98 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aa9f08256f058d7ba7095f18b03a659b.docx 670eab0f8e337d043cc4498d9718f96c https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ab0817f67ab65199167bfe64d19fa6f.pdf 29f05ea96031bc66964517699eec6cae PDF Text Text ELECTRICAL, STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF NANO-CERAMIC (BI2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(SM2O3)Y AND (BI2O3)1-XY(DY2O3)X(TM2O3)Y TERNARY SYSTEM M. Kış Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey mkis@erciyes.edu.tr B. Erdoğan Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey bilge_erdogan_@hotmail.com S. Durmuş Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey semradurmus@dpu.edu.tr M. Arı Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey ari@erciyes.edu.tr Keywords: Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC); Ceramic electrolyte; Oxygen ionic conductivity; X-ray diffraction; Thermal analysis; 4-point probe technique. ABSTRACT Crystal structure and temperature depence ofSm2O3- Dy2O3 and Tm2O3- Dy2O3 dopedbismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) tenary solid solutions have been investigated. The (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Sm2O3)y and (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Tm2O3)y ternary systems were obtained with x=20,10 mol % and y=20,10 mol % dopant concentrations. The temperature dependence of the electrical properties of -phase of solid solution samples were measured by d.c. four point probe technique.The crystallographic structure of the samples were characterized by X-ray powder diffractions (XRD). The unit cell parameters were determined from the powder diffraction patterns.Thermal behavior and stability of the phases were investigated by Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermo Gravity (DTA-TG). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2158 Title A name given to the resource ELECTRICAL, STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF NANO-CERAMIC (BI2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(SM2O3)Y AND (BI2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(TM2O3)Y TERNARY SYSTEM Author Author M., Kis B., Erdogan S., Durmus M., Ari Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC); Ceramic electrolyte; Oxygen ionic conductivity; X-ray diffraction; Thermal analysis; 4-point probe technique. ABSTRACT Crystal structure and temperature depence ofSm2O3- Dy2O3 and Tm2O3- Dy2O3 dopedbismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) tenary solid solutions have been investigated. The (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Sm2O3)y and (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Tm2O3)y ternary systems were obtained with x=20,10 mol % and y=20,10 mol % dopant concentrations. The temperature dependence of the electrical properties of -phase of solid solution samples were measured by d.c. four point probe technique.The crystallographic structure of the samples were characterized by X-ray powder diffractions (XRD). The unit cell parameters were determined from the powder diffraction patterns.Thermal behavior and stability of the phases were investigated by Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermo Gravity (DTA-TG). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8014f2c1448a7b22eb439096df8bdc70.docx 1751fe5bef50889b5cecfd2305e6803d https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/decde8537ef4a4eb5d4969151725ce12.pdf 0cb3ddc899f15d1fe538a8e1ae15e2e8 PDF Text Text ELECTRİCAL, STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL PROPERTİES OF NANOCERAMİC (Bİ2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(SM2O3)Y AND (Bİ2O3)1-XY(DY2O3)X(TM2O3)Y TERNARY SYSTEM M. Kış Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey mkis@erciyes.edu.tr B. Erdoğan Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey bilge_erdogan_@hotmail.com S. Durmuş DumlupınarUniversity, Kütahya, Turkey semradurmus@dpu.edu.tr M. Arı Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey ari@erciyes.edu.tr Keywords: Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC); Ceramic electrolyte; Oxygen ionic conductivity; X-ray diffraction; Thermal analysis; 4-point probe technique. ABSTRACT Crystal structure and temperature depence of Sm2O3- Dy2O3 and Tm2O3- Dy2O3 doped bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) tenary solid solutions have been investigated. The (Bi2O3)1-xy(Dy2O3)x(Sm2O3)y and (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Tm2O3)y ternary systems were obtained with x=20,10 mol % and y=20,10 mol % dopant concentrations. The temperature dependence of the electrical properties of -phase of solid solution samples were measured by d.c. four point probe technique. The crystallographic structure of the samples were characterized by X-ray powder diffractions (XRD). The unit cell parameters were determined from the powder diffraction patterns. Thermal behavior and stability of the phases were investigated by Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermo Gravity (DTA-TG). � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2141 Title A name given to the resource ELECTRİCAL, STRUCTURAL AND THERMAL PROPERTİES OF NANOCERAMİC (Bİ2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(SM2O3)Y AND (Bİ2O3)1-X-Y(DY2O3)X(TM2O3)Y TERNARY SYSTEM Author Author M., Kis B., Erdogan S., Durmus M., Ari Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC); Ceramic electrolyte; Oxygen ionic conductivity; X-ray diffraction; Thermal analysis; 4-point probe technique. ABSTRACT Crystal structure and temperature depence of Sm2O3- Dy2O3 and Tm2O3- Dy2O3 doped bismuth trioxide (Bi2O3) tenary solid solutions have been investigated. The (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Sm2O3)y and (Bi2O3)1-x-y(Dy2O3)x(Tm2O3)y ternary systems were obtained with x=20,10 mol % and y=20,10 mol % dopant concentrations. The temperature dependence of the electrical properties of -phase of solid solution samples were measured by d.c. four point probe technique. The crystallographic structure of the samples were characterized by X-ray powder diffractions (XRD). The unit cell parameters were determined from the powder diffraction patterns. Thermal behavior and stability of the phases were investigated by Differential Thermal Analysis-Thermo Gravity (DTA-TG). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/437ed09086951b4aa36b0c444e31f44d.pdf 706aa5bfac723b738fe647c4aa948849 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electricity Generation by a Mediator-Less Microbial Fuel Cell Using Mixed Culture Sevil Aktan Fatih University Department of EnvironmentalEngineering Turkey sevil@fatih.edu.tr Ayhan Bozkurt Fatih University Department of Chemistry Turkey bozkurt@fatih.edu.tr E mine Ubay Çokgör ITU Department of Environmental Enginnering Turkey ubay @itu.edu.tr Burcu Irmak Yazicioğlu Fatih University Department of Biology Turkey iburcu@fatih.edu.tr Nurullah Arslan Fatih University Department Genetic and Bioengineering Turkey narslan@fatih.edu.tr Fahrettin Gücin Fatih University Department of Biology Turkey fgucin@fatih.edu.tr Işılay Ulusoy Gebze Institute of Technology Nanotechnology Center Turkey iulusoy@gyte.edu.tr Abstract: A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode ,with reduction of oxygen at the cathode. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode. Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode and flow to the cathode linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load. MFCs have been used to generate electricity from virtually any biodegradable organic matter, including domestic and industrial wastewaters, while at the same time accomplishing wastewater treatment. Using Two Chambered MFC in our laboratory produced 0,8 mW/m2 of anode surface area using pure culture (S.putrefaciens) and acetate. Using Single Chambered Flat MFC, we have recently achieved up to 15 mW/m2 using mixed culture and acetate. A MFC-based treatment plant of the future 200 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo will likely look a lot like a system built today around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The MFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications. Introduction A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode, with reduction of oxygen atthe cathode. Proton Exchange Me mbrane (PE M),to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode (Logan et al., 2005) (Du et al., 2007). Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode (negative terminal) and flow to the cathode (positive terminal)linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load (Logan et al., 2006). Bacteria can be used in MFCs to generate electricity while accomplishing the biodegradation of organic matters or wastes (Oh and Logan., 2005). Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a typical MFC for producing electricity. It consists of anodic and cathodic chambers partitioned by a proton exchange membrane (PE M) (Gil et al., 2003). Figue 1 Schematic diagram of a typicaltwo-chamber microbialfuel cell Mediator-less Microbial Fuel Cell Electrons can be transferred to the anode by electron mediators or shuttles(Rabaey and Verstraete, 2005). But the toxicity and instability of synthetic mediators limit their applications in MFCs. If no exogenous mediators are added to the system, the MFC is classified as a mediator-less MFC even though the mechanism of electron transfer may not be known (Logan, 2004). Some microbes can use naturally occurring compounds including microbial metabolites (Endogenous mediators) as mediators. A real breakthrough was made when some microbes were found to transfer electrons directly to the anode (Kim et al., 1999a, Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003). These Shewanella putrefaciens (Kim et al., 2002), Geobacteraceae sulferreducens (Bond and Lovley, 2003), Geobacter metallireducens (Min et al., 2005) and Rhodoferax ferrireducens (Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003) are all bioelectrochemically active and can form a biofilm on the anode surface and transfer electrons directly by conductance through the membrane. When they are used,the anode acts asthe final electron acceptor inthe dissimilatory respiratory chain ofthe microbes in the biofilm. M FCs was also operated using mixed cultures currently achieve substantially greater power densitiesthan those with pure cultures (Rabaey et al., 2004, Rabaey et al.,2005a). Since the cost of a mediatoris eliminated, mediator-less MFCs are advantageous in wastewatertreatment and power generation (Ieropoulos et al., 2005). How do Microbial Fuel Cells work? To understand how an MFC produces electricity, we must understand how bacteria capture and process energy. Bacteria grow by catalyzing chemical reactions and harnessing and storing energy in the form of 201 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo adenosine triphosphate (ATP).In some bacteria,reduced substrates are oxidized and electrons are transferred to respiratory enzymes by NADH, the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (N A D). These electrons flow down a respiratory chain —a series of enzymes that function to move protons across an internal membrane —creating a proton gradient. The protons flow back intothe cellthrough the enzyme ATPase, creating 1 ATP molecule from 1 adenosine diphosphate for every 3–4 protons. The electrons are finally released to a soluble terminal electron acceptor,such as nitrate,sulfate, or oxygen (Logan and Regan, 2006). Using acetate as substrate,typical electrode reactions are shown below: Anodic reaction : CH3 COO - + 2H2 O microbes 2CO2 + 7H+ + 8eCathodic reaction : O2 + 4H+ + 4e- →2H2 O The overall reaction is the break down of the substrate to carbon dioxide and water with a concomitant production of electricity as a by-product. Based on the electrode reaction pair above, an MFC bioreactor can generate electricity from the electron flow from the anode to cathode in the external circuit(Du et al., 2007). Types of Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) Two-chambered MFC A typicaltwo compartment M FC has an anodic chamber and a cathodic chamber connected by a Proton Exchange Membrane (PE M), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode (Du et al., 2007). The anode chamber contains the bacteria, and it is tightly sealed to prevent oxygen diffusion into the chamber. The headspace can be flushed with nitrogen gas to exclude air from the chamber. The cathode isim mersed in water, and the wateris bubbled with air(a typical aquarium air pump works well in the laboratory for this purpose). The anode chamber should contain nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and trace minerals) and biodegradable substrate (Logan, 2005). As mentioned above, sucrose, lactose, glucose, starch, pyruvate, xylose or wastewaters (domestic ww, animal ww, starch ww) (Logan, 2005) were used as substrate. Figure 2 shows two-chamber H-type system showing anode and cathode chambers equipped for gas sparging (Logan and Regan, 2006). Figure 2. Example of an H-type microbial fuel cell (a) Schematic showing the anode where bacteria form a biofilm on the surface and a cathode, which is exposed to dissolved oxygen. The two chambers are separated by a proton-exchange membrane (PE M). (b) An example of a simple two-chamber system with the PE M clamped between the ends oftwo tubes,each joined to a bottle. Single Chambered MFC (SCMFC) A simpler and more efficientM FC can be made by omitting the cathode chamber and placing the cathode electrode directly onto the PEM. This set up avoids the need to aerate water because the oxygen in air can be directly transferred to the cathode. Several designs are possible forthis system. In the firstdesign used in Prof. 202 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Logan’s Laboratory in Penn University, used to demonstrate electricity generation from wastewater,the cathode was placed in the center of a cylinder,so thatthe anode chamber formed a concentric cylinder around the cathode (large SC MFC; Liu et al., 2004) (Figure 3). Graphite rods were placed inside the anode chamber, and these rods extended outside of the anode chamber and were connected to the cathode via an external circuit containing a resistor. Air was able to passively flow through the centertube so thatitcould react atthe cathode. The Nafion membrane was hot-pressed onto the cathode, which was wrapped around a perforated plastictube to provide support, with the membrane in contact with the solution in the anode chamber. (C) Figure 3. Schematics of a cylindrical SC-MFC containing eight graphite rods as an anode in a concentric arrangement surrounding a single cathode.((A) drawn with modifications after Liu et al.,2004. (B) drawn to illustrate a photo in Liu et al.,2004.)(C) Photo oflaboratory-scale prototype ofthe SC MFC used to generate electricity from wastewater Itis not essentialto placethe cathode in water orin a separate chamber when using oxygen atthe cathode. The cathode can be placed in direct contact with air (Liu and Logan, 2004). Much larger power densities have been achieved using oxygen asthe electron acceptor when aqueous-cathodes are replaced with air-cathodes. The second type of SC MFC was a single tube, with the two circular electrodes placed on opposite ends of the tube (small SC MFC; Liu and Logan, 2004). The end containing the anode is capped in order to prevent oxygen diffusion intothe chamber, whilethe other end is open so that one side ofthe cathode faces air, whilethe otheris bonded to the PE M and faces the solution in the anode chamber. Two platinum wires extend from the top for electrical connections (Figure 4). 203 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 4.