99 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3d4ff2b9b08ecbcac3130023fde0ccf6.pdf af9b6af30280b633dd9058cc742e0d22 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material Şerife Parlayıcı, Erol Pehlivan Department of Chemical Engineering, Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey E-mail: erolpehlivan@gmail.com Abstract The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI) ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed. Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was 28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid 1.INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution and health by heavy metals is an important economic and environmental subject in many areas of the world (Köhler et al. 2007). Industrial wastes and domestic generated have been threating our aquatic environment. Significant amounts of toxic heavy metals in laden with debris are deposited into the natural aquatic ecosystems (Chen and Lim 2002). Chromium (Cr) is one of priority pollutants among heavy metals in surface water and groundwater cycle resulting from numerous industrial activities such as wood preservatives, textile dyeing, leather tanning, electroplating and metal plating operations. Cr(VI) containing wastewaters must be lowered to allowable limits before discharging into the environment ((Sonmez and Aksu 2002; Kobya, 2004). In recent years, increasing number of publications has been exhibited for the removal of heavy metals from aqueous medium by using adsorption techniques with different adsorbents (Chong and Volesky 1995; Chong and Volesky 1995). Studies reveal that various agricultural waste materials such as materials such as bark, hazelnut shells, peanut hulls, nuts, wood, soybean hulls, soybean straws, saw dust, walnut shells, osage orange etc. has been tried and the adsorption capacity of these natural by products and wastes could be enhanced by chemical modifications (Kobya 2004; Cimino et al. 2000; Hashem et al. 2005; Mohanty et al. 2005; Low et al. 2004; Marshall et al. 2001; Zhu et al. 2008; Raji and Anirudhan 1997; Sud et al. 2008; Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu et al. 2001). The functional groups present in agricultural waste biomass such as acetamido, alcoholic, carbonyl, phenol, 36 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo amido, amino, sulphydryl groups etc. have affinity for chromium ions to form chelates. These groups have the affinity for Cr(VI) ion. The mechanism of adsorption process includes chemisorption, complexation, adsorption on surface, electrostatic attraction and ion exchange etc. (Sud et al. 2008). The purpose of this research was to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and physical phenomena associated with the binding of Cr(VI) ion to (WS) and (MWS) biosorbents. So a new group was substituted to (WS). The Cr(VI) ion retention on this adsorbent has been carried out batch wise where the influence of physico-chemical key parameters such as the solution pH, the initial metal concentration, contact time, and ionic strength has been considered. 2.Materials and methods 2.1.Materials (WS) was collected from vicinity of Konya-Turkey. Straws were ground with Retsch RM 100 model grinding machine. They were ground and sieved to obtain size of 100 µm. Before using raw straws, they were washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried in air oven at 100 °C for 24 h. All chemicals were of an analytical grade. Double distilled water was used to prepare all solutions throughout the experiments. Cr(VI) stock solution (from Merck) was prepared by dissolving K2Cr2O7 salt in double distilled water. Solutions of 0.01 M NaOH and HCl (from Merck) were used for pH adjustment. Experimental methods A series of standard Cr(VI) solution were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock solution. A thermostated shaker of GFL 3033 model was used for adsorption experiments. The pH measurements were performed with Orion 900S2 Model pH meter. For Cr(VI) ion sorption studies, 40 mg WS was brought in contact with 25 mL of Cr(VI) solution using an orbital shaker at 25 C. After filtration, the filtrate was analyzed spectrophometrically for determining the Cr(VI) concentration in the solution phase. The remaining Cr(VI) ion in the solution was calculated by taking the difference of initial concentration and total Cr(VI) concentration in the filtrate. The concentrations of Cr(VI) ions in initial and final solutions were determined spectrophotometrically at 540 nm by UV-visible Spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1700). For the determination of Cr(VI), its supernatant was separated from the reaction mixture and divided into two parts. In one part equilibrium concentration of the Cr(VI) was measured by adding 1,5 diphenyl carbazide as a complexing agent, whereas the second part was heated up to 130 C with KMnO4. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Effect of solution initial pH on the Cr (VI) adsorption Earlier studies have shown that solution pH is an important parameter influencing the biosorption of Cr(VI) ions (Dönmez and Aksu 2002). Cr(VI) removal was investigated as a function of solution pH and the result is indicated in Figure 1. 37 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 100 Sorption (%) 75 Cr(VI) 50 Cr(III) 25 0 0 2 4 6 8 pH Figure 1. Effect of pH on the biosorption of Cr (VI) using (MWS). Biosorption conditions; initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption medium, temperature: 25 C, contact time: 120 min. As seen from this figure, the biosorption of Cr(VI) onto (WS) and (MWS) is strongly pHdependent. 82 % of the Cr(VI) adsorbed onto (MWS) from the solution when the optimum pH was around 2.0. There is a tendency to decrease in the removal when the solution pH is raised from 2.0 to 5.0 and thereafter the effect becomes negligible. Similar results were reported by other several workers (Sud et al. 2008). The decrease in the adsorption with the increase in solution pH may be ascribed to the decrease in electrostatic force of attraction between the adsorbent and the adsorbate. It has been verified that Cr(VI) can be easily reduced to Cr(III) in the presence of biosorbents and in acid media. Although the resarches on the chromium elimination by biosorption are numerous, few of them have analyzed the combined effect of the retention of Cr(VI) by the biosorbent and its reduction to Cr(III). There was sorption of Cr(VI) as well as Cr(III) during sorption of Cr(VI) on the surface of biosorbent. Reduction of Cr(VI) into Cr(III) is also clear from the aqueous chemistry of Cr(VI) at low pH value. The low pH also accelerates the redox reactions in aqueous and biosorbent phases, since the protons participate in these reactions. The mechanisms for the biosorption are: i) the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in presence of the biosorbent and in acid media. ii) the retention of the initially present Cr(VI) by the biosorbent, as well as of the Cr(III) formed during the reduction process (Sud et al. 2008). The decrease in Cr(VI) ion removal capacity (WS) and (MWS) at pH > 2.0 may be caused by hydrolysis accompanying by precipitation of metal hydroxides. This pH dependence of the binding showed that adsorption, chelation and electrostatic interactions were involved in the binding mechanism of Cr(VI) by (WS) and (MWS). Indeed, adsorption and chelation involving hydroxyl functions, close to carboxylated, may increase the binding level of Cr(VI) ions in addition to the electrostatic interactions taking place. It was confirmed that (WS) and (MWS) is dominated by negatively charged sites that are largely carboxylated groups with some weaker acidic groups. At pH values higher than 4, carboxyl groups are deprotonated and negatively charged. Consequently, the attraction of positively charged metal ions would be enhanced. At low pH, the surface of (WS) and (MWS) would also be surrounded by 38 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo hydronium ions, which decrease the Cr(VI) ion interaction with binding sites of the biosorbent by greater repulsive forces. 3.2. Effect of contact time 100 Sorption (%) 75 50 25 0 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 Contact Time(min) Figure 2. Effect of contact time on the sorption of Cr (VI) by (MWS). Biosorption conditions; initial concentration of Cr (VI): 2x10-3 mol/L, 0.1 g adsorbent, 40 mL of biosorption medium, temperature: 251C, pH 2.0. The effect of time on the adsorption of Cr(VI) ions by the (WS) and (MWS) was studied by taking 0.1 g sorbent with 40.0 ml of 0.001 M Cr(VI) solution in the plastic beakers. The beakers were shaken for different time intervals in a temperature-controlled shaker. Figure 2 showed the effect of contact time on adsorption of Cr(VI) ions using (MWS). The results showed that the percentage of Cr(VI) ion adsorption by (WS) and (MWS) increased with increasing time of equilibration and it reached the plateau value at about 120 min. 3.3. Effect of initial Cr(VI) concentration The Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were both used to describe observed sorption phenomena of Cr(VI) on the biosorbents (Altun and Pehlivan 2012; Pehlivan et al. 2012; Yu et al. 2001). The Langmuir isotherm applies to adsorption on completely homogenous surfaces with negligible interaction between adsorbed molecules. For a single solute, it is given by the Freundlich model, which is an empirical model used to describe adsorption in aqueous systems, was also used to explain the observed phenomena of Cr(VI) biosorption on (MWS). The effect of sorbate concentration was shown in Figure 1. In the case of low Cr(VI) concentrations, the ratio of the initial number of moles of chromium ions to the available surface area was larger and subsequently the fractional biosorption became independent of initial concentrations. However, at higher concentrations, the available sites of adsorption became fewer, and hence the percentage removal of chromium ions depends upon the initial concentration. The amount of Cr(VI) ions adsorbed per unit mass of the (WS) and (MWS) 39 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo increased with the initial Cr(VI) concentration as expected. The sorption capacities was 28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. Table 1. Freundlich and Langmuir isotherm parameters of (MWS). Freundlich Isotherm a Langmuir Isotherm ka n R2 Kb As a R2 0.925 1.384 0.985 30.90 1.578 0.988 mmol/g dry adsorbent. The Langmuir model fitted well in the pH range 2.0. We found the Langmuir isotherm, to have the highest correlation coefficients of 0.988 for (MWS) (Table 1.). It was found that more than 82% removal of Cr(VI) was achieved using (MWS). Conclusion In this study, the toxic Cr(VI) ion biosorption on the inexpensive and efficient biosorbents from agricultural waste materials have been investigated as replacement strategy for existing conventional systems. The use of these low cost biosorbents is recommended since they are relatively cheap or of no cost, easily available, renewable and show highly affinity for Cr(VI) ions. Literature also reveals that in some cases the modification of the adsorbent increased the removal efficiency. (WS) both untreated and treated was effective in removal of Cr(VI) ion from aqueous solutions. Adsorption of Cr(VI) was dependent on its initial concentrations and pH of the Cr(VI) solution. The results indicate that the optimum pH for the removal of Cr(VI) ions by (WS) and (MWS) was around 2. Cr(VI) removal was built up; equilibrium conditions are attained after nearly 2 h. Isothermal data of Cr(VI) sorption on (MWS) can be modeled by Langmuir isotherm. The data in the linearized forms (Langmuir equation) gave satisfactory correlation coefficients for a part of the covered concentration range. REFERENCES Altun T., Pehlivan E. (2012) Removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions by modified walnut shells. Food Chemistry, 132, 693–700. Chen J.P., Lim L.L. (2002) Key factors in chemical reduction by hydrazine for recovery of precious metals. Chemosphere 49, 363–370. Chong K.H., Volesky B. (1995) Description of two metal biosorption equilibria by Langmuirtype models. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 47, 451–460. Cimino G., Passerini A., Toscano G. (2000) Removal of toxic cations and Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by hazelnut shell. Water Research 34, 2955–2962. Dönmez G., Aksu Z. (2002) Removal of chromium(VI) from saline wastewaters by Dunaliella species. Process Biochemistry 38, 751–762. Hashem A., Abdel-Halim E.S., El-Tahlawy K.F., Hebeish A. (2005) Enhancement of adsorption of Co (II) and Ni (II) ions onto peanut hulls though esterification using citric acid. Adsorption Science and Technology 23, 367–380. 40 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Kobya M. (2004) Adsorption, kinetic and equilibrium studies of Cr (VI) by hazelnut shell activated carbon. Adsorption Science and Technology 22, 51–64. Köhler S.J., Cubillas P., Rodríguez-Blanco J.D., Bauer C. and Prieto M. (2007) Removal of cadmium from wastewaters by aragonite shells and the influence of other divalent cations. Environmental Science & Technology 41, 112–118. Low K.S., Lee C.K., Mak S.M. (2004) Sorption of copper and lead by citric acid modified wood. Wood Science and Technology 38, 629–640. Marshall W.E., Chatters A.Z., Wartelle L.H., McAloon (2001) A., Optimization and estimated production cost of a citric acid-modified soybean hull ion exchanger. Industrial Crops and Products 14, 191–199. Marshall W.E. and Wartella L.H. (2003) Acid recycling to optimize citric acid-modified soybean hull production. Industrial Crops and Products 18, 177–182. Mohanty K., Jha M., Biswas M.N., Meikap B.C. (2005) Removal of chromium (VI) from dilute aqueous solutions by activated carbon developed from Terminalia Arjuna nuts activated with zinc chloride. Chemical Engineering Science 60, 3049–3059. Pehlivan E., Pehlivan E., Kahraman H. (2012) Hexavalent chromium removal by Osage Orange. Food Chemistry, (Accepted). Raji C. and Anirudhan T.S. (1997) Chromium (VI) adsorption by sawdust: kinetics and equilibrium. Indian Journal of Chemical Technology 4, 228–236. Sud D., Mahajan G., Kaur M.P. (2008) Agricultural waste material as potential adsorbent for sequestering heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions-a review. Bioresource Technology 99(14), 6017–6027. Yu B., Zhang Y., Shukla A., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L. (2001) The removal of heavy metals from aqueous solution by saw dust adsorption. Removal of Pb(II) and comparison of its adsorption with copper. Journal of Hazardous Materials B84, 83–94. Zhu B., Fan T., Zhang D. (2008) Adsorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by citric acid modified soybean straw. Journal of Hazardous Materials 153, 300–308. Parasitic Diseases And Their Controls In Sustainable Development Of Aquculture Of Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus Thynnus) Erol Tokşen, Egemen Nemli,Uğur Değirmenci, Ulviye Karacalar Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Fish Diseases, Bornova 5100 İzmir, Turkey E-mails: erol.toksen@ege.edu.tr, egemen.nemli@ege.edu.tr, ugur.degirmenci@ege.edu.tr, ulviye.karacalar@ege.edu.tr Abstract In the last decades Turkish and Mediterranean mariculture has focused its production mainly on two species, gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) and sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.). 41 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1224 Title A name given to the resource Elimination of Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by a new agro-waste material Author Author Şerife , Parlayıcı Abstract A summary of the resource. The efficiency of Wheat Straw (WS) and modified Wheat Straw (MWS) in removing Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solution was studied. Batch experiments were designed to obtain Cr(VI) ion sorption data. The influences of contact time, pH, adsorbent dose and initial chromium concentration on adsorption process performance was researched and an appropriate adsorption isotherm of Cr(VI) adsorption on (WS) and (MWS) was determined. The results of this study showed that adsorption of chromium by (RWS) and (MWS) reached to equilibrium after 120 min and after that a little change of chromium removal efficiency was observed. Higher Cr(VI) adsorption was observed at lower pH and maximum Cr(VI) concentration and lower adsorbent doses. The equilibrium sorption capacity of Cr(VI) ion after 120 min was 28.6 and 81.9 mg/g for (WS) and (MWS) respectively. The investigated adsorbents showed different adsorption capacities for Cr(VI) ions. