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Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes
Şaban ÇEPIK
Fatih University/ Turkey
Abstract: The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and
comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who
exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious
pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of
students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but
also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we,
teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously.
Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively;
however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest
and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability
classes.
Key words: mixed ability students, motivation, reaction, pedagogical problems
Introduction
I find needless to ask whether teachers have different leveled students in the classes, I am sure you have or will
have such problems. We all very often encounter mixed ability (lower or higher leveled) students in our classrooms.
And as teachers, we must learn to find out these kinds of problems and deal with them effectively. We generally ask
these questions concerning the issue; what kind of problems do you have with them? How do you adjust them to the
class atmosphere? And how do you treat them to concentrate on the lecture? Teachers need to perceive and recognize
the nature of the problems students have in the classrooms. Our reactions towards these students are mostly different
from each other, we sometimes approach the matter positively and deal with the problem very seriously but
sometimes we ignore it. The unsolved matter of an individual may cause some serious problems like discipline,
psychology and class management. Anxiety and disappointment encountered by some students regarding these
matters may result in unexpected and extreme reactions. When such problems appear, as teachers we should confront
these problems. Our approach and reaction shouldn’t be negative. Always there are some students who are below
average and this is quite normal. Different problems may also stem from the pedagogical, psychological or social
causes, but we mainly focus on their weakness and difference of level.
General Problems with Different Leveled Students
Discipline problems
Teachers often lose control of their classes when they spend too much time with each student. While they are
working with one student, others goof off. In his research, Jones found commonly experienced discipline problems
when they finished a lecture and began helping students individually at their seats. Students usually began
immediately to ask their teachers for help. Teachers usually responded with a "universal helping interaction." They
tried to:
1. Find out where a student was having difficulty.
2. Re-explain the portion of the lesson the student did not understand.
3. Supply the student with additional explanations and examples.
Jones contends that this process ordinarily takes at least 5 minutes for each student. If the practice period lasts 30
minutes, no more than six students can receive help. While the teacher is helping these students, the rest of the class,
particularly those who are unsuccessfully seeking help from the teacher, will talk and goof around. According to
Jones, this result helps explain why talking to neighbors in ways that a constitutes 80% of the discipline problems in
a typical classroom. Not only does discipline break down, but the students who do receive help are unable to use
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�long, drawn-out explanations to successfully complete their work. The universal helping interaction is too slow and
inefficient. Teachers tie themselves up for too long period with too few students and leave too many students
unattended and for too much of the work period (Jones, 1987a. cited in Jones H.F. cited in Edwards
H.C.2000.p.204). As long as the students are involved and interested, and if the topics are challenging they will love
the lecture and appreciate the teacher.
Demotivation
As the essence of learning is motivation, learning may not result in success if we can not motivate the mixed
leveled students. Due to conflict of such students, concentration and attention of both the teacher and the learners
will be distracted. Low-leveled students may lose self-confidence which is essential for language learning, and the
upper leveled students most probably will be bored because their needs are not met satisfactorily. “So what teachers
should do is to get the students attention Students lack motivation to learn for various reasons. In some cases they
may have limited ability and experience difficulty keeping up and consequently develop chronologically low
expectations while desensitizing themselves to failure. Others develop learned helplessness from attributing their
performance to low ability. A third group of students who have a lot of difficulties are those who are obsessed with
the need to protect their self-worth and who thus focus on performance goals rather than learning goals.” (Edwards
H.C.2000. p.306). Apart from this, demotivation may also cause some psychological problems here is the main one;
sense of helplessness will cause the law leveled student to have the absence of self-esteem, and this may evoke an
inner-conflict which is revealed in a negative way.
Problems of Class Management
Since different leveled students do not keep up with the lesson the learning atmosphere will be spoilt, their
peers will be affected badly and use of class time will be wasted. Professionally a teacher must keep the students
active at any moment. In order to do that, he/she should create many actions and attractions to take their attention.
Doyle (1986) contends that classrooms are difficult to manage because they are multidimensional, simultaneous, and
unpredictable. So this matter is urgent and teachers should perform in full view of every student. Because of the
many type of characters in the same classroom, any occasion can have multiple consequences that may require
different reactions from the teacher. (Edwards H.C.2000)
Teachers`Reactions to Such Problems
Generally we are not very patient towards the low leveled students, after warning them twice or three times
we get angry with them, or even we behave very harshly because they spoil the class atmosphere. With high leveled
ones we do not have many problems with them but hardworking students create problems or at least they rightfully
show dissatisfaction.
Suggestions and Solutions
A) Things That Should Be Done
1-Attention
In order to take attention of the weak students we should ask simplified questions, or decrease our
speech rate for them and also using eye –contact, gestures and mimics we can draw the students` attention back to
the lecture.
2- Negotiation
We can work at making language comprehensible to students by negotiating meaning. The teacher
can open up lines communication by using questions that aim at classification and confirmation. These same types of
questions are useful to negotiate meaning for the students who have less enthusiasm and lower levels.
3- Easier tasks may encourage weak students, and enhance their self-confident.
E.g. In high level class students are discussing about the wars in history, we may ask weak students
only the place and the date and the heroes of the war may be country. If we adjust the questioning to the language
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�level of the students they can manage uttering only a few words and by time, they may improve and gain selfconfidence.
4- Cooperative Work (Team Model)
If you are suffering a lot from the weak or different leveled students, the way of grouping the students
with better ones may help you. Because one of the ways of learning is to be with friends, they learn from each other.
One educational strategy Glasser advocates to promote more meaningful learning and reduce discipline problems is
cooperative learning, also known as the learning team model. He believes that this kind of learning provides students
a better way to satisfy their basic needs. Glasser recommends that students work on long-term projects with other
students to go deeper into a subject and become more involved in the experience of learning. For this purpose, he
suggests that teachers organize teams of from two to five students who have reached different levels of achievement.
He lists several benefits to be gained from cooperative team learning. (Glasser, 1986a cited in Edwards, 2000):
•
Working in teams provides students a sense of belonging, which helps motivate them to work harder and
achieve more.
•
The more advanced students find it fulfilling to help less able team members because they want the power
and friendship that go with a high-performing team.
•
Less able students also have their needs fulfilled. In the group, they are able to accomplish something,
whereas they did very little before. Their contribution to the team is appreciated more than their previous individual
efforts were.
•
By working in teams, students gain a greater sense of independence from the teacher and discover
themselves able to make valuable contributions to the class.
•
Learning teams serve as a structure within which students can obtain a deeper understanding of school
subjects. Unless students understand the subjects they study more deeply, they will be unable to make the vital
connection between knowledge and power that must underlie any attempt to improve today's schools.
•
Teams provide a framework within which students can better evaluate themselves. More than just grades
may be considered as evidence that students are learning.
•
Promote positive beliefs about ability. Help them see that their intelligence is not a given amount, but that
they can increase it with effort and learning.
•
Help students make a connection between their efforts and achievements. Help them set realistic goals and
develop confidence in reaching them.
•
Help students learn to take pride in personal accomplishments and their developing expertise, and to
minimize the attention given to competition and social comparisons.
•
Help them achieve a feeling of self-worth through their achievement. (Covington, 1992)
•
And also, depending on the experience in their research, Hallam & Ireson (2001) claim that a more
cooperative environment is encouraged, where students work in groups and support each other. By doing this A
more permissive classroom atmosphere will be possible. But on the other hand they mention that they include the
comments from a school teacher: ‘I have a few reservations about mixed ability teaching because the higher ability
pupils are not stretched to their full potential. However, we do very well with the lower ability in the classroom.’
5- Using the Praise-Prompt-Leave Sequence
Teachers can escape the predicament of mixed ability students by avoiding universal helping interactions
and instead using the praise-prompt-leave sequence of instruction. (Jones H.F. cited in Edwards H.C.2000.p.204)
Praise- In giving praise, the teacher reviews what the student has done right, which not only provides a
positive experience for the student but also defines the starting point for new instruction. For teachers to become
good at giving praise, they need to avoid the common habit of looking for errors in students' work. This tendency
causes teachers to communicate dissatisfaction as well as frustration and exasperation. Teachers should build on
adequately completed work, not defects. They need to develop an aptitude for seeing the positive and making it a
reflex action. Once the strength of a student's work is identified, appropriate words can be used to describe it. This
language must be a specific description of exactly what is well done- Avoid statements such as "Nice job" and
"You're off to a good start," Instead, say "You have organized this paragraph well. There are transitions between all
the sentences."
Prompt- To prompt is to tell students exactly what to do next. Prompting should be clear and simple.
Ordinarily, mastery of concepts involves many steps. Students, however, can perform these steps only one at a time.
Teachers therefore should provide a prompt that requires a one-step performance. Asking students to perform many
steps tends to produce cognitive overload. Teachers tend to bog students down with excessive, complex verbiage.
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�They talk too much and explain more than students can keep straight at one time. Instead, teachers should prompt
students about the next action to take and then encourage them to act on the prompt. Prompts can either direct a
student to do something or not to do something. An initiating request asks a student either to begin something or to
do it more. A terminating request asks a student to stop something or to do it less.
Leave- Once a clear and simple prompt is given; teachers should leave and turn their attention immediately
to other students, take time to observe how students act on prompts. Leaving will cause discomfort, given their
inclination to stay at students' desks long enough to see how they respond to instructions. Even so, teachers must
avoid the tern longer. Not only does leaving convey confidence in students' ability instruction given, but it also gives
teachers more time to circulate in the system, teachers can see more students and see the same student more than
once in one class period. At the same time, the teacher gains greater control by being able to move around the entire
classroom more quickly. (Jones 1987 cited in Edwards, 2000).
6-Types of learners
Hallam, S& Ireson, J.(2001) classify the learners type as; gifted, high-end, academically talented and
advanced learners, and we can add lower leveled ones to this group. All these miscellaneous type of learners bother
us but if we identify them very well we can find solutions to the problems. Of course gifted students need special
interest, low leveled students (if not little school kids) can be motivated in the cooperative learning groups with the
assistance of advanced learners. And Like the others they should be encouraged and satisfied as well, and their
abilities need to be developed. These learners may fail to achieve their potential without teachers that coach for
applying useful, high level and challenging curriculum.
B) Things That Should Not Be Done.
We sometimes unconsciously demotivate the weak students by motivating them a bit, and later discourage
them badly by mentioning their unforgivable mistakes or so on. In the Jones’ Model Fredric H. Jones suggests that
teachers should be aware of how most universal helping interactions between students and teachers are initiated and
avoid getting caught up in them. The following are actions that might be avoided:
Asking students where they are having difficulty is the most common and straightforward means of initiating a
helping interaction. Teachers often ask, "Where are you having difficulty?" or "What is it you don't understand?"
1. Teachers are often aware of the difficulties students experience and identify these difficulties as they offer to help.
For example, they may say, "I see you are having trouble carrying the correct digit. Let me show you how it is
done."
2. Focusing on the students' strengths before calling attention to the problems is a common tactic among teachers
who are aware of the necessity of giving students support during feedback. They believe that giving good news
first will diminish the negative effects of the bad news that follows. A teacher might say, "You did the first few
problems correctly, but when you got to the ones requiring long division, you did them all wrong."
3. Some teachers express their exasperation with students in the way they use body language, such as shaking the
head from side to side, as if to say, "I have never seen anything like this. How could you have worked these
problems this way?"
4. Sometimes, before they help students, teachers give voice to comments that are simply derogatory (for example,
"How can you he so stupid?"). Jones calls these comments "zaps and zingers." Considerable harm can be done to
students to whom these comments are directed. (Edwards, ,2000. p.241)
5. Should not be ignored and be insulted
6. High performance should not be expected from the weak ones.
7. Should not be reprimanded, dismissed from the class
8. Teachers should never try corporal punishment.
Conclusion
Having different or mixed leveled students is unavoidable for the teachers of languages, so what we’ve got to do
are to accept the situation. And without ignoring they try to find satisfactory and productive solutions. These
solutions are mainly to put them into a cooperative work, motivate them by giving extra help and home task, ask
high leveled students to help the lower leveled. Especially if these kinds of students lose their self confidence for
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�learning they may start thinking that they can not do anything. So teachers should carefully approach in order to
help them in time, and prevent them from spoiling the class atmosphere. Children with learned helplessness also
benefit from attribution retraining. This consists of providing a planned series of experiences, couched within an
achievement context in which modeling, socialization, practice, and feedback are used to teach them (1) to
concentrate on what they try to learn without worrying about failing, (2) to deal with mistakes by retracing their
steps to find where they slipped up and by analyzing the problem to find a more reasonable approach, and (3) to
attribute their failures to insufficient effort, lack of information, or use of ineffective strategies rather than lack of
ability (Craske, 1985). These efforts are necessary because success alone is not enough. (Edwards, 2000 p.307).
Cooperative learning provides hope for altering this unhappy situation. It provides a way for students to assert
themselves without the discomfort of always being compared with their peers and found lacking. Properly organized
cooperative learning can help all children experience success and feel more accepted in school. Classrooms thus
become more exciting places to learn because students have greater control over what they learn and because the
atmosphere in which learning takes place is more fun. In cooperative learning programs, teachers can capitalize on
the motivation students already have for learning by involving them in decisions about what they learn and then
allowing them to pursue their own interests in their own style. (Edwards, P.313, 2000). Examining the mixed ability
teaching environment and students at different ages, and reading the comments of some teachers in the book written
by Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001) we assume that mixed ability learners at early ages may be more problematic than
the mixed ability adult learners. So Cooperative learning can solve our problem at least to an extent.
References
Covington, M. (1992) Making the Grade: A Self –Worth Perspective on Motivation and School Reform. Cambridge. UK.
Cambridge University Press.
Edwards, Cliff .H. (2000). Classroom Discipline and Management. New York. US. John Wiley&Sons. Inc.
Hallam, S& Ireson, J. (2001).Ability grouping in Education.UK. Sage.
Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (2001).How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, Alexandria, VA. Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development
Tomlinson, Carol Ann. (1999).The Differentiated Classroom, Responding to the Needs of All Learners. Alexandria, VA.
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development
Williams M. and Burden L.R (2000). Psychology for Language Teachers, Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press.
5
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Title
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Teacher Attitudes in Mixed Ability Classes
Author
Author
ÇEPIK, Şaban
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The purpose of this study is to tap the problems in the mixed ability classrooms, and comment on what the reactions of English teachers towards them should be. Having students who exhibit a wide range of English language ability in the same class often leads to serious pedagogical problems mostly because they are not well-motivated. Besides this, such kinds of students sometimes cause discipline problems, which not only spoils the teaching atmosphere, but also sometimes prevents teaching and learning activities in the curriculum. As for solutions we, teachers, generally act in different ways; some take it easy, while some take it very seriously. Actually, experienced teachers mostly deal with the above mentioned problem intuitively; however, the topic is crucial enough to examine academically. All in all, this paper will suggest and remind us of some practical and significant solutions to the problems regarding mixed ability classes.
Date
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2009-06
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The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group
Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students
Mehmet ÇARDAK
Social Sciences Institute, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
mehmetcardak@hotmail.com
Mustafa KOÇ
Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey
mkoc@sakarya.edu.tr
Tuğba Seda ÇOLAK
Education Faculty, Sakarya University,Turkey
tseda@sakarya.edu.tr
Abstract: Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet
users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful
and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the
effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of
reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students.
Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one
session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received
no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet
addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of
the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables.
1.
Introduction
Technology is changing the nature of problems. Symptoms often identified were a preoccupation with the
Internet, an inability to control use, hiding or lying about the behavior, psychological withdrawal, and continued use
despite consequences of the behavior (Young, 2007). The Internet has positive aspects including informative,
convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the excessive Internet users, these benefits turn out to be useless. Most
individuals use the Internet without negative consequences and even benefit from it, but some individuals do suffer
from negative impacts. Psychologists and educators are aware of the potential negative impact from excessive use
and related physical and psychological problems (Griffiths ,2000 & Greenfield ). Users who spend a significant
amount of time online often experience academic, relationship, financial, and occupational difficulties, as well as
physical impairments (Chou, 2001). Some researchers (Brenner, 1997, Nie & Erbring, 2000.) have even linked
Internet use with an increase in psychological difficulties such as depression and loneliness.
Excessive Internet use is a more common problem in Turkey. Internet use in Turkey has increased rapidly and
has become a major part of daily life. However, the advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but
also negative results. Of these negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Internet addiction
is called addiction disorder, pathological Internet use, excessive Internet use, and compulsive Internet use. (Kim,
2008) Internet addiction is described as an impulse control disorder that does not involve the use of an intoxicating
drug and is very similar to pathological gambling (Young, 1996).
“Healthy Internet use” is the use of the Internet for an expressed purpose in a reasonable amount of time
without cognitive or behavioral discomfort. Problematic Internet use is “a psychiatric condition which involves
maladaptive thoughts and pathological behavior” (Davis, 2002). Problematic Internet use is excessive time spent on
various activities on the Internet to an extent that might have negative effects on the user’s physical and
psychological health; social, academic, professional, and marital relationships, and other areas of life (Young1997).
Morahan-Martin & Schumacher, (2000) define problematic Internet use as intensive use of the Internet, failure to
control Internet use, serious harm to the user’s life resulting from this use. Problematic Internet use has been
associated with increases in impulsivity and increases in social comfort while online (Davis, 2002). Problematic
Internet use can cause Internet addiction. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure
averaging 38 hours or more per week, largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter
families, relationships, and careers (Young, 1996).
172
�Internet addiction, also described as pathological Internet use, is defined as an individual’s inability to control
his or her use of the Internet, which eventually causes psychological, social, school and/or work difficulties in a
person’s life (Young & Rogers 1998; Davis 2001). Addictive Internet use is defined as “an impulse control disorder
that does not involve an intoxicant” and is akin to pathological gambling (Young, 1998). Young further categorized
five specific types of Internet addiction: (1) cyber sexual addiction to adult chat rooms or cyber porn; (2) cyber
relationship addiction to online friendships or affairs that replace real-life situations; (3) net compulsions to online
gambling, auctions, or obsessive trading; (4) information overload to compulsive web surfing or databases searches;
and (5) computer addiction to game playing or programming (Young, 1998). Like other addictions, furthermore,
Internet addiction has been linked to a variety of problems. Besides little sleep, failure to eat for long periods and
limited physical activity, it also disrupts the studies and other aspects of the daily life of an individual ( Cao &Su;
2006).
These people demonstrated two or more Internet addiction symptoms, namely, spending more time on the
Internet than intended, feeling an urge to instantly connect to the Internet once arriving home, receiving complaints
from family members and friends about too much time on the Internet, and unsuccessful attempts to cut back on
Internet use (Chak &Leung, 2004).
Previous studies indicate that people may develop a new lifestyle through Internet activities, which may cause a
worsening in their actual social relationships (Whang, Lee & Chang, 2003). In other words, depressive feelings of
people relying on the Internet for social support might remain or even worsen toward their real-life interpersonal
relationships, increasing their risk of becoming Internet addicted (Yu-Chun, Huei-Chen , Jo Yung-Wei, M.A.,2 and
Chung-Ping, 2008).
Internet use may be beneficial when kept to 'normal' levels, however high levels of Internet use which interfere
with daily life have been linked to a range of problems, including decreased psychosocial well-being, relationship
breakdown and neglect of domestic, academic and work responsibilities (Beard 2002; Weiser 2001; Widyanto &
McMurran 2004; Yao-Guo, Lin-Yan & Feng-Lin 2006; Young 1998). Studies indicated that the potential for
negative psychological and social consequences reduced as society became more accustomed to using the Internet. (
Kraut, Kiesler, Boneva, Cummings, Helgeson & Crawford 2002).
The explosive growth of the Internet in the last decade has had a huge impact on psychological research in
understanding its role in communication and interpersonal behavior. There has been increased interest in the
addictive potential of the Internet1 and the effect this can have on psychological well being ( Niemz, Griffiths &
Banyard, 2005).
Internet use in university students is becoming a serious problem, possibly resulting in many physical and mental
health problems The advancement of Internet technology not only brings benefits, but also negative results. Of these
negative aspects, excessive Internet use is increasing dramatically. Typical The aims of this study were to determine
effect of group counseling program on Internet addiction in Turkish University Students.
2.
Research Method
2.1 Participants
The subjects for this study were 276 University students who were at Sakarya University in Sakarya
province. After the pretest, twenty-four participants were volunteers among sixty-five Internet addicts who had
shown Internet addiction disorder. Demographic information of the participants follows. The participants consisted
of twenty-eight males and thirty-seven females. They were randomly assigned into two groups, twelve for the
experimental group and twelve for the control group, respectively. In the experimental group, there were six males
and six females. Twelve were in the control group, of whom six were males and six females.
2.2 Data collection tools
Demographics
This section included questions about the participant’s sex and daily Internet use.
Addicted Internet Users
173
�With the following two cases as university students were dependent on Internet addicted in this study. In
other words, Internet use six hours a day and from five to eight questions, yes, was adopted as the Internet addicted.
1. Young characterized Internet addiction as staying online for pleasure averaging 38 hours or more per week,
largely in chat rooms, and concluded that Internet addiction can shatter families, relationships and careers (young,
1996).
2. She developed an 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users, which was adopted from the criteria
for pathological gambling as referenced in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders–IV (Young,
,1996). In her studies, respondents who answered “yes” to 5 or more criteria were classified as addicted Internet
users and those who responded “yes” to less than 5 were classified as normal Internet users. Criteria for Problematic
Internet Use Include (Young. 1999):
Preoccupation with Internet
Need for longer amounts of time online
Repeated attempts to reduce Internet use
Withdrawal when reducing Internet use
Time management issues
Environmental distress (family, school, work, friends)
Deception around time spent online
Mood modification through Internet use
2.3 Procedure
Prior to the initial commencement of the REBTgroup counseling program, all participants signed an
informed consent agreement and completed a demographic information questionnaire. Subsequent to the completion
of the pretest assessment, the treatment group participated in the REBT group counseling program that would be held
two sessions per week for five consecutive weeks. The control group received no treatment. After completion of the
program, both the treatment and the control group completed the posttest assessment. Experimental pretest-posttest
control group design as follows,
RG1
RG3
T
---
RG2
RG4
2.4 Data Analysis
The data collected were analyzed by independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test. in an effort to
examine the initial differences between the treatment and control groups on the pretests. Means, standard deviations,
and estimated marginal means of the treatment group and the control group were calculated.
3.
Results
Independent samples t tests found significant differences that two groups were not statistically equivalent on two
variables including Addictive Automatic Thought and averaging use of Internet 38 hours or more per week. The
results of this study are reported in Tables 1-2 and Figures 1-2.
174
�test
Groups
pretest
yes/no
hours
Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
treatment
N
12
12,08
145,00
control
12
12,92
155,00
Total
24
treatment
12
12,50
150,00
control
12
12,50
150,00
Total
24
Z: -.314 P, .754 / Mann-Whitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00
Table 1. Results on Pretest for Treatment and Control Groups
8
7
6
5
no
4
yes
Daily Internet Use:hours
3
2
1
Treatment
male6
male5
male4
male3
male2
male1
female6
female5
female4
female3
female2
male6
female1
male5
male4
male3
male2
male1
female6
female5
female4
female3
female2
female1
0
Control
Figure 1.Results on daily Internet use and 8-item questionnaire for diagnosing addicted Internet users
As exhibited in Table 1, Mann-Whitney U scores, Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= 67.00
Z: -.314 P, .754 / MannWhitney U: H= 72.00 Z: ,000 P: 1,00 There is no differences between treatment and control groups about Internet
addiction and Internet use 38 hours or more per week.
Research Question
Does the REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their
Internet addiction level?
175
�test
groups
posttest
yes
hours
Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500
Mean Rank
Sum of Ranks
treatment
N
12
6,54
78,50
control
12
18,46
221,50
Total
24
treatment
12
6,50
78,00
control
12
18,50
222,00
Total
24
Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000
Table 2. Results About Posttest Of Treatment And Control Groups
8
7
6
5
no
yes
4
Daily Internet Use:hours
3
2
1
Treatment
male6
male5
male4
male3
male2
male1
female6
female5
female4
female3
female2
male6
female1
male5
male4
male3
male2
male1
female6
female5
female4
female3
female2
female1
0
Control
On each of the dimensions of the Internet Addicted Scala, after the treatment of the “Rebt Group Counseling
Program”, the treatment group demonstrated significantly even lower Internet addiction than did the control group.
Rebt Group Counseling Program reduce significantly Internet addiction university students daily Internet use level (
Mann-Whitney U: Y/N= ,500
Z: -4,219 P, .000 / Mann-Whitney U: H= ,000 Z, -4,266 P: ,000). The results
revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on Internet addiction.
4.
Discussion
Internet addiction is a common problem in Turkey as Internet users are increased. They spent at least 3-4 hours
a day online, usually playing games or chatting .Generally, many counselors who specialized in the treatment of
addiction such as drug, alcohol, gambling, sex, and even Internet take advantage of individual, group, and family
counseling with a heavy emphasis on the rational choice. Many studies on addiction recovery treatment have proved
that group counseling is the predominant modality (Kim,2008). University students, also, become to Internet
addiction because of many factors such as difficulty adapting to life away from home and underlying psychological
problems, including depression or social problems, anxiety and loneliness.
University is a training center for adulthood and an individual must be responsible for oneself. Counselors and
University administrators should treat Internet addiction University students for their recovery(Kim,2007) Does the
REBT group counseling program for Internet addiction University students reduce significantly their Internet
addiction level? The purpose of the present study was to implement this program and examine the effectiveness.
176
�The data collected immediately after the delivery of the treatment of the REBT group counseling program
showing that the participants who participated in the treatment group demonstrated significant lower Internet
addiction level than did participants in the controlled group. Disclosure the treatment group to the REBT group
counseling program significantly reduced university students Internet addiction usage. This may be linked to the fact
that exposing the experimental group to R/T group counseling program enables them to aware of their doing and
wants, and to plan and perform plan. Also, self-evaluation for the implementation and the choice of more effective
behaviors help them improve responsibility.
The treatment group experience psychological support from the counselors. The REBT group counseling
program that was used in this study techniques: observation of demonstration, reinforcement, behavioral practice,
explanation, role-play, feedback, encouragement, and assignment of behavioral tasks related to Internet excessive
usage. In the posttest Immediate after the treatment, participants who participated in the REBT group counseling
program exhibited higher self-esteem than did participants who received no treatment
177
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179
�
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385
Title
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The Effect of a Rational Emotional Behavior Therapy (REBT) Group Counseling Program on the Internet Addiction among University Students
Author
Author
ÇARDAK, Mehmet
KOÇ, Mustafa
ÇOLAK, Tuğba Seda
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Internet addiction is a common problem in our universities as the number of Internet users are increased. The Internet has positive aspects including informative, convenient, resourceful and fun, but for the addicts, these benefits develop into severe disadvantages. We examined the effect of a REBT group counseling program derived from choice theory and control theory of reality therapy theory for group counseling on the Internet addiction among university students. Participants in the treatment group attended the REBT group counseling program that was held one session per week for 10 consecutive weeks, whereas the participants in the control group received no treatment. The findings indicated that the treatment program effectively reduced Internet addiction among university students. At the same time, the results revealed the significant effects of the REBT group counseling program on the dependent variables.
Date
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2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e5afa8a6aab2aa97997c06f275a9ae28.pdf
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Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi
Mümine ÇAKIR
Giriş
Rumeli, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Trakya’dan Balkanlar’a uzanan ve Avrupa’da kalan topraklarının
genel adıdır. Türklerin, Rumeli’ye geçişlerinden itibaren bu topraklar gerek Anadolu’dan getirilenler gerekse
devşirme teşkilatının etkisiyle ilmî ve kültürel açıdan tam bir Müslüman Türk ülkesi oldu. Bu çerçevede
Rumeli’de Saraybosna, Priştine, Vardar, Üsküp gibi sanat ve kültür merkezleri oluştu. Bu merkezlerde doğup
yetişen bir çok şair İstanbul’a gelmiş ve ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tezkirelere bakıldığında edebiyat tarihimize katkıda
bulunan bir çok şairin Balkan şehirlerinde doğduğu görülmektedir. Yazımızda bahsedeceğimiz şair Âhî Hasan da
bu merkezlerden önemli birisi olan ve Tuna Nehri kıyısında bulunan Niğbolu’da doğmuştur.
Âhî’nin Hayatı ve Edebî Şahsiyeti
Hayatı:
Asıl ismi Hasan olan ve Benli Hasan diye de anılan Âhî, 878/1473-1474 senelerinde
Tersenik/Niğbolu’da doğmuştur.1
Âhî’nin bu mahlası almasında tezkîrelerde verilen bilgilere göre birçok psikolojik sebep vardır.
Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da, “Hâlâ ki Âhî mahlasının şe’âmeti ile kemâhiye kendüye te’sîr idüp gam u endûh ile âh u
vâhdan kurtulmadı. Müddet-i ömründe rûzgârından kâm alup akrân u emsâli miyânında ta‘ayyün
bulmadı”2denilerek onun mahlasıyla yaşantısı arasındaki uyum belirtilir. Buradan da anlıyoruz ki Âhî, bu
mahlası hayatı boyunca çektiği sıkıntılar sebebiyle almıştır.