(a) A schematic and (b) a photograph of a single-chamber microbialfuel cell. The cathode is exposed to air on one side and the solution containing the biodegradable substrateis on the other side. The anode chamber containing the exoelectrogenic bacteriais sealed off from oxygen (Logan and Regan 2006) Materials and Methods Construction of Two Chambered Microbial Fuel Cell (TCMFC) Two Chambered MFCs were constructed using two glass bottles in our laboratory. The fuel cells have electrode compartments of approximately 200 ml capacity.Each cell compartment had three ports atthe top, for electrode wire, the addition and sampling of solutions, and gassing. The two compartments of each cell was separated by a Proton exchange membrane (PE M) (Nafion 117 (Dupont Co., USA)). The anode compartment was loaded with freshly prepared bacterial suspension (suspended in 50 m M Na-phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) containing 0.1 M NaCl),vitamin and mineral solution and substrate. The cathode compartment was loaded with 50 m M Na-phosphate buffer (pH 7.0) containing 0.1 M NaCl. Nitrogen and air were continuously purged through anode and cathode compartments to maintain anoxic and aerobic conditions, respectively. (flow rate: approximately 15 ml per min). The microbial fuel cell was immersed in a water bath to maintain temperature (25°C) (for summer conditions, Julabo FT 200-for winter conditions Julabo heater). Our two chambered MFC system can be seen 204 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 5. Two Chambered MFC in Fatih University (FU) Laboratory Construction of Single Chambered Flat Microbial Fuel Cell (SCFMFC) The MFC consisted of an anode and cathode placed on opposite sides in a plastic (Plexiglas) cylindrical chamber 1,6 cm long by 3 cm in diameter (empty bed volume of 12 mL; anode surface area per volume of 62,5m2/m3). The anode electrodes were made of Ballart carbon paper (without wet proofing) and did not contain a catalyst. The carbon electrode/PE M cathode (CE-PE M) was manufactured by bonding the PE M directly onto a flexible carbon-cloth electrode containing 0.4 mg/cm2 of Ptcatalyst(Vulcan). The PE M (Nafion 115, Dupont) was sequentially boiled in H2 O2 (30%), deionized water, 1M H2 SO 4, and deionized water(each time for 1 h). The PE M was then hot-pressed directly onto the cathode by heating itto 100 °C at 100 Bar for 4 min. Platinum wire was used to connectthe circuit(100 ohm). The SCF MFC can be seen in Figure 6. The anode and cathode are placed on either side of atube, with the anode sealed against a flat plate and the cathode exposed to air on one side, and water on the other. When a membrane is used inthis air-cathode system, itserves primarily to keep water from leaking through the cathode, although it also reduces oxygen diffusion into the anode chamber. 205 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 6. SC MFC in Fatih University Laboratory Construction of Single Chambered Tubular Microbial Fuel Cell (SCTMFC) The SCT MFC consisted of a single cylindrical plexiglass chamber (10 cm long by 2,5 cm diameter; empty bed volume of appr. 63 mL). The anode electrodes were made of Ballart carbon paper (without wet proofing) and did not contain a catalyst (Figure 7). The air-porous cathode consisted of a carbon/platinum catalyst/proton exchange membrane (PE M) layer fused to a plastic supporttube. The cathode/PE M was placed onto a 1 cm diameter plastic (Plexiglas)tube containing 2 m m diameter pores at 2 mm intervals (cathode tube). Air flow through the tube was passive oxygen transfer (no forced air flow). Platin wire was used to connect the circuit. Figure 7.Single Chambered Tubular MFC in Fatih University Laboratory Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) Analysis The wide diversity of bacteria that existin MFC reactors, driven in part by a variety of operating conditions, demonstratesthe versatility of bacteriathat can eithertransfer electrons tothe electrode or can exist inthe reactor as a result of symbiotic relationships with electricity-producing bacteria. Electrochemically 206 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo active bacteria seem to be abundantin a variety of samples used to inoculate MFCs,including wastewaters, sludges,river and marine sediments. Rapid acclimation of an MFC can be seen when using domestic wastewater. Bacteria on the anode were examined using a scanning electron microscope (SE M) (Figure 8,) Figure 8. A scanning electron micrograph (SE M) of bacteria of domestic Potential and Current Measurements of the Microbial Fuel Cell The system was monitored (15 minutes intervals) using a multimeter(Fluke 8846A Dıgıt precision Multimeter) connected to a personal computer. The circuit was completed with external resistances. Cell voltages were measured at various external resistances. Current (i) was calculated at a resistance (R) from the voltage(V) by i= V/R. Power (P) was calculated as P=i2 V. Cyclic voltammogram The cyclic voltammograms of the cellsuspensions were obtained using a potentiostat(Voltalab, PGZ402 Potentiostat 30V-1A) Results Cyclic Voltam mograms In Cyclic Voltammograms (CV) teststhe potentialis gradually increased in this case from (-1 V) to (1.2V) for 207 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo SCF MFC and SCT MFC, respectively. The currentis monitored to see ifthereis peak in current due to oxidation or reduction of chemicalsin solution. The voltage isthen reversed back to the original potential. CV results can be seen figure 9 for SCF MFC and figure 10 for SCT MFC. The scan rate of 50mV/s was employed. Figure 9 shows the cyclic voltammogram (CV) of whole mixed culture cellsuspensions of SCF MFC. The CVs show thatthe bacterial cellsuspensions have a redox potential of around –0.2V, current density appr. 1mA/cm2. CV of SCT MFC results can be seen Figure 10. The redox potential of the cellis around -0.5V, current density appr. 0.05 mA/cm2. Figure 9. Cyclic voltammograms for anode with biofilm and 500 mg/L acetate for SCF MFC. . Figure 10. Cyclic voltammograms for anode with biofilm and 500 mg/L acetate for SCFM FC Power Generation from TCMFC system A membrane MFC inoculated with S.putrefaciens and acetate produced 0,8 m W/m 2.. The circuit was completed with a fixed load of 5kΩ were used to determine the power generation as function ofload. Current (i) was calculated 4µ A. Potential(V)=iR, Power (P) was calculated as P=iV. P=i2.R=(4*10-6)2.(5*103)=0,08 µ W/cm2 =0,8 m W/m2 Power Generation from SCFMFC system Single Chambered Flat MFC inoculated with domestic wastewater(5000 mg/L) and 2000 mg/L acetate then 500 mg/L produced 15,3 m W/m2.. The circuit was completed with a fixed load of 5,1Ω were used to determine the power generation as function ofload. After 50 hours, current(i) neasurement was calculated 7µ A.(Figure 11). Figure 12 shows that maximum power density of SCF MFC was 15.3mW/m2 208 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo current(mikroamper Current generation of mixed culture(5000 mg/L), of SCFMFC using 2000 mg/L acetate 8 6 4 2 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 time(hours) Figure 11. Current generation as a function of anode Power(miliwatt/m2) Power Density for SCFMFC(2000mg/L- 500 mg/L acetate) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 TĐME(hours) Figure 12. Power density forSCF MFC Discussion MFCs typically produce power at a density of less than 50 m W/m2 (normalized to anode projected surface area) (Bond et al, 2003, Tender et al 2002 and Kim et al 1999). Power generation using a membrane(Nafion) MFC inoculated with G. Metallireducens was 37 to 40 m W/m2 which was similar to that found by others using Geobacter spp. and other pure cultures in two chambered MFCs. Bond et al. (2002) obtained 14m W/m2 using a two chambered fuel cell, while Bond and Lovley (2003) achieved 49 m W/m2 using G. Sulfurreducens and acetate-fed membrane fuel cells. These levels of power are higherthan those reported for M FCs with S.putrefaciens IR-1 and lactate(0,6 m W/m2)(Kim et al,2002) or Rhodoferax ferrireducens and glucose (8m W/m2) (Chaudhuri and Lovley, 2003). Mixed cultures in the same membrane MFC inoculated with wastewater generated a same power density(38 m W/m2 )., In this study, power generation using Nafion MFC inoculated S.putrefaciens using 6M acetate was 0,8 m W/m2 for TC MFC and power generation of SCF MFC inoculated with domestic wastewater using 2000 mg/L acetate and 500 mg/L acetate) was 15,3 m W/m2. The observation that power density is much larger using the single chambered than a two-chambered MFC is consistentwith previous studies. A critical factor in the power density achieved in a two chambered system was the system internal resistance, which was primarily a function of the proton exchange system (Min. B, 2005). We believe that more useful 209 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo mediator-less microbial fuel cell system will be obtained by modifying and improving the fuel cell format, the fuel itself, concentration of bacteria, electrode surface area, electrode material, membranes, contact time, and environmental conditions. Applications Microbial fuel cells are not new – the concept of using microorganisms as catalysts in fuel cells was explored from the 1970s and microbialfuel cellstreating domestic wastewater were presented in 1991. However, it is only recently that microbial fuel cells with an enhanced power output have been developed providing possible opportunities for practical applications (Rabaey and Verstraete, 2005). One of the first applications could be the development of pilot-scale reactors atindustriallocations where a high quality and reliable influent is available. Food processing wastewaters and digester effluents are good candidates. Moreover, decreased sludge production could substantially decrease the payback time. In the long term more dilute substrates,such as domestic sewage, could be treated with MFCs, decreasing society’s need to invest substantial amounts of energy in theirtreatment. The growing pressure on our environment, and the call for renewable energy sources will further stimulate development of thistechnology. MFCs have been proposed as a method to treat wastewater, and thus itisimportantto evaluate the overall performance in terms of (BOD), (COD), or (TOC) removal (Logan et al., 2006). However, MFC power generation is still very low (Tender et al., 2002; Delong and Chandler, 2002),that isthe rate of electron abstraction is very low. One feasible way to solve this problem isto storethe electricity in rechargeable devices and then distribute the electricity to end-users (Ieropoulos et al., 2003). TheMFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications (Du et al, 2007). A MFC-based treatment plant ofthe future willlikely look a lotlike a system builttoday around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The important difference is that this future system could produce not only enough electricity to run the plant, butto help run the town-transforming your local wastewatertreatment plantinto a power plant. References Bond, D. R.; Holmes, D. E.; Tender, L. M.; Lovley, D. R. (2002), Electrodereducing microorganisms that harvest energy from marine sediments. Science, 295, 483-485. Bond DR, LovleyDR. (2003). Electricity production by Geobacter sulfurreducens attached to electrodes. Appl Environ Microbiol;69:1548–55. Du Z, Li H, Gu T. (2007). A state of the art review on microbial fuel cells: A promising technology for wastewater treatment and bioenergy Biotechnology Advances 25, 464–482 Gil GC, Chang IS, Kim BH, Kim M, Jang JY, Park HS. (2003). Operational parameters affecting the performance of a mediatorless microbial fuel cell. Biosens Bioelectron;18:327–34. Ieropoulos I, Greenman J, Melhuish C. (2003). Imitation metabolism: energy autonomy in biologically inspired robots. Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium on imitation of animals and artifacts;. p. 191–4. Ieropoulos IA, Greenman J, Melhuish C, Hart J. (2005). Comparative study of three types of microbial fuel cell. Enzyme Microb Tech;37:238–45. Kim, B. H.; Park, D. H.; Shin, P. K.; Chang, I. S.; Kim, H. J. (1999). Mediatorless biofuel cell. U.S. Patent 5976719. Kim BH, Kim HJ, Hyun MS, Park DH. (1999). Direct electrode reaction of Fe (III)-reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrifaciens. J Microbiol Biotechnol;9:127–31. Kim HJ, Park HS, Hyun MS, Chang IS, Kim M, Kim BH. (2002). A mediatorless microbial fuel cell using a metal reducing bacterium, Shewanella putrefaciens. Enzyme Microb Tech. 30:145–52. Liu, H.; Logan, B. E. (2004). Electricity Generation Using an Air-Cathode Single Chamber Microbial Fuel Cell in the Presence and Absence of a Proton Exchange Membrane. Environ. Sci. Technol. 38, 4040–4046. Logan BE, Murano C, Scott K, Gray ND, Head IM. (2005)Electricity generation from cysteine in a microbial fuel cell. Water Research, , 39: 942–952 210 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Logan BE, Hamelers B, Rozendal R, Schroder U, Keller J, Freguia S, et al. (2006). Microbial fuel cells: methodology and technology. Environ Sci Technol. 40:5181–92. Logan BE, Regan JM (2006). Electricity producing bacterial communities in microbial fuel cells Trends in Microbiology, Vol.14 No.12 Min B, Cheng S, Logan BE. (2005). Electricity generation using membrane and salt bridge microbial fuel cells. Water Res 39:1675–86. Oh SE, Logan BE. (2005). Hydrogen and electricity production from a food processing wastewater using fermentation and microbial fuel cell technologies. Water Res 39:4673–82. Rabaey K, Lissens G, Siciliano S, Verstraete W. (2003). A microbial fuel cell capable of converting glucose to electricity at high rate and efficiency. Biotechnol Lett;25:1531–5 Rabaey K, Boon N, Siciliano SD, Verhaege M, Verstraete W. (2004). Biofuel cells select for microbial consortia that selfmediate electron transfer. Appl Environ Microb 70:5373–82 Rabaey, K.; Boon, N.; Hofte, M.; Verstraete, W.( 2005a), Microbial phenazine production enhances electron transfer in biofuel cells. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 3401-3408. Rabaey K and Verstraete W, 2005(b). Microbial fuel cells: novel biotechnology for energy generation, Trends in Biotechnology, 23 No:6: 291-298 Tender LM, Reimers CE, Stecher HA, Holmes DE, Bond DR, Lowy DA, et al. (2002). Harnessing microbially generated power on the seafloor. Nat Biotechnol 20:821–5. 211 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f2a71023825aba89b932299c720c7f90.doc aa3ad30d5033932d25be9a4f615a222d Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 511 Title A name given to the resource Electricity Generation by a Mediator-Less Microbial Fuel Cell Using Mixed Culture Author Author Aktan, Sevil Bozkurt, Ayhan Çokgör, Emine Ubay Yazicioğlu, Burcu Irmak Arslan, Nurullah Gücin, Fahrettin Ulusoy, Isılay Abstract A summary of the resource. A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bioreactor that converts chemical energy in the chemical bonds in organic compounds to electrical energy through catalytic reactions of microorganisms under anaerobic conditions. In a MFC, power can be generated from the oxidation of organic matter by bacteria at the anode ,with reduction of oxygen at the cathode. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM), to allow protons to move across to the cathode while blocking the diffusion of oxygen into the anode. Electrons produced by the bacteria from these substrates are transferred to the anode and flow to the cathode linked by a conductive material containing a resistor, or operated under a load. MFCs have been used to generate electricity from virtually any biodegradable organic matter, including domestic and industrial wastewaters, while at the same time accomplishing wastewater treatment. Using Two Chambered MFC in our laboratory produced 0,8 mW/m2 of anode surface area using pure culture (S.putrefaciens) and acetate. Using Single Chambered Flat MFC, we have recently achieved up to 15 mW/m2 using mixed culture and acetate. A MFC-based treatment plant of the future will likely look a lot like a system built today around a fixed-film system such as a trickling filter. The MFC technology is particularly favored for sustainable long-term power applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5c3dd88b5c4fca34b1683d0f8bc67e95.pdf 78e66c89f04f22b7fe8ff6be2f534a3b PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Electronic Government and Privacy Abdullah Ural Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey uralabdullah@gmail.com Cihat Çetin Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey cihatcetin@gmail.com Privacy can be defined as areas which are peculiar to an individual not to public or society. The concept of privacy is mentioned with the concepts of confidentiality and security of personal information and private areas. While the governments create electronic tools and environment to watch and make observation to provide the citizens more secure and an environment to live, it might cause an individual’s private area to shrink. Today records of cameras, signals of mobile phones, records of phone calls through mobile phones, IP numbers of computers, e-mail tracking systems, satellite based systems, Google earth applications, GPS applications are the tools that comes to mind at first which can be used to violate privacy. These tools can be easily reached. When these tools are used for observation, they can constrict privacy. Some of the ethical issues that appear are as follows: Does the government open files on citizens? Do individual privacy and freedom not exist? Does watching and recording everything citizens do conform to democracy? As Michael Faucault mentioned knowing means being strong and ruler ship keeps information to hold power. Today not only governments but also private huge corporations gather information and both of them watch citizens. As a result, individuals face social, psychological security and insecurity problems caused by these. Because of this individuals and societies should be informed about these issues and ways to protect individual freedom. Though governments should develop sensitivity to such issues and regulations are needed to be done, it is not enough. In this study, as discussed in democracy theory, we propose that a strong government which is furnished with information might always cause a threat to individual freedom. In addition, contrary to liberal democracy that huge corporations threaten democracy by interfering individuals’ privacy will be examined. We suggest that it is necessary to establish and increase the efficiency of an independent “Information Conservation and Auditing Authority”. Keywords: Electronic Government, Privacy, Information Conservation, Auditing Authority. 