96 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6b4ae79e55daa67b68363bd28ec7a508.pdf 5e2b4c8381dea1f58720bd0e1f22648d PDF Text Text EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA COMMUNICATION ON BRAND EQUITY AND BRAND PURCHASE INTENTION: A CASE STUDY ON DOMESTIC BRANDS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Sumeja Softić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina sumejasoftic@hotmail.com Mersid Poturak International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina mersid.poturak@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Social media is forming an increasingly central part of how companies communicate their marketing strategies to their customers. Online communities carry a strong and influential voice, and there is much to be gained from engaging directly with people through these channels – whether it is reaching and keeping existing customers or acquiring new ones. In light of such positive ground for social media this study aims to provide an empirical analysis of the impact social media communication has on brand equity and purchase intention. A systematic literature review has been conducted in order to understand how the dimensions of social media create word of mouth i.e. electronic word of mouth (E-WOM) on social media platforms and how this E-WOM further influences brand equity and customers’ purchase intention of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 300 data sets were generated through a standardized online-survey and analyzed in SPSS. The results of the empirical study showed that both firm-created and user-generated social media communication influence brand equity, consequently impacting brand purchase intention. Keywords: Social Media Communication, E-WOM, Brand Equity, Purchase Intention, Bosnia and Herzegovina JEL Classification: M31, M37 1. Introduction The fast paced integration of Internet as a marketing tool in recent years has had a huge impact on how brands chose to communicate with their customers. The Internet has provided a huge platform for local and global brands to expand their market and acquire more customers than ever before. An increasing number of consumers are embracing the internet and spend more time searching for information, which largely affects their purchase decisions. Given such opportunities, firms and their brands have dived into Social Media Marketing, which emerged as the most popular and effective tool of marketing and communication nowadays. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 129 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) As proposed by Bernoff & Li, 2011 social media platforms offer an opportunity for customers to interact with other consumers; thus, companies are no longer the sole source of brand communication. Moreover, consumers are increasingly using social media sites to search for information and turning away from traditional media, such as television, radio, and magazines (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). This phenomenon has reduced marketers’ control of brand management (Berthon, Pitt, McCarthy, & Kates, 2007). Therefore, it is of crucial importance to understand that customers’ perceptions of brands are not anymore influenced only by what the companies communicate, but what other customers have to say about the particular brand as well. This is a relatively new advancement clinched alongside Bosnia and Herzegovina which is a transitional market full of marketing opportunities for foreign and domestic brands. However, most of domestic brands still do not have online presence and are not able to manage the challenges of the new digital era and its advantages. In fact, only 35 per cent of consumers in Bosnia and Herzegovina opt for domestic products when doing their shopping, according to a research in 2015 by the agency Global Market Solutions (GMS). As the values of a brand depend largely on their customers’ perceptions, domestic companies need to face the challenges of the digital era and monitor and engage their target audiences on social media platforms. This article is part of a larger study that aims to fill a gap in the literature with respect to understanding the effects of E-WOM, which is created of firm-created and usergenerated communication on social media, towards brand equity and consumers’ purchase intention, a topic of relevance as evidenced by many researchers, including Villanueva, Yoo, & Hanssens (2008), Taylor (2013) and many other papers such are Christodoulides, Jevons, & Bonhomme (2012), Smith, Fischer, & Yongjian (2012). Results of this research will enable domestic brands to learn more about their clients and this work will be an important source of information for marketing managers in terms of planning and developing their strategies. Data was collected through a standardized online survey. The survey included questions assigned to each one of the examined variables and was distributed to active social media users in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A total of 300 usable responds were collected and analyzed. The main objective of this paper was to explore the utilization of Social Media marketing activity of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina and understand its effects on brand equity and customers’ purchase decisions. Another objective of the study was to quantify constructs concerning the current state of customer’s perceptions and attitudes towards social media activity of domestic brands and their purchase intention. This article provides a platform for further research, highlighting business implications and providing recommendations for practical business applications. 2. Literature Review As defined by the Merriam Webster Dictionary: “Communication is the act or process of using words, sounds, signs, or behaviors to express or exchange information or to express your ideas, thoughts, feelings, etc., to someone else.” Therefore, social media communication can be interpreted as the transmission of a message to others, via an online platform. 130 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Social media marketing enables marketers to distribute their messages and content to a broader audience while enabling them to interact directly with their existing and potential customers. In order to do this quickly and cost efficiently brands must understand where their target audience spends their time on social media. However, besides the firm-created content on social media, Web 2.0 is a term that describes the Internet as a platform whereby content is continuously modified by all internet users in a participatory and collaborative approach (Bernoff & Li, 2011). Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010 define user-generated content (UGC) as the sum of all ways in which people make use of social media. The term user-generated content is usually applied to describe the various forms of media content that are publicly available and created by Internet users (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Hence Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer (2012) and Schivinski & Dabrowski (2013) have used the dimensions of social media communication as firm created content and user generated content. Word of Mouth is the powerful tool to influence people and also can influence their buying behavior. This can be proved according to (Richins & Root-Shaffer, 1988) who stated that Word of Mouth has been shown to play major role for customers’ buying decisions. Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner, Walsh, & Gremler (2004) define online Word of Mouth as being: “Any positive or negative statement made by potential, actual, or former customers about the product or company which is made available to a multitude of people and institutions via the internet”. According to Cheung, Chan, & Rabjohn, 2008 more and more consumers use Web 2.0 tools such as online discussion forums, consumer review sites, weblogs, and social network sites to exchange product information. Online Word of Mouth can provide the opportunity to consumers to read other consumers’ consumption opinions and experiences as well as write contributions by themselves. Another key concept, studied by various researchers is the brand equity. It is a marketing asset (Styles & Ambler, 1995) that can produce a relationship that differentiates the bonds between a firm and its public and that nurtures long-term buying behavior. The understanding of brand equity and its growth raises competitive barriers and drives brand wealth (Yoo, Donthu, & Lee, 2000). This research employs (Aaker, 1999) construct of brand equity, defined as a “set of brand assets and liabilities linked to a brand, its name and symbol that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a firm and/or to that firm’s customers”. According to (Aaker, 1999) brand equity is a multidimensional concept with first four core dimensions as brand awareness, perceived quality, brand associations and brand loyalty. There are many studies showing the relationship between social media and brand equity like Bruhn et al. (2012), Kim & Ko (2010), Schivinski & Dabrowski (2013) and Christodoulides et al. (2012) etc. Some studies have shown this relationship through electronic word of mouth which is the ultimate result of social media communications like Wolny & Muelller, 2013, Yasin & Zahari, 2011, Murtiasih, Sucherly, & Siringoringo, 2013 etc. Bruhn et al., 2012 have used the term social media communication for social media as it is mainly the communications which take place on social media platforms. Moreover, empirical evidence indicated that brand equity can affect purchase intention in various contexts (Ashill & Sinha, 2004); (Chang & Liu, 2009), but the number of studies which apply Aaker’s brand equity model to measure the effect of its dimensions on purchase intention is limited, given that the purchase intention refers to the subjective judgment by the consumers that is reflected after general evaluation to buy products or services (Shao, Julie, & Wagner, 2004). ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 131 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) 3. Hypotheses By using the identified constructs from the literature following hypotheses for the research have been formulized: H1: There is a significant relationship between E-WOM and Brand equity of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina H2: There is a significant relationship between Brand Equity and customers’ purchase intention of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina Hypotheses that support the main hypotheses are outlined below: H1a: User-generated social media communication has a significant effect on E-WOM H1b: Firm-created social media communication has a significant effect on E-WOM 4. Data and Methodology For conducting this research, with the aim to get a closer insight into customers’ purchase intention against social media communication of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina, independent variables were identified as a result of literature review. Accordingly, the survey consisted of questions that were adapted from previous researches. Table 1: Review of survey questions Construct and Measurement Alpha Brand Awareness I can easily recognize this brand among other competing brands. 0.93 Brand Association I trust the company who owns this particular brand. 0.87 Brand Loyalty Perceived Quality This brand would be my first choice. In comparison to alternative brands, the likely quality of this brand is extremely high. 0.91 0.89 Reference Cathy, Haemoon, &( )Assaf, 2012 Severi, Choon Ling, &( )Nasermoadeli, 2014 Uslu, Durmuş, & Kobak( )Kolivar, 2013 )Uslu et al., 2013( I am satisfied with the company’s social ]media communications for [brand 0.92 The level of the company’s social media communications for [brand] meets my expectations 0.92 The company’s social media Firm-created social media communication communications for [brand] are very attractive This company’s social media communications for [brand] perform well, when compared with the social media communications of other companies 132 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book Schivinski and( )Dabrowski 2013 0.93 0.87 �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation I am satisfied with the content generated on ]social media sites by other users about [brand 0.90 The level of the content generated on social media sites by other users about [brand] meets my expectations Schivinski and( 0.92 )Dabrowski 2013 The content generated by other users about brand] is very attractive[ User-generated social media communication 0.82 The content generated on social media sites by other users about [brand] performs well, when 0.86 compared with other brands When I buy a product, the online reviews on the product are helpful in my decision making The number of positive product reviews online affects my purchase decision E-WOM The number of negative product reviews online affect my purchase decision 0.84 0.90 )Mirza & Almana, 2013( 0.93 I would buy this product/brand rather than any other brands available 0.89 I am willing to recommend that others buy Brand purchase intention this product/brand 0.94 I intend to purchase this product/brand in the Future Yoo, Donthu, and( )Lee 2000 0.89 The target group of respondents included active social media users in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Social networking statistics show (as of mid-2013) that around 1.5 million social media users exist in the country (“TOP 100 Facebook Brands Social Media Stats from Bosnia and Herzegovina,” 2013). The largest age group among social media users is 18-24, followed by 25-34. Even though these statistics apply to Facebook users, it is worthwhile to mention that this social media site is the most used social media network in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Male users slightly dominate female users according to the statistics. A sample of this target group was reached through an online data collection method. Respondents were identified with the snowball sampling method, (Malhotra, 2009) where researchers requested students, teachers, professionals and other people from different walks of life to help. 5. Results and Analysis Even though 332 responses were submitted, only 300 out of these were used in the analysis. Incomplete questionnaires, as well as the ones where respondents have not become a fan of any domestic brand have been rejected. The sample was a maledominantone (54.7% were male). The majority of respondents were in the 21-25 age group, (52.7%) followed by 25-30 (36%), below 20 (6.3%), 30-35 (4.3%) and above 35 (0.7%). ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 133 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) Age distribution represents statistics that show that the largest social media user group in Bosnia and Herzegovina is in the 18-30 age group (“TOP 100 Facebook Brands Social Media Stats from Bosnia and Herzegovina,” 2013). All respondents were from Bosnia and Herzegovina. As for the educational background of respondents, 50.3% had a bachelor’s degree, 27% had a master’s degree, 22.7% had a high school diploma. In these groups, 46% were employed in the private sector, 45.3% were students 3.7% were employeres in the public sector, 2.7% were unemployed and the same percent (2.7%) were selfemployed. The time the sample group spends on social media sites is as follows: 54.3% uses them more than two hours a day, 38.7% one to two hours a day, 6% less than one hour a day and 0.3%, 0.7% one to two hours a week and 0.3% other. For testing hypotheses of the study linear regression was used. The table below shows the relationship between Social media communication, calculated as the mean of firm-created and user-generated content and E-WOM, which is highly significant and therefore confirms the supporting hypotheses, H1a and H1b. Table 2: Relationship between Social media communication and E-WOM Coefficientsa Unstandardized Model B 1 Coefficients Std. Error Beta )Constant( 2.508 210. SMC_mean .409 .055 Standardized Coefficients .397 t .Sig 11.940 .000 7.467 .000 a. Dependent Variable: EWOM_mean A significant positive relationship among E-WOM and Brand Equity was found as presented in the table below, proving H1. Table 3: Relationship between E-WOM and Brand Equity Coefficientsa Model Unstandardized B 1 Coefficients Std. Error Beta )Constant( 2.542 .178 EWOM_mean .367 .043 Standardized Coefficients t .441 .Sig 14.277 .000 8.483 .000 a. Dependent Variable: BE_mean Testing the variables further, it was found that there is a strong and significant positive relationship between Brand equity and Purchase intention as well. 134 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation Table 3: Relationship between Brand Equity and Purchase Intention Coefficientsa Model B 1 Unstandardized Coeffi- Standardized cients Coefficients Std. Error Beta )Constant( 1.728 .178 BE_mean .607 .044 .627 t .Sig 9.711 .000 13.909 .000 a. Dependent Variable: PI_mean Therefore, we can clearly observe that the social media communication affects Brand equity, through E-WOM, further influencing customers’ purchase intentions of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 6. Conclusion Given the findings above, this research provides important insights about effects of social media communication on brand equity and customers’ purchase intentions of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The limitation of the study is that the sample is relatively small and that it is carried out in the context of Bosnia and Herzegovina only. Accordingly, suggestions for future researches would be based on going more deeply into other dimension affecting consumers’ purchase decisions and analyzing larger samples. This article represents a very unique set of information for the domestic brands operating in Bosnia and Herzegovina, who can use this knowledge to build up their online marketing communication in order to reach more consumers who are willing to buy their products. This research empirically proved that social media communication of domestic brands, which creates E-WOM affects brand equity, highly influencing the purchase decisions of their customers. 7. References • Aaker, D. A. (1999). Managing Brand Equity: Captalizing on the Value of a Brand Name. The Free Press. New York, USA. • Ashill, N. J., & Sinha, A. (2004). An Exploratory Study into the Impact of Components of Brand Equity and Country of Origin Effects on Purchase Intention. Journal of Asia - Pacific Business, 5(3). • Bernoff, J., & Li, C. (2011). Effects of Brand Attitude and Familiarity. The Journal of Marketing, 59(1), 63–77. • Berthon, P. R., Pitt, L. F., McCarthy, I., & Kates, S. M. (2007). When Customers Get Clever: Mangerial Approaches to Dealing with Creative Customers. Business Horizons, 50(1), 39–47. • Bruhn, M., Schoenmueller, V., & Schäfer, D. B. (2012). Are Social Media Replacing Traditional Media in Terms of Brand Equity Creation? Management Research Review, 35(9), 770–790. • Cathy, H. C. H., Haemoon, O., & Assaf, G. A. (2012). A Customer-Based Brand Equity Model for Upscale Hotels. Journal of Travel Research, 51(1), 81–93. • Chang, H. H., & Liu, Y. M. (2009). The impact of brand equity on brand preference and purchase intentions in the service industries. The Service Industries Journal, 29(12), 1687–1706. • Cheung, C. M. K., Chan, M. K. O., & Rabjohn, N. (2008). The impact of electronic word-of-mouth. Internet Research, 18(3), 229. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 135 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’16) • Christodoulides, G., Jevons, C., & Bonhomme, J. (2012). Memo to Marketers: Quantitative Evidence for Change. How User-Generated Content Really Affects Brands. Journal of Advertising Research, 52(1:53). • Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P., Walsh, G., & Gremler, D. D. (2004). Electronic Word-Of-Mouth Via Consumer-Opinion Platforms: What Motivates Consumers to Articulate Themselves on the Internet? Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 38–52. • Kaplan, A. M., & Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the World, Unite!The Challenges and Opportunities of Social Media. Business Horizons, 53(1), 59–68. • Kim, A. J., & Ko, E. (2010). Impacts of Luxury Fashion Brand’s Social Media Marketing on Customer Relationship and Purchase Intention. Journal of Global Fashion Marketing, 1(3), 164–171. • Malhotra, N. (2009). Basic Marketing Research; a decision making approach (3rd ed.). Pearson International. • Mangold, W. G., & Faulds, D. J. (2009). Social Media: The New Hybrid Element of the Promotion. Business Horizons, 52(4), 357–365. • Mirza, A. A., & Almana, M. A. (2013). The Impact of Electronic Word of Mouth on Consumers’ Purchasing Decisions. International Journal of Computer Applications (0975 – 8887), 82(9). • Murtiasih, S., Sucherly, & Siringoringo, H. (2013). How Word of Mouth Influence Brand Equity for Automotive Products in Indonesia. Procedia – Social and Behavioural Sciences, 81, 40–44. • Richins, M. L., & Root-Shaffer, T. (1988). The Role of Involvement and Opinion Leadership in Consumer Word-of-Mouth: An Implicit Model Made Explicit. Advances in Consumer Research, 15, 32–36. • Schivinski, B., & Dabrowski, D. (2013). The Impact of Brand Communication on Brand Equity Dimensions and Brand Purchase Intention Through Facebook. GUT FME Working Paper Series A. Gdansk (Poland): Gdansk University of Technology, Faculty of Management and Economics, 4(4), 1–24. • Severi, E., Choon Ling, K., & Nasermoadeli, A. (2014). The Impacts of Electronic Word of Mouth on Brand Equity in the Context of Social Media. International Journal of Business and Management, 9(8). • Shao, C. Y., Julie, B., & Wagner, J. A. (2004). The Effects of Appropriateness of Services Contact Personnel Dress on Customer Expectations of Involvement and Gender. Journal of Business Research, 57, 1164–1176. • Smith, A. N., Fischer, E., & Yongjian, C. (2012). How Does Brand-related Usergenerated Content Differ Across YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter? Journal of Interactive Marketing, 26(2), 102–113. • Styles, C., & Ambler, T. (1995). Brand Management. London. • Taylor, C. R. (2013). Editorial: Hot Topics in Advertising Research. International Journal of Advertising, 32(1:7). • TOP 100 Facebook Brands Social Media Stats from Bosnia and Herzegovina. (2013, September). Retrieved from http://www.socialbakers.com • Uslu, A., Durmuş, B., & Kobak Kolivar, B. (2013). Analyzing the Brand Equity of Turkish Airlines Services: Comparing the Japanese and Turkish Perspectives. In The Proceedings of 9th International Strategic Management Conference (Vol. 99, pp. 446–454). • Villanueva, J., Yoo, S., & Hanssens, D. M. (2008). The Impact of Marketing-induced Versus Word-of mouth Customer Acquisition on Customer Equity Growth. Journal of Marketing Research, XLV(2), 48–59. • Webster, M. (2016, April). Communication. Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/communication 136 ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book �Regional Economic Development: Entrepreneurship and Innovation • Wolny, J., & Muelller, C. (2013). Analysis of fashion consumers’ motives to engage in electronic word-of-mouth communication through social media platforms. Journal of Marketing Management, 29(5), 562–583. • Yasin, N. M., & Zahari, A. R. (2011). Does family and viral marketing have any effect on brand equity? Journal of Contemporary Marketing Review, 1(9), 19–31. • Yoo, B., Donthu, N., & Lee, S. (2000). An Examination of Selected Marketing Mix Elements and Brand Equity. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(2), 195–211. ICESoS 2016 - Proceedings Book 137 �� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3336 Title A name given to the resource EFFECTS OF SOCIAL MEDIA COMMUNICATION ON BRAND EQUITY AND BRAND PURCHASE INTENTION: A CASE STUDY ON DOMESTIC BRANDS IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Author Author SOFTIC, Sumeja POTURAK, Mersid Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: Social media is forming an increasingly central part of how companies communicate their marketing strategies to their customers. Online communities carry a strong and influential voice, and there is much to be gained from engaging directly with people through these channels – whether it is reaching and keeping existing customers or acquiring new ones. In light of such positive ground for social media this study aims to provide an empirical analysis of the impact social media communication has on brand equity and purchase intention. A systematic literature review has been conducted in order to understand how the dimensions of social media create word of mouth i.e. electronic word of mouth (E-WOM) on social media platforms and how this E-WOM further influences brand equity and customers’ purchase intention of domestic brands in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 300 data sets were generated through a standardized online-survey and analyzed in SPSS. The results of the empirical study showed that both .rm-created and user-generated social media communication in.uence brand equity, consequently impacting brand purchase intention. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/39e086f08c6726d6ac6cece3b6c4effe.pdf a34be0af336450f59d689b45d0b06b2a Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2769 Title A name given to the resource Effects of the Demographic Changes on Private Consumption: An Almost Ideal Demand System Analysis for Austria Author Author Walder, Birgit Aigner Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The following paper analyzes potential effects of the demographic changes on private consumption. An extended Almost Ideal Demand System is used to simulate changes in the consumption of goods and services due to the ageing of the population in Austria – on national as well as regional level. Therefore, age-specific income elasticity and price elasticity are estimated. The estimated model is used to simulate the consumption structure in 2030 for four scenarios: Firstly, only the ageing process of the population is considered. Secondly, the ageing as well as changes in household structure are taken into account. Scenario three and four furthermore consider potential changes in income distribution due to the ageing as well as price changes and its effects on the consumption structure of the ageing society. The results reveal direct positive effects of the ageing of the population on the consumption shares of food and non-alcoholic beverages, housing, water and fuel, health, as well as miscellaneous goods and services, while the consumption category transport looses the highest proportion in total consumption. But it can also be seen that these results do not hold anymore as soon as potential changes in income distribution – as indirect effect of the ageing – are considered. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-01-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7b6d26b5efd3af114c6de561f01dafa6.pdf c1927ba1f1316f76601ee80d7ec9e21d PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Effects of the global economic crisis and public spending on income distribution in Bosnia and Herzegovina Naida Trkid-Izmirlija University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina n_trkic@bih.net.ba Adnan Efendid University of Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina adnan.efendic@efsa.unsa.ba This research focuses on the relationship between public spending and income distribution in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). In our empirical strategy we rely on a unique survey data used to establish a proxy for inequality over the observed period 2000-2010. In addition, we investigate the consequences of contemporary global economic and financial crisis on income distribution. We find indications that the global economic crisis, with its B&H onset in 2009-2010, has increased income inequality in B&H. Our findings also imply that increased public spending and improvement in the quality of institutions in B&H were supportive in reducing income inequality over the observed period. After examining several institutional indicators, we identify a particular importance of political stability in B&H as a determinant of income distribution and inequality. Disaggregated analysis of public spending by functional and economic categories revealed that higher expenditures for social protection and capital spending are associated with lower income inequality. Contrary, higher expenditures for education are linked with higher income inequality. Keywords: Inequality, Income Distribution, Southeast Europe, Global Economic Crisis, Public Spending, Education Expenditures, Health Expenditures, Social Expenditures. 221 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4fcfd898c7135c85a0dcfaa8c9226194.docx 50de57e4d2605954bc0af10cf0dfa5fe https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d84300a13a6e55e9e5d15f0633b5c632.pdf 8329d2394c36468f56296a64538f0ec9 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1604 Title A name given to the resource Effects of the global economic crisis and public spending on income distribution in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author TRKIĆ-IZMIRLIJA, Naida EFENDIĆ, Adnan Abstract A summary of the resource. This research focuses on the relationship between public spending and income distribution in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H). In our empirical strategy we rely on a unique survey data used to establish a proxy for inequality over the observed period 2000-2010. In addition, we investigate the consequences of contemporary global economic and financial crisis on income distribution. We find indications that the global economic crisis, with its B&H onset in 2009-2010, has increased income inequality in B&H. Our findings also imply that increased public spending and improvement in the quality of institutions in B&H were supportive in reducing income inequality over the observed period. After examining several institutional indicators, we identify a particular importance of political stability in B&H as a determinant of income distribution and inequality. Disaggregated analysis of public spending by functional and economic categories revealed that higher expenditures for social protection and capital spending are associated with lower income inequality. Contrary, higher expenditures for education are linked with higher income inequality. Keywords: Inequality, Income Distribution, Southeast Europe, Global Economic Crisis, Public Spending, Education Expenditures, Health Expenditures, Social Expenditures. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8f2c32dda8270814eac5929226185212.pdf 076280a8696401d30f72f12308ecceb3 PDF Text Text Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Semiha Yenidoğan Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, semihayavuz@marmara.edu.tr Cem Aydemir Marmara University Faculty of Technical Education Department of Printing, Goztepe Campus Goztepe, Istanbul, Turkey,, cemaydemir@marmara.edu.tr Arif Karademir Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey arifkarademir@yahoo.com Abstract: There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Keywords: Waste fibres, wet formation, cellulosic composites, tensile strength. Introduction Paper is probably one of the oldest thin biocomposite, the production of which is dated back to 105 BC. Tsua Lun, a Chinese scholar, initially boiled ramie, hemp and also later the inner bark of mulberry tree (kozo) to liberate the fibres. The pulp slurry, diluted fibre suspensions, was originally filtrated on a coarsely woven cloth and dried in the sun. The cooked rice water was also added into pulp slurry and/or applied to the surface of dried sheet to impart strength. The main principal in papermaking is actually not so changed since its first invention, but the technological movements are tremendous. Today, some modern papermills run at a speed of 120 Km/hour. The demand for raw materials is also fundamentally changed which forced the papermakers to search some alternative fibre resources as it was only nonwoody plants, waste robs and fabric before twentieth century. It was around 1850’ies when paper industry had to turn to forests and woods as main fibre resources. Since then, the demand for paper and many paperbased products has been increasingly growing. The types of paperbased products are also remarkably increased compared to its early use. The paper is in all parts of our daily life now (Kocurek, 1983; Smook, 1992). Currently, paper recycling and search for alternative fibre resources take great attentions from industry and scientists. The waste paper recycling is reported to supply around 42 percent of world pulp demand. Pulp made from non-woody plant is unfortunately recorded to be only 4 percent of total world pulp consumption (Hurter and Riccio, 2006). The figure was quite big and significant in some parts of the world in the past. In Chine and India, for instance, wastes from agricultural activities were utilised to produce up to 73 and 56 percent of countries total pulp consumption respectively for some time ago (Tutus and Karademir, 2002). There have 787 �been numerous studies published on subjects dealing with the optimum pulping conditions of alternative fibre sources for paper making (Sharifah and Ansell, 2004; Tutus and Eroglu, 2004; Copur, Tozluoglu and Karademir 200). In the papermaking process, huge amount of water is used. System actually works with water as the paper is simply made through wet formation. In terms of formation quality, the behaviour of fibres and other ingredients in slurry are crucially important. Homogenous distribution of components in the slurry should be maintained. Mechanical properties of end-products depend on the both fibre strength and interfiber bond strength (I’Anson et al, 2006). Some dry and wet strength additives are used to produce stronger paper. In this study, some alternative fibrous materials (ceramic fibres, wools, wastes from yarn production and cotton dust) were used in the production of a thin board as biocomposite. The main focus was given on the changes of sheet strength. The findings are thought to offer useful information to those working in similar areas. Experimental Materials and Methods Fibres Ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were used as alternative papermaking materials in this study. The control sample and main matrix with blend of alternative fibres was made of pulp obtained from old corrugated board. Materials were firstly cut in 3 cm length, soaked in water overnight and beaten for 2 minutes in a PFI mill in accordance with Tappi T 248 sp-08 method. Cotton dust was not beaten as it was already in quite small sizes. Handsheets Making and Testing Pulp slurries were prepared at % 0,5 consistency and control sheet was made from pulps of old corrugated boxes at a grammage of 100 g/m2 according to Tappi 205 sp-95 method. Alternative pulps used were blended with control pulp at %15 and %30 levels and various thin biocomposites were produced by wet formation. Sheets were conditioned in accordance with Tappi T 402 om-88 method at 23±2°C and 65±2% relative humidity for at least 24 hours before testing. The tests done to determine some physical properties of sheets were tabulated with relevant standards as below (Table 1). Tests Standarts Beating/Pulping Tappi T 248 sp-08 (PFI method) Handsheet making TAPPI T 205 sp-95 Paper Conditioning TAPPI T 402 om-88 Air permeability (ml/min) TAPPI T 460 Tensile index (Nm/g) TAPPI T 494 om-88 Breaking length (m) TAPPI T 404 om-87 Burst index (kPam2/g) TAPPI T 403 om-91 Table 1: Tests and methods followed during papermaking and analysing. Results Pulp Suspension and Sheet Formation Fibres from softwoods are named as long fibres while those obtained from hardwoods are regarded as short fibres. Length of long and short fibres would be on average 3 mm and 1.5 mm respectively. Long fibres contribute sheet strength while short fibres give smoother and denser sheets. It is known that long fibres tend to get entangled and form floks of big fibre groups in a suspension at a higher speed compared to those of short 788 �fibres. Therefore, the consistency of long fibre suspension must be adjusted at quite low level to be able to have a well distributed stock, hence a good formation. It is noted that all fibres used in this study negatively affected pulp suspensions giving cloudy apperance and heterogenous clumpy fibre groups. Alternative fibres were actually beaten to get an extra fibrillated surface that was in favour of homogenous suspension and also stronger sheets. Differences between fibres such as density, wettability, length, physical structure gave heterogenous suspension. Cotton dust was noted to be well mixed with control pulp out of all studied here. It was attributed to the smaller fraction of cotton dusts and similar structures to wood fibres. The effects of fines like cotton dust were studied by some researchers in details (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Ceramic fibres were broken down to filler after mechanical action in a lab disintegrator hence were used like fillers. Air Permeability Addition of alternative materials in controlled pulps resulted in significant reductions of sheet air resistance as seen in figure 1. Ceramic fibres in the form of filler were noted to reduced air resistance lower then all other materials. Wool fibres on the other hand remarkably reduced the air resistance of sheets. Result suggests that all materials added to control pulp disturbed the formation quality of sheets. The higher air resistance value of control sheet indicates the firm and dens fibre matrix. Whereas the structure seems to be loosen up and become fluffy as a result of especially wool addition. Wool fibres probably interfered with wood fibre bonding and made them in a sense separated giving a permeable material. 2800 Cotton Dust Air Permeability (ml/min) Ceramic Fibre 2300 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 1800 1300 800 300 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 1: Fibres added increased the air permeability. Mechanical Properties Tensile index, breaking length and burst index values of all sheets were plotted in figure 2, 3 and 4 respectively. As it is clearly seen in figures, the addition of alternative materials studied here dramatically reduced the mechanical strength of resultant products. It is believed that the alternative fibres did not develop any significant internal bonds between both themselves and fibres of control papers. Furthermore, they actually interfered with fibre-fibre bonding. 789 �30 Cotton Dust Ceramic Fibre Tensile Index (Nm/g) 25 Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 20 15 10 5 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 2: Tensile index was badly damaged with fibre blends. Out of all materials studied here, the highest reduction in sheet strength was noted with the addition of wool fibres. Negative effect on strength by the addition of cotton dust was recorded to be smallest compared to the changes due to other fibres. Differences between the effects of yarn fibre and cotton dust were believed to be mainly due to the particle sizes. The chemical composition of both yarn and cotton dust are not so different since they are compost of almost pure cellulose molecules. The sizes, however, were significantly different as yarn was made of long cotton fibres and cotton dust was quite small in sizes as such it can be regarded as fine in a real papermaking environment. There are various reports on the effects of different fines on paper strength (Retulainen et al, 2002; Lin et al, 2007; Xu and Pelton, 2005). Fine improves paper smoothness and air resistance if retained and evenly distributed in paper structure. It may develop paper strength too if it has plenty hydroxyl groups. Cotton dust in this case did not improve the sheet strength. It suggests that the bond strength between fibres in control pulp were greater than that developed between both cotton dusts and fibres in controlled sheets. 3500 Cotton Dust 3000 Ceramic Fibre Breaking Length (m) Yarn Wastes 2500 Wool Fibre 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 15 30 % Fibre Blend 790 45 �Figure 3: Fibre blending reduced the breaking length in a great deal. Cotton Dust 1.80 Ceramic Fibre Yarn Wastes Wool Fibre 2 Burst Index (kPam /g) 1.55 1.30 1.05 0.80 0.55 0.30 0 15 30 45 % Fibre Blend Figure 4: Fibre blending destroyed the burst index value of control sheet. Wood fibres from softwood and hardwoods have been extensively used in the production of paper, board and fibreboards in wet forming system. The strength of end products depends on both the strength of individual fibres and interfiber bond strength. The latter is governed by the amount of hydrogen bonds to be developed between fibres during pressing and especially drying stages (I’Anson et al, 2006). Therefore fibres having ability to form hydrogen bonds can contribute strength of end products. It would be said that the materials used in this study did not produce enough hydrogen bonds either between themselves or between fibres of controlled pulp. In such situation, extra bond enhancer must be used such as starches, resins and bonding agents. Conclusion Four materials, ceramic fibres, wool, yarn wastes and cotton dusts were studied to find out if they may be used in the production of thin biocomposites like paper, board and fibreboard in wet lying system. The materials were blended with control pulps at two proportions as %15 and %30 and a number of sheets were formed. Attention was especially given to the changes of mechanical properties of sheets as a result of material blending. It was in general found that all material used here remarkably changed the sheet properties. The sheets air resistance and three mechanical strength values were greatly reduced. It is suggested that in order to increase the formation quality of blended pulps, the fibres should be made in similar sizes. Dry strength agents must be also used if the mechanical strength properties are important for end users of such products. Acknowledgement This research was partly carried out under the Project (No:2003/2-7) granted by Kahramanmaraş Sutcuimam University (KSU), Kahramanmaras, Turkey. Authors sincerely thank to KSU for this support. References Copur, Y., Tozluoglu, A. and Karademir, A. (2007). Pulping of Licorice (Glycyrrhiza Glabra): An Alternative Raw Material to Produce Pulp. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 41 (2-3), 155-159. 791 �Hurter, R. W. and Riccio, F.A. (2006).Why CEOS Don’t Want to Hear About Nonwoods or Should They?. Nonwood Fiber Symposium, TAPPI Proceedings, Atlanta, USA. 1-11. I’Anson, S. J., Karademir A. and Sampson, W. W. (2006). Specific Contact Area and The Tensile Strength of Paper. Appita Journal, 59 (4), 297-301. Kocurek, M. (1983). Pulp and Paper Manufacture, Volume 1, Properties of Raw Materials and Their Preparation for Pulping, Ed. Kocurek, M. Joint Textbook Commitee of The Paper Industry, TAPPI, Georgia. Lin, T., Yin, X., Retulainen, E., and Nazhad, M. M. (2007). Effect of Chemical Pulp Fines on Filler Retention and Paper properties. Appita Journal, 60 (6), 469-473. Retulainen, E., Luukko, K., Fagerholm, K., Pere, J., Laine, J., and Paulapuro, H. (2002). Papermaking Quality of Fines From Different Pulps-The Effect of Size, Shape and Chemical Composition. Appita Journal, 55(6), 457-461. Sharifah H.Z. and Ansell M.P. (2004). The Effect of Alkalization and Fiber Alignment on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Kenaf and Hemp Bast Fiber Composites: Part 1-Polyester Resin Matrix. Journal of Composite Science and Technology, (64), 1219-1230. Smook, G.A. (1992). Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technologists, Angus Wilde Publication, Vancouver. Tutuş, A. and Eroglu, H. (2004). A Practical Solution to the Silica Problem in Straw Pulping. Appita Journal, 56 (2), 111-115. Tutuş, A. and Karademir, A., (2002). Production of Paper and Boards from the Agricultural Wastes Generated in Southeast Anatolian Project Area (GAP), Proceeding of 4th GAP Engineering Congress, Volume:2, Sanlıurfa, Turkey. 1327-1332. Xu, Y., and Pelton, R. (2005). A New Look at How Fines Influence the Strength of Filled Papers. Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 31 (3), 147-152. 792 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 629 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Various Fibres in a Thin Biocomposite Material Author Author Yenidoğan, Semiha Aydemir, Cem Karademir, Arif Abstract A summary of the resource. There are a number of methods for producing biocomposite materials for different purposes. Wet lying methods are widely used in utilising especially short cellulosic fibres which offers random mixing and formation of homogenous filtrate over a travelling web. The method also contains wet pressing and controlled drying stages for achieving maximum fibrefibre bonding. Fibres having different chemical compositions and physical properties behave differently in moving/draining suspensions which often give bad formation and heterogeneity in produced materials. Nevertheless, various fibres with different desirable properties are required to be finely blended in a suspension for getting targeted materials. This study investigated the effects of various fibres in a thin cellulosic material. It was aimed to see the possibility of using some short fibres, regarded as waste materials, in producing thin cellulosic matrix. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7324bad9a16b4b70a427bb9766ef51ee.pdf b5f13e0e906d367b98795b97b4a90c2f PDF Text Text PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 EFFECTS OF VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL FAT ENRICHMENT IN BROILER FEED ON CONTENT OF FATTY ACIDS IN WHITE AND RED MEAT Suzana Jahić , Halid Makić, Mirsad Veladžić Biotehnical Faculty, University of Bihac, Bihac, Bosnia and Herzegovina e-mail: halid_btf@yahoo.com ABSTRACT In order to gain a more complete insight into the effects of vegetable and animal fat enrichment in broiler feed on content of fatty acids in meat, an experimental research has been conducted on 240 Cobb 500female broilers, divided into four separate treatments of 60 broilers each. The experiment was conducted in the period of 42 days. During that period, the first group of broilers was fed with 3% pork fat enriched feed – treatment 1, second group was fed with 3% soy oil enriched feed – treatment 2, third group with 3% bovine tallow – treatment 3, and fourth group with 3% sunflower oil – treatment 4. The content of fatty acids in red and white broiler meat was determined by the gas chromatography method. The content of saturated fatty acids in the red meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), the content of monounsaturated fatty acids was of statistical significance (p<0.05), while the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the red broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The content of saturated fatty acids in the white meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), while the content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in white broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in red broiler meat was determined as follows: treatment 1 - 19.3:1; treatment 2 - 16.0:1; treatment 3 - 20.5:1; treatment 4 - 12.9:1. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in white broiler meat was: treatment 1 - 20.3:1, treatment 2 –16.1:1, treatment 3 –17.6:1 and treatment 4 –12.2:1. Keywords: broiler meat, sunflower oil, vegetable fat, animal fat, fatty acids content 87 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS INTRODUCTION Birds generally have a high capacity for lipid biosynthesis (Klasing, 1998) including modern broilers or meat of chickens that have a tendency to accumulation of excess fat. This accumulation of body fat in broiler chickens, which is also an important source of fats in the human diet, has a significant impact on human health. Many studies connected the selection of chickens with the tendency of reduction of accumulation of triacylglycerol as well as the ability to produce changes in the composition in triacylglycerol due to a modification in the dietary intake of lipids (Leskanich & Noble, 1997). The aim of the current studies was to improve the intake of polyunsaturated fatty acids through diet in order to achieve favorable ratio n-6 fatty acids towards n-3 fatty acids. Nutritional studies on humans have shown that we can manipulate with composition of body fats with changing of intakes of the polyunsaturated fatty acids towards saturated fatty acids in the diet, especially with intakes of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet (Field at al. 1990, Pan at al. 1994, Luo at al. 1996, Couet at al. 1997). The enrichment of chicken meat with the essential linoleic and linolenic acid is possible when as a food additive sunflower oil and soya oil are used instead of lard (Božić, 1997). Mehmet et al. (2005) analyzed the effects of different sources of fats such as soybean oil, chicken fat, tallow on fatty acid content of abdominal fats and content of fatty acids in white and red meat in broiler chickens. They found low content of total monounsaturated fatty acids in the white meat in broilers that they were feeding with supplemented soybean oil. Linoleic acid C18: 2n-6 was concentrated in the red meat, in the abdominal fat and in the white meat in broilers that they were feeding with supplemented soybean as well as in the red meat in broilers that they were feeding with supplemented chicken fat. Crespo & Esteve-Garcia (2001) used in the nutrition of female broilers addition of beef tallow, olive oil, sunflower oil and flaxseed oil. Broilers, being were fed with diet adding beef tallow, had high values of saturated acids, mainly of myristic, palmitic and stearic acid as compared to broilers were fed with the addition of olive oil, sunflower oil or linseed oil. They found higher levels of arachidonic acid C20: 4n-6 and of the fatty acids of the n-6 series in broilers that were fed with the addition of sunflower oil, except in abdominal fat. A higher level of eicosapentaenoic acid C 20:5 n-3 and docosahexaenoic acid C22: 6 n - 3 were found in the red and white meat of broiler chickens that were fed with an addition of flaxseed oil, whereas in abdominal fat these fatty acids were not measurable. Veladžić et al. (2010) determined a statistically significant difference (p <0.01) for the cholesterol content in blood plasma between the observed treatments, therewith the higher cholesterol content was determined for the treatments in which were added animal fats in relation to treatments in which were added vegetable fats. Kirshgessner at al. (1993) have found the enhancement contents of crude fat in the white meat of broilers which received in their nutrition higher percent of linoleic acid. Chickens fed with low-protein food (18% crude protein) supplemented with the oil enriched with 2% or 4% conjugated linoleic acid had low triglycerides of liver, a relatively high concentration of saturated fatty acids and relatively low concentration of monounsaturated fatty acids in lipids of liver and adipose tissue than chickens fed without the addition of conjugated linoleic acid. Chickens fed with low-protein food without the addition of conjugated linoleic acid had higher concentrations of triglycerides in the liver than chickens fed with high-protein food (23% crude protein) without the addition of conjugated linoleic acid (Aletor et al. 2003). 88 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 MATERIAL AND METHODS The experiment was set up and implemented in the facilities for the production of chicken meat “Koka – Sana” from Sanski Most. Laboratory samples of chicken meat were performed at the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Bihać. Day-old Cobb 500 broiler hybrid was placed in four separate boxes (treatments), and there were 60 broilers in each of them. All chickens were held on the floor in facilities fitted for broiler breeding. During the experiment, which lasted for 42 days, temperature, humidity and lighting were regularly controlled. Chicken breeding was split in two periods. From day one to day 15, chickens were bred with the initial mixture containing approximately 23% of proteins. From day sixteen to 42, they were bred with the final mixture containing approximately 20% of proteins, so the final mixtures were isoproteinic and isoenergetic. In chickens’ nutrition, there was increased content of fats by 3% (treatment I – lard, treatment II – soybean oil, treatment III – tallow, and treatment IV – sunflower oil). The chickens consumed food and water ad libitum. Having turned 42 days of life, chickens were marked with rings, for each treatment separately, and after 12 hours of fasting were killed at slaughterhouse facilities. After slaughter and meat packing processing of chicken carcasses, the carcasses are chilled to a temperature of 0-4 ° C and then frozen at -18 °C until the moment of analysis, and on the day of analysis thawed to room temperature. We used six broilers per each treatment for the determination of fatty acids in the red and white meat. Meat samples were analyzed in the laboratory BiotechLab, Sremska Kamenica, Serbia. Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters was performedby the method EN ISO550:2007, and determination of fatty acid methyl esters was performed by gas chromatography method: JUSISO5508:2002. The results obtained in the experiment were analyzed by ANOVA test and found differences were analyzed using Tukey’s test. Table 1. shows the contents of nutrients in the broilers’ feeding. Table 1. Contents of the mixtures used for feeding broilers from 0. to 15.days of their lives and from 16. to 42.days of their lives Nutrients % Experimental group I/lard Corn Soybean shot Sunflower shot Lard Soybean oil Tallow Sunflower oil Premix/s-starter, f- finisher II/soybean oil III/tallow IV/sunflower oil 0-15 15-16 0-15 15-16 0-15 15-16 0-15 15-16 53.5 38.0 1.5 3.0 4.0s 58.5 33.0 1.5 3.0 4.0f 53.5 38.0 1.5 3.0 4.0s 58.5 33.0 1.5 3.0 53.5 38.0 1.5 3.0 4.0s 58.5 33.0 1.5 3.0 4.0f 53.5 38.0 1.5 3.0 4.0s 58.5 33.0 1.5 3.0 4.0f 4.0f Premix of starter: lysine 2.34 %; methionine 4.17%; methionine + cystine 4.17%; robenidine 825 mg/kg, vitamin A 275000.00 IU/kg; vitamin D3 125000.00 IU /kg; Vitamin E 1250.00 IU/kg; Premix of finisher: methionine 3.36%; methionine + cystine 3.36%; Vitamin A 314600.00 IU/kg; vitamin D3 114400.00 IU /kg; Vitamin E 1430.00 IU/kg 89 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the Tables 2. and 3. are shown the contents of fatty acids in the red and in the white meat. Table 2. Contents of fatty acids in the red meat of broilers C 14:0 X SD CV C 16:0 X SD CV C 16:1 X SD CV C 18:0 X SD CV C:18n9c X SD CV C18:2 n6c X SD CV C18:3n3 X SD CV C20:0 X SD CV Treatment 1 0.75B Contents of fatty acids (%) Treatment 2 Treatment 3 0.60D 0.77A F value Treatment 4 0.67AC 0.05 0.07 Treatment 1 24.83 0.08 0.14 Treatment 2 23.78 0.02 0.03 Treatment 3 25.92 0.08 0.12 Treatment 4 24.91 0.56 0.02 Treatment 1 6.15 8.94 0.38 Treatment 2 4.23 1.17 0.05 Treatment 3 5.67 0.36 0.01 Treatment 4 4.84 1.73 0.28 Treatment 1 6.42 0.86 0.20 Treatment 2 7.16 0.18 0.03 Treatment 3 6.81 0.35 0.07 Treatment 4 6.78 0.74 0.12 Treatment 1 37.98 0.73 0.10 Treatment 2 34.26 0.02 0.003 Treatment 3 38.47 0.29 0.04 Treatment 4 34.82 0.73 0.02 Treatment 1 22.55AB 0.73 0.02 Treatment 2 28.07D 2.81 0.07 Treatment 3 23.21AC 0.72 0.02 Treatment 4 25.82A 1.36 0.06 Treatment 1 1.17DA 1.70 0.06 Treatment 2 1.75BC 1.13 0.05 Treatment 3 1.21CA 0.99 0.04 Treatment 4 1.99ABD 0.07 0.06 Treatment 1 0.23ADC 0.15 0.08 Treatment 2 0.15DB 0.11 0.09 Treatment 3 0.20B 0.19 0.10 Treatment 4 0.16C 0.02 0.11 0.02 0.13 0.05 0.23 0.04 0.25 17.000** 2.680 NS 2.306 NS 0.971 NS 2.640 NS 11.442** 30.750** 28.571** Treatment 1-addition of 3% lard; Treatment 2-addition of 3% soybean oil; Treatment 3addition of 3% tallow; Treatment 4-addition of 3% sunflower oil F – values of Fisher test, X - mean value, SD – standard deviation, CV – coefficient of variation, NS – Inside examined treatments did not establish significant difference (p>0.05) ** Highly significant difference (p<0.01) between treatments, *significant difference (p<0, 05) between treatments 90 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Table 3. Contents of fatty acids in the white meat of broilers C 14:0 X SD CV C 16:0 X SD CV C 16:1 X SD CV C 18:0 X SD CV C:18n9c X SD CV C18:2 n6c X SD CV C18:3n3 X SD CV C20:0 X SD CV Contents of fatty acids (%) Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 1.04ADC 0.63DB 0.93B Treatment 4 0.69C F value 0.10 0.10 Treatment 1 26.19b 0.04 0.07 Treatment 2 25.34c 0.14 0.15 Treatment 3 28.28ad 0.05 0.07 Treatment 4 24.18d 1.62 0.06 Treatment 1 5.71BA 1.30 0.05 Treatment 2 5.10CA 0.83 0.03 Treatment 3 7.74AD 1.33 0.06 Treatment 4 4.92D 0.72 0.13 Treatment 1 6.80 0.44 0.09 Treatment 2 6.83 0.31 0.04 Treatment 3 5.87 0.49 0.10 Treatment 4 6.92 0.81 0.12 Treatment 1 36.53ad 0.18 0.03 Treatment 2 34.36db 0.27 0.05 Treatment 3 36.11b 0.20 0.03 Treatment 4 35.44c 0.16 0.004 Treatment 1 20.52C 0.51 0.01 Treatment 2 25.98AD 0.47 0.01 Treatment 3 17.13DB 1.03 0.03 Treatment 4 25.58B 2.36 0.11 Treatment 1 1.01CBA 0.38 0.01 Treatment 2 1.61BDA 0.63 0.04 Treatment 3 0.97DA 1.83 0.07 Treatment 4 2.09A 0.06 0.06 Treatment 1 2.53BDC 0.09 0.06 Treatment 2 0.16DA 0.07 0.07 Treatment 3 2.96AC 0.15 0.07 Treatment 4 0.17C 0.52 0.21 0.01 0.06 0.19 0.06 0.04 0.25 19.661** 5.366* 18.280** 3.756 NS 7.482* 21.894** 99.651** 96.145** Treatment 1-addition of 3% lard; Treatment 2-addition of 3% soybean oil; Treatment 3addition of 3% tallow; Treatment 4-addition of 3% sunflower oil F – values of Fisher test, X - mean value, SD – standard deviation, CV – coefficient of variation, NS – Inside examined treatments did not establish significant difference (p>0.05) ** Highly significant difference (p<0.01) between treatments, *significant difference (p<0, 05) between treatments The content of saturated fatty acids in the red meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), the content of monounsaturated fatty acids was of statistical significance (p<0.05), while the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the red broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The content of saturated fatty acids in the white meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), while the content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in white broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in red broiler meat was determined as follows: treatment 1 - 19.3:1; treatment 2 - 16.0:1; treatment 3 - 20.5:1; treatment 4 - 12.9:1. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in white broiler meat was: treatment 1 - 20.3:1, treatment 2 –16.1:1, treatment 3 –17.6:1 and treatment 91 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS 4 –12.2:1. Mehmet et al. (2005) added to broilers feeding 6% fats in the period from 21.to 41.days of their lives. They found the levels of 42.14%, 29.66%, 24.15%, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids respectively in the red meat of chickens feeding with addition of soybean oil and the levels of 48.02%, 24.61%, 22.11% saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids respectively in the red meat chickens feeding with the addition of beef tallow. In the white meat of broilers feeding with addition of soybean oil, they found 43.58%, 20.03%, 30.58%, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids respectively and in the white meat of chickens feeding with addition of beef tallow 48.02%, 24.61%, 30.58% saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids respectively. Popescu and Criste (2003) used addition of soybean oil in broiler’s feeding and found the content of fatty acids in the red meat of broiler’s at the end of the fattening period: 26.29% saturated fatty acids, 73.41% monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. CONCLUSION The dietary treatments used in feeding broilers can significantly affect the amount of fatty acids in the red and white meat of broilers. The highest contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the red broiler meat were achieved with the addition of soybean oil in the mixture of food. The highest contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the white broiler meat was achieved with the addition of sunflower oil in the mixture of food and it was shown that the addition of soybean oil and sunflower oil affects the increasing of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the meat of broilers.Therefore the recommendation would be that in the nutrition of broilers vegetable supplements should be used, especially sunflower oil, because it considerable reduces the ratio n-6 fatty acids towards n-3 fatty acids in the meat and thus it has more favorable effect on the human body. REFERENCES 1. Aletor, V.A., Eder, K., Becker, K., Paulicks, B.R., Roth, F.X. and Roth-Maier, D.A. (2003). The effect of conjugated linoleic acids or an alpha glycosidase inhibitor on tissue lipid concentrations and fatty acid composition of broiler chicks fed a low-protein diet. Poult Sci. 82:796-804. 2. Božić, A. (1997). Uticaj porekla masnih kiselina hrane na masnokiselinski sastav i aterogeni potencijal mišićnog i masnog tkiva tovnih pilića. Doktorska disertacija. Poljoprivredni fakultet. Novi Sad. 3. Crespo, N. and Esteve-Garcia, E. (2001). Dietary fatty acid profile modifies abdominal fat deposition in broiler chickens. Poult.Sci. 80: 71 - 78. 4. Couet, C., Delarue, J., Ritz, P., Antoine, J.M., and Lamisse, F. (1997). Effect of dietary fish oil on body fat mass and basal oxidation in healthy adults. International Journal of Obesity. 21: 637–643. 5. EN ISO 550:2007: Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters. 6. Field, C.J., Edmond, A.R., Thompson, A.B.R., and Clandinin M.T. (1990). Diet fat composition alters membrane phospholipid composition, insulin binding, and glucose metabolism in adipocytes from control and diabetic animals. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 265: 1143–1150. 7. JUS ISO 5508:2002: Determination of fatty acid methyl esters 8. Kirchgessner, M., Ristic, M., Kreuzer, and M., Roth, M.F.X. (1993). Inclusion of fats with high quantities of free fatty acids in broiler diets. 2. Growth as well as quality of carcass, meat and fat as affected by the stepwise substitution of saturated by unsaturated fatty acids. Arch. Geflu gelk. 57: 265–274. 92 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 9. Klasing, K.C. (1998). Comparative Avian Nutrition. Wallingford, Oxon: CAB International. 10. Leskanich, C.O. and Noble, M.P. (1997). Manipulation of the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of avian eggs and meat. World’s Poult. Sci. J. 53:155-183. 11. Luo, J., Rizkalla, S.W., Boillot, J., Alamowitch, C., Chaib, H., Bruzzo, F., Desplanque, N., Dalix , A.M., Durand, G., and Slama, G. (1996). Dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids improve adipocyte insulin action and glucose metabolism in insulin-resistant rats: relation to membrane fatty acids. Journal of Nutrition. 126: 1951–1958. 12. Mehmet Azman, A., Ibrahim Cerci, H., and Nurgül Birben, M. (2005). Effects of various dietary fat sources on performance and body fatty acid composition of broiler chickens. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 20: 811-819. 13. Pan, D.A., Hulbert, A.J., and Storlien, L.H. (1994). Dietary fats, membrane phospholipids and obesity, Journal of Nutrition. 124: 1555–1565. 14. Popesku, A. and Criste, R. (2003). Using full fat soybean in broilers diets and its effect on the production and economic efficiency of fattening, Journal of Central Europian Agriculture. 4:No 2: 167-174. 15. Veladžić, M., Jahić, S., Makić, H. and Galijašević, E.(2010). Analysis of the effects of vegetable and animal fats on lipids and cholesterol contents in broilers' plasma, 5th Central European Congress on Food, 19th-22nd May 2010, Bratislava, Slovak Republik, Book of full papers.p:205. 93 | P a g e � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2489 Title A name given to the resource EFFECTS OF VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL FAT ENRICHMENT IN BROILER FEED ON CONTENT OF FATTY ACIDS IN WHITE AND RED MEAT Author Author JAHIĆ, Suzana MAKIĆ, Halid Veladžić, Mirsad Abstract A summary of the resource. In order to gain a more complete insight into the effects of vegetable and animal fat enrichment in broiler feed on content of fatty acids in meat, an experimental research has been conducted on 240 Cobb 500female broilers, divided into four separate treatments of 60 broilers each. The experiment was conducted in the period of 42 days. During that period, the first group of broilers was fed with 3% pork fat enriched feed – treatment 1, second group was fed with 3% soy oil enriched feed – treatment 2, third group with 3% bovine tallow – treatment 3, and fourth group with 3% sunflower oil – treatment 4. The content of fatty acids in red and white broiler meat was determined by the gas chromatography method. The content of saturated fatty acids in the red meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), the content of monounsaturated fatty acids was of statistical significance (p<0.05), while the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the red broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The content of saturated fatty acids in the white meat was not of statistical significance (p>0.05), while the content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in white broiler meat was of high statistical significance (p<0.01) with reference to the applied feeding treatments. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in red broiler meat was determined as follows: treatment 1 - 19.3:1; treatment 2 - 16.0:1; treatment 3 - 20.5:1; treatment 4 - 12.9:1. The n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio in white broiler meat was: treatment 1 - 20.3:1, treatment 2 –16.1:1, treatment 3 –17.6:1 and treatment 4 –12.2:1. Keywords: broiler meat, sunflower oil, vegetable fat, animal fat, fatty acids content Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-36-3 Q Science (General),QH301 Biology,QH426 Genetics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6bc2f834c6505805fce26bd0597dc1f7.pdf c3b2633d0598eb44ea4f484f8687b338 PDF Text Text Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of Broccoli Okan ERKEN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation oerken@comu.edu.tr Canan OZTOKAT Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture cananoztokat@yahoo.com Abstract: Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods (early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period. Keywords: Broccoli, drought stress, yield Introduction Among the winter vegetables of Turkey, production and consumption of broccoli from magnoliopsida class and Bracicacea family have been increasing during the recent years (Eşiyok, 1996). Broccoli is generally produced for sprouts but leaves of plant can also be consumed. There is an increasing interest in broccoli production in the world beside the cauliflower known all around the world. Average dry matter content of the plant is 10,3%. It has 24 cal nutritional value per 100 gram and contains 89,7% water, 3,3% protein, 0,2% fat ad 4,4-5,2% carbohydrate. Vitamin content is composed of 1542–2500 IU vitamin A, 0.07–0,1 mg/100 g B1, 0.12–0.23 mg/100g B2, 0.64–0,9 mg/100g Niacin ve 93,4–114 mg/100g vitamin C. Mineral content is composed of 48–105 mg/100g Ca, 0,9–1,3 mg/g Fe, 24 mg/100g mg, 66–82 mg/100g P, 325–464 mg/100g K ve 27 mg/100g Na (Vural et al., 2000). Plants of cabbage-group have significant benefits for human health with their rich vitamin C, vitamin A and follic acid contents. Since they are also classified in fibrous foods, they can regulate the intestinal processes. Among these groups of plants, especially broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, lady’s smock and Brussels have been proven to be affective in prevention of several cancer diseases (Young and Wolf 1988, Farey et al. 2001, Zhao et al. 2001). Their preventive impacts against cancer diseases is due to their glicozinolate contents (Seow et al. 2002, Fowke et al. 2003, Sarıkamış et al., 2006). Glicozinolates are secondary metabolism products containing sugar and sulphur. Glucosinolates also serve as a defense mechanism against various ecological and biotic stress factors in plants (Ratzka, 2002). Environmental conditions to which plants are exposed have significant effects on both yield and quality. These factors can be classified as climate factors, soil factors, artificial polluters, competition with animals and other plants. Optimum environmental conditions should be provided for a proper production with high yields. A deviation from these optimum requirements may cause a stress over the plants. Biologists adopted the word ‘stress’ for an unpleasant environmental condition for living organisms and called ‘stress resistance’ for ability to survive of plant against these unpleasant environmental conditions (Levitt, 1980). 