Fuat Köprülü ise şairin ;
Saçların çözsün bulutlar ra‘d kılsun nâleler
Haşre dek yansun yakılsun kabrim üzre lâleler
matlaından hareketle “rûhunun hissî temâyüllerine tercüman olduğu içün” “Âhî” mahlasını aldığını söyler.3
Hasan Çelebi’ye Benli Hasan denmesinin sebebi olarak da Evliya Çelebi onun yanağındaki “Hâşimî
ben”ini zikreder. Ayrıca “bu ben sebebiyle onu gören âşıklar bir âh çekerlermiş”4der.
Âhî Hasan ticaretle uğraşan ve bu konuda mahir olan Seyyid Hâce isimli bir zengin tüccarın oğludur.5
Annesi ise Melek Kadın’dır. 6
Babasının vefatı üzerine annesi Melek Kadın başka birisiyle evlenince üzüntüyle işini, ailesini bırakıp
İstanbul’a gelir. İstanbul’a geliş sebebi bazı kaynaklarda ilim tahsili7 olarak gösterilmesine karşın asıl sebep,
annesinin başkasıyla evlenmesidir.8
İstanbul’a gelmeden önce bir süre gurbette dolaşır. Birçok sıkıntı çeker.9Aşık Çelebi bu durumu şu
sözlerle anlatır: “Bî râhile ve bizzâd tek ü tenha piyâde yola girdi. Nâz ü naîm ile perverîş bulmuş vucûdı
şedâyid-i sefer-i gurbet ile zebûn...”10
1
Ayrıntılı bilgi için bkz. Necati Sungur, Âhî Divanı, Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1994, s.15; Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn
ü Dil”i, İstanbul 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), s. 7-8; Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Ansiklopedisi, c.1, Dergah Yay., İst.,
1987, s.50; Tezkire-i Latîfî (Nâşiri Ali Cevdet), İkdam Mat., Dersaadet, 1314, s.97; Tezkire-i Sehî ( Nâşiri Muhammed
Şükrü), Matbaa-i Amedî, 1325, s.108; Bursalı Mehmed Tahir, Osmanlı Müellifleri, Matbaa-i Âmire, 1333, c.2, s.67;
Kınalızâde Hasan Çelebi, Tezkiretü’ş-şuarâ, TTK Yay., Ank., 1989, c.1, s.191; Mustafa İsen, Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın Tezkire
Kısmı, AKM Yay., Ank., 1994, s.173.
2
Mustafa İsen, age., s.173.
3
Köprülüzâde Fuad, “Harâbâd Erenleri: Âhî” Yeni Mecmua, c.3, S.54, Yıl: 1918, s.25
4
Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnâmesi (Tevfik Temel KURAN- Necati AKTAŞ), c.1, İst., 1978, s.240.
5
Âşık Çelebi Tezkiresi (Meşâirü’ş-Şuarâ) (Haz: Meredith-Owens), London, 1971, s.51a (Tezkire için bkz. Necati Sungur,
Âhî Dîvânı, KTB Yay., Ank., 1994, s.13); Şemseddin Sami, Kâmusu’l-Âlâm, Tarih ve Coğrafya Lügati, Mihran Mat., İst.,
1306, c.1, s.502; Faik Reşat, Terâcim-i Ahvâl, Kasbar Mat., İst., 1313, s.41; Kınalızâde, a.g.e., c.1, s.191; Künhü’l-Ahbâr,
a.g.e. s.173; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25; Sadeddin Nüzhet Ergun, Türk Şairleri, c.1, İst. 1936, s.20.
6
Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.25, S.Nüzhet., a.g.e., s.20.
7
Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191; Kâmusu’l- Âlâm, a.g.e., s.502; Terâcîm-i Ahvâl, a.g.e., s.41; Kafile-i Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.31.
8
Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.51a; Köprülüzâde, a.g.m., s.54.
9
Köprülüzâde Fuad, a.g.m., s.54.
10
Aşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b.
403
�Âhî, İstanbul’a gelince ilim tahsiline başlar.11 “İstanbul’a gelüp tahsil-i ma‘ârif u kemâlâta müdâvim ü
tarîk-i pür- tevfik-i ilme sulûk itmekle mülazım olmuşdur”12
Kırk yaşlarında Kara Bâlî’den mülazım olmuş,13 bu arada tahsiline devam ederken şiir yazmaya da
devam etmiş ve ismini duyurmuştur. İlimdeki başarısını şairlikte de göstermiştir.
Ticareti bırakıp İstanbul’a gelerek ilimle uğraşan Âhî, oldukça geç yaşlarda mülazım olur. Bu arada
gazeller yazarak, mesnevî vadisinde dolaşarak edebiyatla da uğraşır. Bir gün Yavuz Sultan Selim onun
şiirlerinden bazılarını görür ve kim olduğunu sorar. Onun kırk yaşlarında ve hala mülazım olduğunu öğrenince
bir medreseye tayinini emreder. Âhî, Bursa’da Bayezid medresesine tayin edilir. Zeyrekzâde onu kandırarak
bununla kanâat etmemesini, kendisine daha önemli bir müderrislik verileceğini söyler. Âhî de verilen görevi
kabul etmez. Bunun üzerine Yavuz Selim kızarak Âhî’den bir daha bahsedilmemesini ister. Bu olay üzerine
Necâtî’nin bir gazeline nazire yazan Âhî’ye Yavuz’un hiddeti daha da artar.
Nihayet, Âhî, sıkıntılı yıllar geçirdikten sonra Karaferye müderrisliğine tayin edilir. 14
Âhî, H.923/M.1517’de tahmînen 45 yaşlarındayken vefat etmiştir. Ömrünün yarısına yakını Niğbolu’da,
diğer kısmının hemen tamamı İstanbul’da ve son yılları Karaferye ve Manastır’da geçmiştir.15
Âhî, sessiz, rint-meşrep karakteriyle, gurur ve istiğna dolu halka yakın söyleyişleriyle, samîmî, kayıtsız
ve lâubâlî bir ifadeyle aşk duygularını ve diğer düşüncelerini anlatmasıyla ve harabâtî tarafıyla orijinal bir
şahsiyete sahiptir.16
Edebî Kişiliği
Âhî’nin edebî kişiliği ile ilgili olarak tezkirelerde oldukça değerli bilgiler vardır: Latîfî “Şu‘arâ-i
Rumun mümtâz u müstesnâlarındandur” diyerek onun üslûbunun Hüsrev’in şiirlerindeki yakıcılıktan, Selman’ın
sanatları ve Kemal’in hayallerinden daha güzel olduğunu belirtir. Gazelleri renk, laf, söz ve mana bakımından
bütün dünya söz ustaları tarafından makbüldür. 17
Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da ise Âhî şu şekilde anlatılır: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı
hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘ u mu‘teberi kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür
ki vilâyet-i Rûmda te’lif olınan âsârun makbul u bî-mu‘adilidür.”18
Kınalızâde Tezkiresi’nde “Hakkâ ki şuârâ-yı Rûm’un a’lâlarından ve bu tâ‘ifenün mümtaz u
müstesnalarındandur. Eş’âr-ı dil-güşâ vü ebyât-ı can-fezâsı makbul u müsellem ü memdûh-ı sühan-verân-ı
âlemdür.”19
Bu şekilde bilgilerin yer aldığı tezkirelerin dışında Âhî’nin Divanı üzerinde doktora çalışması yapan
Necâti Sungur’un, şairin gazelleri hakkındaki değerlendirmesi ise şöyledir:
“Âhî’nin gazelleri incelendiğinde, ruh bakımından iki unsurun şiire hâkim olduğu görülebilir.
Bunlardan biri, hızını biraz da mahlastan alan ıstırap ve bedbînlik, diğeri ise bunun tamamen aksine, şuh bir edâ
ve bazan de işi kalenderliğe vuran rindâne meşrepdir...
Bize göre Âhî, Necâtî’yi Nedim’e bağlayan çizgide yer alan bir şair olarak görünmektedir... Rumeli
şairlerinin bâriz özellikleri olan, sanat gösterme düşüncesiyle yapmacıklığa düşmeme, çok sade hatta bazan
kayıtsız ve laubali bir ifade ile aşk duygularını anlatma, halk zevkine uygun buluşlar Âhî’de kendini çok açık
olarak gösterir...”20
Eserleri
Dîvân
Âhî’nin önemli eserlerinden birisi Divân’ıdır. Âhî’nin, Divân şiiri geleneği içinde oldukça orijinal ve
kudretli bir şair olmasına rağmen, divanında az şiir vardır. Âhî Divânı üzerinde araştırma yapan Necati Sungur,
11
Tezkire-i Sehî, a.g.e., s.108.
Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.191.
13
Mustafa İsen, “Âhî “ mad.,İslam Ansiklopedisi, TDV,c.1, İst., 1988, s.527.
14
Âşık Çelebi, a.g.e., s.52b; Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174-175; Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e.,s.193-194
15
Necati Sungur, a.g.e.., s.18-19.
16
Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.30.
17
Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.99; Latífî Tezkiresi, (Haz: Mustafa İsen), Kültür Bakanlığı Yay., Ank., 1990, s. 92.
18
Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.274.
19
Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., c.1, s.191.
20
Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.37-44.
12
404
�çalışmasında belirttiğine göre şairin Divanı’nda; 1 kaside, 1 murabba, 1 tahmis, 1 kıta ve 136 gazel
bulunmaktadır. Sungur, bu rakamları dikkate alarak onun bir gazel şairi olma özelliği taşıdığını söyler.21
Hüsrev ü Şîrîn:
Âhî’nin kaleme alıp bitiremediği eserlerinden birisidir. Latîfî Tezkiresi’nde verilen bilgiye göre
Şeyhî’nin Hüsrev ü Şirin’ine nazire olarak kaleme alınmıştır. Eserin ismi “Hikâyet-i Şîrîn u Perviz vü Rivâyet-i
Gülgûn u Şebdîz”dir.22
1-
Hüsn ü Dil:
Âhî’nin çok beğenilen bir eseridir. Tezkirelerde övgüyle bahsedilen Hüsn ü Dil tamamlanmamıştır.
. Hüsn ü Dil hikayesinin kaynağı; Hüsrev ü Şirin, Leyla vü Mecnun gibi İranlı bir şair olan Fettâhî
Nişâburî’nin temsili bir aşk hikayesidir. Türk Edebiyatı’nda bir çok Hüsn ü Dil yazılmıştır. Hüsn ü Dil yazan
Türk şairleri şunlardır: Lâmiî, Yenipazarlı Vâlî, Muhyî-i Gülşenî, Edirneli Sabrî, Sıdkî, Reşid ve Âhî. 23
Âhî’nin mesnevîsi, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Bu konuda tezkirelerde çeşitli
değerlendirmeler vardır. Âşık Çelebi onun güzelliğini anlatmanın imkansızlığından bahsederken24 Kınalızâde de
“Merhûmun bir te’lîfi dahî Hüsn ü Dil’dür. Hakkâ ki bir inşâdur ki Hüsn gibi vasf-ı hüsni hâric-i hayta-i dâire-i
imkân ve dil gibi makbûl u memdûh-ı dil u cân-ı ins u cândur. Manzumât-ı dil-âvizi cemâl-i dilberân gibi tarabefzâ vü menşûrât-ı lutf-âmîzi hâl-i ‘âşıkân gibi engüşt-nümâ dakâ’ik-ı ‘ibârâtında i‘câz-ı suhan-ârâyı peydâ u
hakâ‘ik-ı kinâyâtında âsâr-ı mu‘ciz-nümâ-yı vâzıh u hüveydâdur.”25 der.
Künhü’l-Ahbâr’ın tezkire kısmında da Hüsn ü Dil için Rum ilinde benzerinin olmadığı söylenerek
şöyle denilmektedir: “Alâ külli hâl mesnevîsi gazellerinden râcihdür. Eş‘ârı hem-vâr degül idügi zîrâ ki
vâzıhdur. Cümleden a‘la eseri ve müellif-i matbû‘u mu‘teber kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dilidür ki vilâyet-i Rûm’da te’lif
olunan âsârun makbûl u bî-mu‘âdilidür. Lâmi‘î merhûmun Hüsn ü Dili güyâ bu da‘vânun hâll-i müşkilidür.”26
Âlî, Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’inin diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler içindeki yerini de onun benzersizliğini söyleyerek ve
Lâmî‘î’nin eserini değerlendirerek ortaya koyar.
Sehî Bey de Tezkiresi’nde Hüsn ü Dil’den bahsederken şu ifadeyi kullanmıştır: “Hüsn ü Dil adlu bir
kitabı dahî var, gayet güzel ve bî-bedel yazmışdur.”27
Latîfî ise Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’de yeni bir tarz oluşturduğuna dikkat çekerek şunları söyler:
Hakkâ budur ki kitâb-ı Hüsn ü Dil’i üslûb-ı inşâda tarz-ı hâs u makbul-ı efâzıl-ı havâsdur. Tarîk-ı inşâda
tarz-ı münşiyânı kudemâya gitmemişdür...”28
Bursalı Mehmet Tahir ise Âhî’’nin Hüsn ü Dil’ini pek çok yenilikler ve değişiklikler yaparak yine o
isimle Fettâhî Nişâburî’den tercüme ettiğini fakat tamamlayamadığını belirtir.29
Tezkirelerin verdiği bilgilerden de anlaşılıyor ki Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Îranlı şair Fettâhî Nişâburî’nin
eserinden pek çok yenilikler yapılarak tercüme edilmiş; nazım-nesir karışık bir hikayedir. Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da
Lâmí’nin eserine nazire olarak yazıldığı belirtilse de asıl kaynak Fettâhî Nişâburî’dir.
Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’i diğer Hüsn ü Dil’ler arasında en çok okunan ve beğenilen eserdir. Gelibolulu
Âlî bunu Künhü’l-Ahbâr’da Lâmiî’yi anlatırken şu şekilde ifâde eder: “Nihayet Hüsn ü Dil-i Âhî tururken anun
mü’ellefi okınmaz.”30
Âhî Hasan Hüsn ü Dil’ini tamamlayamadan ölmüştür. Bu da onun Hüsn ü Dil’i (923) 1517’de yazdığını
gösterir. Yarım kalan eseri kayınbiraderi Haverî tamamladığı söylenmekle birlikte bu şekliyle de eser eksiktir..
Hüsn ü Dil önce Asır Gazetesi’nde tefrika edilmiş sonra da aynı gazetenin matbaasında Çaylak Tevfik
tarafından bastırılmıştır. 31
Hüsn ü Dil’in tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Türkiye’nin çeşitli kütüphanelerinde 40 kadar nüshası
vardır. Bu da onun çok sevilip okunduğunu göstermektedir.32
21
Necati Sungur, a.g.e., s.24.
Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s. 98.
23
Daha geniş bilgi için Fatih Köksal, “Türk Edebiyatında Hüsn ü Dil Hikayeleri ve Yenipazarlı Vâlî’nin Hüsn ü Dil
Mesnevisi”, Türklük Bilimi Araştırmaları, Sayı 3, Sivas 1997, s. 95-104.
24
Âşık Çelebi , a.g.e., s. 51b
25
Tezkiretü’ş-Şuarâ, a.g.e., s.194
26
Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.174.
27
Tezkire-i Sehi , a.g.e., s.108.
28
Tezkire-i Latîfî, a.g.e., s.98-99.
29
Osmanlı Müellifleri, a.g.e., s.67.
30
Künhü’l-Ahbâr, a.g.e., s.266.
31
Fatih Köksal, a.g.m., s.103; Âhî, Hüsn ü Dil, Çaylak Tevfik Matbaası Yay., İst. 1287 (1871)
22
405
�Hüsn ü Dil’in Konusu:
Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi, güzellik, gönül ve bununla birlikte bazı vücut organlarına kişilik verilerek
meydana getirilmiş tasavvufî bir aşk hikayesidir. Hikayede Hüsn ile Dil’in aşkları uğruna geçirdikleri sıkıntılar,
uğradıkları bazı haller sembol kahramanlarca anlatılır.
Hikayede; Dil(gönül), Hüsn(güzellik), Aşk, Akıl, Nazar, Himmet, Rakip, Hayal, Nağme, Rahip Zerk,
Gamze, Zülf gibi temel kahramanlar ve bunların yanında yardımcı kahramanlar diyebileceğimiz Namus, Tevbe,
Gayr, Nefs, Fahr, Tebessüm, Naz, Sak, Gayret, Şive, Ney, Çeng, Def, Şemayil yer almaktadır.
Bütün bu kahramanlar allegorik bir şekilde canlandırılmıştır. Hepsinin de karşıladığı bir tasavvufî mânâ
vardır.
Eserin konusu kısaca şu şekildedir: Yunan ülkesinde Akıl isimli bir hükümdar vardır. Karısı Nefs-i
Nefis ile birlikte ettikleri duaların ve adadıkları adakların sonucunda Dil isimli bir erkek çocukları olur. Dil
Kal’a-i Beden ve Hisâr-ı Ten’de devlet tecrübesi kazanması için yetiştirilir. Bu sırada öğrendiği “Âb-ı hayat”ı
merak eder. Dil’e bu konuda Nazar isimli adamlarından birisi yardımcı olur. Onun adına Âb-ı Hayat’ı aramaya
gider. Âfiyet şehrine gelir. Hükümdar Namus’tan, Şöhret şehrinde hükümdar Fahr’dan böyle bir suyun olmadığı
cevabını alır.
Nazar daha sonra Hayret girdabına dalar ve Hidayet şehrine ulaşır. Hükümdar Himmet ona yardım eder
ve yol gösterir.
Nazar yola çıkar. Diyar-ı Maşrık’ta bulunan Aşk isimli padişahın kızı Hüsn’ün bulunduğu Didar
şehrindeki Bâğ-ı Ruhsar’a gidecektir. Âb-ı Hayat oradadır. Nazar yolda çeşitli tehlikelerle karşılaşır.
İlk önce Segsâr isimli yerde Rakîb’e yakalanır. Himmet’in kardeşi Kamet’in yardımıyla oradan
kurtulur. Yola devam ederken Zülf ile karşılaşır. Zülf, Nazar’a bir kaç kıl verir. Nazar başı sıkışınca bunu yakıp
sıkıntıdan kurtulacaktır.
Nazar yoluna devam eder. Mâr-pâye’ye esir düşer, ondan da kurtulur ve Şehr-i Dîdâr’a ulaşır. Bu
şehirde birçok gariplikler vardır. Sonra Hüsn’ün silahdarı Gamze ile karşılaşır. Gamze onu tam öldüreceği sırada
Nazar’ın kulağında bend gibi bir gevher görür. Gamze’nin kılıç bağında ise hamayıl gibi bir cevher vardır. Bu
işaretler onların kardeş olduklarını göstermektedir. Bunun üzerine Gamze onu Hüsn’ün huzuruna çıkarır. Hüsn
ona bir cevher gösterir ve ne olduğunu sorar. Bu cevher Dil’in şeklidir. Hüsn Dil’e âşık olur. Dil’i getirmeleri
için Nazar’ın yanına bir ressam olan aynadar Hayal ve mutrib Nağme’yi katarak onları gönderir. Bu arada
Nazar’a bir yüzük vermiştir. Bu yüzük tılsımlıdır ve onu kötülüklerden koruyacaktır.
Nazar ve yanındakiler şehr-i Beden’e Dil’in yanına gelirler. Hayal, Hüsn’ün resmini yaparak Dil’e
gösterir. Dil de Hüsn’e aşık olur. Hüsn’ün yanına gitmeye karar verir. Bunu Akıl’ın veziri Vehm, hükümdara
iletir. Nazar, Hayal ve Nağme tutuklanır. Akıl bunları ayrı ayrı hapseder. Nazar yüzük sayesinde kurtulur. Birden
kendisini Çeşme-i Mîm-Fem’de bulur. Bu “âb-ı hayat”tır.
Nazar âb-ı hayattan içmek isterken yüzük buraya düşer ve kendisini Rakîb’in ülkesi Segsâr’da bulur.
Rakîb’in elinden, saç telini ateşe atarak kurtulur. Şehr-i Dildar’a geri gelir. Olanları Hüsn’e anlatır. Hüsn bir
ordu hazırlayarak Gamze önderliğinde Şehr-i Beden’e gönderir. Rakib’in oğlu Tevbe’nin askerleriyle
karşılaşırlar. Tevbe yenilir. Bunu haber alan Akıl, Dil’i iknâ ederek Aşk’ın ülkesine doğru yola çıkarlar. Hal ve
Ân’ın yardımıyla Dil yaralanarak esir edilir. Akıl da oğlunu kurtarmak için Hüsn’ün ordularına saldırır ve esir
düşer.
Hüsn Dil’i Çâh-ı Zekan’a attırır. Tebessüm isimli nedîmesi Dil’in yaralarını iyileştirir. Dil’i Vefâ’nın
Bağ-ı Dil-güşâ denilen bahçesindeki Çeşme-i Âşinâ’nın ortasındaki Kasr-ı Visal’e götürür. Burada günlerini
geçiren Dil’i Hüsn görmek ister. Dil’i sarhoş ederler ve Hüsn onu bu şekilde görür.
Hikaye burada kesilmektedir. Buradan sonra ise diğer Hüsn ü Dil’lerde konu şu şekilde devam eder:
Bir gün Rakib’in kızı Gayr Hüsn’ün kılığına girer ve Dil’e gider ve yanına yatar. Hüsn bunu görür ve
Dil’i zindana attırır. Daha sonra Dil’in kabahatsiz olduğu Hüsn’e bir mektupla bildirilir. Hüsn pişman olur. Onu
affeder.
Aşk’la Akl’ın gerçekte kardeş oldukları anlaşılır. Dil ile Hüsn evlenir. En sonda Hızır ortaya çıkar ve
dini vecibelerden bahseder.
Hüsn ü Dil’de Dil ve Üslup
Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinde 16. yüzyıl Türkçesini görmek mümkündür. Bu sebeple bugün
kullanmadığımız bir çok kelime eserde yer almaktadır.
Eser nazım-nesir karışık olmakla birlikte eserin nesir kısmı ağırlıktadır. Olayların anlatımında kolay
anlaşılır bir dil kullanılırken tasvirler, hitaplar Arapça ve Farsça tamlama ve kelimelerle yüklüdür. Olayların
32
M. Çakır, a. g. t., s. 14-16.
406
�geçtiği kısımlarda fazla tamlama ve yabancı kelime yoktur. Fakat hitaplarda, tasvirlerde ve metnin diğer
kısımlarında dil ağırlaşmaktadır. Sade olan beyitlerden birkaç örnek:
“Cihandan yüz çevirüp nâme gibi
Dilüm kesmişdim andan hâme gibi
Bütün dünyada bir yârim yog idi
Egerçi anda agyârım çog idi.”33
...
“Câhilüñ fahri kesb-i mâlledür
‘Ârifüñ ‘izeti kemâlledür
Bizi gör kim ne hâlimiz vardur
Ne kemâl ü ne mâlimiz vardur”34
Eserde Türkçe şiirlerin yanında Arapça, Farsça şiirler de vardır. Bununla birlikte Türkçe-Arapça;
Türkçe-Farsça yazılmış beyitlere de rastlanmaktadır.
Derya-yı dil ol cihanda ki bu rûzigârdur
Tecri’r-reyâhu leyse kemâ teştehî’s-sefeki”35
Eser oluşturulurken ağırlıklı olarak ayetler, hadisler, Arapça ve Farsça ibarelere yer verilmiştir.
Özellikle ayet ve hadisler metne ustalıkla yerleştirilmiştir. Kimi yerde ayetin ve hadisin sadece metne uygun olan
kısmı verilirken, kimi yerde de tamamı verilmiştir.
Âhî Hasan’ın Hüsn ü Dil’ini incelerken karşımıza çıkan diğer bir husus da eserin tamâmen teşhis ve
intak sanatı ile yazılmış olmasıdır. Eserde allegorik bir anlatım söz konusudur. Dil, Hüsn, Nefs, Riyâ gibi soyut
kavramlar kişileştirilirken ney, def, çeng gibi çalgı aletleri de kişileştirilmiş ve konuşturulmuştur. Eser insan
dışındaki cansız varlıkların canlandırılması üzerine kurulmuştur.
Teşhis ve intak sanatı bütün esere hakimdir. Bununla birlikte eserde teşbihler oldukça başarılı ve
canlıdır. Birçok durum ve olay teşbihlerle canlı bir şekilde ifade edilmiştir.36
Sonuç
Rumeli’nin Türk toprağı haline gelmesinden itibaren buralarda oldukça etkili bir edebiyat ortamı
oluşmuştur. Bu topraklarda birçok şair yetişmiş, bunlar çeşitli vesilelerle İstanbul’a gelmiş ve İstanbul’da edebî
bir muhitin oluşmasına katkıda bulunmuşlardır. İşte bu şairlerden birisi de Rumelili Âhî Hasan’dır.
Âhî Hasan, XV. yüzyılın sonu XVI. yüzyılın başında yaşamış, Niğbolulu bir şairdir. Bazı sebeplerden
dolayı İstanbul’a gelmiş ve burada ilim tahsil etmiştir. Tahsili neticesinde müderrislik yapmaya başlayan Âhî,
daha ziyade şair kimliği ile tanınmıştır. Şiir meclislerindeki sessizliği, içine kapanıklığı, rind meşrep bir yapıya
sahip oluşu, şiirlerinde samimî ve harâbâtî bir ifadeye dönüşmüştür.
Âhî, çağının sanattaki olgunluğunu şiirlerine yansıtabilmiş bir şairdir. Tezkireler onun şairlikteki
becerisinde hem-fikirdirler. Şiirlerindeki sadelik, atasözü ve deyim zenginliği, halk söyleyişine yakın ifadeler
onun orjinalliğini ve bu konudaki başarısını göstermektedir.
Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil isimli eserinden başka Divân’ı ve Hüsrev ü Şîrîn mesnevisi vardır. Hüsrev ü Şîrîn
mesnevisi, Hüsn ü Dil gibi tamamlanamamıştır. Divân’ı ise onun bir gazel şairi olduğunun işaretidir.
Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Hüsn ü Dil hikayelerinin en güzellerindendir. Eserin çeşitli kütüphanelerde 40
civarında nüshasının bulunması onun halk tarafından beğenilerek okunduğunu gösterir.
Tezkirelerden öğrendiğimize göre Âhî’nin ömrü eseri tamamlamaya yetmez. Tezkirelerde verilen
Haverî’nin eseri tamamladığına dair bilgi yanlış olup eser elimizdeki haliyle eksiktir.
Hüsn ü Dil hikayesi; güzellik, gönül, akıl, aşk ve bununla birlikte sembolleştirilmiş bazı varlıklarla
meydana getirilmiş temsîlî bir aşk hikayesidir. Eserde aşk uğruna çekilen sıkıntılar tasavvufî bir ifadeyle
anlatılır.
Eser, nazım-nesir karışık kaleme alınmış ve şiirler mesnevî, beyt, kıt‘a başlıklarıyla verilmiştir. Arapça,
Farsça ibareler, ayetler metinde ustalıkla kullanılmış, hatta metne eseri ilgi çekici hale getirmek için Arapça,
Farsça, Türkçe karışık şiirler yerleştirilmiştir. Eserin dili nesir kısmında, özellikle de tasvirlerde ağırken, şiirler
oldukça sadedir.
Hüsn ü Dil, dil ve üslup hususiyetleriyle devrinin özelliklerini yansıtan önemli bir eserdir.
Sonuç olarak şunu söyleyebiliriz ki; Âhî’nin Hüsn ü Dil’i, Leylâ ve Mecnun, Hüsn ü Aşk gibi kendi
vâdisindeki benzerleri içinde zirveye yerleşmiş mühim bir eserdir.
33
M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 64.
M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 89
35
M. Çakır, a.g.t., s. 98
36
M. Çakır, a.g.t., s 24-27. Bu çalışmanın kaynak alındığı tez: Mümine Çakır, Âhî’nin “Hüsn ü Dil”i, İstanbul Fatih
Üniversitesi 1998 (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi)
34
407
�
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430
Title
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Rumelili Bir Şair Âhî ve Hüsn ü Dil Mesnevîsi
Author
Author
ÇAKIR, Mümine
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5046b8f5906c71a3e762e094bcd645df.pdf
a407a689f53fb3d3d348a8c65e891309
PDF Text
Text
Bir Saray Okulu: Enderun
Suat ZZEYREK
Ali ERKEN
Giriş
Osmanlı Devleti, 16. yüzyılda askeri ve siyasi olarak gücünün zirvesine çıktığı gibi topraklarını da en
geniş sınırlarına ulaştırmış bulunuyordu. Doğal sınırların zorlandığı bu seviyeye güçlü idari, askeri ve eğitim
kurumlarının kalitesiyle ulaşmıştı. Adalet ve güvenlik kavramları da Osmanlı toplumunun sağlam bir yapıya
kavuşmasında etkili oldular.