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have been used to characterize observed biosorption phenomena of Cr(VI) ions on (MWS). The carboxyl groups on the surface of (MWS) were primarily responsible for the sorption of Cr(VI) ions. Keywords: Sorption; Cr(VI); Agricultural by-product; Citric acid Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed S Agriculture (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f57b84bb217f04ac03db30bca0d95b21.pdf 60d87a286beacff3fdcad17f2b51abc6 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Eliot's Rose Garden: A Sufi Interpretation Fatemeh Azizmohamadi Faculty member of Azad University, Arak Branch. meena_mina_mina@yahoo.com Shahram Afrougheh Faculty member of Azad University, Boroujerd Branch. sh_afrougheh@yahoo.com Abstract: Eliot's theosophical poetry supports the idea that God's willingness to relate to the world gives his creatures the possibility of personal knowledge of him, although this can be acquired only through difficult and serenuous spiritual exercises. The variety of poetic works, which Eliot produced such as Four Quartets and Hollow man, are a blend of philosophical and mystical ideas which attempt to explore the inner meaning of faith and represent a creative and influential stream that both draws upon and contributes to Sufism. Key Terms: Sufism, Eliot, Rose – Garden, Schimmel Introduction One of the recurring symbols in the later poetry of T. S. Eliot is that of the rose. Appearing in the Hollow Man (1925) for the first time, it acquires newer and deeper connotation in the succeeding poems till it assumes its full significance in Four Quartets (1943). Most discussions of the rose in Eliot's poetry relate the symbol either to Dante or to the medieval Christian tradition. Leonard Unger (1966:69-70) notes that for Eliot the rose garden symbolizes an early sexual awakening comparable to that described by Eliot in his discussion of Dante's Vita Nuova. Eric Thompson (1963:99) too traces the rose garden to Dante's earthly paradise. Barbara Seward (1960:156) in her detailed account of the symbolic rose considers Eliot's rose not "wholly modern" and traces its origin to the Middle Ages and the Catholic symbol of spiritual love incarnated in Christ. "Combining the romanticism of a yearning, nostalgic, insatiable age with the absolute authoritarian standards of medieval times," Seward (Ibid: 156) notes that "Eliot has created a symbol suited to religious present needs." A large body of scholarly and critical writing on Eliot is available today, yet it is to be noted that no critic has alluded to the Sufi tradition in the discussion of the rose and the rose garden in Eliot's poetry. Even those critics who have dealt with the oriental influence on Eliot limit themselves either to the Hindu or to the Buddhist traditions. In both the cases there is enough evidence to show that Eliot was influenced by these traditions. No such evidence, as yet, is available to show that Eliot ever came under the influence of the Sufis or their poetry. Nonetheless, it is possible to draw certain parallels between Eliot's imagery and the Sufi imagery for the simple reason that certain archetypal images and symbols with mystical connotations transcend the barriers of language and tradition and find expression in poetry written at different periods and places. The mystics, in whichever language they express themselves, have always been fascinated by "the symbol" since it enables them to express certain complex and inexpressible ideas which the ordinary words fail to do. Though essentially a poet, Eliot at times uses the language of the mystics in order to express moments of mystical experience. Sufism and Eliot The rose and the rose-garden which dominate Eliot's later poetry can be abundantly found in Persian and Turkish mystic poetry. Sānāi, the first major mystic poet of Persia, preaches the Sufi doctrine through the symbol of the rose and the bird (Arberry 1966:8): The nightingale hath no repose For joy that ruby blooms the rose; 455 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Long time it is that philomel Hath loved like me the rosy dell. Tis sure no wonder if I sing Both night and day my fair sweeting: Let me be slave to that bird's tongue Who late the rose's praise hath sung! O Saki, when the days commence Of ruby roses, abstinence By none is charged; then pour me wine Like yonder rose incarnadine. A host of notable mystic poets following Sānāi have employed the rose symbol in their poems to relate the mystic experience. Sádi, a thirteenth century classical poet from Persia, entitled one of his principal works as Gulistan or The Rose Garden which is "recognized by the most eminent Sufis as concealing the whole range of the deepest sufi knowledge" (Shah 1968:90). In her book The Mystical Dimensions of Islam Annemarie Schimmel recounts an interesting story to explain the Sufi's love for the rose. According to a tradition when the Prophet saw a rose, he kissed it and pressed it to his eyes and said, "the red rose is part of God's glory" (Schimmel 1975: 222). Schimmel thinks that the "Prophet's love of roses may have induced the poets to call him the 'nightingale of the Eternal Garden' for he discloses to the faithful some of the mysteries of God, the Everlasting Rose" (Ibid: 22). Abu 'Ali Qalandar, the 14th century mystic poet, says (Ibid: 217): "Welcome, O Nightingale of the Ancient Garden! / Speak to us about the Lovely Rose." For Eliot too the rose symbolizes the mystery of God manifest in created forms. Similar to Sufi poetry, his poetry also relates the rose, the bird and the garden with one another. "Burnt Norton," the first poem of Four Quartets is central to the understanding of Eliot's rose garden. According to Unger (1966: 79), "Burnt Norton" displays on its surface "the spiritual quest, the constant endeavor to interpret the experience and relive it." The poem, he observes, "is a discourse on the ultimate significance" of the experience in the rose-garden (Ibid). In the poem, there are at least three rose gardens — the rose garden of the past which the poet regrets of having not entered but might have entered; the actual rose-garden of "Burnt Norton;" and most important of all, the mystical rose garden of the Timeless moment which contains the past, the present and the future symbolizing "those moments that show more than any others, the meeting of the Eternal and the temporal" (Weitz 1969: 146). It stands "as a symbol of those temporal experiences which reveal most poignantly the immanent character of the ultimately real' (Ibid). The ecstasy experienced in the timeless moments in the rose garden is similar to the Wajd experienced by the Sufis. Wajd literally means "finding" i.e., finding God and attaining quitted and peace. The Sufi, overwhelmed by the happiness of having found Him, becomes enraptured in ecstatic bliss. This ecstatic experience is often a consequence of having attained Fanā. Nicholson (1976: 14) explains Fanā as "the passing away of consciousness in mystical union." During this momentary period of intoxication "all the attributes of the self are negated" (Ibid: 20). In Fanā, there is a complete annihilation of the self and the obliteration of the self in God. However, Sufis like Ibn-al-Fartd, a 13th Century Sufi from Arabia have suggested that the highest mystical experience is not negative but positive. Nicholson, quoting profusely from Taiyyatu-i-Kubra, elaborates Ibn-alFarid's concept of fanā. Ibnl-Farid distinguishes between three modes of experiences/ normal abnormal, and super normal corresponding to "sobriety" (Sahw), "intoxication" (Sukr) and the "sobriety of union" (Sahau-iJam). In the first stage of his journey the Sufi is aware of the distinction between his individual self and God; in the second stage these distinctions vanish; and in the third stage he is aware of himself as being one with the Creator from whom he as a created one is distinct. Hence during the momentary intoxication of Fanā all the attributes of self are negated and in the sobriety of union they are resolved (ibidem:19). In Sufi thought fanā is a correlative of Baqa which means "persistence" or "subsistence in God" (Schimmel 1975: 143). While the Persian Sufi Bayazid of Bistam taught the negative doctrine of Fanā, Abu Syed Ali Kharraz propagated the view that "the ultimate goal is not death to self (Fanā) but life in God (Baqa)" (Nicholson 1976: 14). Some parallels to this thought could be traced in "Burnt Norton." "Burnt Norton" opens with a striking comment on the co-existence of time past, present and future (Eliot 1936: 213): "Time present and time past / Are both present in time future, / And time future contained in time past." In these lines Eliot "collapses the division of time giving us the eternal presence of all time" (Williamson 1966:211). Past, present and future possibility all point to an end which is always with us, the Eternal or timeless moment. Muslim thinkers and mystics have always been pre-occupied with the problem of Time. Hujwri‾ (1988: 367) in The Kashf al Mahajub or "The Revelation of the Hidden," the oldest Persian treatise on Sufism, says "Waqt (Time) is that where a man 456 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo becomes independent of the past and the future, as for example, when an influence from God descends into his soul and makes his heart collected, he has no memory of the past and no thought of that whatever is not yet come." Hujwri‾ (ibidem:369) further states "time cuts the root of the future and the past and obliterates cares of yesteryears and tomorrows from the heart." Iqbal (1984:75) explains the Sufi poet Iraqi's concept of divine time as that "which is absolutely free from the qualities of passage, and consequently does not admit of divisibility, sequence and change. It is above eternity; it has neither beginning nor end." For the Sufis, the experience of Waqt or time is "the moment at which they break through created time and reach the Eternal Now in God" (Schimmel 1975: 220). Iqbal, in his interpretation of the mystical symbols, understands time as a reference to the moment at which the "infidel's girdle" namely "serial time is torn, and the mystic establishes a direct contact with God" (Ibid). The "still point of the turning world" which Eliot mentions in the second movement of the "Burnt Norton" is comparable to the moment when the Sufi establishes a direct contact with God. However, in order to gain Tajalli or the moment of illumination, it is necessary to open the door to the rosegarden. Eliot (1936: 213) regrets that he did not open the door in the past: Footfalls echo in the memory Down the passage which we did not take Towards the door we never opened Into the rose-garden. Hujwrī relates the story of a man in Basra who once went to his garden and found the beautiful wife of the gardener there. After dismissing the gardener on some pretext he ordered the woman to shut the gates. She replied "I have shut them all except one which I cannot shut." On being asked which gate it was she answered "the gate that is between us and God." On receiving this answer the man repented and begged to be forgiven (Hujwrī 1982: 13). Sa'di of Shiraz in one of his poems, perhaps refers to the same door when he says "the unfortunate one is he who averts his head from this door. For he will not find another door" (Shah 1968: 91). As mentioned earlier, Seward (1960) considers Eliot's rose-garden as a symbol of natural ecstasy of divine grace, of Christ and the eternal God in the four poems of the Quartet. We have already observed how in the Sufi tradition, the mystical experience or the moment of illumination or Fanā is ecstatic. For the Sufis, the rose also stands for divine grace and the manifestation of God. Many writers have seen the rose-garden symbol as Christ incarnate. The Christian doctrine of Incarnation finds echos in Mansur-al-Hallaj, the Persian mystic who declared "An-al-Haqq" or "I am Truth" or I am God." Considering this to be blasphemy, Hallaj was executed in Baghdad in 922. Hallaje's was an attempt in Islam to explain the meaning of mystical union in terms of the Christian doctrine of the two natures of God "Ahuf" and "Asut," the divine and the human. While describing the union of the two Hallaj, according to Nicholson, employs the term "Hulul" which in the Muslim mind was associated with the Christian doctrine of Incarnation. In one of his poems Hallaj declares (Nicholson 1976: 30): I am He whom I love, and He whom I love is I We are two spirits dwelling in one body If thou seest me, thou seest Him, If thou seest Him, thou seest us both. The rose-garden of Eliot has very often been considered to represent Paradise. For the Sufi, everywhere and everything in Paradise is nothing but Allah since "everything is lost in Him." The Paradise of the Sufi is "the vision of the divine beloved" and "those who are deprived of this vision experience Hell in every place" (Schimmel 1975: 332). Throughout Four Quartets roses are associated with love. A large number of Sufi Poets have also sung of the experience of love in the imagery of roses and nightingales. For instance in Ghazzali's Aphorisms on Love or Sawamh the Rose very often symbolizes the beloved. About Ghazzali and Sawarii/i, Schimmel (Ibid: 295) writes: "In those short paragraphs, interspersed with verses, we recognize him as the master of chaste love, who puts between himself and the beautiful beloved a rose, contemplating now the rose, now the beloved." A study of the Sufi poets reveals that love is a major theme of their poetry. Divine love is celebrated so often in their poetry that they have come to be considered as masters of mystical love. Love is described by Ruzbihan Baqli, one of the foremost Sufi poets of Shiraz, in these words: "Look well, for the heart is the market place of His Love, and 457 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there the rose of Adam on the branch of Love is from the color of manifestation (Tajjali) of His Rose" (Ibid:298). Critics like Unger are of the opinion that the ecstatic experience in the rose-garden in Eliot is implicitly sexual. Ibn Arabf, the 12th century Sufi, wrote love poetry to express the embodiment of divine love in a human ideal. His poetry, though essentially religious and mystical in nature, has sexual and erotic overtones. Under the influence of Arab, many later Sufi poets have used erotic symbolism in allegorical terms in their poems. Conclusion Eliot's mystical poetry concentrates on gaining knowledge of God through study of His manifestation, and a theosophical tradition that approaches God through his impact on creation. Eliot claims that, although veridical, his Sufi experiences cannot be adequately described in language, because ordinary communication is based on sense experience and conceptual differentiation: mystical poetry is thus characterized by metaphor and simile. For him it is not controversial here whether all Sufi experiences are basically the same, and whether the apparent diversity among them is the result of interpretations influenced by different cultural traditions. Finally, it can be stated that despite the lack of any evidence of Sufi influence on Eliot, it is possible to draw parallels between his poetry and Sufi poetry. The parallels between the two show that Eliot's poetry can lend itself to different interpretations, thereby indicating its universal dimensions. 458 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arberry, A. J. 1966. Muslim Saints and Mystics. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bergonzi, Bernard 1969. Editor T. S. Eliot: Four Quarters. London: Macmillan Press. Eliot,T. S. 1936. Collected Poems. New York: Harcourt Brace and Company . Hujwri-, Ali Bin Uthaan. 1982. The Kashaf al Mahajub. Translated by A. R. Nicholson. New Delhi. Taj Company. Iqbal, Sir Mohammed. 1984. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought In Islam. New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan. Nicholson, A. R. 1976. The Idea of Personality in Sufism. Delhi: ldaah-I-Adabiya-t. Delhi. Schimmel, Annemarie. 1975. Mystical Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. Seward, Barbara. 1960. The Symbolic Rose. New York: Columbia University Press. Shah,Idries. 1979. The Way of the Sufi. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Thompson, Eric .1963. T. S. Eliot: The Metaphysical Perspective. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press. Unger, Leonard. 1966. T. S. Eliot: Moments and Patterns. Minnesota Press. Williamson, George. 1966. A Reader's Guide to T. S. Eliot. New York: Noonday Press. Weitz, Morris. 1969. T. S. Eliot Time as a Mode of Salvation. In Bergonzi: 146-180 . 459 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 68 Title A name given to the resource Eliot's Rose Garden: A Sufi Interpretation Author Author Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Afrougheh, Shahram Abstract A summary of the resource. Eliot's theosophical poetry supports the idea that God's willingness to relate to the world gives his creatures the possibility of personal knowledge of him, although this can be acquired only through difficult and serenuous spiritual exercises. The variety of poetic works, which Eliot produced such as Four Quartets and Hollow man, are a blend of philosophical and mystical ideas which attempt to explore the inner meaning of faith and represent a creative and influential stream that both draws upon and contributes to Sufism. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/954fb966ae1e7d334bd85533866006d5.docx dc03070988eae1c1613ad2b3c1ca2433 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/961860fba07d4c13dc4ecafcf4596d0c.pdf 2ab57cf29a61d9689b584f0f520847f7 PDF Text Text Elt as a Tool to Bridge Cross-Cultural Gaps Omer Serdar Ozturk The South East European University/Tetovo, Macedonia Key words: inter-cultural gap, cultural awareness, cross-cultural barriers, ELT and culture, sociolinguistics ABSTRACT This paper is a part of an ongoing research, namely “AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFL LEARNERS IN A MULTICULTURAL ELT ENVIRONMENT: THE CASE OF A PRIVATE SCHOOL IN MACEDONIA”. In this part of the study I tried to answer the question, “Can we use ELT to bridge cross-cultural gaps?” My premises are; -Language and culture are reciprocally inextricable. Language is the biggest conveyor of culture. Learning a language is learning that culture. This can be evidenced that members of similar cultures learn each other’s language more easily than members of remote cultures. -English has long been a lingua franca in many parts of the world. The status English language gained today makes it unavoidable in school curricula worldwide. -Our virtually shrinking world faces problems among its various ethnic groups. Misconceptions, prejudices, or stereotypes are prevalent in today’s multicultural world. -One aspect of school education is to help solve the problems of society. Following this thought sequence I asked the research question: Can ELT be used to facilitate its learners to overcome cultural barriers? Can we use ELT to bridge cross-cultural gaps? To explore the question, in the beginning of the academic year 2012-2013, I first added an extra line into the aims section of my annual plan as; “to develop better cross cultural understanding among students.” To achieve this, I planned to use various cross-cultural materials in my classes. Our course-book “Solutions” has been a great help as it has a lot of direct culture related topics. As the implementation of the plan, we studied culture, its aspects and elements like music, food, clothes, reactions and gestures in various instances. As a final stage I conducted a questionnaire to test the change in their perception of the “other.” The analysis of the questionnaire gave encouraging results. Students developed more acceptance towards other cultures. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1918 Title A name given to the resource Elt as a Tool to Bridge Cross-Cultural Gaps Author Author OZTURK, Omer Serdar Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: inter-cultural gap, cultural awareness, cross-cultural barriers, ELT and culture, sociolinguistics ABSTRACT This paper is a part of an ongoing research, namely “AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFL LEARNERS IN A MULTICULTURAL ELT ENVIRONMENT: THE CASE OF A PRIVATE SCHOOL IN MACEDONIA”. In this part of the study I tried to answer the question, “Can we use ELT to bridge cross-cultural gaps?” My premises are; -Language and culture are reciprocally inextricable. Language is the biggest conveyor of culture. Learning a language is learning that culture. This can be evidenced that members of similar cultures learn each other’s language more easily than members of remote cultures. -English has long been a lingua franca in many parts of the world. The status English language gained today makes it unavoidable in school curricula worldwide. -Our virtually shrinking world faces problems among its various ethnic groups. Misconceptions, prejudices, or stereotypes are prevalent in today’s multicultural world. -One aspect of school education is to help solve the problems of society. Following this thought sequence I asked the research question: Can ELT be used to facilitate its learners to overcome cultural barriers? Can we use ELT to bridge cross-cultural gaps? To explore the question, in the beginning of the academic year 2012-2013, I first added an extra line into the aims section of my annual plan as; “to develop better cross cultural understanding among students.” To achieve this, I planned to use various cross-cultural materials in my classes. Our course-book “Solutions” has been a great help as it has a lot of direct culture related topics. As the implementation of the plan, we studied culture, its aspects and elements like music, food, clothes, reactions and gestures in various instances. As a final stage I conducted a questionnaire to test the change in their perception of the “other.” The analysis of the questionnaire gave encouraging results. Students developed more acceptance towards other cultures. