicians. Not only do the media mediate the identities of public figures to their mass audiences, they also have an active role in creating these identities, which Bucholtz and Hall (2005:588) call emergent identities. According to them identity is viewed as “the emergent product, rather than the pre-existing source, of linguistic and other semiotic practices, and therefore as fundamentally a social and cultural phenomenon.” Identity is therefore not considered as a characteristic of an individual, it is a product which emerges gradually during discursive interaction, and can be modified at any stage of it. The creation of a political identity involves the collaboration of media and politician but the emergent identity does not necessarily correspond to the self of the politicians when they are not in the media. The emergent identity is not simply determined by politicians, but is a joint product, as the media search for an identity they can sell to the public. As Bucholtz and Hall (2005:606) put it, identities are understood to be “in part an outcome of others’ perceptions and representations.” It remains to see through the analysis of discourse samples how gender identity functions in relation to discourse and how it is constructed in the context of political discourse. 2. Method and Material The method we are going to apply in the analysis of political discourse examples is Critical discourse analysis (CDA). Van Dijk (2005:1) defines it as “a type of discourse analytical research that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context.“ Fairclough (1995:5) states that CDA is special because it explores the tension between socially shaped language use and socially constitutive language use, rather than opting for one or the other. As CDA addresses social problems, it deals with power, dominance and inequality between social groups. Different ideologies use different linguistic, lexical, semantic, pragmatic and other tools to explain their goals. Discourse and language used for creating discourse can be seen as a mirror image, a reflection of ideology which created it. This is the reason why discourses can be recognized, analyzed and positioned within a certain social context or social group. Political discourse can be seen as a presentation of politics behind it and thus it carries its main characteristics and agendas in it. All of these can be recognized, analyzed and explained through �interpretation of discourse and it is crucial to look at power and power relations from this perspective. For this purpose we have analyzed six speeches delivered by six politicians. There are three speeches delivered by male politicians and three speeches delivered by female politicians and they are ordered chronologically. Politicians are from Croatia and the United States of America, namely: George Bush, Hillary Clinton, Condoleezza Rice, Ivo Josipović, Jadranka Kosor and Franjo Tuđman. All of the speeches were delivered upon important occasions where some kind of action or social change was included and had to be passed onto the wider audience. Focus of this analysis will be political discourse as such, paying special attention to gender differences in political discourse, if there are any present. The goal is also to show how different language elements and strategies found in these examples help to promote politics behind the discourse, and whether the discourse differences, if they exist, are based on gender. The speeches are analyzed through the following categories: syntactic structures (word order, topicalization); semantic structures (explicit and implicit, detail and level of description, e.g. what is said and what is actually meant, what is not said but is in the discourse); lexical style (positive and negative words, use of pronouns, use of specific vocabulary); rhetoric (understatement and overstatement, euphemisms, repetition, metaphors); pragmatics (assertion and denial; assertive and directive speech acts); ideological square (description of the ‘inner’ and ‘outer’ group) and gender (supposed gender characteristics and differences in interactional styles). The key question is whether gender and supposed gender characteristics and differences connected to interaction styles and public speaking affect creation of political discourse and differences in its structures between male and female politicians or they are not an important factor in political discourse. This paper will try to analyze these differences in connection with supposed gender characteristics and place them into context of political discourse. 3. Results and Discussion Discussion will follow categories of analysis identified in the previous chapter aiming at differences mentioned. Syntactical level of analysis shows no differences between male and female politicians. They both equally use strategies of different word order, topicalization, different tenses, personal, possessive, relative and indefinite pronouns fitting them into aimed purposes of discourse such as emphasizing certain parts, erasing identity, positively evaluating actions of in-group etc. What is especially emphasized in this respect is the use of forms of address, i.e. the use of ‘we’ and ‘you’ to refer to the audience, soldiers or all the people together on one side against the ‘enemy’, e.g.: ’My fellow citizens, on my orders, to all the men and women of the United States armed forces now in the Middle East, the peace of a troubled world and the hopes of an oppressed people now depend on you, I want Americans and all the world to know, for your sacrifice you have the gratitude and respect of the American people’ (Bush) “Siguran sam da će današnja presuda biti poticaj, Naši generali nisu krivi za zločine koji im se stavljaju na teret, svi zajedno smo opet ovdje; bili ste žrtve nepravedne optužbe; nosili ste teret nečijih tuđih zločina.” (Josipović) “Obraćam Vam se u ovom dramatičnom i sudbonosnom trenutku Hrvatske, Na našu se domovinu sručio val neprijateljske velikosrpske soldatesk; Mi smo željeli mir u slobodi i demokraciji, To smo pravo izvojevali na našim prvim demokratskim izborima…” (Tuđman) �“Mi smo snaga koja jamči, nećemo posustati, obećala sam da će Hrvatska završiti pregovore do kraja lipnja 2011., Ja želim jak HDZ koji će biti uvijek spreman slušati glas svojeg naroda, Jer sam ja predsjednica Hrvatske demokratske zajednice, a HDZ ispunjava svoja obećanja.” (Kosor) “How could this happen in a country we helped liberate, in a city we helped save from destruction[…] and we will not turn our back on that, nor will we rest until those responsible for these attacks are found and brought to justice” (Clinton) “I traveled last week to the region, I consulted widely with our many friends and allies, and I am pleased to have this opportunity to share with you, we want to help the Palestinians to lay the political foundations of a successful state; we supported the free and fair election in January 2005” (Rice) Semantic levels of discourse show slight differences in usage. There are more implicatures found in female political speeches which can be connected to female need for being superpolite and not using harsh vocabulary, but it could also be connected to characteristics traditionally pinned to female gender speech style. Condoleezza Rice’s discourse is especially good example of this implicit meaning use as in her political speech much more is implied than said explicitly: I realize that the continuing problems of security are also a great challenge for many Palestinian-Americans living in Gaza and the West Bank – and for so many others, including many of you, who travel there often, who work for greater tolerance and understanding, and who invest your time, and your knowledge, and indeed your capital in the Palestinian territories. People like you have a vital role to play in the Middle East, and I will continue to do everything in my power to support your good work.” Hillary Clinton and Jadranka Kosor also imply a lot, especially when it would be insulting to do otherwise: Neki ne mogu oprostiti što se više ne ide u Beograd po dozvolu i što novac koji mi ovdje zaradimo ne ide u Beograd.’ (Kosor) But let me be clear – there is no justification for this, none. And as long as there are those who would take innocent life in the name of God, the world will never know a true and lasting peace. (Clinton) Male politicians also tend to use detailed descriptions, language feature not characteristic to supposed male gender speech style: A campaign on the harsh terrain of the nation as large as California could be longer and more difficult than some predict and helping Iraqis achieve a united, stable and free country will require our sustained commitment. (Bush) Siguran sam da će današnja presuda biti poticaj da gradimo Hrvatsku koja voli svoje ljude i brine se o njima, ali da se brine i o tome da svatko nevin bude oslobođen i svatko tko je počinio zločin da ga kazne. (Josipović) This is especially seen is Tuđman’s speech whose descriptions are at times purely poetic with usage of archaic Croatian words: No oni nisu mogli – niti će ikada moći – ubiti našu žudnju za slobodom i potrebom da živimo u ljudskom dostojanstvu, u miru sa sobom i sa slobodnim narodima Europe. Za ovo pravo i za svetu svoju zemlju spremni smo i mrijeti. Not to get confused, both male and female use combination of implicit and explicit meaning and detailed descriptions but some cases like Tuđman’s are particularly unusual for perceived gender speech styles. �Lexical style also shows common characteristics as there are no significant differences in the use of vocabulary. Vocabulary and words are equally strong in discourse for both male and female politicians, and vocabularies are usually connected to war, peace, freedom, slavery, terrorism, family relations etc.: …troubled world and the hopes of an oppressed people now depend on you, meet that threat now with our army, air force, navy, coastguard and marines, decisive force’ (Bush) I can only tell you that I, too, have a personal commitment to that goal because I believe that there could be no greater legacy for America than to help to bring into being a Palestinian state for a people who have suffered too long, who have been humiliated too long, who have not reached their potential for too long… (Rice) Usprkos tomu što je demokratski svijet stao na stranu Hrvatske, agresori, ne samo da nisu obustavili svoje napade već su ih iz dana u dan, iz mjeseca u mjesec pojačavali rabeći sve bezobzirnija, razornija i neljudskija sredstva sile i uništavanja.(Tuđman) Dan kada smo dobili i sudsku potporu, da je pravda pobijedila i da naši generali nisu krivi za zločine koji im se stavljaju na teret.’(Josipović) What is different is greater tendency in female political discourse to make contrasting images with help of this vocabulary, especially good examples are Clinton’s and Rices’s speeches, full of such images. Male politicians are prone to using strong vocabulary, in Tuđman’s case even poetic, but not contrasting as much as female politicians. Kosor’s lexical style is also interesting because of usage of vocabulary connected to war while delivering speech upon future elections. Her lexical style is also quite aggressive even if measured against criteria of male gender speech style: Naši neprijatelji ne mogu nam oprostiti pobjednički duh. Nema što nam nisu radili kako su nas blatili kao što su radili i Franji Tuđmanu jer misle da će nas tako skršiti. E neće!’ As far as rhetoric is concerned, use of metaphors, understatements and overstatements, and repetition are equal in discourses of both male and female politicians. These rhetorical strategies are equally present and serve similar purposes, depending on the context of speech. A campaign on the harsh terrain; our nation enters this conflict; we will meet that threat’. (Bush) …the United States must be a force for peace and progress in the world, that these aspirations are worth striving and sacrificing for.’(Clinton) Such strategies are of great help for different presentations of in- and out-group in ideological square, this showing to be their main purpose in the six speeches. Rice’s case is especially interesting as she uses these strategies for creating compassion and sympathy but actually only creating this illusion in order to make better contrasts and present in-group’s actions in positive light: I believe that there could be no greater legacy for America than to help to bring into being a Palestinian state for a people who have suffered too long, who have been humiliated too long, who have not reached their potential for too long, and who have so much to give to the international community and to all of us. There is a combination of assertive and directive speech acts in all speeches delivered. Usually many assertive speech acts precede one or two directive speech acts. This is done for creating an image of state of things which is usually chaotic and then calling in action through �directive speech acts. All of the examples show equally strong directive speech acts and equally descriptive assertive speech acts, not depending on gender at all. It follows certain pattern, respected by both male and female politicians in the discourses analyzed. Difference is in creating contrasting images and implicit and explicit meanings used to create positive and negative presentations: The friendship between our countries, borne out of shared struggle, will not be another casualty of this attack. A free and stable Libya is still in America’s interest and security, and we will not turn our back on that, nor will we rest until those responsible for these attacks are found and brought to justice. (Clinton) In this conflict America faces an enemy that has no regard for conventions of war or rules of morality. (Bush) Use of disclaimers is common to both male and female politicians with difference in their creation. When it was time for parliamentary elections earlier this year, we again supported the Palestinians’ right to choose their own leaders, and as you know, a plurality of voters cast their votes for Hamas. (Rice) Mi smo željeli mir u slobodi i demokraciji, a nametnut nam je prljavi i razorni rat. (Tuđman) Sometimes, disclaimers can be found only at the level of implicit meaning. Male politicians are prone to standard use and creation of disclaimers, while female politicians tend to ‘mask’ this into implicit meaning and sometimes even in the following paragraphs. Focus on gender differences, gender talk and interactional styles showed interesting results. Male and female politicians mix these styles; there was not a politician with clear male or female gender speech style. Male politicians tended to use characteristics of female gender speech style and vice versa, at times even abandoning their ‘supposed’ gender speech style. 4. Conclusion Discourse analysis, more precisely political discourse analysis has shown gender differences as very interesting leaving enough space to be perceived through various aspects. Thesis from the beginning has been confirmed as there are differences between male and female politicians in political discourses, differences connected to different interactional styles and different use of syntactic, rhetoric, semantic, lexical, pragmatic and ideological structures. Bush can be seen as an aggressive speaker, he uses strong vocabulary and claims property and right to act against the enemy. He also uses a lot of metaphors, overstatements and euphemisms, rhetorical and also often literary resources, which can be connected to perceived female gender speech style. His discourse aims at problem-solving, he lectures about the events and crisis’ preferable values for American citizens which are also characteristics of male gender interactional speech style. Bush takes leader position through constant use of pronoun I. His style is oppositional, again perceived style connected to male gender speech style. Bush’s political discourse can be described as mainly having characteristics of male gender speech style but also showing traces of female gender speech style. Kosor’ s political