5 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6de34d51b9435feb095e896d4325e430.docx ab35eb4a5562ff985c7dec8a9ea774f2 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72d19f8ca883d0da3faba787a9d3d81e.pdf 1bcb953d63dacc33a27343889b2dd085 PDF Text Text International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Electronic Government and Privacy Abdullah Ural Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey uralabdullah@gmail.com CihatÇetin Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey cihatcetin@gmail.com Abstract Privacy can be defined as areas which are peculiar to an individual not to public or society. The concept of privacy is mentioned with the concepts of confidentiality and security of personal information and private areas. While the governments create electronic tools and environment to watch and make observation to provide the citizens more secure and an environment to live, it might cause an individual’s private area to shrink. As Michael Faucault mentioned knowing means being strong and rulership keeps information to hold power. Today not only governments but also private huge corporations gather information and both of them watch citizens. As a result, individuals face social, psychological security and insecurity problems caused by these. Because of this, individuals and societies should be informed about these issues and ways to protect individual freedom. Building of personal databases by the state and private businesses is otherizing the individual with prejudice in many fields, and causing to feel the self weak and helpless. Political alienation which may emerge as a result of this othering may deepen the representation crisis which liberal democracy is in on the contrary to the assumption that e-state would increase participation. Key words: Electronic government, privacy,Invasion of Privacy, liberal democracy Introduction Today records of cameras, signals of mobile phones, records of phone calls through mobile phones, IP numbers of computers, e-mail tracking systems, satellite based systems, google earth applications, GPS applications are the tools that come to mind at first which can be used to violate privacy. These tools can be easily reached. When these tools are used for observation, they can constrict privacy. Some of the ethical issues that appear are as follows: Does the government open files on citizens? Do individual privacy and freedom not exist? Does watching and recording everything citizens do conform to democracy? Though governments should develop sensitivity to such issues and regulations are needed to be done, it is not enough. In this study, as discussed in democracy theory, we propose that a strong government which is furnished with information might always cause a threat to individual freedom. In addition, contrary to liberal democracy that huge corporations threaten democracy by interfering individuals’ privacy will be examined. 1 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Electronic Government For the services provided to citizens, it is beyond any doubt that technology has made it faster and faster, better quality, less expensive, more transparent, more equitable and more reliable. When the public administration is taken into consideration, technology has revealed a new management model by the opportunities it provides.The Internet and web technology oriented applications which brought forward this new understanding in terms of public administration have been conceptualized in different sources in different ways. For instance, Fountain (2001) used the term “virtual state” describing web and Internet based applications in public administration, some writers (Atkinson ve Ulevich, 2000; Garson, 2004; Mullen, 2004) have prefered to use the term “digital state”. In addition to this, the term widely used in the literature is “electronic government”. (Howard, 2001; West, 2004; Evans and Yen, 2006; OECD, 2003; Worldbank, 2008; De Benedictis et al… 2002). With reference to widespread acceptance in litearature, electronic government term has been adopted to conceptualize new management approach in public administration. In the literature, there are many definitions developed on the understanding of electronic government. We are confronted with that some parts of these definitions are narrow sense but some parts of these are wider scoped definitions. Within these, the selected main definitions of e-government can be listed as follows: It is to serve up government information and services to citizens online through the use of the Internet and other digital tools. (West, 2004: 16)It is the use of information and communication technologies particularly the Internet in governmental issues to produce service(Howard, 2001: 6) for citizens and businesses as well. (OECD, 2003: 23). It is the use of information and communication technologies to improve public services and democratic functioning and to secure the support of public policies in public administration which is combined with organizational change and new skills.(United Nations, 2003: 7) We understand with all these definitions in common is that a system in which all information and data are distributed with less cost by quick obtaining, the relationship of goods / services work between individuals and institutions is practised more effectively and productively with the help of online methods (Kösecik ve Karkın, 2004: 119-120), bureaucracy is reduced, the state governance has become more transparent (Erdal, 2004:1), expenditures are diminished, information and communication technologies are used for offering public services as a tool, public administration is restructured on behalf of citizens’satisfaction. Privacy Privacy is closely related to the concept of supervision. The concept of supervision can be discussed in two ways. While supervision, by its first definition, means the enciphered knowledge that can be used for managing human behaviours, it involves, by its second definition, of an authority to watch human behaviours directly. (Gİddens, 2008, p.24) Today, not only governments but also private sectors collect personal information. Also, private sectors conduct a supervision function as governments. Privacy, however, generally means an area that people can stay on their own, that they can think and behave however they wish, that they themselves can decide to when, where, how, and to what extent communicate with others; and the right they have on this area (Yüksel, 2003:182). It is the dependent upon their choice that whether some human 2 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo behaviours should be confidential or open-to-public, and they should be secret to government and other people’s concern. The invasion extent of privacy is higher and more effective in the processes of e-state and the spreading of information and communication technologies. While it is a local region or a street that an individual’s private information may spread through the people’s sayings with the possibility to be forgotten in a short time; this kind of private information will be open to everybody living in the world; a picture, a video or a clip or a piece of writing may be duplicated many times and, in theory, maintain its existence forever in the virtual world (Tataroğlu, 2009, p:96). Invasion of Privacy One of the major problems of today’s democracies is the representation crisis they find themselves in. The rate of participation in elections is very low in many western countries. The citizens’s trust on the representative institutions of democracy and politicians is decreasing gradually. It is discussed whether the e-state, by the help of technological means, would bring solutions to the political alienation by increasing the participation in the democratic processes. Therefore, it is hoped that it will increase the support on the state and its institutions and save the future of democracy. Information and data technologies may present a solution to the represenation crisis of democracy with its role in participation. On the other hand, it may bring many threats in terms of democracy. The activities that are carried out on an electronic spectrum can be recorded, and the personal information can be unveiled, all the activities hidden, and controllable. The information and communication technologies, with their means to watch and to inform, may provide a great power with governments. It leads to an over centralization of the power in bureaucracy. The information technologies, today, support an organization aimed at increasing bureaucratic control mechanisms. Power may transform into a totalitarian identity when it lays a focus on a certain area. This situation brings the threat for the democratic regimes to go dead and governments to show a tendency toward repressive, totalitarian and anti-democratic works. The term “thought police” that Laidler has drawn attention shows the possibility to know the people’s political views from their activities on internet. It is not only possible to find out the political tendencies of people by detecting what sites they have visited on internet, what newspapers they have read, what books they have bought by their credit cards, but also to draw their personal profiles, and determine their illnesses, weak and strong sides. Moreover, these records may be transformed into personal data bases. Besides, the invasion of privacy may stem not only from the states but also from private individuals or companies. In addition to the state institutions, the private institutions that communicate with people for some purposes, service and so forth, mostly make it a precondition, in a commanding position, for the individuals to tell both their personal information and, most importantly, credentials. It can be regarded almost impossible for people’s personal information to be kept secret. It may come to mean that surfing the net or doing something on it, shopping by creadit card, paying highway fines, or even carrying a mobile phone with you, will cause your private information to be unveiled and monitored. 3 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo The employers can do some monitoring practices with the intention of decreasing the risks at workplaces. They feel obligated to examine the employers’ internet use, e-mail traffic and phone calls because of some reasons such as performance evaluation, productivity measurement, and safety concerns. These practices mean the invasion of the privacy of employers’ private lives. The privacy violations of companies make it necessary to question the fundamental values of the liberal democracy. Liberalism owes its existence to free market and the individual who set him free and apart of state. Privacy in liberal thought is the field that an individual is set free or, necessarily is set free, comprehends in whatever way he wants, develops himself, and pursues his own goodness. This field must be protected from any kind of intervention. It’s not possible to mention free will, if the individual isn’t able to possess field of privacy or is afraid of being followed or is exposed to different interventions. The foundations of democratic society are based on the existence of public interest in supervision of governments and the privacy right which protects the individual and common life. (Tataroğlu, 2009, S:100) In the same way, the society may cause pressure on the individual but the perception of society for liberal thinkersis evaluated within the context of beliefs, traditions and values. In this case, as the national or international companies are not accepted in state sphere, will they be accepted in the public sphere, or are they units of individual sphere which emerged as a result of free will and free enterprise. No matter what we accept, it is true that companies intervene in individual privacy keeping a kind of “consumer tendency statistics”. The market, which restrains the state from repressing the individual by balancing the state power, may also invade the area of freedom and privacy of the individual whom it protects. The free and autonomous liberal individual who can preserve itself by means of economical power it owns can intervene in other individual’s privacy in order to increase the economical power once more. The Effect of Privacy Invasion on Individuals Privacy invasions may cause changes in individuals’ psychological states and behaviours. Knowing the possibility that governments might use these technologies - even if they do not - may create effects on the thoughts and behaviours of individuals. The selfconfidence of individuals who think that they are constantly under supervision begin to corrode in time. Their personalities depreciate and they may have to behave submissively and in a way that they are told to. The individual who supposes that he can always be monitored – even if they are not – develops a self-control mechanism on his own and starts overseeing himself. Individuals who know that the government owns the technologies to constantly monitor him or her begin to feel that they no longer have privacy and adopt a self-censorship application which will cause them to stay away from behaviours and thoughts that can mean opposition. Naturally, their reference of values may be the choices, ideologies, or the words and behaviours which the government or the people who monitor them will appreciate. (Tataroğlu, 2009, p:111) The negative effects of monitoring on the employees are; demoralization, the constant rise of workloads, using the data for the purpose of punishment, stress, and the illnesses caused by stress according to Yılmaz’s research which he conducted in firms. (Yılmaz, 2005:12). 4 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Conclusion The state of chronic fear and anxiety caused by the individual’s opinion that he/she is monitored all the time may become an obstacle for the individuals to improve and express themselves. Also, a number of instances at present show that recorded personal data cannot be protected. Almost every day, it is heard that data of one of the important websites have been stolen. The governments are primarily responsible for this. Maybe, one of the most fundamental principles of legality of the state is to protect the tangible and intangible assets and honour of the individual. The fact that e-state has the opportunity to be able to reach personal data, store it and process it by means of communication it has may promote the tendencies to abuse this power and use it for repressive and authoritarian purposes. The possibility of electronic totalitarianism should never be ignored. To overcome the problem of invading privacy, it is necessary for the governments to show sensitivity and do the required legislation but it is not enough. The governments constitute legal regulations and enforcements in order to protect the personal data from being used by the third parties and bureaucracy for illegal purposes. However, it is clearly seen that the governments cannot fulfil their responsibilities for privacy. Therefore, efficiency of the politically neutral supervisory and regulatory institutions is required to be increased. The common argument for the ones who think that the government’s monitoring as an electronic eye is not inconvenient is that “the ones who has nothing to hide shouldn’t be afraid of being watched”. This is a very common statement for governing parties throughout the whole world. This approach assumes that monitoring is related to the elements which are regarded as crime by law. However, the monitoring is in progress in much more different fields including physical, financial, familial, and intellectual. Building of personal databases by the state and private businesses is otherizing the individual with prejudice in many fields, and causing to feel the self weak and helpless. Political alienation which may emerge as a result of this othering may deepen the representation crisis which liberal democracy is in on the contrary to the assumption that e-state would increase participation. References Atkinson, Robert D. veUlevich, Jacob. (2000). Digital Government: The Next Step to Reengineering the Federal Government. Progressive Policy Institute Technology & New Economy Project.www.ppionline.org/documents/DigitalGov.pdf, 5. date of access: 12.02.2013. DeBenedictis, Andrea, Howell, Whitney, Figueroa, Robert ve Roy A. Boggs. (2002). EGovernment Defined: An Overview Of The Next Big Information Technology Challenge. Issues in Information Systems. IACIS 3, 130-136. Erdal, Murat (2004). E-Devlet - E-TürkiyeveKurumsalDönüşüm. İstanbul: FilizKitabevi. 