Osmanlı Devleti çok milletli ve kültürlü bir yapıda olduğu için siyasi sistem farklı uyrukları bir arada
tutmaya göre düzenlenmişti. Farklı uyruklar için adalet ve güvenlik sistemi esastı. Osmanlı sistemine göre asker
olmadan devlet ve hâkimiyet olamaz, askere sahip olmak için servete ihtiyaç vardır. Servet uyruklardan toplanır,
uyruklar ancak adaletle refaha kavuşabilirlerdi.50 Bu sistemin kurulabilmesi için servetin genişletilmesi ve
korunması şarttı. Bir devletin güçlendirilmesi ve muhafaza edilmesinde yönetici sınıfının ve ordunun niteliği
oldukça önemlidir. Osmanlı Devleti’nin ilk dönemlerinde Türklerden teşkil edilmiş bulunan piyade ve süvari
birlikleri fetihlerin genişlemesiyle beraber yetersiz gelmeye başladı. Yeni bir askeri teşkilata ihtiyaç duyulunca
savaşlarda ele geçirilen esirlerden yararlanılmaya başlandı. Zaman içerisinde esirlerin azalmaya başlaması
sisteme yeni bir kaynak arayışına neden oldu. Bu kaynak arayışında sisteme mükemmel bir askere alma yöntemi
kazandırıldı. Bu yöntemin adı “devşirme” yöntemidir. Devşirme yöntemi, Hıristiyan çocukları arasından sekiz
yaşından yirmi yaşına kadar uygulanan bir çocuk toplama sistemidir. Esirlere “acemi oğlanı” denildiği için
devşirme yöntemiyle toplanan çocuklara da aynı isim verildi. Bu esirlerden ve toplanan çocuklardan daha iyi
yararlanmak için sıkı esaslara dayanan bir Acemi Ocağı ilk olarak Gelibolu’da kuruldu. Böylece kapıkulu
ocaklarının temeli atılmış oldu. İhtiyaca göre genişletilen ve mükemmel bir hale getirilen Devşirme Sistemi’nin
18. yy ortalarına (1747) kadar devam ettiği anlaşılıyor.51
Devşirme Sistemi; Ermeni, Bulgar, Arnavut ve Bosnalılara uygulanırdı. Boşnaklardan Müslüman
olduktan sonra kendi arzularıyla acemi oğlanı alınmaya devam edilmiştir. En çok acemi oğlanı toplanan yerler
Üsküp, Köstendil, Prizren, Görice, Taşlıca, Yanya, Pirlepe, İşkodra, Ohri, İpek, Kırçova, Foça, Manastır, Mostar,
İzvornik, Böğürtlen, Hurpista ve Akçakale idi.52
Acemi oğlanlarının sayı itibarıyla fazla olduğu zamanlarda bazı acemi oğlanları Türkçeyi ve Türk
İslam adetlerini öğrenmek üzere Anadolu’daki Türklerin hizmetlerine verilirdi. Sonra buralardan alınarak
muhtelif hizmetlerde kullanılırlardı.53 Diğer Devşirme çocukları yani kadrosu olanlar ise ecemi oğlanları
kışlası’nda terbiye ve Müslüman edildikten sonra Yeniçeri Ocağı’na katılırdı. Dışarıdan ocağa yeniçeri yazılmak
imkânsızdı.54
Devşirme, her zaman genel bir şekilde yapılmaz, ihtiyaç miktarına göre bölge bölge yapılırdı. Bu iş
ile ilgili bizzat Yeniçeri Ağası ile Acem Ocağı Ağası ilgilenirdi. Her türlü suiistimalleri önlemek için devşirmeye
gönderilen ocak zabitinin eline bir ferman ile Yeniçeri Ağası tarafından devşirme mıntıkasındaki dadılara bir
mektup gönderilirdi. Devşirme memuruna hiç kimse karışmazdı. Devşirme memuru kazalara kadar gidip çocuk
devşirmeye geldiğini tellallar vasıtasıyla köylere bildirirdi. Sekiz-yirmi yaş aralığındaki Hıristiyan çocukları
başta, papazları olarak ve babaları ile kaza merkezindeki toplantı mahalline gelirlerdi. Toplantı mahalli
genellikle mahkemeler olurdu. Çocuklar bizzat görülür ve kanuni vasıfları tutanlar ayrılırdı. Çoğunlukla her
kazada 40 haneden bir oğlan devşirilirdi. Fakat her zaman böyle yapılacağı anlamına gelmez, sayı bazen ihtiyaca
göre değişirdi.55
Devşirilen çocukların sayısını hesaplayabilmek için elimizde çok az veri olsa da 16. yy.da yıllık
devşirme sayısı üç bin dolaylarındadır.56
Devşirilen çocukların yetiştirilmesi ve eğitilmesiyle güçlü bir ordunun çekirdeği ile devlet
yönetiminde üst kademe memurları oluşturuluyordu. Bilhassa Türk kültürü ile yetiştirilmiş olan saray
devşirmeleri arasında devlet idaresini ele alan çok kıymetli vezir, beylerbeyi yetişmiş, içlerinden birçoğu da
50
Stanford Shaw, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu ve Modern Türkiye, C: I, İstanbul 1982, s.166.
Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, Osmanlı Tarih Deyimleri ve Terimleri Sözlüğü, C: 1, s: 448.
52
İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, “Devşirme”, İ.A, C: 3, s. 563.
53
Mehmet Zeki Pakalın, aynı eser, s. 445.
54
Mustafa Nuri Paşa, Netayic-ül Vukuat, C:1–2, (sadeleştiren Neşet Çağatay) Ankara 1987, s.153.
55
İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, aynı makale, s. 564.
56
Albert Howe Lybyer, Kanuni Devrinde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yönetimi, İstanbul: Süreç 1987, s. 55.
51
346
�sadrazam olmuştur. Görüldüğü gibi kökenleri ne olursa olsun bir insanın Osmanlı Devleti’nde yönetici sınıfına
girebilmesi mümkündü. Bunun için de Türkçeyi bilmesi, İslam dinini benimseyip onun düşünce ve eylem
sistemini kabul edip uygulaması, verilen görevleri üstlenmesi ve hakkıyla yerine getirmesi gerekirdi. Eğer
yönetici sınıftakiler ya da çocukları niteliklerini koruyamazlarsa reaya sınıfına düşerlerdi.57
Yönetici sınıfın yeni üye yetiştirmek için kurduğu çeşitli okullarda uzun bir öğrenim dönemi ve
hükümet dairelerinde çıraklık dönemi geçirmek gerekiyordu. İstek, yetenek ve şans Osmanlı düzeninde
yükselenleri belirleyen etkenlerdi. Osmanlılarda ırk ve din ne olursa olsun, yetenekli insanlara daha çok değer
verip onlardan yararlanmışlardır. Yönetimde kişisel yetenek ve başarı ile dürüst ve topluma yararlı davranışlarla
yükselmeye dayanan bir terfi ve ödüllendirme sistemi vardı.58 Nitekim Busbecq, “Türkler kendi soydaşlarını bile
kişisel yetenek ve liyakattan başka ölçüyle değerlendirmezler. Bu konuda tek ayrıcalık padişaha aittir’’59
diyecektir.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin askeri, siyasi ve idari yönetimi doğrudan doğruya Saray’ın elinde bulunuyordu.
O yüzden hükümdar, devlet adamlarının ekserisini tecrübeden geçirmek zorundaydı. Bu eğitim ve tecrübe yeri
Enderun Okulu idi. Enderun Okulu, kurulduğu yıllardan itibaren büyük bir gelişme gösterecek, Tanzimat
Dönemi’ne kadar gelmiştir. Enderun Okulu’na; Galata Sarayı, Eski Saray ve Edirne Sarayı gibi sarayların orta
dereceli saray okullarını bitirenler kabul edilmekteydi.60
Enderun Okulu’na alınan çocuklara “iç oğlanları” denilirdi. Bunlar, üç biçimde yetiştirilirlerdi.
Enderun eğitimi, günümüzün eğitim sistemine benzemezdi. Belli bir süresi ve programı yoktu. Her iç oğlanı,
hem hevesine göre yöneliyor hem de öğrenebildiği kadar öğreniyordu.61 İç içe girmiş durumda olan bu üç tür
eğitimi şu şekilde özetleyebiliriz:
Hizmet Yoluyla Öğrenme:
Enderun Okulu’nda hizmet yoluyla yetişme yedi oda içinde verilirdi. İlk iki oda Küçük ve Büyük
odalar, okulların hazırlık sınıfına benzerler, liyakati olan çocuklar birinden diğerine geçerlerdi. Üçüncü,
dördüncü, beşinci ve altıncı odalar; saray hizmetlerini tanırlar ve yaparlardı. Yedinci oda ise Has Oda idi. Has
Oda, ihtisas bölümü mahiyetinde olup, padişahla daha yakından temas imkânı bululardı. Her odanın kendine
mahsus dereceleri vardı. Bir odadan diğer odaya geçmek için kıdemli, yani eskimiş olmak şarttı. En son sınıf
demek olan Has Oda’ya kadar gelenler “çıkma” tabiriyle çıkarılırlar, çırak edilirler ve her türlü hükümet ve ordu
işlerinde kullanılırlardı. Çıkma müddeti sekiz sene idi. Çıkmaların yerine Acemi Oğlanlar Ocağı’ndan yenileri
alınırdı.62 Enderun Okulu’nda, Has Oda’yı bitirenlerin güvenilir, sadık ve yetenekli bir insan olup olmadığının
anlaşılabilmesi için çeşitli görevler verilerek denenmesi gerekliydi.63
Has Oda, Enderun Okulu’nun en önemli sınıfıydı. Fatih’in ünlü kanunnamesinde buna yer vermesi,
verilen değerin bir ifadesidir. Padişahın en yakın hizmetlerini gören bu odanın mevcudu kırk kişiydi.64
Teorik Eğitim
Enderun Okulu’nda bütün odalardaki çocuklar, kendi odalarına düşen görevleri yaptıktan sonra kalan
boş vakitlerinde yazı öğrenirler, Kur’an okurlar ve onu ezberlemeye çalışırlardı. Enderun’da eğitim ve öğretim
sadece Büyük ve Küçük odalara (Birinci ve İkinci Odalar) has değildi.
Enderun Okulu öğrencilerinin bir gününü şöyle özetleyebiliriz. Sabahları güneş doğmadan önce
kalkarlar, sabah namazına kadar Kur’an okurlar, namazı kıldıktan sonra Kur’andan okuyacakları yeni dersleri
alırlardı. Enderun öğrencileri bu dersleri de saraya gelen hocalardan alırlardı.65 Öğrenciler, günlük çalışma
programları bittikten sonra Hükümdar’a ait ne gibi görevleri varsa onu yaparlar sonra da derse başlarlardı.
Burada medreseler düzeyinde kitabî bir eğitim-öğretim yapılırdı. Türk ve İslam kültürü ile ilgili derslerin birinci
derecede olduğu görülürdü.66 Okutulan dersler; Türkçe, Arapça, Farsça, Edebiyat, Tarih, İslami Bilimler (Tefsir,
57
Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 167.
Yahya Akyüz, Türk Eğitim Tarihi, s. 101.
59
Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 85–86.
60
Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), Türkiye Tarihi, C: 2, İstanbul: Cem 1997, s. 244.
61
Sina Akşin (Yay. Yön.), aynı eser, s. 84–85.
62
Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, İstanbul 1977, s. 17.
63
Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 104.
64
Mehmet İpşirli, “Enderun”, DİA, C: 11, İstanbul 1995, s. 186.
65
Osman Ergin, Türk Maarif Tarihi, s. 14.
66
Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 14.
58
347
�Hadis, Fıkıh, Kelam, gibi) ve Matematik. Bu dersler arasında Türkçe, Edebiyat, Tarih ve Matematik dikkat
çekiyor. Şu halde Enderun Okulu’nun programı medreselerden daha iyi düzenlenmişti.67
Enderun eğitiminde, başından sonuna kadar titizlikle riayet edilen ilkelerden biri “çıkma” idi.
Hazırlık sınıfından Enderun eğitiminin sonuna kadar geçen süre içinde başarı ve ilerleme gösteremeyenler,
buradan alınıp ordunun çeşitli kademelerine verilirdi. Görüldüğü gibi üstün başarı gösterenler, eğitim süresini
tamamlayabilirdi. Enderun’da disiplinden hiç taviz verilmezdi. Çünkü çok değişik ırk ırk ve dini kökenlerden
gelen gençler, İslam-Türk kültürü içerisinde yetiştiriliyordu.68 Burada Enderun’un amacı da ortaya çıkıyor.
Kendilerinden çok şey beklenen ve daha sonra büyük görevler yüklenerek bu farklı yapıdaki çocukların
kültürlerini artırma, disiplin altına alma ve kabiliyetlerini yöneltmedir. Enderun’da kabiliyetli yeni adaylara
devamlı bir kontenjan bulunurdu. 1550’li yıllarda İstanbul’da Habsburg elçisi olarak görev yapan Busbecq,
Batılıların iyi yetiştirilmiş attan ve köpekten zevk aldığını, Türklerin ise iyi yetiştirilmiş insanlardan büyük zevk
aldıklarını anlatmaktadır. Türkler, olağanüstü bir insan bulduklarında, değerli bir nesne edinmişçesine coşku
duyarlar, onu yetiştirmek için hiçbir emek ve çabadan kaçınmazlar. Biz ise onu eğitmek için kendimizi zahmete
sokmaz, onu eğitmenin bize düşen bir iş olduğunu düşünmeyiz.69
16. yy. da İstanbul’daki hayatı yakından gören Busbecq, insan yetiştirmenin Osmanlıda bir hedef
olduğunu gördüğü halde, 20. yy. başlarında A.H. Lybyer, “İnsan sevgisini ve ana babanın çocuklarını kendi
hayat ve dinlerine göre yetiştirme hakkını hiçe sayıyordu.70” diyerek tenkit etmektedir. Hâlbuki aynı zamanlarda
Avrupa’da toprağa bağlı soy asaleti denilen senyörlük sistemi vardı. Sistemin en üstünde kral, tebaası sayılan
köylü de tabanda, en alt kısımda yer alırdı. Kral’la tebaası olan köylülerle doğrudan bir ilişki yoktu. Kralla köylü
arasında senyör grubu yer alırdı. Osmanlı Devleti’nde ise tebaa ile merkezi otorite arasında aracı gruplar yer
almazdı. Devlet hiçbir zaman bu tip araçların ortaya çıkmasına izin vermezdi. Osmanlı Sipahisi ile padişahın
ilişkisi tek yönlüdür. Merkez her şeye hâkimdir. Sözleşme değil, merkezin emri ve kanunlar söz konusudur.
Feodal senyörlerin, kralları ile ilişkileri ise iki yönlüdür. Senyörlerin hak ve yetkileri ile kralın hak ve yetki
alanları “şart” denilen sözleşmelerle tayin ve tespit edilmektedir.71 Avrupa’daki manasıyla Türklerde feodal
kurumların hiçbir izi yoktur. Soy teşkilatı ve asalete dayalı bir sistemde oluşmamıştır. “Bey” kelimesi doğuda bir
nezaket unvanıdır.72
Bir insanı ailesinden, yuvasından hayat şartlarından ve dininden ayıran bir düzeni kötülemek kolaysa
da bu uygulamayı 16. yy. şartları ve değerleri ve Avrupa’nın o dönemde içinde bulunduğu eğitim anlayışı ile
değerlendirmek gerektiği unutulmamalıdır.73
Beden ve Sanat Eğitimi:
Enderun’da çocukların yeteneklerine göre de bir eğitim vardı. Dersler dışında ata binmek, iyi silah
kullanmak isteyenler iyi bir silahşor olarak yetişirlerdi. Savaş sanatı öğretilirdi. Kanuni Sultan Süleyman’ın
binicilikle ilgili özel bir ilgisi vardı. Bu sporu yapan ve öğrenenlerle yakından ilgilenir onlarla konuşur ve
hediyeler verirdi.74 Güzel yazı, cilt sanatı, tezhip tasvir ve mimari gibi sanata merak edenler, musiki, şiir,
edebiyat ve tıp, matematik, mühendislik gibi bilimlere ilgi duyanlar da ilgilendikleri alanlarda sarayda görevli
bilginlere ya da ilgili sanatın ustalarına devam ederlerdi.75 Bu eğitimlerin önemli bir amacı da gerektiği zaman
bu yoldan geçimini sağlayacak bir mesleği kazandırmaktı.
Enderun Okulu, ordunun ihtiyacı olan nitelikli askerleri yetiştirdiği, merkezde ve eyaletlerde çeşitli
seviyelerde hizmet eden kişiler hazırladığı gibi sarayın mimarını, nakkaşını, ressamını, kâtibini, müneccimini,
şairini, tarihçisini, bilginini, silahşorunu ve müzisyenini de yetiştirmiştir.
Enderun, çalışma biçimi, programı ve işleyişi bakımından bir okuldan ziyade çeşitli hünerlerin,
sanatların, idari ve siyasi bilgilerin uygulamalı olarak öğretildiği, kabiliyetlerin tespit edildiği bir kurs ve staj yeri
gibi olduğu söylenebilir.76
Osmanlı Devleti’nde şüphesiz Enderun Okulu’ndan başka da eğitim kurumları vardı. Tamamen farklı
metotları olan medreseler vardı. Medreseler ülke çapında yaygın kurumlardı. Ülkenin üst düzey görevlilerinin
çoğunluğu medrese kökenliydi. Medreseler geleneksel eğitimlerinin yanı sıra tabii bilimler eğitimini de
yapıyorlardı. En yüksek düzeyde olan sekiz fakülteli (sahn-ı seman) Süleymaniye Medresesi idi. Buna rağmen
daha çok Enderun Okulu ön plana çıkıyordu. Aynı durum ülkede büyük Tımar ordusu (mevcudu 200.000 kişi)
67
Yahya Akyüz, aynı eser, s. 105.
Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186.
69
Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 76–77.
70
Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 56.
71
Mehmet Doğan, Tarih ve Toplum, İstanbul 1977, s. 125–126.
72
Ciro Truhelka, “Bosna’da Arazi Meselesinin Tarihi Esasları”, THİTM, C: I, İstanbul 1931, s. 59–60.
73
Stanford Shaw, aynı eser, s. 169.
74
Albert Howe Lybyer, aynı eser, s. 78.
75
İsmet Parmaksızoğlu, “Enderun Mektebi”, Türk Ansiklopedisi, C: 15, Ankara 1968.
76
Mehmet İpşirli, aynı makale, s. 186.
68
348
�olduğu halde sayıları 12–14 bin kişi olan Yeniçeri Ordusu için de geçerlidir. Devletin temel ordusu Anadolu’da
örgütlenen toprağa bağlı Tımar Ordusuydu. Fakat daha çok nazara verilen ordu ise Yeniçeri Ordusu idi. Bunun
sebebi İstanbul’a gelen yabancı elçilerin okul olarak Enderun’u, ordu olarak da Yeniçeri Ocağı’nı görüp, onların
üzerinden değerlendirmelerde, araştırmalarda bulunarak dış dünyaya tanıtmış olmalarıdır.
Bununla birlikte Enderun Okulu’nun ve Yeniçeri Ordusunun insan kaynağının sağlanma biçiminin
dikkat çekici olduğu unutulmamalıdır. Enderun Okulu, bir seçkinler eğitimi veriyordu. Aşırı bir disiplin
uygulanan okulda kurallara uyma konusunda son derece sert davranılıyordu. En küçük kusurlar bile
cezalandırılıyordu. Bu disiplin; sabretmeyi, zorluklara karşı dayanmayı, alçak gönüllü olmayı bir yaşam biçimine
dönüştürüyordu. Enderun’daki çocuklar biliyorlardı ki gelecekte sahip olacakları imkânlar bugün yaşadıkları
sıkıntıların sonucuna bağlıdır.
Enderun, dönemin şartlarından doğmuş çok önemli bir okuldur. Osmanlı Devleti’nin sosyal yapısı
çok kültürlülük esasına dayandığı için ırk ve kan bağının yerine kültür bağı ve birlikte yaşama sanatının
geliştirilmesi gerekiyordu. Bu dönüşümü ancak bir okul yapabilirdi. Ortak bir kültür, ortak bir vatandaşlık
sorumluluğu bir vatan kavramı etrafında oluşturulmuştu. Bir sistem, şirket ve devlet ne kadar sağlam esaslara
dayalı olarak kurulursa kurulsun zaman içerisinde zafiyete uğraması ihtimalden uzak bir durum değildir. Ezeli
bir tecrübedir ki tarih bu gibi örneklerle doludur. Hedef ve mahiyet itibariyle zirvenin zorlandığı zamanlar aynı
zamanda zafiyetin de başlangıç zamanlarıdır.
Devşirme sisteminin ve buna bağlı Enderun Okulu’nun Türk dışı unsurlardan oluşması nedeniyle
bozulduğu tezinin gerçeği çok yansıttığı söylenemez. Bu konuyla ilgilenen birçok düşünürümüz birbirleriyle
tezat halinde olmuşlardır. Osmanlı medeniyetinin dar anlamda da kurumların duraklamasına Osmanlı
yöneticilerinin kültürüyle Türk halk kültürünün arasında derin bir uçurumun oluşmasına neden olacak
gösterilmektedir.77 Buna karşılık Yeniçeri Ocağı’na Türk dışı unsurların girmesinin bu ocağı bozduğu tezini
gözü kapalı savunmaları, ne kadar korkunç bir bilgisizlik içinde debeleştiklerini gösterir, diyenler de olmuştur.78
Osmanlı Devleti, çok kültürlü bir toplum olmanın dezavantajını, milliliği ikinci plana atarak avantaja
çevirmiş, dolayısıyla farklı din ve kültüre mensup milletlerden endişe duymamıştır. Osmanlı coğrafyasında ana
kimlik dinden çıktığı için ihtida ettirmek sistemin temel amacı olmalıydı. Bu hareket zorlamayla yapılmayacak,
İslamiyet’i kabul edenler terfi ettirilip desteklenecekti. Yönetici grubun çoğunlukla her üyesinin Hıristiyan
kökenli olmasına karşılık, yükselebilmesi için Müslüman olması şarttı.
Enderun Okulu’ndan en dindar Müslümanlar çıktığı halde din değiştirmeden eğitimini tamamlayanlar
da oluyordu. Enderun’da kimse Müslüman olmaya zorlanmıyordu. Etnik ve dini unsurlara azami hoşgörü
uygulanıyordu. Enderun’da çok ünlü tarihçiler, sanatçılar ve bilginler yetişiyordu. Ünlü Osmanlı tarihçilerinden
Fındıklılı Mehmet Ağa, Kazasker Mustafa İzzet Efendi, Evliya Çelebi, Kâtip Çelebi ve Koçi Bey bunlar arasında
sayılabilir.79
Enderun’da Müslüman olmadığı halde Türk kültürüne ve devletine büyük hizmetler yapan kişiler de
yetişmiştir. Bunların başında Dimitriyus Kantemir (1673–1723) gelmektedir. Enderun’da rehine olarak
İstanbul’a getirilen kral çocukları da tahsil ve terbiye görürlerdi. Dimitri Kantemir de Boğdan Prensliğine tayin
edilen (1684) babası Kostantin’in devlete sadakatinin bir göstergesi olarak İstanbul’a getirilmediği için durumu
diğerlerinden biraz farklı olmakla beraber Enderun’un himayesine verilmişti. Dimitri, kendi dinini muhafaza
etmekle beraber Enderun’da okutulan dersleri, sanatları, Türk ve İslam kültürünü öğrenmiştir. 1687 yılında
Enderun’a giren Dimitri, Türkçeyi, Arapçayı ve Farsçayı öğrenmişti. Zaten Enderun’a girdiğinde Rumca,
Latince, Rusça, eski Yunan ve Fransız dillerini biliyordu.80 Türkiye’de aralıklarla 22 yıl kaldı.
Geniş bir dil bilgisinin de etkisiyle doğu-batı kültür değerlerinin güçlü ve anlamlı bir sentezini
yaparak Osmanlı Tarihi hakkında iki ciltlik Latince bir eser meydana getirdi. Dimitri Kantemir, bu eserini
yazarken Hoca Saadettin Efendi’nin Tacüt-tevarih’i olmak üzere Selaniki, Peçevi, Karaçelebizade, Naima ile
dillerini iyi bildiği Batılı tarihçilerden de yararlanmıştı.81 Çok genç bir yaşta İstanbul’a gelen Dimitri Kantemir
Doğu ve Batının fikir harmanında kendini bulmuştu. Halil İnalcık’ın deyimiyle Dimitri Kandemir, Osmanlı
başkentinde yeni kültürel yönelişe istikamet verenlerden biridir ama aynı zamanda İstanbul’un kültür ve fikir
hayatının da bir ürünüdür.
Dimitri Kantemir’in Türk kültürüne yaptığı en önemli hizmeti yazdığı Osmanlı tarihi ile oldu. J.
Von Hammer’in 1827–1835 yıllarında yazdığı Osmanlı Tarihine kadar Avrupa’da yüzyıl boyunca tek eser olarak
kabul edildi. Bütün bir Avrupa neredeyse Osmanlı tarih ve kültürünü Dimitri Kantemir vasıtasıyla öğrendi.
Osmanlı Devleti’nin yükseliş nedenlerini objektif bir dille ortaya koydu. Türk adalet, hoşgörü ve iyiliksever
özelliklerinin bütün uyrukları kucakladığını bunun da devleti güçlendirdiğini örneklerle ortaya koydu. Osman
Gazi’nin oğlu Orhan bey’e vasiyetinin devletin temelinin sağlam olmasıyla yakından ilgisini kurarak halka ve
hakka hizmetin esas alındığını hükümdarda acıma ve iyilik duygularının kaybolmamasını ancak böylelikle
77
Mümtaz Turhan, Garplılaşmanın Neresindeyiz, İstanbul 1980, s. 41.
Kemal Tahir, Notlar/Kitap Notları, İstanbul 1993, s. 33.
79
İsmail Baykal, Enderun Mektebi Tarihi, İstanbul 1953, s. 98–111.
80
Osman Ergin, aynı eser, s. 11.
81
Dimitri Kantemir, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Yükseliş ve Çöküş Tarihi, c:I, İstanbul 1998. s.24.
78
349
�Tanrının himayesine kavuşulacağını belirtir.82 Osmanlılarda yasa ve törelerin egemen olması merhametli
hükümdarların göreve gelmeleri, Osmanlı hâkimiyetinin Balkanlarda yayılmasını kolaylaştırmış, Hıristiyan
çocuklarının devşirilmelerini kolaylaştırmıştı. Dimitri Kantemir, Hıristiyan çocuklarına İslam eğitimi verildikten
sonra asıl orduya katılmalarını da yadırgamamıştır. Orhan Bey’in merhametli davranması karşısında duygulanan
İznik halkının gönüllü olarak Osmanlı Devleti’ne vergi vermeyi kabul ettiğini, böylece İznik’te Osmanlı
hâkimiyetinin başladığını söyler. Türk hoşgörüsünün kısa zamanda İznik’in nüfusunu, İstanbul’la yarışacak
seviyeye getirdiğini ifade eder.83
Dimitri Kantemir’in Osmanlı tarihine dair yazdığı eser, Avrupa’da heyecan uyandırmış kısa süre
içinde Avrupa’nın ünlü saraylarında tercüme edilmeye başlamıştır. Bu vesile ile Türk kültürü Avrupa’da sağlam
bir kaynaktan yayılma imkanı bulurken, Osmanlılar arasında da Batı’nın 17. yy. sonlarından itibaren başarısının
sırrını anlamak yolunda bir keşif başlattığı söylenebilir.
82
83
Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 74-75.
Dimitri Kantemir, aynı eser, s. 79.
350
�
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Bir Saray Okulu: Enderun
Author
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ZZEYREK, Suat
ERKEN, Ali
Date
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2009-06
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9ae4764f51ffc193d39e5cca3a2756ec.pdf
b0531b138502adc8e2ccec2fa51d7ffa
PDF Text
Text
The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student
Achievement in Geography Education
Serhat ZAMAN
Atatürk University
Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty
Department Of Geography Education,
Erzurum-Turkey (serhatz@atauni.edu.tr)
Res.Assist. Ogün COSKUN
Atatürk University
Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty
Department Of Geography Education, Erzurum-Turkey
Ramazan SEVER
Atatürk University
Kâzım Karabekir Education Faculty
Department Of Primary School Teaching,
Social Science Education, Erzurum-Turkey
Kenan TÜRKEZ
Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum,
Turkey
Nilgün ZAMAN
Geography Teacher In High School-Erzurum,
Turkey
Abstract: In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide
effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new
curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a
constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative
measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary
disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer
assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a
correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of
the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and
Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of
Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach
via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups.
Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical
program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional
methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student
achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the
correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of
the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the
findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by
means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography
classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional
methods.
Key words: Geography Education, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Teaching Methods.
227
�Introduction
Rapid increase in the production of information and technology and development of communication in the
world led to the extensive and easier access to sources of information and, in this way, drastically changed the life. It
became the initial problem of the educators to convey this accumulated information in every sphere to individuals
effectively and equally. For the realization of this transmission and retention of learning, everyday, new methods,
techniques are developed and new materials are used in education. With its subject topics, geography is one of the
courses which are appropriate for the use of different instructional materials. Due to this convenience, different
teaching designs and materials are developed in order to increase the effectiveness in the education and instruction of
geography. One of them is the Geographical Information Systems (GIS) which is more extensively used day by day.
In this study, the effects of GIS on the academic achievement of the students in geography education were
investigated by an experimental research. The study consists of two major parts. In the first part, definition of the
GIS, its role in geography education, and the utility of this system in the new changing geography curriculum in
Turkey are questioned; and, in the second part, the results of a study aiming to investigate the effects of GIS on
students’ academic achievement are discussed.
What is GIS (Geographical Information Systems)?