discourse shows some characteristics specific to male gender speech style, such as strong vocabulary, aggressive performance, emphasis of independence and open oppositional beliefs in relation to other parties. She claims her position and status freely which is �obvious from her discourse. There are also some of the characteristics of female gender speech style, such as frequent aiming at sympathy and emotions in the audience making connections to glorious fatherly figure of the past - Franjo Tuđman. Her discourse shows combination of male and female gender speech style, with greater number of characteristics specific to male gender speech style. Tuđman’s political discourse shows characteristics of male gender style such as lecturing to the audience and maintaining status and authority. Discourse of his political speech is full of problem-solving, with clearly defined problem and offered solutions. There is a great deal of independence vocabulary and claiming independence, also a supposed characteristic of male gender speech style. Interesting and unusual feature of Tuđman’s political discourse is use of language which is at times poetic, almost as in heroic poetry with metaphors and archaic Croatian words. There are also parts supposed to evoke emotions in the audience, emotional parts describing Croatian battle and history which could be perceived as characteristics of female gender speech style. Such political discourse can be seen as consisting of elements of male gender with a significant amount of characteristics connected to female gender speech style. Clinton’s discourse has characteristics of presidential style, claiming her status and position of a ruler from the beginning, which are supposed characteristics of male gender speech style. There are parts of discourse which could be labeled as intimate, full of sympathy and supportive, but in this case it seems as a carefully chosen strategy to provoke emotional reaction from the audience. A striking feature of this political discourse is her aggressive manner of talking about future actions and strong vocabulary while condemning actions of the out-group. Both of these are perceived as characteristics of male speech gender style, and her political discourse can be defined as having more male gender speech style characteristics than female gender speech style characteristics. Josipović’s political discourse does not show many characteristics of supposed male gender speech style. He shows sympathy and support, creating intimate and private atmosphere, and makes connections between past and present, this way also making a connection between Croatian people and liberated generals. Overall impression is quite emotional, which is done through constantly showing respect, gratitude and talking about troubled past. This emotional component is also perceived as characteristic of female gender speech style. Josipović does not try to claim his status nor is he acting in an oppositional way, characteristics connected to male gender speech style. His political discourse can be labeled as having numerous characteristics of female gender speech style outnumbering male gender characteristics, although delivered by a male president. Rice’s political discourse shows characteristics of clear male gender speech style. From the beginning to the very end of discourse she establishes her position and status, using report to talk about state of things and lecturing on changes that have to be made. She shows clear opposition to the out-group and aims at problem solving through many directive speech acts in her discourses. Only elements of supposed female gender speech style are connected to creating intimate, supportive and sympathetic image of American government, but this is done out of rhetorical purpose solely and its aim is to achieve as positive representation of in-group as possible. What is especially interesting is that binary division cannot be made as speech styles and gender characteristics overlap in all speech samples. Some male politicians show characteristics of female gender speech style in their political discourse and vice versa. Generally, the examples �of political discourse analyzed cannot be clearly labeled as either male gender speech style or female gender speech style. It can be concluded, however, that overlapping and mixing of gender characteristics in connection with different contexts and occasions are the result of emergent identities, i.e. identities created in those particular situations or contexts and it is not clear how much they can be a result of female or male politician’s style. However, it is obvious that female politicians more frequently use the discourse strategies which are typical for male politicians than vice versa. We can connect it to the idea that you are not a successful politician if you do not show strength in your speech, as well as in the actions. The factors which influence and provoke such mixing of gender characteristics in political discourse can be grounds for further research in this field. 5. References Brown, G. and Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Bucholtz, M. & Hall, K. (2005). “Identity and Interaction: a Sociocultural Linguistic Approach” in Discourse Studies, vol. 7 (4-5), pp. 585-614. Cameron, D. (1996). “The language-gender interface: challenging co-optation“ in Bergvall, Bing & Freed (Eds.), Rethinking Language and Gender Research: Theory and Practice, Addison Wesley Longman, New York, pp. 31–53. Chilton, P. (2004). Analysing Political Discourse: Theory and Practice, Routledge, London. Chilton, P. & Schäffner, C. (1997). “Discourse and politics” in T. van Dijk (ed.) Discourse as Social Interaction, London, Sage, pp. 206-230. Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language, Pantheon, New York. Fairclough, N. (1995). Media Discourse, Redwood Books, Trowbridge. Fetzer, A. & Lauerbach, G. E. (2007). Political Discourse in the Media: Cross-cultural Perspectives, John Benjamins Publishing Company, Amsterdam. Fishman, P. (1983). “Interaction: the work women do“ in Social Problems, 25.4, pp. 397-406. Garfinkel, H. (1994). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Polity: Cambridge. Gee, J. P. (2011).Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method, Routledge, New York. Gumperz, J. (ed.)(1982). Language and Social Identity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, R. (1975). Language and Woman's Place, New York: Harper &Row. Sivrić, M. & Mihaljević, Ž. (2010). Political Discourse - Ideological Analysis of G.W.Bush's Speeches in Hum, 6th edn, Fram Ziral, Mostar, pp. 347-368. Spender, D. (1985). Man Made Language, 2nd edn. London: Routledge & Keegan Paul. Sunderland J. (2004). Gendered Discourses, Palgrave Macmillan, New York. Sunderland J. (2006). Language and Gender, Routledge, New York. Talbot, M. (1998). Language and Gender, Polity: Cambridge. Tannen, D. (1991). You Just Don't Understand, London: Virago �Van Dijk, T.A. (2003). Ideology and Discourse, Discourse in Society <www.discourses.org> (8.7.2013.) Van Dijk, T.A. (2005). Critical Discourse Analysis, Discourse in Society <www.discourses.org> (8.7.2013.) Verschueren, J. (2012). Ideology in Language Use, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. http://free-zg.t-com.hr/zdeslav-milas/FT/ft-08.htm http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/mar/20/iraq.georgebush 8.7.2013. www.jutarnji.hr/gotovina-i-markac-su-slobodni--haaski-sud---nije-bilo-udruzenog-zlocinackog-pothvata--/1066689/> 8.7.2013. http://www.politikaplus.com/novost/43107/video-jadranka-kosor-necemo-stati-dok-borba-protivkorupcije-ne-dode-i-do-sdp-a-hns-a-i-ids-a >8.7.2013. http://www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/hillary-clintons-address-us-deaths-libya_652240.html> 8.7.2013 http://www.americantaskforce.org/keynote_address_secretary_state_condoleezza_rice_atfp_inau gural_gala> 8.7.2013. Dr. Marijana Sivric is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Mostar where she teaches courses in Sociolinguistics, Syntax, Introduction to Discourse Analysis and Language and Gender. Dr.Sivric received her doctoral degree at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb in March 2008. Her research interests include critical discourse analysis and sociolinguistics and she is primarily focused on language and gender and political discourse. Dijana Jurčić is a high school Latin language teacher currently teaching at Grammar school Mostar. She graduated English language and literature and Latin language and Roman literature at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Mostar. Her research interests include critical discourse analysis and sociolinguistics, primarily focused on language and gender studies. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2839 Title A name given to the resource Gender Differences in Political Discourse Author Author Sivrić, Marijana Jurčić, Dijana Abstract A summary of the resource. Public speakers have always had a sense of authority and power upon them, and this area was male area for a long time. Together with different social changes such as Women’s Movement, women became more emancipated, participating in public sphere to a larger extent influencing thus the area of political discourse too. Key question is whether gender and supposed gender characteristics and differences connected to interaction styles and public speaking affect creation of political discourse and differences in its structure between male and female politicians or they are not an important factor for political discourse. In other words, does gender affect a person’s political subjectivity? The thesis is that gender specific differences in language use and use of syntactic, semantic, pragmatic structures, lexical style and rhetorical strategies create differences in political discourse between male and female politicians. Can these differences help the hegemonic construction of female identity in political discourse? The aim of the paper is to analyze language differences in connection with supposed gender characteristics and place them into context of political discourse. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed JA Political science (General),JC Political theory,P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e568a75e281265b31fbeb75038ddac57.pdf 95f0df51e9eb4d80ab96328ec7cda260 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres Zorica Trajkova Cyril and Methodius University Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 16.11.2014. Abstract This paper aims to demonstrate how writers and speakers actively engage readers and listeners within the argumentation through the use of engagement markers as a metadiscourse category. More precisely, it sets out to explore the function and use of engagement markers, i.e. personal pronouns, directives and questions, in three different genres, one written (editorials from newspapers) and two spoken (excerpts from talk shows and closing arguments from trials) in two different languages, Macedonian and English. The analysis is carried out on nine editorials from American and nine from Macedonian newspapers, nine excerpts from American and nine from Macedonian talk-shows, as well as five closing arguments from American trials and five from Macedonian. It is essential for writers and speakers to know how to balance the use of these markers in order to avoid being intrusive and appear more persuasive to the readers and listeners. The research shows that there are differences in the use of the markers in the three genres in both languages. They were most frequently used in the English spoken texts (talk shows and closing arguments) and least frequently in the Macedonian closing arguments. As for their use in editorials, they were used moderately in both languages. So, on the whole, the analysis reveals that the choice of markers within the same genre depends on cultural differences, i.e. the format and perception of the type of text by the different societies. Furthermore, it also shows differences in the choice of markers across the three genres in both languages. Finally, although carried out on a relatively small corpus, this research gives insight into the dialogic nature of argumentation and its impact on the persuasive effect of written and spoken texts in different genres and languages. Key words: metadiscourse, argumentation, engagement markers, editorials, talk shows, closing arguments Introduction �Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres This article explores the role of engagement markers, as interpersonal metadiscourse markers, in building the writer’s/speaker’s authority and establishing an appropriate relationship with the readers/listeners. The aim is to see to what extent these markers are used in three different genres (one written and two spoken) in two different societies (Macedonian and American) and how the use of the specific subcategories of these markers defines the types of genres in both societies. Interpersonal metadiscourse: engagement markers Metadiscourse offers a way of understanding language in use, representing a writer’s/speaker’s attempts to guide a receiver’s perception of a text (Hyland, 2005a, p. 3). Interpersonal metadiscourse1 offers a framework for understanding communication as social engagement and refers to the features writers/speakers use to express their views concerning the propositional material and help readers/listeners accept and share their views (ibid, p. 4). Engagement markers are a type of interpersonal metadiscourse markers employed by speakers/writers to address listeners/readers explicitly and focus their attention to the given arguments and at the same time to include them as direct participants in the discourse. More precisely, according to Hyland (2005a), they help the writers/speakers to express their need to adequately meet readers’/listeners’ expectations of inclusion and solidarity, addressing them as participants in the argument with pronouns (you, your, inclusive we) and interjections, and at the same time they pull the readers/listeners into the discourse at critical points, predicting possible objections and guiding them to particular interpretations with the use of: questions, directives (mainly imperatives) and asides (references to shared knowledge) (p. 53). The choice of the markers depends mainly on the aim the speakers/writers want to achieve in the text as well as the expectations of the listeners/readers (Hyland, 2004, p.110). In this paper, the analysis focuses on only three types of engagement markers: pronouns, directives and questions. Methodology and corpus When trying to define metadiscourse, linguists followed Halliday’s classification (1974), according to which language has three main metafunctions: ideational (the proposition itself), interpersonal and textual, so they mostly classify metadiscourse (Crismore et al., 1993; Hyland, 2005a,b) in two categories: textual and interpersonal. 