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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
An Analytic Interpretation of Grammatical Phrases
Construing the English Articles
Asst.Prof.Dr.Azamat Akbarov
English Department, Education Faculty
International Burch University
Bosnia and Herzegovina
aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: This paper studies the English article system from the perspective of
dialectics. The aim of the study is to expand the area of understanding the English
article system by showing that at the very elementary communicative level is more
relevantly indicated as a relational dialectical system rather than a simple binary one
as characterized in most traditional pedagogical grammar books. This research
attempts to reach this objective by interpreting such key metalingustic notions as
anaphoric generic uniqueness etc as well as the three main descriptors of the English
articles which involve article definite and indefinite For Plato dialogues or our Daily
communicational acts are fundamentally dialectical. Thus the base reasoning for his
research is that if we understand the Notion linked to dialectic or dialectical acts
better this will in turn help us comprehend our own dialogical acts in general and the
English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular.
Key Words: English articles, dialectic, definiteness, indefiniteness
Introduction
The English articles the and a/an are most often used grammatical elements but are also salient as one of
the most problematic areas in acquiring this language as a foreign language (Butler. 1999). A number of studies
attempt have been made hoping to clarify what aspects of the English article system make the learner of English
as a Foreign Language (EFL) have difficulty acquiring the system (Master. 1990: Song & Park. 2001). The goal
of this research has been produced out of this line of pedagogical thought. The paper aims to extend the scope of
understanding the English article system by demonstrating that at the very elementary communicative level it is
more appropriately characterized as a relational dialectical system rather than a simple binary one as described in
most traditional pedagogical grammar books. Specifically, this study attempts to reach this goal by reinterpreting key metalinguistic notions of the English articles which have been commonly used in the literature
involving English grammar and linguistics.
This will be done from the perspective of the semantics of dialectics. By nature, this study is more
likely to pursue what Ellis (1997) calls practical knowledge as opposed to technical knowledge. As part of the
discussion about the Professional relationship between Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research and
language pedagogy, he characterizes the former as explicit while the latter as implicit. What he argues with the
technical knowledge which is obtained primarily by analytical and empirical work. On the other hand, practicing
professionals like doctors and teachers tend to rely more on the practical knowledge which is intuitive and
experiential.
In what follows, I will first briefly discuss in what respects this instrumental Notion of dialectic or
dialectical help extend the scope of our understanding the English articles. A few key descriptions such as
article, definite, indefinite and the like will then be analyzed.
On Dialectic
How has the nation dialectic or dialectical been defined in the literature? As Watson (1985 p 85) points
out. Its origin seems to date back to Plato‘s period. Dialectic is Plato‘s Word coming from ―dialegesthai‖ to talk
with and his works take the form of dialogues. As such the terms dialectic and dialogue are closely interrelated
concepts. Here the implication is that our daily communicational act is fundamentally dialectical, so if we
understand this notion better. This will in turn help us understand our own dialogical acts in general and the
English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular.
What follows are brief schematic descriptions of these terms. Which have been drawn selectively from
the Webster‘s Third New International Dictionary (1967). The nominal forms dialectic and dialectics are defined
in two respects. In one sense, they are often identified as the theory and practice of weighing and reconciling
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juxtaposed or contradictory arguments for the purpose of arriving at truth –especially through discussion and
debate. In another sense, and particularly on literature, they are often referred to as a type of systematic
reasoning that seeks to resolve a conflict. While both senses indicate a reality of tension or opposition between
two interacting forces or elements their ultimate purpose is directed toward obtaining truth and solving problems
through transforming or transcending.
Dialectics for Plato was used as a means of logical analysis or division of things and was expressed in
the form of representing both ―genera‖ (or Form in his view of universe) and species (or particular) (Stevenson.
1987). In Aristotle, dialectics was viewed as a method of arguing the different sides of any given problem. It was
also used as an art intermediate between rhetoric (thus, more symbolic, indefinite inclusive generic metaphoric
and less referential) and strict demonstration (thus more concrete or referential, specific, definite, and exclusive).
In the Kantian tradition, dialectics is used to account for paradoxical realities (i.e. both appearances and
illusions), and it thus deals with paralogisms (i.e. reasoning contrary to the rules of logic), antinomies and
transcendental ideas. Dialectics in this tradition becomes meaningful where these antithetical problems arise
through logical fallacies, perceptual errors or the endeavor to use the principles of the understanding applicable
only within experience for determination of such transcendental objects as the soul, the world and God.
In a slightly more developed form the Hegelian interpretation is spelled out as:
a logical development progressing from less to more comprehensive levels that on its subjective
side is the passage of thought from a thesis through an antithesis to a synthesis that in turn
becomes a thesis for further progressions ultimately culminating on the absolute idea and on its
objective side is an analogous development in the process of history and the cosmos.
(Webster‘s Dictionary.1967.p 623)
It is noteworthy that historically up to Hegel‘s use of dialectics. Its major function was the acquisition
of truth and resolution of conflicts in problems. For Marx in contrast, the dialectic is viewed more as a
conceptual tool responsible for bringing about some change or transformation. He expressed this Notion as:
the process of self-development or unfolding (as of an action, event, ideology, movement or
institution) through the stages of thesis, antithesis and synthesis in accordance with the laws of
dialectical materialism and the method that regards change in nature and history as taking place in
this way.
(Webster‘s Dictionary. 1967.p.623)
For him reality is a changing process to be decoded by the human mind.
The adjectival forms dialectic and dialectical are typically represented with the following characteristic
semantic features. They are (a) marked by a dynamic inner tension, conflict and interconnectedness of parts of
elements: (b) they are used to denote the idea of mutuality and reciprocity: (c) they are used to refer to the acts of
practicing, being devoted to, or employing a dialectic and (d) as regarding something from the point of view of a
dialectic.
In summary the dialectic has been used as a conceptual catch-all to account for various paradoxical and
co-existing aspects inherent in human reasoning and practices. Dialectics has been as both theory and practice as
indicating a solution, recognition or acknowledgement of conflict contradiction, oxymoron and the like. This use
of dialectics is responsible for denoting involves the recognition of change, difference, distinction, and the like
over time.
In fact because of its potential utility in constructing social theory the concept of dialectics has been
given increased attention by psychologists (Gusfield, 1989: Georgoudi, 1984: Perin-banayagam, 1991). In
reviewing many of the social psychological studies on this subject, Georgoudi (1984) concludes that dialectics
has been employed not just at the level of theory construction but also at a metatheoretical level and at the level
of methodological application. He has also noted that dialectics. In its most general sense is viewed as a process
of relating nearly all aspects of human activity. Thus it is a form of mediation with a wide range of applications
and nearly unlimited theoretical and practical potential. In other words, its unstated implications are widely and
systematically disturbed to almost all sectors of the human and social sciences.
As briefly illustrated above, the implications of the term dialectic are profound in terms of their
philosophical, psychological and methodological applications. Let me point out in what sense the notion of
dialectic can be helpful for one to understand the English article system, particularly from a pedagogical
standpoint. First as seen in Plato‘s view of dialectic the English articles signify both generic or specific meaning
and the articles are obviously key dialogical devices. Thus the system reflects the contradictory nature of relation
between a whole and its part as well as the processual nature of our human praxis or action. Second similarly to
the dialectic as a theoretical concept the semantic root of the English article connotes ―relation‖ which will be
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discussed further later in this paper. Third just as the notion of dialectic entails system has an antithetical
structure (i.e. definite and indefinite) The system is used for meaning differentiation and construction in
dialogical context In sum it seems obvious that there exists a certain conceptual parallel between what we have
seen about dialectic and the English articles.
Key Descriptions of the Articles
Let me start with the three basic descriptors of the English articles which involve ―definite‖ ―indefinite‖
and article. These terms have been commonly attributed and related to the usage of the articles ―the‖ and ―a/an‖.
Although commonly used these three descriptors have not sustained a rigorous theoretical analysis by EFL/ESL
researchers. Typically these researchers have simply followed the lead of many earlier theorists. Both
philosophers and linguists who from a very different set of assumptions in the philosophy of science have
usually resorted to using them as simple referring devices for ―the‖ and ―a/an‖.
For instance Russell a leading philosopher of the logical positivist school28 is a typical case in point. As
cited by Rosenberg an Travis (1971, p.167), Russell (1973) used these terms to distinguish different modes of
philosophical description:
A ―description‖ may be of two sorts definite and indefinite (or ambiguous). An indefinite description is a
phrase of the form ―a so-and-so,‖ and a definite description is a phrase of the form ―the‖ so-and-so (in the
singular), (original emphasis)
A similar but more specific usage of these terms has been proposed by Bickerton (1985):
In English ―definite‖ really means presumed known to the listener whether by prior knowledge (the man
you met yesterday) uniqueness in the universe (the sun is setting) uniqueness in a given setting (The
battery is dead-cars do not usually have more than one battery) or general knowledge that a named class
exists ( The dog is the friend of man): and ― indefinite‖ really means presumed unknown to the listener
whether by absence of prior knowledge (A man you should meet is Mr. Blank) nonexistence of a
nameable referent (Bill is looking for a wife) or nonexistence of any referent (George couldn‘t see an
aardvark) (p.147)
Accordingly, authors of English grammar books usually use these notions as received categories. They
assume the word ―the‖ is responsible for definiteness and the words ―a/an‖ are responsible based on simple clear
and straightforward categorical meanings, it has had a broad pedagogical appeal. However because of its
theoretical simplicity this classification has also been problematic and misleading to many students. The fact is
that ―the, a/an‖ or no use of these words is found in the same or a similar communicative context without a
substantial difference in meaning (e.g. the tiger, a tiger, and tigers). This could thus lead one to confusion about
what it means to be definite and indefinite. A separate descriptive analysis of these terms will, I believe, show
that a more relational meaning of these articles is warranted.
Article
The term ―article‖ is probably the most common descriptor used in reference to the words ―the‖ and
―a/an‖ and is used either when referring separately to one or the other of these articles or to both as a common
category of grammatical elements A clue to the meaning of this term may be found by looking into its historical
origins its ancestral forms found both in Greek and Latin, are arthron and articulus, respectively. They are said to
be no more than the ordinary words for link or joint (Lyons, 1977) and appear to be analogous to relation or
connection.
Note also that in the early Greek language no sharp distinction was drawn in terms of the forms or
syntactic and semantic functions between demonstrative pronouns the definite and indefinite articles and the
relative pronouns. As Herndon (1976, p.10) states, the term ―syndesmoi‖ was at first applied to them all, and it
was chosen, presumably, because they were all regarded as connectives of various kinds. The primary function
of these various words is based on notions of linking, connecting, and other relating schema.29
28
From Bertrand Rusell, (1919). Introduction to mathematical philosophy. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Chapters
X and XI,pp.167-180.
29
For a full discussion of the theoretical differences between these usages, see Hawkins (1978), where he makes specific
analyses from a particular theoretical linguistic viewpoint.
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These relational concepts are virtually all time-bound in that relating one thing with another requires
time: namely a diachronic relation. Note also that the verb form ―articulate‖ is related to the notion ―article‖ in a
morphological sense. From this we can further speculate that the use of the articles as an act of articulation or
saying is itself an act of relating in a dialogical sense.
The Definite
When turning our attention to the notion of definite we are initially led to question why this adjective is
prefixed to the noun article (i.e. as the name of ―the‖ which is an arbitrary array of written signs or that of aural
markings) and is used together as in the definite article. A basic level of understanding this relation may,
however, already be found in some of our usual dictionary meanings of this term. Some of these meanings
include: (a) exact limits: (b) precision and clarity in meaning: (c) explicitness and certainty: (d) limitation and
specificity. From these lexical entries one can sense that the meaning of ―definite‖ is assumed to be something
obvious and self-evident which implies a type of confinement or a line-drawing and conversely excludes
something vague and unintelligible.
This dictionary definition informs us that things or phenomena can be ontologically absolute while at
the same time remaining somewhat less defined. In fact, for us to be definite about something (or to define
something clearly) has been a central part of our knowledge what is definable through reasoning becomes the
source of knowledge as the definite or absolute Truth. He symbolized the truth with the concept ―Forms‖ in the
sense that they are ―more real than material thing for they do not change or decay‖ (Stevenson 1987, p.29). More
specifically in relation to the referential function of a word (i.e. a word used to refer to truly many different
individual referents). Plato thought that corresponding to each usage of the word there is one Form, which makes
the particular individual referents meaningful entries in terms of its idealistic formal or symbolic resemblance to
the referents.
This formal and universal resemblance connotes the characterization of a class of certain entities by a
process of objective definition. Moreover, for Plato, ―only this intellectual acquaintance with the ―Forms‖ can
really count as knowledge since only what fully exits can be fully known‖ (Stevenson 1987, p.29). In relation to
a common interpretation of Plato, Hergenhahn notes that:
Before being placed in the body at birth the soul dwells in pure and complete knowledge. Thus, all
human souls know everything before entering the body. Upon entering the body the knowledge of soul
begins to be contaminated by sensory information (198,3 p.34)
This implies that if humans naively accept what they experience through the senses they are doomed to
live a life of opinion and ignorance. For this reason Plato‘s concern was with reaching an idealistic state of
―Forms‖ responsible for uncontaminated human mind and society through education. In this regard, the most
convincing illustration of his theory of Forms comes from the Euclidean geometry, which Stevenson has
described as follows:
Consider how it deals with lines circles and squares but may always have some irregularity. Theorems
concerning these ideal objects-straight lines without thickness perfect circle et-are proved with absolute
certainty by logical arguments. Here we have indubitable knowledge of timeless objects which are the
patterns that material objects imperfectly resemble (1978, p.29)
In light of this, one can think about the geometrical concept of point, which in a perceptual sense is
thought of as standing in its own right, but which is in fact a meaningful construct only if related to other
geometrical notions like line. Its understanding requires formal conceptualization. Plato‘s conception of
idealistic knowledge has to do with this kind of geometrical definition of knowledge that he indefinable (thus
indefinite and perceptually contaminated) point in its own ontogenesis becomes definable (thus definite) only in
relation to its totality the line. It is in the process of becoming definable that things become definite for us. In fact
Plato‘s conception of knowledge is typically dialectic.
Thus, following Plato‘s, we become both knowledgeable and ignorant by having a means to define it is
very improbable to speak of a ―definite point‖ as found in a geometrical sense. When we see a given point on a
geometrical plain, it may be viewed as having its own definite and obvious confinement but it is clear that this is
not the case because a point in its own right is theoretically impossible. In the mathematical word (e.g. the
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Mobius strip, numerical entities divided by zero, etc.) the matter of definition is similarly not posited as an
absolute
and
separate
notion.
This does not mean however that our acts of defining are always meaningless but that the definite
becomes meaningful only in relation. What appears as definite does not necessarily make it so and the term
definite with its dictionary significance is plausible only when the usage presupposes an indefinitely-given or
taken-for-granted condition. In effect this term must be seen in essence to presume an indefinitely-given as well
as a totality against which our acts of defining limiting confining specifying identifying and idealizing occur.