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/959b0eb00936f30084c9906d3178c3b8.pdf eb4a83537d7d3a8095e4bc5e7cb70156 PDF Text Text ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? M. Naci KAYAOĞLU Faculty of Arts Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Fehmi TURGUT School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey feturgut@yahoo.com Abstract: This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Introduction Reading is a very complex developmental process for foreign language learners. Considering the problems students face in studying reading comprehension in the native language, studying reading comprehension in a foreign language becomes a process that drives the learner under many challenging and unfavorable circumstances. Even to make a list of the probable problems in reading is ardous work, for problems may vary according to different foreign language teaching/learning settings, based upon materials, purpose of reading, needs, and proficiency levels. Not all these problems can be diagnosed and solved within the scope of one single study. Recent has already established and reported close interactions between learning and student perceptions and the influence of students' thoughts, beliefs, and feelings about themselves, other persons, and events outcomes (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986; Koon and Murray, 1995; O’Connell and Dickinson, 1993; Ryan and Harrison 1995; Cashin and Downey 1992) . This means students affect classroom events, and their learning and learning. Students themselves can formulate achievement goals, involve in various activities, and sometimes develop and use strategies which they believe will guarantee thier success. When their thoughts, beliefs, feelings and perceptions do not match, their learning is affected negatively. Since perception is a requisite property of action, without perception, action would not be guided and without action perception would be pointless; in a sense, "perception and movement are two sides of the same cointhe coin is action" (Gibson, 1966). Considering the multitude of benefits ELT students draw from critical or analytical reading, the task of picturing what perceptions motivate their actions in reading, what problems they think make their reading process enigmatic and building a bridge between the problems they perceive and those they actually experience are challenges that should not be ignored. It is for this reason that this study aimed to focus on the English-majoring prep-class students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading to draw a picture of their world of 89 �reading in English in the hope that the resulting data would lead the researchers, the teachers and the program designers to some solutions. The study Gibson (1966) claims that any account of the facts of perceiving must include the facts of error. He continues as follows: “Actually, the deficiencies of perception are much more familiar to us than its successes. We take the latter for granted, but we are naturally curious about the causes of our misperceptions, misjudgments, and mistakes. We have a special curiosity about a class of inaccuracies that are called illusions. They are usually not serious enough to be called misperceptions. Often we are aware of the illusion, as we are of the image in a mirror, the bent stick in water, the circular coin that looks elliptical, and the after-sensation "in front of the eyes". But these are still failures of perception, to be exact, and they are very interesting.” (pp.287) It is for this reason that this study aims to investigate how Gibson’s claims are reflected on the side of ELT students while they are practising the act of reading. Research reports that, to beter evaluate the efficiency of language teaching activity in foreign language teaching, teachers’ attitudes towards and perceptions of the langaue skill they teach has a significant effect on the outcome of that particular act of teacing (Prabhu 1987, Sparks and Ganschow 1996) . Therefore, it would not be erratic to claim that the same is true for students. The study was conducted with 150 English majoring students studying language skills in the prepatory classes in the academic years from 2005 to 2008 in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, Turkey. The students who had to retake the prep program were excluded from the study. The reading course the students were required to take was designed to teach reading skills and to prepare the students for their future readings of text books and other literary texts like novels, shortstories, plays and poems. The subjects of the study came to the department from different schools from almost the same programs: the foreign language programs of Anatolian High Schools or Super High Schools or other Government High Schools. The points they got on the university exam showed no significant differences to allow any intervention of external variable in the results of the study. The students reported that they did not take a seperate reading course but did reading embedded in other courses. Data required for this study were collected through three stages. In the first stage, to see how they viewed the term ‘reading’, the subjects were asked to write individual words for their own definitions of ‘reading’ on a piece of paper. This was what Nuttall (1996) did with EFL teachers at the very beginning of her book. This study did the same activity with its participants because, as she put it, it would be useful to know about students’s ideas of reading, for their understanding of the term ‘reading’ would give some hints about their approaches towards the act of reading. In Stage 2, the subjects were asked to make a list of the things which they belived made their reading difficult or problematic. They were asked to make the list by rating the items from the most important to the least. The intention was to have a picture of the students’ world of reading, of problems or so-called / perceived problems in reading. The third stage was a stage of observation. In order not to rely merely on the data coming from the students’ self-reports and to construct some kind of triangulation over the data, and to develop prolonged engagement in the research process, the study used the observation method. Although the classroom observation method may have its own disadvantages like the duration and the frequency of the observation- the investigator will need to visit the same class over an extended period of time if meaningful data are to be gathered- the way the observation is conducted- the presence of the observer in the classroom while the activity is taking place may influence the progress of the activity (Cohen and Manion, 1998), these did not pose such a problem for this study because the observer in this study was the reading instructor in the classrooms under observation. But research critics also recognize some advantages in gathering data through classroom observation. Observation may give the research study a more objective, and a more impartial status (Cohen and Manion, 1998). By using observation, the observer may have the opportunity to see problems/issues through his/her own eyes and to filter the data in order to see whether there are any discrepancies between what the subjects report and what is performed. Researchers recognize two types of observation tools: the Immediate Indicators Tool (ITT) and the Observational Prompt Tool (OPT) (Holbrook, Gray and Fasse, 1999). While ITT enables the observer to record quick snapshots of what is happening in the classroom environment, OPT prompts for what to look for during individual, small-group, and whole-class activities, what to look for during particular classroom activities and what to look for when certain goals are active. The most important characteristic of this tool is that it provides the 90 �researchers with guidelines for what to look for in the classroom and structure for their individual field notes (Fasse and Kolodner, 2000). Since this study dealt with two classrooms, with some particular classroom activities (reading and comprehension in English), and with some certain active goals (diagnosis of reading comprehension problems of the participants in English), the OPT tool was the more suitable and helpful one to use in the classroom observation. During the observation stage, students were given some tasks. These tasks included some sentences and longer texts which had some certain levels of difficulty in terms of content, text type, structure, vocabulary and sentence complexity, background information etc. Here the objective was to observe how the students responded these texts based on their perceptions of difficulty. Findings and Conclusion Among the words the participants used to define the term ‘reading’, the following ones appeared to dominate the list: to decode, to know the unknown words, fluency, identify, pronunciation, to recognize the written words. Only a small group included the words like understand, meaning, respond to the text, which define reading as an act of creating meaning in the text. The words in the first group refer to the first thing(s) of all about reading, not suitable for academic settings. In such settings, where students read at academic levels to study lingustics and literature, the main focus should not be on the pronunciation of what they are reading or in the grammatical structures used. Fluency can influence comprehension, but this does not mean that students should read words very quickly and easily. During the observation stage, students appeared to have problems with fluency. However, in order to seem fluent readers, they tended to read words very quickly, with an automacity ignoring the word as an inseparable part of the sentence or longer text. This part of the study revealed that the participants’ understanding of the term “reading”, which was rather simplistic and reductionist, influenced both their perceptiopns of reading in foreign language and their approaches to the text. The second part of the study showed this influence more clearly. In their responses to the second part- what they thought made their reading difficult- , two items came to the fore interchangeably: 1- difficult or unknown words; 2- long and complex sentences or difficult sentence structure. It did not pose a problem that the participant students came up with the idea that difficult/unknown words and complex sentences made their reading problematic. In literature, this is much more than an idea; a well established fact by reading researchers (Nation and Coady 1988, Goodman 1976, Grabe 1991, Grabe and Stoller 1997). Here the problem was that the participants were unaware of other difficulties and that they restricted their act of reading to “vocabulary” and “grammar”. They thought they were the only two problematic issues in EFL reading that influenced their performance negatively. The idea that the most important problem in EFL reading is that of difficult or unknown words limits academic reading to a ‘word-level reading’ activity. Hence, the students focused on individual words or on their dictionary meanings/annotations without considering their contextual meanings or connotations. When they encountered an unknown word, they stoped for a while, hesitated, or read haltingly. They easily got demoralized. The probability of other unknown words in the ensuing parts of the text made them irritated. Perception is a general term refering to the awareness of objects, qualities, or events stimulating the sense organs; it also refers to a person’s experience of the world (Stranks 2003). So when one perceives something through his environment, somehow puts it into practice (Hulse, Deese, & Egeth, 1975). In the case of this study, perceptions replaced realities. Research findings suggest that students' perceptions about a particular learning activity may have considerable influence both on students' approaches to that activity and the outcome (Hallowell, 2008; Knowles, 1990). This was ture for the participant students. They were observed to organize their reading heavily based on their perceptions of “reading” and “reading” problems. Another most important finding the observation stage revealed was that the prticipant sudents had a tendency to attach equal importance to each word in a text. But reading research reports that not all words are equally important. Nuttall (1996) puts vocabulary into three categories: (1) active vocabulary; (2) receptive vocabulary; (3) throw-away vocabulary (pp.62-77). Active words are those students know well enough to use them, but receptive words are the ones students recognize and can respond to, but cannot confidently use. Throw-away vocabulary includes those words which students meet only once when they are reading an unsimplified material. The subjects of this study could hardly distinguish between these vocabulary-categories during reading. When they were given some texts that contained no unknown or difficult vocabulary, and when they were given some other texts with no difficult structutres, seeing that the texts still were difficult to read and understand made them surprised and discouraged very much. When asked to what they could attribute their failure in reading and understanding these texts, they were not able to come up with any plausible answer. 91 �The over-all conclusion of the present study was that the reading and level of difficulties in reading these students perceived differed from recommendations in the literature, and that students organized their reading styles, their approaches to the act of reading, their relationships with the text based upon their perceptions of failure or problem in reading. When perceptions replaced realities; that is, when they perceived that a certain issue played the most important role in their failure, they thought merely dealing with that issue would guarantee their success. Upon learning that the text they were reading required more knowledge and abilities than they perceived, they got surprised and blocked during the reading process. From this we van conclude that the perception or the idea that the most and the only problems in EFL reading are difficult sentences and unknown words would undervalue the role of reading in learning. Reading, whether in native or foreign language, cannot be limited to these two items. A number of other issues are involved in EFL reading. These can be listed as: 1. pre-viewing 2. building a bridge between what s/he knows and what s/he will learn 3. categorizing 4. deciding what is important and what is not 5. arguing with the text 6. analyzing and snynthesizing the information and evidence 7. summarizing, predicting, comparing ideas and connecting them to each other 8. organizing new information and ideas 9. making logical inferences 10. commenting on what s/he reads 11. critiquing the text and its writer 12. earning new concepts 13. combining the information in the text with that of the real world 14. reading a variety of texts from different genres easily 15. recognizing the text structure 16. constructing sentence relationships easily 17. coping with difficult vocabulary and use strategies to solve his problems ( Henry, 1974; Nunan, 1999; Nuttall, 1996). The students in this study were unaware of these elements of foreign language reading. Maybe it is lack of these issues on the side of both teachers and students that makes reading a complex, difficult and problematic activity in EFL instruction, making it inevitable to make some drastic alterations in or additions to EFL learners’ perceptions of problems in reading. References Cashin, W. E., & Downey, R. G. (1992). Using global student rating items for summative evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 563-572. Cohen, L. and Manion, L. (1994). Research Methods in Education. Routledge. USA. Fasse, B.B. and Kolodner, J.L. (2000). Evaluating Classroom Practices Using Qualitative Research Methods: Defining and Refining the Process, College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0280. Gibson, James.J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston 1966. Goodman, K.S. (1976). Reading: a psycholinguistic guessing game. In H. Singer and R. Ruddell (eds) Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. International Reading Association, Newark. 2nd ed.. [14.2] Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading research. TESOLQuarterly 25, 3: 375406. [14.4] Grabe, W. and Stoller, F. (1997). Reading and vocabulary development in a second language: a case study. In Coady and Huckin: 98-122. [14.4] Hallowell, D. (2008). Cognitive Approaches to Learning: New Developments in Educational Psychology. Drexel Learning Center 92 �Henry, G. H. (1974). Teaching Reading as a Concept Development: emphasis on effective thinking. International Reading Assosciation. Newark, Delaware. USA. Holbrook, J., Gray, J. and Fasse, B. (1999). Observation Prompt Tool Learning by Design Document. Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA. Hulse, S. H., Deese, J., Egeth, H. (1975). The Psychology of Learning. Tokyo. McGraw/Hill Kogakusha. Knowles, M.S. (1990). The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species. 4th edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division Knuth, R.A.and Jones, B.F. (1991). What does research say about reading? NCREL, Oak Brook, USA. Koon, J., & Murray, H. G. (1995). Using multiple outcomes to validate student ratings of overall teacher effectiveness. Journal of Higher Education, 66(1), 61-81. Nation, I.S.P. and Coady, J. (1988). Vocabulary and reading. In Carter and McCarthy: 97- 110. [14.1] Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching and Learning. Heinle and Heinle Publishers Boston USA. Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language, Macmillan Publishers, Oxford, UK. O’Connell, D. Q., & Dickinson, D. J. (1993). Student ratings of instruction as a function of testing conditions and perceptions of amount learned. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 27(1), 18-23. Pintrich, P. R., Cross, D. R., Kozma, R. B. & Mc Keachie, W. J. (1986). Instructional Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 37:611-651. Prabhy, N.S. (1987). Second Language Pedagogy, OUP. Ryan, J., & Harrison, P. (1995). The relationship between individual instructional characteristics and the overall assessment of teaching effectiveness across different instructional contexts. Research in Higher Education, 36(5), 577594. Sparks, R.L.; Ganschow, L. (1996). Teacher’s Perceptions of Students’ Foreign Language Academic Skills and Affective Characteristics. Journal of Educational Research. Vo.89, Issue 3, p.172, Washington D.C. Stranks, J. W. (2003) Health and safety at work : key terms. Butterworth-Heinemann. Amsterdam. 93 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 335 Title A name given to the resource ELT Prep Students Perceptions of Their Problems with Reading: Perception of Failure or Failure of Perception? Author Author KAYAOĞLU, M. Naci TURGUT, Fehmi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study focused on ELT students’ perceptions of self-failure in reading. The participants were 150 prep class students in the Department of English Language and Literature, KTU, in the academic years from 2005 to 2008. At the beginning of each academic year, the students were asked to make a list of the problems or issues they thought made their reading difficult. Their responses were analyzed using a qualitative approach. The students were also observed in terms of their responses towards various texts with reading difficulties. The study intended to make a picture of the problematic areas in EFL reading from the perspectives of learners: how much of the problematic areas in EFL reading was perceived by students, whether they lacked perception of self- failure in reading, whether they had control over their reading problems and whether their perceptions of self-failure matched their real problems in practice or not. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed L Education (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3403 Title A name given to the resource EMOTION AND COLOUR: PHYSIOLOGY, LEXICALISATION AND CONCEPTUALISATION Author Author Molnar, Draženka Abstract A summary of the resource. In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about the colour and humans, we actually refer to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The major goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Keywords: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ebd20cc4420a4ea16d67532e27b9f240.pdf 330ba4f8f4ad94bb7d09ac03d8a5b629 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Emotion and colour: conceptualisation Physiology, lexicalisation and Draženka Molnar University of J.J. Strossmayer, Croatia Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 22.11.2014. Abstract In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy Introduction The present paper investigatesthe reasons why colour terms and emotions are frequently associated in the different languages of the world.Within the confines of this study, it will be possible to show what corpus data of two unrelated languages, English and Croatian, reveal about the correlation between the colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions. Since most of the current 59 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation research on either emotion or colour concepts has focused on English, the present study will provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. The cross-linguistic overlap between the colour terms and emotion terms and the salient nature of their basic categories is investigated within the framework of cognitive linguistics. In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments(Lakoff, 1987; Kövecses, 1990, 1991), the findings suggest two relevant sources of conceptual motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Furthermore, it will be suggested that universality would be assigned to the bodily bases of language and cognition, whereas cultural variation to the interaction between body and culture (Gibbs, 1999, 2003). Although this paper is not a direct contrastive study with English, we believe it is a small but important contribution regardingthe similarities and differences between the two languages. The main questions to be answered in this study are (i) to what extent do the corpus data support the claim of preferable colour-emotion co-occurrence and (ii) what do contextualised linguistic instantiations reveal about the sources of conceptual motivation and their productivity in regard to the integration of universality and culture? Basic-Level Emotion and Colour Concepts Emotions and colours are a natural part of human experience. Even though we constantly experience and talk about them, the interrelations between the experience, concepts and lexicalisation is far from obvious.Over the past few decades, there has been a growing interdisciplinary interest in the universalities and specificities of emotions and emotion concepts. Several theorists (Kövecses,1986; Shaver et al., 1987) have discussed, and in some cases began to explore empirically, the concept of emotion with respect to the notions of basic-level categories and prototype theory (Rosch, 1973). Despite the cross-linguistic differences in the range and scope of specific emotion terms, the very principles of conceptualising emotions have been claimed to be universal (Wierzbicka, 1999). Hupka et al, 1997 made an attempt to demonstrate the universal development of emotion categories in 64 natural languages. Similarly, Berlin and Kay's contrastive study into colour semantics proposesthe evolutionary universality of basic colour terms by claiming that “a total universal 60 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics inventory of exactly eleven basic colour categories exists from which the eleven of fewer basic colour terms of any given language are always drawn” (Berlin and Kay, 1969: 2). Whereas a great deal of theoretical progress was made by adopting the notion of basic in colour semantics, no such progress was achieved in the case of emotions. However, for the purpose of this study, we have adopted Shaver et al. (1987) five basic-level emotion terms: fear, sadness, anger, joy and love. Facial Colour and Mood When we talk about colour and humans, we actually refer to the colour of their skin. Since we would be primarily concerned with the fuzzy territory between literal and figurative use of colour, we only take into account those occasions in which the colour term refers to skin, more precisely the face. As we already know, skin colour is susceptible to change under the influence of several factors: sun exposure, emotions and sickness. The flexible nature and fuzziness of emotion categories point to the existence of many emotion words that denote emotional blends that are related to more than one prototype. Polysemous nature of colour terms, on the other hand, makes them equally productive, with meaning variants not primarily related to colour properties. The following section aims to attest the possible systematicity of the emotion-facial colour co-occurrence and offer some explanations regarding their salience. Colour Terms and Emotions in the BNC and the CNC In this study, we have taken into account 136 highest ranked emotion words in Shaver et al. (1987). However, the fact that all the emotion words are nouns might somewhat affect the final results. The emotion words were searched for in the British National Corpus (BNC) and the Croatian National Corpus (CNC) in combination with eleven basic colour terms(which exist in both languages) and two additional elaborate colour terms. TheCroatian National Corpus, although limited in size (30 million words) and considered a work in progress, is the only avalilable source of text for the present analysis. Aware of its limitations and different structure, we made an effort to retrieve and use the data to the best of our abilities.The amount of context taken into account for the search was a span of 5:5, which means that to be registered, the colour word had to appear within five words on either side of the emotional words. On the completion of the search, all the data were examined manually since a large number of the retrieved examples with colour terms had no relation to the emotion term. Additionally, numerous examples, such as black thoughts / crne misli were excluded from the search becausethere is no explicit connection between the colour term and the emotion term. 61 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation 62 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Corpora analysis Results of the English and Croatian data analysis are presented in the Table 1 and are discussed in greater detail below. The table is divided into three parts that represent three different foci in the colour domain. Individual colours are therefore mentioned twice, but only for expository reasons. The number of occurrences is distributed along the five major clustersLOVE, JOY, ANGER, SADNESS and FEAR.The subcategory names suggested by Shaver et al. (1987: 1067) are slightly altered by the author of this paper. The total number of emotion terms co-occurring with a mention of skin colour was relatively high, namely 25. However, the number of colour terms referring to the skin colour connected to the emotion was surprisingly low. Only 10 colours were recorded in this context (white, pink, red, scarlet, crimson, purple, black, yellow, green and grey). Some colours, such as brown, orange and surprisingly blue were completely missing from the search in both language corpora. Whereas the association of blue with the melancholic character survives in Englisheveryday expressions to feel blue, to have the blues, there are no such attested corpus findings. Similarly, black is traditionally associated with sadness and sorrow in both cultures, but the concept itself does not seem to be transferred into any linguistic expression. While the association of blue and melancholy might be initially motivated by facial colour (Niemeier, 1998), black seems to be less accurate indicator of the exact skin colour, but rather metaphoric in nature. Much larger in size, the BNC offered a consequently greater number and variety of the retrieved data (121). Versatility is shown in the range of both colour terms and emotion terms. In both languages the most attested, although not exclusive, language structureis 'colour term with emotion term', as in red with anger / crven od ljutnje;white with fear / blijed od straha; green with envy / zelen od muke. Table 1 clearly illustrates some colour preferences regarding the positive and the negative emotional concepts. Emotional domains of LOVE and JOY are only vaguely associated with facial expressions. The colour terms with such a reference are pink, red, scarlet and occasionally white. The colour pink, standing in the midway between red and white, can temper the fiery passion of red and intensify the clarity of white. However, it is only attested in the BNC, in the fixed expressions such as in the pink, pink with pleasure, pink with excitement. 63 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation The negative emotional concepts of ANGER and SADNESS illustrate a rather similar distribution of colour terms in both languages under study. Without a doubt, the category red functions as the most dominant centre of gravity, especially cooccurring with the subcategoriesRAGE, SHAME and EMBARRASSMENT). Red has a very long and powerful historical background, from by far the largest number of meaning extensions over the years, to the highest increase in lexis nowadays. Due to its stability over time, it has received a prominent status among speakers of different language communities. It is not surprising that it has easily found its way into the language in the form of numerous and very colourful collocational units (red in the face, to be red with anger, to see red). In comparison to English data, which exhibit a strong connection between the colour term red and the emotion term anger, Croatian expressions with red are much more inclined to the subcategory of SHAME and EMBARRASSMENT. While English prefers the pink-red-scarlet-crimson-purple range to express variation in intensity of anger (e.g. pink-red-crimson-black with anger, red-scarlet-crimsonpurple with rage), and white (mostly related to fear and shock) as the emphatic form, Croatian exhibits no such ranges in the subordinate level of the category. Slightly different in motivational interpretation is the association of the colour term green with the emotion concept ENVY. Underlying cognitive mechanisms employed as the motivational force behind most of the previously mentioned expressions would not explain whether the colour green actually refers to facial colour. One of the possible interpretations might bring us back to an ancient cultural model of "humoral pathology" (primarily ascribed to Hippocrates), the doctrine that is still effective in the analysis of the contemporary metaphoric expressions of emotions. According to this theory, combinations of the four fluid humours of the body—blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile—determined the four prototypical temperaments, namely the sanguine, the phlegmatic, the melancholic and the choleric temperament. In order to reach the appropriate interpretation of the expressions to feel green or to be green with envy, envy as an intense feeling should be associated with the bile which subsequently causes a person to feel unwell and manifests itself in the facial colour green. The lack of a clear-cut boundary between yellow and green in historical sources has often resulted in their overlap regarding the emotional concepts they refer to – ENVY, JEALOUSY, WORRY, ANGER and SUFFERING. Despite the rising tendency of their interchangeable connection and the existence of similar expressions in different languages, no clear corpora evidence would support the claim. 64 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 1. Emotional terms co-occurring with colour terms in the BNC and the CNC 65 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation The final emotional concept FEAR is predominantly associated with the colour white. The connection is based on the experience of people turning pale and blood leaving people's face when exposed to shock or danger. As was true of black, the apparent positive associations of white are not fully reflected in language. The number of collocational units in Croatian is substantially lower than in English. The reasons for it may lie in the co-existence of another lexical term – blijed (pale). Conceptual Motivation In line with the bulk of recent cognitive developments and the bodily bases of language and cognition, the findings suggest two relevant sources of conceptual motivation – conceptual metaphor and metonymy. The major tenets of the usagebased model (Langacker, 2000) will help us analyse some of the linguistic instantiations retrieved from the corpora. Niemeier (1998) suggests metonymically based metaphors as primal examples of colour associations and natural prototypes. As already mentioned, blood is a wellknown standard of redness and therefore often cited as a metaphorical motivation to describe emotions, e.g. anger (red in the face, go red, red with anger, see red, make someone red-hot, red-headed, be a red flag to someone). If we take a look at the linguistic unit to go red, we can see that its complex meaning cannot be reduced to just a facial colour.Moreover, we know that this colour is a symptom of physiological reaction to feelings of shame, anger or physical exertion. The initial categorisation of the colour red against the complex colour category behind the adjective red will not help us detect the right hue. However, if we consider the redness of the face as an instance of EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymy, we could simultaneously activate our knowledge of the related emotions and complete the final stage of categorisation in our attempt to detect the right hue of red. It is also a part of general knowledge structures that the exact redness of the face behind the linguistic expression is far beyond its prototypical designation. Due to the essential sameness of human beings and their physiological functioning across cultures, this body-based conceptual metonymy has been regarded as ubiquitous in all cultures, if not “universal”. Most of the retrieved corpus data are consistent with the PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE metonymic mapping. These types of metonymy seem extremely productive in everyday life, partly because they are associated with our folk model understanding of human body symptoms and feelings. In order to avoid the dilemma of the "appropriate" interpretation as either the conceptual metonymy physiological EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION, or the conceptual metaphor CHANGE OF COLOUR IS A CHANGE OF STATE, we would try to suggest Kövecses' (2000) line of reasoning concerning metaphor-metonymy relationship, and the newer version of 66 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics conceptual metaphor theory that acknowledges the integration of universality and culture (Gibbs 1999, 2003). Thus, both speakers of English and Croatian might be green with envy, red with anger, or white with fear, but hardly ever would Croatians feel blue or be purple with rage. A large body of other research has shown that such expressions are somewhat problematic because, aside from their universal character (as a result of psychological and physiological processes), they are also conceptual structures cultural in origin (Kövecses 2000). Conclusion The aim of this paper was twofold. First, we explored the salience of some colour terms in their co-occurrence with the emotional terms based on the available empirical data. Secondly, we offered some cognitive mechanisms as the underlying motivational force in creation and interpretation of the individual linguistic expressions. The research into two national corpora point to the following conclusions: (i) the highest cluster of emotional categories is organised around three basic colour terms: red, white and green, (ii) the colour term red is highly dominant in both languages, (iii) English prefers larger variety of colour range and offers subtler nuances in order to depict the exact intensity of emotions, (iv) colour words go well beyond their perceptual quality, (v) there is a wide discrepancy between the scope of human conceptual categories and the amount of linguistic units rendered to communicate them, (vi) the findings suggest that cross-linguisticsimilarities originate in universal human experiences, whereas differences and in culture-specific variables, (vii) it is inevitable to employ cognitive mechanisms such as metaphor and metonymy to extend the meanings of the existing linguistic expressions, (viii) the most productive metonymic mapping among the retrieved data isPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AN EMOTION FOR EMOTION/EFFECT FOR CAUSE, (ix) although the fruitful interplay of both cognitive mechanisms – metaphor and metonymy – account for majority of meaning extensions, knowledge of the world, knowledge of the language and relevant cultural factors should not be ignored. 