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) is a computer system which was designed to collect every type of
data, together with their coordinates, related to the physical and anthropological characteristics of the Earth in a
database, to make some analyses on them in line with certain purposes, and to illustrate the results in the forms of
maps, tables, and figures (Fitzpatrick,C. & Maguire,D.J. 2000,63–64). In other words, GIS is a computer-based data
processing program designed to analyze and visualize the objects and events on the Earth (Demirci,A.,2008a,11).
The system consists of basically four components. They are computer (hardware), programs used in computer (GIS
software), the data to be analyzed through software, and the user who would organize and direct these three
components (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Components of GIS, Reference: Demirci 2008a: 12.
GIS, due its name, is considered to be a technology developed only for the area of geography. Although it is
partially true, since GIS is a system collecting, storing, processing, and analyzing data, it is in an interaction with
many disciplines. GIS, a system helping the more effective services in various sectors, is a tool used to increase the
quality in decision making and solutions of problems. Due its content and scope, GIS can be used by all of the
disciplines and groups of profession whose domains cover the phenomenons of natural environments, variable of
time, and human beings which somehow represent a part of the Earth (Turoğlu,H. 2000,4). In this sense, GIS can be
228
�defined as a technology with the qualities that would facilitate the lives of people not only from the area of
geography but also from every part of society.
GIS in the Institutions of Education in Turkey
GIS, which used in many official institutions and organizations in Turkey, is utilized mostly by universities
in education. It has just begun to be used in primary and high schools. Since 2000, contents of all courses have been
gradually changed by the Ministry of National Education with a student-centered educational approach. Trying to
keep pace with developed and rapidly changing teaching strategies, Ministry of National Education advises the use
of materials, especially, GIS technologies equipped with computers in classes.
While GIS is used as an instructional material in social sciences, environmentalism, and sciences courses in
the world, in Turkey, it is used only in geography courses. Together with the change in the geography curriculum by
the Ministry of National Education in 2005, GIS began to be used in geography education.
Unfortunately, limitations of GIS use in schools reveal themselves in the curriculum. In the part related to
the application of the program, there is an expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities
in schools, teachers may develop GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). However,
since most of the schools do not have the equipments and facilities required for the GIS implementations and the
teachers qualified enough to use the data and software, they are not ready to use these systems effectively.
GIS in the New Geography Curriculums
The discipline of geography has vital responsibilities in understanding the relationships between people and
the nature and the relationships among themselves. One of the most important aims of geography education is to help
students learn the abstract and complex geographical issues meaningfully and far away from memorization and to
prepare the conditions required. Therefore, educationalists need the well-selected methods and materials to be able to
teach geography in the most effective ways. GIS implementations, the main concern of this study, can meet these
needs. For this reason, GIS implementations were put great emphasis on in the new geography curriculum prepared
in 2005.
Geography curriculum supports the use of GIS in the teaching of geography topics. In the program, it is clearly stated
in the expression “Depending on the technical equipments and physical facilities in schools, teachers may develop
GIS practices themselves or examine the existing ones” (MEB 2005,11). The suggestions for the use of certain
acquisitions in the program can be regarded as a clear evidence for this support. When globally analyzed, it is easily
seen that most topics (or issues) are convenient to be taught via GIS. However, for the extension of GIS in schools,
geography teachers, at least, should attain GIS equipments and make practices. Otherwise, it is certain that the
extension of GIS in schools will not be possible.
In the geography curriculum in Turkey, there are many activities which are appropriate for the use of GIS. Five of
the topics suggested to be taught by GIS are in the 9th, nine of them in the 10th, two of them in the 11th, and four of
them are in the 12th year program. The number of the targeted acquisitions in these topics is 28 in sum (See Table 1).
229
�Suggested
Number Grade Outcome Numbers
A.9.3
1
9
A.9.4
2
A.9.5-A.9.6
3
C.9.5-C.9.6
4
C.9.7
5
A.10.2-A.10.3
6
10
B.10.2
7
B.10.3
8
B.10.4
9
B.10.5
10
B.10.9-B.10.10
11
C.10.10
12
C.10.11
13
C.10.12
14
B.11.4-B.11.5-B.11.6
15
11
D.11.2
16
C.12.4-C.12.5
17
12
C.12.8-C.12.9
18
D.12.6
19
D.12.8
20
Suggested Topics of Activities
Maps (in the section of definitions)
Coordinate System (in the section of definitions)
Contour Lines
Climate of Turkey
Elements of Climate in Turkey
Thermal Springs
World Population
Population Change
Dynamics of Population
Population Pyramids
Categorization of Economic Activities
Urban Structure of Turkey
Differences in the Distribution of Population in Turkey
Dynamism of Our Population
From Production to Consumption
Span of Spread of Turkish Culture
Trading Structure of Turkey
Scenarios in the Population of Turkey for Future
Locations of Countries
Regionalization of the World
Table 1. The Topics in the New Geography Curriculum Appropriate for the Use of GIS (Demirci 2008a: 70).
Study
The Effects of the Instruction of Vegetation and Types of Climate Topics in the 10th Year Geography Course
through GIS on Achievement Levels of Students (Turkey-Erzurum Sample)
In this section of the study, the findings obtained from the instruction of pre-determined geography topics
(Vegetation and Types of Climate) to students in two different methods were presented. First of them was the
conventional method whereas the second was GIS-supported method.
The universe of the research consists of the high school students studying at schools in the city centre of Erzurum in
2008-2009 education years; and the sample consists of 86 10th year students from Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian
High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye in Erzurum.
Formation of the Experimental and Control Groups
Tests including the questions related to “Vegetation and Types of Climate” topics were given to all 10th
year students from both of the schools; and, according to the results, two classes (one experimental and one control)
from each school, in sum, four groups, were determined (See Table 2).
Research Group
Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School
Şükrüpaşa High School
10 Science-A
10 Science-B
10 Social-A
10 Social -B
(Experimental)
(Control)
(Control)
(Experimental)
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
7
13
5
14
10
Table 2. Research Sample.
230
14
7
16
�By this study, it was aimed to investigate the effects of the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate”
topics in the 9th and 10th years using the Geography Information Systems on the academic achievement levels of
students. Using the software of GIS, some practices were made together with the students and they were allowed to
develop their own materials. Later, on the basis of the material developed by the researcher, topics were taught in
connection with the data formed by the students according to the instructions. In this way, it was intended to help
students acquire the skills to use the program and participate in the classes with the materials they developed
themselves.
In this experimental research, the real experimental design, the model with pre-test/post-test and
experimental/control groups, was conducted. In this model, a pre-test and a post-test were given to randomly chosen
experimental and control groups before and after the instruction of “Vegetation and Types of Climate” (See Table 3).
G1
PRE-TEST
X1
POST-TEST
G2
PRE-TEST
X2
POST-TEST
Table 3. Research Model.
G1: Experimental Group, G2: Control Group,
Pre-test and Post-test: Achievement Test,
X1: The group taught through GIS implementations,
X2: The group taught through conventional methods.
Throughout a four-week period, the experimental group students were taught “Vegetation and Types of
Climate” topics enriched with the prepared course plans and activities based on GIS, and the control group was
taught the same topic through the conventional methods in accordance with the targeted outcomes.
Procedure
In the procedure of the research, the steps below were followed;
■ In the research, as the data collection instrument, an achievement test consisting of 20 questions which some
experts were councilled about was used.
■ A course plan was prepared for the activities to be held and the treatment took four weeks.
■ Both experimental and control groups were taught by the same teacher.
■ A computer downloaded ArcWiev 9.2 program and a projector were taken to the classroom in which GIS
implementations would be carried out and a list of instructions was given to each student.
■ GIS implementations were carried out together with the students.
■ In the control group, teacher-centered conventional instructional methods, in which the teacher, all the time, was
active, were used. In addition, maps and atlases were utilized in the classes.
■ During the classes, similar extra activities were carried out in the groups and the students were given some
questions and asked to answer in order to identify whether they had understood the topics or not.
Findings and Interpretations
While the mean of the scores of the experimental group students taught through GIS-based activities from
the test on “Vegetation and Types of Climate” was X =8,20 before the treatment, after the treatment the mean was
found to be X =14,65. On the other hand, whereas the mean of the scores of the students taught through
conventional methods (e.g., question-answer, direct instruction) was X =8,20 before the treatment, it changed to X
=11,39 after the treatment. According to these results, it was determined that although achievement levels of both
groups got higher the increase in the scores of the experimental group students was greater (See Table 4 and Figure
2).
231
�Pre-test
Post-test
Groups
X
S.S.
N
Experimental
Control
Experimental
Control
8,20
8,20
14,65
11,39
2,44
2,62
1,67
2,70
43
43
43
43
Table 4. Means and Standard Deviations for Achievement Test Scores of All Students.
As a result of the treatment, it is seen that students’ behaviors (knowledge) related to “Vegetation and Types
of Climate” changed positively. The differences between the achievement levels of the groups can be associated with
the student-centered GIS practices in the experimental group.
Figure 2. Pre-test and Post-test Scores of Experimental and Control Groups.
Results and Suggestions
Development and use of new technologies in education increase the quality and effectiveness of
instructional services. GIS is one of these new techniques. Furthermore, according to the observations, it was
understood that students are more willing for classes carried out through GIS-based activities.
As understood from the findings from the treatments, students’ achievement levels in geography courses based on
GIS technologies are higher than others.
When geography classes are taught by the conventional methods, learning based on memorization appears
and the topics cannot be remembered in long term. During geography classes, teaching settings which will involve as
many senses as possible should be designed. In addition, in GIS-based classes, education, being far away from
memorization, is realized by the participation of the students on the basis of practices.
Rate of retention in learning through computer is higher. Also, one of the skills acquired by the students
thanks to GIS-based activities, as pointed at in geography curriculum, is the skill to use information and
communication technologies.
More time should be allotted for the GIS use in geography education and, for this purpose; some revisions
should be made in the content of geography courses.
In a study on the utility of GIS technologies in schools (Demirci 2006,5), it was found that none of the teachers could
use the GIS Technologies. To solve this problem, use of GIS Technologies by teachers should be increased and
laboratories of GIS technologies should be designed and developed in the faculties serving to train geography
teachers.
232
�One of the most important problems in geography education is that there are not enough and appropriate
places to preserve the instructional tools and materials. Modern classrooms in which geography instruction can be
realized most effectively and the components of GIS can be placed and used should be formed.
As in developed countries, the utility of GIS technologies should be tested in not only in geography but also
in other, especially, science, courses. The most important components of GIS are data and software. Without them,
implementations of GIS are not possible. These sources should be provided to teachers and students by their
institutions.
References
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Karşı Motivasyonlarına Etkisi. Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. Ankara.
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Eğitim Dergisi (Sayı-178), pp. 105–178.
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8), pp. 7-26.
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Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Erzurum.
Taş,H.İ.,(2005). Cumhuriyetin Kuruluşundan Günümüze İlköğretim II. Kademe ve Liselerde Coğrafya Dersi ve Müfredatının
Değişimi. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi (Sayı: 14), 2005, pp. 311–330.
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Öğrenci Başarısına Etkileri (Erzurum Örneği). Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans
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Zaman,S.,Coşkun,O.,(2006). Erzurum’da Görev Yapan Coğrafya Öğretmenlerinin Sınıf İçi Performanslarını Etkileyen Faktörler
Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Kâzım Karabekir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (Sayı: 14), pp. 373–391.
233
�
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Extent
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405
Title
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The Effects of Geographical Information Systems Use on Student Achievement in Geography Education
Author
Author
ZAMAN, Serhat
COSKUN, Ogün
SEVER, Ramazan
TÜRKEZ, Kenan
ZAMAN, Nilgün
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In recent years, there seem rapid changes in education and teaching. In order to provide effective learning, new methods, techniques and materials are developed and used. Given the new curriculum of the course of geography (2005) which tries to keep pace with this change, a constructivist learning and task based approach emphasizing skills, including alternative measurement and evaluation, strengthening the cooperation with the main and secondary disciplines and reflecting holistic and thematic views are evidenced. Along with this, computer assisted geographical information systems (GIS) is one of the most important materials for a correct, clear and easy transmission of the new geography teaching program. The applied part of the study was conducted on the students of Hacı Sami Boydak Anatolian High School and Şükrüpaşa High School in Yakutiye Municipality in Erzurum city. In this study, the subjects of Climate Types and Vegetation in grades 9 and 10 in Geography classes were determined to teach via GIS implementation. The study was conducted by means of treatment and control groups. Achievement test was applied to both groups, the result were analyzed via SPSS statistical program. During the classes, while GIS was used in treatment group, in control group conventional methods were applied. The results were evaluated and the effect of GIS technologies on student achievement was investigated. It was seen that, though, in achievement pretest, the mean of the correct answers of both groups was seen to be close to each other, in posttest results, the mean of the answers given by treatment group turned to be higher than the control group’s mean. As for the findings of the study, it was seen that the achievement level of the students who were taught by means of GIS activities was higher. In sum, it was found that GIS based activities in Geography classes significantly increased the achievement level of the students compared to conventional methods.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in
Higher Education
Oktay Yagiz
English Teaching Department
Ataturk University
Turkey
oktayyagiz@hotmail.com
Kemalettin YIGITER
English Teaching Department
Ataturk University
Turkey
yigiter@atauni.edu.tr
Gencay Genc
English Language and Literature
Cyprus International University
ggencay@hotmail.com
Abstract: Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education
throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and
research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses,
dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is
widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to
communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking,
learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present
study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies
of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they
encounter in this process in English departments.
Introduction
As a truly international phenomenon English appears overwhelmingly the language of research and
publication as well as language of instruction. With this tremendous expansion, there is a parallel growth in the
understanding and preparation of non-native English speakers of dissemination of academic knowledge and scholarly
findings in higher education.
Disciplinary writing for academic achievement is of vital importance (Benfield, 2007; Benfield & Feak, 2006;
Coates et al., 2002) and academic writing in English at advanced level is a challenge for both native and nonnative
English speakers. University students are inducted into a particular discipline through lectures, discussions, readings;
and achievement of their academic performance is most commonly evaluated through their written assignments.
However, when these students embark on graduate studies, writing becomes more complex, demanding and
challenging.
As the number of the universities (68 state and 25 private institutions; YÖK, 2003), is increasing, serious
academic expectations and requirements concurrently come to the existence including within the reference of
scientific output. However, the debates concerned ostensibly confine to quantity but not quality matters. Most of the
above mentioned universities have English language related departments, the educational language of some are
80
�English, and finally almost all of the disciplines require their members to write in English prominently, journal
article, book review, thesis and dissertation. It is imperative to write in English, as an example, in that Social Citation
Index journals do not enfold Turkish journals.
Almost no studies in literature have been focused on Turkish EFL graduate students’ writing processes,
writing needs and challenges. To the contribute to this lacking field, this study investigated Turkish graduate
students’ English writing approaches and their difficulties that often affect their academic achievement. In particular,
this study explores how these students approach their academic requirements and expectations in terms of producing
academic text such as research paper, proposal, thesis and dissertation, how they compose these texts, and how they
feel about the writing experience.
Based on the above considerations, the present study takes qualitative case study approach to explore writing
approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they
encounter in this process in English departments, and how Turkish EFL graduate students approach to writing, their
strategies and their discursive and affective difficulties and challenges were explored.
Background
Given that the major language for the dissemination of academic knowledge, and going further, as the very
language for the communication of research findings, English plays a crucial role for students, who must gain
fluency in the conventions of English language academic discourses to understand their disciplines and to
successfully survive in the academia. The growth of English as the leading language for the dissemination of
academic knowledge has had a major impact around the world, binding the careers of thousands of scholars to their
competence in a foreign language and elevating this competence to a professional imperative. (Hyland & HampLyons, 2002, p.2).
This growth has inevitably been at the expense of other languages so that now more than 90 per cent of the
journal literature in many scientific domains is printed in English and the most prestigious and cited journals are in
English (Hyland, 2006; p. 24). Therefore, for most tertiary level students in many countries, mastering the right
English with proficiency in a certain discipline has become a matter of great urgency including the native speakers of
English.
In fact, there appears little surprise to see this need even among native speakers of English considering the
institutions’ expectations as the international norms (Hyland, Hamp-Lyons, 2002). Hinkel (2004) alludes to the
power of ability to use language efficiently and accurately stating that no matter the writer has supposedly a
remarkable idea there will not be any outcomes if the language is not salient and synthesized in an organized way.
With globalization and marketisation of the academy in an increasingly competitive and intermingled world,
the number of nonnative English speakers (NNES) students in tertiary institutes has increased not only in developed
countries but also in periphery countries. For the last a few years, due to economic growth and social demands,
Turkey has witnessed serious debates pertaining to higher education.
As the student population has become outnumbered and diverse in the field of EFL/ESL in accordance with
different linguistic and educational backgrounds, learning needs of students attract particular attention. In this
context, diversity has of considerable importance. Marked challenges reside in this distinctiveness of disciplinary
communication for students, in that; such disciplines displaying steady change and development requires students to
learn to master so as to succeed (Hyland, 2006). The professional and institutional expectations and requirements of
academics are in line with developed English-language-speaking countries sharing the same roles and tasks. Yet,
writing an academic paper in English for a non-native speaker of English, undeniably, having some disadvantages
will be more difficult and time consuming than a native speaker.
Ferguson (2007) asserts that linguistic factors represent a noticeable obstacle to negotiate in academia. Meyer (2008)
further emphasized the distinction between non-native English speakers who have spent time in an English-speaking
country and/or members of prestigious, internationally known research groups in their home countries, and, on the
other hand, being a non-native English speaking academic in a not developed country where English is not used as
the native language, or having not a chance work and conduct research under supervision or mentoring of renowned
NNES scholars or native English speakers (NES) expatriates, or being NNES scholars who have never left their
home country. He, thus, closely correlates both discursive (language related) and non-discursive (non-language
related) factors.
Bereiter and Scardamalia’s examination of writing process that distinguishes two types of writing that is
knowledge telling and knowledge transforming gives more about academic language proficiency (1989). The
81
�Bereiter and Scardamalia model of writing addresses a more psychologically complex type of writing that they called
knowledge transforming. It consists of thinking about an issue, obtaining the information needed for definition,
analysis and modifying one’s thinking (Hinkel, 2004). This form of writing leads writers to expand their schematic
knowledge, and develop new knowledge by processing new information taken for the purpose of writing on a topic.
Therefore, advanced cognitive and information-processing tasks entail transforming and demonstrating knowledge in
writing place, and it might jeopardize L2 writers’ achievement of writing.
At this point, language has always been a matter of significance to scholars no matter they are novice
researchers or experienced academics, since it is the basis of consciousness, thinking and interaction. Therefore, the
‘right’ language reveals that a writer is a member of their community towards the audience. The concept of
community draws attention to the fact that we use language to communicate with other members of social groups
each of whom has own conventions and norms as well as communicate with the world generally.
As for the influence of emotions on the ways in which students interpret, approach and experience the new
learning tasks, EFL writers’ feelings have significant effect on students’ academic writing. When adult graduate EFL
students are required to skillfully and productively write about scientific topics under stressful timed or testing
situations negative affective reactions become remarkably observable. Thus, many EFL writers demonstrate
enhanced writing anxiety, fear of evaluation, writer’s block, lack of motivation, and writing procrastination.
Conversely, these students may display positive emotional reactions such as excitement, enthusiasm, satisfaction
when they perform successful writing.
Both types of feelings affect students’ cognitive processes in L2 academic writing development. That is
why, L2 learners’ emotional mechanism in learning to write academic English, their psychological efforts to cope
with the stress of performing to write academically appear to be important. Pomfret and Medford’s assertion ,
hereby, catches attention:
“Academic success is not merely a matter of studying, hard work, and attendance. Emotions can interfere with
academic performance. These kinds of impediments are not usually evident to teachers; thus making the process of
working with students in the classroom that much more difficult” (2005, p.339).
Method
Interviews
To have a deeper understanding of the participants’ writing strategies and processes in line with describing
and interpreting their feelings, perceptions and experiences of these graduate Turkish EFL graduate students while
writing academic texts in their own voice, semi-structured interview was used. As a powerful tool to provide
insights in educational issues through understanding the approaches and processes of the individual interviews were
employed in the current study. Interviewing can take indifferent formats and the most common one appears
individual face to face verbal interchange
In each interview the participants were posed the questions listed below.
Interview Questions
What do you attach particular importance in your academic paper?
What are your feelings (e.g. motivational problems, anxiety, procrastination, writing apprehension) and beliefs when
you are to write an academic text (e.g. conference proposal, research paper or thesis/dissertation?)
What are the prominent difficulties and needs considering the academic expectations and requirements in your
graduate studies?(publishing, paper presenting, thesis/dissertation writing)
What language based points do you have particular difficulties and need to pay extra attention?
In addition to the questions, in the course of the conversation, spontaneous follow-up questions relevant to
interviewees’ responses also occurred. The questions were in English and they asked them to feel free while
speaking. Thus, in some part of the interviews, the interviewees preferred to speak in English. Their responses in L1
were then translated into English.
Prior to the each interview their permission were taken and they were given the general nature of the
research study. Then each interviewee was asked whether they had any questions or concerns before we got started.
Following this procedure, each participant signed a letter of consent to participate in the study All the interviews
were tape-recorded, then transcribed and coded categories. During the interviews taking brief notes also helped us
with the data analysis.
Participants
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�As for the criteria for selecting participants for interviews, three prominent sets of criteria were set forth:
first, all of the interviewees had to pursuing the same academic degree ( i.e. doctoral students), working in the same
discipline (i.e. English language teaching and learning) and have had some writing experiences including writing
conference proposal, attempting to write research article for publishing (whether their manuscripts hade been
published or not was ignored) and writing thesis or dissertation. However, they might be at the different stages of
their degree studies.
For instance, some of them were in their second year or beyond of doctoral studies, others were either on the
verge of finishing or had just finished their doctoral studies. All of them had their master degree having a thesis
writing experience. At the very outset of the design of the qualitative phase of the study, though some master
students were invited to participate in the interviewing, the further period of the study required to exclude the master
students’ participation
It was considered that the more experienced they were in writing in the academia, the more they could
provide the study with deeper insights as for the writing processes and difficulties. Selecting participants at the
similar stages provided the study with relatively fair comparisons and generalizations. Therefore, only doctoral
students were included in the interview part of the study.
Nevertheless, the gender difference was not taken into consideration for sampling the interviews since the comparing
differences or possible language use tendencies and preferences or particular challenges and needs between males
and females were not the purpose of the current study.
The four general themes that 8 interviewees touched in the study with some extracts are given below,
pseudonyms for the participants were only provided.
What was the same feature of all interviewees is that none of them have taken academic writing course
throughout their tertiary level education. When they were undergraduate students, their writing classes did not
include formal academic writing both in L1 and L2.
Students’ Remarks about Constructing Their Academic Text
Each interviewee was asked how they write academic text according to the disciplinary rules and
conventions, and what they mostly attached importance while writing, at both macro and micro levels.
Participants initially saw writing as an important tool to produce original ideas, generally emphasized originality and
creativity stating that main idea and the topic which might be useful in their field would be the most important
feature. They highlighted that even if they, according to them, were not so competent in writing as novice writers,
and they may somewhat dislike writing they had to gain the ability to construct new knowledge and show
themselves according to the norms of their disciplines. The fundamental compensation towards this demanding and
often difficult process is to be able to create new ideas and contribute to their fields. The following extracts from the
view of an interviewee exemplifies the relevant idea about the nature scientific writing. Below Matrix (pseudonym)
points out:
… What is more important to me is the original idea and if the writer’s ideas can contribute to the field. The
language related issues are most probably manageable. If your study does not serve to your field and original and
inspiring then your graduate studies means nothing, because it is not scientific to me…
In accordance with Matrix assumptions, Ufuk’s view attracts attention. Thus she states that “I don’t want to study
what others have already studied, at least from their findings I want to do something new and original.”
When they insisted on the originality of the topic, the flow of the conversation passed into the integration of
writers’ own knowledge and others’ ideas. As mentioned earlier, academic writing consists of thinking about an
issue, obtaining the information needed for definition, analysis and modifying one’s thinking.
What was significant that the integration of the self knowledge with others’ knowledge was directly connected to the
issue of citation rules and the ethical dimension of writing in higher education particularly the concept of plagiarism.
All the participants’ agreed on the sensitivity towards plagiarism. The following extract summarizes the common
point of view of the interviewees.
Serdar: We should as a researcher, we should respect for the others ideas and efforts, and we should cite them… I
regard plagiarism as a crime, a serious crime in terms of academic studies. I am quite respectful of others’ thoughts
and I do not copy their ideas, I just benefit from their ideas and cite the author… I care about it because it is quite a
sensitive topic, you should avoid it…
Ufuk: Ethics and giving credit to the studies that I use is also another part that I am highly sensitive about.
Yigit: …I want to underline that it is a serious and important issue, unfortunately in our country ethical sensitivity is
not given to the students from earlier period, and the current situation is quite bad in the universities, even in higher
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�education. Also I believe that integration of the ideas only in terms of citation rules is not so simple. It means more
than APA guide…
However, as for the obtaining this academic literacy in other words, going beyond from knowledge
transferring to knowledge transforming, each interviewee indicated that they had never taken explicit instruction or
made practice about the motivation of knowledge transforming and citation rules. In the course of the each
interviewee they pointed out they had never taken academic writing course, participated or made detailed practice
with any experienced academics. In contrast they inevitably try to acquire this necessary ability by their own efforts,
without getting any feedback and practice but in their own academic texts, i.e. in their research proposals, research
studies or theses/dissertations manuscripts, they could only assess their achievement at the very final stage receiving
the response from the advisors, referees or the jury, “it is accepted or rejected”. Thus, Dolphin’s view appears to be
important:
…While writing, I have many times I examined the articles on my own and tried to replicate what I have seen…
Organizational concern is another issue that mostly interviewees underlined. While they want to put forward
original ideas and constructing new knowledge, they at the same time tend to pay attention to the organization and
unity of the text. Their common concern appears to be building a coherent text. As coherence is the implicit and
quite abstract links in a text, they stated that they tend to use transitional devices as much as they can. Ufuk’s
statement exemplifies this emphasis:
I pay a great deal of attention to the format, coherency and organization. It is really important to me if what I am
saying makes sense to the reader, or if the reader can see what I suggest. I also like creating clear links and
transitions among my thoughts…
But all of the interviewees had agreed on they knew little about logical sequencing or clear progression of
the ideas. Thus, in the following extracts Yigit and Alex summarize the common perception:
Yigit: We have always read in the books while I was an undergraduate student in writing books and the writing
guidebooks now in my graduate studies that I must provide coherence, I should use cohesive devices. But I have
never been taught about these concepts and taken some recommendations from professional academics or writers. It
has remained at surface level. Still, I am doing my best and paying attention to this issue…
Aex: I think there is a close relationship between form and meaning and this relationship is an arbitrary relationship
between form and meaning which is inseparable. In our academic studies, to me, we cannot focus on only form or
merely meaning. Certainly both of them must be integrated…
As for the writing process, most interviewees indicated their approach to revising their texts both directly
and implicitly. Besides, the changes that these writers make remain at minor level. When they were asked their
revision strategy most of the interviewees, most of them regard revision as having their texts proof read or editing
on their own. They generally do not prefer rewriting and revising. The extract from Alex’s transcription illustrates
this situation
Alex: I believe that a text should be read and read again and at the end of the writing the whole text should be
examined more than once but not by yourself, someone else who is known as good in the field. Because you probably
miss some points and cannot see your errors. And I make some corrections in the text such as grammatical rules,
citation rules or punctuation.
Though they believed that revision is an important phase of writing they tend to do it at minor level and this
process is largely disliked. Baris’s statement can be attributed to the overall participants’ views about revision:
…when I am to finish the work, I don’t like last revisions much…
Graduate academic writers’ feelings and their affective difficulties when they write and their needs during
their graduate studies. Interviewees’ affective difficulties including motivational problems, anxiety, writing
procrastination and their psychological perspectives were explored. At the very outset of the interview Serdar’s
assumptions deserve particular attention:
I think while writing an academic paper such as proposal, thesis or research article the major problem is
motivation. It is one of the biggest issues in the modern world of academia today. The level of your motivation is
quite important in our stressful years of graduate studies. For example, I am quite a sensitive person and I am easily
affected by any kind of treatment, behavior even eye contact though I work hard and read many books or articles,
anything in my field. I sometimes feel that I do not know anything about my field, applied linguistics to say or write.
It is a great obstacle for a researcher. It is not totally related to my feelings, emotions my inner world. It is also
related to my environment you should be supported by your environment colleagues, advisors and lecturer in order
to minimize this obstacle. We, the researchers, should be encouraged and motivated by the others especially our
experienced instructors and supervisors…
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�In the course of the interviews though seemingly they did not want to explicitly state that they were not
satisfied with the current advisor-advisee relationship, and the graduate students tend to need more encouragement
and guidance by the other academics. Yigit could share his comment about his mood:
They always tell us write articles and make them publish, send a proposal to present for the x conference, I
expect a good thesis, it should be something and it should not be something. But no one teach us how to be able to
write a paper, a proposal or construct a good thesis or dissertation. And sometimes even their expectations turn into
lower than they give to us, that is worse, I think.