231 �Abiotic stress conditions like high temperature, drought, salinity and chemical toxicity and oxidative stress threats agricultural activities all around the world. Abiotic stress is the most significant cause for yield loses and may cause more than 50% loss in yield. It can cause morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes and has negative impacts on plant growth and yield (Wang, 2003). Drought stress is also among the most significant stress component effecting the plant growth. Synonymous to drought stress, water stress arises when the transpiration of plants are not met from the environment. Water makes up almost 85-90% of several plants. Water taken by roots of the plants is delivered through upper sections of plants based on osmotic rules. A negative pressure (tension) develops within xylems in case of lower root water uptakes than transpirated water and a competition starts among various parts of the plant (Kaçar et al. 2006). Irrigation is an input in agriculture providing sustainability and stability, improving the efficiencies of other agricultural inputs and providing higher yields per unit area. The basic principle for receiving the desired benefit from irrigation is to provide the necessary amount of water to the root zones of the plants at proper times. Otherwise, plants get into stress due to water deficiency. Main reason for water stress is to have less water than the amount required for transpiration. Generally, the lower the water stress, the higher the yield (Reginato, 1983). Bandurska, (2004) investigated the variation of proline amounts in leaves of plants grown under water stress and found out that broccoli leaves had the highest rational water loss and barley leaves had the lowest. Meyer and Adam (2008) investigated the variations of glicosinote in red-cabbage and broccoli grown under organic and conventional conditions and concluded that glucoraphanine, glucobrassicine and neo-glucobrassicinine were dominant glucosinolates in broccoli. They also found lower amounts of glucobrassicinine in organic plants than conventional ones. Since drought will increase parallel to global warming, negative impacts of drought on qualitative and quantitative parameters of plants should be prevented. In this study, changes in plants under stress conditions will be investigated, the best proper and economical method of growing will be determined; and some physiological and biochemical changes and changes in yield and quality of broccoli will be determined. Material and Method This study was carried out at experimental research fields of Agricultural Faculty of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University during the fall season of the year 2008. Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar, able to reach harvesting maturity in 90 days from the seedling plantation, was used as the plant material of the study. Seedlings were planted into each 10 liter-pots with sieved soil inside. Each treatment was repeated in 5 pots. Four different water deficits were applied based on growing periods. Experiments were carried out in randomized block design with 5 replications. Statistical method used in this study was summarized below: Yijk = µ Li + αi + βj + αβij + εijk µ = General population average α = Water deficit levels (i:1,2,3,4) β = Effect of growing periods (j:1,2,3,4) αβ = Effect of water deficit x Growing period interaction ε = Error term To determine the amounts of water deficits, initially the pots with sieved soil were saturated with irrigation water. Then the pots were left for seepage with gravity for 24 hours and weighed. This created 100% (control) treatment. Following the start of experiments, the amount lost by evaporation and plant utilization were determined by weighing the pots every 3 days and this amount was applied to pots as irrigation water. Other water deficit levels were determined based on the weight of control treatment and irrigation water applied accordingly. The first irrigation was performed right after the seedling plantation. Irrigations were performed at the same fashion for all treatments until the seedlings adapted to soil. Following the adaptation period, water deficit levels were applied and continued until the last economically harvestable broccoli is harvested. Treatments and pot numbering were as follows: 232 �Early Vegetative 1I100 2I80 3I60 4I40 5I20 6I80 7I60 8I40 9I20 10I100 11I100 12I100 13I100 14I100 15I100 16I100 17I100 17*5=85 pots were used. Late Vegetative I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 Flowering I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 Total chlorophyll was determined by sampling 4 leaves from each plant. Samples were prepared by smashing the leaves in 90% 35 ml acetone solution. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No.2 filter paper. The filtered extract was completed to 50 ml with 90% acetone solution. Then, extracts were put into spectrophotometer tubes and readings were performed at 645, 652 and 663 nanometer wavelengths. In this way, amount of chlorophyll was determined in mg/100g (Holden 1976). Total sugar for samples was determined as g/100 g in accordance with dinitrophenol method specified by Ross (1959). A 5g sample was taken from each sample representing each treatment and 5 ml 15% potassium ferrosynide and 5 ml 30% zinc sulphate were added. Then samples were completed to 250 ml with distilled water. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No2 filter paper. Extract of 0,5 ml was taken into test tubes, 1,5 ml distilled water and 6 ml dinitrophenol were added to test tubes and they were kept in 1000C hot water bath for 6 minutes. Samples were then cooled under tap water for 3 minutes and absorbance readings were performed in T70 model PG Instruments brand spectrophotometers at 600 n wavelength. A 6ml dinitrophenol + 2 ml distilled water solution was used as the control of the method. Antioxidant activities and radical cleaning power were determined by DPPH method. This method is based on spectrometric transition of characteristic color purple into yellow under the presence of antioxidant chemicals yielding electron or hydrogen atoms by cleaning free radical 2,2- Diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) with these chemicals. The more the antioxidant power, the brighter the color of methanolic DPPH solution. In this method, solutions of test extracts prepared in various concentrations (2,5 – 160 mg) of methanol are mixed with 3 mL 6.10-5 M DPPH solution. Following 15 minutes dark incubation period, sample absorbances were measured at 515 nm wavelength. Absorbance values were then evaluated against control and curve (methanol). Extract % inhibition values were calculated by using absorbance values of extract and empty control tests as follows: A0 – (A – Ak) % Inh = x 100 A0 A0= DPPH absorbance at 515 nm. A= Extract absorbance at 515 nm. Ak= Metanol absorbance at 515 nm. Calculated % inhibition values were plotted against extract concentrations prepared in mg/mL and IC50 of extracts were calculated. BHT and Ascorbic acid were used as positive control. Total amounts of phenolic compounds were also determined in this study in accordance with Folin&Ciocalteu method. Gallic acid solutions at increasing concentrations were mixed with folin reactive and Na2CO3 solutions to draw the calibration curve. Solutions were then kept at 20 0C for 30 minutes, absorbance readings were performed at 765 nm and calibration curve was drawn. Extract was prepared as defined above by using the same reactives, kept under the same conditions for 1 hour and absorbance reading was made. Amount of total phenolic compound of plant methanol extract was calculated as Gallic 233 �acid equivalent (GAE) as follows: C=cxV/m C= Total amount of phenolic compounds, mg/g plant extract (GAE) c= Gallic acid concentration calculated from calibration curve, mg/mL V= Volume of plant extract m= Weight of plant extract Calculated phenolic compound amounts (as Gallic acid equivalent) were compared with standard antioxidants BHT, α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. Results and Discussion It was observed that broccoli was sensitive against water stress. It was also observed that water deficit at some growth periods of broccoli didn’t statistically effect the yield values. Yield (g/plant), amount of applied irrigation water (L), leaf areas (cm2), number of days passed until the harvest was given in Table 1. It can be seen from the table that all water deficits applied at early vegetative and late vegetative periods decreased the yield of broccoli, however these decreased were placed statistically in the same group. Leaf areas decreased with the water stress. Schreiner et al. (2009) indicated the impacts of water stress over the leaves of mustard at every growth period. Treatments Yield (g/plant) 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 667,84 ± 29,72 a 473,12 ± 25,81bc 394,68 ± 33,43cd 195,68 ± 16,11ef 101,59 ± 10,51 f 591,01± 26,19 ab 583,89 ±22,10 bc 566,86 ± 19,16ab 573,61 ± 34,83 ab 528,52 ± 21,26 abc 521,83 ± 18,38ab 497,47 ± 21,74abc 359,83 ± 33,02ab 453,13 ± 13,26 bcd 475,92 ±40,40 bc 359,37 ± 26,75cd 301,18 ± 13,71de Irrigation Water (lt) 44,14 35,28 26,46 17,64 8,81 41,68 39,50 36,77 34,28 41,16 38,21 35,26 32,31 40,95 37,75 34,57 31,36 Leaf Area (cm2) 6424.94 ± 32,78 a 6058.97 ± 30,29 b 5421.89 ± 42,46 c 4825.54 ± 27,18 e 3429.35 ± 60,53 j 5055.91 ± 38,21 d 4784.82 ± 45,46 e 4337.51 ± 23,49 g 4147.75 ± 25,36 h 4662.83 ± 34,96 f 4622.16 ± 32,27 f 4608.61 ± 25,20 f 4296.85 ± 29,83 g 5327.01 ± 45,00 c 5083.02 ± 53,46 d 4676.38 ± 33,78 f 3998.64 ± 43,77 ı Ripening Time (day) 110 112 114 119 127 107 109 110 110 113 113 114 122 115 117 115 117 Table 1. Yield (g/plant), Amount of irrigation water (L), Leaf areas (cm2), Ripening time (days) Results of physical measurements made over broccoli plants were given in Table 2. Significant variations were not observed in diameter, height and perimeters of plants under water stress except the flowering period. The lowest values were obtained from 40 and 20% irrigation water applications at all growing periods. It was concluded that heavy water stress conditions exposed in flowering period could cause significant decreases in yield and quality. Treatments Head Diameter X (cm) Head Diameter Y (cm) Head Height (cm) 13.30 ± 0,644 a 12.65 ± 0,531 ab 10.89 ± 0,357 a 9.06 ± 0,375 ab 100% Irrigation 13.87 ± 0,475a 80% Irrigation 12.55 ± 0,704 abc 234 Head Perimeter (cm) 46.28 ± 2,066 a 41.68 ± 1,568 abc �60% Irrigation 12.23 ± 1,06 abc 12.00 ± 0,958 abc 8.87 ± 0,622d 8.91 ± 0,754 d 6.65 ± 1,06 e 6.31 ± 0,685 e 9.47 ± 2,325 cd 40% Irrigation 9.46 ± 0,744 ab 6.89 ± 0,681 cd 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 11.55 ±0 ,708 abc 12.60 ± 0,847 ab 12.13 ± 0,334 abc 13.29 ± 0,429 a 13.26 ± 0,985 ab 12.95 ± 0,738 ab 13.22 ± 0,442 ab 12.64 ± 0,654 ab 12.12 ± 0,409 abc 13.29 ± 0,402 a 13.09 ± 0,438 ab 12.72 ± 0,310 ab 12.76 ± 1,005 ab 11.66 ± 0,561 abc 11.77 ± 1,024 abcd 13.05 ± 0,978 ab 13.08 ± 0,679 ab 12.39 ± abc 11.74 ± 1,133 abcd 10.46 ± 0,977 bcd 10.12 ± 0,943 abcd 10.15 ± 0,735 cd 10.08 ± 0,487 bcd 5.64 ±0,466 d 8.59 ± 0,690 bc 9.59 ± 0,813 ab 9.20 ± 0,510 ab 10.13 ± 0,723 ab 9.57 ± 0,239 ab 10.17 ± 0,565 ab 9.96 ± 0,916 ab 8.58 ± 0,677 bc 10.17 ± 0,455 ab 9.63 ± 0,881 ab 8.49 ± 0,341 bc 8.28 ± 0,345 bc 39.82 ± 3,134 abc 29.98 ± 2,371d 20.70 ± 3,158 e 40.36 ± 3,204abc 42.30 ± 2,452 ab 44.94 ± 1,289 ab 44.66 ± 2,309 ab 41.44 ± 2,256 abc 45.04 ± 1,390 ab 42.14 ± 0,573 ab 38.16 ± 2,858 abc 42.86 ± 1,733 ab 40.20 ± 3,454 abc 35.28 ± 3,128 bcd 34.14 ± 1,984 cd Table 2. Canopy diameter (cm), canopy height (cm) and canopy perimeter (cm) Reduced and total sugar, total chlorophyll values of samples were given in Table 3 and Antioxidant activity (%), phenological compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoids (mg/L) were given in Table 4. An increase was observed in amounts of reduced and total sugar with increased water stress. However, a decrease was observed in amounts of chlorophyll with increased water stress. In a fertilization study for broccoli, Sanwal et al. (2006) determined reduced sugar values between 17,42 – 20,41 and total sugar between 34,07 – 43,63. Murcia et al. (2000) determined the amount of chlorophyll for broccoli as 0,3 g kg1 . Generally, amount of chlorophyll for broccoli varied between 0,32 – 0,75 g kg-1 in other studies (Hidaka et al. 1992, Hidaka Fukuda and Taniguchi, 1992). Treatments 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation Reduced Sugar (g/100g) 1,263 ± 0,318 j 1,886 ± 0,491 c 1,920 ± 0,461 bc 2,130 ± 0,288 a 1,436 ± 0,202 hı 1,530 ± 0,346 gh 1,773 ± 0,318 d 1,833 ± 0,260 cd 1,603 ± 0,375 fg 1,640 ± 0,346 f 1,663 ± 0,318 ef 235 Total Sugar (g/100g) 31,56 ± 0,260 ı 41,30 ± 0,346 f 41,66 ± 0,375 f 42,16 ± 0,375 f 44,20 ± 0,378 e 32,80 ± 0,404 ı 36,13 ± 0,433 h 37,53 ± 0,375 g 37,73 ± 0,466 g 29,76 ± 0,636 j 21,83 ± 0,433 k Total Chlorophyll (mg/100g) 7.90 ± 0,055 a 7.77± 0,070 ab 7.53 ± 0,125 bc 7.37 ± 0,140 c 7.63 ± 0,034 abc 7.06 ± 0,083 d 6.96 ± 0,488 e 6.11 ± 0,085 fg 5.97 ± 0,141 g 6.74 ± 0,087 de 6.14 ± 0,070 fg �L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 1,746 ± 0,260 de 1,640 ± 0,288 f 1,273 ± 0,260 j 1,420 ± 0,404 ı 1,986 ± 0,260 b 2,123 ± 0,260 a 29,53 ± 0,638 j 32,10 ± 0,435 ı 49,40 ± 0,378 d 52,30 ± 0,635 c 59,66 ± 0,753 b 65,06 ± 0,523 a 5.95 ± 0,080 fg 5.47 ± 0,120 h 6.26 ± 0,100 f 6.03 ± 0,192 f 5.68 ± 0,336 h 5.17 ± 0,120 h Table 3. Amounts of reduced, total sugar and chlorophyll Antioxidant activity was investigated by DPPH method with radical cleaning effect. Based on DPPH method, radical cleaning powers between 8,1 – 17,3% were observed. It was found as significantly low. Varying percentages may be due to varying amounts of flavonoid and phenolic compounds and it was thought that these parameters could be analyzed by using other methods in future studies. Treatments 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation Antioxidant Activity (%) Phenolic Compounds (mg/mL) 0,0020 0,0043 0,0098 0,0099 0,0102 0,0025 0,0032 0,0030 0,0034 0,0045 0,0051 0,0054 0,0059 0,0065 0,0072 0,0081 0,0093 8,1 10,3 11,8 15,9 17,3 9,3 10,2 10,8 11,5 10,8 11,2 12,0 12,6 13,6 14,8 15,1 15,6 Flavonoids (mg/L) 9,14 10,28 12,98 13,03 13,35 9,58 9,77 9,82 9,95 10,95 11,29 11,74 12,08 11,88 12,32 12,56 12,97 Table 4. Antioxidant activity (%), phenolic compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoid (mg/L) amounts As a conclusion, water deficits applied at early and late vegetative periods will not cause significant decreases in yield and quality of broccoli plants grown under Çanakkale conditions. 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Dietary Isothiocyanates, Glutathione S-Transferase Polymorphisms and Colorectal Cancer Risk in the singapore Chinese Healty Study. Carcinogenesis 23: 2055–2061. Sanwal, S. K. , Laxminarayana, K. , Yadav, D. S. , Rai, N. andYadav, R. K.(2006) 'Growth, Yield, and Dietary Antioxidants of Broccoli as Affected by Fertilizer Type', Journal of Vegetable Science, 12: 2, 13 — 26. Vural, H., Eşiyok, D., Duman, Đ., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri (sebze Yetiştirme) Ders Kitabı. ISBN: 975–97190–0–2. Young, T.B., Wolf, D.A., 1988. Case-Control study of Proximal and Distal Colon Cancer and Diet in Wisconsin. International Journal of Cancer 42: 167–175. Zhao, B., seow, A., Lee, A.J., Poh, W.T., The, M., Eng, P., Wang, Y.T., Tan, W.C., Yu, M.C. Lee, H.P., 2001. Dietary Isothiocyanates, Glutathione S-transferase-M1, -T1 Polymorphisms and Lung Cancer risk Among Chinese Woman in Singapore. Cancer Epideiolpgy Biomarkers and Prevention 10: 1063–1067. 237 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 410 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of Broccoli Author Author ERKEN, Okan OZTOKAT, Canan Abstract A summary of the resource. Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods (early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 958 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Word Processing on Students’ Writing Performance Author Author Muhammad Nadzri , Abdul Aziz Bee-Hoon , Tan Abstract A summary of the resource. Written essays are a common feature of standardized tests at many levels of study. However, little is known about whether the use of different media in writing the essays may affect students’ writing performance. Studies reported the different effects word processing has on students’ writing performance, writing process and essay scores (Haas, 1988; Oliver & Kerr; 1993; Goldberg, Russell, & Cook, 2003; Russell & Tao, 2004). This study looks into the writing performance of second language learners of English at tertiary level. It aims to analyze the effects of word processing on students’ writing performance in terms of quality and quantity. The subjects in this study are forty first year students who are currently pursuing their Bachelor of Engineering Technology degree in Electrical Engineering at a private university in Malaysia. Two writing sessions are carried out in this study. For each session, the students are divided into two groups, with one group writes an essay in class while the other group uses the computer to type their essays. They switch the writing medium in the second session. Flesch Reading Ease, Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level and raters’ scores are used to measure the quality of the essays; while the number of words, number of paragraphs, number of sentences, sentences per paragraph and words per sentence are used to determine if there is any improvement in the quantity of writing. Statistical analysis is conducted to determine any significant differences between the two media. The results of this study are discussed in relation to whether the methods used in the tests have any influence on the students’ performance. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7880ff422bb7cba9ea0c0ee35bee2440.pdf 87739f04f793666887d8c394791a6263 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Efficiency and Impact of Economic Sanctions Ilham Redzic International University of Sarajevo Faculty of Business and Administration, Bosnia and Herzegovina E- mail: redzic_ilham@hotmail.com Abstract The purpose of this paper is to examine economic sanctions as a foreign policy instrument and to give judgment to their efficiency and impact. Since WWI economic sanctions have been used as a tool for preventing conflicts and signaling instrument of foreign policy. Their efficiency and impact have been the main topics for many discussions. Since the War in Yugoslavia in 1991, economic sanctions gained on their importance and usage. Two classical examples of economic sanctions will be discussed in this paper: War in Yugoslavia and sanctions against Iran. Economic sanctions appear to be unsuccessful in most cases and their usual victims are innocent inhabitants. Keywords: Economic sanctions, efficiency of economic sanctions, Yugoslavia, Iran. 1.INTRODUCTION Since the beginning of human kind, people and nations have been fighting among themselves. Wars have become part of daily life because of reasons such as pretensions of some countries for territory of other countries, their economic and cultural wealth etc; or even to impose their own beliefs on others. One of the means used in achieving those goals are economic sanctions. Although, Economic Sanctions are ideated to be means for preventing conflicts, they often do not serve the purpose. This paper will provide basic information about economic sanctions as well as their analysis and effectiveness, their importance in the foreign policy of countries, and also their role in war and pre-war preparations. The main idea of this paper is that economic sanctions are usually not effective and they almost always harm civilians. The structure of the paper is as follows: Section 2 is the literature review. In Section 3, economic sanctions will be discussed as a phenomenon. Answers for many questions regarding economic sanctions and their role as foreign policy tool can be found in this part. Section 4 provides information about economic sanctions imposed on Serbia during 1990s and current sanctions against Iran. Finally, Section 5 concludes. 205 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 2.Literature review Radcliffe (2010) states that economic sanctions are penalties imposed against another country in order to force that country to change its policies, by inflicting economic losses. Debating on efficiency of economic sanctions, Radcliffe (2010) says that success of sanctions depends on how many parties are involved in imposing sanctions. He states that bilateral sanctions are more effective than those imposed unilaterally (the USA sanctions are often unilateral), but overall success of economic sanctions is very low. As he says, sanctions usually affect ordinary people without achieving targeted goal. Lektzian and Souva (2007) claim that effects of economic sanctions are “conditional” meaning that economic sanctions imposed on non-democratic society are less effective than those imposed on democratic society. They also argue that economic sanctions that are imposed on poor countries by powerful states are often effective, due to the fact that poor countries are highly dependent on economic aid from strong economies. Economic sanctions are not efficient and they are often imposed to show that sender country (country which sends sanctions) does not agree with political situation in receiving country (country that receives sanctions). Sometimes, country imposes unilateral sanctions when they are helpless in exercising their influence upon others, says Wallensteen (1968). Andreas (2005) states that economic sanctions should be used, but only those which will not have criminalizing effects, such as smuggling of banned goods and other illegal acts. For him, targeted sanctions such as freezing foreign assets of leaders, and diplomatic embargo are likely to have very few criminalizing consequences, and are therefore better for achieving the goal. Davis and Engerman (2003) argue that increased usage of economic sanctions is good because it is always better to make changes in the world through peaceful acts than through military acts. This reason is very strong, but Davis and Engerman (2003) also conclude that states with higher economic power and better political situation are able to impose more effective sanctions than poor countries. This implies that economic sanctions always serve only the rich countries and they are anti-poor oriented. On the other hand, some authors argue that economic sanctions are successful. In their research, these authors ignore sanctions whose goal is only to send signals. According to Hufbauer, Jeffrey and Elliot (2008) those sanctions should not be evaluated because they do not have clear definition and clear target. They are imposed only as opinion of one country towards policy of others. Roger (1996) advocates economic sanctions more than others. She argues that if the sanctions are to be successful, it is important that imposer is very familiar with the roots of wars, be better predictor of those conflicts, and at the end, is able to impose proper sanctions. Henderson (1998) agrees with authors who think that economic sanctions harm only innocent and ordinary inhabitants of countries. It is natural that heads of the states affected by sanctions do not share pain with their vassals. Knowing this, we can say that economic sanctions are really inefficient. They affect those people that are not real target of economic sanctions. But imposer countries do not care about innocent people. They are only concerned with achieving their goals, even though their experience tells them differently – the sanctions will not be efficient. Rarick (2007) agrees with most authors when it comes to ineffectiveness, and even concludes that economic sanctions are wrong tools of foreign affairs. He states that even though many 206 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo powerful countries know sanctions odds for achieving goals are small, they still use them whenever they can. One of the most cited authors regarding this topic is Robert Pape. Robe (1997) indicates that only in 5% of all cases economic sanctions could be recognized as the reasons for political changes. Blanchard and Ripsman (2000) claim that economic sanctions’ effects are “unquestionably negative” compared to expectations of those who impose them. They also say that neither economic sanctions nor the threat of imposing economic sanctions can bring true changes in political sense of one country. 