Thus even at a very general definitional level our uses of ―definite‖ and ―indefinite‖ are essentially relational and
dialectic.
When judged from only dictionary meanings, the concept of exclusiveness may be seen as semantically
analogous to definiteness. However, Hawkins (1978), in an apparent reversal, has characterized the grammatical
role of the definite article as inclusiveness and that of the indefinite article as exclusiveness on the basis of his
semantic and pragmatic analysis. His argument for the grammaticality of the definite and indefinite article, based
on pragmatic premises, is probably quite appropriate in the context of his analytical and philosophical approach.
But based on the two apparently opposing definitions we might infer that things or phenomena can be thought of
as both ontologically absolute and not so at the same time in that the definite or the absolute connotes both
exclusion (by the criteria of its lexical meanings) and inclusion (by the criteria of Hawkins‘ linguistic analysis).
Here again, one cannot ignore the dialectic.
The Indefinite
With the notion ―indefinite‖ one may also question why the adjective attaches itself so naturally to the
noun article (i.e. as the name of ―a/an‖) when they are used together like indefinite article. The lexical entries for
this term involve (a) Having no exact limits or having no limits at all (B) not precise sharp and clear in meaning
and outline vague: (c) not sure or positive inexplicit and uncertain and (d) not limiting and specifying not
referring to the specific. Given that all these descriptions imply no exclusion a prototype meaning of
indefiniteness may be said to be that of ―inclusiveness‖. As stated earlier this is contradistinctive to Hawkins‘s
(1978) generalization about the grammatical function of the indefinite articles in terms of ―exclusiveness‖. This
apparent contradictory nature of the English articles as related to their mate languages may be a partial
explanation for many non-native speakers‘ difficulty and confusion in mastering them.
The fundamental meanings of these attributive adjectives presuppose the postponement or reservation
of the act of defining. They are also suggestive of a certain contingency which requires further action. Having no
limits implies that, whatever it means the meaning is to be open. This openness to contingency gives rise to the
question of motive, potential and intention to be defined, or on its way to becoming definite. All in all, the
―indefinite‖ as a concept can be viewed as reflecting a mental state or process which has not been fully acted out,
but is ready to be acted out. Because it is paradigmatically open it in some sense signifies a syntagmatic (or
simply temporal) induction and foretells a sense of meaning-making or of becoming definite.
Other Metalanguages of the Articles
What follows is an attempt to reinterpret some descriptive terms that have commonly been used in
analyzing English articles usages. There are quite a number of ―classificatory notions‖ which are reflected in our
common usages of the articles and which form another major class of metalanguages about the English articles.
Some of these most commonly used notions which are used to describe our various communicative functions of
the English articles include the following: (a) deictic or demonstrative use: (b) back-pointing or anaphoric use:
(c) forward-pointing or cataphoric: (d) uniqueness: (e) communal sharing: (f) generic and specific: and (g)
endophora or in-text reference and exphora or out-text reference.
It should be noted at the outset that a general and common feature of all these categories can be described
as ‗the communicative act of pointing.‘ The key feature of the articles has generally been interpreted as being
dualistic and mutually exclusive. This has been the case, I contend, because our treatment of the grammatical
aspects of the articles has usually been restricted to a within-sentence analysis. In order to have been better
understanding about the articles, I feel that we need to extend to scope of analysis to the much broader context of
communicative act. What follows is thus discussed from a communicative perspective which involves all forms
of human actions reflecting one‘s psycho-social-cultural history.
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Deictic
The notion of ‗‘deictic‘‘ along with its etymological link with ‗‘deixis‘‘ is analogous to the philosophical
notion of indexical expression (Crystal, 1986). And its literal meaning is pointing or indication. It should be renoted that a major function of the definite article has been understood as revealing an indicative or determining
role, not unlike that of deixis. Lyons (1977) states that deixis refers to the variety of grammatical and lexical
features ―which relate utterance‘‘ (p. 636). Here note that the essential features of deixis are also defined as
relational: in other words at the level of identifying which is linked to which the relational act must have a
context in order to make sense. This act necessarily involves both ―agency‖‘ (i.e. who relates) and ―object‖ (e.g.
enactive, iconic, or symbolic) we are to relate and thereby implies that a relational act arises from within an
instrumental context.
From this interpretation of the term ‗‘deixis‘‘ one is able to derive at least two meanings namely what is
pointing as inner motive—the pointer or intention and what is being pointed to—outer evidence or actualization
of pointing. The nature of indication itself is not a simple mechanical pointing behavior but is a relational,
intentional and psychological gesture mediating between pointer and pointee. It is this dual reality of a pointing
act that, I content, can be characterized as being dialectical and dialogical. More specifically we may say that
deixis entails a double dialectic: a relation between intention and a deictic sign: and a relation between the sign
and its referent in actual communication. In many cases of human communication the second relation turns out
to be reflexive in that the referent itself is language. In this sense language is our existential reference.
―Deixis‘‘ involves not only the characteristic feature of the demonstrative pronouns, but also tense and
person, and a number of other syntactically relevant features in the context-of-an utterance (Thavenius, 1983;
Wilkins, 1985). According to Lyons (1977), it also refers to the philosophical notion of ostension or ostensive
definition. It is worth nothing that ostensive, deictic, and demonstrative are all based upon the idea of
identification or drawing attention to something in a communicative space by pointing. So too is Hardwick‘s
(1977) term ―indexical‖, which has been employed in the recent philosophical literature roughly in the sense that
we are assigning deictic to discursive acts (Lyons, 1977, p.637).
As such, the notion of deixis is understood as an indicative function which is conceptually similar to the
acts of pointing, locating and identifying. Lyons accounts for the act of pointing as follows:
The canonical situation-of-utterance is egocentric in the sense that the speaker by virtue of being the
speaker casts himself in the role of ego and relates everything to his viewpoint. He is at the zero-point
of the spatiotemporal co-ordinates of what is referred to as the deictic context (1977 p. 638)
What is insightful here is the use of the notion ‗‘zero-point‘‘ because it is conceptually similar to the notion
of indefinite. Specifically, it does not seem to be a mere co-incidence that this egocentric sense of zeroness in
one‘s utterance is initiated with an indefinite expression such as ‗once upon ―a‖ time, there lived ―a‖ farmer in
―a‖ village. It appears to indicate a speaker‘s self-awareness of where he or she is located in a given discourse
space. In other words, the speaker knows that the story should start from scratch or nothingness. Or the speaker
is likely to assume that the hearer knows ―nothing‖ about what he or she is going to talk about. Although it may
sound speculative the phrase ―zero-point‖ above seems to connote the meaning of nothing.
In addition as it is found in the earliest stage of a child‘s cognitive development deixis, in terms of its
attention drawing property, is the most rudimentary identifying act in a child‘s communicative conduct. In
summary English article usage when related to the metalinguistic notion of deixis, as with many others, reflects a
dynamic and dialectical reality that is often missed when we treat the articles as simply either definite or
indefinite.
Anaphoric
The notion of ‗‘anaphoric use‘‘ or ‗‘back-pointing‘‘ refers to the case where an entity in a narrative text
which often occurs first with the indefinite article ―a/an‖ is identified again in that text by replacing ―a/an‖ with
―the‖ to indicate its reappearance in the discourse. For instance in the sentence ―Bill bought a TV and a radio,
but he returned the radio‖ ―the‖ in ―the radio‖ is explained as revealing the anaphoric function.
What counts here is that the signification of ‗‘the‘‘ is predicated on the precondition of ―a‖. In this context
the use of ―a‖ as an indefinite expression is viewed as a necessary condition for the latter use of ―the‖. In other
words ―the‖ becomes meaningful by virtue of ―a‖. Moreover their linguistic value becomes meaningful only
when they are understood in temporal context because the notion of presupposition is a time-bound one. This
anaphoric usage reflects the temporal coordination or history-sharing function which is so important between
interlocutors in their broader mutual meaning-making and understanding processes. Accordingly here again it is
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apparent that ―a‖ and ―the‖ are not really separate linguistic mechanisms or entities but are rather constitutive
semantic poles forming an interactive whole between interlocutors. Moreover since this function can be expected
to be acquired much later in conceptual and/or linguistic development than the simple deictic or indicative act.
Cataphoric
The ―cataphoric‖ use or ―forward-pointing use‖ of the articles is seen in the case where linguistic identity
is established by the post-modification that follows the noun. For example it involves the use of ―the‖ in the
sentence ―Bill returned the radio he bought yesterday‖ as well as in the sentence ―The‖ olives of Turkey (or
which Turkey produces) are the best in the world. Insofar as the fundamental meaning of the sentence retains its
central intent or sense the first sentence can be interpreted as ―Bill bought a radio, and he returned it or the
radio.‖ As seen in each interpretation we can infer or presume that at least part of the meaning of ―the‖ in the
examples connotes the indefinite meaning which the indefinite article ―a‖ yields.
The same reasoning which was developed in the discussion of the anaphoric function above seems to be
at work here with the cataphoric function of the articles. What matters here is the matter of explicit observability
or of implicit sharedness between interlocutors. While not directly observable what appears to be functioning is a
certain dialectical interaction between the definite and the indefinite. The ―the‖ in ―Bill returned the radio he
bought yesterday‖ may be thought of as only a grammatical choice but its significance derives from the
recognition of the existential presupposition of ―a‖ as connected in ―Bill bought a radio yesterday.‖ Moreover, in
a similar context, if Bill bought more than one radio, it would also be possible to say that ―Bill returned ―a‖ radio
he bought yesterday.‖ Thus here again the definite and the indefinite meanings cannot simply be prefixed
grammatical notions but are determined in actual communicative contexts, and choice for their usage seems to be
determined mostly on dialogical grounds. In effect this dialectical schema of the articles is structured through
various and processual dialogical experiences rather than the result of a simple instructional knowing of the
meaning of the words and grammar rules.
Uniqueness
The notion of ―uniqueness‖ refers to the definite usage where an object or a group of objects is
interpreted as revealing, characteristically, oneness and wholeness at the same time: for instance, the stars, the
earth, the world, the sea, the North Pole, the equator, the Reformation, the human race, etc. In other words, its
significance arises where referents are understood to be unique in a given context: the sun, the moon, the kitchen,
the car, etc. This notion indicates the existence of only one thing either as an individual entity or as a kind. The
definite expression seen in this category may be indicated as presuming a native speaker‘s ontological mental
index regarding a specific referent. For instance, in the case of the earth, we may say that the passage indicates
the native English speaker‘s recognition that something as a referent exists which is named ―earth‖ (i.e. the
awareness of existential reality) and that the speaker learned to call it ―the‖ earth as a conventional label to
indicate a common awareness of the referent. In this schema, the use of ―the‖ requires both a self and others:
namely, without you as another, the use of ―the‖ turns out to be meaningless. We learn in this way that the
meaning of uniqueness and the related use of an article is conditioned (or becomes significant) by a speaker in
the face of a hearer.
A native speaker‘s competence in this aspect of language, as with other aspects appears as
internalization and increasing awareness in the context of communicative socialization processes. Here again,
considering traditional language learning settings, where one-way instruction has been preferred over actual
communication it is understandable why it is so difficult for learners to develop this kind of social sense, and
have so much difficulty with the articles. This social sense can be properly acquired only through actual
dialogical (i.e. social) experiences, rather than in simple monological, instructional acts.
Situational/Communal Sharing
Compared to the uniqueness expression the notion of ―situational or communal sharing‖ refers to article
usage which is more adaptable to situational variations. The use of an article in this sense does not necessarily
signify the uniqueness of the referent. The usual examples in this category are: the radio, the television and the
telephone in a given social setting. In a similar way to what was discussed previously, I content that the
expression, ―the radio‖ becomes intelligible only when interlocutors either explicitly admit that there actually is
a radio both as a thing and as a word (i.e. a classical reference problem). Hence, when one says ―the radio‖ he or
she presupposes the ontology of its referent as well as the existence of a meaningful symbol.
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It should be noted, however that while this type of referential function is necessary in most
communicative discourse acts. It is not sufficient. The referent which the noun phrase indicates is usually in a
social context, and as such it is obvious that its referential reality varies from context to context. For instance, in
the case of the phrase ―ten minutes before ―the‖ hour‖, we all know that the noted temporal referent is relative to
the assumed time referent of the hour. Whether we are talking about a physical referent or an imaginary referent
it is clear that the definite expression is contingent upon the existential cognitive index, which is
characteristically adaptable to input, but which retains certain indefinite properties.
Generic and Specific
The ―generic‖ and ―specific‖ usages of the English articles refer to Noun Phrases (NPs) preceded by
―the‖, ―a/an‖ or ―the zero‖ article so that each reveals either the genericity or the specificity of the nominal entity
in a context. A generic expression refers to what is general or typical for a whole class of objects. In the
sentence, ―The tiger is a beautiful animal‖ it means that ―the‖ indicates the class of tigers, and not simply one
individual member of the class. This sentence is thus understood as expression essentially the same meaning as
the following sentences: ―Tigers are beautiful animals‖ on the one hand and ―A tiger is a beautiful animal‖ on
the other. Traditional English pedagogical grammar books usually describe such sentence as having a common
property of genericity simply taking their formal or morphological differences for granted without any plausible
explanation. Accordingly, they are understood the mean virtually the same thing. Moreover almost all informants
of native English speakers cannot find any meaning difference among the three sentences above nor can they
explain ―why so?‖
To recapitulate the generic expression represents the concept or idea which is generally attributable to
certain entities pervading all members of a given class. As shown in the previous examples while the dialectical
phenomenon is self-evident in this function of the English articles, questions have rarely been raised about what
this kind of semantic contradiction means in language pedagogy. Thus, what seems to be necessary to be
equipped with some meaningful ideas concerning how to explain it to the student?
In effect what I content here particularly in terms of seeing the article system as a dialectical relational
system is that genericity as semantic representation of ―the‖ NP, ―a/an‖ NP and NPs is embodied along the line
of semantic continuum between the definite and the indefinite. This in turn implies that ―the‖ tends to appear
along the definite end of this continuum and that ―a/an‖ along that of the indefinite. Moreover NPs can then be
viewed as a certain entity appearing somewhere in the middle. One may argue that seeing articles in this way is
only speculative at most. But I would rather argue that this interpretive schema is meaningful in that it possibly
offers a coherent way of explaining the varying nature of the English article usage both for the student and the
teacher. The bottom line here is that until we have a better one, we should dig something out hoping that it‘s
better than nothing.
A specific expression in contrast represents the entities rather directly as seen in such sentences as
―Look at the tiger‖ or ―ask a boy in this group‖ and does so especially in the context where both interlocutors
have specific knowledge about the referent. Hence, generally speaking, when representing a referent with its
related NP, the generic expression reveals an indirect ―symbolic reference‖ (i.e. the referent does not have to be
real, and moreover the referents that the interlocutors may have in mind are not necessarily identical): a specific
expression reveals a direct symbolic reference in that both the speaker and the hearer are required to experience a
common shared meaning in conjunction with a given referent. Here again, under this re-interpreted theoretical
schema. I content that the locus of linguistic control that determines either the genericity or specificity of
meaning is not in the language terms (i.e. ―the‖, ―a/an‖, or ―zero article‖) but in the degree of referent sharing
between interlocutors.