The participants, the graduate students, also mentioned the issue of procrastination. Most of the interviewees
tend to procrastinate their writing tasks. The extract taken from Baris’ statement exemplifies writers’ mood that can
influence their writing performance:
…I cannot use the days or weeks before the presentation of the papers effectively. On the other hand, when I feel that
I might not complete my study before the deadline I get over-anxious and it makes me feel sick…
Lack of motivation and burden of life appear to be their justification for delaying writing. When they were
asked whether they were satisfied with their writing performance, they clearly indicated that they had no self
confidence about their product’s desirability. They appeared not to have a perfectionist approach towards what they
produced rather they seem to have fear of evaluation, since they have no adequate experiences and have not taken
guidance from others. Hasan’s perspective is relevant to fear of evaluation:
If I have to be understood by the readers that is in order that my manuscript or thesis could be accepted I have to
clear and coherent. The days while we are waiting for an answer and their, for example advisor, referee, committee
are really tough. It makes me very nervous. It is our profession I have to be successful.
However, one interviewee regarded his anxiety as a positive trait to concentrate on his writing task. He was
very pleased with his anxious mood otherwise he thought he could fail in his graduate studies. Along with this, one
of the two female participants pointed out that she did not experience high level of anxiety though she said she is not
much comfortable since she studies what she is interested in and tries to create new knowledge or findings she feels
excited.
Discursive Difficulties that Graduate Students Encounter in Writing Process
Appropriate use of the core words and the technical terms in academic discourse are good indicators of both
professional or novice texts. Almost all of the interviewees centered their concern on the lexical difficulties. They
frequently emphasized the mandatory of formal vocabulary use. However, the interviewees’ sensitivity to the formal
and appropriate vocabulary and phrase use in their texts does not display direct proportion to correct and appropriate
vocabulary use. The major reason of this low performance could be attributed to the answers that posed during the
interview about how they tried to maximize the use of formal and appropriate lexical units in their texts were largely
based on their personal efforts to learn these conventions focusing on the text from the books and articles they read.
For example, their prominent strategy appear to focus on unfamiliar or unknown terms or phrases in an
academic text. If these unfamiliar units can attract their attention, they look up a dictionary and learn; finally they try
to use these terms and phrases in their own texts at the appropriate places of the discourse. The following statements
of the interviewees can be given as examples for their perceptions of academic writing difficulties:
Baris: One of the biggest problems is that I often feel that I use similar expressions in different parts of the paper. I
also feel that I have to shorten my sentences. Sometimes I cannot be sure if there are good transitions across
paragraphs. I feel I cannot express my thoughts directly and briefly enough. I know I have to read more…
Yigit: I don’t believe that we write consciously and creatively with the integration of conventions. I think I don’t have
serious problems about structure but to able to reach the formality in my text, I haven’t enough experiences and no
guidance.
Alex: To be able to use the right vocabulary at the right context is much more difficult than grammar.
Familiarity with technical and correct vocabulary meanwhile affect their fluency of their text; that is why,
their second problematic area in writing appears to be coherence and cohesion based issues. In fact, they have
already indicated that they pay considerable attention to provide unity and transition between sentences and
paragraphs. The term coherence is basically recognized implicitly and seen as a quite abstract concept, for EFL/ESL
writers, it becomes more complicated and difficult. They were all aware that their texts had to be coherent, in other
words there must be clear and smooth links between sentences and paragraphs. But they were not sure about how to
make their text “well organized” or “logical sequenced”. Their initial strategy to maximize coherence in their text
appears to employ cohesive devices, particularly, as observed, the initial elements were conjunctive adverbs (e.g.
however, moreover and furthermore), and transition phrases (e.g. in addition, on the other hand and in contrast).
85
�Discussion
The in-depth interviews aimed to explore graduate students’ strategies and their major difficulties both
affective and discursive while constructing academic texts and thus capture a clearer scene of their experiences and
perceptions. The findings of the current study saliently indicated that there is an overall lack of awareness and
knowledge abut academic writing and its subtitles. This inadequacy also contributed to the participants’ general
feelings of anxiety and lack of achievement in writing outcomes in their own disciplines.
The participants’ L1 academic writing experiences seem to be correlated with their English academic
English development. As one of the interviewees stated that students wrote essays in Turkish in a style (introductionbody-conclusion) that was rather different than English academic essay that currently they are required to write in
their academic lives, and they were not taught any particular academic writing style or genre. The findings of this
study supported the Cummin’s (1981) Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency theory in the development of adult
L2 learners’ academic writing. The results of the research studies can be quite related to current study, especially in
terms of how the participants’’ L1 literacy exposure and experience influence the mastery of L2 academic language.
Adult EFL/ESL learners’ positive or negative attitudes and approaches towards their native language can
influence their attitudes, approach, and motivation while they are writing in a second language. Their attitudes are
formed in the early periods of cultural and school experiences; ultimately an adult EFL/ESL student may transfer the
attitudes into his/her academic English writing in both positive and negative ways. As Cummin (1981) in
Interdependence Hypothesis asserts that “there is a basic cognitive/academic proficiency that is common across
languages which allows the transfer of literacy –related skills across languages (cited in Kroll, 1990, p.95).
Many Turkish students until embarking on their graduate studies appear not to have learned how to write
systematically except being instructed to be grammatically correct and writing in certain number of paragraphs.
Graduate students’ lack of awareness in a foreign language, English, can be attributed to the same reason. Given the
graduate programs of many institutes do not include or require academic writing course, it will be seen that students
know not much about the nature and the critical instruments of academic writing in certain styles and genres. This
little schematic knowledge contributes to the assumption that the expectations of academic writing rules and
conventions can be met by means of commercial proofreading and rewriting websites, and as two out of eight
participants indicated, academic writing conventions are allegedly confined to the mechanical aspects editorial style
in any ( e.g. APA and MLA) manual. These findings tend to support the premise which highlights the significance
and influence of native language literacy skills in the development of second language writing and academic success.
The study’s findings revealed that creating and organizing ideas to write in a text is the common concern of
the graduate student writers. As they attach significant attention to create new knowledge they meanwhile confront
organizing their ideas in a coherent and well-written way. The participants appeared to be much less worried about
expressing their ideas in accurate English. The emphasis on structural accuracy in L1 is seen also in L2 in students’
educational background; therefore they appear to have self confidence to achieve linguistic correctness.
To provide the right words in English to express ideas appropriately and accurately is a pervasive difficulty
for many EFL/ESL writers due to partly L2 writers’ dependence on the translation of their native language into the
English or cultural differences between two languages’ modes of expression. The EFL writers’ lack of English
vocabulary in terms of formality, rhetoric and technical aspects is partly due to inadequate opportunity to develop a
robust English lexicon through reading and writing activities.
Though mastering surface-level aspects of English grammar, vocabulary, and mechanics is of considerable
importance, writing at the academic level in a foreign language requires L2 writers to learn to think and write in new
ways including knowledge transforming, voice and identity that may be quite unfamiliar and challenging. However,
their awareness and experience due to lack of explicit instruction and affective reasons such as low self-confidence.
Interviewees’ ethical sensitivity is seen to be quite high, they frequently mentioned the original and creative
thought in their writings, In addition while using others’ ideas they highlighted the notion of correct citation.
However, it is not clear enough whether their knowledge and experience about transforming others’ ideas and
findings can discriminate the paraphrasing and patchwriting. As they have indicated they were not totally sure about
the performance and quality of their outcome about using others’ ideas most probably due to lack of practice much
about formal writing both in their native and English languages. That is why, originality and citation appear to be
regarded merely around the manuals’ citation format.
Fear of evaluation and procrastination seem to be the most common emotion among all the participants,
particularly when they are anxious about receiving negative reactions to what they have written and under time
pressure. The participants’ affective difficulties and negative feelings toward constructing academic text could be
86
�basically attributed to the motivational needs. In fact they indicated that motivation has an important place in their
academic studies. However, they generally manifested lack of self confidence and fear of evaluation; 6 of the 8
interviewees exhibited this low self self-confidence at various levels. If they could be supported both explicitly and
met their motivational needs in the axis of institution and supervision, they can be expected to achieve the mastery of
academic English writing expectations.
Among these adult EFL students, the study shows that motivation plays a crucial role in their English
academic writing development. The majority of the participants were considerably motivated to learn to write within
disciplinary conventions and norms. Although their intrinsic motivation in learning to write academic English
appear quite low, they seem to recognize the practical need of learning academic writing for largely extrinsic
reasons.. Their comments suggest that they are basically instrumentally motivated to learn to write academic English
because of both benefit and mandatory that it eventually gains in their academic careers and they seem not
intrinsically interested in learning to write academic English for its own sake.
Gender did not reveal different response tendency among the participants, thus the participants ideas and
their affective difficulties did not exhibit significant differences. However, what was important that, in line with
Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis, the female student indicated that her anxiety affected her positively; in this
case she thinks she can be more successful.
A general writing challenge that makes all students concerned that putting their thoughts in good rhetoric,
appropriate style and coherent way still need to be resolved . However, they seemed to be motivated to learn about
academic writing being aware of their lack knowledge and experience. What was another positive result can be they
all acknowledge that writing in their academic discipline is crucial for their survival in the academia and are eager to
improve them. In this case, it is possible to strengthen their enthusiasm, minimize the current gap and enhance their
achievement.
Conclusion
As English uninterruptedly expands as the leading language for dissemination of academic knowledge, the
question of writing effectively and in expected ways causes considerable challenges to students requiring graduates
to learn to master and so as to succeed in the academia. Yet, novice writers cannot be taught by only means of
cautions and threats, but they should be socialized into disciplinary ways of writing so that they can more easily
acquire discipline specific discourse concerned. Especially advisor-advisee relationship attracts serious attention for
the graduate student to be able to take part in the community. Supportive attitudes towards the students can
strengthen their self-esteem and confidence; moreover, it can help the students internalize their community.
At language level, the enhanced awareness of scholarly writing leads novice writers to selections at the
appropriate degree and phase. To achieve this awareness, explicit academic writing instruction both in L1 and L2
from early periods of education life should be integrated. More specifically, like the developed countries’
universities do, particularly North American universities, writing centers can assist students and academics about
their discursive needs of writing and can encourage their efforts and thus enhance their self-confidence with
professional support prior to their the evaluators ( i.e. course instructors, thesis advisors, or article referees).
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YÖK (2003) Türk Yüksek Öğretiminin Bugünkü Durumu (The Situation of Turkish Higher Education Today)
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�
Dublin Core
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Extent
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333
Title
A name given to the resource
Academic Writing in English: Approaches, Processes and Challenges in Higher Education
Author
Author
Yagiz, Oktay
YIGITER, Kemalettin
Genc, Gencay
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Writing is pivotal and good language use is marked in higher education throughout disciplines. Self-assumptions, others’ arguments, transformed knowledge, and research results are primarily given in written documents including articles, theses, dissertations and books. Though writing is often referred to as a skill or competence, it is widely acknowledged that writing resides in much more than solely being able to communicate what you already know. It rather stands as primary tool for thinking, learning and knowledge construction. Based on the above considerations, the present study takes a qualitative case study approach to explore writing approaches and strategies of nonnative graduate students’ writing academic texts and the difficulties that they encounter in this process in English departments.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a93ea8c4fd4201549992e127417f99ac.pdf
f9cebc21cb29e1bb7941b4b56f1a6e7f
PDF Text
Text
Teaching Religion in a Secular Society
Ali Murat YEL
Fatih University, Department of Sociology
Istanbul, Turkey
1. The Study of Religion in the Classical Period of Islam
Religion has been a social reality since the earliest known history of human societies. It is an undeniable fact
that man acquires everything in order to survive in this world from the society, in which he is born, raised in and
lives his life. The needs for his survival do not only consist of material necessities; he also needs some metaphysical
supports. The mechanisms that help man to endure in this world are generally called religions. In fact, systems of
values and beliefs are the major component of a society’s culture. Belief systems overlap significantly with the other
aspects of culture, for example, these systems may affect the cultural significance of rain, or even a recreational
pursuit like playing polo. Religions affect virtually every learned behaviour; therefore, they enjoy a central part of
the larger cultural systems in which they exist.
Since people learn culture, civilisations throughout history and geographical areas generated their own
institutions of learning. There may of course exist some similarities and differences among such institutions because
of local traditions, customs, and people’s daily needs, all of which might have required a specific discipline in order
to solve their everyday problems such as fiqh (Islamic law), or tasavvuf (Sufism). In the case of the various Islamic
societies, the term madhab, which could be translated as “school”, in fact referred to “sect” or “rite” of the people
who followed a specific teaching. As in the world of Christianity in the Middle Ages, religion played a very
important role in the world of Islam as well. The role of the Islamic religion has been so central in the lives of
ordinary Muslims that learning a science for them usually meant learning the tenets and rituals of their religion.
Unlike Western legal systems, the shari’ah (the codification of God’s law) does not differentiate between religious
and social matters, and it concerns itself with every aspect of social, political, economic and cultural lives of its
followers.
The idea of studying religion scientifically apart from philosophy, and especially apart from theology, became
widespread in the West with F. Max Müller’s pioneering Buddhism studies (1880) in the second half of the 19th
century. However, this did not mean that in the West there was no interest in religion and religious phenomena
previously. In fact, religion had been one of the prime subjects that had occupied the minds of Western men since the
ancient Greeks and many ideas and arguments had been produced about religious phenomena since then. Despite the
fact that the investigation of the phenomenon of religion from historical, sociological, psychological, and
phenomenological perspective and comparative religious researches appeared very late, humankind could not stay
away from this innate phenomenon since its beginning.
Thinking about religion and making interpretations of it, as well as of religious events, started in the Islamic
world already during the revelation of the Qur’an. First of all, the Qur’an makes it very clear that there is not just one
religion; there are religions. Therefore, the Qur’an makes a distinction between the Muslims and others in general;
for example, “Thou shalt not find any people who believe in God and the Last Day who are loving to anyone who
opposes God and His Messenger, not though they were their fathers or their sons or their brothers, or their clan”
(58:22). Even during this initial period of Islam, there appeared works evaluating the terms religion (al-din) and the
(real) religion (ad-din al-hakk) in addition to works about the religions of people of the book. The word used in
Arabic for religion is din, “obviously related to the Hebrew and Aramaic word meaning law. In both Judaism and
Islam, religion and law, though not identical, largely overlap” (Lewis, 1984:12). Of course, Islam is a din among
other dins but it needed to define itself as different from others. It did so by differentiating its believers from the
followers of other religions. Islam is defined in the Qur’an “against Christianity by verses rejecting the incarnation
and the trinity, against Judaism by passages abandoning some of the Jewish dietary laws. Far more important than
the rejection of Christianity and Judaism, however, was the rejection of paganism – the main enemy against which
the Prophet fought and from which he won the main body of his converts” (ibid.). As a result of this overall rejection
of paganism the Qur’an gave a superior position to Christianity and Judaism as against idol-worshippers. Therefore,
according to the Qur’an at least three kinds of religions in the world: Islam, the religion per se, other revealed
religions, and paganism. This three-partite classification is obvious in the Qur’anic verse as the pagans are excluded
129
�from the mercy of God: “Those who believe [i.e., the Muslims], and those who profess Judaism, and the Christians
and the Sabeans, those who believe in God and the Last Day and act righteously, shall have their reward with their
Lord; there shall be no fear in them, neither shall they grieve” (2:62). It is perfectly reasonable that the Muslims
should inquire about the categories of religions mentioned in the Qur’an.
The most important reason why works about religious subject matter and other religions came into being at an
early stage is the Qur’an, the holy book of Islam, which offered reflections on the term “religion” and on its
fundamental characteristics. Secondly, the abundant information on the prevailing religions of other peoples who
were living at the time in the Arabian peninsula contributed in a great deal as well. In several places, the Qur’an
mentions the Jews and Christians in the Arabian Peninsula, as well as the Sabeans1 and Magians2 who lived nearby.
It also speaks about the pagan religion of Mecca and the religion of Hunafa’ (pl. of Hanif, monotheists). These were
the Arabic-speaking monotheist people, living in that area, who believed in one God with the concept of many lesser
gods that included his daughters, Allat (the goddess), Manat, and Uzzah3. The Muslims made researches about the
members of the religions that they encountered in their everyday lives and debated with them according to the
information that the Qur’an had offered them. However, these researches were confined to the religions mentioned in
the Qur’an, only.
Later on, as a result of the expansion through conquests, the Muslims encountered many religions
other than their own. In the new circumstances, in which they had to live together with adherents
to other faiths, they felt obliged embark on new researches about these religions. The works of the Muslims on
other religions were generally of the nature of responding the criticisms coming from these religions and trying to
show the superiority of Islam. At other times, these works stressed incoherencies in and invalidity of these religions.
Therefore, almost all of them were written in an apologetic nature. The works of Raddiya (Refutation, polemics) are
the best examples of this genre. Thus, Raddiyas against Christians4, Jews, Magians, Dualists, and pagans came into
being.
The best example of these works is the book of the Andalusian scholar Abu Muhammad Ali b. Ahmed Ibn
Hazm (d. 456/1063) entitled Kitab al-fasl fi‘l-milal wa al-ahwa’ wa al-nihal (Book on the other religions and sects
and denominations within them). This book contains some critical evaluations of the Jewish and Christian sacred
texts. In addition to the al-Fasl of Ibn Hazm, there were other scholarly and more objective works, such as
Muhammad b. Abd al-Karim al-Shahristani’s (d.547/1153) al-Milal wa al-Nihal (Beirut: Dar al-Maarifa, 1961; Book
of Religions and Sects)5 and Abu al-Raihan Muhammad b. Ahmed al-Biruni’s (d. 478/1048) famous work known as
1
The Qur’an mentions quite favourably a group known as the Sabeans, who were by the second century identified with various
star-worshipping but still vaguely monotheistic sects in Mesopotamia. The Sabeans are tolerated in Islamic law, although they are
less privileged than the Jews and Christians, a position reflected in the ruling in Shari‘a that a Muslim may not marry their women
or eat their meat.
2 The Magian (the name is taken from the wise men or wonder-workers of the Middle East, the magi) is a person who
believes there is one God (Ahura Mazda “the Knowing Lord”) whose Good Spirit is constantly opposed to the spirit of evil. This
belief is also known as Zoroastrianism, which encompassed geographically the Persian plateau, the Arabian peninsula, the fertile
crescent down into Egypt and well up into the Anatolian peninsula where East meets West. The rise of the religions--the Judaic,
the Christian, and the Islamic--were in the Magian environment with its down to earth views of a contained sky vault or
firmament. Heaven as an actual place somewhere in the universe, could even be transposed as a paradise garden such as Eden in
an arid landscape on earth.
3
During the later period in Mecca, and above all, in Medina, the word 'hanif' is usually employed in reference to Abraham, where
the Qur'an’s author emphasizes the point that, 'Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but a 'Hanif', a Muslim, one who did
not belong to the idol-worshippers.'(3:60, 2:129). Since Abraham is thus represented as a 'Hanif', but was neither a Jew nor a
Christian, Muhammad must have viewed him (as he did not have the Torah nor Gospel) as a man who had followed the above
mentioned God-given disposition, and had cut himself free of the worship of idols. The Christians and Jews therefore, had no
right to claim Abraham as their own, as he acted according to natural instinct, requiring neither the Torah nor Gospel to submit
himself truly to God. 'Hanif' thus means for Muhammad, as indicated (in the majority of uses) one who is not of the idolworshippers, yet is neither a Jew nor a Christian, attaching himself to one of these religious communities.
4
As an example of a detailed study on the polemics written by Muslims against Christianity please see Aydın 1989.
5
This work was translated into English -I believe with a wrong title- as Muslim Sects and Divisions, (tr. by A. Z. Kazi and J. G.
Flynn, London: Kegan Paul International, 1984)
130
�Tahqiq-i Hindi1. The former work was devoted to the comparative study of religions in general while the latter had a
specific religion namely, Hinduism as its subject matter. In the introduction of this book al-Biruni complains that
“while the Muslims had been able to produce fairly objective works on such religions as Judaism and Christianity,
they had been unable to do so with regard to Hinduism and that, therefore he was going to attempt the task” (Rahman
1979:4).
The Muslim authors dealing with religions and religious phenomena generally adopted the classification and
the fundamental concepts of the Qur’an and then they considered other religions according to these terms. The
Qur’an first of all defines the purpose of creation as belief in Allah and living a life in this world according to His
will; it then classifies humankind into two groups in accordance with their willingness to accept this responsibility:
as believers and non-believers. The terms Mu’min (believer) or Muslim (a person who surrenders to the will of God)
are used to describe those who had accepted the message of the Qur’an and the term Kafir is used for those who did
not obey the religion of Islam. The groups that are defined as Kafirs and who remain outside the religion of Islam are
further divided into several sub-groups such as Jews and Christians who make up the ahl al-kitab (people of the
book), pagans, Magians, and Sabeans (their status is a little ambiguous since, they were also reckoned among the ahl
al-kitab by some scholars).
According to the accepted dogma of Islam, all religions that were revealed to the prophets are the same in
essence and all have the same divine origin. This religion, which was sent by Allah through His prophets to mankind,
is called the (real) Religion (ad-Din al-Hakk) or the religion of Allah; the last version of this religion which was
revealed to the prophet Muhammad is again called as Islam and it is accepted that the religion which was propagated
by other prophets earlier is the same as Islam. The Muslims who considered religion from this point of view regarded
religions other than Islam as false and corrupted. Their evaluations of them were mainly based on this understanding.
Their religious investigations in earlier times in general adopted this view and consequently these religions, which
were regarded as false or corrupt, were criticised. In the meantime, however, there were many other works on the
essence and necessity of religion and other religions in an impartial and scientific way. Philosophy of Religion,
which constitutes an essential part of the Sciences of Religion, was also dealt with intense care under the disciplines
of Kalam (Theology) and Sufism.
2. The place of the discipline of History of Religions in the educational institutions
throughout Turkish history
1
Tahqiq ma li al-Hind min ma’kula makbula fi al-akl aw marzula, (Hydarabad: Daira al-Maarif al-Nizamiyya, 1958). This book
was translated into English and edited by Edward C. Sachau as Alberuni’s India, (Delhi: Chand & Co., 1964), for an excellent
evaluation of the work of al-Biruni please see; Arvind 1991, Embree 1971, and Lawrence 1976.
131
�During the formation and progressive periods of the Ottoman state the discipline of the History of Religions was not
to be found in the curricula of the madrasas (schools), of course, as these institutions were the basic and perhaps the
most advanced teaching organisations throughout the Empire, there is no need to mention the fact that in other parts
of the country or schools the subject was not taught. The works on the History of Religions that came into being in
19th-century Europe had a considerable effect in the Ottoman state and consequently the program of the Darulfunun
Edebiyat Fakultesi (Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature) contained a class of Tarih-i Umumi ve Ilm-i Esatiri’lEvvelin (lit., General History and Science of the Religions of Earlier Peoples, “Mythology”) in 1874.
There were some attempts, especially during the reign of Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839), to reform the
education system of the country after the Western style. After the death of Mahmud II his son Abdulmecid (18231861) became the sultan. He was a modernist sultan and gave importance to education as well. He demanded to be
brought some brilliant students from all over the country to the Darul Maarif (a high quality private school that was
established in order to prepare students for the Darulfünun) in Istanbul. These students, upon their completion of
their studies were also sent to Paris to carry out their education. Reshid Pasha (1800-1858), for example, was his
grand vizier who had a great impact on him about the Westernisation of the country. Ali Pasha (1815-1871) was also
another grand vizier during the reigns of Abdulmecid and Abdulaziz,. Like Reshid Pasha he was also sent to several
European countries as an ambassador. This post enabled him to compare the education systems of these countries
and the Ottoman one. He was also of the opinion that the children of the religious minorities should be mixed with
Muslim students in the schools lest Greek and Bulgarian subjects have hostile feelings towards Turks. Since the
education of the Greeks children in Greece and the education of the Bulgarian pupils in Russia would make them see
the Turks as their enemies, naturally, such activities should be avoided; as a result, he suggested to open a new
school (the Galatasaray Sultanisi – Galatasaray High School) for these children (Akyüz 1985:165-66).
Although the decision was made in 1846 to set up a Darulfunun, the opening of this university was as late as
18631. According to the 1863 Act of Maarifi-i Umumiyye (general education) the university was to have three
departments, namely, Hikmet ve Edebiyat (Philosophy and Literature), Ilm-i Hukuk (Science of Law) and Ulum-i
Tabiiyye ve Riyaziyye (Natural and Mathematical Sciences). After the proclamation of the Second Parliamentary
Monarchy (1908), there was a course unit of Tarih-i Din-i Islam ve Tarih-i Edyan (History of Islam and History of
Religions) at the Faculty of Theology in 1911.
The madrasas of Istanbul were brought together under a new institution of Daru’l-Hilafetu’l-Aliyye in
accord with the Act of Islah-i Medaris (Reformation of the Schools, 2 September 1914; Akyüz, 1985:263) and the
Faculty of Theology was restructured as the Madrasatu’l-Mutehassisin (School of Experts) and at its department of
Kalam, Sufism, Philosophy, and a course of Tarih-i Edyan ve Mezahib (History of Religions and Sects) were taught.
Again, according to the Act of October 1917, the Madrasatu’l-Mutehassisin was transformed into Madrasa-i
Suleymaniyye (School of Suleiman) as a superior institution above the Daru’l-Hilafetu’l-Aliyye and at the
Department of Philosophy and Theology (Hikmet ve Kelam) the course of Tarih-i Edyan ve Din-i Islam (History of
Religions and Islamic Religion) was taught.
In the Republic era, that is, after 1923 under the effects of the 1924 Act of Unification of Instruction
(Tevhid-i Tedrisat Kanunu) Madrasa-i Suleymaniyye took the name of Ilahiyat Fakultesi (Faculty of Divinity) and at
this department the courses of Felsefe-i Din (Philosophy of Religion), Turk Tarih-i Dinisi (History of Turkish
Religion) and Tarih-i Edyan (History of Religions) became available.
The Faculty of Theology was closed down in 1933 and a new institution was opened the same year; at the
Institute of Islamic Research (Islam Tedkikleri Enstitusu) two courses were taught: Türk Dinleri ve Mezhepleri
Tarihi (History of Turkish Religions and Sects) and Umumi Dinler Tarihi (General History of Religions).
Three years later, in 1936 the Institute of Islamic Research was abolished and in 1949 the Faculty of
Divinity was opened in Ankara. At this faculty, at the Higher Institutes of Islam (Yuksek Islam Enstitutusu), which
was opened after 1959, and at the high schools of Imam Hatip (Imam-Preacher), which provided students for the
higher education, there existed courses of History of Religions.
In contemporary Turkey at the faculties of theology and imam-hatip high schools, History of Religions is
taught. It was Ahmed Midhat Efendi (1844-1912) who taught the course of History of Religions for the first time at
the Department of Sciences of Sharia in the Daru’l-Funun-i Osmani (Ottoman University). He also wrote a book
entitled Tarih-i Edyan (History of Religions, Daru’l-Hilafe, 1328/1911).
There was, of course, some information on the history of prophets and religious history in the history books
(like the books of Kisas-i Enbiya - Stories of Prophets), nonetheless; the work of Ahmed Midhat Efendi (Mudafaya
Mukabele ve Mukabeleye Mudafa, [Replication to Defence and Defence against Replication], Istanbul: Tercuman-ı
1
For a detailed history of the University, please see Ayni 1995.
132
�Hakikat, 1883) was very different in terms of the subjects it dealt. In it, Ahmed Midhat Efendi stresses the
importance of religious geography and he explains the significance of religion and theories of history of religion. He
also investigates religions of Mongolia, America, Egypt, Greece, Germany, China, Japan, Iran and India. If this book
is examined thoroughly, it would be obvious that Ahmed Midhat Efendi follows closely the book Manuel d’Histoire
des Religions (Paris: Librarie Armand Colin, 1904) of Chastepie de la Saussaye.
After Ahmed Midhat Efendi there were some other authors who wrote books on history of religions, such as
Mahmud Esad Seydisehri (Tarih-i Edyan, Istanbul, 1912) and M. Şemseddin Gunaltay (Tarih-i Edyan, Istanbul,
1919).
The book of M. Şemseddin Gunaltay deals with subjects such as the Science of Religion, History of
Religions, Philosophy of Religions, the origin of the Science of Religion, its historical developments and its current
situation in the Islamic world, the essence and classification of religion, the origin of the concept of religion,
primitive religions and finally, Chinese and Japanese religions.
Georges Dumézil taught the classes of Tarih-i Edyan at the Faculty of Divinity between the years 1924 and
1927. In the next six years (1927-1933) Hilmi Omer Budda gave these classes there. It was Fuat Koprulu who gave
the classes of Turk Tarih-i Dinisi (History of Turkish Religion; Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi
Yayınları, 1985) and Mehmet Emin taught Philosophy of Religion at the same faculty.
At the Institute of Islamic Research which was run between the years 1933 and 1936 Omer Hilmi Budda
gave these classes. Hilmi Omer Budda published his book entitled Dinler Tarihi (History of Religions) in 1935. This
work dealt only with the religions of India, China, and Japan, and the section on Buddhism extensively relied on
Hermann Oldenberg’s book Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die Anfange des Buddhismus1.