1 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The corpus consists of texts from three different genres, one written (editorials from newspapers) and two spoken (excerpts from talk shows and closing arguments from trials) in two languages, Macedonian and English. As for the written genre, the analysis was carried out on nine editorials from American newspapers (The New York Times and The Arizona Republic) and nine from Macedonian newspapers (Utrinski vesnik (Утрински весник) and Dnevnik (Дневник)), on similar topics in both languages, i.e. of social interest for both societies. As for the spoken genres, the analysis included nine excerpts from American talk shows (recorded from various TV shows) and nine from Macedonian talk shows (the talk show Piramida), as well as five closing arguments from American trials and five from Macedonian. All the excerpts from the talk shows were two to three minutes long and speakers discussed socially important topics. The closing arguments were about five to seven minutes long and were delivered by either a prosecutor or a lawyer. The analysis was carried out both manually and with the help of computer software. First, a list of all the uses of a certain word/phrase in the corpus was obtained. Then, the ones that had a metadiscourse function in the texts were selected and analysed semantically and then formally. Distribution and analysis The analysis showed that engagement markers were most frequently used in the talk shows in both languages. As for their use in each genre separately, they were more frequently used in the Macedonian editorials compared to the English, and in the English talk shows and closing arguments compared to the Macedonian. Тable 1 and Table 2 below show the separate distribution of engagement markers in both languages. As it can be seen, the biggest discrepancy in use was found in the closing arguments as a genre. �Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres Table 1. Distribution of engagement markers in the English corpus editorials talk shows n n 9 3 8 8 7 - freq. per 1000 words 1.62 0.54 1.44 1.44 1.26 - 61 14 14 93 25 1 closing arguments freq. per n freq. per 1000 1000 words words 14.7 17 3.93 3.38 1 0.23 3.38 22.47 104 24.05 6.04 8 1.85 0.24 6 1.39 5 6 n=46 0.90 1.08 8.26 1 10 2 3 6 n=230 0.24 2.42 0.48 0.72 1.45 55.57 English corpus we (inclusive) us (inclusive) оur (inclusive) you your folks/ ladies & gentlemen one questions rhetorical short/tag cognitive directives physical textual Total 37 3 17 10 1 n= 204 8.55 0.69 3.93 2.31 0.23 47.17 Table 2. Distribution of engagement markers in the English corpus editorials talk shows 3 freq.per n 1000 words 0.55 6.24 9 closing arguments freq.per n freq.per 1000 words 1000 words 2.69 12.26 0.26 31 5.69 9.57 - - 6 1.10 Macedonian corpus n Inclusive we (ние) you (ти, вие) explicit we 1p.sg. coded in the verb form explicit you 2p.sg. coded in the verb 32 1.10 10 2.99 2.99 1 0.26 - - - - - �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics form your ( ваш/а,е, и) our (наш/а,е, и) us (нас не/ нам ни) directives cognitive (директиви) physical textual questions rhetorical (прашања) short/tag Total 5 7 1 19 1 n= 73 2 0.92 14 1.29 7 0.18 0.18 3.50 3.68 5 0.18 8 13.43 n= 87 0.60 4.19 2.10 1.50 3.89 2.39 26.02 1 1 n = 3 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.78 In the next part, the analysis of the separate categories of engagement markers in the corpus is presented. Personal reference Personal pronouns for first and second person are considered personal reference (or personal metadiscourse) because they are used by the writers/speakers to refer to the members in the communication. А. First person plural pronoun ‘we’ (ние) The inclusive we includes both the speaker/writer and listener/reader in the discourse. When presenting information, its use lowers the potential risk of the listeners’/readers’ rejection of arguments. The analysis2 showed that the inclusive we was most frequently used in the talk shows in both languages. Furthermore, it was used more frequently in the Macedonian corpus of editorials compared to the English, and in the English corpus of closing arguments, compared to the Macedonian. Example 1(a) below is from the corpus of talk shows and it presents the way in which speakers in both languages include the listeners in the discourse as if they already agree with them. So, speakers create this, so called, relationship of solidarity, in which they make the listeners share the responsibility for the arguments. 2 It should be noted that all the uses of the pronouns in citations and indirect speech were excluded from the analysis. Furthermore, in the analysis of the Macedonian texts, both the examples of the first-person pronouns as well as the examples in which the person is coded in the form of the verb (како што видовме) were included. �Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres 1(a) We don't have enough... so that the little that we have we hold on to it so tightly. That our hands literally are not open to receive that which is meant to come our way. (ETS3-2) In editorials, the use of the inclusive we is a significant metadiscourse strategy employed by the journalists to help them establish a relationship with the readers, especially because there is no direct contact between the writers and readers. The use of the inclusive we shows the readers that their opinions, desires and attitude are taken into consideration. The analysis of the closing arguments showed that American lawyers/prosecutors use this metadiscourse strategy much more frequently than their Macedonian counterparts, with the purpose of involving the jury in their argumentation as if the members already agree, and in this way persuade them to accept it. So, in example 1(b), for instance, the lawyer in a way ‘manipulates’ the jury by involving them actively in the discourse, and ‘making’ them responsible in case they do not reach a decision in favour of his client (all the jury can do is to recompense his client for his injury caused by the company Ford). 1(b) We can't do that. We can't give that to him. All we can do is compensate for the loss... (ECA4-3) B. Second person pronoun ‘you' (ти/ вие) The second-person pronoun ‘you’ has a metadiscourse function and can refer not only to the imagined reader/listener but can also be used generically and be replaced with we or one. Both uses of this pronoun were included in the analysis, the one for direct address to the readers/listeners and the generic use, because we believe that they both include the audience: in the first case to directly address them, and in the second one to hint at them. The analysis showed that the use of these pronouns was more frequent in spoken texts. For instance, in the English closing arguments, you was frequently used by the lawyers/prosecutors to directly address the judge and jury and try to convince them that they should reach a decision in favour of their client. In the Macedonian closing arguments, on the other hand, this pronoun was not used at all. In 1(c), for instance, the prosecutor directly addresses the members of the jury, as if he is an expert, ‘telling’ them what they should do and what decision they should reach. 3 4 ETS – English talk show ECA – English closing arguments �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 1(c) Use your collective memories and think inside when you get in that jury room. (ECA-4) In the excerpts from talk shows, the use of you was mostly generic, as in example 1(d). Here, you refers to all the people in general, and not only to the listeners and it can be replaced with one/човек(а). In this example the second person is coded in the form of the verb (e.g. да научите (you must learn)). We believe that this use has a metadiscourse function because it indirectly includes the listener in the group of those who should learn, understand, etc. In comparison, in 1(e), you, your, refers to the listeners. 1(d) За да бидете толерантен треба првенствено да научите да живеете самите со себе за да можете да ги разберете и другите. (MTS5-7) // If you want to be tolerant, then you must primarily learn to live with yourselves so you could be able to understand others. 