Endophora and Exophora
Two more theoretical terms which appear to capture the relational properties of the English articles but
which are also often seen in the study of pronouns are known as ―endophor‖ and ―exophora‖. According to
Thavenus (1938)
A speaker will use pronouns to refer in two ways: he can refer to something that is mentioned in the
conversation and the reference is then textual or ‗endophoric‘; or he can refer to something that has not
been mentioned, but that can be retrieved from what can be perceived in the situational setting or from
the speaker‘s and listener‘s shared knowledge and experience. (p. 140)
He calls the latter case an example of situational or exophoric reference. Halliday and Hasan similarly
introduce the term endophoric ―as a general name for reference within the text‖ (1976, p 33) but for them
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endophoric covers both anaphoric and cataphoric reference (or forward-pointing) article uses, these two
functional categories of English pronouns also manifest the relational nature of language use and modes of
human thinking.
CONCLUSION
In order to isolate the dialectical aspects of the English article system study has attempted to reinterpret
key metalinguistic terms concerning the system. I have tried to show that even at the grammatical level when
viewed within the context of various metalanguages the articles are best seen as a relational and dialectical
system. This dialectical system I content, can be seen as ―a higher system‖ (just as in the structuralists‘ world
view) which controls the interactive processes (i.e both syntagmatic and paradigmatic forces or both mutually
inclusive and exclusive). This higher system which may be represented as a symbolic sign of
―(IN)DEFINITENESS,‖ suggest that it be viewed in the holistic, communicative, relational context rather than
solely within a somewhat limited grammatical intra-sentential and word-centered one.
The rationale for my suggestion is not unlike our understanding that phonemic reality becomes more
meaningful at the level of morphology and morphological reality at the level of syntax and so on. These ideas are
illustrative of an understanding of our human language and communicative system as a multi-leveled and
somewhat hierarchical meaning system in which the higher and more inclusive levels of meaning supersede,
elaborate and constrain the lower and preceding ones. This mutually exclusive but at the same time codeterministic characteristic is a very essential feature of human language system. This idea was recognized some
years ago by the structural linguist Roman Jacobson (1968), who identified the human sound system in this
matter.30
Moreover this higher system is also indicative of our broader and more pervasive mental processes. One
can find it not only in our language use but also in all of our psycho-social acts of meaning making. Although
this argument requires much lengthy discussion. I wish to note briefly how our use of ―the‖ which usually
presupposes the existence of ―a/an‖ can be seen as revealing a form of higher order metacognitive functioning.
Specifically the use of one in relation to the other reflects our mode of metacognition (i.e. thinking about
thinking) which presupposes a continuation of discourse and continuous meaning specification. This kind of
metacognition is what makes text cohesion and coherence (i.e. meaning making and communication) possible in
a given dialogical contest.
Bruner‘s (1986) understanding of the semantics of human expressions while not explicitly stated in
relation to the use of the English articles is conceptually congruent with the current argument:
The relation of words or expressions to other words or expressions constitutes along with reference the
sphere of meaning. Because reference rarely achieves the abstract punctiliousness, a ―singular‖,
―definite referring expression‖ is always subject to ―polysemy‖ and because there is no limit on the
ways in which expressions can relate to one another, meaning is always undetermined ambiguous. To
make sense in language as David Olson argued persuasively some years ago, always requires an ―act of
disambiguation.‖ (p. 64)
In effect, this act of disambiguation is a most fundamental metacognitive function that is inherent in our
cognitive activities and involves the various processes of differentiation, identification, definition, determination,
etc. The articles often called determiners or grammatical markers, by grammarians and linguists can thus also
and more importantly be viewed as a dialectical and semantically coherent system of symbols which not only
reflects our cognitive and communicative contexts but may serve the more active function of constructing
meaning in these contexts.
30
Roman Jakobson`s (1968) theory of phonology development is based on his distinctive feature analysis (or phonemic
distinction in general) of the sound systems of many different languages. A central theme of the theory is that the pattern of
phonological development is systematic in a relational sense.
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References
Bickerton, D. (1985). Roots of language, Ann Arbor. MI: Karoma Publishers, Inc.
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds possible worlds. Harvard University Press.
Gusfield, J. (Ed.). (1989). On symbols and society. The University of Chicago Press.
Butler, Y. G. (1999). The role of metacognition in the development of the article system among nonnative
speakers. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University.
Crystal. D. (1986). A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. New York, NY: Basil Blackwell Inc.
Ellis. R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford University Press.
Georgoudi. M. (1984). Modern dialectics in social psychology. In Gergen. K. &Gergen. M. (Eds.) Historical
social psychology. CEA.
Halliday. M. A. K. &Hasan, R. (1976). Cohegion in English, London: Longman.
Hawkins, J. A. (1978). Definiteness and indefinitieness: A study in reference and grammatically prediction.
Atlantic Highlands, HNJ: Humanities Press.
Hergenhahn. B. R. (1988). An introduction to theories of learning. Englewood Clifts. NJ: Prentice Hall
Herndon, J. (1976). A survey of modern grammers. Orlando, FA: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc.
Jakobson, R., & Halle. M. (1968). Child language, aphasiz and phonological universals. The Hague: Mouton.
Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Master. P. (1990). Teaching the English articles as a binary system. TESOL, Quarterly, 24(3), 461-478.
Hardwick. C. S. (Ed.). (1977). Semitics and significs: The corre-spondence of Charles S. Peince and Victorial
Lady Welby. Bloomington: Indiana University.
Perinbanayagam, R. S. (1991). Discursive act. New York. NY: Walter de Gruyter, Inc.
Rosenberg, J., & Travis, C. (1971). Reading in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Inc.
Son,. M. & Park, S. (2001). The usage of the definite article by Korean EFL collage learners. Foreign Language
Education. 8(2), 23-44
Stevenson, L. (1987). Seven theories of human nature: Christianity, Freud, Lorenz, Marx, Sartre, Skinner, Flato.
Oxford University Press.
Thavenius, C. (1983). Referential pronouns in English conversation. Lund: Lund University Press.
Watson, W. (1985). The ambitectoics of meaning : Foundation of the new pluralism. State University of New
York Press.
Webster‘s third new international dictionary. (1967). Springfield, MA: G. &C. Merriam Company Publishers.
Wilkins, D. (1985). Grammatical, situational and notional syllabuses. In C. J. Brumfit & K. Johnson. (Eds.). The
communicative approach to language teaching. Oxford University Press.
195
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An Analytic Interpretation of Grammatical Phrases Construing the English Articles
Author
Author
Akbarov, Azamat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper studies the English article system from the perspective of dialectics. The aim of the study is to expand the area of understanding the English article system by showing that at the very elementary communicative level is more relevantly indicated as a relational dialectical system rather than a simple binary one as characterized in most traditional pedagogical grammar books. This research attempts to reach this objective by interpreting such key metalingustic notions as anaphoric generic uniqueness etc as well as the three main descriptors of the English articles which involve article definite and indefinite For Plato dialogues or our Daily communicational acts are fundamentally dialectical. Thus the base reasoning for his research is that if we understand the Notion linked to dialectic or dialectical acts better this will in turn help us comprehend our own dialogical acts in general and the English articles as a key dialogical marker in particular.
Date
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Corrective feedback on the oral production and its influence in the
intercultural classes
Ceylani Akay
English Department, International Burch University
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
ceylaniakay@hotmail.com
Azamat Akbarov
English Department, International Burch University
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: The role of error correction or corrective feedback has been studied and
emphasized since the beginning of language learning. The term largely relates to the four
skills of language such as reading, writing, speaking and writing. This article will focus
on the oral production and will have a look at language acquisition in an intercultural
classes. The positive feedback will be discussed and the attitude of the teacher towards
the learners will be explored through the research. The language learning can be effected
negatively or positively by the way of the teachers‘ attitude towards the learner. The
article focuses on the different examples of corrective feedback and its influence in the
intercultural classes.
1.
Introduction
The error correction and corrective feedback in the field of Second Language Acquisition plays a very
important role. While orrective feedback clearly relates to both oral and written discourse, the focus of this
discussion will focus on oral production, since the majority of research has largely focused on this aspect. We
are going to focus on the positive factors on the language learners.
The error correction should be carefuuly chosen according to the aim of the language activity. Since we are
focusing on the oral production, the accuracy or the fluency should be our main criteria when we decide the time
of the correction. In the oral production, the fluency in my opinion should be the main focus so that the
corrective feedback can be given after the speaking process. Otherwise the learner can be effected negatively and
the reticence appears in a large scale.
2. The definition of the corrective feedback and the error correction
We come across many different terms in identifying errors in the SLA literature. To give a brief review
of the definitions of terms and of the different types of feedback would be very useful.
Chaudron (1988) has pointed out the fact that the term corrective feedback incorporates different layers
of meaning. In Chaudron‘s view, the term ―treatment of error‖ may simply refer to ―any teacher behavior
following an error that minimally attempts to inform the learner of the fact of error‖ . The treatment may not be
evident to the student in terms of the response it elicits, or it may make a significant effort ―to elicit a revised
student response‖ . Finally, there is ―the true‖ correction which succeeds in modifying the learner‘s
interlanguage rule so that the error is eliminated from further production. Lightbown and Spada (1999) define
corrective feedback as:
Any indication to the learners that their use of the target language is incorrect. This includes various
responses that the learners receive. When a language learner says, ‗He go to school everyday‘, corrective
feedback can be explicit, for example, ‗no, you should say goes, not go‘ or implicit ‗yes he goes to school every
day‘, and may or may not include metalinguistic information, for example, ‗Don‘t forget to make the verb agree
with the subject‘.
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According to Schachter (1991), corrective feedback, negative evidence, and negative feedback are three
terms used respectively in the fields of language teaching, language acquisition, and cognitive psychology.
Different researchers often use these terms interchangeably. The feedback can be explicit (e.g., grammatical
explanation or overt error correction) or implicit. Implicit correction includes, but is not limited to, confirmation
checks, repetitions, recasts, clarification requests, silence, and even facial expressions that express confusion.
In addition, Krashen (1982, 1985) believes that SLA is the result of implicit processes operating
together with the reception of comprehensible input. Conscious learning can only act as a monitor that edits the
output, after it has been initiated by the acquired system. Krashen‘s input hypothesis posits that it is
subconscious acquisition that gains dominance, and that learning cannot be converted into acquisition, even
though adults can both subconsciously acquire languages and consciously learn about languages.
In short, for Krashen, as for the nativists, negative evidence has a barely discernable effect on SLA.
Krashen‘s views and theories of language learning have been challenged on the grounds that while
comprehension is essential for language acquisition, such acquisition does not entail unconscious or implicit
learning processes; and that noticing is indispensable for the acquisition process (Ellis, 1991; Gass, 1988, 1990,
1991; Gass & Varonis, 1991; Schmidt, 1990, 1994; Schmidt & Frota, 1986). According to the noticing
hypothesis, in order for input to become intake for L2 learning, some degree of noticing must occur, and that it is
corrective feedback that triggers that learners‘ noticing of gaps between the target norms and their IL, and thus
leads to subsequent grammatical restructuring.
According to Schmidt (1990), ―subliminal language learning is impossible, and that intake is what
learners consciously notice. This requirement of noticing is meant to apply equally to all aspects of language‖ (p.
149). Language learners, however, are limited in what they are able to notice. The main determining factor is
that of attention. As Schmidt (1994) points out, ―while the intention to learn is not always crucial to learning,
attention to the material to be learned is‖ (p. 176). Attention, in addition, ―also controls access to conscious
experience‖ (p. 176), thus allowing the acquisition of new items to take place. Gass (1988, 1990, 1991.
According to her, for learners to be able to internalize input in order to affect the acquisition process, they must
not only comprehend this input, but also must notice the mismatch between the input and their own IL system.
She points out that ―nothing in the target language is available for intake into a language learner‘s existing
system unless it is consciously noticed‖ (1991, p. 136).
Corrective feedback, for Gass, functions as an attention getting device. She further argues that without
direct or frequent corrective feedback in the input, which would permit learners to detect discrepancies between
their learner language and the target language, fossilization might occur. Gass and Varonis (1994), moreover,
point out that ―the awareness of the mismatch serves the function of triggering a modification of existing L2
knowledge, the results of which may show up at a later point in time‖ (p. 299). Similarly, Ellis (1991) shares the
view that the acquisition process includes the steps of noticing, comparing, and integrating.
3. How and when to correct errors
The way we correct the errors and the corrective feedback effects the attitude of the learners towards the
target language. Here I would like to mention a few important points in error correction.
1. Be aware of the goals of the lesson, and the students‘ levels.
Students gain the most from error correction when it‘s focused on a particular goal, which we always tie to the
main learning objective of the lesson. For example, if the goal of a lesson is to learn the irregular forms of past
tense verbs, and we do a speaking activity to reinforce that aim, l correct mistakes connected to the use of those
particular verbs. In this controlled setting, the students tend to remember their specific mistakes from one lesson
to the next.
If a student is making mistakes with a structure that they haven‘t been introduced to yet, correct it, because
chances are, they won‘t retain it. On the other hand, when higher level students struggle with structures and
patterns that they‘ve learned once, twice or even multiple times, focus on correcting those errors.
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2. Encourage self-correction.
Encouraging self-correction puts the learning process into the hands of the students, and allows for
learning to happen beyond the confines of the classroom. Often, when a student makes a mistake, point out that
a mistake has been made, and wait for the student to find it and correct it herself (often with the help of her
classmates). For example, if an intermediate student says, ―He go to the store,‖ stop the student by repeating
what he has said. ―He go?‖ ―He go?‖ The aim is to draw attention to it, leading the student to re-think what he
has said. After making the mistake a few times, they‘ll begin to catch themselves.
3. Be aware of timing, and how to correct.
Note down some basic or central mistakes, and bring them up later. One tactic is to write example
sentences on the board, containing some of the same mistakes, and have students find and correct them. This
approach ties in the method of self-correction and puts the learning process back into the hands of the students.
4. Do not waste time correcting mistakes
In the language learning mistakes are inevitable. As the teacher do not waste time correcting and
repeating the correct form. Allow the students make mistakes and learn fro thir mistakes.
4. Intercultural classes and corrective feedback influence on them
Cultural differences cause a variety of errors in the SLA. When we have several nationalities and
cultures in one classroom the teacher should be very careful for the corrective feedback.
In the International School of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina I had a chance to observe about 10
different nationalities learning English in the same class. The students have different background of English
language and they have different cultural background. The students take mother tongue interference to the class
in various ways.
The difficuly appears when we correct the errors and they all take these corrections in a different way.