67 �Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation References Berlin, B.& Kay, P. (1969). Basic Color Terms. Their Universality and Evolution. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. Gibbs, R. W. (1999). Taking metaphor out of our head and putting it into the cultural world. In R. Gibbs & G. Steen (Eds.), Metaphor in Cognitive Linguistics (pp. 145-166). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Gibbs, R. W. (2003). Embodied experience and linguistics meaning. Brain and Language, 84, 1-15. Hupka, R.B., Zaleski, Z., Otto, J., Reidl, L. & Tarabrina, N. V. (1997). The colors of Anger, Envy, FEAR, AND Jealousy: A Cross-Cultural Study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28(2), 156-171. Kövecses, Z. (1986).Metaphors of anger, pride, and love: A lexical approach to the structure of concepts. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kövecses, Z. (1990). Emotion Concepts. New York: Springer Verlag. Kövecses, Z. (1991).Happiness: A definitional effort. Metaphor & Symbolic Activity, 6(1), 29-46. Kövecses, Z. (2000).Metaphor and emotion: Language, culture, and the body in human feeling. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Langacker, Ronald W. (2000b). “A dynamic usage-based model.” Barlow, Michael, Suzanne Kemmer, eds. (2000). Usage-Based Models of Language. Stanford: CSLI Publications, 1-63. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Niemeier, S. (1998). Colourless Green Ideas Metonymise Furiously. In Ungerer, F. (Ed.), Kognitive Lexikologie und Syntax. Rostock: Universität Rostock (Rostocker Beiträge zurSprachwissenschaft: 5), 119-146. Rosch, E. (1973). Natural Categories. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 328-350. 68 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D. & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion Knowledge: Further Exploration of a Prototype Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061-1086. Wierzbicka, A. (1999). Emotions across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals. Cambridge: University Press. Webpages British National Corpus BNC.Retrieved from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk. (Access March 30, 2014) Croatian National Corpus HNK. Retrieved from http://www.hnk.ffzg.hr. (Access March 30, 2014) 69 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2807 Title A name given to the resource Emotion and colour: Physiology, lexicalisation and conceptualisation Author Author Molnar, Draženka Abstract A summary of the resource. In English and in many other European languages, Croatian included, it is quite common to use colour terms as an indicator of different emotions. When we talk about colour and humans, we areactually referring to the colour of their skin, more precisely their face. The main goal of this study is to investigate the correlation between the primary colour terms in collocational units and their corresponding emotions in English and Croatian. Since most of the current research on emotion concepts has focused on English, we would like to provide further evidence from Croatian expressions of emotions. A cross-linguistic corpus-based analysis of the two language corpora (the British National Corpus and the Croatian National Corpus) in the first part of the paper should offer a better insight into the salience of basic emotion categories in reference to basic colour categories. The second part of the paper investigates the motivation behind some of the linguistic expressions within the framework of cognitive linguistics. Despite the obvious cross-linguistic differences as to the system of preference by which each language links colours and emotions, some systematic patterns, due to their motivational force, are likely to appear in both languages under study. Key words: emotion, colour, collocational units, conceptual metaphor, metonymy Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/006c2e685924080d739af2142911f452.docx bbda2744cd455319fd3b0146abfbb1ef https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4edcaddf74459f0c9c50d9964f04cfb9.pdf 159b3ec540efb5ca14bff44330671ed8 PDF Text Text Emotions, Visual Rhetoric, and Pragmatic Inferencing in Campaigning Discourse Vincent Tao-Hsun Chang National Chengchi University/Taipei,Taiwan Key words:advertising discourse, implicature, multimodality, relevance, visual rhetoric ABSTRACT This paper aims to explore the dialogic relations between form and function in multimodal discourse by looking into the print advertisements for the Olympics 2008 released by Mainland China. Data for analysis are chosen on the grounds that, first, the wordings in Mandarin Chinese are simple, slogan-type, e.g. Aoyun re, re bian jingcheng! (‘The Olympic Fever Heats the Whole Beijing’); but creatively interweaving the Games’ logo with attractive pictures and colour symbolism concerning Beijing City through which the messages could be plenty. Secondly, they encourage the (active/imaginative/creative) audience to integrate the semiotic elements (linguistic slogans and visual images) to trigger cognitive contextual effects, namely pun, irony, metaphor and humour, and will perform various pragmatic/communicative functions thereafter. Thirdly, they are ideologically significant for conveying the frames of the Olympic humanistic spirits – harmony and peace, promoting and enhancing traditional/wide-ranging Chinese culture, inviting and persuading the audience to recognise the prominent values in a fresh and friendly style. The audience’s mental processing/inferential processes of perception, comprehension and interpretation in multimodal communication are approached within Relevance framework (Sperber & Wilson, 1986/1995; Forceville, 2005; Noveck & Sperber, 2004). She searches for optimal relevance in the interpretation process, during which a wide array of implicatures involving feelings, attitudes, emotions and impressions would be inferred and derived from non-/verbal communication together with the contexts, depending on different degrees of involvement and shared cognitive environment. The sociocultural aspect of visual communication and language use is further explored to see the inseparable relationship between sign systems/language and social meaning. Lending itself as a symbolic arena for embracing competing ideologies, multimodal discourse displays the gist of, and adds interest to, social semiotic interpretability, reflecting the social cohesion/interaction and cognitive dynamics of communicator and audience, thus maintaining the dialectical relationship between sociocultural structures and social practice/discourse (Fairclough, 1995). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1962 Title A name given to the resource Emotions, Visual Rhetoric, and Pragmatic Inferencing in Campaigning Discourse Author Author CHANG, Vincent Tao-Hsun Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:advertising discourse, implicature, multimodality, relevance, visual rhetoric ABSTRACT This paper aims to explore the dialogic relations between form and function in multimodal discourse by looking into the print advertisements for the Olympics 2008 released by Mainland China. Data for analysis are chosen on the grounds that, first, the wordings in Mandarin Chinese are simple, slogan-type, e.g. Aoyun re, re bian jingcheng! (‘The Olympic Fever Heats the Whole Beijing’); but creatively interweaving the Games’ logo with attractive pictures and colour symbolism concerning Beijing City through which the messages could be plenty. Secondly, they encourage the (active/imaginative/creative) audience to integrate the semiotic elements (linguistic slogans and visual images) to trigger cognitive contextual effects, namely pun, irony, metaphor and humour, and will perform various pragmatic/communicative functions thereafter. Thirdly, they are ideologically significant for conveying the frames of the Olympic humanistic spirits – harmony and peace, promoting and enhancing traditional/wide-ranging Chinese culture, inviting and persuading the audience to recognise the prominent values in a fresh and friendly style. The audience’s mental processing/inferential processes of perception, comprehension and interpretation in multimodal communication are approached within Relevance framework (Sperber & Wilson, 1986/1995; Forceville, 2005; Noveck & Sperber, 2004). She searches for optimal relevance in the interpretation process, during which a wide array of implicatures involving feelings, attitudes, emotions and impressions would be inferred and derived from non-/verbal communication together with the contexts, depending on different degrees of involvement and shared cognitive environment. The sociocultural aspect of visual communication and language use is further explored to see the inseparable relationship between sign systems/language and social meaning. Lending itself as a symbolic arena for embracing competing ideologies, multimodal discourse displays the gist of, and adds interest to, social semiotic interpretability, reflecting the social cohesion/interaction and cognitive dynamics of communicator and audience, thus maintaining the dialectical relationship between sociocultural structures and social practice/discourse (Fairclough, 1995). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5d2855ba0acef661134867fa7134e200.pdf a7cb9032dbca163d2bc3fa3e17118787 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Abderrazak Dhaoui University of Sousse Tunisia abderrazak.dhaoui@yahoo.fr Abstract: In this paper, we examine the impact of investor psychological state on their trading volume for the US stock market using a VECM model for the period from July 1987 to May 2014. We propose alternative specifications for investors’ sentiment considering their optimistic and pessimistic states. We find that during pessimistic periods, investors’ are extensively alerted. In optimistic and normal periods, they are less attentive. Keywords: Trading Volume; Stock Market Returns; Optimism Shocks; Pessimism Shocks; Impulse Response Functions JEL Classification: G02, G11, G12 Article History Submitted: 22 March 2015 Resubmitted: 30 July 2015 Resubmitted: 5 September 2015 Accepted: 9 September 2015 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS15527 Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 105 �Abderrazak Dhaoui Introduction The relation between stock price changes and trading volume has received great attention in the field of finance over the past two decades. Among others, Hou and Li (2014), Dhaoui (2013) Dhaoui and Khraief (2014), Chen (2012), Campbell et al. (1993), Chuang et al. (2009), Griffin et al. (2007), Karpoff (1987), Lee and Rui (2002), McMillan (2007) Al-Jafari and Tliti (2013) have focused on the nature of connections between trading volume and stock returns. However, even the importance of empirical findings, there is no consensus on empirical results of these studies, which show different causality directions. The diversity of nexus can be attributed to the fact that these studies have been conducted for different countries, and focused on different periods, and variables as well as they used different econometric methodologies. As discussed in Karpoff (1987), evidence on the return-volume relationship not only enhances the knowledge on the financial market structure, but also provides information to discriminate between competing theoretical models (Chen, 2012). In the same line, Campbell et al. (1993) document that the return-volume relation helps solve the identification problem for testing different models. In this vein, it is generally believed that trading volume is positively associated with stock returns. However, empirical findings failed in several cases to confirm this though. For instance, an early empirical study by Granger and Morgenstern (1963) failed to find a correlation between the absolute value of daily price changes and the daily volume for the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) over the period 1939-1961. Subsequent studies have found, however, more evidence of a positive correlation (Crouch, 1970; Epps and Epps, 1976). During the last two decades, the focus has moved to examine what factors drive the trading volume-stock return relationship? In the real economy, investors react to the change in stock returns by increasing or decreasing their trading volume. What factors drive their trading behavior is a substantial question to explore. In this framework, studies have started to examine the trading volume – stock prices relation by asking questions such as, “do investors increase their trading when expecting a rise in stock price”, or “does change in stock prices induce changes in investor’s psychological state leading to high/less trading”. Although the few numbers of researches set in this framework, several explanations are proposed in previous studies. The investor sentiment has, however, attached the attention of researchers as a substantial component that can explain the evolution of economies and the market components summarized in trading volume and stock prices and returns. In this vein, “there is now significant body of evidence from psychology and brain science that agents experience cognitive problems in understanding the world in which they live; they find it hard to process the information they face and to make sense of it. As a result, they use simple behavioral and informational rules. In a complex economic world agents do develop strong differences in beliefs about how the economy functions” (De Grauwe and Kaltwasser, 2007). The sentiment is, thus, proposed as one of the factors that could seriously affect their trading strategies. 106 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior This paper seeks to investigate the role of investor sentiments and opinions summarized in optimistic and pessimistic beliefs about the future evolution of the stock market in determining their levels of trading. We propose new proxies to these psychological states of mind and develop a VECM model to supervise the long-term equilibrium and the short-term adjustment of trading volume to the change in the investor psychological state. Using data for US stock market over the period 1991 to 2014, we find that investors trading volume is determined by their pessimistic state. Optimism and pessimism shocks exert asymmetrical impact on the investors’ behavior. Over the pessimistic period, pessimistic sentiment drives the stock market. The optimistic state is without impact. In normal economic cycles, sentiments are without significant impact. The remainder of this article is arranged as follows. In section 2, we present the literature overview on the sensitivity of stock market components to the investor’s psychological state. The section 3 presents the methodology of the study. Subsequent sections describe the data, the variables’ specifications and the econometric approach. The final section gives the policy implications and conclusions. Literature Review Beliefs and sentiments as part of the irrational world are important forces not only in everyday life, but also in the economic and financial field. There is convincing evidence in literature that investors are prone to exogenous sentiment waves, a fact that challenges the rationality hypothesis. Researchers in behavioral finance have provided a considerable impetus towards the psychological state of investors in making decisions (Barberis et al., 1998; Baker and Wurgler, 2007; Huisman et al., 2012). In this line, Baker and Wurgler (2007) argued that investors’ sentiment predictive content regarding the future evolution of stock markets may act as an invaluable tool for the investors in developing successful trading strategies. Generally, sentiments refer to the state of mind of the investors. They represent in terms of Baker and Stein (2004) the investors’ propensity to speculate or investors’ optimism/pessimism about a stock. Investor sentiment can be defined as investors’ misevaluation on an asset (Baker and Stein, 2004) or also the component of investors’ expectations about returns that are not justified by fundamentals (Lee et al., 1991). From a psychological viewpoint investors’ trading behavior is not undertaken in isolation, they would be influenced by their emotions, feelings and psychological state at that point in time. In a positive state, investors become more optimistic, which decreases their attentiveness. They are, consequently, more likely to stick to their normal trading levels. In negative state they become, however, more alerted react by decreasing abnormally their trading levels. In this vein, several studies recognized, however, the important role of investor sentiment in driving stock markets. For instance, Kim et al. (2014) examine the sensitivity of the relationship between disagreement among investors and future stock market returns Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 107 �Abderrazak Dhaoui to the influences of the investor sentiment. They find that the degree of investor sentiment exerts significant influences on the relationship between disagreement and future stock market returns. Their results show also that the influence significantly varies with the sentiment periods. Higher disagreement, among investors’ opinions, predicts significantly lower future stock market returns during high-sentiment periods. During low-sentiment periods findings show no significant effect. Kim and Kim (2014) examined whether investor sentiment forecasts stock returns, volatility and trading volume. They used extensive data on 91 firms spanning the period from January 2005 till December 2010. Their findings show in intertemporal and cross-sectional regression analysis, no evidence that investor sentiment has predictive power for future stock returns either at the individual firm or at the aggregate level. They find, however, that prior stock price performance positively affects investor sentiment. On volatility and trading volume, results show also non significant impacts. For Brown and Cliff (2005) investor sentiment does not predict short-term market returns at weekly and monthly intervals, but it predicts long-term market returns at the next two to three years. Investors trading behavior is driven to a large extent by expectations about the current and future state of the returns. Changes in expectations, therefore, directly impact their trading behavior. An expected increase and decrease in returns, for instance, will influence the agents’ psychological state and induce them to adjust their levels of trading and investment decisions. Investor sentiment describes waves of optimism and pessimism (Baker and Wurgler, 2006). It represents the “expectations of market participants relative to a norm: a bullish (bearish) investor expects returns to be above (below) average, whatever average may be” (Brown and Cliff, 2004). It is reported that optimism leads to a higher level of trading whereas pessimism is associated to a lower or even an absence of trading. The stock market reflects optimistic and pessimistic opinions. When investors become more optimistic, i.e., when they expect for good events, trading volume levels rise. Oppositely, when they become more pessimistic, i.e., when they expect for bad events, they decrease their trading levels. Excessive optimism leads to an increase in trading volume since optimistic investors over-evaluate the future stock returns. Optimistic investors tend to systematically overestimate the probability that good things will happen to them and, at the same time, to underestimate the probability that bad things will happen (Weinstein, 1980). They overestimate the precision of their knowledge and their judgment skills and react by making aggressive decisions, which increase significantly their trading volume (buy or sell). In opposition, the more pessimistic investors estimate a negative evolution of returns and decrease or postpone their trading. When results go against the former (the latter) forecasts a state of shock occurs and affect their sentiments and feelings that we can define as an optimism shock (pessimism shock). “Optimism and pessimism shocks” refer to changes in expectations due to a perceived change in fundamentals which eventually does not materialize. 