1(e) Listen, would you rather a heroin addict break into five houses a day […]then not break in your home to steal everything you've got and then… (ETS-2) In the editorials, this marker was mostly generic and it was used rarely, probably because in written genres there is no direct contact between the writer and reader and the writer uses other ways to involve the readers in the discourse. Directives Directives are another type of engagement marker. By using them, the writers/ speakers are trying to take control over the text and the readers/ listeners and to show authority (Hyland 2005b: 371). This analysis follows Hyland’s classification (Hyland 2002b) of three main functions of directives: textual, physical and cognitive (depending on whether they are used to lead the listeners/readers towards some textual (understand parts of text), physical (do a physical activity) or cognitive act (use their common sense to understand some point) (Hyland, 2005b, p.372; 2004, p.101). Hence, directives should not be treated as simple commands, but as complex rhetorical strategies used by the writers/speakers to build a relationship with the readers/ listeners and direct them as to how they should understand the text. 5 MTS - Macedonian talk show �Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres The results of the analysis showed that directives as a metadiscourse strategy were almost not used at all in the Macedonian corpus, which shows that Macedonian speakers/writers avoid directly addressing the listeners/readers, compared to the English, who consider it an efficient strategy for establishing a closer relationship with the listeners/readers and persuading them to accept the presented arguments. In the English editorials, all the directives had a cognitive function, i.e. they were used to urge the listener/reader to think clearly and understand the speaker’s/writer’s point of view (see 2 (a) where the writer tries to persuade the readers to think properly and accept his/her arguments). In the talk shows there were both physical and cognitive directives used. In example 2(b), for instance, the writer urges the listeners to engage in a physical activity i.e. to be generous whenever they can. 2(a) Think about it properly, and it leads you to a profound critique… (EE6-2) 2(b) So, just don’t give once. Give once a month for the rest of your life! (ETS-2) Directives were not used at all in the Macedonian closing arguments, but were frequently used in the English. Obviously, lawyers and prosecutors believe that this strategy can help them persuade the members of the jury to vote in favour of their client. The directives used in the English corpus were mostly cognitive, although there were few physical, which were used to urge the listeners to see or do something in order to understand it (cognitive). For instance, in 2(c), the speaker uses directives to persuade the listeners to take a physical activity (send a message) but in fact refers to a cognitive act (make Ford understand that their cars can damage people’s lives by making it pay a huge amount of money and admit its mistake). 2(c) I suggest that you come up with a significant amount for every day he's been hurt for the rest of his life. Make it fair. Then send the message to Ford [...]. Send them a message that it is not acceptable to make junk sardine cans [...] Award three to five times to compensate for the damage. (ECA-3) Questions Questions7 are one more type of engagement marker used by the writers/speakers to connect with the readers/listeners and invite them to answer a question, while 6 7 EE – English editorial The use of rhetorical questions is only presented here. �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics suggesting the right answer (Hyland, 2005b, p.373). In this way, they indirectly try to persuade them to accept the presented arguments. The analysis showed that questions were frequently used in all the three genres, although their use was most significant in the English closing arguments. As for their use in the other two genres, it can be noted that rhetorical questions were much more frequently used in the Macedonian editorials compared to the English (significant 3.68 versus 0.90 – frequency per 1,000 words), while in the talk shows, they were used more or less the same in both corpuses. The writers/speakers used rhetorical questions as an efficient strategy for directing the attention of the readers/listeners towards some specific stance. There were examples in which the writers gave the correct answer – the one that should be accepted as one and only (as in 3(а)), or they just indirectly hinted at it (as in 3(b) where, the prosecutor tries to persuade the jury that the defence has given no substantial proof, but some statement by an amateurish dermatologist). 3(a) Why does all this matter? Because just as the United States has relied on foreigners… (EE-8) 3(b) And what does the defense have against this? They brought in, with all due respect to Dr. Underwood, a dermatologist, whose last autopsy was 18 years ago? (ECA-5) Conclusion The research showed that there were differences in the use of personal pronouns, directives and questions as engagement markers in the three genres in both languages. They were most frequently used in both types of English spoken texts and least frequently in the Macedonian closing arguments. They were used moderately in the editorials in both languages. So, on the whole, the analysis revealed that the choice of markers within the same genre depends on the format of the text, i.e. the perception of the type of text by the different societies. So, in this sense, the greatest discrepancy in the use of engagement markers was found in the closing arguments. It seems that they have a completely different format in the two societies. English lawyers/prosecutors perform a whole show by engaging the jury in their speech as much as they can with the inclusive we, by addressing them directly with the secondperson pronoun, by employing directives or by asking them questions. On the other hand, the Macedonian closing arguments employ set and fixed phrases and the speakers mostly summarize everything that has been mentioned during the trial. They don’t try to involve the judge (or jury) at all. So, overall, although carried out on a relatively small corpus, this research gives insight into the dialogic nature of �Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres argumentation and its impact on the persuasive effect of written and spoken texts in different genres and languages. References Crismore, A., Markannen, R., Steffensen, M. (1993). Metadiscourse in persuasive Writing. A Study of Texts Written by American and Finnish University Students. Written Communication 10 (1): 39-71. Halliday, M.A.K. (1974). Explorations in the Functions of Language. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd. Hyland, K. (2002а). Authority and invisibility: authorial identity in academic writing. Journal of Pragmatics 34, 1091-1112. Hyland, K. (2002b). Directives: Power and engagement in academic writing. Applied Linguistics, 23(2): 215–239. Hyland, K. (2002c). What do they mean? Questions in academic writing. Text, 22(4), 529–557. Hyland, K. (2004). Disciplinary Discourses: Social Interactions in Academic Writing. The University of Michigan Press. Hyland, K. (2005a). Metadiscourse. Exploring Interaction in Writing. MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall. Hyland, K. (2005b). Representing readers in writing: Student and expert practices. Linguistics and Education 16, 363-377. Vande Kopple,W. (1985). Some explanatory Discourse on Metadiscourse. College Composition and Communication 36, 82-93. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2829 Title A name given to the resource Active participation within written and spoken argumentation: The use of engagement markers across different genres Author Author Trajkova, Zorica Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper aims to demonstrate how writers and speakers actively engage readers and listeners within the argumentation through the use of engagement markers as a metadiscourse category. More precisely, it sets out to explore the function and use of engagement markers, i.e. personal pronouns, directives and questions, in three different genres, one written (editorials from newspapers) and two spoken (excerpts from talk shows and closing arguments from trials) in two different languages, Macedonian and English. The analysis is carried out on nine editorials from American and nine from Macedonian newspapers, nine excerpts from American and nine from Macedonian talk-shows, as well as five closing arguments from American trials and five from Macedonian. It is essential for writers and speakers to know how to balance the use of these markers in order to avoid being intrusive and appear more persuasive to the readers and listeners. The research shows that there are differences in the use of the markers in the three genres in both