So the best way is to deal with the kids individually as much as posssible and orally the aim of our teaching is
having good conversation with the students. The input they get from their teachers and being a good sample is
very important. The more correct input they get the more they learn.
I myself observed the age 6 or 7 children learning English in a year time very fluently by a lot of input
given by their teachers. And the corrective feedback given at the right time and the amount play a very important
role on these children.
5. Conclusion
I think that normally the students are asked to speak too soon, when they aren't ready, so the mistakes
are more frequent. Another important point is that sometimes the learners know the correct way to speak but
they aren't used to produce it while speaking. In any case, the problem can be solved by having more input.
When we speak we don't like to be corrected. Because we are focusing in communicating ideas and in
being able to understand what has been said. You don't mind while you're producing the language. You don't
have to take notes. But you can know what are your weak points.
The mistakes are inevitable in learning SLA, the only way to correct and give positive feedback is
choosing the right time. As the article suggests, especially in the intercultural classes the students get a lot of
input and the mistakes are corrected in an appropriate way so the children learn the target language with less
problems and this leads them use the language fluently.
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Correcting errors in a communicative speaking class needs a serious treatment since every learner will
give different reaction to the feedback given by teachers. The aim of speaking class is to make the learners use
the language they learn.
That is why, it is worth considering that teachers should be more tolerant to the students errors in
speaking class. It is hoped that the teachers correct selectively, choose productive items, and correct
constructively.
Creating a very good atmosphere in the classroom is very essential to gain the successful language
learning. According to Mendelshon (1990) this is connected to classroom management , and the attitudes that
develops in the class.
It is strongly believed that the classroom atmosphere should be built on a premise of mutual respect.
This means learners and the teachers should respect each other. The classroom must be healthy ; in a
communicative speaking class there should be a place where there is a lot laughing with others, but there is never
any laughing at anyone. The speaking class should be a sheltered environment in which it is always safe to take
risk for the students to try thing out without fear or ridicule. By this the learners might be more confident to use
the language they are learning.
Correcting errors is a delicate matter and correction must always be handled with care. The teachers
should be careful when correcting errors. Different learners and different cultures will react to feedback given
by their teachers in different way.
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References:
Allwright, R. L. (1975). Problems in the study of the language teacher‘s treatment of error.
Bohannon, J. N., & Stanowicz, L. (1988). The issue of negative evidence: Adult responses to children‘s language
errors. Developmental Psychology, 24, 684-689.
Bley-Vroman, R. (1986). Hypothesis testing in second language acquisition. Language Learning, 36, 353-376.
Carroll, S., & Swain, M. (1993). Explicit and implicit negative feedback: An empirical study of the learning of
linguistic generalizations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 357-386.
Chaudron, C. (1977). A descriptive model of discourse in the corrective treatment of learners‘ errors
Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on language. New York: Pantheon.
DeKeyser, R. (1993). The effect of error correction on L2 grammar knowledge and oral proficiency. Modern
Language Journal, 77, 501-514. Corrective feedback in SLA
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.),
Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197-261). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1991). Grammar teaching practice or consciousness-raising? In R. Ellis (Ed.), Second language
acquisition and second language pedagogy (pp. 232-241). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Gass, S. M. (1988). Second language vocabulary acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 9, 92-106.
Gass, S. M. (1991). Grammar instruction, selective attention, and learning. In R. Phillipson, E. Kellerman, L.
Selinker, M. Sharwood Smith, & M. Swain (Eds.), Foreign/second language pedagogy research (pp. 124-141).
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: issues and implications. New York: Longman.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1990). Focus-on-form and corrective feedback in Communicative Language
Teaching: Effects on second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 429-448.
Lightbown, P. M., & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
274
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Corrective feedback on the oral production and its influence in the intercultural classes
Author
Author
Akay, Ceylani
Akbarov, Azamat
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The role of error correction or corrective feedback has been studied and emphasized since the beginning of language learning. The term largely relates to the four skills of language such as reading, writing, speaking and writing. This article will focus on the oral production and will have a look at language acquisition in an intercultural classes. The positive feedback will be discussed and the attitude of the teacher towards the learners will be explored through the research. The language learning can be effected negatively or positively by the way of the teachers‘ attitude towards the learner. The article focuses on the different examples of corrective feedback and its influence in the intercultural classes.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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eb1e8855476a062db68980ea6f493231
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
A study of anxiety among the Graduation Learners of English as a Foreign
Language in Pakistan.
Ammara Adeel
Comsast University Lahore, Pakistan
The Department of English Language
aammara84@gmail.com
Abstract: The learning of English as a foreign language in Pakistan takes place in
two different types of Educational Institutions – Urdu and English Medium. Some
students, in a pilot study, were reported to have acquitted themselves well in their
language class while others not so well, particularly in speaking the language in the
classroom. The main reason for low performance in this regard was reportedly
attributed to anxiety and nervousness among the low performers. In order to ascertain
this hypothesis empirically, this researcher carried out a full fledge research to this
effect. The study as such used qualitative semi- structured individual interviews and
focus group discussion. A total of thirty four participants including twenty seven
learners and seven experienced language teachers participated in the research. The
findings suggest that anxiety in communication stems, on the one hand, in the learners
from their self created perceptions and beliefs about themselves, and on the other,
from the strict and formal classroom environment in the educational institutions. On
the basis of these findings the study suggests some measures to be followed in the
classroom to alleviate the element of anxiety in the learners. Such measures are
expected to yield positive results in the performance of the learners.
1. Introduction
Foreign language scholars, teachers and learners have long been interested in identifying variables
which affect the process of foreign language learning. Foreign language researchers have empirically found that
variables play a vital role in learners‘ success or failure in academic settings in learning a foreign language.
Krashen (1985) observed speaking/talking in classroom as the most anxiety stimulating activity for learners.
Kim (1998) reported that students in a reading classroom undergo lower anxiety level than students in
conversation class.
This study intends to find the answer of the following research questions related to anxiety in Pakistani learners
in English at advanced level.
1) What kind of anxiety is encountered by Pakistani learners in speaking English language?
2) What are the various factors of anxiety in speaking English in language classrooms?
3) What kind of techniques can be used to alleviate anxiety while the English language in the class?
2.
Literature Review
Anxiety which stems from learning and speaking a foreign language is termed as ‗Foreign language
anxiety‘. This multifaceted phenomenon was defined as ―distinct complex of self-conceptions, beliefs, feelings
and behavior related to classroom learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process‖
(Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986, p. 128).
Some researchers reported a negative relationship between foreign language anxiety and language
achievement (Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1980; Clément, Gardner, & Smythe, 1977). However, others
reported no relationship or a positive relationship between language anxiety and performance (Backman, 1976;
Chastain, 1975; Pimseleur, Mosberg, & Morrison, 1962; Scovel, 1978).
Research on ‗Language anxiety‘ has suggested that certain false beliefs about language learning have a
constant source of tension, anxiety and frustration in the classroom (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 127). Gynan (1989)
used terms such as ‗erroneous‘ and ‗irrational‘ for the beliefs held about language learning by learners which can
be a constant source of anxiety..
In addition to unrealistic beliefs different activities performed in the language classroom which mainly
involves speaking in front of the class, have been marked out as most anxiety provoking factors. Koch and
Terrell (1991: cited in Young, 1991,p. 429 and Horwitz 2001,p. 119) found that in Natural Approach classes
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more than half of their subjects expressed oral presentations and oral skills in front of the class as most anxietyproducing activities.
3. Methodology
In order to shed light on diverse experiences of individuals, qualitative method was considered as an
appropriate approach in this study.
3.1 Population
The population of the present study was a large university i.e. COMSATS Institute of Information
Technology at Lahore, Pakistan where total of 4671 students were enrolled in various disciplines at graduation,
post graduation, M.Phil and PhD levels.
3.2 Participants
The participants of the study were seven experienced Non-Native teachers of English Language and
twenty seven university students of graduation level. Out of thirty four subjects, eighteen were males and sixteen
were females. Their ages ranged between seventeen years to thirty eight years. The teaching experience of all
teachers ranged between one and a half years to eleven years at various levels.
3.3 Instrument
a. Individual Interviews
Individual interviews were conducted from learners as well as teachers within two weeks time. The time
taken by interviews ranged from 10 min to 20 min. All the interviews were conducted in English language and
tape recorded (see appendix for questions adapted from Tanveer, 2007).
b. Focus Group interviews
Fifteen learners in total from various disciplines participated on voluntary basis in focus group
discussion which lasted for about forty minutes.
3.4 Data Analysis
The tape recorded individual and focus group interviews of both learners and teachers were listened and
transcribed ‗verbatim‘ by the researcher. Afterwards, initial and focused group coding was applied to obtain
results.
4. Findings and Discussion
4.1 Types of Anxiety in Pakistani Learners
Most of the previous researches identified the enervating effect of anxiety while communicating in the
foreign language (Beier, 1951; Deffenbacher, 1980; Spielberger, 1966). Consistent with the past research
approximately all the participants of the present research reported the negative impact of language anxiety on
communication which result in hesitation and avoidance behavior.
All the participants strongly agreed on the debilitative effect of language anxiety on learners while speaking.
There were only two respondents who pointed out the facilitative effect of language anxiety apart from negative
one.
Types of Speaking Anxiety in Pakistani learners
Debilitative (mostly)
Facilitative (very rare)
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De-motivation
Hesitation
Avoidance behaviour
Loose confidence
Forget things
chance to learn more
motivates
prior preparation of activities
4.2 Sources of Anxiety in English Language Classroom
The classroom environment, different communicative situations, and general perceptions of learners on
speaking English language have been found to have strong links with language anxiety while speaking.
4.2.1
Strict and Formal Classroom Environment
Consistent with the previous research, the participants (both teachers and learners) of the present
research stated strict and formal classroom environment as one of the very important cause inducing speaking
anxiety in learners.
a) Fear of Negative Evaluation
Many learners asserted that classroom is the place where so many students and teachers are constantly
noticing their mistakes and the responses of the class fellows make them afraid to speak.
The same apprehensive feelings of students were also pointed by language teachers. Many of them
expressed that students get silent and unvoiced because of this fear clearly showing their speaking anxiety. Such
responses articulate fear of negative evaluation under highly formal classroom environment which are similar to
the past research which also revealed that the level of anxiety of learners increases under highly evaluative
situations, specially in foreign language classroom where teachers and peers constantly monitor their
performance (Daly, 1991: cited in Onwuegbuzie, Bailey, & Daley, 1999, p. 218).
Due to dual schooling system (Urdu and English medium) of Pakistan many learners are unable to
develop required communicative skills in them. In Pakistan Urdu medium schools do not provide exposure and
practice of second language speaking to learners. As a result, whenever they are required to express themselves
in front of others the fear of negative evaluation over powers them.
b) Role of language teacher
Teacher is responsible for creating communicative environment between students. While certain
teachers are strict in terms of accuracy and they believe on snubbing the students at the spot. Their humiliating
methods of error correction of learners induce anxiety in them. It was also elaborated that teacher has a ‗powerrelation‘ with the students and whenever they exercise this power it stimulates language anxiety in speakers and
makes the classroom environment strict. Moreover, many of students felt that the method of error-correction of
certain teachers is so direct and humiliating that they never want to participate in their class.
In Pakistani education system mostly teacher is an ‗authoritative‘ figure and learning is ‗teacheroriented‘ instead of students. This reduces students‘ chance to speak in classrooms to a great extent. The
negative image of teachers in the mind of students does not let them participate in their classrooms and they
avoid future communication attempts and prefer to remain silent.
c) Classroom activities
Different classroom activities make classroom environment threatening for learners. Participants were
of the view that class presentations make the classroom environment stressful and highly formal. Even the very
confidant learner expressed his inability and lack of confidence in giving presentations.
Similarly, teachers also articulated that students have to collect material and arrange data before giving
presentation in front of the audience; which was found by many learners as stressful activity of language
classrooms.
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The present research reinforced the findings of previous research by Young (1990), Koch and Terrell (1991) and
Price (1991). All of them found that participants of their study considered oral presentations most anxietyprovoking activity in the language classroom.
Apart from class presentations, pointing students to speak or to give answers of the questions asked
stimulates anxiety in them. On the other hand, group activities were pointed to be less anxious and comfortable
by language teachers. In group work they have room to divide, discuss and share the given activity. In group
work anxiety is present in learners but its level decreases.
Most of the learners agreed with the teachers that group work is less anxiety inducing. Those
individuals who tried to escape from individual tasks for them group work is relaxing. It was found that many
students in university at graduation level had their schooling in Urdu medium where English was just taken as a
subject to obtain marks by cramming. Moreover, in Urdu medium schools learners normally start learning
English language from grade five or above from very simple text books.
Such exposure to English language is not sufficient for students at all. When such learners reach at their
university level, where different classroom activities are compulsory part of language classroom and good
mastery of language is required. They find themselves unable to express due to low English proficiency which
increases their anxiety many folds. In addition to that, the teachers who use to teach in Urdu medium schools are
mostly found to be strict, authoritative and less skilled in language classrooms. This makes language classroom
uncomfortable and exasperating for learners.
4.2.2
Self-related cognitions and perceptions about speaking English
Past research has revealed that anxiety in learners is created by their ―cognitive interferences based on
self-related cognitions‖ (Tanveer, 2007). The self-perceptions of learners, beliefs about speaking English
language, perceived scholastic competence and self-esteem are some of the factors related to learners‘ cognition
which produced language anxiety in them (see Krashen, 1985; Horwitz et al., 1986; Onwuegbuzie et al., 1999 ).
Some of the self-related cognitions identified in this research correspond to earlier cited cognitions, but they vary
from individual‘s personality traits and their experience of foreign language learning.
Many of the teachers posited that their students believe that they cannot speak English at all. They
perceive English as a tough language. This feeling makes them tense and anxious about speaking English
language.
Many of the teachers and learners shared identical views on the students‘ believe expressing their
inability to speak English. One of the reasons for this perception is comparison with peers. As a result of this
comparison many learners felt that they cannot speak English. This also generates inferiority complex in them.
A female teacher asserted that many of the students believe that there is no room for mistakes while
speaking. For them making mistakes was something highly negative. Another belief of learners was pointed by
another teacher that speaking a language is ability, not possessed by all. This is consistent with the findings of
Horwitz et al. (1986).
Another identified belief of students was that many students compare themselves with the anchors and
actors in TV and movies. They feel that they should be like them and in practical life when they find themselves
unable to express the way they think; this creates a negative perception in them about their abilities and language
competence.
One more perception about speaking English was that it is used to share scholarly ideas only by learned
and educated people. The most important belief of students was that speaking English is a ‗status‘ symbol and
many of them felt that people speak English to ‗show-off‘ not to convey their message.
The same belief of students was assured by teachers that general prevalent perception in our society is
that English is a ‗status symbol‘ and people use to ‗show off‘ knowledge. It is considered in our society that
English is language of elite class and people use it to impress somebody rather then conveying knowledge or
ideas. Moreover, people believe that a person who speaks English belongs to educated and economically well
settle family.