5 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Evans, Donna ve Yen, David C. (2006). E-Government: Evolving Relationship Of Citizens and Government, Domestic, And International Development. Government Information Quarterly. 23, 207-235. Fountain, Jane E. (2001).Building The Virtual State: Information Technology and Institutional Change. Washington D.C.: Booking Institutional Press. Gıddens, Anthony. (2008).UlusDevletveŞiddet, (Çev.CumhurAtay), KalkedonYayınları, YerBelirtilmemiş Howard, Mark (2001). E-Government Across the Globe: How Will “e” Change Government?.Government Finance Review,http://www.gfoa.org/downloads /eGovGFRAug01. Date of access: 10.02.2013. Kösecik, MuhammetveKarkın, Naci.(2004). BelediyeYöneticilerininveMeclisÜyelerinin E-devleteBakışıDenizliBelediyesiÖrneği.TürkİdareDergisi, Sayı: 443,119-139. Laidler, Keith. (2008). Surveillance Unlimited: How We'veBecom the Most Watched People on Earth, Iconbooks, Cambridge OECD. (2003). The E-Government Imperative. Paris: OECD Publications Service Solove, Daniel J. (2007).I've Got Nothing to Hide and Other Misunderstanding of Privacy. San Diego Law Review, C:44: 745-772. Tataroğlu,Muhittin.EDevlet'teKullanılanGözetimVeKayıtTeknolojilerininMahremiyetÜzerindeEtkileri. AbantİzzetBaysalÜniversitesiSosyalBilimlerEnstitüsüDergisi Cilt:2009/1 Sayı :18 S:95-119 United Nations. (2003). World Public Sector Report 2003: E-Government at the Crossroads. New York, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Yüksel, Mehmet. (2003). MahremiyetHakkıveSosyo-TarihselGelişimi, AÜ SBF Dergisi, C:58/1:181-213 Yılmaz, Gözde. (2005). ElektronikPerformansİzlemeSistemlerininiÇalışanlarveİşletmelerÜzerindekiEtkile ri. İstanbul TicaretÜniversitesi, SosyalBilimlerDergisi, C: 4/7:1-19. West, Darrell M. (2004). E-Government and the Transformation of Service Delivery and Citizen Attitudes.Public Administration Review, 64/ 1: 15-27 Worldbank.(2008). Definition of E-Government, http://go.worldbank.org/M1JHE0Z280, date of access: 12.02.2013. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1459 Title A name given to the resource Electronic Government and Privacy Author Author URAL, Abdullah CETIN, Cihat Abstract A summary of the resource. Privacy can be defined as areas which are peculiar to an individual not to public or society. The concept of privacy is mentioned with the concepts of confidentiality and security of personal information and private areas. While the governments create electronic tools and environment to watch and make observation to provide the citizens more secure and an environment to live, it might cause an individual’s private area to shrink. Today records of cameras, signals of mobile phones, records of phone calls through mobile phones, IP numbers of computers, e-mail tracking systems, satellite based systems, Google earth applications, GPS applications are the tools that comes to mind at first which can be used to violate privacy. These tools can be easily reached. When these tools are used for observation, they can constrict privacy. Some of the ethical issues that appear are as follows: Does the government open files on citizens? Do individual privacy and freedom not exist? Does watching and recording everything citizens do conform to democracy? As Michael Faucault mentioned knowing means being strong and ruler ship keeps information to hold power. Today not only governments but also private huge corporations gather information and both of them watch citizens. As a result, individuals face social, psychological security and insecurity problems caused by these. Because of this individuals and societies should be informed about these issues and ways to protect individual freedom. Though governments should develop sensitivity to such issues and regulations are needed to be done, it is not enough. In this study, as discussed in democracy theory, we propose that a strong government which is furnished with information might always cause a threat to individual freedom. In addition, contrary to liberal democracy that huge corporations threaten democracy by interfering individuals’ privacy will be examined. We suggest that it is necessary to establish and increase the efficiency of an independent “Information Conservation and Auditing Authority”. Keywords: Electronic Government, Privacy, Information Conservation, Auditing Authority. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22bc7a25f8582870767f95900954452e.pdf 686ecaba8812f7119a8f9143b5869b15 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Electrorheological Properties of Environmental Friendly Modified Cellulose Tahir Tilki Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey ttilki@fef.sdu.edu.tr M ustafa Yavuz Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey Meh met Çabuk Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Mus Alparslan University Mus, Turkey Çigdem Karabacak Department of Chemistry Faculty of Arts and Science Süleyman Demirel University Isparta, Turkey Abstract: Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids, which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being able to convert rapidly and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed. In this study, biodegredable cellulose (Cell) was modified and converted their carboxyl salts. Modified cellulose (Cell-Li) is characterised by (FT-IR), (SEM), (EDS) and (TGA). Suspensions of native and modified cellulose are prepared in corn oil. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator. These suspensions are determined; effects of electric field strength, shear rate, shear stress, temperature etc. onto ER activity. The results show not only that the ER properties are enhanced by increasing the particle concentration and electric field strength, but also the cellulose-based ER fluids exhibit viscoelastic behavior under an applied electric field due to the chain formation induced by electric polarization between particles. Introduction The biodegradable and biocompatible polymers have caused significant attention from both ecological and biomedical perspectives in the past decaded (Ikada & Tsuji 2000). Cellulose, as a natural polymer, has received great attention recently as a possible alternative to petroleum-based polymers and cellulose possess either branched polar groups such as hydroxy (-OH) groups (Tahiri & Vignon 2000). The polar groups may affectthe ER behavior underthe imposed electric field. Cellulose has the advantages of being renewable, biodegradable, abundantly available and low in costs. Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids (Winslow 1949), which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being ableto convertrapidly (Block & Kelly 1988) and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed (Trlica et al. 1996). A wide variety of particulates or solid particles,such as cellulose, starch,flour,silica, alumina,titania, zeolite and dielectric powders dispersed in low-conductivity non-polarmatrices such as silicone, hydrocarbon 135 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo oils and acrylic rubber, make up suspensions whose rheological properties can change abruptly on application of an external electric field;they are commonly known as electrorheological(ER) fluids( Tangboriboon et al. 2008). The typical characteristic of ER fluids,reversible and swifttransition between the liquid state and the solid state, potentially providesthe most efficient approach to controlling mechanicalresponses by adjusting electric field strengths. The electric field-induced interaction, arising from particle polarization,is commonly believed to be responsible forER behavior(Otsubo et al. 1992). In this study, we investigate cellulose and modified cellulose as a vigorous nominee for anhydrous particlesin high performance dry-base systems by analysing the effect of particle concentration, electric field strength, shear rate and frequency via sheartests. Experimental 1. M aterials All chemicals (amorphous cellulose, 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy(TE MPO), LiBr) were Acros Organics products with analytical grade and used as received. Methanol, ethanol and acetone were used as a solvent throughout the experimental procedure. Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide were J.T.Baker products,sodium hypochlorite was Merck products and used as received. The host oilemployed was food-grade corn oil produced by Luna and had the following physical properties at 25 o C: density ρf = 0.936 g/cc, viscosity ηf = 45 mPa s, dielectric constant Kf = 3.34, and conductivity (E = 1 kV/mm) = 4X10-11 S/m. 2. M odification of cellulose Oxidation experiments were made underthe following conditions. Amorphous cellulose samples (0.648 g, 4 mmol of anhydroglucose units) were dispersed in distilled water (80 ml) for 1min with an Ultra-Turrax homogeniser. TE MPO (10 mg, 0.065 mmol) and LiBr (0.20 g, 1.9 mmol) were added in the suspension, which was maintained at 4 o C. The sodium hypochlorite solution (13%, 4.88 ml, 8.8 mmol) with pH adjusted to 10 by addition of 0.5M aqueous HCl was set at 4 o C by means of an ice bath, and added fourtimes (30 min each)to the suspension, which was stirred mechanically. The pH was maintained at 10 during the reaction by adding a 0.5 M NaOH solution. The temperature of the suspension was maintained at 4 o C by means of an ice bath during the oxidation reaction. When the solution became hazy, almost all the cellulose samples had disappeared and the reaction was stopped by adding either 10 ml of methanol or and a small amount of sodium borohydride. The reaction mixture was neutralised to pH 7 with 0.5 M HCl and centrifuged to remove the residual insoluble material. The oxidised cellulose sample in the supernatant was precipitated by adding an excess of ethanol (5– 10 volumes), followed by centrifugation. The precipitate was washed with ethanol:water (9:1) and centrifuged severaltimes and finally washed with acetone. The precipitate was then redissolved in distilled water, dialysed and freeze-dried. OH OH OH OH O O OH OH O OH O OH OH OH O O OH O OH OH OH TEM PO LiB r O O Li O OH OH OH O OH OH O O O O Li O Li OH O OH OH O O OH OH O O O Li Scheme 1. Modification reaction of cellulose. 3. Electrorheological measurements Suspensions of cellulose derivative particles were prepared in corn oil at a series of concentration (c = 5– 25% m/m). Suspensions were mechanically stirred before each measurement against sedimentation. Rheological properties of the suspensions were determined with a Termo-Haake RS600 parallel plate Electro-rheometer (Germany). The gap between the paralel plates was 1.0 mm and the diameters ofthe upper and lower plates were 35 mm. Allthe experiments were carried out at a controlled rate(CR) mode and at various temperatures (25–125 136 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo ◦ C, with 25 ◦ C increments.). The voltage used in these experiments was also supplied by a 0–12.5 kV (with 0.5 kV increments) dc electric field generator (Fug Electronics, HCL 14, Germany), which enabled resistivity to be created during the experiments. Scheme 2. Mechanism of ER behavior. Results and Discussion 1. Characterization of native cellulose and modified cellulose FTIR spectra of cellulose and modified cellulose were recorded on a Mattson Model 1000 instrument (UK) as KBr discs. The FTIR spectrum of native cellulose showed the expected distinctive absorptions. The absorptions at 3330 cm-1 (O-H stretching), 2980 cm-1 (aliphatic C-H stretching), 1460 cm-1 (aliphatic C-H bending), 1170 cm-1 (C-H bending), 1100 cm-1 (C-O-C symetric bending). Modified cellulose also gave a FTIR spectrum similarto that of cellulose.In addition this,modified cellulose gave the absorption at 1700 cm-1 (C=O stretching). Scanning electron micrographs (SE M-EDS) of the samples were recorded using a Jeol JSM6360 LV scanning electron microscope (Japan). SE M-EDS photographs of native cellulose and modified cellulose are displayed in Figure 1a and 1b. The native cellulose granules appear elliptic, bread-like orirregular. After modification, cellulose granules become smaller and show more regular, homogenious and harmonious.In addition, as seen from EDS photographs, modified cellulose contains Li+ ions (Ko et al.2007). Figure 1a. SE M-EDS of cellulose. Figure 1b. SE M-EDS of modified cellulose. TGA analysis was carried out using a Setaram 8ET8 V8 Evolution 1760 model thermogravimetric analyzer in the presence of nitrogen atmosphere up to 600o C, at a heating rate of 10o C min-1. The thermal stability of modified cellulose particles approached 275°C as can be seen from the TGA, shown in Figure 2. In the case of modified cellulose particles, no chemicalreaction or decreasing weight was found below 275°C. The decomposition temperature of cellulose is between 290 and 330 °C. Thus it could be estimated thatthe modified cellulose particles dispersed in corn oil were stable below 275°C, which proved that the ER suspensions based on modified cellulose were anhydrous. 137 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 2. TGA of native cellulose and modified cellulose. 2. Electrorheology 2.1.Effect of electric field strength Figure 3 shows the change in the electric field viscosity with electric field strength at constant conditions: γ& = 0.2 s−1, c = 15% m/m and T=20◦ C. As seen from the graph, electric field viscosity (ηE)increases with increasing electric field strength and nearly reaches to ηE = 5.5 kPa s for cellulose. Similar results were observed by Zhao et. al in ER studies of nano titanium oxide/silicone oilsystems (Zhao et al. 2008). Figure 3. The change of viscosity with electric field strength. T = 20o C, c = 15% m/m, γ& = 0.2 s−1. Figure 4. The change of shear stress with electric field strength. T = 20o C, c = 15% m/m, γ& = 0,2s-1. Figure 4 represents the change in shear stress with electric field strength which was obtained at constant 138 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo suspension concentration (c = 15% m/m), shear rate (γ& = 0,2 s−1) and temperature (T = 20o C). As reflected from the graph, shear stress sharply increases with increasing field strength, which indicates that the ER suspension becomes more stable under strong electric field strength. Modified cellulose suspension’s shear stress is about five times higher than cellulose suspension’s with electric field strength. . Similar results were observed by Yavuz and Unal (Yavuz & Unal 2004). 2.2. Effect of shear rate Figure 5. The change of viscosity with shear rate. T = 20o C, c = 15% wt, E = 0-500 V/mm. Change in the viscosity ofthe suspension with shear rate at optimum suspension concentration (15% wt), T = 20o C, E = 0-500 V/mm is shown in Figure 5. As is evident, with and without applied electric field, the viscosity of suspensions decreases sharply with increasing shear rate, giving a typical curve of shear thinning non-Newtonian viscoelastic behavior(Ling & Keqin 2006). 2.3. Effect of temperature Figure 6 shows the changes in the shear stress of cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions under various temperatures at constant conditions (E= 2 kV/mm, γ& = 0.2 s-1, c=15% wt). It was observed that, the shear stresses of allthe suspensions examined in this work decrease with increasing temperature. Generally,the temperature has two effects on the ER fluids: one is on polarization forces and another one is on the Brownian motion. The increase of temperature results both in decreased activation energy of polarization of suspended particles, and on the polarizability of particles, which resultsin a decrease in shear stress.On the other hand,the Brownian motion does not contribute to chain formation of suspended particles. Although shear stressincreases with increasing temperature reported in the literature by Choi (Choi et al. 1997) and Lu (Lu & Zhao 2004) Unal (Unal et al. 2006). and Liu (Liu & Shaw 2001). reported that shear stress decreases with increasing temperature. Modified cellulose is more thermal stabilitythan native cellulose. These results were supported by TGA results. Figure 6. The change of shear stress with temperature. c = 15% m/m, E = 2.0 kV/mm. 139 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 2.4. Effect of frequency For native cellulose/corn oil and modified cellulose/corn oil suspension systems, the GE' remains unchanged at linear viscoelastic region up to f = 46.4 Hz, then a sharp increase with the further increase in frequency after f = 70 Hz was observed. As seen from Figure 7 the GE' data obtained from the experiments, cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions show a strong vibration damping property, which is an important parameterfrom industrial point of view. The increase in G’ withincreasing externalfrequency was also reported inthe literature (Kim et al. 2001) asthe typical characteristic of a viscoelastic material(Hiamtup et al. 2006). Figure 7. The change of Gı with frequency. c= 15% m/m, T=20o C, = 10 Pa, E= 2 kV/mm Conclusions In this paper, modified cellulose particles were prepared with TE MPO/LiBr. Modified cellulose is characterised by FT-IR, SE M –EDS and TGA. The ER properties of the native and modified cellulose/corn oil suspension were then investigated by examining the effects of electric field strength, shear rate, temperature, frequency and shear stres. The following is a summary ofthe results. We have shown thatthe native cellulose can be partially modified and converted tothe Li+ salts. Colloidal stability of polymeric salt in corn oil was found to be 56% at 15% m/m suspensions concentration. Optimum concentration was found to be 15% m/m. ER activity of suspensions increased with increasing field strength and decreasing shear rate.It was observed thatthe viscosity of suspensions decreased sharply with increasing shear rate, causing typical shear-thinning non-Newtonian viscoelastic behaviour. It was found thatthe polymeric salt system studied in the present work was a little sensitive to high temperature within the limits studied. Complex shear modulus of cellulose and modified cellulose suspensions was observed toincrease with increasing external frequency and show a typicalcharacteristic of a viscoelasticmaterial and a potential of vibration damping. Acknowledgements We are grateful for financial support by The Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey (Project no: 108T615 ) References Block H. and Kelly J.P. (1988). Electro-rheology. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 21, 1661-1667. Choi, H.j., Kim, T.W., Cho, M.S., Choi, H.J. and Jhon M.S., (1997). Electrorheological characterization of polyaniline dispersion. Eur. Polm. J., 33 (5), 699-703. Hiamtup, P.; Sirivat, A.; Jameison, A. M. (2006). Electrorheological properties of polyaniline suspensions: Field-induced liquid to solid transition and residual gel structure. J. Coll. Inter. Sci., 295, 270-278. 140 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Ikada Y., Tsuji H. (2000). Banded spherulites in poly(L-lactic acid): Effects of the crystallization temperature and molecular weight. Macromol Rapid Commun, 21:117-120. Kim, J. W. Kim, S. G., Choi, H. J.,Suh, M. S.,Shin, M. J.,Jhon, M. S. (2001). Electrorheological characteristics of phosphate cellulose-based suspensions. Polymer,42, 5005-5009. Ko, Y. G.; Sung, B. H.; Choi, U. S. (2007). Electrorheological properties of aminated chitosans. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochem. Eng. Aspects, 305, 120–125. Ling, R.; Keqin, Z. (2006). Electrorheological Effects at High Shear Rate. Tsınghua Scıence And Technology, 11(1), 88-95. Liu, B.; Shaw, M. T. (2001). Electrorheology of filled silicone elastomers. J. Rheol., 45, 641-657. Lu, J. and X. Zhao. (2004). A new approach of enhancing the shear stress of electrorheological fluids of montmorillonite nanocomposite by emulsion intercalation of poly-N-methaniline. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 273, 654–657. Otsubo, Y.; Sekine, M.; Katayama, S. (1992). A microstructural investigation of the nonlinear response of electrorheological suspensions. J. Rheol., 36, 479-496. Tahiri C. and Vignon M.R. (2000). TEMPO-oxidation of cellulose: synthesis and characterization of polyglucuronans. Cellulose, Kluwer Academic Publishers. Cellulose 7: 177-188. Tangboriboon, N.; Sirivat, A.; Wongkasemjit, S. (2008). Electrorheology and characterization of acrylic rubber and lead titanate composite materials. Appl. Organometal. Chem., 22, 262–269. Trlica J.,Quadrat O. and Bradna P. (1996). An anomalous electrorheological behaviour of magnesium hydroxide suspensions in silicone oil, Journal of Rheology, 40 (5), 943-945. Unal, H.I.;Agirbas,O.;Yilmaz, H.(2006). Electrorheological properties of poly(Li-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate) suspensions. Coll. and Surf. A: Physicochem. Eng. Asp., 274, 77-84. Winslow W.M. (1949). Induced Fibration Suspension. Journal of Applied Physics, 20, 1137-1140. Yavuz, M.; Unal, H. I. (2004). Synthesis, characterization, and partial hydrolysis of polyisoprene-co-poly(tert-butyl methacrylate) and electrorheological properties of its suspensions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci., 91, 1822-1833. Zhao,Y.; Wang, B.; Ding, C.; Zhao, X. (2008). Nano Titanium Oxide Organosol: Synthesis, Characterization, and Application for Electrorheological Fluid. J.Appl.Polym.Sci.,110, 3763-3769. 141 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 493 Title A name given to the resource Electrorheological Properties of Environmental Friendly Modified Cellulose Author Author Tilki, Tahir Yavuz, Mustafa Çabuk, Mehmet Karabacak, Çigdem Abstract A summary of the resource. Considerable scientific and industrial interest is currently being focused on a class of materials known as electrorheological (ER) fluids, which display remarkable rheological behaviour, being able to convert rapidly and repeatedly from a liquid to solid when an electric field (E) is applied or removed. In this study, biodegredable cellulose (Cell) was modified and converted their carboxyl salts. Modified cellulose (Cell-Li) is characterised by (FT-IR), (SEM), (EDS) and (TGA). Suspensions of native and modified cellulose are prepared in corn oil. Rheological measurements were carried out via a rotational rheometer with a high voltage generator. These suspensions are determined; effects of electric field strength, shear rate, shear stress, temperature etc. onto ER activity. The results show not only that the ER properties are enhanced by increasing the particle concentration and electric field strength, but also the cellulose-based ER fluids exhibit viscoelastic behavior under an applied electric field due to the chain formation induced by electric polarization between particles. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fd33e4f04ef0e169710081feb91a1d43.docx ec47fed19c559a73185a1142a2cc499a https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4147a0ad02e676ee5ff72511409b06fd.pdf 3b8c58fe0ab18c5014ba3ca5571bfe07 PDF Text Text ��   ����   �      Стратегије комуникације Владе Републике Србије о процесу стабилизације и придруживања државне заједнице Србије и Црне Горе Европској унији ���     �        ��   �         �Istraživanja javnog mišljenja o ulasku BiH u Europsku uniju Podržava ulazak BiH u EU 0% prosinac 2008. Ne zna/ ne želi se izjasniti 12.80% prosinac 2009. 1.20% siječanj 2011. siječanj 2012. siječanj 2013. 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Ne podržava ulazak BiH Podržava ulazak BiH u u EU EU 14.30% 73% 13.20% 85.70% 4.30% 7.60% 88.20% 5.40% 18.10% 76.50% 0.30% 17.60% 82.10% ����� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3146 Title A name given to the resource Elementi komunikacijske strategije za pristup Bosne i Hercegovine Europskoj uniji Author Author TOMIĆ, Zoran MUSA, Ilija PRIMORAC, Marijan Abstract A summary of the resource. Analizom komunikacijskih strategija ranijih država pristupnica Europskoj uniji u radu će se sagledati mogućnosti komunikacije Bosne i Hercegovine, kako s javnošću unutar same države, tako i s vanjskim javnostima Bosne i Hercegovine u postupku pristupanja Europskoj uniji. Sagledavajući prednosti i nedostatke svih elemenata komunikacijskih strategija, poglavito komparacijom metoda određivanja ciljeva, ciljnih javnosti, kanala i tehnika komunikacije, Latvije, Slovenije, Slovačke, Bugarske i Hrvatske iznijet će se preporuke za izradu što učinkovitije Komunikacijske strategije Bosne i Hercegovine u postupku pristupanja Europskoj uniji. Ukazat će se na nužnost upoznavanja interne javnosti sa samim tijekom pregovora i prednostima ulaska države u Europsku uniju, kao i na mogućnosti maksimalizacije učinaka prezentacije napravljenih koraka u procesu pristupanja prema vanjskim javnostima. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a77bcf7f093228148a46ca5b8af66998.docx 24e587faa30d59270a7fac7303bab625 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a1fdce0e14389ddfffd6d0f0defe645.pdf 23b3989b7ee4720a0c12db95ed75711b PDF Text Text ELEŞTİREL DÜŞÜNME BECERİSİNİ KAZANDIRMADA BİR YOL GÜNLÜĞÜ: BALKANLARA DÖNÜŞ Gamze ÇELİK Çanakkale On sekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Eğitimi, Çanakkale / Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Eleştirel düşünme, Balkanlara Dönüş, Nedim Gürsel. ÖZET Bu çalışmada literatür taraması yöntemiyle Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanın eleştirel düşünme becerisini geliştirmeye etkisi tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Eleştirel düşünme; sanat ve edebiyatla geliştirilmesi mümkün olan bir beceridir. Okullarda eleştirel düşünme becerisini ezberci anlayışla öğretmeye çalışmak yerine, bu tür romanlarla kazandırmak çok daha etkili olacaktır. Balkanlar doğasıyla, zengin tarihiyle ve kültürel çeşitliliğiyle insanlık için çok büyük bir mirastır. Değeri yüksek olan diğer her toprak gibi, Balkan toprakları da yıllarca savaşların, mücadelelerin ortasında kalmıştır. Saraybosna’da yaşanan acılar, savaşın soğuk yüzü aslında tüm insanlık için bir yaradır. Nedim Gürsel Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanında Saraybosna dramını içten ve gerçekçi bir dille okura sunmaktadır. Yazar şiirsel üslûbuyla Makedonya’da geçirdiği günleri anlatırken, Balkanlardaki Türk mirasının önemi hakkında da bilgi vermektedir. TürkYunan ilişkilerine farklı bir bakışla yaklaşmaktadır. Balkanlara Dönüş bir gezi kitabı, anı kitabı hem de tarihe kaynaklık edecek bir güncedir. Romanı okuduğumuz zaman, savaşın geride bıraktıklarını görürüz. Yaşananları sorgulamamızı, yeniden düşünmemizi ve farklı bakış açısıyla olaylara bakmamızı sağlayan bir anlatım mevcuttur. Bilgi çağını yaşadığımız günümüzde kazanmamız gereken eleştirel bakış açısının gelişmesi için, bu gezi izlenimleri iyi bir yol gösterici olacaktır. � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6d963b3bc822414a7852059a4fe3dceb.doc 647c88f45f41910b1ca0c003f27fd984 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fe0e1fd3cc994ec0fca268332f8ddca2.pdf 30bc482be279f1106a5b2a1efc46d08f PDF Text Text ELEġTĠREL DÜġÜNME BECERĠSĠNĠ KAZANMADA BĠR YOL GÜNLÜĞÜ: BALKANLARA DÖNÜġ Gamze ÇELĠK1 Özet Balkanlar doğasıyla, zengin tarihiyle ve kültürel çeşitliliğiyle insanlık için çok büyük bir mirastır. Değeri yüksek olan diğer her toprak gibi, Balkan toprakları da yıllarca savaşların, mücadelelerin ortasında kalmıştır. Saraybosna‟da yaşanan acılar, savaşın soğuk yüzü aslında tüm insanlık için bir yaradır. Nedim Gürsel Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanında Saraybosna dramını içten ve gerçekçi bir dille okura sunmaktadır. Yazar şiirsel üslûbuyla Makedonya‟da geçirdiği günleri anlatırken, Balkanlardaki Türk mirasının önemi hakkında da bilgi vermektedir. Türk Yunan ilişkilerine farklı bir bakışla yaklaşmaktadır. Balkanlara Dönüş bir gezi kitabı, anı kitabı hem de tarihe kaynaklık edecek bir güncedir. Romanı okuduğumuz zaman, savaşı değil belki ama savaşın geride bıraktıklarını görürüz. Yaşananları sorgulamamızı, yeniden düşünmemizi ve farklı bakış açısıyla olaylara bakmamızı sağlayan bir anlatım mevcuttur. Bilgi çağını yaşadığımız günümüzde kazanmamız gereken eleştirel bakış açısının gelişmesi için, bu gezi izlenimleri iyi bir yol gösterici olacaktır. Bu çalışmada literatür taraması yöntemiyle Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanın eleştirel düşünme becerisini geliştirmeye etkisi tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Eleştirel düşünme; sanat ve edebiyatla geliştirilmesi mümkün olan bir beceridir. Okullarda eleştirel düşünmeyi ezberci anlayışla öğretmeye çalışmak yerine, bu tür romanlarla kazandırmak çok daha etkili olacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Eleştirel düşünme, Balkanlara Dönüş, Nedim Gürsel. 1 Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Eğitimi, gamzecelik@comu.edu.tr �A TRAVEL DIARY TO TEACH CRITICAL THINKING: BACK TO THE BALKANS Abstract The Balkans is a great heritage for human beings with its nature, great history and cultural diversity. The land of Balkans as any other lands having high value was also in the midst of wars and struggles for many years. The painful events happened in Sarajevo, the cold side of the war is actually a wound for all of humanity. Nedim Gürsel presents to the reader about the tragedy of sarajevo with a sincere and realistic language in his novel, Back to the provides information about the importance of Turkish heritage in the Balkans. He has a different view for Turkish-Greek relations. Back to the Balkans is both a journey and memoir book and it is also diary wich can be resource for history. When we read this book, we can not see the war, but we can see what the war has left behind. The book has a narration which enables us to question what we lived, rethink and consider the events from different perspectives. These journey impressions will be a good guide for developing critical point of view that should be gained in today is information age. In this study, the novel of Back to the Balkans has been examined to determine its effect on developing critical thinking skills via literature review. Critical thinking is a skill which can be developed with art and literature. At schools, it would be much more effective to have learners gain critical thinking skill via such novels rather than attemting to teach it through rote-learning. Key Words: Critical thinking, Back to the Balkans, Nedim Gürsel. GiriĢ Tabiat bin bir türde çiçekle süslüdür. Hepsinin rengi ayrı güzel, kokusu ayrı güzel, görünüşü ise büyüleyici güzelliktedir. Farklı kültürde, başka dinde ve dilde olan insanlar da tıpkı doğadaki çiçekler gibi ayrı güzelliğe sahiptir. Ayrı coğrafyalarda, başka hayatlar yaşasak da ortak olan değerlerimiz ve ayrı güzellikte olan kültürel özelliklerimiz mevcuttur. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanı, farklı toplumların birarada yıllarca kardeşçe yaşadığı Balkanlar‟da yakın tarihimizde yaşanan olaylara tanıklık eden bir güncedir. Yazar romanda Balkanlara yapmış olduğu gezinin notlarını okuyucusuyla samimi ve içten bir üslûpla paylaşmıştır. Roman boyunca yapılan tasvirler bizi yaşadığımız yerlerden alıp, Saraybosna‟nın, Sofya‟nın köprülerine, camilerine, kiliselerine dek götürür. �Nedim Gürsel Makedonya göçmenidir. Galatasaray Lisesi‟nden mezun olan yazar, lise dönemi boyunca da edebiyatla ilgilenmiştir. Fransız Filolojisi‟nde eğitimini sürdürmeye başlayan yazarın, daha sonra Lenin ve Gorki üzerine yazdığı yazılardan dolayı yedi buçuk yıl hapsi istenir. Bu olayların üzerine yazar Fransız Hükümeti‟nden kazanmış olduğu ve reddettiği bursu kabul ederek Fransa‟ya gider ( Bal, 2008:1-2). Yazarın yolculuk serüveni bu olayla başlar demek mümkündür. Yolculuk aslında yazarın kendisini bulmak yolunda geçekleştirdiği bir serüvendir. Yazar bir ülkeden diğerine geçerken bu yolculuğu aslında kendi içinde yapmaktadır. Yeni insanlarla tanışmak, yeni kültürleri tanımak yazarın içindeki sırları ortaya dökmesine yardımcı olmaktadır ( Genç ve Tilbe, 2008:244). Romanın adına baktığımızda; Balkanlardan göç eden bir ailenin üyesi olan Nedim Gürsel‟in, yıllar sonra atalarının topraklarına geri dönüşünü anlatmak istediğini düşünmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Balkanlar uzun yıllar Osmanlı İmparatorluğu‟na bağlı kalmış, çeşitli toplumlar bu topraklarda beraberce barış ve huzur içinde yaşamışlardır. Balkanların tarihine baktığımızda, huzurlu ve güzel günlerin bir süre sonra yerini karışıklıklara ve isyanlara terk ettiğini görmekteyiz. 19 yüzyılda Osmanlı İmparatorluğunun pek çok sorunla karşı karşıya kaldığı görülmektedir. Bu sorunların merkezini oluşturan bölgelerden birisi de Balkan Yarımadasıdır. Yüzyılın başında Sırpların isyanı ile başlayan çalkantılı dönem, yüzyılın sonunda Bosna Hersek sorununa da tanık olmuştur. “Makedonya Sorunu” adıyla anılan bir dizi problem bu yaşananların etkisiyle ortaya çıkmıştır. Tüm bu sıkıntılar 20. yüzyılın başında önce Balkan Savaşları‟nın ardından da Birinci Dünya Savaşı‟nın nedeni olmuştur (Marttin, 2006:3). 