languages. They were most frequently used in the English spoken texts (talk shows and closing arguments) and least frequently in the Macedonian closing arguments. As for their use in editorials, they were used moderately in both languages. So, on the whole, the analysis reveals that the choice of markers within the same genre depends on cultural differences, i.e. the format and perception of the type of text by the different societies. Furthermore, it also shows differences in the choice of markers across the three genres in both languages. Finally, although carried out on a relatively small corpus, this research gives insight into the dialogic nature of argumentation and its impact on the persuasive effect of written and spoken texts in different genres and languages. Key words: metadiscourse, argumentation, engagement markers, editorials, talk shows, closing arguments Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/893e475d204c6fa324e0a2530ccd9c68.docx b1217355a0d928aee03d50ce0d3eb159 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7aa7710e002ed824c804cad242a57e74.pdf 99099e4860f0a6ccf6b93c67affac0df PDF Text Text Energy Challenges and Regional Electricity Markets: Opportunities, Barriers and Prospects for Bosnia and Herzegovina MirzaŠarić JP EP B&H -did. Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina msaric@yahoo.com Abstract: Electricity networks have traditionally been built and managed by government owned, vertically integrated companies. Modern systems are undergoing significant organizational, structural and technological changes. These changes are driven by two processes. The first process is market liberalization which requires reorganization of state owned monopolies, unbundling, establishment of independent system and market operator and regulatory authority. The second process is the energy transition from conventional energy sources to renewable energy. These two processes present a new energy paradigm. The process of market liberalization is mature in European Union while its practical initiation is still expected in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Important step for Bosnia and Herzegovina is integration in Southeastern Europe Regional Electricity Market. European Union policy goal is creation of a single Internal Electricity Market. This implies that electricity future of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies within the large European Electricity Market. This paper investigates Bosnia and Herzegovina's sector and market specific policy priorities, challenges and opportunities with respect to electricity market liberalization and integration process. Main objective of this paper is to present current situation of electricity market in Bosnia and Herzegovina, identify steps required to achieve full market liberalization and assess the regulatory framework required to face challenges of a new energy paradigm. This research seeks to determine what are the opportunities and challenges of electricity market liberalization in Bosnia and Herzegovina and how do the regional integration help in overcoming current and future energy challenges. Research is undertaken by collecting and analyzing relevant electricity consumption and production data and relating them to specific market and structural policies within national and regional framework. It was determined that sector specific priorities are unbundling, restructuring and reorganization. Market specific issues such as demand and supply side imperfections can only be partially solved within national framework. Regional regulatory issues, interconnection management and global investment policy cannot be adequately managed from the national perspective and need to include adequate regional coordination mechanisms. Key words: regional electricity market, deregulation, liberalization. 72 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2507 Title A name given to the resource Energy Challenges and Regional Electricity Markets: Opportunities, Barriers and Prospects for Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author ŠARIĆ, Mirza Abstract A summary of the resource. Electricity networks have traditionally been built and managed by government owned, vertically integrated companies. Modern systems are undergoing significant organizational, structural and technological changes. These changes are driven by two processes. The first process is market liberalization which requires reorganization of state owned monopolies, unbundling, establishment of independent system and market operator and regulatory authority. The second process is the energy transition from conventional energy sources to renewable energy. These two processes present a new energy paradigm. The process of market liberalization is mature in European Union while its practical initiation is still expected in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Important step for Bosnia and Herzegovina is integration in Southeastern Europe Regional Electricity Market. European Union policy goal is creation of a single Internal Electricity Market. This implies that electricity future of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies within the large European Electricity Market. This paper investigates Bosnia and Herzegovina's sector and market specific policy priorities, challenges and opportunities with respect to electricity market liberalization and integration process. Main objective of this paper is to present current situation of electricity market in Bosnia and Herzegovina, identify steps required to achieve full market liberalization and assess the regulatory framework required to face challenges of a new energy paradigm. This research seeks to determine what are the opportunities and challenges of electricity market liberalization in Bosnia and Herzegovina and how do the regional integration help in overcoming current and future energy challenges. Research is undertaken by collecting and analyzing relevant electricity consumption and production data and relating them to specific market and structural policies within national and regional framework. It was determined that sector specific priorities are unbundling, restructuring and reorganization. Market specific issues such as demand and supply side imperfections can only be partially solved within national framework. Regional regulatory issues, interconnection management and global investment policy cannot be adequately managed from the national perspective and need to include adequate regional coordination mechanisms. Key words: regional electricity market, deregulation, liberalization. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f624c0666e26c87d5bccb242bb6332e5.docx 730f078d743b9e5e9c1672da30cad95c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3aae4ed68e558a7dc04a3120304d442.pdf 900df602bbdbcecb7b7a94d715cd6d1d PDF Text Text Econometric Analysis of Natural Disasters’ Macro-economic Impacts İsmail Şahin ÇanakkaleOnsekiz Mart Universty Turkey ismails@comu.edu.tr ÖmerYavuz ÇanakkaleOnsekiz Mart Universty Turkey omeryavuz@comu.edu.tr Abstract:Recently the frequently occurring disasters have caused many deaths and injuries. In addition, in parallel with the size of the devastation of disaster, the economy of countries has disrupted and prosperity and development which have been gained through years of economic policies has suffered. Natural disasters affect the economy in three ways: directly, indirectly and macro-economically. In this paper, the macro-economic impacts of the disasters occurring in the 10 countries which were selected as OECD in a period of 2005 2014 were examined. As macroeconomic indicators, the data such as population, GDP, growth, public expenditures and schooling over 15 were employed. Moreover, this paper consists of two parts. Firstly, the macroeconomic impacts of natural disasters have been viewed in the literature. Finally, the impacts of the natural disasters on certain macroeconomic indicators which compose the base of work were analyzed econometrically. Keywords: Macro-economy, Natural Disaster, OECD. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2523 Title A name given to the resource Econometric Analysis of Natural Disasters’ Macro-economic Impacts Author Author ŞAHIN, İsmail YAVUZ, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. Recently the frequently occurring disasters have caused many deaths and injuries. In addition, in parallel with the size of the devastation of disaster, the economy of countries has disrupted and prosperity and development which have been gained through years of economic policies has suffered. Natural disasters affect the economy in three ways: directly, indirectly and macro-economically. In this paper, the macro-economic impacts of the disasters occurring in the 10 countries which were selected as OECD in a period of 2005 - 2014 were examined. As macroeconomic indicators, the data such as population, GDP, growth, public expenditures and schooling over 15 were employed. Moreover, this paper consists of two parts. Firstly, the macroeconomic impacts of natural disasters have been viewed in the literature. Finally, the impacts of the natural disasters on certain macro-economic indicators which compose the base of work were analyzed econometrically. Keywords: Macro-economy, Natural Disaster, OECD. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f3e463de7974477ac944a23ed32868d.docx c5c1bc642729c3bc82285fa5f66e929c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/515a60d5442346a530d694892173e240.pdf 59205f425d95895af31406b5575797ca PDF Text Text Balkan Orphans HavanurŞahin ÇanakkaleOnsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Turkey akademi06@hotmail.com Abstract: There are social consequences which changed of the structure of society as well as political and economic consequences of 93 War, Balkan War and Great War when occurred in the last period of the Ottoman Empire. Both refugee issue and accommodation of orphaned children was on the agenda because of lost lands and over one million people were to be martyr. Especially in Balkan War, the Empire lost %83 of land and %69 of population in Europe and so important social events occurred. A wave of migration which could not control by Ottoman Empire gave rise to the problem especially as accommodation of immigrants and orphans. 75 thousand children orphaned at the end of the war only in Bulgaria. As a result of this situation, it was established accommodation facilities called as Daruleytam in the last period of Ottoman. The purpose of this institutions was accommodation, education and crafting lessons to children of martyr’ and orphans. Keywords:children orphans,Balkan War, education of orphans. 40 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2472 Title A name given to the resource Balkan Orphans Author Author ŞAHIN, Havanur Abstract A summary of the resource. There are social consequences which changed of the structure of society as well as political and economic consequences of 93 War, Balkan War and Great War when occurred in the last period of the Ottoman Empire. Both refugee issue and accommodation of orphaned children was on the agenda because of lost lands and over one million people were to be martyr. Especially in Balkan War, the Empire lost %83 of land and %69 of population in Europe and so important social events occurred. A wave of migration which could not control by Ottoman Empire gave rise to the problem especially as accommodation of immigrants and orphans. 75 thousand children orphaned at the end of the war only in Bulgaria. As a result of this situation, it was established accommodation facilities called as Daruleytam in the last period of Ottoman. The purpose of this institutions was accommodation, education and crafting lessons to children of martyr’ and orphans. Keywords:children orphans,Balkan War, education of orphans. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fc3aafcd6280f83c4396c5bf9a3cb314.docx 7abad62cf0dd1fe8bb4953f0e43ceb3e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e26029ad1474f739fef75956cf835097.pdf fee15d215505f3d847e01e139bd62cc4 PDF Text Text Legal Perspectives on EU Integration Process of BIH: Analyses ofthe European Commission Progress Report 2013 for BIH ElvirČolak Social Science Research Center Bosnia and Herzegovina elvir.colak@ibu.edu.ba Kemal Balihodžić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina kemal.balihodzic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Bosnia and Herzegovina has gained a status of “potential candidate country” for the accession to the European Union by the decision of the European Council in Thessaloniki in 2003, and has thus faced many obstacles in its integration process to the European Union. According to the EU integration criterion that takes a form in the economic, political, social and legal context, the authors of this paper raise the question on the legal context and issues that BH has to overcome in order to come closer to the EU idea. In this regard, the paper analyses the European commission 2013 progress report for BH as the main source as well as other relevant secondary reports in order to outline the issues in hand. The paper aims to elaborate the EU-BH integration process within the framework of legal obligations highlighting the legal instruments, institutions, systems and structures that define the legal context in this regards. Unfortunately, there are many legal challenges and the need to reform core institutional structures within the state as well as developing a practical and theoretical strategy for the BH-EU accession process that harmonizes the regulations within BH of that within the EU. Without analyzing the political criteria and the role within foreign policy, BH still has structural and institutional issues from the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) and lacks sufficient legal requirements, and the insufficient acknowledgement for the rule of law. Keywords: EU integration process, Rule of Law, legal criteria, EU accession, legal obligation, integration strategy, EU progress report 2013 for BH, European commission 25 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2455 Title A name given to the resource Legal Perspectives on EU Integration Process of BIH: Analyses ofthe European Commission Progress Report 2013 for BIH Author Author ČOLAK, Elvir BALIHODŽIĆ, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina has gained a status of “potential candidate country” for the accession to the European Union by the decision of the European Council in Thessaloniki in 2003, and has thus faced many obstacles in its integration process to the European Union. According to the EU integration criterion that takes a form in the economic, political, social and legal context, the authors of this paper raise the question on the legal context and issues that BH has to overcome in order to come closer to the EU idea. In this regard, the paper analyses the European commission 2013 progress report for BH as the main source as well as other relevant secondary reports in order to outline the issues in hand. The paper aims to elaborate the EU-BH integration process within the framework of legal obligations highlighting the legal instruments, institutions, systems and structures that define the legal context in this regards. Unfortunately, there are many legal challenges and the need to reform core institutional structures within the state as well as developing a practical and theoretical strategy for the BH-EU accession process that harmonizes the regulations within BH of that within the EU. Without analyzing the political criteria and the role within foreign policy, BH still has structural and institutional issues from the Dayton Peace Agreement (DPA) and lacks sufficient legal requirements, and the insufficient acknowledgement for the rule of law. Keywords: EU integration process, Rule of Law, legal criteria, EU accession, legal obligation, integration strategy, EU progress report 2013 for BH, European commission Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General)