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Anxiety Model of Pakistani Speakers
Self-related cognition and
perceptions
Strict and Formal
classroom environment
Can‘t speak English
Fear of
negative
evaluation
Role of
language
teacher
Individual
tasks
Class
discussions
Group and
pair work
Presentations
Singled out to
answer
Classroom
activities
Schooling
system (Urdu,
English)
Social
class/family
background
Lack of
exposure and
practice
Comparison with peers
Fear of linguistic mistakes
Attitude towards mistakes
Speaking --- an ability
Perceived speaking
competence
English --- a status symbol
English --- sharing of
scholastic ideas
English --- hinders relation
building
4.3 Strategies to Reduce Speaking Anxiety
In order to improve speaking, by lowering anxiety of learners in foreign language following techniques are
suggested in language classrooms.
1. Truly communicative approach should be applied by language teachers which provide learners with
maximum room for practice of speaking English.
2. Teachers should be supportive and congenial and should utilize indirect method of error correction.
3. Students should be realized that errors are part of speaking.
4. Adequate time for classroom activities and continuous practice should be provided to students to build up
their confidence.
5. Teachers should help learners in realizing their irrational beliefs and they should be substituted with
reasonable commitments for English language speaking.
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6. Different creative and fun activities like discussions, presentations, interviews, videos, songs, role plays etc
should be employed by language instructors tactfully to make speaking of English language fun for learners.
5. Conclusion
Like previous conducted research this interview study also revealed that speaking is most anxiety
provoking second language skill. All the participants agreed that learners undergo language anxiety in speaking
more then any other skill of language. There was no significant difference in the perceptions of teachers and
learners on the identified language provoking factors but they differ in their experiences and observations.
Almost all research participants emphasized that speaking English in front of others induces feeling of anxiety
and nervousness. Most of the times classroom situations are extremely challenging to learners‘ communicative
abilities in the form of class discussion, pair and group work, class presentations and answering questions when
singled out. In addition to that, many other self-created concepts about speaking English were found to be
aggravating factors of anxiety for learners.
Appendix
Interview Questions
Q1: What do you think is the role of anxiety in speaking English language?
Q 3: What are the different situations and language classroom activities that have been found by you to be
anxiety- provoking?
Q 5: Have you noticed any particular kinds of beliefs or perceptions about speaking English language? and what
do you think how they play a role in causing speaking anxiety?
Q 6: How do you think speaking anxiety can be successfully controlled?
References
Backman, N. (1976). Two measures of affective factors as they relate to progress in adult second-language
learning. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 10, 100-122.
Beier, E. G. (1951). The Effect of Induced Anxiety on Flexibility of Intellectual Functioning, by Ernest Gunter
Beier...[A Thesis.]: American psychological association.
Chastain, K. (1975). Affective and ability factors in second-language acquisition. Language learning, 25(1),
153-161.
Clément, R., Gardner, R., & Smythe, P. C. (1980). Social and individual factors in second language acquisition.
Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 12(4),
293-302.
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May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Clément, R., Gardner, R. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1977). Motivational variables in second language acquisition: A
study of Francophones learning English. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne
des sciences du comportement, 9(2), 123-133.
Deffenbacher, J. L. (1980). Worry and emotionality in test anxiety. Test anxiety: Theory, research, and
applications, 111-128.
Gillham, B. (2005). Research interviewing: The range of techniques: Open University Press.
Gynan, S. (1989). Preferred learning practices of selected foreign language students. Paper presented at the
American Association of teachers of Spanish and Portuguese Annual Meeting San Antonio, TX.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. Modern language
journal, 70(2), 125-132.
Kim, S. Y. (1998). Affective experiences of Korean college students in different instructional contexts: Anxiety
and motivation in reading and conversation courses. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Texas at Austin.
Koch, A. S., & Terrell, T. D. (1991). Affective relations of foreign language students to natural approach
activities and teaching techniques. Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom
implications, 109-125.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications: Longman.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay
technique. Modern language journal, 75(3), 296-304.
Ohata, K. (2005). Language anxiety from the teachers‘ perspective: Interviews with seven experienced ESL/EFL
teachers. Journal of Language and Learning, 3(1), 133-155.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bailey, P., & Daley, C. E. (1999). Factors associated with foreign language anxiety. Applied
Psycholinguistics, 20(02), 217-239.
Pimseleur, P., Mosberg, L., & Morrison, A. L. (1962). Student factors in foreign language learners. Modern
language journal, 46, 160-170.
Price, M. L. (1991). The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with highly anxious
students. Language Anxiety From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications. Upper Saddle
River, NJ. Prentice Hall, 101-108.
Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research. Language
learning, 28(1), 129-142.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Anxiety and behavior. New York: Academic Press.
Tanveer, M. (2007). Investigation of the factors that cause language anxiety for ESL/EFL learners in learning
speaking skills and the influence it casts on communication in the target language. University of
Glasgow. Educational Studies, Faculty of Education: unpublished doctoral dissertation.
Young, D. J. (1990). An investigation of students' perspectives on anxiety and speaking. Foreign Language
Annals, 23(6), 539-553.
Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research
suggest? Modern language journal, 75(4), 426-439.
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A study of anxiety among the Graduation Learners of English as a Foreign Language in Pakistan.
Author
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Adeel, Ammara
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The learning of English as a foreign language in Pakistan takes place in two different types of Educational Institutions – Urdu and English Medium. Some students, in a pilot study, were reported to have acquitted themselves well in their language class while others not so well, particularly in speaking the language in the classroom. The main reason for low performance in this regard was reportedly attributed to anxiety and nervousness among the low performers. In order to ascertain this hypothesis empirically, this researcher carried out a full fledge research to this effect. The study as such used qualitative semi- structured individual interviews and focus group discussion. A total of thirty four participants including twenty seven learners and seven experienced language teachers participated in the research. The findings suggest that anxiety in communication stems, on the one hand, in the learners from their self created perceptions and beliefs about themselves, and on the other, from the strict and formal classroom environment in the educational institutions. On the basis of these findings the study suggests some measures to be followed in the classroom to alleviate the element of anxiety in the learners. Such measures are expected to yield positive results in the performance of the learners.
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2011-05
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PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/688942e99ff054a1dfe709e540961979.pdf
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
Teaching Business English for Distance Learning Students – Challenges,
Problems and Potential Solutions
Diana Zagan-Zelter
Department of Foreign Languages and Business Communication
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
BabeĢ-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
dianazelter@yahoo.com
Sergiu Zagan-Zelter
Department of Foreign Languages and Business Communication
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
BabeĢ-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
sergiuzagan@yahoo.fr
Abstract: Distance learning has become a type of learning which is increasingly
preferred by students both in bachelor and master programs at the Faculty of Economics
and Business Administration, mainly due to economic reasons which force young people
to start working immediately after finishing high-school. However, distance learning is
also a solution for middle-aged people who graduated different universities in their youth,
but have professions which are no longer requested on the job market. As the spectrum of
distance learning students is so heterogeneous from different points of view such as age
or professional background, teaching English to such students has encountered a number
of challenges and problems that we have been trying to cope with so far. In order to
identify these problems, we have made a survey among distance learning students from
our faculty by using questionnaires and guided interviews. We have also made a
summary of the issues identified in our teaching experience and we have talked to
colleagues who are in the same situation in order to discover the common points. The
paper will present the results of this investigation and the solutions we propose, solutions
which are based on our 10 year-experience in teaching distance learning students as well
as on the review of specialized literature in this area.
Key Words: distance learning, Business English, on-line platform, age, experience
Introduction
Distance learning – a general approach
Distance learning is a generic term that includes the range of teaching/learning strategies largely
referred as correspondence education, correspondence study, home study, independent study, distance learning,
computer-assisted learning, on-line learning, distance education. Related terms such as open learning,
nontraditional studies, off-campus learning also appear in literature. Distance learning has existed for more than
100 years in the more developed regions and for one generation in the developing countries.
According to Berg (2002), the main elements which characterize distance learning are:
- Physical separation between teacher and learner
- Administration by an educational institution
- Frequent use of different media
- Synchronous and asynchronous communication between teacher and learner
- Often a focus on the non-traditional learner.
The history of distance learning goes as back as the 19th century, for example in the USA, where
correspondence courses in the guided reading of the Bible or courses in Hebrew already existed. Hence derived
the well-known Chautauqua courses and the first university practising this type of learning, which was
recognized in 1883. Historically speaking, one can distinguish the following levels in the evolution of distance
learning (Berg, 2002):
Level one (between 1880-1960) may be called passive distance learning as there was no opportunity for
the learner to interact with the instructor in real time. The materials used were mostly printed and later there
were also audio materials and video tapes. This is also called asynchronous distance learning.
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Level two (between 1960-1990) is considered passive to moderately active distance learning. Distance
learning became synchronous in this period as the learner and the instructor could interact in real time. The
means used both for studying and interaction were two-way audio teletraining, computer-based training, CD, PC,
electronic mail, audio-video transmissions. It is clear that the technological development led to the shift from
asynchronous distance learning to synchronous distance learning, making it possible for the teacher and the
learner to communicate more easily and contributing to the development and improvement of teaching-learning
methods and materials.
Level 3 (since 1990 until now) is highly interactive. Teachers and learners are using hybrid
environments that combine in one virtual classroom elements of all distance learning technologies previously
described plus the Internet and WWW.
Benefiting from all the technological developments in the field of education and not only, distance
learning has proved to be an effective and efficient type of learning encompassing a large range of advantages.
Among these advantages we can mention:
- Quality of learning is as good or even better than in traditional learning
- Students are highly motivated
- Instructors are better prepared and organized
- Instructional resources are enhanced
- Collaborative teaching is encouraged
- It has not resulted in replacing the teachers.
These advantages could be seen easily by applying the ARCS model (Attention, relevance, confidence
and satisfaction model) validated in 1983, a model which has suffered changes and has been constantly adapted to
the new requirements and the new technologies that have appeared so far. Whether we apply the model or not, it is
obvious that open and distance learning has the potential of generating new patterns of teaching and learning.
Linked as it is with the evolution of technology, it offers the promise of developing new ways to address learning
needs and creating new patterns of information access and application. It can contribute to innovation in education
and have effects beyond the realm of education. It may offer answers to education challenges as well. This is also
the purpose of our study, i.e. to identify and deal with the challenges encountered when teaching Business English
to distance learning students at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration from BabeĢ-Bolyai
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
Distance learning at BabeĢ-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca
Distance learning has a long tradition at the BabeĢ-Bolyai University from Cluj-Napoca, Romania,
although it is not a type of learning used by all the faculties within the university. The Faculty of Economics and
Business Administration has used distance learning for more than 20 years, even during the communist period. Of
course, during that time, the curriculum was different as well as structure and requirements. Distance learning
education has suffered a number of changes especially after Romania joined the European Union. Before that,
distance learning at bachelor level meant 5 years (10 semesters) or 4 years (8 semesters). According to the Bologna
system, the number of study years has been reduced to 3. However, master programs have been added which
incorporate another 2 years.
The curriculum for distance learning programs is the same like the one for full-time learning. Students
meet the teachers twice a semester and the meetings usually take 4 hours each or even more, depending on the
subject in question. The course syllabus is available both on-line, on the distance learning platform especially
created on the faculty website and in a printed version students may get for free. Communication with teachers
most often takes place through e-mail or through the on-line platform or the teacher‘s personal blog or website.
Among the compulsory courses, both for full-time and distance learning students at bachelor level, we will
find ―Modern Language in Business‖ (English, French, German, Spanish, Italian) during the first four semesters
and ―The Language of Business Communication‖ (the same foreign languages) for semesters 5 and 6. At the master
programs the curriculum stipulates a ―Course in Intercultural Business Communication‖ (English or French) for
semester 1 and ―Modern Language in Business – second foreign language‖ (for semesters 2 and 3). It is obvious
that we place great emphasis on the study of foreign languages in the academic environment, which is meant to
answer to the current requirements on the job market and help our future graduates get better jobs in multinational
companies in our country or abroad.
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The curriculum for foreign languages courses is the same both for full-time and distance learning students.
The major topics for the first 4 semesters refer to general business topics such as: recruitment, business ethics,
management, finance and accounting, insurance, banking or business travel. The specialized vocabulary is
accompanied by a revision of grammar items and all kinds of exercises testing the four basic skills: listening,
reading, speaking and writing. In the third year the emphasis is on the language of business communication; the
main topics include oral and written communication, i.e. presentations, meetings, negotiations, writing business
letters, reports or proposals. At the end of the third year, students are supposed to get a certificate that will show
their competence in a foreign language at B2 level. They may take an international exam such as CAE or BEC
Higher or they may choose the certificate offered by our university, LINGUA, which is similar to Cambridge in
many respects, but it has a validity period of only 2 years and it does not have such a large international
acknowledgement.
We have been teaching Business English practice courses for more than 10 years both to full-time and
distance learning students. We have noticed that there are special problems that distance learning students
encounter in comparison with full-time students when it comes to the study of foreign languages. In order to
identify and solve these problems we made the following research.
Methodology
This study was designed mostly as a qualitative research involving focus groups, guided interviews,
discussions and a questionnaire based predominantly on open questions. The purpose of the research was to find
out what special problems teaching and learning Business English in the form of distance learning encompass
from the students‘ and from the teachers‘ perspective. It is definitely a study which refers to the particular case
of our faculty and the findings cannot be generalized. However, we believe that colleagues teaching languages at
other universities may have the same problems and they will find our research useful for their activity.
Sampling and data analysis
We led a group discussion with 4 of our colleagues who teach modern languages at distance learning.
Together with us, we were 6 teachers sharing the same experience; 3 of us have been teaching for around 10
years or less and the other 3 have more than 15 years of practice in the area. We all have been dealing with
distance learning for more than 10 years. Four of the participants were female and the others were male. Four of
us teach English, one teaches French and one German.
Regarding the sampling of the students‘ group, we led a focus group with six students from the second
and third year, distance learning, who expressed their availability to participate in this activity by e-mail as a
response to a request we made on-line on the students‘ mail group. 2 participants were male and 4 were female;
3 have ages between 20 and 30 and the others between 31 and 50. The discussion took around one hour and it
was recorded with the participants‘ agreement.
We also built a questionnaire with several open questions (see Appendix 1) which were similar to those
used in the focus group. The questionnaire was distributed to around 100 students from the second and third
year, distance learning, either directly, after the course or by e-mail. 73% of the respondents were female and
27% were male. As for age, 55% were between 20-30 years old, 27% had ages between 31- and 40 and 18%
were between 41-50.