1990‟lı yılların başında Yugoslavya bir dağılma sürecine girmiş; Slovenya ve Hırvatistan‟dan sonra Bosna-Hersek de bağımsızlığını kazanmıştı. II. Dünya Savaşı‟nın ardından Tito döneminde kurulmuş olan Yugoslavya‟nın çözülmesinin nedenleri arasında; Mareşal Tito‟nun ölümünden sonra etnik grupların birbirine olan bağlılığının azalması ilk sırada gösterilebilir. Diğer bir neden; Sırp milliyetçiliğinin artmasıdır. Bununla birlikte Slovenya ve Hırvatistan‟ın ekonomik yönden daha gelişmiş olmalarının onları Almanya‟ya yaklaştırmış olmasıdır. Bir diğer neden ise; komünizmin çökmesinin federal birlikte çözülmeye neden olması, geçmişteki tarihsel, etnik ve dinsel çatışmaların otorite boşluğu nedeniyle tekrar ortaya çıkmasıdır ( Selver 2003‟den akt: Yapıcı, 2007:2). Nedim Gürsel romanında Bosna‟da yaşanan dramı tarafsız bir gözle okuyucuya aktarmaya çalışmıştır. Yazar bir konferansa katılmak amacıyla savaşın ardından gittiği �Bosna‟da gördüklerini tüm insanlık için değerlendirmeye çalışmıştır. Bunu yaparken savaştaki tüm tarafların gözünden yaşananlara bakmaya çaba göstermiştir. Aslında savaşta kaybeden ya da kazanan yoktur. Savaş tüm insanlık için yıkım ve hasar bırakır. Bu bakış açısıyla anlatılan olayların, o bölgede yaşananlar hakkında en ufak bilgisi olmayan kişiler için bir ayna görevi üstlendiği görülmektedir. Romanı okurken, kendimizi o acıları yaşayan insanların yerinde hissetmemiz mümkündür. Nedim Gürsel‟in gezi kitabını tüm bu sebeplerle eleştirel bakış açımızın gelişmesinde bize yol gösterici olabilecek bir kaynak olarak göstermek yanlış olmayacaktır. Eleştirel düşünme kavramı; felsefe ve psikoloji gibi iki ana disiplin temel alınarak açıklanmaktadır. Felsefi yaklaşıma göre eleştirel düşünme; insan düşüncesi kavramı ve gerçekçi, tarafsız bir dünya görüşü için gerekli olan zihinsel becerileri temel almaktadır. Psikolojik yaklaşımlar ise; düşünce ve düşünmeyi esas alan deneysel çalışmalar, karmaşık görüşlerin öğrenilmesindeki bireysel farklılıklar ve eleştirel düşünmenin bir parçası olan problem çözme kavrmıyla ilgilidir ( Gibson 1995‟ten akt: Şahinel, 2002: 2). Biz bu çalışmamızda Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanında anlatılanların eleştirel düşünme becerisini geliştirmede nasıl bir faydası olabileceğini incelemeye çalışacağız. Bu amaçla çalışmamızda “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı eserinde, eleştirel düşünme becerisine ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” sorusuna yanıt aranmaya çalışılacaktır. Günümüzde eleştirel düşünmek, bireyin sorunlara çözüm üretmesini, olaylara farklı yönlerden bakmayı öğrenerek çok boyutlu düşünmesini sağlamaktadır. Bu nedenle her bireyin kendisini bu yönde yenilemesi ve geliştirmesi gerekmektedir. Yakın tarihimizdeki gerçekleri samimi bir üslûpla değerlendiren bu gezi kitabının, eleştirel düşünme becerisini kazandırmak için bir yol gösterici olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Araştırmanın alt problemleri ise şöyledir: 1. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında “bağımsız düşünme” alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır? 2. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında “zihinsel cesareti geliştirme” alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır? 3. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında “duygudaşlık kurmayı hayata geçirme” alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır? �4. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında “derinlemesine sorgulama” alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır? 5. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında “eleştirel yansıtıcı düşünme” alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır? EleĢtirel DüĢünme Nedir? Presseisen (1985) düşünme becerilerini “temel işlemler, problem çözme, karar verme, eleştirel düşünme ve yaratıcı düşünme” olmak üzere aşamalı bir şekilde ele almaktadır. Temel işlemler neden sonuç ilişkilerini belirleme, benzetmeleri belirleme, sınıflandırma ve nitelikleri belirleme şeklinde ele alınmaktadır. Eleştirel düşünme becerileri kısaca; ifadeleri çözümleme, ifade edilmemiş düşüncelerin farkına varma, önyargıların farkına varma, düşüncelerin farklı ifade edilişlerini arama” olarak tanımlanmaktadır ( Presseisen 1985‟ten aktaran Seferoğlu ve Akbıyık, 2006: 193-195). Eleştirel düşünme; bir konunun birden fazla yönüyle ele alınıp, irdelenmesi olarak tanımlanabilir (Özdemir 2008: 19). Bir başka tanıma göre ise; olguların ya da bulguların eleştirilmesi sürekli yanlışlar bulmak demek değildir. Okunan, bulunan ya da söylenen bilgiler üzerinde tek bir sonuç üretmek yerine, farklı açıklamalar olabileceğini de düşünebilmektir ( Kökdemir, 2003: 3-5). Eleştirel düşünme kavramının ilk olarak olumsuz düşünceleri çağrıştırması nedensiz değildir. Karşımızdaki kişiye, kendisi gibi düşünmediğimizi söylemek, elbette ki her zaman anlayışla karşılanmamıştır. Düşünce tarihine baktığımız zaman, “Senin gibi düşünmüyorum.” cümlesi, pek çok bedellerin ödenmesine neden olabilmiştir. Her çıkar grubu bir düşünüş biçimine bağlanır. Örneğin; Ortaçağ‟da bu düşünüş biçiminin merkezinde feodal çıkarlarla birleşmiş dinsel inançlar yer almaktadır. Bu inançlara aykırı görüş bildirmek, ölümü göze almak demektir. Çıkar grupları, kendilerine kayıtsız şartsız itaat edilmesini istemişlerdir. Buna karşı gelenler, tarihin her döneminde ölüm cezası da olmak üzere çeşitli cezalarla karşılaşmışlardır. Sokrates‟ten Hallac-ı Mansur‟a, Galilei‟den Voltaire dek bu durum devam etmiştir (Özdemir, 2003: 19-20). Eleştirel düşünme becerilerinin ne olduğuyla ilgili araştırmaları bulunan Halpern‟e göre eleştirel düşünmenin belirleyici özellikleri şöyle sıralanabilir: �1. Sonuç çıkarma: Geçerli sonuçlar elde edebilmek için doğru kabul edilen durumların, olayların ya da olguların incelenerek akıl süzgecinden geçirilmesidir. Eğer elde edilen sonuç, mantıksal çıkarımları izliyorsa o zaman geçerli kabul edilir. 2. Analiz etme: Sunulan nedenlere dayanarak ulaşılan sonuçların doğruluğunun çözümlenmesi çabasıdır. Bunun için de, nedenlerin kabul edilebilir ve tutarlı olması, sonuca destek sağlaması ve eksik bileşenlerin ( örn. varsayımlar, tartışmalar, sınırlılıklar vb.) göz önüne alınması gereklidir. 3. Hipotezleri test etme: Düşüncelerimizin ya da inançlarımızın doğru olup olmadığına ilişkin ortaya atılan hipotezlerin çeşitli gözlemlere dayanarak doğruluğunun sınanmasıdır. 4. Olasılıkları görme: Olasılık, belli bir çıktının (ki bu başarı olarak kabul edilebilir) oluşumunun olası çıktıların (bütün çıktılar benzer olduğunda) sayısına bölünmesidir. Olasılıkları görme ise, herhangi bir sorunun nedenlerine ve çözümüne ilişkin olası durumları tespit edebilmelidir. 5. Karar verme: Belli bir sorun karşısında oluşturulabilecek bir dizi seçenek ile başlayan aktif bir süreçtir. 6. Sorun çözme: Bir sorunun tanımlanması başlayan ve çözüme doğru ulaşmayı sağlayan tüm seçenekleri içine alan bir süreçtir. 7. Yaratıcı düşünme: Özgün ve kullanışlı olan bir şey üretme eylemidir (Halpern 1996‟dan aktaran: Kürüm, 2002: 27-28). Demirel (2005)‟e göre eleştirel düşünme eleştirel olmayan düşünmeyle karşılaştırılarak çok daha iyi tanımlanabilecektir. Eleştirel olmayan düşünce anlaşılır, kesin, mantıklı ve tutarlı olmayan düşüncedir. Belirsiz, yüzeysel ve önemsizdir. Bu kusurları ortadan kaldırmak için çeşitli düşünce ögelerinin kullanılmasını gerektirir. Bu düşünce ögeleri; 1. Problemi veya soruyu, 2. Düşünmenin amacını, 3. Görüşleri, �4. Sayıltıları, 5. Temel kavramları, 6. İlke ve kuramları, 7. Kanıt, veri ve nedenleri, 8. Yorumları ve iddiaları, 9. Çıkarımları, usa vurmayı ve düzenlenen görüşün genel hatlarını, 10. Doğurguları ve izleyen sonuçları doğru ve eksiksiz bir biçimde açıklayabilme, analiz edebilme ve sınayabilme becerisini ya da anlayışını içerir. Pascarella ve Terenzini ( 1991‟den aktaran: Gülveren, 2007: 33) eleştirel düşünmenin farklı tanımlarını incelemişlerdir. Bu değerlendirmelerden yola çıkarak eleştirel düşünen bireylerin aşağıdaki özelliklerin tamamını veya bazılarını yapabilmeleri gerektiği görülmüştür: 1. Tartışmalarda ana fikri ve varsayımları tanımlama, 2. Önemli ilişkilerin farkına varma, 3. Verilerden doğru çıkarımları yapabilme, 4. Eldeki verilerden veya bilgilerden sonuçları çıkarabilme, 5. Elde edilen sonuçların çıkarılamayacağını eldeki yorumlama ve verilerden otoriteyi hareketle (bilgi çıkarılıp kaynağını) değerlendirebilme. Munzur‟a (1999) göre; "Eleştirel düşünme eğitimi, çocuk ve gençleri mutlu, üretken, özgür, çağdaş, sorunlarıyla baş edebilen bir yaşama hazırlamaktadır. Bu yaşam yeni kuşağın, eski kuşağın eksik ve yanlışlarını gördüğü seçenek, üreterek aynen yaşamak zorunda kalmadığı; koşulları zorladığı bir yaşamdır. Demokrasi, insan hakları, insan ilişkileri ve bilim alanlarında daha ileri bir yaşamdır. İnsanların „insan‟ olarak beklentilerinin yanıtlandığı, aklın ve düşüncenin egemen olduğu bir yaşamdır. Tüm bunlar, bir çırpıda ve salt eleştirel düşünme eğitimi ile gerçekleşemeyecek de olsa, eleştirel düşünme eğitiminin ciddi katkıları olacağı yadsınamaz”. Yöntem Araştırmada varolan bir durumu, hiçbir etkide bulunmaksızın ortaya koymak amaçlandığı için betimsel tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Tarama modeli; “geçmişte ya da �halen var olan bir durumu, var olduğu şekliyle betimlemeyi amaçlayan araştırma yaklaşımıdır.” (Karasar, 2004: 77). Verilerin Toplanması Araştırmada eleştirel düşünme becerisi ile ilgili alanyazın taraması yapılmıştır. Eleştirel düşünme becerisine sahip kişilerde bulunan özelliklerin bir listesi çıkarılmıştır. Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabının okunması sırasında yukarıdaki maddelere eklemeler ve çıkarmalar yapılarak oluşturulan forma son şekli verilmiştir. Eleştirel düşünme becerisi inceleme formu, ikisi ölçme değerlendirme ve biri dil alanında olmak üzere üç uzmana gösterilmiştir. Uzmanlar, boyutların adlandırılmasına, maddelerin boyutlara göre sınıflandırmasındaki uygunluğa ve dilin anlaşılır olmasına yönelik düzeltmeler yapmışlar ve eleştirilerde bulunmuşlardır. Gelen eleştireler doğrultusunda aşağıdaki eleştirel düşünme becerisi inceleme formuna son şekli verilmiştir. ELEġTĠREL DÜġÜNME BECERĠSĠ ĠNCELEME FORMU 1. Bağımsız düĢünme 1.1. Karar verirken bağımsızdır. 1.2. Sorunları kendi kendine analiz eder. 1.3. Kendisinin başkaları tarafından kullanılmasına izin vermez. 1.4. Başkalarının baskısı ile düşüncelerini değiştirmez. 2. Zihinsel cesareti geliĢtirme 2.1. Kendisi için neyin ne olduğuna karar verirken, öğrendiklerini önce yargılar. 2.2. Sosyal gruplardaki kuvvetle destek bulan bazı düşüncelerdeki çarpıtma ve sahteliğin farkına varır. 2.3. Yaygın olmayan görüşler ve inançlar ile tarafsızca ilgilenmeye ve karşılaşmaya gereksinim duyar. 2.4. Yargı ve düşüncelerini genel geçer düşünce yapıları içine sığdırmaya uğraşmaz. 3. DuygudaĢlık Kurmayı Hayata Geçirme 3.1. Sorunlar hakkında karşıt görüşlerin güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini düşünebilir. 3.2. Diğer bireyleri gerçekten anlamak için kendisini onların yerine koyabilir. 3.3. Farklı ulusların ve toplumların sahip olduğu çerçeve ve görüşleri anlamaya çalışır. 4. Derinlemesine Sorgulama �4.1. Bir düşünme veya tartışma sürecinde ilişkili noktaları belirleyerek, sorunu derinliğine irdeler. 4.2. Bir metni okurken ifade edilen savların temelini oluşturan sorunları ve kavramları araştırır. 4.3. Konunun ve bireysel algılamaların geniş bir çerçevesini çizip sonuca ulaşır. 5. EleĢtirel Yansıtıcı DüĢünme 5.1. Karşılaştığı problemlere kendi çözüm önerilerini geliştirir. 5.2. Özgün düşünceler geliştirir. 5.3. Meydana gelen olayları daha derin anlamaya çalışır. Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmada, Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında yer alan eleştirel düşünmeye ilişkin durumlar, eleştirel düşünme becerisi alanının özellikleri açısından incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Araştırmada; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı eserinde, eleştirel düşünme becerisine ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” sorusuna yanıt aranmıştır. Bunun için oluşturulan formda yer alan maddeler, yazarın kitabında taranmış, elde edilen veriler frekansa çevrilmiştir. Her bir boyutla ilgili tablolara yer verilmiştir. Bağımsız Düşünme Alt Boyutuna İlişkin Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmanın ilk alt problemi; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında „bağımsız düşünme‟ alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu problemle ilgili tespit edilen bulgular, Tablo 1‟de görülmektedir. Tablo 1‟e bakıldığında; “1.2. Sorunları kendi kendine analiz eder.” (f=30) maddesinin en yüksek tekrarlanma sıklığına sahip olduğu görülmektedir. Yazar; olayları tarihsel süreç içerisinde değerlendirmekte ve daha sonra da derinlemesine analiz etmektedir. Ayrıca kendi görüşlerine de yer vermektedir. İkinci sırada “1.1. Karar verirken bağımsızdır.” (f=8) maddesi yer almaktadır. Bundan sonra ise “1.3. Kendisinin başkaları tarafından kullanılmasına izin vermez.” (f=2) ve “1.4. Başkalarının baskısı ile düşüncelerini değiştirmez.” (F=2) maddeleri gelmektedir. �Tablo 1. EleĢtirel DüĢünme Becerisinin “Bağımsız DüĢünme” Boyutuna ĠliĢkin Özelliklerin Kitaptaki Dağılımı Md. Örnek Cümleler Tekrarlanma Sıklığı (f) 1.1. “İki yıldır orada olup bitenlere kayıtsız kalamam. Ama bu satırları 8 karalamaktan başka elimden gelen bir şey de yok ne yazık ki! (s.19) . 1.2. “Grand Hotel‟de, biraz boğucu sıcağın etkisiyle Üçüncü Balkan 30 Savaşı senaryoları kurmak iyimser bir tavır olmayabilir, ama yüzyılın başında patlak veren Balkan Savaşlarının Osmanlı İmparatorluğunu kısa sürede yıkımın eşiğine sürükledikleri de tarihsel bir gerçek.” (s.64). 1.3. “Diyeceğim, belli kurallar içinde yapılan bir savaştan çok, insanlık 2 dışı bir barbarlığı izliyoruz ekranlarda, elimiz kolumuz bağlı, çaresiz. Oysa yapılacak bir şeyler olmalı, ama ne?” (s.19). 1.4. “Orada insanlar aç, çocuklar süte ve ekmeğe hasret. Değil ölülerini 2 gömmeye, yaralılarını tedavi etmeye bile fırsatları yok.” (s.19). Zihinsel Cesaret Alt Boyutuna İlişkin Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmanın ikinci alt problemi; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında „zihinsel cesaret‟ alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” şeklindedir. Bu boyuta ilişkin bulgular Tablo 2‟de görülmektedir. Tablo 2‟ye bakıldığında; “2.2. Sosyal gruplardaki kuvvetle destek bulan bazı düşüncelerdeki çarpıtma ve sahteliğin farkına varır.” (f=2) ve “2.3. Yaygın olmayan görüşler ve inançlar ile tarafsızca ilgilenmeye ve karşılaşmaya gereksinim duyar.” (f=2) maddeleri tekrarlanan maddeler olmuştur. “2.1. Kendisi için neyin ne olduğuna karar verirken, öğrendiklerini önce yargılar.” maddesine yönelik düşünceye ise bir yerde rastlanmıştır. “2.4.Yargı ve düşüncelerini genel geçer düşünce yapıları içine sığdırmaya uğraşmaz.” maddesine yönelik bir görüşe örnek ise bulunmamaktadır. �Tablo 2. EleĢtirel DüĢünme Becerisinin “Zihinsel Cesareti GeliĢtirme” Boyutuna ĠliĢkin Özelliklerin Kitaptaki Dağılımı Md. Örnek Cümleler Tekrarlanma Sıklığı (f) 2.1. “Ay-yıldızlı Türk pasaportumu mu göstersem acaba, yoksa „kapı 1 gibi‟ Fransız pasaportumu mu? Adım Nedim olduktan sonra ne fark eder ki!” (s. 22). 2.2. “Ve hiç kuşkusuz ülkenin içinde bulunduğu siyasal ortam gereği, 2 yani Arnavut ve Sloven ayrılıkçılarına karşı, devletin bölünmezliğini Kosova simgesiyle vurgulamaya çalışıyorlar.” (s.13). 2.3. “O yaz Bosna‟da gördüğüm, beni hem şaşırtan hem hayran 2 bırakan güzelliklerden hiçbiri yok şimdi. Ne köprüler ayakta ne de dostluklar.” (s.18). Duygudaşlık Kurmayı Hayata Geçirme Alt Boyutuna İlişkin Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmanın üçüncü alt problemi; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında „duygudaşlık kurmayı hayata geçirme‟ alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” olarak tespit edilmiştir. Bu boyutla ilgili bulgulara Tablo 3‟te yer verilmiştir. Tablo 3. EleĢtirel DüĢünme Becerisinin “DuygudaĢlık Kurmayı Hayata Geçirme” Boyutuna ĠliĢkin Özelliklerin Kitaptaki Dağılımı Md. Örnek Cümleler Tekrarlanma Sıklığı (f) 3.1. “Ve tüm dünyanın gözü önünde koskoca bir toplum tarihiyle, 1 coğrafyasıyla, kültürüyle yok edilmek isteniyor.” (s.65). 3.2. “Doğup büyüdükleri topraklardan kopan insanlar hep geçmişe 18 özlem duyarlar, eskinin olağanüstü günlerini, ülkelerindeki bolluğu anlatırlar birbirlerine, terk ettikleri evlerini –nedense hep evlerini- özlerler.” (s.69-70). 3.3. “O kentlerin de camileri, sinagogları, kiliseleri var.” (s.17). 5 �Tablo 3 incelendiğinde; “5.4. Diğer bireyleri gerçekten anlamak için kendisini onların yerine koyabilir.” maddesi en çok tekrarlanan maddedir (f=18). Daha sonra ise “3.3. Farklı ulusların ve toplumların sahip olduğu çerçeve ve görüşleri anlamaya çalışır.” maddesinin en çok tekrarlandığı görülmektedir (f=5). “3.1.Sorunlar hakkında karşıt görüşlerin güçlü ve zayıf yönlerini düşünebilir.” maddesiyle ilgili görüşe ise bir tek yerde rastlanmıştır. Derinlemesine Sorgulama Alt Boyutuna İlişkin Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmanın dördüncü alt problemi; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında „derinlemesine sorgulama‟ alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” şeklinde belirlenmiştir. Bu alt probleme ilişkin sonuçlar Tablo 4‟te görülmektedir. Tablo 4. EleĢtirel DüĢünme Becerisinin “Derinlemesine Sorgulama” Boyutuna ĠliĢkin Özelliklerin Kitaptaki Dağılımı Md. Örnek Cümleler Tekrarlanma Sıklığı (f) 4.1. “O zaman insanlar bir karış toprak için ya da kendi dinlerinden 2 değiller diye komşularını, kız alıp kız verdikleri akrabalarını böyle boğazlamaya kalkışmamışlardı henüz.” (s. 14) 4.2. “Ömer Seyfettin‟in neredeyse yüzyıl önce yazdıkları bugün gerçek 7 oldu.” (s. 60-61). 