After a blank period, that is, the prohibition of religious teaching in Turkish Republic between the years
1936 and 1949, Omer Hilmi Budda taught History of Religions in the Faculty of Divinity until 1952, which was
opened in Ankara again in 1949. In the next two years Mehmet Karasan gave these classes and from 1954 to 1959
they were given by Annemarie Schimmel (Dinler Tarihine Giriş, [Introduction to History of Religions]). After 1959
they were given by Kemal Balkan and the teacher of many contemporary lecturers of History of Religions in Turkey,
Hikmet Tanyu.
There are 22 faculties of theology in modern Turkey and the experts of this discipline give the classes of
History of Religions. The researches that have been made in Turkey so far, have been mainly pursued in the
following fields:
1- The works of the Muslims (such as Ibn Hazm, Makdisi, Abu al-Meali, Razi, etc.) on History of Religions (for
example, Belenköylü 1991 and Gürbüzer 1990);
2- Investigations into some specific phenomena in certain religions (for example, the institution of Sabbath and the
belief in the Afterlife in Christianity, see Gürkan 1994, Paçacı 1989 and Atasagun 1989);
3- A comparative investigation of a phenomenon in various religions (for example, Adam, repentance, grace, angel,
pilgrimage, etc. in divine religions; see Adam 1989, Cenan 1994, Yüce 1975 and Erbaş 1992);
4- Works on sects or denominations (for example, Unitarianism, Church of Chalcedony or Suryanism (Syrian
Orthodox Church), etc.; see Çelik 1985, Albayrak 1995 and Bilge 1990);
5- The ancient tribes that were mentioned in the Qur’an like Ad and Sodom (for example, Yıldız 1989);
6- Works on the refutations of other religions (for example the Refutation of Tabari against Christianity; see Coşar
1985 and Güler 1989);
7- The religions of minorities in modern Turkey (for example, the Jews of Istanbul or the Protestant churches in
Istanbul; see Alkoç 1997 and Lekesiz 1983);
8- Interreligious relationships (such as the theme of dialogue and the relations between Islam and Judaism; see
Yılmaz 1995 and Ceran 1992);
9- Certain religions or religious concepts from an Islamic point of view (for example, Jesus, Moses or Judaism; see
Akdemir 1992, İlbay 1990, Kutluay 1964 and Tezokur 1992);
10- Works on the sacred texts of other religions (for example, Vedas, Torah, Bible, etc.; see Demirci 1988);
11- Works on the Turkish world (for example, beliefs of various Turkish tribes, etc.; see Albayrak, Ali 1995 and
Özdemir 1977).
As can be seen from the above-mentioned works contemporary researches on History of Religions in Turkey have
the following objectives:
1
This book has recently been translated into English by Shrotti (1991).
133
�a- They aim at unearthing the cultural heritage and its evaluation.
b- Some works have a specific purpose of understanding various religious groups.
c- There are also other works that try to give accurate information about other religions to the Turkish public in a
world that becomes smaller every day.
d- Some other studies try to define the nature of interreligious relations throughout history.
In sum, all these attempts should be considered in the light of the significance of religion in future. It should
also be mentioned that there are other researches and investigations in the subfields of religious sciences such as
Sociology of Religion and Psychology of Religion. These works have become increasingly sophisticated since the
1950s. Ziya Gokalp, a follower and a representative of the school of Emile Durkheim in Turkey made the first
studies in sociology. Gokalp, at the beginning, believed that Islam would have a positive effect on the progress of the
Muslim societies and it would help these societies to adopt modern institutions (cf. Gokalp 1917). However, he
changed this attitude on religion and its functions in society later and in the end religion became just one of the
elements of social life and culture. Religion, according to him, was now reduced into some rituals and activities of
religious groups or at most, it is one of many other institutions of social life. Gokalp, like Durkheim before him,
distinguishes between two sets of phenomena; sacred and profane. For him, there are two kinds of rituals in Islam,
namely, negative rituals and positive rituals. Negative rituals are individualistic rituals such as fasting, almsgiving
(zakah), avoiding gossip and praying alone. The aim of these rituals are making the individual a good citizen, who
loves his/her country (yurtsever). If these rituals are performed publicly, like praying the Jum’a (Friday) prayer or
pilgrimage, then, these rituals would become reference points for the harmony in society (Gokalp 1917b). The ideas
and beliefs of Ziya Gokalp played a very important role in the formation of the Republic and the consequent
revolutions as modernisation was understood in terms of modernisation in religion. In other words, the attempts to
create a new Turkish identity -independent of Ottoman or Muslim identities- were mainly based on the assumption
that if and when religious knowledge is transformed from Arabic to Turkish then Turkish nation would be freed from
the ummah (an entity that assumes all the Muslims in the world are just one nation). Apart from the fact that Ziya
Gokalp was the most important figure in Turkish sociology, the reason why he was so influential in Turkish politics
could be explained by his personal relationships with the current political figures. As that circle of friends came to
power his ideas gained a source of legislation.
Later, the researches in this field took Turkish history and Islam as their subjects, especially under the
supervision of and guidance of the works by H. Ziya Ulken (1979) and Sabri Ulgener (1981). The writings of
Mumtaz Turhan (1951) and Nurettin Topçu (1970) in the 1950s are especially noteworthy. M. Turhan investigates
social changes in the social life, the fundamental problems of the system of education and the question of
Westernisation in both theoretical and practical levels; while N. Topçu stresses the function and role of religion in a
changing social structure. Ali Fuat Basgil (1962) and Osman Turan (1964) wrote about the relationship between
religion and state which is a hot topic of discussion since the beginning of the Republic. The works of Serif Mardin
(1969) and Niyazi Berkes (1973) investigate the socio-cultural structure of modern Turkey, specifically trying to
define its religio-social and historical background in the light of the concept of modernisation.
The studies in the field of the psychology of religion, have a relatively recent past. Bedii Ziya Egemen
(1952 and 1965) was the first academic who did some researches in this field in Turkey. Since it is a new discipline
most of the work in psychology of religion are concentrated on the developmental psychology.
3. Some Considerations and Comments on the Teaching of Religion in the Republican Era
The Turkish Republic, which was founded on Ottoman soil, defined its ultimate purpose as reaching the
same level of contemporary civilisation; in other words, when the Ottomans felt humiliated against their Western
opponents in almost every field from military to politics, they decided to make their country modernised. In order to
reach this very well-defined objective it was stressed that the society should be Westernised immediately. One of the
elements of Westernisation was that religion, as in the Western society should be excluded from public and political
life altogether. For the supporters of such a belief, religion should be understood as exclusively an individual
relationship between man and God. Therefore, first of all the institution of Khalifate was disestablished on 3 March
1924 and with two new bills the state ministries of Sharia and foundations (Şer’iyye ve Evkaf Nezareti) were
abolished. The Religious Affairs and Foundations were not ministries any more, but began to be administered by two
presidencies under the prime minister. All matters related to education were monopolised by the state and the
madrasas were closed down. The religious courts were abolished. All of these developments were the first steps of
secularisation in the country.
134
�The tekkes (religious lodges) and similar institutions were also abolished. Religious dress was prohibited in
1925. In the next year, the Swiss Civil Code became the civil code of Turkey. This movement reflected a wholly
secular world-view. The second article of the Constitution, which proclaimed “the religion of the state is Islam”, was
abolished in 10 April 1928. The principle of secularisation was inserted into the Constitution in 1937.
As Serif Mardin points out Ataturk took the movement of Westernisation under his patronage since he
associated it with the contemporary civilisation. In other words, he just continued to execute existing attempts
towards Westernisation (Mardin 1956). Although we are against the generalisations as they make the social reality
appear to be analysed in simple terms but in order to elaborate our argument about the transformation of the Turkish
society from Ottoman to Turkish Republic we feel compelled to resort to some generalisations. Simply, Islam was
the main reference point in regulating the Ottoman society. Daily life was interpreted through the Islamic framework.
The Ottomans believed that their world supremacy proved that the religion of the state was right and there was no
reason why this belief system should not continue as it was. However, when the Ottoman state fell behind the
Western powers in the 19th century, the officials of the state felt to imitate the West, either through a reformation or
changing the status of their religion in the society. In fact, with the change in the superior status of the Ottoman state
the social relations had changed as well. There was no harmony between religious life and profane life; as a result
which the country was occupied by the positivist sciences and ideas.
Religion in the Islamic civilisation represents the ultimate organisational factor; that is, it is the most
important force to regulate daily life. Therefore, it is understandable that teaching or learning religion is an
indispensable part of a Muslim’s life. In the theocratic regimes religion was taught all students in the general
curricula of schools but if and when a regime becomes more secular, then religion becomes just another subject
among many other classes taught in the school. That is the reason why we are proposing a distinction between
religious teaching and teaching religion. As in the case of Turkey, the transformation of the country from a more
religious regime to a secular one, had an enormous effect on the teaching of religion. In the Republican era, with the
attempts of Westernisation, which usually means secularisation, religious teaching had lost its importance, and even
from time to time it was abolished altogether. Later attempts to restore religious education could not go further than
to place a unit of “Religious Culture and Knowledge of Morality – Din Kültürü ve Ahlak Bilgisi” in state schools’
curriculum.
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137
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Teaching Religion in a Secular Society
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YEL, Ali Murat
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Sustainable Development as a Course:
Social Service Applications
M. Ruhat YAŞAR
Education Faculty, Kilis 7 Aralık University, Turkey.
e-mail: ruhat@hotmail.com
Ömer AYTAÇ
Sociology Department, Fırat University, Turkey.
e-mail: oaytac75@hotmail.com
Abstract: This study includes a general analysis of the “Social Service Applications” course,
which became part of the curriculum of Education Faculties in 2006-2007 in Turkey within the
context of sustainable development. A holistic perspective that takes socio-cultural elements into
account instead of a deterministic view which stresses only the economic factors is very important
in sustainable development. Enhancing knowledge and policies must be shared in a cooperative
way, as improvement of social life is very important for sustainable development. Therefore, the
objectives and contents of the afore mentioned course is in line with the aim of utilizing human
resources within the context of social problems, which is very important in social development.
This approach which enhances the development of social life necessitates a new cooperation that
will secure cooperation between universities and society. “Social Service Applications” course is,
therefore, an important opportunity within the context of sustainable development. In this study, it
is verified that university students who are conditioned not to take responsibility without being
given homework get used to taking responsibility within the context of the course. The study also
comprises evaluations of what can be done to make the course more useful and efficient, as well as
its role in sustainable development. The study discusses the coordination between the university,
civil society and public management in the applicability of the course, as well.
Introduction
Along with developments that have occurred in the international system since the 1990s, the growthcentered development approach has begun to change. Politically, the end of the Cold War, the East Europe's
disengagement, a growing struggle for national independence, energy wars, ethnic turmoil, poverty, population
movements, lack of education and deterioration of ecological balance brought about the sustainability problem, and
thus, the orthodox economy that take man as the tool of development and the unmanned management have begun to
be questioned.
Today man is face to face with risks he produced himself rather than natural risks. Moreover, it is known
that these risks will not be limited to only one nation or region, because the fact that the world is an integrated whole
has been understood better. According to a United Nations’ Report (2001) it is estimated that the world’s population
will rise to 9.3 billion in 2050. Even this fact alone can lead to serious chaos in relation with basic needs such as
environment, health, and nutrition, as well as social and political issues. According to the same projection, there is a
high probability that in 2025, 48 countries will suffer from water scarcity and dozens of countries will be inflicted
with poverty, hunger, terrorism and conflicts (Şenyüz, 2001).
85 years ago, B. Russell assumed that industrialization will bring abundance to the present generation,
poverty to the second generation and famine to the third generation unless preventive measures are not taken. In
modern world, where defense expenses and money paid for weapons reach tremendous levels, idealogies that are
built on the idea that resources are scarce have no meaning. Probably the most lethal weapon is the idea that
resources are insufficient, because human beings have been in a merciless struggle against each other and the nature
over the issue of utilizing the resources since the industrial revolution, and thus have begun to threaten the future of
humanity. Factors such as two world wars in the 20th Century, the cold war period, industrialization, unfair
distribution of income, poverty, population growth have destroyed the natural and social environment rapidly.
Social and environmental problems obscure the issue of what is rational and what is irrational. Hence, the
end of wealth state, Chernobyl disaster and the collapse of the Berlin Wall are actually seen as signs of ambiguous
rationality/irrationality. The search for sustainable development has drawn a great deal of attention due to the risks
these indicators point to. Risk society alludes to evident ambiguity, dread created by illusion about borders and the
world’s farewell to order (Bech, 1999: 9). Today, a new era has begun, in which security has replaced values such as
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�equality and freedom and impulse of ‘fear’ in societies with a cast system (Bech, 1992: 49). According to
Baudrillard, these general feelings of insecurity are the price of being a consumption society. In fact, his insecurity
and fear is not in vain. From this perspective, first of all, it is necessary to rethink the question whether environment
is part of the economy or vica versa.
Method
In this study, first a literature survey on sustainable development was conducted and later the relationship
between sustainable development, civil society, and education was probed. It also includes an account of the
discussions among specialists at a worshop in Mersin, Turkey over the issue of the “Social Service Applications
Course”. Later, a focus group study was implemented within the context of the course and as part of this study
leaders of the six groups formed earlier were asked to express their feelings and experiences concerning the course
activities. The discussions were tape-recorded. In this qualitative study, the problems they encountered and their
suggestions to solve the problems, their views about the course, their impressions of the host-institution, were
evaluated. The focus group study took about four hours, and each participant talked for about 45 minutes. However,
the speeches were not in the form of monologues, but rather conversations. The discussions and evaluations that took
place in the focus group study were summarized and were included in the present study in the form of brief items.
Sustainable Development
Today, most countries argue for the best ways of development on the one hand and are face to face with a
new concept, sustainable development, which criticizes present development perspective, on the other. The term
‘sustainable development’, which came around in 1970s, means programming the present and future in a way that
addresses the needs of future generations by building a balance between human beings and nature and without
exhausting natural resources. In this sense, sustainable development is a modernization style that is reflected in the
aphorism that “the world is entrusted to us by our grandchildren”. The term ‘sustainable development’, which stands
for the permanence of a quantitative and qualitative development, has also been defined as “addressing today’s needs
without making a concession on future generations’ opportunity to meet their own needs.” (T.Ç.V., 1987: 31-67);
(OECD, 2001). Although the term seems to emphasize the importance of environmental protection, it comprises
topics such as improving life quality, immigration, population explosion, as well as social problems such as
urbanization, health problems and poverty (TÜBİTAK, 2002: 3). For instance, at the Johannesburg Conference in
2002, issues such as fighting poverty, planning the utilization of natural resources in global action against poverty,
and the relationship between poverty and the environment were discussed (UNDESA, 2003: 4).
Human-environment interaction takes place in essence upon the basis of values that determine the basic
codes of human behavior. As culture is the damage inflicted on the nature on the one hand and a process of
adaptation to natural environment on the other, improvement of culture and social behavior is very important for
sustainable development. But, this is too difficult to be performed by modern culture. According to D. Bell,
economization is the principle of modern social structure. That is, it means directing resources towards the targets of
the least cost and highest profit. That is why there is a serious crisis in cultural tendencies in most countries today.
Economization attaches importance to rationality, whereas new cultural movements stress antirational behavioral
models. Bell thinks that this fact is the historical crisis of modern societies and it affects the society deeply (Belek,
1997: 154-155). In his Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism, Bell asserts that the modernist culture destroys the
values of daily life and natural life. He argues that this atmosphere has incited hedonistic motives that do not comply
with the professional disciplines in the society. Moreover, the modernist culture is in completely opposition to the
moral bases of objectivist and rationalist life perspective. Besides, there are contradictions between sustainable
development and not only ideologies but also national interests. Such elements reflect the tendency to spoil the
ecosystem. The risk concept, which implies possible hazards in the ecological, social and cultural structure, is closely
related to sustainable development. Risk entails threats that are efficiently estimated by taking future possibilities
into account. The fact that risks pertain to modern societies rather than traditional ones is closely related to rational
thinking and the need to determine the future (Yıldırım, 2000: 78-83). Ambiguity and unaccountability that occurred
as a result of the extreme rationalism is an important criterion of a transition from industrial society to the risk
society.
Modern capitalism differs from all previous systems with this conduct towards future and risks the future in
its gain-loss estimation. The relationship between modernization and risk is hidden in the dynamism of risk, which
leads to change and brings the society into action. This process which forms the notion of growth is thought to be an
important cause of both environmental and social instability. According to Baudrillard, the current capitalist system
50
�declines while expanding and at this point where it survives as its own parasite it consumes its own essence as it
reproduces itself (Baudrillard, 1997: 35-36). In the next 50 years, the world’s income is expected to increase by 3 %
and this increase means that the world’s annual gross product will quadruple. Such increase in income and gross
national product may lead to constraints on environmental and social structures unless consumption and production
models are changed. Taken with fast population growth, the consumption pressure on natural resources will reach
alarmingly high levels. This trend of increasing consumption (both public and private) will not only further increase
consumption in transportation, tourism, energy and commodities, but also result in the disposal of more harmful
waste. Therefore, it is very important to adopt consumption and production models that will secure sustainability of
natural resources. However, it is a fact that the patterns of sustainable consumption which is one of the most
important factors of sustainable development is not covered in the social studies books. So, it is useful to insert into
the curriculum the subjects such as the patterns of children’s and adults’ expenditures. In this curriculum, it is very
important to teach the values related to thriftyness and economizing.
It might be argued that the capitalist rationalism, which does not care about future, uses the concept of
sustainable development to overcome the current crisis (Minibaş, 2001). Hence, while taking into account the role
given to education in sustainable development we have to contend that the logic producing this concept is the same
as the logic that produces problems sustainable development. In this sense, we must underline not only the problems,
but also the causes of problems and this consumer mentality in all course books from primary schools to university.
So, it is the time to adopt values that care about the sustainability of life rather than the development that is based on
excessive consumption; because, as Einstein said, "we cannot solve problems by residing in the logic that produced
those problems”. However, determining these values is not enough for sustainable development. What is more
important is how to get students and the society to assimilate these values and behaviors. Thus, the main objective of
education is to address the question of how to transfer these values.
Sustainable Development and Education
As sustainable development is based on an environment, economy and society-based knowledge, education
and sustainability are inevitably linked to each other. Education is the key institution for a sustainable future.
Actullay, many problems evaluated as part of sustainable development are based on ignorance. Today, population
growth and poverty are two examples for such problems. So indeed, poverty and population growth account for
natural and social problems. Rapid population growth and increasing needs cause the depletion of environmental
resources. Population and poverty decreases environmental sensitivity.
Problems regarding this issue are related to people's behavior and attitudes, so individuals have to be
educated from cognitive, affective and behavioral perspectives. Beyond technology and capital, sustainable
development, necessitates a community's social and mental transformation, flexibility, self-reliance and
entrepreneurship, creativity and problem solving skills. Therefore, the roots of development phenomenon lie in
education, organization self discipline and self-confidence of individuals and the habit of cooperation, rather than
economics, because development cannot be created by grafting operations of a handful of elite groups. This, in turn,
requires a process that includes the education, organization and discipline of the community. Therefore, it was
deemed to be important to have students gain awareness of a sustainable society within the framework of education
for sustainable development, and decisions made for this purpose on various platforms began to take effect in time
globally. Creating the necessary infrastructure to reach information and recognizing the value of education has been
the most important issue in this process.
In a report published after a meeting in Founex, Switzerland in 1971, it is asserted that environmental
problems are not related only to industrialized countries, but that poverty and under-development are also effective in
environmental issues in the world (Karbuz, 2002: 9). This result, which created the sustainable development
approach, caused many developing countries to join 'People and the Environment' conference held in Stockholm in
1972. The term 'development not excluding the environment’ which was first coined by Secretary General Mauricoe
Strong at the Stockholm Environment Conference in 1972, envisages a development strategy that aims at fair
utilization from local resources. This term further expanded with Cocoyos Declaration in 1974 and contained helping
people in their education and organization activities so that they can enjoy the resources in the economic system
(Keleş and Hamamcı, 1993: 139). The 1972 Stockholm Conference on Environment and People is an important stage
showing that the environment-related issues are also related to politics and ideology (Keleş, 1992: 152).
The environmental education gained a global dimension at the "United Nations Conference on Human
Environment" in Stockholm in 1972, and with the impact of this conference, in 1975 a survey was carried out about
“Evaluation of Resources for Environmental Education” in 136 countries that were UNESCO Environment Agency
members (UNESCO, 1975). The survey showed that environmental education practices were very poor, and
51
�therefore, the International Environmental Education Program (IEEP) was founded in cooperation with UNESCO
and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) with the aim of resolving these limitations. In 1977, the first
Intergovernmental Environmental Education Conference was held in Tbilisi in cooperation with UNESCO and
UNEP, and ministers of various countries participated in the conference. The declaration and recommendations of
Tbilisi Conference were a turning point in terms of giving environmental education due attention in national
curriculums. The documents created at this conference specified the broad context of environmental education at
national and international levels, as well as its characteristics, goals and teaching principles (UNESCO, 1977). At the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the IEEP was
commissioned to bring a “sustainable development dimension” to education (UNCED, 1992). Education for
sustainable development was discussed for the first time at Rio Conference 1992 (Agenda 21, Section 36) under the
heading "Encouraging teaching, public awareness and education”, and in 1997 the United Nations organized a
conference titled "International Conference on Environment and Society: Education and Public Awareness for
Sustainability” in Thessalonilci (UNESCO, 1997). After this conference, the United Nations Economic Council for
Europe (UNECE), defined education for sustainable development in a document titled "Vision of Education Strategy
for Sustainable Development" as follows:
"Sustainable development for the education develops and strengthens individuals’, groups’, communities’,
institutions’ and countries’ capacity to make assessments and choices in favor of sustainable development. Changing
perspectives of individuals, it makes the world more secure, healthier and more prosperous, and increases people's
quality of life. Education for sustainable development may provide more opportunities for discovery of new visions
and concepts and new methods/tools that are necessary for the development of critical thinking and more
awareness."
As is seen in the above statement, four important issues come to the fore, which are the restructuring of
education, development of human resources, social awareness and the development of quality of life. In this context,
while a 'problem-based' approach was developed in Stockholm, an integrated approach sustainable economic growth
and development of human resources was adopted in Rio (Füsunoğlu, 1997: 15). Taking these targets into account,
achieving sustainable development does not seem to be possible through traditional education system (Hungerford
and Peyton: 1994); Hungerford and Volk: 1994). In Turkey, environmental problems were addressed in a separate
section for the first time in the 3rd Five-Year Development Program. The issue was handled in detail 6th Five-Year
Development Program, and was evaluated as a whole within environmental, economic, health, educational and social
context. Indeed, in 1991 the Ministry of Environment was established with the same concerns, and environmental
education has been given in educational institutions since 1992 (Aydoğdu and Gezer, 2006: 215). However, it is
difficult to say that environmental, economic, cultural and social values, on which sustainable development is based,
are included in the syllabuses of higher education institutions as much as the process of re-regulation elementary
education system. It is difficult to say that this topic draws due attention in higher education except for certain areas.
For instance, within the context of a program designed to train environmental engineers was started at the
undergraduate-level, but a program such as “environmental science teaching” has not been launched yet.
However, the increasing rates of literacy and rising educational levels are not sufficient for countries to
become sustainable societies in terms of development. One of the biggest reasons for this fact is the educated
people’s alienation to the society and the environment especially in Turkey. It is very strange that this problem has
not been resolved yet despite the fact that formal education has an institutional history of approximately 150 years in
Turkey. Adequate steps have not been taken to solve this problem, which is expressed in the gap between students
and the school itself; that is, between schools and social problems despite the fact that this is often expressed (Ergun,
1987: 88-89). The same problem caused teachers to stay away from social problems for a long time and, therefore,
brought about the expectation that candidate teachers would also disregard social problems. Although this social
alienation expectation was because of the roles of neutrality, efficiency and change, this situation, in which political
worries were the main determinant, has prevented teachers from taking social responsibility (Tezcan, 1984: 323324). Some conflicts and revolutions in Turkey led teachers, as well as other officers to stay away from society
prevented them from being interested in social problems, participating in charitable organizations. It is not possible
to activate the sensitivity and large-scale participation necessary for sustainable development in this atmosphere,
effects of which are currently continuing. As a result, it is not realistic to expect students who have been taught to
believe that "if there is no homework, there is no responsibility" to develop social responsibility and bring proposals
for the solution of problems. From this perspective, students should be allowed to observe problems and be close to
related areas and groups so as to develop their social and environmental awareness. In this sense, just as swimming
cannot be taught by telling, social awareness cannot be gained by telling. From this perspective, "Social Service
Applications" course should be seen as a responsibility projects and it should be given due importance.
52
�Besides this, it is a serious mistake to believe that it is sufficient to educate only those who have access to
school, for education provides people with knowledge, skills and perspectives throughout their life. Transfer of
information acquired in education for sustainable development to the society by students is very important in the
implementation of acquired information and occurrence of behavior change. There seems to be a habit of providing
information to the public about this issue from time to time or only after instances of danger. As there is a tendency
in non-formal education towards enabling people to get a profession according to general preferences, environmental
education seems like as a secondary problem (Aydoğdu and Gezer, 2006: 220). Moreover, solutions to the problems
cannot be found right away, since there is no co-operation between official institutions and voluntary organizations
regarding this issue.
Civil Society and Sustainable Development
The problems caused by growth-centered approach to development and the necessity of sustainable
development thought led to reevaluation of the role of nongovernmental organizations in the process of
development. Indeed, in contemporary democracies the political participation does not mean only voting, but also
people’s participation to the execution with various nongovernmental organizations and audition of the process.
Moreover, functions of nongovernmental organizations in modern society are becoming more important, because the
risk society is a self-critical society.
The OECD has highlighted the importance of a good participant management; that is governance, so as for
policies to be consistent with realization of sustainable development objectives (OECD: 2002a). This insistence is
not in vain, because even in places with the worst practice of democracy the existence of a more efficient structure in
tackling environmental issues has been observed, compared to authoritarian regimes. As sustainable development is
closely related with democracy, the impact power of civil society should not be ignored. Today, corruption, poverty
and environmental disasters in many parts of the world are known to be closely related with nondemocratic
structures (Sen, 1997). Therefore, to strengthen democracy and reduce problems the Civil Society Development
Program was started by the EU, and thus civil society initiatives were supported. One of the most important reasons
is functions of non-governmental organizations such as their participation in the management, problem-solving
abilities, supervision, and molding public opinion. Active, conscious individuals and volunteering are important
elements of the sustainability of development, for initiatives in the public sphere are the basis of democracy, which is
also the basis of citizenship. Therefore, today many of the international funding institutions have set as the primary
principle of their agenda to increase local capacities, and help people to solve their own problems (Çakmak, 2002:
33-35).
As development is a social phenomenon, it is indispensable to consider institutions that form the social
structure as an integrated structure to make development sustainable. This situation necessitates an approach that
activates economic, cultural, educational, political and psychological factors together, instead of an approach with a
single-cause determination in a comprehensive phenomenon like development, which means the change in social
system (Tezcan, 1991: 198). Taking the comprehensiveness of these factors into account, there is a need for a holistic
approach, in which not only decision-makers’ but also everyone’s participation and support is provided. In this sense,
educating people on various topics and making them voluntary parts of the change program, for goals with both
social and environmental content, is only possible through civil society. Today, it is claimed that these organizations
can be faster and more efficient than the state in the development and implementation of policies due to their
prevalence, representative power, and flexible, open and small-scale structures.
However, today non-governmental organizations have serious problems both in quantity and quality. For
example, it is known that civil society organizations are deprived of qualified staff and research, analysis and
implementation tools. Project studies, which are popular nowadays, cannot be carried out without qualified
volunteers even if financial resources are provided, for consensus building, project preparation, implementation and
reporting require as a tedious work. Although problems concerning civil society differ from region to region, we can
easily say that there is a similar situation throughout the country.
According to data reflected in “World Values Survey 1999", the rate of NGO membership in Turkey is
7.8%. Parallel to low rates of participation in civil society in Turkey, the rate of citizens volunteering for charity
activities is also very low. According to the same research data, the rate of people who volunteer for charities in
Turkey is only 1.5%. However, it should be specified that professional chambers and trade unions, membership of
which is not voluntary, are included in these rates (Bikmen and Maydanoğlu, 2006: 44-47). However, according to
the World Values Survey in 1991 71% of people in the United States 38% in France, 64% in Canada, 52% in
England and 67% in West Germany were members of a voluntary organization (Fukuyama, 2000: 188).
53
�Education for sustainable development refers to people’s effort for a sustainable living and development
knowledge, skills, and the social values needed for increasing democratic participation and supporting sustainable
behavior. Some actions are recommended so that Turkey can achieve its long-term environmental goals; the need for
intensifying information and sensitivity is highlighted and adoption of European Union's environmental standards
and regulations is envisaged (T.Ç.V. 2001: 99). Prior actions proposed for increasing the level of information and
sensitivity are addressed on axis of informing groups, consciousness raising education and civil society. Yet, the
main elements that need to be active in creating awareness and information, that is, non-governmental organizations
are quite inadequate in quality and quantity in terms of human resources. The fact that civil society cannot extend to
the masses creates weaknesses in terms of protecting democracy and life spaces against governments (Çakmak,
2002: 3).