3.Economic Sanctions 3.1.What are the Economic Sanctions? Economic sanctions are tools for international policy, tools for showing countries’ opinions regarding some situations and instruments for international political changes. They also serve as a tool for punishing countries that are violating human rights of their inhabitants, or they represent some source of threat to the rest of the world. Their most important function is probably to work on preventing all of the sources of human conflicts. Elliot, Hufbauer and Oegg (2008) note that economic sanctions have three main functions: to punish, to prevent, and to make changes in political sense. Economic sanctions as punishments are used very often; sometimes as a punishment for disordering international law and order; sometimes as punishment for country’s oppression and disrespecting of human rights. Second function, as crucial function, is to deter conflicts between countries (ex countries of ex Yugoslavia) and civil wars. In order to prevent high costs of war and to avoid all other costs that are sometimes more important than human lives, economic sanctions are used as very powerful tools for resolving disputes. By forbidding international aid or putting embargo on imports of weapon, imposers could affect (slow down) further progress of the conflicts. Third function is used frequently nowadays. This function of economic sanctions is used in order to influence political changes in some countries (Libya, Syria, etc), or to decrease security threat from other countries (Iran, North Korea). By imposing sanctions, powerful countries (imposer) can manifest their disagreement regarding political situation in the country that receives sanction. Usage of economic sanctions is in constant trend of enlargement. It is obvious that economic sanctions are becoming one of the main international policy tools. The United States of America is the leading country in imposing economic sanctions and its portion of all sanctions imposed in the world since WWII is very large. Table 1: Trends in Use of Economic sanctions Number of new cases of economic sanctions imposed until 1999. Period 1914-1949 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 19901999 207 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Type Non-U.S. 11 6 7 9 7 18 Other & 4 4 4 3 8 30 4 3 10 26 13 14 19 13 21 38 28 62 U.S. Unilateral U.S. Total Source: Institute for International economics and center for global development, Washington, 2006 Table 1 shows the increase in usage of economic sanctions since WWI until the last year of the 20th century. It also shows portions of Non-USA sanctions, bilateral sanctions of the USA and other countries, and unilateral sanctions imposed by the USA. During the 1970s, unilateral sanctions imposed by the USA increased a lot due to Cold War era. It can be concluded that usage of all types of Economic sanctions boosted during the 1990s. Figure 1 shows the ongoing economic sanction trends and comparison of the USA sanctions and all other sanctions in the world. It can be concluded that increase in usage of economic sanctions as foreign policy tool, by the USA, is much higher than usage of all other countries in the world. Figure 1. 208 Trends in ongoing Economic sanctions �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Source: Institute for International economics and center for global development, Washington, 2006 3.2.Efficiency of economic sanctions Since the emergence of economic sanctions there is a debate about their efficiency. Although there are some people who argue that economic sanctions are efficient in reaching their goals as foreign policy tool, majority concludes that economic sanctions are mostly inefficient. If that is so, why are they still in use and why they stayed first option in resolving the international disputes? All sanctions that are imposed have some goals (to send signal; to punish, etc.) and if those goals are reached, we can say that economic sanctions are successful. Based on empirical evidence, it can be concluded that economic sanctions are generally inefficient. To determine the real success of sanctions it is important to look at their real objective and purposes. It is natural to expect inefficient sanctions, if objectives are mixed or too complex. Sometimes, sanctions are meant to be inefficient and their only goal is to declare opinion or to send a signal. Although some scholars see much more success in imposition of sanctions than others, economic sanctions often end with military operation within target country. For example, Hufbauer et al. (1985) argue that economic sanctions show success in 34% of all examined cases, from 1914 until 1990. Table 2: HSE Research on Economic sanctions cases Source: Pape (1998) According to Table 2, 41 case of all considered in HSE research was successful, while 79 were failures. Highest success was recorded when goal was to destabilize country, which is natural because it is easy to destabilize one country using Economic sanctions as weapon. In his response to this result, Robert Pape (1998) concludes that much of these “successful” cases ended in war. In his examination of these cases he came to result in which only 5% of all cases could be called successful. Pape (1998) considered 8 cases in which economic sanctions influenced loss in the GNP of one country more than 4.6%, and he called them “High Punishment and Sanction Outcomes”. 209 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 3: Sanctions Outcomes in HSE cases Source: Pape (1998) Of all these cases, only one was complete success (India’s imposition of sanctions against Nepal) according to Pape (1998). It is really ironic that some economic sanctions hit one country’s economy, almost destroy it, and at the end they show failure. Even with all of these conditions fulfilled, Pape (1997) thinks that economic sanctions will not be completely efficient, and that military action is always better solution in terms of reaching the goals of foreign policy. Rudy and Ventheicer (2006) argue that efficiency of economic sanctions depends on characteristics of sanction itself. If sanctions are imposed bilaterally, they have better odds to be partially successful. Another characteristic that influence success of economic sanctions is duration of imposed sanctions. If sanctions are meant to last over long period of time, it is more likely that they are going to be less successful or completely unsuccessful. Also, there is the question of cost of the imposed sanctions. If sanctions impose high costs to target country, and if they do not impose high costs to country sender of sanction, they will be more successful (Rudy and Ventheicer, 2006). Those authors that argue conditional effect of economic sanctions (Lektzian and Souva, 2007) base their conditionality on the fact that democratic societies will be affected by economic sanctions more than non-democratic societies. Lektzian and Souva (2007) identify three categories that influence success of economic sanctions: sanctions that express interest, punishment and institutions. Sanctions for expressing interest are not concentrated on making changes in policy of other countries, but rather to make inhabitants and voters pleased with the actions of their government. Second category is sanctions that are used as tool for punishment. Those sanctions follow simple policy of imposition of economic sanctions against countries whose policy is about to be changed. Third category are institutional sanctions that are combination of those two mentioned above. Elliot et al. (2008) also argue some sort of conditionality. When deciding whether sanctions are effective, they sort them by their goals, their political and economic impact on country affected by sanction, their characteristics in given occasion. When governments impose sanctions that have conflicted goals, sanctions will most probably be ineffective and unsuccessful. When it comes to sanctions whose goal is to change government of other country, they must be all-inclusive and quickly imposed. “A strategy of “turning the screws” (increase pressure and extend the duration) gives the target leaders time to adjust by finding alternative suppliers or markets, by building new alliances, and by mobilizing domestic opinion in support of its policies.” (Elliot et al. 2008) Those three authors recommend 4 assumptions according to which economic sanctions will be the most successful: Sender of sanctions should avoid high costs, both political and economic (when sanctions with higher cost of imposition fail, country sender can have severe 210 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo problems); multilateral sanctions together with modest goal (not too big bite) are more efficient than others (when sanctions have small goal to achieve and when they are imposed multilaterally, they have better odds for success ); imposed sanctions should be quick and comprehensive (successful sanctions lasted about three years, while unsuccessful sanctions lasted about eight years); target country should be weaker in political and economic sense, than country imposer (it is natural that stronger countries are able to impose stronger sanctions and that sanctions imposed against poor countries are more successful). Economic sanctions were very effective during the 1940s and 1950s. But after developments in world economy and increase in usage of unilateral sanction (especially the USA), efficiency of those sanctions is enormously decreased. Today’s economies are very connected and they heavily depend on international trade. Although this dependence means various sources of supply, it also means that imposition of economic sanctions is easier than ever. In his speech, Patterson (1994) derived few important conclusions regarding economic sanction imposition: It is important to know the right time and place for imposition of sanctions; harshness of sanctions should be proportionally divided and those who are not guilty for bad policy should not be harmed by sanctions; countries that impose sanctions should monitor their effects very closely; only legitimate authority should impose sanctions (e.g. the UN); sanctions should be imposed according to their popularity amongst people of targeted country (if there is a strong opposition, there is higher chance that people will follow that opposition against leading party or leader); it is very important to protect basic human rights guaranteed by international authorities and conventions while imposing sanctions; sanctions need some time in order to start working. This last conclusion is in conflict with opinions of majority authors who concluded that sanctions are more efficient if they last shorter. 3.3 Impact of economic sanctions on innocent people Harming innocent people is probably the most adverse impact of economic sanctions. Primary goal of economic sanctions is to harm leaders of target country in order to change their views and policy. Although harming is unintentional in most cases, it is also possible that countries senders impose sanctions intentionally. Economic sanctions mostly affect ordinary people of target countries, because imposer countries know that the easiest way to make changes is to turn people against their leaders. Iraq in 1990s is a clear proof that sanctions can kill more people than true military sanctions and irony lies in the fact that almost all dead people were civilians. According to Gordon (1999), imposition of economic sanctions can be compared to siege in old history wars. In those wars, civil casualties are mass and same like those in countries that receive economic sanctions. Prohibition of imports of goods was done in those wars in same way as it is done in today’s imposition of economic sanctions, which creates the biggest problem to those not included in political incidents. When attacking a country with economic sanctions, imposers should avoid innocent casualties in order to make economic sanctions successful and clean. It is very interesting how leaders of powerful countries do not characterize economic sanctions as war crime, even though they have the same impact on innocent people like wars and other types of crimes. Other types of problems that civilians faced with under economic sanctions are increased cost of goods, criminalization (smuggling 211 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo inelastic goods, etc.) and one very dangerous psychical problem which is the increase in radicalism and extremism. Although target sanctions (also called “smart sanctions”) have only certain group that surrounds political head of receiver country for target, they did not show success in avoiding undesirable casualties, such as harming innocent people. Countries that impose sanctions often have hidden intentions and under the policy of removing the dictators they also hurt people they do not like or people considered to be dangerous (murders of Iran’s nuclear scientists). Gavin (1989) argues that discriminating consequences of economic sanctions have key influence on success of those sanctions. Those sanctions could also cause lack of medicines, even though those medicines are rarely under the sanctions. The case of Iraqi sanctions from 1990s proves that economic sanctions exhausted people so much that their incomes decreased to that level, where they were unable to buy medicines. This shows how sanctions harm people, even when medicines and other essential things are out of sanctions. There is an interesting question after all these facts: Do imposer countries think that dictators like Saddam Hussein, Kim Jong Il, and others suffer when sanctions on food and other goods are imposed? Of course not. This situation is even good for dictators, because it can consolidate their position. They control those goods that exist beside sanctions and with them they can control people. As it is mentioned, one of the serious impacts of economic sanctions is emergence of criminalization connected to economic sanction, such as smuggling and other types of crime acts. “The imposition of comprehensive sanctions by the international community unintentionally encouraged much closer state-criminal ties and largescale smuggling” (Andreas, 2005). 4.Classical Cases of Economic Sanctions 4.1.Serbia in 1990s Some of the most comprehensive sanctions were imposed against Yugoslavia (today Serbia) in 1990s. Their politics caused the breakdown of Socialistic Republic of Yugoslavia. The politics of Serbs was different than opinion of other nations within Yugoslavia, and because of that, they wanted to separate from the country. Serbia, as “protector of Yugoslavia”, did not allow other republics to separate, and then the first war since WWII in Europe started. When Europe and the UN saw how severe those conflicts are, they tried to stop them, or at least to decrease their quantity. First action was the imposition of sanctions. Since 1990s and emergence of war conflicts in many parts of world, especially on Balkans, world’s most powerful countries began with massive usage of economic sanctions as tool of foreign policy. In May 1992 Serbia faced with sanctions. Although Serbian authors argue that Milosevic, the president of Yugoslavia, accepted sanctions and they declare sanctions as successful, sanctions did not have so strong impact on suspension of war conflicts. However, sanctions had impact on creation of peace treaty. Sanctions, such as embargo on weapons, directly influenced war in Bosnia, because it was directed only against Bosnian Muslims. First round of economic sanctions was imposed after disobedience to resolution for cease of all conflicts on May 30. Security Council of the United Nations requested embargo on imports of all products produced in Yugoslavia, ban on supply of all goods and commodities to Yugoslavia, except medical supplies and food for hungry people and social cases. All technical and scientific 212 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo exchange as well as visits and cultural exchange, was suspended. Diplomatic visits were reduced to the lowest level. “It also decided that all states should not make available to the authorities in FRY, or to any commercial, industrial or publicly utility undertaking in FRY, any funds or any other financial or economic resources. Air-traffic was also prohibited, as well as participation of persons and groups representing FRY in sporting events” (Delevic, 1998). Original idea for imposition of economic sanctions was to stop conflict and to save people from violation of their basic human rights, but like in almost all of the cases of economic sanctions, the biggest burden of those sanctions was on ordinary people of all republics in Yugoslavia. The impact of sanctions on Serbia’s economy was strong. Data says that income per capita decreased by 50%, from $3240 to $1390. Yugoslavia’s old suppliers suspended all activities in that country and it was hard to find new ones. It was hard and expensive to find other materials that will replace missing one, and furthermore it led to decrease in living standards. Three months after the imposition of economic sanctions, Yugoslavian industrial production fell down by 40%. Figure 2: Index of Industrial production in Yugoslavia Source: Federal Bureau for Statistics, Yugoslavia, 1998 Figure 2 shows the decrease in Yugoslavia’s Industrial Production from 1989 until 1994. First signs of fall were in 1989 with rocky confidence between republics in Yugoslavia and continued with the start of war conflicts in 1991. The sharpest fall started with the imposition of economic sanctions that stroke all aspects of Yugoslavia’s economy. Impact of sanctions on GDP and public spending was enormous. Table 4: Changes in Public spending and revenues % of GDP 1990 1991 1992 1993 Public spending 49 63 65 70 Revenues 46 46 24 11 213 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Source: Author`s own calculations, data from “Economic sanctions as a foreign policy tool”, 2002, pp. 30 According to Table 4, public spending as a percentage of GDP increased during the period of economic sanctions in Yugoslavia, while revenues decreased significantly. Monthly rate of inflation in Yugoslavia in 1993 was 4667%.When it comes to unemployment in Yugoslavia during the imposition of economic sanctions, it is important to mention that unemployment increased enormously in the period of three years (1991-1993), from 14% to 39%. In year 1992, 1.3 million of workers in Yugoslavia were out of work, so called paid leave, and around 750 000 people were unemployed. In terms of employment, sanctions stroke women the most. In 1998, there were 56% of unemployed women. One major fact shaped so high volume of budget deficit in Yugoslavia during the sanction period. Serbs that lived in Croatia and Bosnia, asked for humanitarian help from their mother land Serbia, and every year big amount of government spending went to those people in other countries. According to Jovanovic and Sukovic (2002) percentage of Serbian citizens that lived with less than 2$ per day increased to 39% in 1992, comparing to 14% in 1990. “The percent of income used to purchase food varied between 30 and 40% during 1980-91. In 1993, it rose to a 50%, signaling nutrition emergency. For low income people the rate was even higher - around 60%. In 1991, the average salary bought one food basket for a family of four. In 1993, it bought only 1/5 of the food basket” (Jovanovic, Sukovic, 2002). When it comes to criminalizing consequence of economic sanctions, the best example is Yugoslavia in 1990s. Like in every nondemocratic society, imposition of economic sanctions and other types of sanctions is good opportunity for emergence of criminal actions or even development of existing criminal groups and their actions. Smuggling was the most used criminalizing action during the period of economic sanctions, and while smuggling is illegal act, it was considered as patriotic act during the period of economic sanctions in Yugoslavia (Andreas, 2005). Economic sanctions had positive effects on only one kind of people in Yugoslavia, criminals. Although one goal of economic sanctions was to eliminate Milosevic, the president of Yugoslavia, they did opposite. As it is argued before, economic sanctions are extremely favorable for nondemocratic leaders. The same situation was with Milosevic. He controlled the most important goods (oil, flour, sugar etc.) and all humanitarian help, and he blamed foreign forces for bad economic situation in country. He persuaded his inhabitants that he is able to pull out his country from economic and political darkness and he also supplied groups that supported him with goods that were in shortage. The best example of legal smuggling in Yugoslavia was oil smuggling. Milosevic smuggled oil from Russia through port in Montenegro (another republic of Yugoslavia that was not independent at that time). The distribution of oil was in hands of Milosevic and to him loyal people also. Many authors say that economic sanctions imposed against Yugoslavia were effective because they stop the war. This statement is worthy to discuss. War in Bosnia stopped after the progress that Muslim army made in 1995. Richard Holbrook, American diplomat that created Dayton agreement, admitted that he made mistake when he stop progression of Muslim army in Bosnia, because today’s Bosnia is “Barrel of gunpowder”. Another reason for ending the war in Bosnia was severity of the conflict. Europe and the USA could not allow further extensions of this war that took more than 200 000 human casualties by 1995. This is why, the opinion that economic sanctions ended war in Yugoslavia is funny. Only impacts 214 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo that economic sanctions had are partial obedience of Serbia to the UN, and humanitarian crisis they have created. 