4.3. “Oysa bugün durum ne kadar farklı. Üsküp bir Türk kenti değil 3 artık, bir zaman öyleymiş, ama artık değil; savaşlar, yangınlar, depremlerden sonra dört yüz elli bin nüfuslu kentte yaşayan Türklerin sayısı bir hayli azalmış.” (s. 75). Tablo 4‟e göre en çok tekrarlanan madde; “4.2. Bir metni okurken ifade edilen savların temelini oluşturan sorunları ve kavramları araştırır.” olarak görülmektedir (f=7). İkinci sırada ise; “Konunun ve bireysel algılamaların geniş bir çerçevesini çizip sonuca ulaşır.” maddesi gelmektedir (f=3). En az tekrarlanan madde; “4.1. Bir düşünme veya tartışma sürecinde ilişkili noktaları belirleyerek, sorunu derinliğine irdeler.” maddesidir. Çelik (2010)‟in yapmış olduğu bir araştırmanın sonucuna göre; Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı öğretmenlerinin eleştirel düşünme yeterlilikleri ile eleştirel düşünme becerisiyle ilgili eğitim almaları arasında anlamlı bir fark görülmüştür. Bu nedenle eleştirel düşünme becerisini �kazanmada iyi bir eğitim almak önem taşımaktadır. Sorgulama becerisi kazanmada çeşitli edebî eserlerden yardım almak da bu becerinin kazandırılması için faydalı olacaktır. Eleştirel Yansıtıcı Düşünme Alt Boyutuna İlişkin Bulgular ve Yorumlar Araştırmanın beşinci alt problemi; “Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında „eleştirel yansıtıcı düşünme‟ alt boyutuna ilişkin hangi özellikler yer almaktadır?” şeklindedir. Bu alt probleme ilişkin bulgulara Tablo 5‟te yer verilmiştir. Tablo 5. EleĢtirel DüĢünme Becerisinin “EleĢtirel Yansıtıcı DüĢünme” Boyutuna ĠliĢkin Özelliklerin Kitaptaki Dağılımı Md. Örnek Cümleler Tekrarlanma Sıklığı (f) “Kâğıt paraların çuvalla taşındığı, enflasyon oranının yüzde bin 1 5.2. beş yüze ulaştığı, cumhuriyetler arasındaki siyasi dengelerin giderek bozulduğu Yugoslavya‟da, Sırp ulusçuluğu açısından Kosova yenilgisinin „anlam ve önemi‟ni kavramamak için ya tarih bilgisinden yoksun olmak gerek, ya da siyasetten nasibini hiç almamış olmak.” (s.13). “Aynı dilin, aynı kentin çocuklarıydılar, anne-babalarının dinleri 7 5.3. ayrı olsa da.” (s.18). “Eleştirel Yansıtıcı Düşünme” alt boyutuna ilişkin bulgular Tablo 5‟te görülmektedir. Buna göre; “5.3.Meydana gelen olayları daha derin anlamaya çalışır.” maddesi kitapta en çok tekrarlanan madde özelliğini taşımaktadır (f=7). “5.2.Özgün düşünceler geliştirir.” maddesi ise bir yerde görülmüştür. “5.1.Karşılaştığı problemlere kendi çözüm önerilerini geliştirir.” maddesi yönelik bir görüşe ise eserde rastlanmamıştır. Sonuç ve Öneriler Çalışmada, Nedim Gürsel‟in Balkanlara Dönüş adlı kitabında eleştirel bakış açısına yönelik düşüncelerin, eleştirel düşünme becerisiyle ilişkisi incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. 1. Nedim Gürsel‟in gezi kitabında, eleştirel düşünme becerisine yönelik belirlenen özelliklerin çoğunluğu görülmüştür. Bu sonuca göre; kitabın eleştirel düşünme açısından zengin olduğu şeklinde yorum yapılabilir. �2. “Zihinsel Cesaret” alt boyutunda “Yargı ve düşüncelerini genel geçer düşünce yapıları içine sığdırmaya uğraşmaz.” maddesine ilişkin bir düşünceye rastlanmamıştır. “Eleştirel Yansıtıcı Düşünme” alt boyutunda “Karşılaştığı problemlere kendi çözüm önerilerini geliştirir.” maddesine ilişkin de bir görüşe rastlanmamıştır. 3. Kitapta en çok “Bağımsız Düşünme” alt boyutunda, “Sorunları kendi kendine analiz eder.” maddesine (f=30) yönelik düşüncelerin olduğu görülmüştür. Ayrıca yine aynı alt boyutta “Karar verirken bağımsızdır.” (f=8) maddesinin de tekrarlanma sıklığı yüksektir. “Duygudaşlık Kurmayı Hayata Geçirme” alt boyutunda “Diğer bireyleri gerçekten anlamak için kendisini onların yerine koyabilir.” (f=18) maddesi de ön plana çıkmaktadır. “Derinlemesine Sorgulama” alt boyutunda “Bir metni okurken ifade edilen savların temelini oluşturan sorunları ve kavramları araştırır.” (f=7) maddesiyle daha sık karşılaşılmıştır. Son olarak; “Eleştirel Yansıtıcı Düşünme” alt boyutunda “Meydana gelen olayları daha derin anlamaya çalışır.” (f=7) maddesi diğerlerine göre daha çok tekrarlanmıştır. 4. Boyutlar genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde en çok “Bağımsız Düşünme” boyutunun tekrarlandığı, en az ise “Zihinsel Cesareti Geliştirme” boyutuna yönelik düşüncelerin olduğu görülmektedir. 5. En çok tekrarlanan “Bağımsız Düşünme” boyutundaki görüşlerden dikkat çekenlere şu örnekler verilebilir: “Ne yazık ki Balkanlar‟da „katıksız uluslar‟ın oluşturulması, „Büyük Sırbistan‟, „Büyük Arnavutluk‟, „Büyük Bulgaristan‟, başına ille de „büyük‟ sıfatı konulan ülkelerin geleceği gündemde bugün. Oysa Saraybosna‟da halklar Müslümanı, Katoliği, Ortodoksu ve Musevisiyle bir arada yaşıyorlardı.” (s.34). “Günümüzde krallar herkesten daha demokrat, daha kültürlü ve elbette daha saygın değil mi?” (s.59). “Doğayla insanın, taşla ağacın birlikteliğini, bu dost ortamın başka ülkelerde de sürüp gitmesini dilemekten başka bir şey gelmiyordu elimizden. Bu da az şey değil elbet. Yeter ki sınırların içimizde kanayan yarası kapansın. Kan dökülmesin Makedonya‟da.” (s.92). İkinci sırada en çok tekrarlanan “Duygudaşlık Kurmayı Hayata Geçirme” alt boyutuyla ilgili şu düşünceler örnek gösterilebilecektir: “Başçarşı‟nın lonca düzeninden kalma eski dükkânları Habsburglar‟ın doğu mimarisine özenerek yaptırdıkları vilayet binasıyla uyum içinde. Bu uyum halkların ve dinlerin birlikte var oluşundan kaynaklanıyor, estetik düzenlemeden değil.” (s.17). �“O kentlerin de camileri, sinagogları, kiliseleri var. O kentler de içlerinden geçen ırmakları, ırmakların üzerindeki her biri ayrı bir efsane anlatan köprüleri, yalnızca iki yakayı değil insanları da birbirine bağlayan köprüleriyle yer etmişler belleğimde. Mostar, Goradje, Tuzla…” (s.17). “İki yıldır süren kuşatma boyunca kentte açlığın salgın bir hastalık gibi kol gezdiğini, insanî yardımın halka ulaşmak şöyle dursun büyük ölçüde mafyayı beslediğini, savaşın tüm kent halkını açlığa mahkûm ederken kimilerini de zengin ettiğini duymuştum. Doğruymuş demek.”(s.26). Bu örneklerde de görüldüğü gibi, yazar farklı kültürlerin birlikte yaşayabilmesine değinirken, bu birlikteliğin güzelliğinden bahsetmiştir. Ülkede bulunan mimarî eseler, o güne kadar yaşananların izlerini taşır. Şehre değer katar. Zamanla farklı toplumlar arasında çatışmaların başlaması, kardeşçe yaşayan halkların çıkar uğruna birbirine düşman edilmesi, yazar tarafından keder ve endişeyle anlatılmıştır. Bosna‟yı değeli kılan camilerin, sinagogların, kiliselerin birarada bulunması ve huzuru temsil etmesidir. Araştırmanın sonuçlarına dayalı olarak şu önerilerde bulunmak mümkündür: 1. “Bağımsız Düşünme” alt boyutuna ilişkin pek çok görüş ve düşünce kitapta yer almaktadır. Dolayısıyla kitap eleştirel düşünme becerisinin bu alt boyutunun kazandırılması açısından kullanılabilir. 2. “Zihinsel Cesareti Geliştirme” alt boyutuna ilişkin kitapta daha az örneğe rastlanmıştır. Zihinsel cesareti geliştirme alt boyutunda birey, bağımsız ve tarafsız düşünebilmek için çevresinde yaygın olmayan görüşler ya da inançlar ile tarafsızca ilgilenmelidir (Şahinel, 2002:11). Nedim Gürsel‟in tarafsız olduğunu söylemek gerçekçi olmak gerekirse pek mümkün değildir. Ancak yazarın yaşananlara duygudaşlık kurarak yaklaştığını söylemek yanlış olamayacaktır. Bu nedenle, belirtilen alt boyuta ilişkin eserde daha az örneğe rastlandığını söylemek mümkündür. Bu alt boyutun kazandırılmasında olmasa da, duygudaşlık kurabilme konusunda kitaba başvurulabilir. 3. Farklı yazarlara ait romanların da eleştirel düşünme becerisini kazandırma açsından incelenmesi gerektiği ifade edilebilir. Günümüzde olaylara eleştirel yönden bakmak önem taşımaktadır. Bu becerinin eğitimle kazandırılmasında, edebî eserlerden yararlanmak gençlerin ilgisini çekebilecektir. Ayrıca konuya kuramsal yaklaşmak yerine, örneklerle aktarılmasını sağlamak daha faydalı olabilecektir. �Kaynakça Bal, M. (2008), Nedim Gürsel‟in Öykü ve Romanlarında Kent ve Kadın, Çukurova Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Adana. Çelik, G. (2010), 9. Sınıf Türk Edebiyatı Öğretim Programının Eleştirel Düşünme Açısından Öğretmen Görüşlerine Göre Değerlendirilmesi, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Çanakkale. Demirel, Ö. (2005), Kuramdan Uygulamaya Eğitimde Program Geliştirme, Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Genç, H.N. ve Tilbe A. (2008), “Postmodern Bir „Göçebe‟ Nedim Gürsel: İzler ve Gölgeler‟in Işığında Anlatının Ötesine”, Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2008, Sayı:19, s. 243-258. Gülveren, H. (2007), Eğitim Fakültesi Öğrencilerinin Eleştirel Düşünme Becerileri ve Bu Becerileri Etkileyen Eleştirel Düşünme Faktörleri, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, İzmir. Karasar, N. (2004), Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi, Ankara, Nobel Yayın. Kökdemir, D. (1999), Eleştirel Düşünme: Kapsamı ve Eğitimi, Başkent Üniversitesi-İİBF, ELYADAL Araştırma Laboratuvarı, Ankara. http://www.elyadal.org İndirme Tarihi: 10.12.2008. Kürüm, D. (2002), Öğretmen Adaylarının Eleştirel Düşünme Gücü, Eskişehir Anadolu Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Eskişehir. Marttin, V. (2006), “Balkan Savaşına Gidilen Süreçte Makedonya Sorunu ve Bir Osmanlı Diplomatının Faaliyetleri”, Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi,2006, 7(2), s. 1-18. Munzur, F. (1999), Türk Dili ve Edebiyatı Ders Kitaplarında Eleştirel Düşünme Eğitimi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme (Edebiyat 1 ve 2 Örnekleri), Ankara Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Özdemir, O. (2008), Eleştirel Düşünme, İstanbul, Kriter Yayınları. �Seferoğlu, S.S. ve Akbıyık, C. (2006), “Eleştirel Düşünme ve Öğretimi”, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı:30, s. 193-200. Şahinel, S. (2002), Eleştirel Düşünme, Ankara, Pegema Yayıncılık. Yapıcı, M. İ. (2007), “Bosna Hersek‟te Gerçekleştirilen Askeri Müdahalenin Uluslararası Hukuktaki Yeri”, Uluslararası Hukuk ve Politika, Cilt:2, No:8, s.1-24. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2200 Title A name given to the resource ELEŞTİREL DÜŞÜNME BECERİSİNİ KAZANDIRMADA BİR YOL GÜNLÜĞÜ: BALKANLARA DÖNÜŞ Author Author ÇELİK, Gamze Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Eleştirel düşünme, Balkanlara Dönüş, Nedim Gürsel. ÖZET Bu çalışmada literatür taraması yöntemiyle Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanın eleştirel düşünme becerisini geliştirmeye etkisi tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Eleştirel düşünme; sanat ve edebiyatla geliştirilmesi mümkün olan bir beceridir. Okullarda eleştirel düşünme becerisini ezberci anlayışla öğretmeye çalışmak yerine, bu tür romanlarla kazandırmak çok daha etkili olacaktır. Balkanlar doğasıyla, zengin tarihiyle ve kültürel çeşitliliğiyle insanlık için çok büyük bir mirastır. Değeri yüksek olan diğer her toprak gibi, Balkan toprakları da yıllarca savaşların, mücadelelerin ortasında kalmıştır. Saraybosna’da yaşanan acılar, savaşın soğuk yüzü aslında tüm insanlık için bir yaradır. Nedim Gürsel Balkanlara Dönüş adlı romanında Saraybosna dramını içten ve gerçekçi bir dille okura sunmaktadır. Yazar şiirsel üslûbuyla Makedonya’da geçirdiği günleri anlatırken, Balkanlardaki Türk mirasının önemi hakkında da bilgi vermektedir. Türk-Yunan ilişkilerine farklı bir bakışla yaklaşmaktadır. Balkanlara Dönüş bir gezi kitabı, anı kitabı hem de tarihe kaynaklık edecek bir güncedir. Romanı okuduğumuz zaman, savaşın geride bıraktıklarını görürüz. Yaşananları sorgulamamızı, yeniden düşünmemizi ve farklı bakış açısıyla olaylara bakmamızı sağlayan bir anlatım mevcuttur. Bilgi çağını yaşadığımız günümüzde kazanmamız gereken eleştirel bakış açısının gelişmesi için, bu gezi izlenimleri iyi bir yol gösterici olacaktır. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7cadb6c3bee094cdb43e45b321df9770.pdf a6775da6ed55fc70ab5f7a1cdc98a842 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context Alastair Graham-Marr Department of Liberal Arts, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science, Tokyo Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 05.11.2014. Abstract In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input 7 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 8 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Introduction The ability to comprehend spoken forms of a target language is a crucial factor for second language development and yet in many EFL curricula, the explicit teaching of listening skills draws little pedagogical attention. As noted by Nunan, (2002) listening is the Cinderella skill in second language learning, always overlooked for its elder sister— speaking. Teachers and curricula tend to focus on grammar or vocabulary, leaving listening skills to develop on their own. And, in many contexts, this deprives language learners of many opportunities to further learn. Comprehending auditory input requires an understanding of the target language sound system. However, the phonologies of human language are not universal constants. English, for example, is a stress-timed, or foot-timed language, and has a regular rhythm pattern. As Halliday points out, salient syllables tend to occur at regular intervals as “generally speaking, speakers of English like their feet to all be roughly the same length.” (Halliday, 1994: 293) The tendency for salient syllables to be prominent at regular intervals, irrespective of the actual number of syllables between prominence, results in function words being reduced to accomodate the regular spacing of syllable prominence. The tendency to have salient syllables at regular intervals is known as isochrony and is a feature of stress timed languages such as English. Isochrony is the mechanism that governs such suprasegmental phonological features as vowel reduction, elision, elipsis and so on. However, not all language are isochronous. Syllable-timed languages such as Korean, where the time needed to pronounce each syllable is roughly equal, and mora-timed languages such as Japanese, where the time needed to pronounce each mora is roughly equal, are phonologically distinct from English. As a result, syllabletimed and mora-timed languages often lack many of the common suprasegmental phonological features found in English. For Japanese learners, the phonological structure of Japanese can interfere with the comprehension of naturally spoken English. Listening skills can broadly be divided into two categories: bottom-up decoding and top-down interpretation. Bottom-up decoding refers to the process of decoding and assigning meaning to auditory input. Top-down interpretation describes the process of using knowledge of grammar, discourse, context and culture to assign meaning, both filling in the gaps of understanding and augmenting meaning. Received pedagogy, based on numerous empirical studies, has been to explicitly teach learners about the sound system, both its segmentals and suprasegmentals, together with a regime of top-down strategies. (see for example Richards, 1983, 9 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 1990; Peterson, 1991; Goh 1997, Field 1998; Vandergrift, 1999) Although, well found in the research literature, this aspect of teaching is frequently overlooked. In Japan, listening is very much subservient to grammar. One likely reason is that most Japanese universities do not have a listening component on their entrance exams. As a result, there is little incentive for high schools to add listening to their curricula. Yet, when many students struggle with listening comprehension, this omission puts students at a disadvantage. It is well understood that comprehensible input is crucial for language acquisition (see for example, Krashen, 1985; Long 1985). Students need massive amounts of input to acquire an understanding of a target language. The more comprehensible input one gets, the more one will learn. So when learners from a mora-timed language background are not taught about the English sound system, they are often unable to comprehend auditory input that would otherwise be comprehensible, and thus lose vital opportunities for L2 language acquisition. The development of listening skills should be a priority from early education on to maximize learning opportunities. That it is subservient is perhaps one reason for the chronically low English abilities that the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science and Technology is currently seeking to change in time for the 2020 Olympics. Purpose of Study A weakness in previous studies has been a lack of awareness that learners from different phonological backgrounds might be different. Studies tend to treat L2 learners as being part of a great monolithic category, L2 learner. There have been many empirical studies which have repeatedly found that explicitly pointing out the phonological features of English can facilitate gains in listening comprehension, however most of these studies have been done with students from mixed phonological backgrounds. This study brings the voice of students coming from a mora-timed phonological background to the table. This study investigates student opinion about whether explicit guidance is needed to help develop listening skills, and secondly, if students feel that such guidance contributes to improved listening comprehension. Participants The participants in the study were 94 first year university students (79 males and 15 females) in three different classes studying English as a required first-year course in the engineering faculty at a well regarded science university in Tokyo. Most of the 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics students in the class were quite motivated to learn English, seeing English as important for their futures. Although the English proficiency level of the students was not directly measured during the course of the study, the entrance exam system in Japan acts to level students, in that all of the students in the study had to pass an English exam to enter the university. As