Although there is a lot to do in these institutions, the volunteers working in such places run out of energy
due to insufficient number of volunteers, and this brings about negative consequences such as becoming professional
or losing their efficiency (Çakmak, 2002: 19). In this sense, we believe that with "Social Service Applications"
course university students will reduce NGOs’ professionalization risk in the process by supporting them with their
voluntary work. Most non-governmental organizations are in need of professional staff today and this has a cost, yet
we do not believe that these organizations cannot contribute to the solution of problems by developing appropriate
ideas without professional people. Such institutions, which have a dialectical relationship between public and private
spheres, are known to have the capability to create a power/synergy that operates in society from below upwards.
But, this cannot happen if NGOs do not get the support of society.
Social Service Applications Course
It is known that education is an essential element of society with its social, economic and cultural functions.
The function of education cannot be denounced in improving individuals according to the needs of society,
addressing the needs in the light of contemporary developments, and providing solutions. Realizing most
environmental and social problem in a rapidly changing world and developing appropriate strategies in related issues
necessitate a flexible, responsive, participatory understanding of man and education. Such an understanding requires
cooperation and responsibility of different people from all classes of the society in the subtle way from education to
democracy. The “Social Service Applications” course might be an important means of accomplishing this goal.
Social Service Applications might play an important role in reducing problems and helping the underprivileged in
Turkey, where the principle of social state has not sufficiently developed yet.
The expectation that this course, which is taught at education faculties, will put candidate teachers into
action about development and environment issues is actually parallel to traditional roles set earlier for teachers.1 As it
is known, nearly half a century ago, teachers were expected to serve as leaders in many issues such as development,
poverty reduction, adult education, citizenship education, health problems, leisure-time activities, and being a model
for young people in Western Europe and Turkey (Tezcan 1984: 323). It has often been stressed in related works that
the mission of modernizing Turkey enabled professional groups of the one-party era to identify themselves with the
government (Bora, 2000). However, this idea was found to be unrealistic and due to increased change and
professionalism, teachers are, nowadays, expected to provide guidance in such issues instead of serving as leaders.
From this perspective, with this course students can be expected to develop awareness for social and environmental
problems and guide the society various problems.
Rapid changes parallel to industrialization have created the need for teacher candidates to be acquainted
with what happens in the world adjust themselves accordingly. The need to set a balance between school pedagogy
and social pedagogy is an issue of importance in industrial society today. Because of increasing leisure time and the
positive impact of the wealth of outside school experience, teachers should also be active in non-educational
activities. As education is the process of producing solutions to problems in accordance with social needs and needs
of the age, the "Social Service Applications" course should be considered as multifaceted for sustainable
development. Besides, applied courses, in which students act with the information they acquire and the group
1
Ministry of Aducation, too, joined the efforts to endow teachers with the mission of
leadership. One of the most interesting events was the translation, publication and
free distribution of “Beyaz Zambaklar Ülkesinde” to teachers in 1928. The novel is
by Russian author, Grigori Petrof and sketches the life of an idealist teacher (See,
Yahya Akyüz. Türkiye’de Ögretmenlerin Toplumsal Degişmedeki Etkileri, Ankara:
Dogan Basımevi, 1978.).
54
�dynamics, are seen as an important chance in not only the changes in behavior but also the changes in attitudes and
feelings. Another dimension of this issue is that there are a lot of young people who have great ideas but no
opportunity to realize their ideas. So, this course may be chance for young people.
As sustainable development is ultimately a project of change, no change project can be successful unless
supported by educational institutions. According to Toffler, education should be oriented towards future and young
people should develop plans for the future by understanding the direction and pace of social change (Ergun, 1994:
248). Toffler asserts that as the pace of change increases, it may become more difficult for people to build relations
with each other and therefore they have to struggle with problems. In this sense, the course is considered to be an
important means of sustainable development with its feature that prepares the ground for this. As is known, material
changes are accepted more rapidly, while spiritual/mental elements take longer time to be adopted. This cultural lag,
which has created problems in terms of sustainable development, can be eliminated by effective sharing of
information. Max Weber states that education creates certain personalities according to varying social structure and
economy. In this context, Weber implies that the aim of educating "cultured people" in the old bureaucratic structure
will be replaced by the aim to educate the "expert people" in industrial society (Tezcan, 1997: 254-255). But in the
current global age, the “expert people” model does not suffice and the "responsible people" model is needed, which
can educate people sensitive to environmental problems.
The "Social Service Applications" course, which was prepared by Board of Higher Education within the
framework of the Higher Education Council Law No. 2547, became part of the revised syllabus of education
faculties, which has been implemented since the 2006-2007 school year. The course is taught in the 6th term of all
education faculties as 1 theory hour and 2 application hours, which makes 3 credits. The University Council
describes the work related to this course as follows: Students will identify current problems of society and develop
projects to produce solutions in this course, which is obligatory for all teacher training programs. Also within the
scope of this course, students will be encouraged to participate in events such as panel discussions, conferences,
congresses, symposia as viewers, speakers or organizers. Students’ success in these studies will evaluated as part of
the "Social Service Application Course" (Coşkun, 2008: 3). In this sense, it is important to know the guidelines
identified in the workshops. The workshops identified the following principles (Tezbaşaran, 2006: 4-6) :
1)In the Social Service and Applications course and in the defined activities of the course, it is aimed to provide
teacher candidates with social sensitivity and awareness, cooperation, solidarity, effective communication and selfassessment skills, social responsibility and self-confidence.
3)Activities defined in the Social Service Applications projects should be original and different from the activities
defined in the programs.
4)Activities defined in the Social Service Applications projects should enhance scientific, critical and creative
thinking in the target audience, and should motivate them and make them curious for reading, learning, research,
analysis.
The goals here show that the candidate teachers are projected as a development element that tries to bring
solutions to problems rather than a technician teacher who has been designed to do what he/she is told to do. In this
course, although it is aimed to develop candidate teachers’ co-operation, awareness, personal development,
communication, and self-enhancements skills, it is also aimed to produce benefits for society. Through the course,
candidate teachers are expected to socialize, become integrated with the society, and consequently play their role of
social leadership (although criticized today). Besides being aware of social problems, they are also expected to take
responsibility to solve various problems and get emotional and behavioral accomplishments related to their
profession.
Implementation of the Course
With regard to this course, participants at the Mersin workshop discussed whether this course was aimed at
removing certain shortcomings that are in responsibility of public administration or it was an awareness creating
process in which students will actively participate. Moreover, it was observed that there were different ideas as to
whether this course should be compulsory as it is now or elective. Those who thought that the course should be
elective argued that a compulsory course would disrupt the voluntary character which formed the implementation
philosophy of the course and that this would adversely affect individuals’ tendency to do voluntary work. Those who
were against its being elective contended that especially because of military revolutions people shun from civil
55
�associations, foundations and social service organizations and that there would not be sufficient participation if the
course was elective.
Additionally, some other suggestions about how to apply this course were put forward as follows
(Tezbaşaran, 2006):
1)Not limiting the social service applications to only one term, starting the activities in the first year, and designing
each activity with a "project-based" approach
2)Creating "Social Service Applications Project Pools" and sharing the proposed projects with other faculties by
publishing them on the internet
3)Monitoring of realized projects and award the best project in project festivals
It was recommended at the workshop that new students should be informed about this course each year and
that course-related activities and projects should be announced, thus encouraging students to attend activities and
projects starting from their first year at school. It is stated that the course will be completed with the evaluation of
various activities the students have attended with their own preference in a 3-year period (6 semesters). As the
activities students participate in this process will be documented in the personal files approved by the advisor or
coordinator, monitoring and evaluation projects will be accomplished without any problem. However, current
organization is insufficient for realizing all these suggestions. For example, as noted above, it is uncertain who will
monitor students’ activities to be carried out until the 6th semester and how. Therefore, the first thing to be done
about this is to create a unit about this course and employ a group of two or three social scientists who are familiar
with social problems and applications such as sociologists, psychologists, social service professionals and
anthropologists in this unit. The course may provide important contributions to sustainable development goals if such
a unit takes the responsibility for issues such as the general organization of the course, identification of project areas,
creation of the project pool, announcement of projects at certain times, and budgeting. Otherwise this course cannot
be carried out effectively and productively under the coordination of faculty members who have to teach for 20-25
hours per week as is the case in current applications.
Such a coordination that will be undertaken for a low tuition and abandoned with such worries from time to
time cannot be effective in neither the preparation of original projects and guidance nor the creation of a project pool,
monitoring and evaluating applications. Concerning social service, the contribution of faculty members can only be
effective during the implementation of the project, predetermined or organized with students by “Social Service
Applications Course” Coordinators. During this implementation faculty members can guide them in the process of
monitoring and evaluation of activities and provide the project unit with some ideas about problems and other
original projects. Otherwise, the school year will be over before identifying what project should be done and how
and organizing the activities.
Besides, while coordinating the "Social Service Applications" course the type of projects that can be done
should be discussed in detail with Governorate, Municipality and related Civil Society Institutions and necessary
permissions must be taken and organizations must be made in advance so as to minimize the potential risks for
students’ activities. Otherwise, getting permission from related institutions every time and doing the same things
over and over again for organization will lead to serious loss of time. In this process, students may be directed to
public institutions as well as civil society organizations in order to participate in their projects. However, some
projects produced by students may be related to groups that these institutions serve and therefore it may be necessary
for them to cooperate with such institutions. However, cooperation with local government is needed to identify
relevant non-governmental organizations beforehand because of the risk that some student might be directed towards
illegal groups. So as to do all these, serious organization with universities, civil society and local government is
needed. In this organization, significant synergy can be attained for sustainable development if local governments
can cooperate to facilitate the activities and reduce the risks and if civil society organizations can cooperate to decide
what to do about what subjects.
At the faculty of education the following activities were done within the framework of the Social Service Application
Course:
1)Education support for those who cannot read and write
2)Preparing secondary school students for national examinations
3)Organizing muzical entertainment programs on behalf of the poor
4)Blood donation campaign
56
�5)Teaching grown-ups how to read and write
6)Reporting the problems of the city to authorities
7)Planting trees and environmental design
8)Collecting books for schools in villages
In the focus group study, participants expressed that the activities were beneficial for both themselves and
the target groups. They also expressed that participating in various social activities at different institutions was very
useful for themselves in terms of their professional and personal development in general. However, they also
asserted that the course was a real opportunity for the target groups with special needs; that they felt insufficient or
unefficient in certain cases and that they were distressed in such cases. The focus group study revealed that
especially the students who were interested in problematic target groups encountered with problems and felt helpless
in some situations. So, they must be guided and directed towards activities that they can do easily. Some of students’
problems concerning the implementation of the course are as follows:
Difficulties concerning the supervision of students
High amount of expenses concerning activities
Disagreement between students about working together
Misconduct by some students during the sharing of responsibilities
Not considering the course as a real course and disreagard towards it by teaching staff
Difficulties in evaluating students’ success or performance in the course
Excess of reports about the course and tedius formalities
Indifference and authoritarian conduct towards students at the host institutions
Boring nature of some activities for students
Abuse of students during the activities from time to time
Insufficiency of students’ qulifications related some specific activities
Delays resulting from the identification of activities
Host institutions’ disregard for some of the activities
Inadequacy of the place where the activies are planned to take place
Discrepancy between the program of students’ department and that of the host institution
Concerning the implementation of this course at Faculty of Education, Kilis 7 Aralık University, I observed
that students do not perceive this lesson as a normal course and that they had positive views about it. Two important
factors seem to be effective in this. First, because the course is based on activities proposed by students and
implemented in a social environment generally outside the university setting, it is perceived differently. Moreover,
students are active rather than being passive in this course. Also, as they do the planning themselves when arranging
the activities, they act within a more flexible and freer atmosphere. Besides, as this course contains a sense of
expressing themselves, participation, collaboration, product creation, solidarity, and competition with other groups,
group dynamics allow them to receive more satisfaction this course. This course, which entails learning by doing or
learning through experience, may provide a significant contribution in terms of emotional wellbeing. However,
personal characteristics of coordinators will be the determining factor in this.
The project format of the course will have important cognitive contributions during the preparation and
reporting of the activities such as planning and self-discipline. However, implementing the course in a fashion
similar to other courses, assigning students to do very difficult projects and making them struggle with too many
formalities in the preparation and reporting process will result in serious consequences. In this sense, there is a need
for an atmosphere in which the course is planned in a completely student-centered way and the students are told what
to do only in the manner of guidance. In this sense, the method of handling the course will be more decisive on the
perception of the course, rather than it is being defined in the curriculum as compulsory or elective. However,
defining it as an elective course in the curriculum will be more appropriate to the voluntary nature of it in general.
The fact that the spirit of volunteering is essential for this course requires such a quality on behalf of teaching staff
that can create such an atmosphere, and therefore, carrying out the course only for course tuition will not be fruitful.
Results and Evaluation
Industrial revolution which takes an important place in the history of civilization has turned into a process in
which environmental resources are destroyed in an irreversible manner as a result of humankind’s quest for
establishing control over the nature. Population growth, distribution of commodities among individuals, and
unemployment have been the most important problems the humanity have had to face in the last two hundred years.
57
�However, as the environmental dimension of these three problems is ignored, even in optimum processes where
these problems are thought to be overcome, economic growth has been found to unsustainable. As the sustainability
of economic growth, which is the basic paradigm of our age, is not considered, social and environmental
impoverishment is increasing. Determining economic growth only with the increase in the level of gross national
income means not understanding what development sustainability is. Negative experiences undergone so far have
brought about a new debate in which the whole capitalistic system is questioned together with the positivistmaterialist paradigm. Although the concept of sustainable development, which came into use in such an atmosphere,
is evaluated as a step taken within the system itself, the discussions it has are important for the future of humanity.
Sustainable development, which consists the planning of social, economic and natural resources in a
supporting and holistic manner, requires a broad participation which cannot be addressed with only state policies,
limited efforts of law makers or civil society members. Today we cannot expect the state to deal with every problem
and solve them with the decisions it makes. Rapidly changing nature of modern society and the complex nature of
the needs and problems it has brought necessitates lifelong learning, sensitivity and responsibility. Nevertheless, it is
a fact that people cannot cope alone with social problems. The advantages provided by group dynamics to cope with
such problems increases the importance of civil society institutions and reveal the need to support these institutions.
As the voluntary service of qualified staff is the most important part of this support, university students’ familiarity
with these institutions and working for them for a while will be an important start and these institutions will gain a
significant vision and dynamism with their participation.
A culture of civil society has not developed enough in Turkey due to historical, political and cultural
reasons. It is known that civil society institutions are not effective enough and are unable to realize their goals mainly
because of financial reasons and many other reasons. One of the most important reasons behind the fact that civil
initiatives are inadequate in their intervention to problems is that they are deprived of qualified human resources and
participant individuals. As these institutions lack human resources, they experience serious difficulties in project
development and implementation. Indeed, today many projects with social, economic, cultural contents and
supported by the EU are known to have not been implemented because of insufficient human resources. This
difficulty can be overcome with "Social Service Applications" course, because the topic, purpose and procedures of
this course are suitable for a project-based work. It can be said that this will help civil society organizations
especially in their project applications concerning overseas funds. To give a simple example, foreign language
requirement during the project preparation and reporting process is a cause of worries for many civil society
organizations. However, students at foreign language departments can help civil society organizations in this regard.
With the "Social Service Applications" course, which will be implemented at universities, there will be a
higher probability that not only young people but also lecturers and professors will be more interested in social
problems and provide more contribution to solve the problems. Faculty members’ guidance to students especially in
identification and implementation of activities within the framework of this course will produce effective results
because of ensuring expert participation in social problems. So, this course can be applied as a instrument of active
politics. But for this, it is needed the coordination between university and other institutions such as civil and formel
establishments. An organizing of office related to tihs course helps realizing the this coordination and activities.
Sustainable development, which has many economic, social and environmental dimensions, requires a
collective struggle which includes not only governmental agencies or businesses but also various groups. Therefore,
for a sustainable world, democratization of management and conscious participation of citizens in the management is
needed. A conscious society will support the state to accomplish its sustainable development objectives easier and
quicker, because society’s being aware of the goals of sustainability makes it easy to achieve sustainability goals in
terms of knowledge and skills. As in all over the world, in Turkey, too, there is a need for citizens with sufficient
information and environmental awareness and human power that can provide guidance in the application of
sustainability plans. However, this is really difficult to achieve. That is to say, asking people to participate in the
solution of problems does not guarantee their participation. In this respect, the education system should devise ways
encouraging and guiding participation. We can argue that the Social Service Application Course has a format which
serves this aim but, ıf this course isn’t paid attention to as ıt should be, it is misused, easily. If this course is misused
or this organization is not done competently, this fact destroyes volunteerness, deeply.
Because of various reasons, young people in Turkish society are quite insufficient in terms of developing
awareness to problems, participating in civil society, and working in cooperation with others. From this perspective,
it can easily be presumed that university students are more important for the dynamic and ever-changing nature of
the society compared to other groups, and that they can take responsibilities in sustainable development, which has
many sub-headings such as environmental, economic and social problems. However, especially in developing
countries, where literacy rate is very low, it is difficult to do this without participatory training programs that will
58
�reach audiences outside the formal education to mobilize and incite awareness and consciousness in them. From this
perspective, there is no other large group as acceptable as university students in terms of their energy, participation,
qualifications and organization. In this sense, it is believed "Social Service Applications" course will provide an
important function. Within the framework of this course, adult individuals can be informed and made conscious
about environmental, cultural, economic and social issues with various educational programs (vocational training,
service training, etc.). Otherwise, carrying out these programs at a limited level is not suitable to the logic of
sustainable development, which requires broad participation, because the desired results cannot be derived without
spreading this type of program to the society and securing a wide range of participation.
The most important difference of this course from other courses is the fact that it is suitable for group work
and that provides individual and group satisfaction. If this course, which is very convenient to the cultural
background of Turkish society (e.g. imece, the spirit of collective labor) in terms of social assistance and
expectations of group dynamics, can be organized well, it can be maintained that universities will become significant
units for sustainable development. Of course neither this course, nor students can be perceived as saviors of heroes.
But with efficient implementation of this course, thousands of students will go down from the grandstand like
audience to touch on problematic issues and contribute to the efforts of finding solutions to society's different
problems. Thinking that with this course thousands of students at faculties will take action on various topics with the
aim of social service, we are face to face with a huge group of people who wait to be organized and informed. These
huge groups can contribute actively to the solution of many problems assailing sustainable development and become
experienced volunteers, experts or workers for many issues related to their background later in life. From this
perspective, "Social Service Applications", which can be considered as a kind of social internship, can function as a
response to expectations concerning university-industry cooperation in social life.
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�
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322
Title
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Sustainable Development as a Course: Social Service Applications
Author
Author
YAŞAR, M. Ruhat
AYTAÇ, Ömer
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study includes a general analysis of the “Social Service Applications” course, which became part of the curriculum of Education Faculties in 2006-2007 in Turkey within the context of sustainable development. A holistic perspective that takes socio-cultural elements into account instead of a deterministic view which stresses only the economic factors is very important in sustainable development. Enhancing knowledge and policies must be shared in a cooperative way, as improvement of social life is very important for sustainable development. Therefore, the objectives and contents of the afore mentioned course is in line with the aim of utilizing human resources within the context of social problems, which is very important in social development. This approach which enhances the development of social life necessitates a new cooperation that will secure cooperation between universities and society. “Social Service Applications” course is, therefore, an important opportunity within the context of sustainable development. In this study, it is verified that university students who are conditioned not to take responsibility without being given homework get used to taking responsibility within the context of the course. The study also comprises evaluations of what can be done to make the course more useful and efficient, as well as its role in sustainable development. The study discusses the coordination between the university, civil society and public management in the applicability of the course, as well.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954a91e9ad47fc83309f22fc58488e03.pdf
761e2fb0d4a2d799dab5a77e4b8a59ba
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Text
The Democracy Education at Schools and Pre-service Teachers’ Observations
to the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in School
Selçuk UYGUN, Ph.D.
Faculty of Education,Department of Educational Sciences,
Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University
ÇANAKKALE /TURKEY
selcukuygun17@gmail.com
Abstract: In this research, the evaluation of approaches and implementations of democratic
attitudes and behaviors in schools has been aimed. To achieve this purpose, the pre-service
teachers’, who has gone to primary and high school for teaching practice in Çanakkale (Turkey) in
2005-2006, observation reports have been used. Schools are the laboratories where the democracy
culture and conscious are composed. In democratic systems, schools are the important
organizations for teaching democracy. Democracy education should be taught as theoretical and
practical. Democracy is a life philosophy. So, the knowledge of democratic values and attitudes is
not enough, it has to be transferred to life. Education has importance on democracy than training.
The approaches and implementations that related with democratic attitudes and behaviors can be
differentiated in many times. When democratic values are accepted in generally, there is been up
against lacks of implementations. This study’s importance is the comparing and describing of
similarities and differences between democratic approach and implementation in schools through
pre-service teachers’ observations and discussing on methods about democracy education. The
universe of research is composed of primary and high schools in the Çanakkale City Center. The
sample is defined randomly from schools that pre-service teachers have gone for practicing. The
reports, that pre-service teachers wrote as composition, has been analyzed using content analyze.
According to pre-service teachers, there are significant differences between democratic
attitudes/behaviors and practicing in schools.
Keywords: Turkey, democratic school, democracy education, pre-service teachers.
Introduction
Democracy education is needed for democracy development in schools of countries where the democracy is
accepted. The schools shouldn’t be the places where the democracy education is only taught, but it should be also a
place where the democracy education is put into practice. Because the democracy is a way of life (Kıncal ve Uygun
2006).
John Dewey who plays a great role in constructing the Turkish education system, suggested a democratic
education and teaching system in schools in Turkey in the first years of the Turkish Republic when democracy is
accepted (Uygun 2008). It is impossible to educate individuals who will live a democratic life without undemocratic
education system. The democracy education at schools in Turkey has developed like as a change a practice phase
from the cognitive and sensational teaching of the democracy (Kıncal and Uygun 2006; Kepenekçi 2003).
The attitudes and behaviors in schools are the indicators of the democratic life. The schools are not only the
place where the students are equipped for a democratic life but also they are the places where democratic life is put
into practice. For that reason the schools where the democracy is put into practice are important environments
(Kaygun 2008). By order the attitudes and the behaviors of the directors, teachers, students and other staff are the
determining factors for creating a democratic atmosphere in schools.
The schools where democratic attitudes and behaviors are dominant called as a democratic school. Here are
the two musts to be provided for being a democratic school (Kepenekçi 2003):
1. A correlative dialogue including love, respect, tolerance should be provided among people in schools and
classrooms’ environment.
2. All of the members including directors, teachers, students, parents and others should be given the rights
on taking decisions related to them.
On evaluation democratic relation network in schools, the observations of the pre-service teachers who must
be conscious about the democracy but not take part in the system yet, are important. The things what the pre-service
138
�teachers understand from democratic values and their perception about these values in school atmosphere will make
contribution on developing democracy education practices.
Aim of Research
The aim of this study is to evaluate approaches and implementations of democratic attitudes and behaviors
in schools according to pre-service teachers’ observation reports.
According to this general aim here are the sub-aims;
1. What are the notions related to democratic attitudes in pre-service teachers’ observation reports?
2. What are the evaluations of the pre-service teachers for the democracy education?
3. What are the observations of the pre-service teachers for democratic attitudes and behaviors of students, teachers
and directors in schools?
4. According pre-service teachers; is there a consistency or not between the democracy implementations and the
democratic attitudes and behaviors of students, teachers and directors?
Method
Between the years of 2005-2009 in each teaching term, the pre-service teachers who are taking their
teaching training as a group of people each includes six people are asked to write observation reports about
democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. The 44 pre-service teachers’ observations reports training in 5 primary
schools and 3 high schools, are put through a content analysis. It is assumed that the data gathered in 4 years are
adequate for a qualitative research.
The democratic values in observations reports written by the pre-service teachers without any interference
are evaluated by frequency and categorical analysis. In analysis phase, firstly the possible notions about the
democratic values are found out by making good use of literature (Matusova 1997; Kıncal and Işık 2003; Şahin
2004; Çankaya and Seçkin 2004). The number of the specified notions that are mentioned in pre-service teachers’
reports are counted and the meanings what they refer are encoded by categorizing. The significant ideas in encoded
content, are interpreted and quoted to research paper by giving code names to pre-service teachers.
Findings
In this part the findings of the research are listed as sub-titles and interpreted.
Democratic Values
The democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools are important for developing democracy culture. The
teachers play a great role on developing democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. Firstly the teachers should be
aware of what are the democratic values. The teachers, directors or somebody else lacking this conscious about
democratic values can not make any contribution for developing and practicing of democracy (Aydoğan and Kukul
2003).
The pre-service teachers’ perception on democracy values noted in reports is given at Table 1.
-
139
�Order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Democratic Value
Respect
Justice
Tolerance
Cooperation
Responsibility
Trust
Dialogue
Equality
Honesty
Sensitivity
Self-confidence
Freedom
Individual
Vote
Critic
f
124
115
103
102
96
95
80
67
62
58
34
20
13
10
2
Total 981
%
12.6
11.7
10.4
10.3
9.7
9.6
8.1
6.8
6.3
5.9
3.4
2.0
1.3
1.0
0.2
100
Table 1. The Frequency of Pre-Service Teachers’ Using the Terms of Democratic Values
According to Table1, the pre-service teachers emphasize on these democratic values by ‘order’, ‘respect’,
‘justice’, ‘tolerance’, ‘cooperation’, ‘responsibility’ and ‘trust’. The frequently usage of these terms about democratic
values by pre-service teachers, show us that they have knowledge about democracy education. And also ‘the
democratic value’ written 981 times in reports by 44 pre-service teachers, is noteworthy. But these findings are not
enough to say that they are in positive attitudes and behaviors on democratic values. Because the attitudes and
behaviors towards the values can show differentiation. However individuals are in positive attitudes towards the
democratic values, they ca not reflect their beliefs in real life. For instance; according to a research done by Kıncal
(2000), it is seen that, the primary school teachers do not show enough effort to gain democratic values to the
students.
-
Democracy Education in Schools
Democracy is a rising value in Turkey same as it is in the world. Firstly the cognitive knowledge is taught in
schools for developing democracy and making it as a life style. Especially in primary schools, the citizenship, human
rights and democracy education are widely mentioned in the curriculum of the social sciences subject (Türkan 2009).
In recent years these subjects are supported by activities helping the having democratic life style with the
constructivist program and new projects are supported aiming at providing democratic benefits. These projects are,
like educational social activities, honor committees, students committees, school councils, democratic citizenship
education which all of these include practical democratic activities (Kepenekçi 2003; Kıncal and Uygun 2006;
Altınova 2009).
Here are some of the examples of evaluations about the democracy education in schools frequently
emphasized in pre-service teachers’ reports:
İA: “The teacher often uses question and answer method and helps the students to find the answers by themselves
in teaching process. He tries to give voice to each student in classes.”
HE: “The student who freely says her/ his ideas and sees that they are valid is a free one”.
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�DK: “The pluralistic democracy should take its place in schools by some of activities. One of these activities is
educational activity work the students learn cooperative working in these activities, which is a need in
democracy”.
TS:“In classes the teachers try to create a democratic teaching process by supporting the participations of the
students and making students listen to others while they are speaking, and they follow the same philosophy inside
the school too. Both the teachers and the directors try to earn the students the values of the universal, national
and cultural in national feast by harmonizing this with the democracy. Especially the choice of representative
students to the Student Council hold in April, is a good example of this.”
-
The Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in Schools
In school environment, the dialogue of all the members and behaving each others in a way including
democratic values such as respectful, tolerant, equal, sharing, responsible, trustful can be defined as democratic
attitudes and behaviors.
In a research named as’ Democratic attitudes of Teachers’ done by Gözütok (1995), he reached a finding
that the pre-service teachers show more democratic attitudes than the teachers working at schools. Based on the
finding in Gözütok’s research, the evaluation of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools are meaningful
according to the pre-service teachers.
One of the most important tasks of the school is to make students gain the democratic attitudes and
behaviors. The students are not expected to have democratic life style, if they are not educated in a democratic way.
The schools are the social life laboratories for students. And the directors and the teachers are the models for students
(Kaygun 2008). So the school should be a model for society.
Here are some of the quoted passages frequently emphasized in pre-service teachers’ observations on
democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools.
In Turkey in order to develop democracy and democracy education a protocol signed on 13th of January in
2004 between the Ministry of Education and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. According to this protocol a
lesson named as ‘Democracy Education and The Project of School Councils’ are put into curriculum at schools. In
this Project, school councils are created at schools and the participant of the students for school management are tried
to be supported (for more information look: Kıncal and Uygun 2006).
AT: “Firstly the thing to be done is to show respect to students’ personal rights and make feel them that they are
individual too. (respect, individual)
GY: The students sometimes exceed the respect border cause of feeling close, cozy friends they are”. (respect)
HS: “Because of the egocentric emotion, the justice thoughts of students are not enough grown”.( justice)
İA: “ Generally there is a democratic attitude in school. There is no someone’s priority to anyone”.( equality)
NK: “ The teacher behaves each student equally without considering the different level and environment of
them”. (equality)
NK: “The students show us that the democracy is in actual life by showing great tolerant to disabled students
same as the way of behaving the others”.( tolerance)
İÖ: “The teachers are more tolerant than the students deserve”.(tolerance)
YA: “ Most of the students have the ability of responsibility because of being in a boarding school. They know
their rights enough and defend themselves well. They believe that they can behave same as the teachers behave.