4.2.Iran in 2000s Although Iran faced the International rage and economic sanctions after Islamic revolution in 1979, today’s situation is even worse for Iran’s reputation on international scene and especially its economy. During 1990s international community was informed that Iran tries to develop nuclear program for civilian usage. However, in years 2002 and 2003 information about Iran’s hidden enrichment of fuel, leaked. Iran claimed that they do not have hidden intentions and their only purpose of fuel enrichment is to obtain high power from nuclear resources. The USA and Israel have major concerns because of Iran’s “nuclear program” and they threatened Iran with war. According to the USA and Israel, Iran has plans to produce an atomic bomb. Iran declared its full support to Palestinians in their fight for liberty. This is why Israel is afraid of Iran and their nuclear program. Nuclear problem forced the UN to impose many rounds of economic sanctions against Iran. Four rounds of economic and other sanctions are imposed against Iran by the UN since 2006. Also there is huge number of national sanctions imposed by the USA, Japan, Canada, Israel, Australia, South Korea, Switzerland, India, EU, etc. The UN imposed sanctions because of Iran’s refusal to cooperate with International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as well as to suspend all uranium-enrichment activities. The UN sanctions were imposed as follows: first round in 2006, second in 2007, third in 2008 and fourth in 2010. Those sanctions were massive and they hit all parts of Iran’s economy and its population. The UN sanctions included: a ban on exports to Iran of all materials, goods and technology that could be of help for further enrichment of uranium and further development of Iran’s Nuclear Program (INP); a prohibition of any assistance to any person that could manage or help in exports of prohibited goods (mentioned above) to Iran; a ban on exports of all arms and war technology as well as a ban on all financial assistance that could be helpful for Iran’s Nuclear program; asset freeze to all persons that could be involved into development of INP; a travel ban to all persons involved into development of INP and others. Non-UN sanctions also included prohibition of investing into Iran’s gas or oil sector, prohibition of providing Iran’s shipping industry with materials for making ships and their maintenance, etc. EU and the USA, and many other countries focused their sanctions on travel bans for persons that are involved in INP as well as sanctions against major banks in Iran. The latest sanctions imposed against Iran are EU sanctions (23 January, 2012) that targeted Iran’s main industry oil. EU prohibited imports of crude oil from Iran and other petroleum products; all assets of Iran’s Central bank within EU are frozen; trade in precious materials, gold and diamonds is banned. Imposition of those sanctions could cost EU very much. According to World Bank almost 40% of Iran’s oil is bought by EU countries, and even though Europe thinks these sanctions will hit Iran the most, it does not have to be the case. Three biggest buyers of Iran’s oil in EU are Italy, Spain and Greece. Those three countries are endangered by a huge deficit and they are the weakest parts of EU. If they face oil shortage, they could fall into even worse situation than they are in today, and that could be disastrous for Euro zone and common currency. 215 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Figure 3: Europe-Iran crude oil Trade Source: U.S.Energy information administration, 2011, www.eia.gov Figure 3 shows how huge the dependence of some European countries on Iran is, when it comes to the imports of crude oil. Greece, the EU country with the strongest economic problems within the Europe at the moment is the biggest importer of crude oil from Iran. Economic sanctions imposed by many countries of the world, made Iran’s payments harder for execute, and therefore Iran’s imports from many countries is endangered, even imports from those that did not impose sanctions. Lack of hard currency is also a problem for Iran. This is why Iranians have troubles while traveling abroad. Although, International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimated in July last year that percentage of oil in total Iran’s exports will be around 78 %, oil and other energy exports for 2011/2012 is much smaller and its portion within GDP is only 21 %.Hufbauer estimates that latest economic sanctions imposed against Iran could decrease its GDP by 10% (Torchia, 2012). Table 5: Iran’s Average Annual Real GDP Growth Source: Economic Intelligence Unit (World Bank) 216 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo According to Table 5, Iran’s real GDP growth had difficulties during the period of sanctions. Before sanctions, growth was 7.1 in year 2003 and even 7.5 in 2002. But in 2005 it was 4.7. It was estimated that growth in 2010 was 2.9, which is huge difference compared to 2002. Iran had problems with inflation even before economic sanctions, and when they were imposed situation became worse. According to Torchia (2012) inflation rate went to 20% in the last 18 months and analysts assume that the real rate of inflation is even higher. One of the reasons is because sanctions made imports more expensive. As it always happens in economy, higher inflation makes national currency less valuable. One of the areas that were stricken very much is Foreign Direct Investment. Many foreign investors gave up on investing in Iran because of bad political situation. Others gave up because of the USA and the UN pressure. All these things forced foreign investors as well as foreign suppliers out of Iran. Without FDI, Iran’s economy must go down. Figure 4: Foreign Direct Investment in Iran during the sanctions period Source: Iran Ministry of Economy and Finance Figure 4 shows that since imposition of economic sanctions in 2006, Foreign Direct Investment decreased a lot. Although before 2010 there is a small increase, after latest EU sanctions in 2012, FDI will probably decrease a lot. When it comes to efficiency of those economic sanctions imposed against Iran, officials disagree. John Bolton, a senior fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, doubts their efficiency, but admits that sanctions are brutal. Shamuel Bar, Director of Studies at the Institute of Policy and Strategy in Herzliya, says that new stricter economic sanctions will be counterproductive and that they will even improve Iran’s nuclear program (Press TV). Opposite to these opinions, most of European and American politicians and scientists consider economic sanctions efficient and until now successful. Hillary Clinton, Secretary of State, says that sanctions “had slowed Iran’s nuclear program” and that sanctions disturbed Iran’s economy, especially in the two sectors: Exports and banking (NY Times). The USA Congress is preparing new set of sanctions against Iran and they targeted all companies and persons linked to Iranian Revolutionary Guards. Barak Obama imposed sanctions against Iran’s Central bank in order to block financing Iran’s nuclear program (Fox news). 217 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo This announcement came few weeks after Iran threatened to close the Strait of Hormuz through which around 20% of world’s oil passes and that Iran will suspend all oil shipment to Europe (Financial Times). Economic sanctions against Iran had some success indeed, but it is questionable will they reach their final goal. After all these sanctions, Iran must work harder than ever in order to find suitable technologies (and even scientists because many of them are murdered by Mossad and CIA) that will be helpful for development of nuclear program. Figure 5: Iran’s crude oil exports, millions of barrels per day other EU; 0,13 India; 0,33 China; 0,54 Spain; 0,14 Turkey; 0,18 Italy; 0,18 South Korea; 0,24 Other; 0,18 Japan; 0,34 Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2011 Figure 5 shows Iran’s crude oil exports in first six months of 2011. Total exports were 2.26 millions of barrels per one day. As we can see, countries that already declared opposition to oil embargo (India, China, South Korea, Turkey) are importing 1.29 millions of barrels per day from Iran, which is 57% of all Iran’s exports per day. Japan only imposed sanctions on goods that could help Iran’s nuclear program and also hesitate to impose sanctions on oil. EU imposed oil embargo against Iran in January 2012, but its true implementation will start in July. This gives plenty of time to Iran to find other buyers to fulfill the gap that will appear after the EU countries stop importing the oil. China and India (huge markets) already rejected sanctions against Iran and they have announced that they will even increase their imports of oil from Iran. Iran will probably offer their oil at discount prices in order to attract countries to buy excess of oil that will appear after Europe stops buying it (Wall Street Journal). In that situation nothing new will happen. Iran will sell all of its oil and only problem will be the loss of 20-30 billion dollars because of discount. Almost same situation is with other goods that Iran exports. 218 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Figure 6: Iran’s Exports to Selected countries Source: International Monetary Fund According to Figure 6, Iran’s exports with selected countries increased even in the period of sanctions imposed by UN (2006, 2007, and 2008). China, India and Turkey will continue and even increase the import of Iran’s oil (Japan imposed sanctions only against persons involved in nuclear program). All economic sanctions imposed against Iran could be a part of pre-war preparations, as history already showed many times. The idea is to make Iran retarded by imposing arm embargo and to create many collaborators that will cooperate with the USA and Israel in the case of military action, as well as to turn people against their government. When it comes to sanctions itself, Iran’s economy could survive despite them as long as they can find buyers for their oil, which is the major source of Iran’s exports and significant portion of Iran’s GDP. 5.Conclusions Economic sanctions gained on importance nowadays. By using economic tools for achieving political and diplomatic goals, countries around the world try to keep peace or to fulfill their interests. Economic sanctions have been used since WWII as tools for preventing conflicts and for changing political systems of other countries. Since 1990, countries increased usage of these types of sanctions. The most famous sanctions were against Iraq, Yugoslavia, Iran, and Zimbabwe. According to many relevant sources, economic sanctions are generally inefficient. In many studies that examined more than 150 economic sanctions throughout the history, some signs of success are noticeable in small number of cases. Complete success was found in less than 5% of all cases studied. So, it can be concluded that economic sanctions are unsuccessful in achieving their goals. In order to impose successful economic sanctions, countries need sanctions that will have following characteristics: it is better when sanctions are multilateral (countries that receive sanctions are unable to find substitution for missing goods and commodities); sanctions must be imposed by powerful economy and they are more efficient if imposed against poorer economy; sanctions imposed against democratic country have higher chances to be efficient than those imposed against nondemocratic society (if imposed against nondemocratic, they can even be counterproductive, meaning they can 219 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo strengthen the position of the dictator); quick and comprehensive (hit all aspects of economy) sanctions are better than slow (long lasting) and those that are not comprehensive. In addition to this, it is important to say that sanctions are almost always successful when one country that imposes sanctions, controls all trade of country that receives sanctions. Targeted or smart sanctions are those which are planned carefully and which have very narrow part of economy to attack. In order to influence political situation in one country, imposers attack assets (freezing them) of certain persons, companies and groups that are closest and mostly involved in that political situation (for example, to freeze abroad assets of persons involved in political situation of one country). By doing so, imposer countries of sanctions avoid negative side effects and unintentional harming of innocent people. When it comes to the impact of economic sanctions, harming innocent people is negative side effect that everyone emphasizes. It is expected that imposition of sanctions on oil and commodities will harm innocents the most. Real economic consequence of oil embargo is the rise of prices of all goods and services. This increase in prices will affect living expenses of ordinary citizens of a country. All sanctions should be planned in order to avoid harming civilians. This study reveals that almost all sanctions harmed innocent people in every country where they were imposed. Two examples of economic sanctions are taken to be analyzed in this study: economic sanctions imposed against Yugoslavia during the war in 1990s, and economic sanctions imposed against Iran. Many authors emphasize the case of Yugoslavia when they speak about successful sanctions, but severity and number of casualties accelerated the end of the war in that country. These sanctions had many good aspects (imposed multilaterally, against nondemocratic country, very comprehensive) and because of that they were partially efficient in case of forcing Yugoslavia’s president to obedience. To conclude, economic sanctions imposed against Yugoslavia were one of the most comprehensive in human history and partially successful. Iran’s current nuclear sanctions are the most comprehensive ongoing sanctions. The UN imposed four rounds of sanctions against Iran with many unilateral sanctions imposed by other countries, led by the USA sanctions. After examination of Iran’s sanctions in this study it can be concluded that sanctions imposed against Iran are partially efficient because they slowed down Iran’s nuclear program, but inefficient in a way that they could not stop it totally. It might be argued that the real purpose of sanctions against Iran is to exhaust that country in order to attack it and to finish its nuclear program with military action. That would not be first time in history that sanctions ended with military action. To summarize, although sanctions proved to be unsuccessful in most cases they are still in use because every peaceful action is better than military conflict and unnecessary casualties. REFERENCES Amuzegar, J., (1997), Iran’s economy and US sanctions, Middle East Journal, Vol. 51, No. 2, pp. 185-199 Andreas, P.,(2007), Criminalizing consequences of Sanctions: Embargo Busting and Its Legacy, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 2, pp. 335-360 Bruno, G., (2010), Iran’s Nuclear Program, http://www.cfr.org/iran/irans-nuclear-program/p16811 220 Council on Foreign Relations, �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Council of the European Union, (2012), Iran: New EU sanctions target sources of finance for nuclear program, http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/127444.pdf Delevic, M.,(1998), Economic sanctions as a foreign policy tool: The case of Yugoslavia, The International Journal of Peace Studies, Volume 3, Number 1, pp. 1-94. Dimitrijevic, V.(1993), Sanctions, Regime and People, Review of International Affairs, pp. 11-12. Drury, A. C., (2000), U.S. Presidents and the Use of Economic Sanctions, Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 623-642 Elliot, K. A., (1997), Corruption as an international policy problem: Overview and recommendations, Corruption and the global economy, Washington, pp. 175-233 Elliot, K. A., Hufbauer G. C., Oegg http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/ Sanctions.html, pp. 1-15 B., (2008), Sanctions, Financial Times, (2012), http://www.ft.com/home/uk, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Forester, W. A., (1926), Sanctions, Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs,Vol. 5, No. 1 pp. 1-15 Fox news, (2012), http://www.foxnews.com, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Gavin, J.G., (1989), Cato.org, http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa124es.html, pp. 1-30, (accessed on January 28, 2012) Gordon, J., (1999 ), Economic sanctions, just war doctrine, and the "fearful spectacle of the civilian dead, crosscurrents.org, pp. 1-20, http://www. crosscurrents.org/gordon.htm, Holbrooke, R., (1995), America, A European Power, Foreign Affairs, Volume 74, No. 2, pp. 20-51. Hufbauer, Clyde G., Schott J. J., and Elliott K. A., (1990), Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, Washington, D.C.: Institute for International Economics, Rev. ed. 2 vols., pp. 1-92. Ilias,.S.,(2010), Iran’s economic conditions: U.S. policy issues, Congressional Research Service, CRS Report for Congress, pp. 1-6., http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL34525.pdf, Jovanovic, P., Sukovic, D.,(2002), A decade http://www.transparentnost.org.rs/dokumenti/d012.html, pp. 1-55 under sanctions, Lektzian, D., Souva, M., (2007), An Institutional Theory of Sanctions Onset and Success, The Journal of Conflict Resolution,Vol. 51, No. 6, pp. 848-871 NY Times, (2011), http://www.nytimes.com, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Pape, R. A.,(1997), Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work, International Security, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 90-136 Patterson, J., (1994), The Sanctions Dilemma, Middle East Report, No. 187/188, Intervention and North-South Politics in the 90's, pp. 24-27 Press TV, (2012), http://www.presstv.ir, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Realite-eu.org, (2012), http://www.realiteeu.org/site/c.9dJBLLNkGiF/b.2267931/k.BD8D/Home.htm, (accessed on February 7, 2012) 221 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Richman S., (1997), The evils of economic sanctions, http://www. fff.org/freedom/0297c.asp, (accessed on December 24, 2012) Rudy, M., and Venteicher J., (2006), Prospect Theory and economic sanctions, Midwest Political Science, pp. 9-11 Talwar, P., (2001), Iran in the balance, Foreign affairs, Vol. 80, No. 4, pp.58-71 The Economist, (2012), http://www.economist.com, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Today’s Zeman, (2010), http://www.todayszaman.com/mainAction.action, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Torbat, A. E., (2005), Impact of the US trade and Financial sanctions on Iran, The world economy, Volume 28, Issue 3, pages 407–434 Torchia, A.,(2012), Analysis: Iran economy could limp along under sanctions, Reuters, http://ca.reuters.com/article/topNews/idCATRE8150MH20120206, pp. 1-8. Wallensteen, P.,(1968), Characteristics of Economic Sanctions, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 5, No. 3 pp. 248-267 Wall Street Journal, (2012), http://europe.wsj.com/home-page, (accessed on February 7, 2012) Risk Tolerance and Investment Preferences in Bosnia and Herzegovina Mela Hadrovic, Ugur Ergun International Burch University, Faculty of Economics, 71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. E-mails: mela_hadrovic@hotmail.com, uergun@ibu.edu.ba Abstract Risk tolerance is considered as an important factor in making financial decisions, saving and investment choices. This paper has examined level of investment risk tolerance and investment preferences of B&H’s population and it had explored whether demographic and socioeconomic factors to risk tolerance and investment preferences. Using a randomly chosen sample of 200 individuals above the age of 20, empirical analysis has shown that above independent variables that are significantly affecting individual’s risk tolerance are income level, education level and gender. Regression analysis has proven that above average risk tolerance is associated with higher income level and higher education level. Moreover, analysis has supported the assumption that males are more risk tolerant then females. Regarding the investment preferences, obtained results show that the out of eight independent variables, only variable measuring whether an individual has a financial commitment is significantly negatively related to the investment. 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1326 Title A name given to the resource Efficiency and Impact of Economic Sanctions Author Author Ilham, Redzic Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to examine economic sanctions as a foreign policy instrument and to give judgment to their efficiency and impact. Since WWI economic sanctions have been used as a tool for preventing conflicts and signaling instrument of foreign policy. Their efficiency and impact have been the main topics for many discussions. Since the War in Yugoslavia in 1991, economic sanctions gained on their importance and usage. Two classical examples of economic sanctions will be discussed in this paper: War in Yugoslavia and sanctions against Iran. Economic sanctions appear to be unsuccessful in most cases and their usual victims are innocent inhabitants. Keywords: Economic sanctions, efficiency of economic sanctions, Yugoslavia, Iran. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d91cd0ab9a3f32d7cecad8eabf3622b4.pdf 2490950386f69567a4085541303c9fd2 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Efficiency of Experimental Program for the Parental Instruction for Children Hazim Selimovid University of Travnik, Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina hazim.selimovic@gmail.com Zehrina Selimovid University of Travnik, Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina zehrina.selimovic@gmail.com Parental instruction in terms of helping children with school activities is very important. For this reason, this paper dealt with theoretical and empirical segment of this problem. In the theoretical part, the concept of parental instruction was defined as well as its importance for the success of the child, the commitment of children to such assistance and the aspects of parental instructions. The objective of study was to investigate the level of parents’ ability to provide instruction to children with school activities and learning. For this purpose, an experimental method was applied (experiment with initial and final measurements with one group). In order to examine the effect of experimental treatment the instrument on parental instruction to children was used. The obtained results provided significant findings that lead us to the conclusion that parents' education can improve their instructions to children in school learning. Keywords: Parental Instruction, Parents, Students. 156 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/91f4632e4809fd1f5c8a1aac825bba5c.docx efaba95c70fa737eb8742e11b301c9a9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ceb466bde205d7691a65fb1c3ae93491.pdf ab86cefb860aa8619f38c25c6558712f PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Application Efficiency of Experimental Program on Parental Instruction to Children Hazim Selimović University of Travnik, Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina hazim.selimovic@gmail.com Zehrina Selimović University of Travnik, Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina zehrina.selimovic@gmail.com Abstract Privacy can be defined as areas which are peculiar to an individual not to public or society. The concept of privacy is mentioned with the concepts of confidentiality and security of personal information and private areas. While the governments create electronic tools and environment to watch and make observation to provide the citizens more secure and an environment to live, it might cause an individual’s private area to shrink. Parental instructions as a helping tool in children are learning process is highly important. For that reason this paper focuses on theoretical and empirical issues within this topic. The theoretical segment defines parental instruction and its significance for child’s success, as well as the different forms of parental instruction, and child’s openness to that form of assistance. The starting point of this paper is testing the level of parents’ capability to instruct children in learning processes. An experimental method (an experiment with initial and final testing within a single group) is utilized. The instrument of parental instruction to children is used in order to test the influence of the experimental treatment. The obtained data has answered significant questions. A positive effect of the experimental process is determined in five out of seven subtests: complexity reduction of the school matter being studied, parents paying significance to the instruction, instruction frequency, monitoring child’s improvement, parents’ instruction level and capability. A positive level of the experimental program has not been recognized in metacognitive context of the instructions and parents’ emotional support to their children. The data stemming from the research suggests that parents coming from urban communities attach more significance to the instruction than parents from rural or suburban communities. These findings lead to the conclusion that parental instruction in children’s learning processes can be improved by the parental education. Keywords: parental instruction, parents, children, Introduction How well a child adapts depends on the environment by which they are surrounded. School and family are a significant part of that environment. There is no doubt that the family is the basic and the most significant institution in any given society. It is equally 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo significant both for the development of the society, and the individuals within that society. Children’s experiences within the family greatly determine future ability to adapt to life and working environment. The role of the family is education and upbringing, as well as creating an environment for child’s continuous development as a cognitive, emotional, social and functional human being in accordance to their affinities and capabilities. Parent-child relations begin with a moment of birth; they develop throughout child’s stay in parent’s house, and continue throughout the life. The quality of the parent-child relationship depends on parents’ interpersonal relationship, their attitude towards the children, as well as the relationship of all the family members and their attitude towards the children. Family relations significantly affect children’s success at school. Parents who attach more significance to parental instruction will largely assistance their children to master the school matters, than those parents who do not view parental instruction as an important part of the learning process. Family and school represent a changing socio-historical category, and with the development of society, science and technology, their role changes, and also becomes more significant to a certain extent. Therefore, the collaboration between school and family in children’s education and upbringing is crucial. The definition of parenting instruction In order to discuss parenting instruction, first we need to clarify the meaning of the word ‘instruction’. It stems from the Latin word ‘instruction’ and means ‘to teach, to educate, to direct, to order.’ (Anić, Klaić and Domović, 2007, pp. 609). The meaning of the word tells us that its essence is to direct on how something should be done. Therefore, parental instruction stands for parents giving their children directions on the easiest way to absorb the school matter. This raises the question of how much significance parents attach to parental instruction. According to pedagogical theory and practice, the level of parental instruction is unsatisfactory. The reasons for it can be the parents themselves, as well as their inadequate ability to instruct. Namely, our patriarchal society which views the mothers as the main caregivers to children, together with the fact that mothers are overwhelmed with housework and other obligations, leaves little room for parental instruction on school matters. On the other hand, the schools’ lack of collaboration with the parents, leaves the parents ill equipped to successfully assistance their children, seeing that they simply are neither aware of the learning methods, nor the school syllabuses. The result is children’s poor results at school, as well as their ‘unfamiliarity with effective learning methods, as a result of children left on their own, overexposed to television, video games or the streets.’(Suzić, 2005, pp. 384). This situation is unacceptable and steps should be undertaken to provide improvement. A good starting point is to inform ourselves in how is Western European countries dealing with this issue? ‘In Western countries it has become a norm for parents to be involved in school education of their children, to monitor their progress at school, and to frequently consult with teachers on ways how to assistance their children in learning process’ (ibid. pp. 384). What is obvious is that parental instruction would assistance the children in their learning process. The question is how open are the children for this form of assistance. They can accept it or not. If children are not open to this form of assistance, it can lead to them feeling overwhelmed and lost. If children are open to parental instruction, they also start to value it and recognize its significance. 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Parental instruction needs to be unobtrusive in order for children to be open to it, it needs to take into consideration child’s initial antagonism and offer easy and clear guidelines. Unfortunately the reason for the lack of this form of assistance sometimes lies in parents, when they feel that they are not competent enough to provide this kind of pedagogical communication. In order to help the parents shake off the feeling of incompetence, the schools should organize trainings aimed to enable the parents to help their children in learning process. The parents will be able to annul the feeling of incompetence through workshops and lectures, and also to acquire certain pedagogical competences which will help them alleviate the learning process. The basic question which imposes itself is : How to help a child in the learning process? The desire for success at school, as well as its significance in modern society drives the parents to take an active role in their children’s education. Their help consists of parents explaining how to approach the matter at hand, as well as why it is important for the child to learn it. The purpose of learning is often left unexplained, which leads to children withdrawing because they were not instructed on importance of the learning process. Parents are expected to explain the purpose of learning to their children through everyday communication, in order for a child to grasp the importance of learning and be motivated to master the school matter. Parents should also entice and encourage their children to persist in given tasks on a daily basis, which will help develop their character, determination and confidence. Parents should entice and encourage their children even in moments of setbacks, when that support is needed the most. Finally, parents’ love should also be pointed out as a foundation of parent-child relationship, and a crucial ingredient for future success. Parents’ empathy as an amalgam of all of the above instigates the emotional and rational understanding, ingredients which are crucial for a child to become a physically and mentally balanced adult. There are various forms of parental instruction, and this paper focuses on the following: Metacognitive instruction context, Task complexity reduction, Attaching significance to the instruction, Emotional support to a child, Instruction frequency, Child’s improvement monitoring and Parent’s instruction capability level. Our research Hypotheses The starting points for this research are four hypotheses: 1. Experimental process has a positive effect on parental instruction in child’s learning process; 2. Experimental process has a positive effect on parental instruction in child’s learning process with regards to the environment by which the school is surrounded; 3. Experimental process has a positive effect on correlation between parental instructions and parents’ education and financial status; 4. Experimental process has a positive effect on correlation between parental instructions and parents’ age. 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Testing sample Research testing sample are the of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th grade primary school pupils from Tuzla, Zvornik, Simin Han and Sapna. The testing sample consists of 125 parents. The parents are divided into the following age categories: 25 to 29 - 27 parents (21,6%), 30 to 34 - 34 parents(27,2%), 35 to 39 - 38 (30,4%), 40 to 44 - 22 (17,6%) and 45- 49 - 4 parents (3,2%). Education categories are: 20 parents (16,0%) with four years of primary school education, 35 (28,0%) %) with eight years of primary school education, 48 (38,4%) with secondary education, 10 (8,0%) with college education and 12 (9,6%) with university education. Social categories are: 17 parents (13,6%) without any income, 3 (2,4%) with income up to 100 BAM, 12 (9,6) with income between 100 and 300 BAM, 27 (21,6) with income between 300 and 500 BAM and 66 (52,8%) with income above 500 KM. The Instrument The instrument used in the research is RID- Parental instruction to children (Suzić, 2005, pp. 909). The instrument uses Likert type assessment scale which consists of the five-level list of possible answers, two of which are agreement levels, one is neutral, and two are disagreement. The parents used this scale to express their agreement, neutrality or disagreement with the information provided. RID - Parental instruction to children is an instrument taken from the 21st Century Pedagogy, (Suzić 2005, pp. 909). It consists of seven subtests: Metacognitive instruction context (6 items),Task complexity reduction (5 items), Attaching significance to the instruction (7 items), Emotional support (7 items), Instruction frequency (5 items), Improvement monitoring (5 items), and Parent’s instruction capability level (7 items). The subtests are summary so we reached an overall RID score: The questions are answered using the Likert scale as follows: 1 (none, never), 2 (to a certain extent, occasionally), 3 (medium or 50%), 4 (mostly, often) and 5 (completely, always). Instrument’s reliability is determined by Alpha- Cronbach coefficient which is ( = 0,85). Study Results The first hypothesis of this study states that experimental treatment has beneficial effect on parental instructions to children in relation to acquiring school curriculum. Confirmation of this hypothesis can be seen in the Table 1. Overall, it is evident that application of the experimental treatment has positive effect on parental instructions to children. 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Table 1: Differences between parental instructions to children Parameter MKI 01i-06i MKI 01f-06f RKZ 07i-11i RKZ 07f-11f PZI 12i-18i PZI 12f-18f EPD 19i-25i EPD 19f-25f FID 26i-30i FID 26f-30f PND 31i-35i PND 31f-35f NOR 36i-42i NOR 36f-42f RID SUM i ∑ RID SUM f ∑ No of subjec ts 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 125 M 22,63 22,97 18,45 20,05 29,41 30,14 28,54 29,50 17,82 18,36 18,66 20,35 19,33 29,72 150,79 170,79 SD Diff. M 4,30 3,06 3,82 1,98 3,52 2,22 3,63 2,41 2,58 1,56 2,79 1,74 5,27 2,92 18,17 10,11 Level of freedom Signif. 124 0,467 – 1,60 – 0,729 – 4,255 124 0,000 – 0,25 – 2,149 124 0,034 – 0,74 – 1,707 124 0,090 – 0,66 – 2,148 124 0,034 – 0,54 – 5,937 124 0,000 – 1,69 – 20,251 124 0,000 – 20,00 – 11,341 124 0,000 – 0,34 t-time. Note: MKI (01-06) - Metacognitive instruction context RKZ (07-11) - Task complexity reduction PZI (12-18) - Attaching significance to the instruction EPD (19-25) - Emotional support to a child FID (26-30) - Instruction frequency PND (31-35) - Child’s improvement monitoring NOR (36-42) - Parent’s instruction capability level RID (01-42) - Parental instruction to children (summarily) Establishing the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Metacognitive instruction context MKI 01-06 (IF) – the very first parameter of Table 1 demonstrates that there are no statistically significant differences (at p <0.05) in all six components of parental instruction to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.05 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of the experimental treatment did not yield any significant results in terms of metacognitive competence in parents-children relationship. The reasons for these results are to be found in the fact that the development of metacognition in parents was unsuccessful i.e. development of awareness of their own cognition failed. The reasons for this are hard to explain but it is a fact that some parents tend to analyze their own actions while others are mainly engaged in specific activities.Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Reduction of the tasks’complexity RKZ 07-11 (IF) the second parameter of Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences (at p <0.01) in all five components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.06 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of experimental treatments yielded significant results in terms of reduction of the tasks’ complexity at the parents to children instructions. Based on the analysis of the findings it can be concluded that the parents acquired certain knowledge through workshops, knowledge regarding reduction of tasks’ complexity, i.e. they managed to understand the importance of adjusting instructions to the needs of their children. Understanding the specific ways of learning certain subject matters resulted in 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo learning how the same matter can be learnt more easily than when applying the method used before the experiment. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instruction to child (RID) Attributing significance to instruction PZI 12-18 (IF) the third parameter, Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences (at p <0.05) in all seven components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.17 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of the experimental treatment yielded tangible results in terms of the importance that parents attribute to instructions. The effect of knowledge that parents acquired through workshops and relating to the instructions, motivated parents to attribute greater importance to instructions to their children in mastering the curriculum content in terms of time needed for instructions and personal engagement in the success. The fact that they were involved in the experiment contributed to motivating parents, as well as the desire for new knowledge about instructions which parents showed even during the experimental treatment by reading additional literature. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Emotional support to the child EPD 19-25 (IF) - the fourth parameter, Table 1 shows that there are no statistically significant differences (at p <0.05) in all seven components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.03 between both sets of before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of the experimental treatment did not yield significant results in terms of emotional support from the parents to the child. The lack of statistical significance in the emotional support to children points to the fact that parents, during the instructions, paid more attention to the adoption of specific teaching content ignoring the emotional support, which can be interpreted by different levels of aspirations of children and parents where parents focused only on acquiring knowledge while children needed emotional support as well. This also points to the interconnectedness of metacognition which also did not show statistically significant improvement in terms of emotional self-regulation of the parents. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Frequency of instructions to child FID 26-30 (IF) - the fifth parameter, Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences (at p <0.05) in all five components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.16 between both sets of before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of experimental treatments yielded significant results in terms of frequency of parental instructions. Parents started to help their children more often, to talk more about the school and school related topics and to share parental concerns with spouses. This last finding is rather interesting because the majority of parents in the initial stage of the study indicated that solely they care about helping children in school activities and they considered it to be justified, but under the influence of all that they have experienced in the workshops their attitude changed and they began to include spouses and considered them to be an equal collaborators/partners. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Monitoring progress of the child PND 31-35 (IF) - the sixth parameter of Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences (at p 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo <0.01) in all five components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.07 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. Progress in this subtest came as a result of greater concern showed by parents for the success of their child, as well as by creating a better, trusting relationship with their children, dosing instructions to the needs of their children and monitoring the success of instructions. All this came as a result of experimental treatment. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) Competence level of parents for instructions NOR 3642 (IF) - the seventh parameter of Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences (at p <0.01) in all five components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.11 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. Certainly the biggest improvement of all subtests was made with respect to the level of competence of the parents which can be seen from the arithmetic mean. Parents have entered experimental treatment with a very modest knowledge of instructions as a way to help children learning. Active participation in all workshops enabled them to get acquainted with all that is needed for their children to achieve better results. Motivated by the desire to find out everything needed to successfully work with children, parents have improved their instructions to children and it yielded statistical significance compared to the initial test. Determining the significance of the difference between the initial and final states of parental instructions to child (RID) - Summary Table 1 shows that there are statistically significant differences in general (at p <0.01) in all components of parental instructions to child, with a statistically insignificant correlation of 0.12 between both sets before and after the experimental treatment. The effect of the experimental treatment was felt in the aggregate findings of the instruments of parental instructions to children, which confirmed that parents were actively involved in the experimental program and that they had gained considerable knowledge and experience in order to better and improve success rate of instruction for their children in learning process. The second hypothesis of this study is that the experimental treatment has positive influence on parental instructions to children in relation to school children attend. The findings indicate that there are significant differences in terms of parental instructions to the child with respect to school children attend. The results confirming this hypothesis are shown in Table 2 Table 2:Differences between parental instructions to the child with respect to school children attend Parameter MKI 01-06 (I) MKI 01-06 (F) School urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural Subjects tested 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 M SD 23,42 22,52 23,42 21,90 22,52 21,90 22,86 23,04 22,86 23,00 4,23 4,86 4,23 4,03 4,86 4,03 3,29 2,26 3,29 3,20 7 Diff. M 0,90 F Signif. t-time. Signif. 