a result, most of the students in the engineering department could be said to be at an intermediate or threshold level (CEFR B1) of English proficiency. Although there were 94 students registered in the three classes, survey data from only 80 students was used due to either incomplete data or student absences. Class Procedure The class was typical of many first year English courses in Japan. It was taught by a native speaker of English, the writer, with a focus on oral communication. According to the school handbook, the purpose of the course was to develop a basic foundation in communicative English by giving students exposure to natural, raw English and develop the students’ listening and speaking skills. All the classes were 90 minutes long. Typically each class started with a basic warmup activity which was usually an easy, unchallenging speaking activity. This was usually followed by a listening activity where students were asked to answer a few basic comprehension questions. Following this activity, the listening was deconstructed with a listening activity that focused student attention on a particular suprasegmental feature that was present in the initial listening. Students were made aware of the phonological feature and given opportunities to listen to other short sentences where the target feature was present. After the listening focus, the rest of the class time was spent working on speaking activities and obviously such activities also featured listening, in that students had to listen to each other to complete the speaking activities. The material used for the class was based on CEFR standards for B1 level classes. Listening activities in the class took many forms. There were comprehension listenings where students had to listen to a passage and then answer comprehension questions. There were analytical listenings where students were introduced to a particular phonological feature, then had to identify that feature in a follow-up listening. Lastly, there were teacher sourced dictation activities that were used to either review a particular suprasegmental feature or introduce it. All three listening types were used routinely. The concept was to introduce students to natural, connected speech through exposure to reduced form English with a reduced lexical load. With such material students would often struggle to answer the questions, reporting that they had understood only 11 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context 50% to 60% of the listening. However, when asked to check the scripts, students constantly found that knew close to 100% of the words used in the listening. The analytical listenings were based on the main comprehension listenings, as the audio material consisted of single sentences that had been pulled from the comprehension listenings in order to give students a closer look at the phonological features. For homework students were asked to listen to the comprehension listenings repeatedly, until they could understand each listening with 100% comprehension. The teacher referred this activity as perfect listening. Instrumentation A questionnaire was administered at the end of the course. The questions were asked in Japanese and students were encouraged to make further comments in either English or Japanese. Relevant to this study, the following questions were asked: 1. Do you feel that your listening ability has improved this year? 2. Do you feel knowing about stress, weak vowels, dropped sounds and so on, has helped you to improve your listening ability? 3. Do you think perfect listening is a good way to improve your listening skills? 4. Do you feel it is necessary for students to receive explicit instructions on how to improve their listening skills? The Results Most students in the study felt that their listening abilities had improved over the course of the school year, with 80% reporting some improvement. Asked if knowledge about phonology was helpful in improving one’s listening skills 92.5% answered in the affirmative. Many students commented that knowing about the phonological features made it easier to catch the meaning. Quite clearly, most students felt that knowledge of the English sound system contributed to the development of their own listening abilities. With respect to the perfect listening technique described above, listening to a particular passage repeatedly until it can be perfectly understood, again the overwhelming view was that this was a useful technique with 93.75% of students answering positively. However, even with this positive rating, when asked if they actually tried this technique, just over half of the students reported actually doing this, as many students reported that they did not have the spare time needed to this, 12 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics which possibly suggests that this has to be worked into the curriculum more effectively. With respect to guidance, 80% of students felt that guidance was necessary to help students develop their listening abilities. The most popular reason given was that guidance made learning more efficient. In addition to efficiency gains, most of the others reasons given were was that having guidance helped sustain motivation and that guidance made it easier to tackle the difficult task of learning to comprehend naturally spoken English. The results of the questionnaire are shown in Table 1. Strong Yes 1. Did your listening improve? 2 2. Does knowledge of phonological 20 features help? 3. Do you think perfect listening is 16 helpful? 4. Is guidance necessary? 24 Yes No 62 54 15 5 Strong No 1 1 59 4 1 40 14 2 Discussion Many theories on listening take a global focus on how learners apply meaning to auditory input, postulating that learners use textual schemata—knowledge of discourse, and content schemata— knowledge of the world and its contextual clues, to assign meaning to the incoming auditory input. In these schema-theoretic perspectives learners draw on schema to provide a frame of reference by which listeners assign meaning to auditory input. (see for example Long, 1989). As a result many pedagogies have focused on stimulating and developing these top-down schemata. However, for learners from a mora-timed phonological background, the more problematic area of listening is not appending meaning to decoded input, but rather the decoding process itself. Meaning that pedagogies that focus on the more global processes, tend to assume that the decoding skills are naturally picked up. However, in a Japanese context where learners struggle to decode input, an information processing model might be more helpful to identify and understand where listening comprehension impediments exist. In such a model, learners decode auditory input in an ascending order of complexity, from phonemes, to syllables, to words and lexical chunks, on to a syntactic level where intonation is factored in. Meaning is finally rendered referencing the context, at the apex of this processing stream. (see for example Field, 2008) Suprasegmental decoding difficulties result in many learners getting stuck at the lower levels of this model. However, European13 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context based pedagogical models often focus on higher-level processing, leaving lowerlevel processing to develop as a felicitous by-product of simple exposure, something not so suited for many Asian contexts. However, even in Japan lower-level listening skills are often neglected. There are numerous reasons for this. First of all, pedagogy is often guided by what is done in Europe and America. Secondly but perhaps more importantly, listening is rarely tested in university entrance exams. These influential entrance exams tend to focus on difficult aspects of vocabulary and grammar. As a result, teachers tend to focus on the grammar that will likely come up on these exams. When attention is focussed on test preparation, skills development becomes ancillary. As a result, students with weak listening skills are not often recognized as having weak listening skills. And, given that listening comprehension is a key component of second language acquisition, this inattention to skills development can result in years of lost learning opportunities, opportunities which cannot be replaced. Moreover and somewhat sadly, empirical research shows that listening skills can be taught, meaning that these lost opportunities need not be lost. In an Asian context, Goh (1997) found that an increased learner metacognitive awareness in listening was positively correlated with better listening skills. Tsui and Fullilove (1998) found that bottom-up processing was an important factor for listening performance. The students in this study agreed. Were a pedagogical choice to focus on listening made and listening skills development made a priority, more learning opportunities could be given to language learners during the early stages of their language development. Listening comprehension is a teachable skill. And in the context of Japan, with a mora-timed L1, students can benefit from such instruction. Conclusion Listening is central to learning. It is the foundation of a formal education and it is the foundation of language acquisition. As teachers, perhaps our number one responsibility, irrespective of what we teach, is the responsibility to prepare our students to act in the greater world beyond the classroom, both in the present and in the future. The world is full of learning opportunities and for language learners, there are numerous linguistic resources waiting to be found and exploited to one’s best advantage. Teaching our students how to listen will help them to access the world outside the classroom. 14 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 15 �Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context References Field, J., (1998). Skills and strategies: towards a new methodology for listening. ELT Journal, 52, 110 - 118. Field, J. (2008). Listening in the Language Classroom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Goh, C., (1997). Metacognitive awareness and second language listeners. ELT Journal, 51, 361-369. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.). London: Arnold. Krashen, S. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman. Long, D.R. (1989), Second Language Listening Comprehension: A schema-theoretic perspective. Modern Language Journal, 73(1), 32-40. Long, M. (1985). lnput and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 377-393). Rowley, MA; Newbury House. Nunan, D., (2002). Listening in Language Learning, Methodology. In J. Richards & W. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 238-241). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peterson, P., (1991). A Synthesis of methods for interactive listening. In M. CelceMurcia, (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (2nd ed.) (pp.106-122). New York: Newbury House. Richards, Jack, (1983). Listening Comprehension: Approach, Design, Procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 219-240. Richards, Jack, (1990). The Language Teaching Matrix. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Tsui, A., & J. Fullilove. (1998). Bottom-up or top-down processing as a discriminator of L2 listening performance. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 432451. 16 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Vandergrift, L, (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension: acquiring successful strategies. ELT Journal, 53(3), 168-176. 17 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2802 Title A name given to the resource Elevating the development of listening skills to foster SLA in an Asian context Author Author Graham-Marr, Alastair Abstract A summary of the resource. In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as by-products of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Keywords: listening skills, EFL curricula, comprehensible input Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PL Languages and literatures of Eastern Asia, Africa, Oceania,PR English literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3352 Title A name given to the resource ELEVATING THE DEVELOPMENT OF LISTENING SKILLS TO FOSTER SLA IN AN ASIAN CONTEXT Author Author Graham-Marr, Alastair Abstract A summary of the resource. In EFL curricula where language is taught as a knowledge set, links between pedagogical theory and practice can be quite strong. However, links between pedagogical theory and practice seems more tenuous when applied to the teaching of skills, in particular, L2 listening skills which are often left to develop as byproducts of a student’s grammatical and lexical understanding. And, in many contexts, this oversight can have serious consequences. Given that English is a stress-timed language, learners coming from syllabletimed or mora-timed languages, such as Japanese or Korean, can be robbed of learning opportunities when listening skills are deficient. The crucial role of comprehensible input in second language acquisition is well established, so when learners have developed listening skills, all language that is basically understood is available as a learning opportunity as comprehensible input. However, when learners have incipient listening skills, learners are often unable to comprehend auditory input containing words that are largely understood, thus losing opportunities for L2 language development. Learners coming from syllable-timed or mora-timed languages often lack a natural understanding of suprasegmental phonology, impeding comprehension. It is well established in the research literature that listening skills are best taught as a set of sub-skills to help students develop a basic phonetic awareness, however such research findings have not always made it into practice. This qualitative study reports on a set of first year university students at a Japanese university where listening was taught as a set of sub-skills. An overwhelming majority felt this type of instruction helped to improve their listening skills, suggesting that this fundamental pedagogy needs greater emphasis in countries with syllable-timed or mora-timed native languages. The results of this study are described and interpreted in the context of the English education system in Japan. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c04721ed36059768bfb41405ec386ded.docx 00d320f29623786c16e3dd996eed84c5 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c320b50940a16ec9676fbfbe7d41e534.pdf 1b357ba169197687ee9152a6acdce986 PDF Text Text ELİF ŞAFAK’IN ROMANLARINDA ANNELİK SORUNSALI Edina USTAVDİĆ Sarajevo Üniversitesi, Felsefe Fakültesi, Doğu Dilleri Bölümü, Saraybosna / Bosna Hersek Anahtar Kelimeler: Elif Şafak, roman, annelik, feminist edebi eleştiri. ÖZET Elif Şafak günümüzün hem Türkiye’de hem dünyada en çok okunan Türk kadın yazarlarından birisidir. Bosna Hersek’te dar bir kesim dışında henüz bilinmeyen bir yazar olması nedeniyle yazarın akademik çevrelerden başlayarak daha geniş kitlelere tanıtılması ihtiyacı bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışma böyle bir amaç gütmenin yanısıra, Elif Şafak’ın eserlerinde en çok işlediği konuların başında gelen kadın meselesine annelik sorunsalı üzerinden ışık tutmayı hedeflemektedir. Elif Şafak’ın son üç romanı olan Siyah Süt, Aşk ve İskender annelik olgusunun değişik açılarıyla ele alındığı, sorgulandığı eserler olarak bu çalışmanın temelini oluşturur. Çalışmada Doğu ve Batı’daki annelik rolleri, annenin toplum inşasındaki etkisi, farklı anne ve çocuk ilişkileri romanlardaki kadın karakterler üzerinden irdelenmiştir. Annelik sorunsalı bağlamındaki karakter ve durum analizleri feminist eleştiri kuramının teorik çerçevesi içinde yapılmıştır. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2202 Title A name given to the resource ELİF ŞAFAK’IN ROMANLARINDA ANNELİK SORUNSALI Author Author USTAVDİĆ, Edina Abstract A summary of the resource. Anahtar Kelimeler: Elif Şafak, roman, annelik, feminist edebi eleştiri. ÖZET Elif Şafak günümüzün hem Türkiye’de hem dünyada en çok okunan Türk kadın yazarlarından birisidir. Bosna Hersek’te dar bir kesim dışında henüz bilinmeyen bir yazar olması nedeniyle yazarın akademik çevrelerden başlayarak daha geniş kitlelere tanıtılması ihtiyacı bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışma böyle bir amaç gütmenin yanısıra, Elif Şafak’ın eserlerinde en çok işlediği konuların başında gelen kadın meselesine annelik sorunsalı üzerinden ışık tutmayı hedeflemektedir. Elif Şafak’ın son üç romanı olan Siyah Süt, Aşk ve İskender annelik olgusunun değişik açılarıyla ele alındığı, sorgulandığı eserler olarak bu çalışmanın temelini oluşturur. Çalışmada Doğu ve Batı’daki annelik rolleri, annenin toplum inşasındaki etkisi, farklı anne ve çocuk ilişkileri romanlardaki kadın karakterler üzerinden irdelenmiştir. Annelik sorunsalı bağlamındaki karakter ve durum analizleri feminist eleştiri kuramının teorik çerçevesi içinde yapılmıştır Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-17 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2203-4548