Findings and Discussion
Teachers‘ opinions
In this part of the study, we discussed with our colleagues who teach distance learning courses in
foreign languages (English, French, German) at bachelor and master level. The first problem we all have
encountered in our activity is the discrepancy between the students‘ foreign language level and the level
requested by the syllabus and the assessment system. Theoretically speaking, students should have the B1 level
in a foreign language when they start university, as this is the level they are tested at when they graduate highschool and take their baccalaureate exam. This works for students who are full-time learners; however, distance
learners are not always recent high-school graduates. They may have graduated high-school a few years before
and meanwhile they may have also taken another academic degree; some of them may have even graduated
high-school 20 years ago. This is why they do not have the requested level (B1) and they cannot cope with the
degree of difficulty in the syllabus and in the assessment. Even worse, some of them may have never studied
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English or French or German, but only Russian (as it is the case with older students who graduated high-school
before the Revolution from 1989) and they would need a course for beginners.
Another problem was the design of the course syllabus. There is a standard design for the course
syllabus at distance learning for all subjects, regarding the structure and the number of modules and the number
of pages. We all consider that this standard is not suitable for the teaching of foreign languages because it does
not allow us to introduce all the types of exercises that we need and a structure which is good for Maths or
Management cannot be fully applied to a foreign language course syllabus.
The third problem which was identified during the discussion with our colleagues refers to the limited
number of course hours students have during one semester. 8 hours may be enough to summarize issues dealing
with economics but it is certainly not enough for teaching business English or any other foreign language. In
addition to the reduced number of hours, another problem is the large number of students who attend the courses
(over 50 or even over 100) which makes it almost impossible for the teacher to use a lot of interactive methods
or perform communicative activities which are essential in the study of a foreign language.
Regarding the on-line platform, teachers complained that they could not use it properly, which is mainly
the fault of the IT people who were still working on details. Access to the platform is still quite restricted,
teachers can use it just to post materials or grades and they cannot have a direct communication with the students
through the platform. In the future, it is considered that the platform will be improved and this communication
will be possible.
The solutions our colleagues proposed are the following:
- The curriculum for distance learning language courses should be adapted to current needs; several
groups should be created starting with A1 level so that students would have the opportunity of
studying at the level which is suitable for them;
- Consequently, the course syllabus should be changed; there should be a different course syllabus
for each level, starting with A1 up to B2;
- More teachers should be involved in distance learning and the number of course hours should be
increased up to, at least, 14 hours per semester which means half of the number of classes full-time
students have;
- The on-line platform should be improved so that teachers and students could communicate directly
and more often.
Students‘ opinions
Both the focus group question guide and the questionnaire we used referred to the study of Business
English as a distance learning course and the same major issues were addressed by both research methods. We
started with a few general questions about the distance learning system from our faculty and then we focused on
the problems students had encountered in the study of Business English.
We were interested in finding out why students chose distance learning instead of full-time learning
since tuition fees are the same. The majority of them, no matter their age, said that they preferred to work in
order to be able to pay for their studies and that their work places were in their home towns, at a distance of at
least 30 km (the closest) up to 400 km (the farthest). People over 30 also mentioned the fact that they had a
family and children and distance learning is a better solution for them although they live in Cluj-Napoca. 33% of
the students who were interviewed said that they had already graduated another faculty and they were currently
studying economics because of their job requirements or because their former qualifications were no longer
needed on the job market and they wanted to find a better job. The students in this situation are all over 30 or
even over 40.
Another question referred to the frequency with which students used the on-line platform. The majority
answered that they used the platform almost weekly in order to find out information about the timetable, the
exams or to download course syllabi. Nevertheless, they complained that the platform had not been working very
well and they wished it could be used more often and in a more effective way.
Students were required to enumerate the qualities they thought a professor teaching distance learning
students should have in comparison with one teaching full-time students. They said that such a professor should
be very concise and able to select the most important information; he/she should focus on practical aspects and
have an interactive approach. They also added that the professor should show availability to cooperate with
students more often, he/she should be patient, understanding and show respect towards his/her students who,
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sometimes, could be older than he/she is. The interviewed students consider that assessment for distancelearning students should be different from the assessment of full–time students.
Moving on to the part referring to language courses, all students said they considered that it is necessary
to study a foreign language at university and English would be the most useful. When asked about the problems
they encountered in the study of Business English, most respondents enumerated the following:
- The level imposed by the course syllabus is too high compared to the real level of the students (this
applies particularly to students over 35 who graduated high-school a long time ago and do not have
the necessary background knowledge in English);
- The number of course hours is not enough for the study of a foreign language;
- The lack of audio materials, listening and speaking activities;
- Many students admitted they had problems with grammar and verbal tenses in particular;
- The majority admitted it was quite difficult to learn a foreign language on their own.
Students were also required to suggest solutions to the problems they enumerated. They proposed the
following actions to be taken:
- Students should be divided in groups according to their level (from beginners to upperintermediate) and each group should have a different course syllabus;
- The course syllabus should be accompanied by a CD with listening drills or such drills should be
made available on the platform;
- The course syllabus should contain more grammar exercises and, if this is not possible,
supplementary exercises should be posted on the platform so that students could work individually
and receive on-line feedback from the teachers;
- The number of face-to-face meetings should increase;
- The on-line platform should provide the means for direct interaction between the teacher and the
students at least once a week.
Conclusions and Recommendations
By summarizing the problems identified by the teachers and by the students, we can easily see that there
are common issues. These issues refer to:
- The level at which Business English/other foreign language courses should be taught and the
necessity of adapting the curriculum and the course syllabus to the real level of the students and to
their needs;
- The limited number of face-to-face meetings during the semester;
- The necessity of improving the on-line platform in such a way as to facilitate the use of audio
materials and better communication between teacher and learner.
We have gathered the suggestions both teachers and students made and we have designed a set of
recommendations to be considered for the improvement of language teaching for distance learning students.
It is clear that the existing system is not working very well and changes are needed. To start with,
students should be divided in groups based on their level of foreign language knowledge. Although necessary,
this idea could be very difficult to put in practice. The main reason is the impossibility of testing the students at
the beginning of the academic year in order to assess their real level and decide on how many groups we have to
create. A solution might be the students‘ registration on the on-line platform directly in the group they consider
suitable for them. However, as this would be based on students‘ personal assessment, the degree of honesty and
objectivity is questionable. Students may decide to attend a course which is below their level in order to make
things easier for them and get better grades. At the same time, more groups will need more teachers and different
course syllabi and this will take time and cannot be implemented in the near future. The main point stays that
when students graduate, they are supposed to have the B2 level and they may not reach this level if they start
from A1 level in the first year.
It is difficult to change the existing system but we can do certain things to improve it. Our suggestion is
team (or pair) teaching. It means that a teacher should not work on his/her own with distance learning students,
but have a colleague or an assistant to help him/her. Practically, this means that one of the teachers will actually
teach the course and meet the students during the semester and the other one will keep in touch with students
through the on-line platform and meet them during office hours. The course syllabus will be the same for all
students, however the assistant will deal more with the students who have difficulties in coping with the level
and the requirements imposed by the course curriculum and syllabus. The assistant will have a certain number of
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office hours when he/she can meet the students and also a certain number of teaching hours on the platform,
according to a schedule students will be informed about.
The communication through the on-line platform will be essential in such a system. This is why we
need to enhance the collaboration between the IT department and the department of modern languages. By using
their knowledge and the most recent techniques in the field, our colleagues from the IT department should
facilitate the access on the platform both for the student and for the teacher and create an electronic
communication system which will allow the student to post questions on the platform or do exercises and the
teacher to be notified and answer in real time, according to an established schedule or correct the mistakes in the
student‘s homework and add supplementary exercises on the platform. In this way, students who do not have the
necessary level will work more and get feedback and they will be helped to improve their skills and fill in the
knowledge gaps they may have. The use of the platform will make this cooperation between teacher and learner
much easier than through e-mail or office hours, given the fact that the majority of the distance learning students
do not live in the university home town. Some audio materials with corresponding exercises could be posted on
the platform so that students would develop listening skills as well or a CD could be attached to the course
syllabus (in the printed version) and the stuff on the CD should also be available on-line. This means that the
course syllabus should contain listening exercises.
A problem which still stays in place is the development of speaking skills. Speaking activities are
difficult to develop with a large number of students and in a limited number of classes. A possibility would be
the increase of the number of course hours from 8 per semester to at least 14. This proposal should be submitted
to the approval of the university board and if approved, then the teacher should try to introduce more speaking
activities, at least group work or pair work, depending on the number of students who participate in the course.
In this study we have tried to identify particular teaching and learning issues we and our distance
learning students are confronted with. It is probable that colleagues teaching at other universities in our country
or abroad, especially in Eastern Europe, would encounter the same problems. The solutions we have proposed
may work not only for foreign languages, but also for other distance learning courses. At the same time, pair or
team teaching could be used for traditional language classes and especially for groups of learners who have
special difficulties because of different causes such as age, cultural background or different types of disabilities.
We are open to any other recommendations colleagues with similar experiences could make and we hope that
our ideas will be implemented in the near future.
Appendix 1
Interview/questionnaire guide
Instructions: please provide comprehensive and precise answers to the open questions below and circle your
situation where it is the case. Your answers will be used for research purposes and for improving the quality of
distance learning education in our faculty. You had been informed about these purposes before you agreed to
take part in the survey. Your answers will be confidential and anonymous. Thank you for your cooperation.
1.
Why did you choose distance learning education for completing your studies?
2.
Do you use the distance learning on-line platform? If so, how often and to which purpose?
3.
Which qualities do you think a professor teaching distance learning students should have in comparison
with a professor teaching full-time students?
4.
Do you consider it necessary to study a foreign language during faculty?
YES
NO
5.
Which problems have you encountered in the study of Business English as a distance learning course?
6.
Which solutions do you suggest to these problems?
7.
Which is your opinion about the syllabus for the Business English course?
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8.
Would you like to communicate with your English teacher through the on-line platform? If so, how
often?
9.
Did you graduate another form of higher education before the one you are currently attending?
YES
NO
10. Your age
11. Your sex
F
M
12. Your place of permanent residence
References
Berg, G. (2002). Why distance learning? : higher education administrative practices. New York: Greenwood
Publishing Group
Dooley, K., Lindner, J., McCoy, L., Dooley, L. (2005) Advanced methods in distance education. London: Idea
Group Inc.
Harmer, J. (1993) The Practice of English Language Teaching. New York: Longman
Richards, J. C. (1995) The Context of Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M. (2008) Teaching and learning at a distance: foundations of distance
education. www.books.google.com
Williams, M., Paprock, K., Covington, B. (1999) Distance learning: The Essential Guide. California: Sage
Publications
Widdowson, H.G. (1990) Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press
.
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54
Title
A name given to the resource
Teaching Business English for Distance Learning Students – Challenges, Problems and Potential Solutions
Author
Author
Zagan-Zelter, Diana
Zagan-Zelter, Sergiu
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Distance learning has become a type of learning which is increasingly preferred by students both in bachelor and master programs at the Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, mainly due to economic reasons which force young people to start working immediately after finishing high-school. However, distance learning is also a solution for middle-aged people who graduated different universities in their youth, but have professions which are no longer requested on the job market. As the spectrum of distance learning students is so heterogeneous from different points of view such as age or professional background, teaching English to such students has encountered a number of challenges and problems that we have been trying to cope with so far. In order to identify these problems, we have made a survey among distance learning students from our faculty by using questionnaires and guided interviews. We have also made a summary of the issues identified in our teaching experience and we have talked to colleagues who are in the same situation in order to discover the common points. The paper will present the results of this investigation and the solutions we propose, solutions which are based on our 10 year-experience in teaching distance learning students as well as on the review of specialized literature in this area.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/38cbaf93f146632953dd68305c03690c.pdf
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo
How to Teach Phrasal Verbs
Çağrı Tuğrul Mart
English Language Teaching
Ishik University, Iraq
tugrulbey@hotmail.com
Abstract: Teaching phrasal verbs is a difficult area. Many a study has proved that
contextualization has an important positive effect on the ability of the students to
decipher the correct meaning of a phrasal verb. In this article you will read some useful
approaches to the presentation of phrasal verbs to improve the students‘ level of
understanding.
Key Words: phrasal verbs, context, song
A Phrasal Verb is a phrase which consists of a verb in combination with a preposition or adverb or both,
the meaning of which is different from the meaning of its separate parts: ‗look after‘, ‗work out‘ and ‗make up
for‘ are all phrasal verbs (Koprowski, 2005). According to Trask (1993: 208) a phrasal verb is lexical verb
―which consists of a simple verb combined with one or more particles‖ and whose meaning is typically
unpredictable.
Phrasal verbs have been the source of frustration for learners of English. Many students talk about the
difficulties they have using the phrasal verbs. The issue of how best to teach phrasal verbs is still quite
controversial. Although teaching of phrasal verbs has been daunting and difficult for teachers, and therefore
tedious for learners, it is necessary to develop our students‘ skills in understanding and using them. Since phrasal
verbs are frequently used by native speakers both in written and spoken English, students need to be encouraged
to learn them. ―There is no specified way or a programmed manner in which a student can learn all the phrasal
verbs, nouns, adjectives, and idioms. The authors observe that the only way to acquire such knowledge is by
extensive reading and listening‖ (Al-Sibai, 2003).
Avoid teaching phrasal verbs in alphabetical lists. ―One big advantage of this method is that it is
thorough and comprehensive. But, the problem with a long list is that it is one thing to memorize a phrasal verb
and its meaning, but quite another to bring the phrasal verb into your active, everyday speaking and listening‖
(Dainty, 1992). Through this method ―many students know the phrasal verb from a list, but then fail to use it or
recognize it in their conversations with native speakers. Lists can be useful, but it may be difficult to transfer this
knowledge from the written page to your active knowledge‖ (Dainty, 1992). And also avoid teaching phrasal
verbs solely on the basis of the verb in them. For example, it would not be advisable to teach every phrasal verb
that incorporates the word "get" in one lesson. The phrasal verbs taught this way have nothing else in common
other than the verb in them, and it is very difficult to understand and retain the context of whole phrasal verbs in
this way (Norman, 2010). How then are we supposed to teach phrasal verbs?
Andrzej Cirocki, a proponent of the ‗text/ context method‘, has a useful approach to teach phrasal verbs.
He states that if we aim at teaching a few Phrasal Verbs to our students, we should present them in many
different real contexts so as to enable them to deduce their exact meaning and to see whether they are transitive
or intransitive, separable or inseparable. All these items can be noticed by the students if Phrasal Verbs are
presented in authentic contexts (Cirocki, 2003). In his article ‗ Teaching Phrasal Verbs my Means of
Constructing Texts‘ he explains his approach in the following way. For instance, we may ask our students to
read a text entitled 'Hotel Blaze Escape Drama' in which a few Phrasal Verbs can be spotted.
HOTEL BLAZE ESCAPE DRAMA
At present it is not known how the fire started. It seems the fire, broke out in the early hours of the morning. The
fire alarm went off at around 2.00 a.m. It is thought it was set off by smoke coming from one of the bedrooms on
the first floor. The fire spread quickly from the first floor to the second floor. The fire brigade were called in
immediately and fire fighters were on the scene within 15 minutes, but by this time the hotel was already in
flames. They fought the blaze and managed to get it under control, though it took them to hours to put the fire
out.