(rights and responsibility)
EY: The students are not honest while solving problems.” (honesty)
ÜS: “I observe that some of the students are honest and forthright while solving problems.” (honesty)
İÖ: “The teachers do not trust the students completely.” ( trust)
İÖ: “It can be said that the students have enough self-confident.” (self-confident)
SK: “The school administrations are sensitive to universal, national and cultural values”.
DK: “A good dialogue is very important for democratization in school but it is not enough by itself.” (Dialogue)
As far as can be seen both in important evaluations of pre-service teachers, the democratic attitudes and
behaviors can show differences according to democratic values. In a research named as ‘The Evaluation of the
Primary School Teachers’ Efficiency on Gaining Democratic Earnings’ done by Genç (2006) the levels of the
teachers’ on making students gain democratic earnings show dissimilarity. This dissimilarity is obvious in preservice teachers’ reports, too. Pre-service teachers think that some of the attitudes in schools are suitable for
democratic values but some of them are not.
141
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The Consistency of the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in Schools
The role of the schools is not only to teach students “what is democracy?”, but also adapt democracy to the
life so that the students have the ability to put democracy into their life (Miser 1991). A well balanced harmonic
consistency is needed in all members in school atmosphere to provide democracy as a life style. To achieve those
schools should be democracy laboratories. All the elements in these laboratories should serve democratic earnings.
The structure of school system, the philosophy of administration, the content of the programs, teaching strategies, the
role of teacher, the degree of participation and the features like that, are effective factors to determine how many
democratic attitudes and behaviors are in it (Gürşimşek and Görengenli 2004).
Here are some the examples of mostly emphasized narratives chosen from observations of pre-service
teachers about the consistency of the democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools:
HE: ‘Suddenly the classroom door was knocked. The codirector and the Turkish teacher of the school have
entered the room. He said that; I am sorry for disturbing you; but we will choose students as a school
representative, we don’ t want to choose by ourselves so we think that the volunteer ones should be voted by the
other students.’. This is a good example of teaching democracy conscious by using it in real life.
DK: The students who participate in lessons are certain in each class. This situation is controversy to democracy.
However a talented teacher should make students actively take part in classes.
YŞ: The students are respectful to their teachers. But they don’t show the same respect to their friends.
SE: In democratic classes the teacher-student relationship should be in a way sharing the freedom and
knowledge. Unfortunately this democratic attitude is not transferred to students in classroom consciously. The
students try to obey the classroom rules. But they don’t know why they obey these rules and also they are
unconscious about the real aims of these rules. On that situation the teachers show an authoritarian attitude. And
the students just obey the rules, without any critical way of thinking and inquisitorial point of view.
SK: It can not be said that the teachers have a good dialogue with the students. They are in an attitude snubbing
and seeing them as worthless.
ÜS: There is a tolerance towards to students. But the students sometimes misuse this tolerance.
MS: most of the students have extreme freedom because, maybe they are young. They accept the democracy and
justice only when they profit from them. Their respect is not in great amount towards to both their teachers and
friends.
BÖ: The students knew their rights and responsibilities but they didn’t put them into practice completely.
EY: The teachers trust their students, but they give too much responsibility to them.
SY: The students’ self-confidence is exceedingly grown, so that sometimes they behave in a selfish way.
SN: I can say that there is a hierarchic order in school.
EM: I think that there is a healthy and democratic relationship between the school administration and the
students.
MS: In my opinion, the democracy attitude in our schools has developed recently. In contrast the
authoritarian attitude in former times, changed its place with a dialogue in a way of respectful and correlative
tolerance by and by. Sometimes it can be misused both by the teachers and the students. A student can show a wrong
behavior by defending that they are living in a democratic world.
Democracy is a value to be gained only when all the elements that surround human life become democratic.
According to pre-service teachers, there is some sensitivity to gain this value but, it is not possible to talk about exact
consistency. Yet the school environment must be a model in which democracy is active in order to make students
gain democratic earnings. According to Bandura’s social learning theory, individuals acquire most of the behaviors
by observing others (Yazıcı 2008). It is hard to gain consistent democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools where
some of the values of democracy are used while some are not, and it is also hard to gain if there is no equality on
democratic values practices. According to Sönmez’s research, when the students have rights to say something while
taking decisions at school and when these decisions are the same both for the directors and teachers, a democratic
atmosphere is acquired and in this atmosphere the students’ consistency in democratic attitudes and behaviors
naturally improve.
Conclusion
The findings of the 44 pre-service teachers involving 5 of them for primary school and 3 of them for high
school on observation reports of democratic attitudes and behaviors in school.
142
�Some results are found by analyzing and evaluating the observation reports of pre-service teachers on
democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools. These findings are listed below.
-
-
-
The pre-service teachers frequently used the terms about democratic values. The most frequently used terms are
by order; ‘respect’, ‘justice’, ‘tolerance’, ‘cooperation’, ‘responsibility’ and ‘trust’.
The pre-service teachers shaped their reports on their own beliefs about democratic attitudes and behaviors
rather than democracy education practices in schools.
Both the positive and the negative features of democratic values’ are together in evaluations of pre-service
teachers on democratic attitudes and behaviors. They said and emphasized that some of the values are used in
schools while some of them are not used or misused. For instance; the teachers show tolerance to students. But
this tolerance is misused by the students and caused a discipline problem in school.
According to pre-service teachers there is no exact consistency between the acceptance of democratic values and
practices. However the schools assume a duty for teaching democratic values, there is not enough democratic
atmospheres to make these values as a part of life.
It must be provided that all the school system members need to have belief, idea and practice consistency on
democratic values.
References
Altınova, A. (2009). “Demokratik Yurttaşlık Eğitimi Projesi”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (108).
Çankaya, D.& Seçkin, O. (2004). “Demokratik Değerlerin Benimsenmesi Açısından Öğretmen ve Öğretmen Adaylarının Görüş
ve Tutumları”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset.
Genç, S. Z. (2006). “Demokratik Kazanımların Gerçekleşmesinde İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Etkilililiğinin Değerlendirimesi”.
Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 35 (171).
Gözütok, F. D. (1995). Öğretmenlerin Demokratik Tutumları. Ankara: TDV Yayınları.
Gürşimşek, I. & Görengenli, M. (2004). “Öğretmen Adayları ve Öğretmenlerde Demokratik Tutumlar, Değerler ve Demokrasiye
İlişkin İnançlar”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset.
Kaygun, İ. (2008). “Demokratik Tutum ve Davranış Kazandırmada Okulun Rolü”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (105).
Kepenekçi, Y. (2003). “Demokratik Okul”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (11).
Kıncal, R.&Uygun, S. (2006). “Demokrasi Eğitimi ve Okul Meclisleri Projesi Uygulamalarının Değerlendirilmesi”. Millî Eğitim
Dergisi, 35 (171).
Kıncal, R. Y. & Işık, H. (2003). “Demokratik Eğitim ve Demokratik Değerler”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (1).
Kıncal, R. Y. (2000). “İlköğretim Öğretmenlerinin Davranışlarının Demokratiklik Düzeyi”. II. Ulusal Öğretmen Yetiştirme
Sempozyumu: Bildiriler. Çanakkale: ÇOMÜ Eğitim Fakültesi.
Matusova, S. (1997). “Democratic Values as a Challenge for Education”. European Education, 29 (3).
Miser, R. (1991). “Demokrasi Eğitimi”. Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 24 (1).
Sönmez, V. (2003). “Dizgeli Eğitimle Sınıf Ortamında Doğrudan Demokrasi”. Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 3 (11).
Şahin, N. (2004). “ÇOMÜ Eğitim Fakültesi Sınıf Öğretmenliği Öğretmen Adaylarının Demokratik Sınıf Ortamı ile İlgili
Görüşleri”. International Symposium on Democracy Education (20-21 May 2004). Çanakkale: Eser Ofset.
Türkan, F. (2009). “İlköğretim Programlarında İnsan Hakları ve Yurttaşlık Eğitimi”. Bilim ve Aklın Aydınlığında Eğitim, 9 (108).
Uygun, S. (2008). “The Impact of John Dewey on the Teacher Education System in Turkey”. Asia – Pacific Journal of Teacher
Education, 36 (4).
143
�Yazıcı, H. (2008). “Sosyal Bilişsel Öğrenme Kuramı”. Eğitim Psikolojisi (Edit: K. Ersanlı ve E . Uzman). İstanbul: Lisans
Yayıncılık.
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�
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Extent
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363
Title
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The Democracy Education at Schools and Pre-service Teachers’ Observations to the Democratic Attitudes and Behaviors in School
Author
Author
UYGUN, Selçuk
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this research, the evaluation of approaches and implementations of democratic attitudes and behaviors in schools has been aimed. To achieve this purpose, the pre-service teachers’, who has gone to primary and high school for teaching practice in Çanakkale (Turkey) in 2005-2006, observation reports have been used. Schools are the laboratories where the democracy culture and conscious are composed. In democratic systems, schools are the important organizations for teaching democracy. Democracy education should be taught as theoretical and practical. Democracy is a life philosophy. So, the knowledge of democratic values and attitudes is not enough, it has to be transferred to life. Education has importance on democracy than training. The approaches and implementations that related with democratic attitudes and behaviors can be differentiated in many times. When democratic values are accepted in generally, there is been up against lacks of implementations. This study’s importance is the comparing and describing of similarities and differences between democratic approach and implementation in schools through pre-service teachers’ observations and discussing on methods about democracy education. The universe of research is composed of primary and high schools in the Çanakkale City Center. The sample is defined randomly from schools that pre-service teachers have gone for practicing. The reports, that pre-service teachers wrote as composition, has been analyzed using content analyze. According to pre-service teachers, there are significant differences between democratic attitudes/behaviors and practicing in schools.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08c7e7466fa53c8c1abc8cd35f270cb8.pdf
ea117e3617978c832e4cca2be44db842
PDF Text
Text
Charter Schools
M. Uğur Türkyılmaz
International Burch University
English Language Department
Bosnia and Herzegovina
uturkyilmaz@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: Charter school movement in the USA: Would that be a new school model for the world? In
this presentation, the charter school movement in the USA will be highlighted based on the questions
below: Is there a Constitution article for charter schools? What is the legal status of charter schools in
other states and in Wisconsin? Who can apply? Who can grant a charter? What degree of freedom do the
charter schools have? How are the charter schools funded? What is the historical background of the
charter schools? What does Instrumentality and Non-instrumentality mean? What is their current status?
What is the impact and implications of charter schools for other schools?
Key words: Charter, school funding, choice schools, hybrid schools
Is There A Constitution Article For Charter Schools?
“The sanctity of such charters was guaranteed as a constitutionally protected interest under the Obligation of
Contracts provision of U.S Constitution.” (Alexander, Alexander, 2001) “Charter schools are public, nonsectarian
schools created through a businesslike “contract or charter” between the operators and the sponsoring school board
or other chartering authority.” (DPI, website). Actually, charter schools are public schools. That is why they are
exempt from most state laws but not from the federal laws. The biggest difference between a public charter school
and a regular public school is the existence of a very specific contract between the charter granting authority and the
person(s) opening the charter school. The contract is spelling out the requirements the charter school needs to meet at
the end of the charter term, which is usually five years.
What Is The Legal Status Of Charter Schools In Other States And In Wisconsin?
“The most obvious and direct federal involvement in charter schools comes through the Federal
Charter School Grant Program, initially authorized by Congress in 1994. Legislation creating a federal start-up grant
program was originally proposed in 1992 by Senators Dave Durenberger (R-MN) and Joseph Lieberman (D-CN). It
has also consistently attracted bi-partisan support in the U.S. House of Representatives. The program provides
competitive grants to states, which, in turn, make grants to individual charter schools. Grants can be used for both
planning and start-up expenses of charters. A new program authorized in 1998 also gives states the option of making
"Dissemination Grants" to more established schools to help start new charters and to spread their experience and best
practices to other charters and to district public schools. ”(Charter School National Network, 2003)
“No two states’ charter school laws are the same.” (Odden, Bush 1998) There is no one right way of doing
things. Charter schools are certainly another fruit of the fertile educational system in the States.
Wisconsin:
“The original law was passed by the state in 1993 (Assembly bill 631). In June 18, 1998, Wisconsin
Act 238 (1997) changed charter school law. In 1997, the state legislature made another revision to the
law. This revision gave chartering authority to the Chancellor of the University of WisconsinMilwaukee (UWM), to the Milwaukee Area Technical College (MATC), and to the Common Council
of the City of Milwaukee.
In 1998, the state legislature made additional changes to the law, allowing a district to contract with a
cooperative educational agency (CESA) to operate a charter school as long as it is located within the
CESA.
161
�
Another change requires that a school board receiving a petition to establish a charter school or to
convert a nonsectarian private school must hold a public hearing on the matter and must consider the
fiscal impact of the decision.
The changes that occurred in 1999-2001Biennial Budget revolved around Milwaukee per pupil aids and
state assessments.
In the 2001-2003 budget bill, limited chartering authority was granted University of WisconsinParkside.”(Wisconsin State Summary, 2003)
Who Can Apply?
“In some states, only public schools can apply for charter status; in others, groups of teachers or citizens,
universities, and even regional education organizations can apply for a charter.” (Odden, Bush 1998).
Wisconsin:
“Any person”: an individual, partnership, association, or political or corporate body can operate a
charter school.
Prohibits a school board from entering into a contract that would convert a private, sectarian school
into a charter school. This new law applies to Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS) as well: MPS formerly
was allowed this option. “(Odden, Bush 1998).
Who Can Grant A Charter?
“States have created different entities for granting charters; in some states, only school boards grant
charters, in others, the state grants charters; in some cases, both the state and the local school board must approve the
charter”. (Odden, Bush 1998). The variety of charter school issuing agencies in state laws is also another reflection
of how diversity is emphasized in this culture. It might be beneficial to take look at the achievement differences, if
there is, when the granting authority is state or the local school board. Ohio legislation has changed its charter school
law in the last year.
Previously, Ohio was both issuing and sponsoring the charter schools. This was regarded as a kind
of “conflict of interest”. After a lot of criticism that the state should not be both the money-provider and the sponsor,
the state asked all the charter schools to find a sponsor. In that way, an independent local authority will audit the
schools. Now, many schools are in a hurry to find a sponsor in one year, or they will go out of business.
Wisconsin:
The legislation allowed the Milwaukee Area Technical College, MPS, the University of WisconsinMilwaukee, and Milwaukee's Common Council to authorize or operate charter schools in the city of
Milwaukee.
With the exception of Milwaukee, as established in Wisconsin's original 1993 charter school law, the
local school board remains the only entity that can grant a charter for a period of one to five years.
Schools authorized by these government entities receive the shared state aid, currently at $5,600 per
pupil.
The state has the final approval for a charter school.
“The state sets a statutory limit on the number of charter schools allowed in operation at any given
time. The state simply receives the charter school application and approves them at the state level
unless the state limit on the number of charter schools would be exceeded.”
No appeal. “(Odden, Bush 1998).
What Degree Of Freedom Do The Charter Schools Have?
“In some states, the waiver of the state rules and regulations is automatic and wholesale, while in others,
individual charter schools have to specifically request each proposed waiver.” (Odden, Bush 1998). This freedom is
the greatest reason why charter schools are like private schools. Why do people choose charter schools? One of the
important reasons charter schools will provide a better education for their children. (Manhattan Institute, 2003)
162
�Now the states are creating their own private schools with only one difference. Charter schools cannot
charge tuition. Being independent from the state law is also attracting a lot of public schools. Most charter schools
are converted from regular public schools.
Wisconsin:
“Charter schools in Wisconsin are exempt from most state requirements regarding public education.
However, teachers in charter schools must be licensed by the DPI.
Charter schools are not exempt from federal laws governing regular or special education or civil rights
policies, nor are they exempt from local school board policies unless negotiated in the contract. This last
provision does not pertain to the non-instrumentality charter schools.
A charter school cannot charge tuition and must be equally accessible to all students in the district.
Nonresident students may enroll in a district and be assigned to a charter school under the Wisconsin
public school open enrollment program
Charter schools may not discriminate on the basis of sex, race, religion, national origin, ancestry,
pregnancy, marital status, sexual orientation, or physical, mental, emotional, or learning disability.
Attendance at a charter school must be voluntary, and the district must provide alternative public education
for pupils who do not wish to attend the charter school or who are not admitted to the charter school.”
(Wisconsin State Summary, 2003)
How Are The Charter Schools Funded?
“Some states finance charter schools directly, some require charter schools to negotiate the budget with the
local board, and some –Arkansas, Georgia, and Kansas- do not even address funding!” (Odden, Bush 1998). Charter
schools are the prototypes of the school-based financing system model.
“It (charter schools) places great store in the importance of competition improving the quality of schools.”
(Alexander, Alexander, 2001) With a serious rival, other public schools would be forced to be competitive. The race
is based on equal terms at least in terms of finance.
All public schools are paid the same amount per-pupil state aid. The real difference is with the way the
charter schools spend their money. As they are intended to be a model of school-based financing system, the state aid
is paid in a lump sum. They spend their money the way they want to. Most charter schools are established by
teachers or parents.
Wisconsin:
Funding is not specified in the law. It is negotiated locally between the charter school and school district (there
is a maximum per-pupil funding level, which is set by law, though)
How Does Wisconsin Do Overall In Dealing With Its Charter Schools?
A recent report assessing the states’ performances in opening charter schools rated Wisconsin’s as B-. In the
study, 13 states are graded B, 7 states graded C, and 3 states graded C.
“Based on scores of 56 criteria, Wisconsin earned a C for its policy environment, a B for authorizer
practices, B- for charter school support, B- for application processes, B+ approval processes, and B for oversight and
renewal revocation processes. Overall, Wisconsin’s charter school system, although complex, rates rather well.
However, support and external accountability for authorizers are lacking. Policymakers are advised to carefully
review the criterion-based scores for that category.” (Palmer, Gau, 2003)
What Is The Historical Background Of The Charter Schools?
The first charter school was established in Minnesota, in 1991. “During the five years from 1991 to 1996,
twenty six states enacted charter school laws and many other states debated charter school legislation.” (Odden, Bush
1998) There are various reasons why charter schools have flourished so rapidly in the last decade. Just like choice
and voucher programs, charters provide a choice for the parents who are not happy with the regular public schools.
163
�“Wisconsin charter school law was established with an authorization for 1o school districts to establish up
to two charter schools for a total of twenty in the state wide. Thirteen charter schools were created under this law. In
1995, revisions to that first charter school law gave permission to all school boards statewide and eliminated the cap
on the total number of charter schools. ” (Wisconsin State Summary, 2003)
“Charter schools are gaining momentum in the city of Milwaukee. From a modest beginning of less than
200 students in three schools in 1998-1999 school year, they have grown in five years to include 11,497 students in
31 different schools. Statewide 19,005 students are enrolled in 129 different charter schools. of this total, 60% are
charter school students in Milwaukee. The pace of charter school is evidenced by the edition of seven new charter
schools this fall and 2,055 students. Today charter school surpasses the enrolment in Milwaukee private school
voucher program by 816 students, the chapter 220 program by 6,813 students, and the open enrollment program by
10,265.” (Public Policy Forum, 2002)
Parents, complaining a lot about the ineffectiveness of the public schools once, are encouraged to start their
own schools. “A year ago, Mimi Rothschild burst on the scene with an idea so grand and irresistible to parents
disgruntled with public schools that it propelled her to the forefront of educational reform in Pennsylvania.
Rothschild, who has no background in education, set out to open the biggest cyber school in Pennsylvania, if not the
nation, where thousands of students could learn at home, at any time, with a click of a mouse.”(Hirsch, 2002) Then,
they see things are not as easy as they seem to! Another great privilege that most charter schools have is that they are
exempt from many of the state law; bureaucracy. People who establish charter schools love this freedom and try to
create very different schools than regular public schools. If you are a non-instrumentality charter school, you may
even hire your own staff. That freedom is crucial in the success of the charters, as they do not have to get stuck with
ineffective administrators or teachers. Most of them offer a one-year contract.
What Does Instrumentality And Non-Instrumentality Mean?
“When a charter school is and instrumentality of the district, it can best be viewed as attached to the
district.” (Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999) Thus, we can simple infer the meaning of non-instrumentality as
a school not part of a district. “Teachers in "non-instrumentality" charter schools are not district employees and are
eligible to negotiate as a separate unit with charter school governing body, or work independently.”(CER, 2002)
“One attorney described it as an arm of the district, with many of the policies and procedures affecting the district
flowing through to the charter school.” (Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999) Some other major elements of
instrumentality charter schools in Wisconsin are listed in the article as:
1. “The employees remain the employees of the district.
2. “Teachers will keep whatever benefits they get as a result of their contract. Also, teachers will retain their
access to the Wisconsin Retirement System, they get pension.”
3. “Unless it has been otherwise negotiated in the teacher’s bargaining agreement or through a memorandum
of understanding, teachers in charter schools will be treated like other schools in the district around the
issues of seniority.”
4. “The school board has the authority to determine which of its policies and procedures apply to charter
school. This should be outlined in the contract between the charter school and the district.”
5. “Charter schools are waived from all but a handful of the statues regulating the schools. These include the
rules about the number of minutes courses must meet and the number of days school must meet.
Additionally, charter schools gain flexibility in terms of graduation requirements. They also gain some
flexibility in teacher license requirements, similar to that of the provisional license.”
6. “Charter schools waived from the statues around issues of student health, safety and privacy. Additionally,
state law does not and cannot waive charter schools from federal laws that apply to K-12 schools. .”
(Wisconsin Charter School Center, 1999)
What is Their Current Status?
“When charter schools came onto the education scene in the early 1990s they were viewed as a reform that
could turn traditional public schooling on its head.”(Public Policy Forum, 2002) Are they there yet? Are they now a
model for all other public schools? It is too soon to draw conclusions. But still in a very short period of time, they
have at least proved that some things might be better if there is more autonomy. (Manhattan Institute, 2003)
164
�There are now 2,874 charter schools all over the nation. 400 new charter schools added in 2002-2003. (CER,
2002). Statewide 19,005 students are enrolled in 129 in different charter schools. Of this total, 60% are charter
schools in Milwaukee. Considering the fact that each year 400 hundred charters are added, one day the market will
be saturated, become wary of this new experiment and look for different possibilities. (CER, 2002).
Virtual charter schools are now in the game. They are collecting more and more students from different districts.
Just like home schooling, students who would like to stay away from buildings, they opt for other options. “Less than
two weeks before the deadline, Wisconsin Virtual Academy - set to open this fall in a small, rural district in northern
Ozaukee County - has more than 300 confirmed students who are coming from more than 100 districts around the
state.” (Davis, 2003) People, who actually do not want to be taught by a teacher, will enjoy their computer screen.
But is this just another student trick to get away from their responsibilities? Time will tell.
“At last count some 30 cyber charter schools have already been established in 12 states.” (National Association
of States Board of Education, 2001) Although there are very few cyber schools in operation, they are already a big
controversial issue. Advocates for home-schoolers are suing the districts opening charter schools. They argue that
there is no legal basis to open a cyber charter school. Charter school advocates claim that “The Department of
Education holds the position that cyber schools are permitted under Act 22 of 1997, our charter school law.” There
are two cyber schools in Wisconsin: Wisconsin Virtual Academy and Wisconsin Connections Academy. “Wisconsin
Virtual Academy has 275 confirmed new students for next year and 653 approved applications. Wisconsin Virtual
Academy - set to open this fall in a small, rural district in northern Ozaukee County - has more than 300 confirmed
students who are coming from more than 100 districts around the state. Applications from some 600 more were
pending after receiving preliminary approval.”(Davis, 2003) Considering the fact that cyber schools are collecting
students from all the districts in their states, more and more entrepreneurs would knock on the department of
education’s to submit their applications.
“As of October 2002, there are 194 closures which is 6.7% of the 2874 schools ever given charters. The percent
includes the schools that gained the charter school status but never opened, schools were actually consolidated back
to the districts and remain open.” (CER, 2002). The report is a good analysis of why charter schools have been
closed. It underlines that some of the closures are also because of districts. “Some groups, such as local school
districts, and other in educational establishment that were threatened by these groups, are working to push them
back. Why? Sadly, the closures are because most people do not like change, especially if that changes the affects
one’s livelihood.” (CER, 2002). If a charter school gets closed because of poor academic results and therefore not
meeting the contract requirements that would show what real accountability is all about.
The real problem is when charter schools are shut down despite academic achievement, student and parental
satisfaction and community support. People who support “status quo” have always been and will always be. Like Dr.
Fuller said, “in this country there is no way you can change things without controversy.” (Alverno, 2003)
What Is The Impact And Implications Of Charter Schools For Other Schools?
If competition has anything to do with success, charter schools are challenging to regular public schools and
private schools. The challenge is not just felt by the public schools but also by other choice schools and private
schools.
“ Today charter school surpasses the enrolment in the Milwaukee private school voucher program by 816
students, the chapter 220 program by 6813 students and the open enrollment program by 10.265” (Public Policy
Forum, 2002) The pattern of growing numbers in student enrolment is, naturally, a big concern for regular public
schools and private schools.
Schools that lose their students to other programs have two options. They either reduce their staff or find
more students. In order to keep your current student body or to have more students, you need to build up a good
reputation in your neighborhood. Parental satisfaction is the key factor in student retention.
As charter schools are tuition-free, parents who want to save up to thousands of dollars a year may choose
to send their children to quality charter schools. Parents, who are dissatisfied with the performance of their children
165
�in the regular public schools and cannot afford private school tuitions, choose charters. Small classroom sizes and
innovative curriculum are top reasons that attract parents. They all result in the increase of student numbers in charter
schools. “ There are 11.497 students enrolled in Milwaukee charter schools in 2002-2003, a 21.8% increase from the
number of students 9,442 attended charter schools in 2001-2002” (Public Policy Forum, 2002)
Given that, it is still important to know that the number of students in charter schools is just 2.2% of the
total student population in Wisconsin. That clearly proves that regular public schools are still the main education
providers. It is believed that charter schools should stay as model schools that others can get inspired. They should
keep trying new methods to improve the student achievement. It is also acceptable to fail now and then. People all
learn from mistakes, sometimes even more than what they do right.
One important criticism that charter schools receive is that they are getting more white students than
African American since they are selective. “The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University (CRP) announces a new
study of segregation patterns in the nation’s charter schools. “Charter Schools And Race: A Lost Opportunity For
Integrated Education” by Erica Frankenberg and Chungmei Lee.”(The civil Rights Project, 2003) According to a
research on charter schools in Milwaukee area, the district has 60% of student population is black and the number is
61% in charter schools. (Public Policy Forum, 2002)
“ Whatever the condition of charter school, however, it is clear that, when compared with the failure of
traditional public schools, charter schools are more likely to deliver on their promise providing an atmosphere that
breed student achievement.” (CER, 2002)
References
Palmer, Louann, Gau, P. Rebecca. (2003). Charter School Authorizing: Are States Making the Grade? Washington, DC: Thomas
B. Fordham Institute
Charter School National Network. Charter Friends Initiative- on –Federal Legislation and Policy: retrieved July25, 2003 from:
http://www.charterfriends.org/fedpolicy/cfi-fedpolicy8.html
Davis, Anne (2003) Milwaukee Journal Sentinel: Virtual Academy Gets As Many As 900 Students retrieved July25, 2003, from:
http://www.jsonline.com/news/State/may03/143452.asp
Hirsch,
Melanie.
(2002).
Internet
Schooling:
Cyber
http://www.psrn.org/Cyber%20schools/mcall%20internet%20schooling.html
school
is
cautionary
tale
Odden, Allan, Bush, Carolyn. (1998). Financing Schools For High Performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Alexander, Kern, Alexander, M. David (2001). American Public School Law. Belmont CA: Wadsworth West –Group
Forster, Greg, Green P. Jay. (2003) Apples to Apples: An Evaluation of Charter Schools Serving General Student Populations.
Manhattan Institute
Public Policy Forum (2002). The Research Brief: MPS Charter Schools Outperform City and UWM, Milwaukee Volume 90,
Number 10
The Center for Education Reform. (2002). Charter schools today: Changing the face of American education. Washington DC
The Civil Rights Project. (2003). Study Finds That Nation's Charter Schools Are Places Of Racial Isolation Cambridge, MA
Wisconsin Charter School Resource Center. (1999). Understanding Instrumentality Charter Schools in Wisconsin: Briefing Paper.
Wisconsin
Wisconsin State Summary. (2003) History of Charter School Law
http://www.dpi.state.wi.us/dpi/dfm/sms/pdf/023yrbk1.pdf
166
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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380
Title
A name given to the resource
Charter Schools
Author
Author
Türkyılmaz, M. Uğur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Charter school movement in the USA: Would that be a new school model for the world? In this presentation, the charter school movement in the USA will be highlighted based on the questions below: Is there a Constitution article for charter schools? What is the legal status of charter schools in other states and in Wisconsin? Who can apply? Who can grant a charter? What degree of freedom do the charter schools have? How are the charter schools funded? What is the historical background of the charter schools? What does Instrumentality and Non-instrumentality mean? What is their current status? What is the impact and implications of charter schools for other schools?
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2009-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
L Education (General)