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior The role of undue optimism and pessimism for investors’ behavior fluctuations has long been recognized by economists in the past. Keynes (1936, p. 154), for example, wrote about “animal spirits” influencing reality and creating waves of optimism and pessimism. He documented that the “market is subject to waves of optimistic and pessimistic sentiment, which are unreasoning and yet in a sense legitimate where no solid basis exists for a sound calculation”. He added that about all of investors’ decisions break with the foundation of rationality, and attributed the dysfunction of the economy to psychological components and non rational behavior. In this line, he argued that, “most, probably, of our decisions to do something positive, the full consequences of which will be drawn out over many days to come, can only be taken as the results of animal spirits […] and not at the outcome of a weighted average of quantitative benefits multiplied by quantitative probabilities” (Keynes, 1936). This challenge was being confirmed more recently when Akerlof and Shiller (2009) recognized the important role of investors’ human psychologies in determining their investment behaviors. They have explained the way the economy works in terms of human psychology impacts. In the same framework, several authors such as Akerlof and Yellen (1985) argued that deviations from rationality do really matter, which confirms the significant dependence of investors’ behavior to their psychological state. King (2009) agreed with Akerlof and Shiller (2009) about the substantial role played the “animal spirits” behavior of investors in determining their investment strategies. He argued that an important part of economic fluctuations can be due to behavior biases. Moreover, many studies such as those of Azariadis (1981) and Woodford (1988) consider that thesefluctuationscan occureven in the situationwhere fundamentalconditions remain unchanged through the time. They attribute them, however, to the random wave of investors’ beliefs often related to the optimistic and pessimistic state of thinking,. Optimistic and pessimistic states of investors induce over and under-reactions in trading, respectively. For Ciccone (2003), investor sentiments and behaviors determine a substantial part of the stock market. Optimistic and pessimistic beliefs influence the extensively both the stock prices and trading volume and are reflected in them. Optimistic investors in the sense of Haruvy, et al. (1999) are “those who tend to choose the strategy which can potentially give them the highest payoff”. These authors define optimistic investors as “those who are motivated by worst-case scenarios and hence tend to choose a secure action”. According to Weinstein (1980, 1986, and 1989) and Otten (1989), optimistic investors overestimate the probability that positive events may happen to them than to others and similarly underestimate the probability that negative events may occur for them than for others. By extension, pessimistic investors attribute more probability of occurrence to negative events and less probability to positive events to which they are exposed. Accordingly, both optimistic and pessimistic investors adjust their trading strategies. The first react by trading aggressively, while the latter decrease (or postpone) their trading. In terms of trading strategies, Chen (2013) concludes that optimistic agents trade aggressively while pessimistic ones trade conservatively. These trading strategies are due to the fact that the optimistic investors (pessimistic investors) Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 109 �Abderrazak Dhaoui tend to systematically overestimate (underestimate) the probability that good events will happen to them and, oppositely, underestimate (overestimate) the probability that bad things will happen. This can be understood in the sense that optimistic and pessimistic investors attribute dispersed probabilities to the risk perception. Specifically, optimistic investors’ underestimate their exposure to risk and exaggerate their reaction since they expect only positive results and neglect the failure. In this vein, Shu (2010) argued that optimistic investors are less patient than those who are more pessimistic and react aggressively by underestimating their exposure to risk. Oppositely, the more pessimistic investors display a high-level of risk aversion. They become more and more receding when they make a decision like an investment in risky assets which leads to a decrease in trading volume. Chuang et al. (2010) use weekly data during the period between January 1990 and December 2004 to supervise the change in investor sentiments in Taiwan Stock Market. They find that the change in trading volume can be used as a proxy for investor sentiments. They argued that a positive deviation of trading volume implies that investor sentiment jumps to become more optimistic and vice-versa. In the French stock market framework, Rousseau et al. (2008) argued that pessimistic investors decrease their trading volume and avoid risky assets to prevent a loss. Psychological literature assimilates the pessimism to a statement of impotence or to an absurdity of human existence. In other side, the author’s find that optimistic investors increase their trading volume and invest more in risky assets waiting for more performance in the future. As more risk adverse agents, pessimistic investors decrease or postpone their trading when they realize negative results. However, they maintain the same trading level once obtain abnormal profits. Optimistic investors trade aggressively after abnormal gain. They maintain normal trading when negative results are realized. Carver, Scheier and Segerstrom (2010) suggest that optimism and pessimism sentiments focus on expectancies for the future and the way that the investors confront problems. The authors find that optimistic investor faces adversity differently than pessimistic one. They presume that optimistic investor uses more adaptive ways and “commit” himself to cope with the worst scenarios. In contrast to optimism, pessimism refers to fear, doubt and stress. Then, pessimistic investor tends to be hesitant and doubtful in the face of different challenges. Generally, the optimistic person assigns a low probability to the bad events that arrive to disturb his life. He assigns, in return, a high probability to the good events. The pessimistic person over-weights the probability of bad event and underestimates the probability of good events. For Ali and Gurun (2009), individual behavior depends on both their psychological state and the characteristics of the period during which they are used to act. The authors echoed the view that optimism decreases the attentiveness of investors. To surmise, individuals are more alert during pessimistic periods and less attentive at optimistic times. In the same line, Chung et al. (2012, p. 219) suggest that “when the 110 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior economy is in expansion, investor optimism grow as reflected by the increase in sentiment. In contrast, investor sentiment tends to decrease when the economy is in contraction”. As argued by Brown and Cliff (2005), when investor sentiment increases with the market price, the build-up of optimism leads to an extended period of market overvaluation. In contrast, investor’s growing pessimistic beliefs in bad times may result in assets being underpriced. Data and Methodology In this section we initially describe the sample period and the variables. Then we analyze the time series properties of the relevant variables by means of conducting unit root and cointegration tests. Finally, we review previous specifications of investor sentiment indicators and we propose an alternative specification for optimism and pessimism shocks that we use in the empirical analysis. Data We use weekly data to analyze the impact of the stock market fluctuations on trading volume for the period 1987:07-2014:05. The starting date of the sample period is determined by the availability of weekly data on trading volume. The whole sample includes 1401 time series observations. We collect the data on the stock price index (Pt) and trading volume (Vt) from the Yahoo Finance pages. Following previous empirical studies on stock returns and trading volume, we include the following variables in the analysis: stock market returns, trading volume, investor sentiment indicators expressed in terms of optimism and pessimism. That is, we collect the following time series data. - Stock prices. In this paper, we use the stock market returns expressed in percentages defined as the first logarithmic difference of the stock prices multiplied by 100: . This measure is already used by Chen (2012). - Trading volume. The trading volume measures the volume of transaction. This variable is expressed in natural logarithm. - The Market Trend (MT) expresses Bullish and bearish evolution of the stock market. Following previous studies the market trend is defined as the difference between the closing prices and the x-days lowest prices divided by the difference between the x-days highest prices and the x-days lowest prices. Based on the Schwarz Information Criterion (SC) lag length criteria we choose x=3 days. That is, the market trend is expressed following this relation: Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 111 �Abderrazak Dhaoui Investors’ sentiment specifications Previous studies used two types of sentiment indicators that differ for daily and weekly returns due to data availability. The first family of indicators consists of the OEX putcall trading volume ratio, the OEX put-call open interest ratio and the NYSE ARMS index. The second family of indicators is compiled from surveys by the American Association for Individual Investors (AAII) and Investor Intelligence (II). These indicators are used for investigating individual stocks. Since we use aggregate stock market data, we propose alternative specifications for investors’ sentiment, allowing supervising their optimistic and pessimistic expectation shocks. We define “optimism shocks” as an event that occurs when an investor expects the bullish market trend and react therefore expecting realizing a positive return however their expectations does not materialize. Similarly, a “pessimism shocks” occurs when investors expect a bearish market trend and react anticipating a decrease in returns and therefore reduce their trading volume (hold or postpone), however results indicate positive reaction of returns and investors miss consequently an opportunity. In this paper, and taking into account that investors’ levels of trading are driven by their psychological state and that the disparity between forecasts and results determines the sentiment shock we propose the following approach to specify the optimism and pessimism shocks. We start by presenting preliminary specifications describing the analysis strategy of investors to finish by presenting new proxies for optimism and pessimism shocks. - Percentage changes in Stock market prices. This variable is defined as the first difference of stock market prices reported to the market price at time t-1 and is computed as Δ Pt = (Pt – Pt-1) / Pt-1) x 100, where Pt is the Stock market price at time t. Stock market return variation allows to supervise both stock market returns increases and stock market returns decreases. The changes in stock market returns give a substantial illustration of the stock market specific shocks. The specific shock includes positive and negative shocks. - Positive specific shock. This variable only considers increases in stock market returns, that is . This relation specifies the positive stock market specific shock. - Negative specific shock. This variable only considers decreases in stock market returns, that is . This relation specifies the negative stock market specific shock. The expectation of stock market returns increases and decreases and the expected market trend drive the investors’ behavior expressed in terms of their trading intensity. Investors increase (decrease) their trading volume when expecting a bullish (bearish) market trend and positive (negative) changes in stock prices. If results go against their expectations the investors support an optimism (pessimism) shock since the loss they realize are due to unrealistic expectation and are not determined by the intrinsic unfavorable evolution of supply and demand orders (supply-demand law). 112 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Thus, based on their expectations of the market trend and the evolution of the stock market returns (increases and decreases) investors express optimistic and/or pessimistic feelings and modify their trading volume accordingly. The analysis of the changes in expected market trend and the aggregate stock market returns allows distinguishing between the two types of shocks affecting investors’ sentiment: optimism and pessimism shocks. The optimism shocks (OSt) specification is described as follows: and 0 , otherwise and pessimism shocks (PSt) is, and 0 , (1) (2) otherwise where ΔPt and MT are the growth rate of stock market prices and the market trend, respectively, at the time t. that is, a stock market price change is defined as an optimism shock if the sign of the stock market price variation is different from the sign of the market trend variation, while it is identified as a pessimism shock if these signs are equal. For example, a stock market price increase (decrease) together with a market trend increase (decrease) will be identified as a pessimism shock, while a stock price increase (decrease) associated with a market trend decrease (increase) will be identified as an optimism shock. Figure 1 shows the temporal evolution of trading volume, stock prices (specific shock) and optimism and pessimism shocks and justifies the new specification we propose in this paper. For example, we observe that the increase in trading volume in Mars 2000 corresponds to significant specific shock price (global shock in prices), optimism shock and pessimism shock, together. For the period spanning the end of 2000 to recent date we observe that while optimism shocks remain nonsignificant, the stock price and pessimism shocks indicator follow a similar path and determine the trading volume evolution. Since pessimism shocks describe the investors’ expectation of negative evolution of stock markets in terms of prices and returns, and the last selected period corresponds to a series of financial scandals and recessions, this evolution observed in Fig. 1 provides a real illustration of the investors’ behavior following their optimistic and pessimistic expectation of the stock market evolution. Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 113 �Abderrazak Dhaoui Figure 1. Temporal Evolution of Trading Volume, Specific Shocks, Optimism Shocks and Pessimism Shocks 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior We observe also a break point in the first half of the year 2000 characterized by tremendous bull followed by a period of high fluctuation of prices and trading volume. The sentiment indicators move extensively over the period 2000 to now with a strong degradation in optimistic state and at fast speed. Table 1 contains summary statistics of our selected variables. Results display excess kurtosis (with the exception of the trading volume), negative skewness. As regards to the standard deviation we notice a quite small standard deviation for the stock return and the trading volume, which indicates that these variables are close together. Oppositely for the sentiment shock indicators (optimism and pessimism), we notice a large standard deviation which indicates that these variables are more spread out. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics Mean Median Maximum Minimum Std. Dev. Skewness Kurtosis Stock Return 0.163660 0.350174 17.37695 -29.17528 3.129302 -1.137603 12.43302 Trading volume 20.48683 21.08096 21.96302 18.29180 1.060491 -0.637576 1.836465 Optimism shock -0.138087 0.000000 201.9800 -297.8800 27.84315 -2.306248 32.06180 Pessimism shock 2.856517 0.000000 608.2700 -1,125.160 68.70475 -3.133827 64.23620 Jarque-Bera Probability 5,492.580 0.000000 173.9472 0.000000 50,544.76 0.000000 221,192.0 0.000000 Observations 1,400 1,401 1,401 1,401 Note: this table shows summary statistics. Column 1 reports the results for the stock returns, column 2 reports the results for the trading volume (in log), column 3 and 4 report the results for optimism and pessimism shock indicators. Results and discussion Traditionally, correlation coefficients are used as the main analytical tool for describing the relations among a group of variables. However, under certain conditions using cointegration instead of correlation may have important advantages, because cointegration allows us to find and identify possible common trends, if they exist (Baxa, 2007). Before running cointegration tests we are used to run unit root tests to identify if the series are cointegrated and if yes to determine the order of cointegration. Unit root tests are conducted to investigate whether the selected series are stationary. The results of the Augmented Dickey Fuller, (ADF) test, the Phillips-Perron (pp) test Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 115 �Abderrazak Dhaoui and the Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt, and Shin (KPSSS) tests are reported in Table 2. Results of the unit root tests confirm the presence of a unit root in level for each selected series. The hypothesis of the presence of a unit root is rejected in the first difference. All selected series are, consequently, cointegrated in order one I(1). Table 2. Unit Root Tests (variables: Stock price, Trading volume, Bias of Optimism, Bias of pessimism) Variable ADF PP KPSS In level Stock Price -2.029854 -1.993181 0.248917*** Trading Volume -2.570678 -1.059624 0.575137*** Optimism shock -1.700311 -1.883497 0.651798*** Pessimism Shock -2.466497 -2.483773 0.231078*** st 1 Difference Stock Price -38.54587*** -38.54504*** 0.069230 Trading Volume -17.58161*** -114.3456*** 0.062912 Optimism shock -35.23835*** -35.39480*** 0.089760 Pessimism Shock -44.83261*** -45.84355*** 0.048352 Note: ADF, PP and KPSS are Augmented Dickey Fuller, Phillips-Perron and Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt, and Shin test statistics, respectively. In ADF and PP, the null hypothesis is that the series has a unit root. In KPSS the null hypothesis is that the series is stationary. *** denotes 1% significance level. Lags in ADF test are chosen by Schwarz Information Criterion (SC). For all Unit Root tests, the test equation includes trend and intercept. Once the order of integration of each variable is established, we then evaluate whether the variables under consideration are cointegrated. According to Engle and Granger (1987), a linear combination of two or more nonstationary series having a same integrating order may be stationary. If such a stationary linear combination exists, the series is considered to be cointegrated and long-run equilibrium relationships exist. Cointegration implies that causality exists between the two variables, but it does not indicate the direction of the causal relationship. The Johansen cointegration test based on the autoregressive representation discussed by Johansen (1988) and Johansen and Juselius (1990) constitutes the most commonly used method. The results for the Johansen and Juselius cointegration tests are reported in Table 3. Results in Table 3 show that there are cointegration vectors. The Table includes the ranks given in the first line, the number of cointegration vectors in line 2 and eigenvalues and trace statistics. The critical value is mentioned using asterisks. 116 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Table 3. Johansen and Joelius Cointegration Tests (variables Trading volume, Stock Market Returns, Supply shocks, Demand shocks) r=0 r≤1 r≤2 r≤3 (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) Trace statistic 353.2420*** 376.5302*** 22.99796 45.15492** 5.713970 19.09174 0.087136 5.626271 Max-Eigen stat 330.2440*** 331.3753*** 17.28399 26.06318** 6.626834 13.46547 0.087136 5.626271 Note: (1) model with an intercept. (2) model with an intercept and a linear trend. R: number of cointegration vectors. *, ** and *** denote rejection of the null hypothesis at the 10%, 5% and 1% levels of significance, respectively. In column 2 (r=0) we test the null hypothesis of no cointegration against the alternative of cointegration. In column 3 we test the null hypothesis of 0 or 1 cointegrating vector against the alternative of r=2. The lag length in all the tests has been selected according to the Schwarz Information Criterion (SC). The null hypothesis is that the number of cointegrating relationships is equal to r, which is given in the “maximum rank” observed in the first line of the Table 4. The alternative is that there are more than r cointegrating relationships. We reject the null if the trace statistic is greater than the critical value. We start by testing H0: r=0. If this null hypothesis is rejected, we repeat for H0: r=1. The process continues for r=2, r =3, etc. The process stops when a test is not rejected. In our case, results from cointegration tests with an intercept and a linear trend show that we can reject H0: r=0 since the trace statistics are greater than the critical values. Results show also the rejection of the H0: r=1 based on the cointegration tests with an intercept and a linear trend. Finally, for r more than the aforementioned rank results indicate to stop to reject the null hypothesis because the trace statistics become less than their critical values. Consequently, we can conclude that there are 2 cointegration vectors. The existence of one or more cointegration vectors explains that the variables have a long run relationship and we should continue to use VECM (Vector Error Correction Model). Based on these findings, the long-run equilibrium relationship is given by the following relation (results for long-run cointegrating equation): V t = -16.55593 - 10.98560 Rt-1 - 0.000692 OSt-1 - 0.001610 PSt-1 + ɛt (-19.2067) (-0.51491) (3) (-3.48351) t-statistics are given in ( ). Since the selected series are cointegrated, a VECM is set up for investigating short-run and long-run causality. In the VECM, the first difference of the endogenous variable (trading volume in log) is regressed on a 3 period lags of the cointegration equation. The VECM contains the cointegration relation built into the specification so that it restricts the long-run behavior of the endogenous variable to converge to its cointagrating relationship while allowing for short-run adjustment dynamics. The error correction model can be written by the following equations: Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 117 �Abderrazak Dhaoui (4) (5) (6) (7) where Vt, Rt, OSt, OPt, and µt denote respectively the trading volume, the US stock market return, the optimism shock, the pessimism shock and the error term that follows a Gaussian white noise. Δ and ECT denote respectively the difference operator and the error correction term. The significance of coefficients (βi) of the explanatory variables is mentioned as the presence of causality in the short-run. The sources of causality can be identified from the significance test of the coefficients of the independent variables in the VECM. Regarding the causality of the short-run, we can test the nullity of the parameters associated with independent variables in each equation of the VECM using the χ2-Wald statistics. The causality in the long-run can be tested by the significance of the speed of adjustment. We use the t-statistics of the coefficients of the ECT, which indicate if there are long-run causal effects. The VECM is estimated by the maximum likelihood method. The lag length is selected based on the Schwarz Information Criterion (SC). Table 4 reports the estimation results of the error correction model. 118 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Table 4. Estimation Results of the Error Correction Model Δ Vt ΔOSt ΔPSt -0.001365*** 0.065754*** (-3.59991) (7.09957) -0.224868** (-2.98751) 0.039604 (0.19696) ΔVt-1 -0.408973*** -0.695147 (-15.4225) (-1.07359) 0.871704* (0.16565) -9.116828 (-0.64854) ΔVt-2 -0.263721*** -0.270062 (-9.47188) (-0.39725) 9.833475* (1.77981) -22.31821 (-1.51212) ΔVt-3 -0.169219*** 0.510835 (-6.39327) (0.79042) 1.389072 (0.26447) 5.530460 (0.39416) ΔRt-1 -0.009825** (-2.70055) -0.064034 (-0.72084) 0.447755 (0.62022) -0.243761 (-0.12639) ΔRt-2 -0.005755** (-2.01192) -0.039960 (-0.57218) 0.477611 (0.84149) -1.638778 (-1.08082) ΔRt-3 -0.000710 (-0.58483) -0.003274 (-0.11048) 0.057854 (0.24022) -0.029865 (-0.04642) -0.000217 (-1.18422) -0.018694*** (-4.17484) -0.143152*** (-3.93382) -0.057933 (-0.59594) ΔOSt-2 -0.000215 (-1.15896) 0.005500 (1.21632) 0.032880 (0.89473) 0.194400** (1.98023) ΔOSt-3 -0.000153 (-0.83521) -0.004993 (-1.11262) 0.041295 (1.13230) -0.151832 (-1.55845) ΔPSt-1 -0.000265** (-2.58276) -0.006534** (-2.60411) 0.058286** (2.85838) -0.153062** (-2.80984) ΔPSt-2 -0.000019 (-0.18324) 0.002094 (0.82501) 0.056732** (2.75085) 0.034117 (0.61925) ΔPSt-3 -0.000081 (-0.78388) -0.001451 (-0.57287) 0.025596 (1.24320) -0.097307* (-1.76920) Intercept 0.004230 (1.22578) 0.014572 (0.17295) -0.576218 (-0.84154) 3.512770* (1.92043) R-squared F-statistic 0.169733 21.73266 0.497593 105.2891 0.182855 23.78877 0.042325 4.698309 Long-Run ECTt-1 Short–Run ΔOSt-1 ΔRt Note: this table shows the results for the VECM model. The first line reports the results for the long run equilibrium. Lines 2 to 13 reports results for the short term run. The first column reports results for the trading volume, column 2 reports results for the stock returns, column 3 and 4 report results for optimistic and pessimistic shock indicators. *, ** and *** denote rejection of the null hypothesis at the 10%, 5% and 1% levels of significance, respectively. The lag length in all the tests has been selected according to the Schwarz Information Criterion (SC). Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 119 �Abderrazak Dhaoui Results in Table 4 shows a negative sign of the cointegration equation coefficient for the Trading Volume and the optimism shocks equations at 1% and 5% level of significance, respectively. This result confirms the existence of long-run equilibrium relationships. We notice however that the endogenous variable converge to its cointagrating relationship with a lower adjustment speed for the trading volume equation and a speedy adjustment for the optimism shocks equation. As regards the short-run causality, results show significant sensitivity of the changes in trading volume to its historical variations, to the stock market specific shocks and to the pessimism shocks with a negative sign and a high sensitivity to their experiences in trading and a less sensitivity to their feelings and psychological perception of the market evolution. This result is confirmed by the impulse response functions of the trading volume to the different types of shocks (specific shock, optimism and pessimism shocks). Figure 2 shows the generalized impulse response functions of trading volume to a shock affecting the following variables: (i) stock market returns (specific shocks); (ii) optimism; (iii) pessimism. We find that the response of the trading volume of the US market shocks may differ depending on the nature of the impulse variables. The main results can be summarized as follows. First, we find nonsignificant effects of the stock market returns (specific shocks) and the optimism shock in the short-term (about the first two weeks). Starting in the third week the trading volume reacts significantly and positively to the stock market returns. The response to the optimism shock is negative and remains quite smoothed. We find also a significant and negative response of trading volume to pessimism shocks. The speed of response is very faster than that observed in the stock market returns and the optimism shocks (after 1 week for the pessimism vs. after about 2 to 3 weeks for the stock returns and the optimism). The high sensitivity of trading volume to the pessimism component is due to the effect of the series of negative events that characterized the economic system in the US during the selected period and that exerted significant impact on the psychological state of investors. Figure 2. Generalized Impulse Functions of Trading Volume to Stock Market Returns and Shocks of Optimism and Pessimism Response of Trading Volume to Stock Market Return Innovation .014 .012 .010 .008 .006 .004 .002 .000 -.002 120 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Response of Trading Volume to Optimistic Innovation .001 .000 -.001 -.002 -.003 -.004 -.005 -.006 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Response of Trading Volume to Pessimistic Innovation .000 -.002 -.004 -.006 -.008 -.010 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Conclusion The relation between trading volume and stock price changes has received considerable attention over the past two decades in the field of finance. Several authors attribute, however, the disparity in results to exogenous effects associated in part to the change in the psychological state of investors. This paper analyzes the response of trading volume to the change in investors’ psychological state. Waiting for good or bad results, investors express optimistic and pessimistic states of mind. Investors who wait for a positive evolution of stock market react aggressively and increase their trading volume. Once the stock market moves in the opposite sense and their expectations don’t materialize, they loss of confidence and assume an optimism shock. When they wait for bad results and decrease, therefore, their trading, however the state of returns be a success, they assume a pessimism shock. The sample includes 1401 time series observations over the period 1987:07-2014:05. The results we obtained based on the Johansen and Joelius cointegration tests and the VECM model show a higher sensitivity of investor’s trading behavior to their pessimistic forecasts than to their optimistic forecasts. The US stock market reacts more significantly following a pessimism shock than to an optimism shock. This result suggests that investors overweight the probability of bad event and underestimate the probability of good events and is in line with previous predictions in literature (see, for example, Carver et al. 2010; Weinstein, 1980; Chen, 2013). The extensive sensitivity of investors trading levels to pessimism shocks can be due to a series of pessimistic events that happened in the US over the selected period, which Volume 5 Number 2 Fall 2015 121 �Abderrazak Dhaoui push the US market to become more pessimistic and significantly sensitive to all events able to affect directly or indirectly the US economy. Psychological viewpoint confirms the American investors’ psychological state. In fact, optimistic sentiment can be built across the time, but is broken after a simple shock. In regard to the validity of the results we found the pessimistic state of the US stock market is due to the series of events the US has sustained over the last two decades. In major, these events have occurred inside the US country. In fact, the US has experienced a long period of turbulence starting with the first war in Irak of 1991 known as the “Operation Desert Storm” (17 January 1991 to 28 February 1991) to the bursting of the Internet bubble in Mars 2000, the attack of 11 September, the war in Afghanistan (07 October 2001), the series of failures and scandals that affect the telecommunication and technology giants (World-com failure in 2001-2002, the Enron failure in 2001 and the Tycho-electronics failure in 2002), …), the second war in Irak (20 Mars 2003 to 15 December 2011), the subprime crisis. These events have influenced sensitively the psychological state of the population and in particular of the investors. This period has been one of the most pessimistic period that knows the US. This has induced a substantial change in the investors’ psychological state. Rational expectation losses of popularity and the investors expressed irrational behaviors. They have expressed heterogeneous psychological states moving from optimistic to pessimistic feelings and sentiments. Their decisions have been driven by their state of sentiment varying from optimism to pessimism. The intensity of negative events has feed in the investors a sense of pessimism and determined their trading strategies which explain the aforementioned results we find in this study. This behavior expressed by the investors over the aforementioned pessimistic period is in line with the findings of Ali and Gurun (2009) who document that investors are more alert during pessimistic periods and less attentive at optimistic times. 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Science, 246, 12321233. Weinstein, N. D. (1980). Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 806-820. Woodford, M. (1988). Expectations, finance constraints, and aggregate instability. In Howitt, P. and McAffe, R. P., “Animal Spirits”, The American Economic Review, 82(3), 493-507. 126 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2930 Title A name given to the resource Empirical Linkages between Trading Volume and Stock Markets Shocks: When Sentiments Drive Investors’ Behavior Author Author DHAOUI, Abderrazak Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: In this paper, we examine the impact of investor psychological state on their trading volume for the US stock market using a VECM model for the period from July 1987 to May 2014. We propose alternative specifications for investors’ sentiment considering their optimistic and pessimistic states. We find that during pessimistic periods, investors’ are extensively alerted. In optimistic and normal periods, they are less attentive. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0de1be2a4cfb5025b345eb317efdf580.pdf 8e82581d972ea1bcb458ee2432dec628 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Employee Empowerment and Its Effect on Organizational Performance M. Kemal DEMĠRCĠ Dumlupınar University, Turkey mkdemirci26@hotmail.com Ali ERBAġ EskiĢehir Osman Gazi University, Turkey mkdemirci26@hotmail.com Abstract: Employee empowerment is frequently used by business academicians and managers on business activities. It refers to employees being more proactive and self-sufficient in assisting an organization to achieve its goals. The term became prominent as part of the total quality management, although its roots are in issues raised earlier under the heading ―employee involvement‖ or employee participation. The purpose is not only to ensure that effective decisions are made by the right employees but to provide a mechanism by which responsibility for those decisions is vested in individuals and teams. The right to share authority and to codetermine important decisions is accompanied by responsibility to exercise this power for the legitimate benefit of multiple stakeholders. Responsible decision-making requires that employees have access to managerial level knowledge and information about the enterprise, as well as to opportunities to learn new skills that will enable them to interpret and use the information. Such information may, however, involve technical, economic, or interpersonal and organizational aspects of the firm that many employees will be unprepared by their previous education, training, and work experience to understand and make use of. A democratic workplace will need to provide for the ongoing education and training of employees not only in relation to their immediate work tasks but also for their broader role in participating in the management of complex enterprises. Key Words: Employee Empowerment, Organizational Performance. Introduction Empowerment, participation or participative management is a classic concept in business administration literature (Wilkinson, 1988). Empowerment, although generally seen as a key to employee satisfaction and improved productivity, opponents regard it merely as an action toward downsizing a company and increasing workloads. The advocates of empowerment see it as the essential underpinning of continuous improvement. Empowerment concept has emerged as a development of the total quality management philosophy in recent years. Common ground has been established as to the acceptance that empowerment is one of the more difficult factors of continuous improvement, but should not also be understood as a cure to all contemporary corporate ills. Empowerment yet, has no any metric to assess its impact on business performance and this condition caused the concept to remain fundamentally qualitative rather than quantitative. Empowerment and Its Relation to Decision Making Process In our study we see participative management, empowerment (see for a wide range of definitions of empowerment: Geroy, Wright, and Anderson) and participation as synonyms. We consider empowerment as the new version of participative management of 1970‘s. On the other hand, concepts of involvement and commitment (Becker, Billings, Evaleth and Gilbert, 1996) as elements included in empowerment. Empowerment is achieved through involvement and commitment of employees. Without involvement of employees in the decision-making process, the base of decisions will not be properly maintained, and thereby the members of organization can not be accountable for the quality of their tasks. Members of the organizations should always think strategically and by employing employees in decision making activities, human resources of the business should be directed towards the satisfaction of customers, better than before. In essence, empowerment is a management style where managers share endeavors with the rest of the organizational members. Their influence in the decision-making process – or the collaboration in the decision- 142 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo making is not limited to the formal power – with certain characteristics as far as information systems, training, rewarding, power sharing, leadership style and organizational culture are concerned (Pardo del Val and Lloyd, 2003). Participation of employees in the decisions is not a simple act. Decision process is composed of a couple of stages, like a chain where each link can be regarded as equally valuable and essential. These stages mainly are; identification of the problem, intelligence stage, conception or design of alternatives stage, choosing one of the alternatives as decision, implementation and revision of the decision. All of these stages need to be elaborated properly and at each level of hierarchy, managers should continuously perform influence and collaboration. There are a variety of decisions in every organization. Therefore it is better to classify decisions in three fold in a pyramidal way, as a best known and generally accepted classification. Of a hierarchical division of decisions, at top strategic, then tactical and at the bottom operational decisions take place. Such classification also will be helpful in identifying the collaboration degree of the individuals in the decision making process. The Implementation Conditions of Empowerment According to Herrenkohl (Herrenkohl, Judson and Heffner, 1999) and Wooddell (2009), effective implementation of employee empowerment projects in the organization needs maintaining the following four conditions. Shared Vision As his top strategic priorities, like financial solvency, improved reporting process, increasing the level of customer satisfaction of the company, for example, might be the vision of the director of the organization. Thus, unless the same vision is shared with the director, it would be very difficult, even sometimes impossible to implement an employee empowerment project. Shared vision with the director plays a key role and the empowerment endeavors can obtain ground and can identify its own goals and then can design its own process to achieve its goals. Starting with the lacking of empowerment areas, the department or the company would provide the empowerment team with the opportunity to train selected employees to improve their leadership skills. Organizational Support Without a concrete support of the director, securing attendance of the supervisors and managers to training workshops would be almost impossible. Beside this, to plan for access to staff meetings would not be expected to be successful. Therefore executive director has a critical effect and role on the successfully implementation of the empowerment project in the organization. Knowledge and Learning After the implementation of the empowerment project, the members of the team are expected to improve their skills in project management and team development skills which would be an asset applicable for other projects as well. And also skills like, brainstorming, time management, improved discussion, consensus-based decision making and problem solving techniques for managers and supervisors, and leadership development training and customer service training for employees could be maintained. Institutional Recognition For a successful implementation of an empowerment project, team members need to receive a widespread appreciation and recognition for their skills in their endeavors. Therefore good reputation of an empowerment team and its members, could directly impact span of acceptance of the director and department managers, supervisors and front line employees. Empowerment And Its Effect On Performance Organizations need to manage and improve the performance of their employees. As the power or capacity to produce a desired effect, efficacy of an employee is enhanced by empowerment, doubtlessly. Empowerment can be formulated as the combination of four dimensions. Thus, the equation is derived keeping in mind the factor of empowerment enhancing the role efficacy of individual employees (Table 1) (Shulagna, 2009). Some argue that lacking of one of these elements will deflate, though not completely eliminate, the overall degree of empowerment (Shulagna, 2009), but still others (Bowen and Lawler III, 1995) believe that, any one of four elements, that is power, information, knowledge and rewards will completely destroy empowerment. Thus, employees provided with the 143 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo elements of power, knowledge, information and rewards would be more involved and empowered in all levels of business development programs. Basing on above explanations, empowerment equation could be formed as the following: Empowerment = Power * information * Knowledge * Rewards Power Autonomy Information HRI (Feedback) Authority Delegation Role Clarification Motivation Participation (Work Suggest) Knowledge Training (mentoring and Tutor) Counseling Appraisals Reward Compensation (awards) Career Planning Job Enrichment Table 1: Instruments of Empowerment It is now widely recognized that decisions concentrated at the top hampers flexibility and timely action at the lower levels, but pushing down decision making at lower levels, may lead to chaos, conflicting decisions and a discernible lack of common purpose ((Shulagna, 2009). Therefore to avoid such disadvantages, the decision of taking decisions, or to push it upwards should be left at employee‘s prudence. To develop the prudence of employees on the other hand, the organization should develop its personnel and also should create an organizational culture and a climate that would provide the employee with the right to decide or to push it up the hierarchy. Empowerment helps to achieve such a culture and an environment in the organization by increasing organizational effectiveness through developing and deploying competent influence in the human resource. The term empowerment denotes the enhanced involvement of employees in the organizational processes and decision-making (Sinha, 2005). All visions and strategies in the organization need able and empowered personnel. Unfortunately, empowerment is rarely used in the organizations and is less common than other management efforts like teamwork, quality management or inventory control. Although empowerment influence performance in a positive way, unfortunately it can not be measured properly and directly, yet. Figure 1 represents a view of empowerment process that churns out competent influence in the workforce and ultimately affects performance by leading to customer satisfaction, customer involvement, customer loyalty and customer recognition (Shulagna, 2009). Prompt decision making satisfaction Enhanced accountability Involvement empowerment Performance loyataly Understanding the value of work recognition Job mastery Figure 1: Empowerment and Its Relation to Performance Enhanced employee engagement 144 creativity �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Each and every employee in the organization must consider the elements of competent influence which can be aligned as commitment, capability, and ethicality, in order to create empowered individuals and climate which also would secure a much better performance in the organization. Commitment: Empowerment leads employee‘s psychological attachment to the organization, that is commitment. Commitment towards the job is increased as accountability increases. Empowerment also leads to employee engagement. And when there is a shared purpose, employee becomes a self-directed decision-maker towards the goals and objectives of the organization. Capability: Through history, when an opportunity is given to a person with a right attitude he/she always has done the best of his means and capabilities. Therefore, by employing empowerment, employee is motivated and given the chance to make the best utilization of the opportunities given to him. Workplace will provide him freedom and fun and he/she will get the pleasure of fulfillment of his contribution to work and get full job satisfaction in return. Ethicality: Being in accordance with the accepted principles of right and wrong that govern the conduct of an employee is called ethicality. When employees are empowered, it will lead to exercising competent influence. Empowering by enhancing more freedom would cause employees express the truth and prevent them from falsehood, and pretends. After creating empowered individuals and climate in the organization, we propose the decision making performance of all employees at all levels to be improved as shown in Figure 2. Top management Decision making (Planning) Collaboration And planning Degree line Routine duties Middle management Low management Figure 2: Collaboration degree of the individuals in the decision making process On the above figure, top level managers have the highest degree of collaboration and planning duties as depicted by the collaboration and planning degree line. Adversely the lower-level managers are expected to have the least degree of collaboration engagement in decision making process and spend their efforts to routine daily tasks more than the higher management levels. If the management at all levels, obey the above division of responsibilities for decision making and routine daily tasks and degree of collaboration(diagonal line), all managers would be expected to contribute the organization at maximum level possible. Conclusion Employees need to be provided with the greater authority to make independent decisions as more decisionmaking responsibility is deconcentrated and concerned through empowerment. There is no doubt that empowerment is achieved by objective and structural organizational changes which provides individuals greater convenience to make decisions and use greater influence regarding their work. When empowerment projects are launched, of course considerations regarding to some of the internal resistance of the organization should be taken into account. Involved negative behaviors are; improper conduct of 145 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo some managers towards change, resistance to delegate their control to their subordinates, reluctance to invest resources and make commitment, that are expected to insure long term success of empowerment, as well as employees negative behaviors to change, etc. Employees attitude against change is generally due to their conditioned behavior to follow orders, and tendencies not to collaborate with others, and not willing to accept greater responsibilities and risks, in work environment. Such difficulties are potential in every organization, and therefore should be accepted as normal, and are expected to be overcomed by shared vision of director, intensive organizational support, knowledge, continuous learning, and institutional recognition of the empowerment project team. A successful empowerment endeavor, as an important organizational challenge proves to be successful in providing employee feelings of self-efficacy, and removing conditions which cause restlessness and powerlessness. It also achieves job mastery by providing for role clarification, job enrichment and proper training. Empowerment also gives growth support to its employees through career planning, rewards and welfare, and by employing counseling, motivation, and appraisals techniques, uses social reinforcement and persuasion in the organization. When empowerment approaches adopted, employees gradually would start to feel that they are valued, competent and the jobs they are doing have so great meaning and impact, and, when legitimately empowered, they would continuously be in a mood to believe they have so vast opportunities to apply their skills. In return they are expected to change their behaviors towards using their talents in the work place better than before, and such employee driven changes are expected to bring contribution to the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. References Wilkinson, A. (1988). Empowerment: theory and practice, Personnel Review, Vol. 27 No 1, (pp. 40-56). Geroy, G.D., Wright, P.C and Anderson, J. Strategic performance empowerment model, Empowerment in Organizations, V. 6 N.2, (pp 57-63). Becker, T.E., Billings, R.S., Evaleth, D.M. and Gilbert, N.L. (1996). …bases of employee commitment: implications for job performance, Academy of Management Journal, V. 39 N.2. (pp. 464-481) Pardo del Val, M. and Lloyd, B. (2003). Measuring Empowerment, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, (pp. 102103.) Herrenkohl, R., Judson, G and Heffner, J. (1999). Defining and measuring employee empowerment, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 35, (pp. 373-385). Wooddell, V. (2009). Employee Empowerment, Action Research and Organizational Change: A Case Study, Organization Management Journal, 6, (pp.15-18). Bowen, D. E. and Lawler, E.E III (1995), Empowering Service Employees, Sloan Management Review, 36, 4, (pp. 73-82). Sinha R. (2005). Lighting of a Spark, Human Capital, 8, 9. Shulagna S. (2009). Employee Empowerment in the Banking Sector‖, IUP Journal of Management Research. Hyderabad: Sep. 8, 9, (pp. 48-67) 146 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 200 Title A name given to the resource Employee Empowerment and Its Effect on Organizational Performance Author Author DEMİRCİ, M. Kemal ERBAŞ, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Employee empowerment is frequently used by business academicians and managers on business activities. It refers to employees being more proactive and self-sufficient in assisting an organization to achieve its goals. The term became prominent as part of the total quality management, although its roots are in issues raised earlier under the heading ―employee involvement‖ or employee participation. The purpose is not only to ensure that effective decisions are made by the right employees but to provide a mechanism by which responsibility for those decisions is vested in individuals and teams. The right to share authority and to codetermine important decisions is accompanied by responsibility to exercise this power for the legitimate benefit of multiple stakeholders. Responsible decision-making requires that employees have access to managerial level knowledge and information about the enterprise, as well as to opportunities to learn new skills that will enable them to interpret and use the information. Such information may, however, involve technical, economic, or interpersonal and organizational aspects of the firm that many employees will be unprepared by their previous education, training, and work experience to understand and make use of. A democratic workplace will need to provide for the ongoing education and training of employees not only in relation to their immediate work tasks but also for their broader role in participating in the management of complex enterprises. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e4fc784f4041c0bd98bd823b1a5cdec4.pdf 490b30bb4c2468996e7e8de07ec3d546 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Employment Discrimination of Romani People in Bosnia and Herzegovina Emir Čičkušid International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ecickusic@hotmail.com Nataša Tandir International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ntandir@ibu.edu.ba The Romani are an ethnic group living mostly in Europe originating from the northwestern Indian Subcontinent. Romani are widely known in the English-speaking world by the exonym "Gypsies". There are no certain data about total population of the Romani people all around the world but it is assumed it estimates from 2 million to more than 12 million. In Bosnia and Herzegovina approximately there are 80,000 of Romani people which were faced with much discrimination during their life mostly on field of education, employment and health care. This research should provide insight how much Romani people are discriminated when applying to a job. Research has been undertaken with the survey which was shared among the Romani people groups, relevant NGOs, and representatives of local communities who are dealing with the problems of minorities. Results can be used to show how largest minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina is facing discrimination in any aspect each day, especially in professional life. Keywords: Romani People, Employment Discrimination, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 94 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1454 Title A name given to the resource Employment Discrimination of Romani People in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author CICKUSIC, Emir TANDIR, Natasa Abstract A summary of the resource. The Romani are an ethnic group living mostly in Europe originating from the northwestern Indian Subcontinent. Romani are widely known in the English-speaking world by the exonym "Gypsies". There are no certain data about total population of the Romani people all around the world but it is assumed it estimates from 2 million to more than 12 million. In Bosnia and Herzegovina approximately there are 80,000 of Romani people which were faced with much discrimination during their life mostly on field of education, employment and health care. This research should provide insight how much Romani people are discriminated when applying to a job. Research has been undertaken with the survey which was shared among the Romani people groups, relevant NGOs, and representatives of local communities who are dealing with the problems of minorities. Results can be used to show how largest minority in Bosnia and Herzegovina is facing discrimination in any aspect each day, especially in professional life. Keywords: Romani People, Employment Discrimination, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564