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Through this method students are able to acquire phrasal verbs better because it is more productive and
easier to learn phrasal verbs from a context. ―Students are able to pick up the meaning of a phrasal verb from its
context even though they have never seen it before‖ (Dainty, 1992).
While reading 'Hotel Blaze Escape Drama' students get to know new Phrasal Verbs whose meaning and
function are explained in the context. Thus, they can be learnt in a natural way. The text constitutes a kind of a
background for the new Phrasal Verbs and has been formed to serve as a context, through which new Phrasal
Verbs can be presented and explained. However, this is not a genuinely authentic context. Having read such a
text, the meaning of these Phrasal Verbs should be clear. If it is not, we should provide students with other
contexts so that they could guess the meaning, which makes students remember new Phrasal Verbs much better.
Not until then, could they make use of Phrasal Verbs in their own texts (Cirocki, 2003).
Dina Al-Sibai states that in this method Cirocki proposes that students should be encouraged to read a
passage where phrasal verbs are presented in real contexts and then deduce their exact meanings as well as
determine if they are transitive or intransitive, separable or inseparable, etc. In this way, the context contained in
the passage becomes a kind of a background formed to serve as a context through which new phrasal verbs are
presented and explained. Employing such a technique, the meanings of various phrasal verbs should become
clearer and easier to comprehend. If they are not, students must be offered other contexts so that they can try to
fathom the meanings one more time, or even more (Al-Sibai, 2003).
Cirocki maintains that to assure oneself that students understand the meaning of new Phrasal Verbs,
teachers can move to the next stage, that is, fixing stage where the establishing of knowledge on Phrasal Verbs
takes place. Having deduced meanings of Phrasal Verbs from authentic contexts, it is time to apply such types of
exercises so that they could enable students to memorise them much better and also present them in new
contexts. These exercises have nothing to do with creativity they are very useful, though. Before students begin
constructing their own texts, they first have to work on simple exercises in order to fix new material. Afterwards,
they may make use of it in their own texts. For instance, in this exercise students are asked to complete sentences
with the appropriate Phrasal Verbs in their correct form (Cirocki, 2003).
catch sb out; fill sth in; cut sth out; take up sth
1. If you want to lose weight , ___ potatoes, bread, and sweet things for a week.
2. The oral exam was difficult. The examiner tried to ___ (me) by asking some tricky questions.
3.My
brother
has___
karate.
He
trains
three
times
a
week.
4. Here are the visa application forms. You have to ___ (them) and return them to the consulate.
In this step establishing the knowledge of phrasal verbs takes place. Teachers are advised to construct
fill-in-the-blanks exercises which can enable students to memorize such verbs faster and more accurately. These
exercises help to memorize the meanings and utility of newly-acquired phrasal verbs (Al-Sibai, 2003).
In his criticism of the traditional approached to teaching phrasal verbs, Thornbury suggests that ―phrasal
verbs are best learned on item-by-item basis, and preferably in short contexts that demonstrate their syntactic
behaviour‖ (Thornbury, 2002: 125). According to Thornbury, phrasal verbs should be acquired like the rest of
the lexis by providing meaningful context, exposure, and recycling. And Thornbury encourages teachers to
provide texts that have high frequency of phrasal verbs in them. Kailani stresses that it is only through genuine
practice that accuracy and effectiveness could be increased, regardless of the method or technique being adapted
(Kailani, 1995).
According to R. Wyss, if phrasal verbs are presented to students in lists that are void of real or relevant
context, students will not be stimulated enough to learn them. He observes that learners need a meaningful
contextual background in order to reinforce memory and sustain interest. He suggests that a practical solution for
learners would be to deduce the meanings of phrasal verbs as they appear in reading passages (Wyss, 2002).
Another exercise worth recommending is based on providing students with a particular topic and
associating it with Phrasal Verbs. For instance; teachers may ask their students to write a letter to their friends
talking about their problems with studying. While writing such a letter students have a possibility to make use of
Phrasal Verbs of the following type: get down to, keep on with, take down, fall behind, put off, get through, catch
up with and many others (Cirocki, 2003). In practice it may look like this:
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DearPaul,
I have problems with my studies at school I find it difficult to get down to work in the afternoons and I
can't concentrate on anything right now. I spend most of my time listening to CDs or watching TV instead of
doing my homework. The other students in my class are much better than I am and I find it hard to keep up with
them. I can't take down the important things my teacher says because I write very slowly. He has told me that I'm
falling
behind
with
my
lessons.
I'm
not
good
at…
In order to make our students write fully authentic texts, the role of the teacher is confined to proposing
an interesting topic. Nevertheless, teachers may also ask their students to make use of as many Phrasal Verbs as
possible in their compositions. The main asset of such exercises is the fact that students write about things they
are fond of and are really interested in. This enables students to apply long term memory, due to which they will
be able to remember certain things for ever and make use of them in various speeches or essays (Cirocki, 2003).
As Nuttall points out ―we learnt most of our vocabulary by using it: meeting the spoken words
frequently and in situations that we understand, we gradually assimilated their meaning‖ (Nuttall, 2005).
Shelley Vernon suggests that phrasal verbs need to be learned in the same way as any other type of
verb. Students need to learn the phrasal verb as a vocabulary item and also how to use it in sentences. It can help
to learn meanings in one lesson and work on integrating the language in a different session. This anyway is
helpful with lower levels so students are not overwhelmed. A fun game to use to teach the vocabulary side of
phrasal verbs is Call My Bluff Definitions. Here you give each student a phrasal verb to look up in the dictionary
and ask everyone to write down the true meaning plus make up two false meanings. It is good to set this for
homework so as not to use precious class time. If you want to simplify have students write only two definitions,
one true and one false.
At the next lesson, Shelley maintains that, each student reads out the phrasal verb followed by the three
definitions. The class stand up and listen all three definitions once. Then on the second reading students sit down
if they think a definition is false and stay standing if they think it is true. Let's say the first definition is false and
half the students sit down. All those sitting down are still in the game so those standing put their hands on the
heads and sit down. They are out for this round. Those still in stand up again and the student reads out definition
two. Those who have it wrong are out again and sit down with their hands on their heads. Those that are in
continue until all three definitions have been read out. You then let those students award themselves a point.
Now everyone is back in again for the next phrasal verb. If playing with adults you can leave out putting hands
on heads. That is just a mechanism to prevent cheating, which children are possibly more likely to do than
adults! (Shelley, 2007).
Subrahmanian Upendran in his article ‗Teaching Phrasal Verbs Using Songs‘ states that like teaching
phrasal verbs many songs can be successfully employed to provide meaningful contexts for learning phrasal
verbs. This will be illustrated through the use of the first four lines of the song "Another Day in Paradise" by Phil
Collins.
Procedure of this approach: Students were provided with incomplete lyrics.
The students were given incomplete lyrics of the song "Another Day in Paradise" by Phil Collins and
were instructed to familiarize themselves with it by going through it silently. Each line contained a blank, which
they would be required to fill in as they listened to the song. Students were asked to fill in the blanks.
After they had familiarized themselves with the lyrics, the next step involved was to expose the students
to the song in small chunks of four lines each. Every segment was replayed several times, till most students were
confident that they had written in the appropriate words. It was only when the students completed filling in all
the blanks contained in the first stanza that any attempt was made to determine how correct or incorrect their
answers were. Students were asked to volunteer information.
Each of the blanks was taken up one by one and every student in the group was asked what word he/she
had used in a particular blank. (Since my focus here is on the teaching of phrasal verbs, I'll confine myself to the
first blank in the song, which completes the phrasal verb "calls out".) The different answers provided by the
students were put up on the blackboard. No attempt was made to weed out the incorrect answers at this stage. As
all answers were being accepted, students enthusiastically revealed what they had put down. Some of the
answers given for the first blank was (calls) "out", "on", "off", and "up". Students were asked the meaning of
phrasal verbs.
When all the students had volunteered information about the word they had inserted in the first blank,
they were asked the meaning of each phrasal verb.
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What is the meaning of "call out"?
What does "call on" mean?
The meaning of each phrasal verb was discussed individually and when a student provided a definition,
which everyone agreed on, it was put up on the blackboard. The participants were asked to use the phrasal verb
in a sentence. Examples provided by the students were put up alongside the meaning. Students were provided
with contextual clues.
When the students were unable to define a phrasal verb, there was no attempt to provide them with one.
Instead, the phrasal verb was used in a context and all students were expected to guess the meaning. For
example, when the students were unable to define "call off", the following context was provided.
"The class is over. You're ready to begin looking through your notes in the short break before the next
class. You have a test on that class. Suddenly a student runs into the classroom and shouts that the test is called
off as the teacher has left to deal with a family emergency. You are overjoyed, and you throw your books back
into your bag and rush to the playground to join the cricket game."
The students were asked to determine the meaning from the context provided. Once the meaning had
been arrived at, further examples of how the phrasal verb was used were provided.
John's appointment with the doctor was called off.
The teacher called off the meeting.
Students were asked to study the lyrics again.
When the meanings of all the phrasal verbs had been figured out, the students were then asked to study
the lyrics again and determine which phrasal verb was demanded by the context. If, for example, all students
agreed on "calls out", they were asked to provide cogent arguments why it couldn't be any of the other phrasal
verbs that they had initially come up with. Some of the arguments put forward by the students were: people don't
visit someone on the street, they can meet them accidentally, but not 'visit'. The grammar does not permit 'call
on'. One can 'call on' someone, but not 'call on to' someone. Getting/providing such answers from/to students
ensured that they not only remembered the meaning of the phrasal verb but also where and how it should be used
(Upendran 2001).
Conclusion
Phrasal verbs, one of the most important parts of communication, are frequently avoided by learners of
English. One language skill is trying to infer the meaning of a new phrasal verb from the context. ―It is safe to
say that phrasal verbs, especially those commonly used ones, are very important components in effectively
spoken communication, no matter in what kind of language community text it lies. From the angle of language
learning for the sake of effective communication phrasal verbs should by no means be avoided‖ (Chen, 2007).
How then are we supposed to emphasize phrasal verbs in English language teaching and learning? ―Research
has shown that texts and contexts can have a powerful influence on the students‘ vocabulary growth. Learning
words through such technique is along-term process in which meanings are slowly but steadily accumulated. The
key here is to focus instructional attention on words that students have encountered in rich texts usually through
reading, rather than from word lists that are void of context‖ (Al-Sibai, 2003). And in this article how to teach
phrasal verbs effectively through context is studied.
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REFERANCE
Chen, Junyu. On How to Solve the Problem of the Avoidance of Phrasal Verbs in the Chinese Context.
International Education Journal, 8.2 (2007): -348-53
Cirocki, A. Teaching Phrasal Verbs my Means of Constructing Texts. ELT Newsletter, 2003 2 February 2011
<http://www.eltnewsletter.com/column/shtml>.
Dainty, Peter. Phrasal Verbs in Context. Macmillan Education, 1992.
Dina. M. Al-Sibai. Using the Balanced Activity Approach in Teaching Phrasal Verbs to Saudi College Students:
A Review of the Literature, December 2003
Kailani, T.Z. A Synthesized Pedagogical Methodology for English Classroom Interactions.
Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, Academic Search Premier Database, 1995.
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Koprowski, M. Investigating the Usefulness of Lexical Phrases in Contemporary Coursebooks. ELT Journal,
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Norman, Leila. Teaching Phrasal
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Nuttall, Christine E. Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. Oxford: Macmillan Education, 2005
Thornbury, Scott. How to Teach Vocabulary. Harlow: Longman, 2002.
Trask, R.L. A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics. London: Routhledge, 1993.
Upendran, Subrahmanian. Teaching Phrasal Verbs Using Songs. The Internet TESL Journal, 7.7 (2001). 15
January 2011 <http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Upendran-PhrasalVerbs.html>.
Vernon, Shelley. How to Teach Phrasal Verbs to ESL Students, November 2007 12 Jan. 2011
<http://teachingenglishgames.blogspot.com/2007/11/how-to-teach-phrasal-verbs-to-esl.html>.
Wyss, R. Teaching English Multi-Word Verbs Is Not a Lost Cause Afterall. ELT Newsletter, 2002 5 January
2011 <http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/March2002/art902002.html>.
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How to Teach Phrasal Verbs
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Mart, Çağrı Tuğrul
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Teaching phrasal verbs is a difficult area. Many a study has proved that contextualization has an important positive effect on the ability of the students to decipher the correct meaning of a phrasal verb. In this article you will read some useful approaches to the presentation of phrasal verbs to improve the students‘ level of understanding.
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Postmodern Narrative Strategies in Paul Auster's Novels Man in the Dark
and Invisible
Darko KovaĦeviĤ
University of East Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina
dax1978@gmail.com
Abstract: In many of his novels Paul Auster uses characteristic postmodern narrative
strategies in order to tell their stories, introduce the characters and depict the
atmosphere. The two novels that are the central topic of this paper, "Man in the Dark"
and "Invisible", belong to the category of his recent novels, and, observed both as
separate units and as a whole, present an excellent example for the identification and
analysis of such strategies. After a brief general introduction about postmodern
narrative strategies in literature, the strategies used in the named novels will be
identified and analyzed, with respect to various narrative theories that exist in present
time, and that will bring to some general conclusions at the final part of the paper.
Introduction
The term postmodern literature is mostly used to describe certain characteristics of the literature that
appears in post–World War II period and a reaction against the ideas of Enlightenment that appear in Modernist
literature. However, it does not present the opposition to the expression techniques of modernism, but more to
modernistic sensibility. Postmodernists do not possess ―modernistic nostalgia for an earlier age where the belief
in some eternal values of life was still possible‖ (LeńiĤ 2008: 416) but are aware of all the changes that happened
after World War II and support the progress in technology and communications, being aware of the
fragmentation of society that occurred, often using such fragmentation in their writing. Same as postmodernism
as a whole, it is hard to define postmodern literature, and there is little agreement on its exact characteristics,
scope, and importance. A feature of postmodern writers is that they often celebrate chance over craft and use
metafiction to undermine the author's narrative primacy within a text, the presence of a single all-powerful
storytelling authority. They also attack the distinction between high and low culture, with the employment of
pastiche, the combination of multiple cultural elements that include subjects and genres that have not previously
been considered adequate for literature. Postmodernism in literature is not an organized movement with leaders
or central figures; therefore, it is more difficult to say if it has ended or when it will end.
Narrative Strategies in Postmodern Literature
The narrative strategies that postmodern writers use in their books are based on the mentioned general
attitudes of postmodernism. LeńiĤ (2008: 419)47 defines four important features: disappearance of ―the real‖,
autoreferentiality, hybridity and intertextuality.