0,166 0,685 0,826 0,411 1,52 0,317 0,575 1,840 0,069 0,62 0,001 0,970 0,586 0,560 – 0,18 – 0,14 2,700 0,105 – 0,245 0,807 0,037 0,849 – 0,277 0,783 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo RKZ 07-11 (I) RKZ 07-11 (F) PZI 12-18 (I) PZI 12-18 (F) EPD 19-25 (I) EPD 19-25 (F) FID 26-30 (I) FID 26-30 (F) PND 31-35 (I) PND 31-35 (F) suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural suburban rural urbansuburban urbanrural 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 25 50 50 23,04 23,00 19,36 17,76 19,36 17,88 17,76 17,88 20,76 19,56 20,76 19,58 19,56 19,58 30,76 29,32 30,76 28,10 29,32 28,10 30,56 31,12 30,56 29,24 31,12 29,24 29,96 28,64 29,96 27,08 28,64 27,08 29,30 28,68 29,30 29,36 28,68 29,36 18,52 17,28 18,52 17,40 17,28 17,40 18,68 17,96 18,68 18,24 17,96 18,24 19,60 17,64 19,60 18,24 17,64 18,24 20,62 20,12 20,62 20,20 2,26 3,20 4,12 3,91 4,12 3,32 3,91 3,32 2,11 1,32 2,11 1,94 1,32 1,94 2,37 3,50 2,37 4,01 3,50 4,01 1,79 1,42 1,79 2,60 1,42 2,60 3,42 3,12 3,42 3,56 3,12 3,56 2,56 1,60 2,56 2,59 1,60 2,59 2,51 2,81 2,51 2,43 2,81 2,43 1,45 1,10 1,45 1,80 1,10 1,80 2,35 3,09 2,35 2,81 3,09 2,81 1,94 1,39 1,94 1,69 8 0,04 3,005 0,101 0,231 0,926 1,60 0,307 0,581 1,611 0,111 1,48 2,231 0,139 1,976 0,051 – 0,12 1,20 0,397 0,531 – 0,139 0,890 9,573 0,003 2,589 0,012* 1,18 0,407 0,525 2,908 0,004** – 0,02 1,44 7,835 0,007 – 0,046 5,466 0,022 2,106 0,039* 2,66 8,007 0,006 4,037 0,000** 1,22 0,166 0,685 1,294 0,200 – 0,56 1,32 1,532 0,220 – 1,364 0,177 6,871 0,010 2,959 0,004** 1,88 9,618 0,003 3,365 0,001** 1,32 0,039 0,845 1,620 0,110 2,88 0,686 0,409 4,123 0,000** 1,56 0,907 0,344 1,860 0,067 0,62 5,602 0,021 1,107 0,272 – 0,06 – 0,68 1,24 0,023 0,880 – 0,116 0,908 4,191 0,044 – 1,120 0,234 0,036 0,850 1,939 0,056 1,12 0,001 0,982 2,266 0,026* –0,12 0,014 0,829 –0,191 0,849 0,72 1,323 0,254 2,187 0,032* 0,44 3,647 0,059 1,346 0,182 – 0,28 1,96 7,390 0,008 – 0,712 0,479 2,679 0,106 3,058 0,003** 1,36 1,488 0,225 2,626 0,010** – 0,60 0,50 0,340 0,562 – 0,843 0,402 3,355 0,071 1,149 0,254 0,42 1,278 0,261 1,155 0,251 0,963 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo suburban 25 20,12 1,39 rural 50 20,20 1,69 NOR 36-42 (I) urban50 21,04 6,23 suburban 25 17,56 3,12 urban50 21,04 6,23 rural 50 18,50 4,61 suburban 25 17,56 3,12 rural 50 18,50 4,61 NOR 36-42 (F) urban50 31,04 1,95 suburban 25 30,84 1,07 urban50 31,04 1,95 rural 50 27,84 3,35 suburban 25 30,84 1,07 rural 50 27,84 3,35 RID 01-42 (I) urban50 157,8 19,7 suburban 25 146,0 15,6 urban50 157,8 19,7 rural 50 146,2 15,7 suburban 25 146,0 15,6 rural 50 146,2 15,7 RID 01-42 (F) urban50 173,8 10,2 suburban 25 171,3 6,99 urban50 173,8 10,2 rural 50 167,5 10,4 suburban 25 171,3 6,99 rural 50 167,5 10,4 Note: RID (01-42) – parental instructions to the child ** - level of significance of 0,01 * - level of significance of 0,05 – 0,08 3,48 0,860 0,357 – 0,204 13,93 0,000 2,625 0,011* 2,54 6,779 0,011 2,316 0,023* – 0,94 0,20 2,654 0,108 – 0,918 0,362 3,532 0,064 0,478 0,634 3,20 3,583 0,061 5,836 0,000** 3,00 6,442 0,013 4,352 0,000** 11,8 3,259 0,075 2,606 0,011* 11,6 3,281 0,073 3,271 0,001** – 0,12 2,50 0,209 0,649 – 0,031 0,975 1,627 0,206 1,097 0,276 6,32 0,098 0,755 3,053 0,003** 3,82 0,773 0,382 1,650 0,103 0,839 Determining the significance of difference between the parental instructions to child, with respect to school children attend (urban, rural and suburban, i.e. educational institution location) Table 2 shows that there are significant differences of the initial condition related to attributing significance to instructions to child, emotional support for the child, the frequency of instructions to the child, the level of competence of the parents for instructions and parental instruction to the child (cumulative) before the experimental treatment, in favor of the city (urban) schools, compared to suburban and rural schools Also, it was found that there were statistically significant differences in the final condition for reducing the complexity of the task, attributing importance to instructions to child, frequency of instructions to a child, the level of competence of the parents for instructions and parental instruction to the child (cumulative) before the experimental treatment, in favor of the city (urban) schools, compared to suburban and rural schools. This significance is not present in the context of metacognitive instructions which shows that parents do not differ significantly in this subtest. Significance can be found in reducing the complexity of the tasks in the favor of the city (urban) schools, and the reasons for this are related to better understanding and understanding of these issues by parents living in the urban areas as opposed to the parents from the country. Analysis of the arithmetic means shows that there has also been progress with parents in suburban and rural schools, but it is not statistically significant. As for the subtests Attributing significance to the instructions it shows a statistically significant difference between parents from urban area versus those from rural ones in both 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo initial and final study, which means that the parents from urban areas attribute greater importance to instruction in relation to the parents from the rural areas. The reason for this lies in the fact that the parents from the urban areas are more motivated for their child to succeed than parents from the rural areas. The lack of statistically significant differences between the parents from urban and rural areas (regardless of location of the school) with regard to the emotional support to a child can be explained by the fact that parents still value cognitive achievement of children above all other competencies , even emotional ones. Frequency of instructions was also present with parents of all schools and there were no statistically significant differences except between urban and rural parents in the initial study, and urban and suburban parents in final study. Regarding monitoring progress there is no statistically significant change from the initial to the final state of the study which suggests that parents of all schools paid great attention to this aspect of helping children learning. The biggest statistical difference was between parents of urban and rural schools in the subtest Parents’ instruction capability level. This shift indicates that parents in urban schools are on the more advanced level in relation to the parents of suburban and rural schools. The reasons behind this are greater motivation to learn demonstrated by parents from urban schools. The analysis of parental instruction to children in general shows a statistically significant difference in the initial study of the parents from urban areas as compared to parents from suburban and rural areas, and in the final study between parents from urban and rural areas which suggests that parents from urban areas invest more and are more willing to help their children learning. The third hypothesis is that there is a positive correlation between parental instructions to educational and economic status of the parents. Results are given in Tables 3 and 4. The results show that the experimental treatment did not have positive effect on the association of parental instructions to child and their level of education, as well as economic status of parents, compared before and after the experimental treatment. Analysis of the results of linear regression Table 3, prior to the experimental treatment, indicates that the overall regression is statistically significant at the 0.01 level (Sig). It was demonstrated by univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA short). The only conclusion that can be drawn is that we should reject the basic hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the differences between parental instructions to child and educational status of parents does not exist. The coefficient of determination (R2) and multiple correlations (R) show that the variance of parental instructions to child (before experimental treatment) is possible to explain by 24 percent by educational status of their parents, because their correlation is 0.49. Therefore, it can be argued that parental instructions to child can be predict based on educational status of parents. Only one regression (before experimental treatment) was statistically significant for the parent’s instructions to child and to Parent's instruction capability level, given the educational status of the parents. Parental instructions to child (RID-summary) in the initial state confirm that it is in general statistically significant in explaining the educational status of parents. Table 3:Correlation between parental instructions to a child with their educational status before and after the experimental treatment Ri =0,49 - Rf=0,40 R2i=0,24 - R2f=0,16 F-ratio =5,15/3,20 10 Significance F =0,00/0,01 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Br. 1. Parameters Metacognitive instruction context (i) Metacognitive instruction context (f) 2. Task complexity reduction (i) Task complexity reduction (f) 3. Attaching significance to the instruction (i) Attaching significance to the instruction (f) 4. Emotional support to a child (i) Emotional support to a child (f) 5. Instruction frequency (i) Instruction frequency (f) 6. Child’s improvement monitoring (i) Child’s improvement monitoring (f) 7. Parents’ instruction capability level (i) Parents’ instruction capability level (f) ∑ Parental instruction to child (sum-i) Parental instruction to child (sum-f) Note: ** - level of significance from 0,01 * - level of significance from 0,05 Beta 0,02 -0,01 -0,04 0,22 0,14 -0,07 0,05 -0,31 0,01 0,03 0,04 0,07 0,39 0,32 0,41 0,14 B 0,01 -0,01 -0,01 0,13 0,05 -0,04 0,02 -0,15 0,01 0,02 0,02 0,04 0,08 0,13 0,05 0,01 t-time 0,149 -0,131 -0,284 2,083 1,498 -0,680 0,481 -2,628 0,107 0,315 0,419 0,682 4,236 3,029 4,925 1,539 Signif. t 0,882 0,896 0,777 0,039* 0,137 0,498 0,632 0,010** 0,915 0,754 0,676 0,497 0,000** 0,003** 0,000** 0,126 Analysis of the results of linear regression Table 3, after the experimental treatment, indicates that the overall regression is statistically significant at the 0.01 level (Sig). It was demonstrated by univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA Short), and the only conclusion that can be drawn is that we should reject the basic hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the differences between parental instructions to child and educational status of parents does not exist .The coefficient of determination (R2) and multiple correlations (R) show that the variance of parental instructions to child (before experimental treatment) is possible to explain by 24 percent by educational status of their parents, because their correlation is 0.40. Therefore, it can be argued that parental instructions to child can be predicted based on educational status of parents. Three regressions are (after experimental treatment) determined to be statistically significant for parental instructions to child: Parent's instruction capability level and Task complexity reduction, with respect to the educational status of parents whereas emotional support to a child bears negative value. This negative value indicates the fact that we are dealing with tendencies of opposite directions, which means that when one tendency is growing (educational status of parents) the other decreases (Emotional support to a child), and vice versa. Parental instructions to child (RID-summary) in the final state confirm the fact that it is not generally statistically significant in explaining the educational status of parents. Analysis of the results of linear regression Table 4 (prior to the experimental treatment) indicates that the overall regression is not statistically significant at the level of 0.05 (Sig). It is demonstrated by univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA Short), with the only conclusion that that we cannot reject the basic hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the differences between parental instructions to child and economic status of parents does not exist. The coefficient of determination (R2) and multiple correlations (R) show that the variance of parental instructions to child (before experimental treatment) is possible to explain by only 10 percent by the economic status of parents, because their correlation is 0.32. Therefore, it cannot be argued that parental instructions to child can be predicted based on economic status of the parents. Only one regression (before experimental treatment) was statistically significant for the Parental instructions to child and to Parent's instruction capability level, given the economic status of the parents. Parental instructions to child (RID-summary) in the initial state indicate that it is in general statistically significant in explaining the economic status of the parents. 11 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Table 4: Correlation between parental instructions to a child with their economic status before and after the experimental treatment Ri =0,32 - Rf=0,20 R2i=0,10 - R2f=0,04 Br. Parameters 1. Metacognitive instruction context (i) Metacognitive instruction context (f) 2. Task complexity reduction (i) Task complexity reduction (f) 3. Attaching significance to the instruction (i) Attaching significance to the instruction (f) 4. Emotional support to a child (i) Emotional support to a child (f) 5. Instruction frequency (i) Instruction frequency (f) 6. Child’s improvement monitoring (i) Child’s improvement monitoring (f) 7. Parents’ instruction capability level (i) Parents’ instruction capability level (f) ∑ Parental instruction to child (sum-i) Parental instruction to child (sum-f) Note: ** - level of significance from 0,01 * - level of significance from 0,05 F-ratio =1,93/0,69 Beta B 0,02 0,01 0,01 0,00 -0,03 -0,01 0,03 0,02 -0,14 -0,05 -0,11 -0,07 0,19 0,07 0,15 0,09 -0,20 -0,11 -0,07 -0,06 0,07 0,03 -0,03 -0,02 0,23 0,06 0,12 0,06 0,18 0,01 0,11 0,01 Signif. F =0,07/0,68 t-time Signif. t 0,172 0,863 0,083 0,934 -0,242 0,809 0,274 0,784 -1,333 0,185 -1,034 0,303 1,724 0,087 1,173 0,243 -1,934 0,055 -0,698 0,487 0,646 0,520 -0,285 0,776 2,290 0,024* 1,035 0,303 2,087 0,039* 1,230 0,221 Analysis of the results of linear regression Table 4 (prior to the experimental treatment) indicates that the overall regression is not statistically significant at the level of 0.05 (Sig). It is demonstrated by univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA Short), with the only conclusion that that we cannot reject the basic hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the differences between parental instructions to child and economic status of parents does not exist. The coefficient of determination (R2) and multiple correlations (R) show that the variance of parental instructions to child (after experimental treatment) is possible to explain by only 4 percent by the economic status of parents, because their correlation is 0.20. Therefore, it can be argued that parental instructions to child cannot be predicted based on economic status of the parents. Not a single regression (after experimental treatment) was statistically significant for the Parental instructions to child and to Parent's instruction capability level, given the economic status of the parents. Parental instructions to child (RID-summary) in the initial state indicate that it is not in general statistically significant in explaining the economic status of the parents. The fourth hypothesis is that there is a correlation between parental instructions to child and age of parents. The findings relevant to this correlation association are given in Table 5. They demonstrate partial correlation between parental instructions to child and parents’ age, as a result of the influence of experimental treatment. Analysis of the results of linear regression Table 5 (prior to the experimental treatment) indicates that the overall regression is not statistically significant at the level of 0.05 (Sig).It is demonstrated by univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA Short), with the only conclusion that that we cannot reject the basic hypothesis, i.e. the assumption that the differences between parental instructions to child and age of parents does not exist. The coefficient of determination (R2) and multiple correlations (R) show that the variance of parental instructions to child (before experimental treatment) is possible to explain by 6 percent by the economic status of parents, because their correlation is 0.24. Therefore, it 12 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo cannot be argued that parental instructions to child can be predicted based on the age of the parents. Not a single regression (before experimental treatment) was statistically significant for the Parental instructions to child, given the age of the parents. Parental instructions to child (RID-summary) in the initial state indicate that it is not in general statistically significant in explaining the age of the parents. Conclusion Parental instruction in learning process significantly affects the overall success a child achieves at school. This form of assistance depends on the parents, as well as the children. Their motivation is a key factor for instructions to be successful. The process of parental instruction can be implemented by using various methods, usually by empathy, helping children to reduce the amount of effort and energy needed to master the matter,emotional support, supervising what is being learned as well as how, and creating the environment to raise child’s awareness or metacognition on what is being learned. These are all the methods that are largely unknown to parents. The workshops that were organized from September to December 2008 sparked the interest of the parents, and also enabled them to acquire basic pedagogical tools on how to help their children. The results of the research show that there is statistically significant difference in parental instruction in five out of seven subtests: complexity reduction of the school matter being studied, parents paying significance to the instruction, instruction frequency, monitoring child’s improvement, parents’ instruction level and capability. A positive level of the experimental program has not been recognized in metacognitive context of the instructions and parents’ emotional support to their children . The experimental program has not given positive results in all of the subtests with regards to the school environment, although the parents from city schools achieved a certain progress compared to parents from suburban or rural schools. The conclusion that can be reached from the results obtained is that an improvement in parental instruction in learning process can be achieved by working with parents. Emotional support and metacognition require more time, seeing that the former clashes with the traditional communication which does not recognize emotions, while the latter is something which is largely unknown to the parents and requires more time to be improved. Reference Anić, Š., Klaić, N., Domović, Ţ. ( 2007). Riječnik stranih riječi. Zagreb: Sani-plus. Bakovljev,M. (1995). Statistika u pedagoškim istraţivanjiima. Beograd: Naučna knjiga CURO, Učiteljski fakultet. Brkić,M. iKundačina,M. (2003). Statistika u istraţivanju vaspitanja i obrazovanja. MostarSarajevo: Educa d.o.o. Sarajevo. 13 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Brown, A. L. (1987): Metacognition, excutive control, self-regulation and other more mysterious mechanisms. Weinert, F. E. & Kluwe, R. H. (Eds) Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations, Cambridge University Press, pp. 188227. Demirović, M. i Kukić, S. (2003). 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Uvod u metodologiju istraţivanja i obrazovanja. Zagreb: Educa. Raboteg-Šarić, Z. (1993). Empatija, moralno rasuđivanje i različiti oblici prosocijalnog ponašanja. Zagreb: Sveučilište u Zagrebu-Filozofski fakultet. Suzić, N. (2006). Traţenje pomoći kao kognitivna strategija učenika. Nastava i vaspitanje br. 3, str. 239-257. Na sajtu: http://www.suzicnenad.com/knjige.html. Očitano: 24.10.2008. Suzić, N.(2005). Pedagogija za XXI vijek. Banja Luka: TT–CentarRepublike Srpske i UNICEF Kancelarija u Banjaluci. Termiz, Dţ. (2003). Metodologija društvenih nauka. Sarajevo: Svjetlost. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1605 Title A name given to the resource Efficiency of Experimental Program for the Parental Instruction for Children Author Author SELIMOVIĆ, Hazim SELIMOVIĆ, Zehrina Abstract A summary of the resource. Parental instruction in terms of helping children with school activities is very important. For this reason, this paper dealt with theoretical and empirical segment of this problem. In the theoretical part, the concept of parental instruction was defined as well as its importance for the success of the child, the commitment of children to such assistance and the aspects of parental instructions. The objective of study was to investigate the level of parents’ ability to provide instruction to children with school activities and learning. For this purpose, an experimental method was applied (experiment with initial and final measurements with one group). In order to examine the effect of experimental treatment the instrument on parental instruction to children was used. The obtained results provided significant findings that lead us to the conclusion that parents' education can improve their instructions to children in school learning. Keywords: Parental Instruction, Parents, Students. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/29fb8a7277899c0614dfe0c2e329cbdf.pdf 95ddc94f7844bd718a4392a8df30e99b Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Efficient Parking Reservation System for IBU Students Author Author Faris Gigić Abstract A summary of the resource. Parking availability is a growing concern for university students, often leading to time inefficiencies, increased stress, and congestion within campus premises. This project aims to develop a web-based parking reservation system tailored specifically for students of the International Burch University (IBU). The core objective is to provide an intuitive platform that allows students to view available parking slots in real-time and reserve them in advance, reducing unnecessary vehicle circulation and improving overall parking management. The system is built using modern web technologies, with a front-end developed in React and styled with Bootstrap for responsiveness and user-friendly interaction. Authentication is managed through Google Sign-In, restricted to university-issued student emails (ending in @stu.ibu.edu.ba) to ensure authorized access. The backend employs Node.js and Sequelize ORM for handling database operations, with parking data being managed dynamically t o reflect real-time changes in availability. Functionality includes viewing parking layouts, selecting available slots, and booking or canceling reservations. A calendar and/or map interface provides a visual and interactive overview of parking slot statuses. The system distinguishes between student and professor parking zones to prevent cross-access and ensure fair usage. Keywords Keywords. parking reservation, student parking, IBU, web application, React, Google authentication, smart campus parking software engineering web application