Disappearance of ―the Real‖
Disappearance of ―the real‖ in postmodern literature comes as an opposition to realistic concepts of
novel, ―the concept of ―omniscient narrator‖ that has an insight into everything that happens in the novel, the
concept of ―character‖ who develops consistently from the beginning to the end of a novel, the concept of ―plot‖
being a systematic connecting of events in a novel and, finally, the concept of ―real‖ as the measure of credibility
in a novel discourse.‖ (LeńiĤ 2008: 420). Because of that, many authors use fragmentation through
experimenting with time, place, continuity of action, narrative levels and voices, while some other experiment
with the very structural foundation of novel, convinced that the reality is, actually, presented in what is said
about it. There is also ―historiographic metafiction‖ (Hutcheon, 1988), referring to works that fictionalize actual
historical events or figures or simulate new ones, what is based on the fact that both historians and novelists use
the same linguistic and rhetorical structures to present their ―realities‖, so that the past is always constructed
ideologically and discursively (LeńiĤ 2008: 420). However, there is also a group of postmodern novelists that
―came out with an open criticism of ―the late capitalism‖ society and that returned truly definite referentiality
47
Translation of extracts from the book into English is done by Darko KovaĦeviĤ.
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back to novel. But, even when it gives the images of reall life, the novel strives to make them intensified and
more eloquent than the reality, often with the effect of shock.‖(LeńiĤ 2008:421). Among such writers, Paul
Auster is probably the most known one.
Autoreferentiality
Autoreferentiality presents a turn to fictionality and textuality of the novel itself, based on the
awareness of postmodern novelists that a novel cannot express the complexity of a present-time life experience.
In such way, metafiction occurs, as one of the main phenomena in postmodern literature, stating that ―the job of
a writer is not to present the world anymore, but to make it out of words‖ (LeńiĤ 2008: 422). Metafiction is a
type of fiction that self-consciously addresses the devices of fiction, exposing the fictional illusion. It is the
literary term describing fictional writing that self-consciously and systematically draws attention to its status as
an artifact in posing questions about the relationship between fiction and reality, usually using irony and selfreflection. Essentially, it is writing about writing, making the artificiality of art or the fictionality of fiction
apparent to the reader, not letting him/her to forget that he or she is reading a fictional work. It is often employed
to undermine the authority of the author, for unexpected narrative shifts, to advance a story in a unique way, for
emotional distance, or to comment on the act of storytelling.
The term fabulation is sometimes used interchangeably with metafiction and relates to postmodern
tendency of novel to show its literal character openly and thus marks out the unreal character of its contents. For
the same tendency, the term surfiction was also suggested, denoting the novel that investigates the limits of its
own art and brings its conventions into question. Both fabulation and surfiction challenge some traditional
notions of literature, the traditional structure of a novel or role of the narrator, for example, and integrate other
traditional notions of storytelling, including fantastical elements, such as magic and myth, or elements from
popular genres such as science fiction.
Hybridity
―A postmodern novelist is aware that there are various systems of representing the reality, and is ready
to check the usability of every of them and to change the narrative discourse within one text‖ (LeńiĤ 2008: 422).
In that sense, postmodern writers prefer lack of congruency in parts, stylistic variations, mixing of narrative
techniques and discontinuity of narration. That includes the erasing of boundaries between fiction and history,
simulation and reality and dreams and true events, and also the mixing of various genres.
Postmodern novelist also try to explore the relation between writing and the subject who performs it,
showing that the writing is, actually, the way that makes the subject to exist. In constructing the subject, the
autobiographical elements are also used, having the function to build the subject that is brought to existence by
writing. However, once included in a novel, such autobiographical elements change their status and become
equally fictional as all the other elements of a novel.
Intertextuality
Intertextuality is the shaping of texts' meanings by other texts. It can include an author‘s borrowing and
transformation of a prior text or to a reader‘s referencing of one text in reading another. Since postmodernism
represents a decentered concept in which individual works are not isolated creations, much of the focus in the
study of postmodern literature is on intertextuality: the relationship between one text and another or one text
within the literary history. Intertextuality in postmodern literature can be a reference or parallel to another
literary work, an extended discussion of a work, or the adoption of a style. Often intertextuality is more
complicated than a single reference to another text, being a kind of response to other works, or even to some
notions and challenges of modern world and culture.
Related to postmodern intertextuality stands pastiche, the technique of using phrases, motives, images
or episodes taken from work(s) of other author(s), or ―pasting‖ together, of multiple elements. It can be seen as a
representation of the chaotic, pluralistic, or information-drenched aspects of postmodern society. In
postmodernist literature this can be a hommage to or a parody of past styles. It can be a combination of multiple
genres to create a unique narrative or to comment on particular situations, or can refer to compositional
technique.
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Postmodern Narrative Strategies in the Novels Invisible and Man in the Dark
Introduction
Paul Auster (1947) is an American writer who used various narrative strategies in all 15 novels that he
has written up to now, and many of these strategies belong to those marked as postmodern in the previous
chapter. Auster experiments with form and narration of the novel, creating compound, multi-layered or
polyphonic narrative structures, with complex characters. Such novels reflect his special relation to reality –
either by fictionizing it in an ―alternative‖ way or by criticizing it and making it cruel or shocking. In terms of
hibridity, the mixture of different narrative approaches, techniques and voices, and also of different genres can
often be found in Auster‘s novels. Also, most of them are metafictional, dealing, in one way or another, with the
process of writing as seen or performed by its protagonists, and also with the self invention of a writer through
writing. These also include a lot of autobiographical elements, so that the characters share Auster‘s experiences,
mixed with fiction. Such a blurring of fact and fiction contributes to the lack of any definitive sense of coherent
certainty. In other words, ―Auster resorts to self-invention in the course of his fictional narratives, and composes
‗autobiographical‘ fictions based upon his own experiences. The predominance of narrative perspectives evident
within Auster‘s writings ensure that Auster distances himself from authorial authenticity and accountability‖
(Martin, 2008: ix). Finally, intertextuality occurs at various levels in Auster‘s novels. Sometimes it is used
―internally‖, with references to other Auster‘s novels, while in some other novels it is connected with direct or
indirect references to works of writers Auster appreciated, such as Hawthorne, Thoreau and others, but also to
other forms of art, such as movies.
Man in the Dark
Story
Man in the Dark is the novel that Auster wrote in 2008. For its main character, he has chosen August
Brill, a 72 years old former Pulitzer Prize-winning literary critic, now a depressed widower confined to a
wheelchair after an accident, who lives with his divorced daughter Miriam and his granddaughter Katya in the
same house in Brattleboro, Vermont. It seems that pain is what binds these family members together. There is
Brill, who is mourning the loss of his wife to cancer and mending from a car crash that shattered his leg. Brill's
daughter Miriam is recovering from a divorce and his granddaughter Katya watches film after film to exclude
herself from the reality of her boyfriend's horrific murder. Brill suffers from insomnia, and in order to get
through the sleepless nights, he creates imagined stories while lying in the bed.
In the night when the novel happens, he imagines an unreal war story about a man called Owen Brick
happening in 2000 in a kind of an alternative reality. Owen Brick, wakes up, perplexed, wearing a military
uniform, in an unfamiliar landscape, trapped in a deep hole with smooth sides, unable to escape. It turns out that
he's in an America in which the 2000 election led to states seceding from the federation in protest; in which the
World Trade Centre still stands and Iraq is un-invaded, but the civil war rages. There are, as Brick learns, many
worlds, each dreamed or imagined or written by someone in another world; the civil war, and Brick himself,
have been imagined by an old man, and to put the end to the war Brick must kill him. Brill has invented an
intriguing postmodern story allowing it even to interact with his reality, but he suddenly loses his interest at
around two-thirds of the book and decides to ―kill‖ Brick and thus ends it. At that point, he actually becomes
ready to face with the things that really torture him and to try to restore his identity. Thus he finally tells Katya
the whole rise-and-fall story of his relation with his wife Sonia, and later, after Katya is asleep, finally speaks
about the circumstances and the mere act of Katya‘s former boyfriend‘s horrifying and brutal death. Such an
inner determination and self-revelation presents a kind of catharsis to him and his thoughts, and at the very end
of the book it seems as though he is finally ready to go on.
Disappearance of “the Real”
Even he situational contest of this novel, created from the perspective of a man, former writer, who is
lying in the bed inventing stories and thinking of past, gives in a bit of an unreal and at the same time deeply
subjective tone. On the other side, the sad, tragic and shocking events that all three protagonists faced with
during their lives, with the description of the video showing Katya‘s boyfriend‘s cruel execution a sort of their
culmination, accumulated within less than 200 pages and narrated by Brill through many interwoven stories with
different focalizations, give rather cruel, depressive and tragic tone to the world of the novel in general. On the
other side, the invented story of Owen Brick at the same time includes a sort of historiographic metafiction,
imagining an alternative version of American history, together with social criticism and unreal, science fictional
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elements. In that way, the entire novel, being a combination of a narrative coming from the ―reality‖ of the novel
containing an imagined ―unreal‖ narrative, leaves the impression of a chamber, internal reality burdened with
tragic, cruelties and horrors of the modern world.
Autoreferentiality
Autoreferentiality that occurs in the novel Man in the Dark exists both on the level of the ―real‖ life
narrative of August Brill and the imagined story that he invents lying in bed. During the most of Brill‘s
narratives, the world outside it seems completely irrelevant, or important only to give the narrated events correct
time, place and context. It seems that his story exists only because of itself, simply to be told. It is the same with
the stories he invents, and, in accordance to that with the story of Owen Brick, only with the difference that,
through Brill‘s words, a reader can get the idea on how the stories are composed.
Hybridity
The novel Man in the Dark is a hybrid structure in many ways. At first, although it is written as a firstperson narrative, that narrative is only a framework for the events and situations seen and told from the
perspective of different focalizators, which do not appear in a straight narrative line but in longer or smaller
fragments that eventually get their meaning and sense toward the end of the novel. On the other side, it is a true
mixture of genres. On the surface, there is a tragic, retrospective quasi - autobiographical story that also includes
biographical details on other characters. It is at the same static, happening objectively in the head of a man
during one night, and dynamic, covering retrospectively many events that happened over a great period of time.
However, at it end it also turns to be a deeply antiwar novel. On the other side, the invented story about Oven
Brick and the alternative American history presents an unrealistic, fictional and dreamlike version of action
stories of war, conspiracies and special agents, and gives its contribution to the diversity of genres that occur
within the novel.
Intertextuality
The intertextuality that exists within the novel Man in the Dark is not based on direct borrowings from
other books that would influence the novel or have effect on some of its parts. However, it is present in two
narrative points of the novel. The first of them is directly connected with Brill‘s story of his daughter and her
passionate investigation and writing about the life and work of Rose Hawthorne, where the manuscript that she
periodically gives her father to check is the only connection she has with the external world. On the other side,
there are movies – Brill‘s granddaughter Katja has escaped from the ―real‖ world into solitary, leaving the film
school and spending all the time in her mother‘s house watching old movies on DVD and commenting them with
her grandfather from time to time, so that the text of the novel, based on Brill‘s retrospective narrative, contains
some detailed, frame-by-frame analyses and comments of scenes from particular movies.
Invisible
Story
To be able to discuss the postmodern narrative strategies within Paul Auster‘s novel Invisible (2009), i t
is necessary to tell its story in much more detail that it has been done with the novel Man in the Dark. The novel
Invisible starts in the spring of 1967, telling the story of Adam Walker, a student at Columbia University and a
poet. In an occasion Adam meets Rudolf Born, a visiting university professor and his strange girlfriend Margot.
Born soon gives Adam the opportunity to be the editor of a literary magazine that he is about to finance, and
accepts. However, soon after that, while Born is out of country, Adam establishes a love and sexual relationship
with Margot. When Born comes back, Margot leaves back to Paris, and after some time Born invites Adam to
have a dinner. They meet in Born‘s apartment and discuss the matters about the future magazine, with Born
almost ignoring the fact of Adam‘s relationship with Margot. On their walk to the dinner place, a boy with a gun
suddenly appears wanting to rob them. To Adam‘s shock, Born takes a knife out of his pocket, stabs the boy and
kills him. Adam wants them to take the boy to the hospital, but Born refuses, and they separate. In the day that
follow, the Adam finds that the body of the boy, named Cedric Williams has been discovered, with more than
twelve knife wounds in chest and stomach. Soon after that, Adam gets a threatening letter from Born, which
makes him reluctant for almost a week before he finally goes to the police to report the case. However, Born has
already gone to France, and nothing can be done.
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After the end of the year of college, Adam decides to sign up for the Junior Year Abroad Program and
go to Paris. He also decides to stay in New York during summer. He shares the apartment with his sister Gwyn,
who has also come to Columbia to study, and earns some money working in a library. The complex relationship
between Adam and his sister, originating in the love that their feel for each other, further burdened with the
memories on their past and the sudden accidental death of their younger brother Aron, which has had the
breakdown of their family life as a consequence, becomes incestuous, and they spend the summer as a couple.
At the end of the summer, Adam leaves to Paris, suffering because of the separation from Gwyn.
However, after some time, he reestablishes his contact and relation with Margot. He also meets Born, who is
about to marry Helene Juin, a woman who is taking care of her husband being in coma after a car accident.
Adam decides to prevent the marriage, so he gets close with Helene‘s 18-year-old daughter Cecile in order to
find a suitable way to tell them the horrible things he knows about Born. However, when he finally does that, it
does not produce the reaction he has expected, and, with the assistance of Born‘s influential friends, he
eventually gets expelled from France and deported back to America.
In America, he finishes his studies and, after successfully avoiding going to Vietnam, he goes to
London in 1969 and spends some years there. Making a decision to give up of writing poetry, he returns back to
the USA In 1973 and finishes a law school and decides to dedicate his life to the struggle for rights and justice.
He spends twenty-seven years in legal aid work. In the meantime, he marries a social worker Sandra Williams,
an African-American with a daughter Rebecca from the previous marriage. They do not have children. During
the time, Sandra dies of cancer and Adam gets leukemia.
Dying slowly of the disease, during 2007, Adam decides to write a book about his life, particularly the
events that took place in 1967, and he sends parts of it to his college friend, Jim (James Freeman), who has
become a famous writer. They even arrange a meeting, but it does not happen, because Adam dies. Not sure
about what to do with the pieces of the book, and also deeply interested in finding out if the described events are
true or not, Jim firstly decides to talk to Gwyn, who, after reading the parts her brother wrote, describes the
incestuous part as something absolutely fictional and untrue, but she still gives him permission to publish it with
some radical changes in terms of names and locations. Later, when he goes with his wife to Paris, Jim tries to
find some of the survived characters from Adam‘s story, but he manages to find only Cecile, now a scholar in
her fifties. They meet in a café and have a long conversation about Adam‘s stay in Paris during 1967, and she
also gives him a part of her diary describing the time in 2002 that she spent visiting Rudolf Born and with the
extract the story of the novel ends.
Disappearance of “the Real”
The story of Invisible is presented to the reader in four chapters, by voices of different narrators
speaking in different periods of time from different narrative points of view. Thus the first chapter of the book is
written – narrated by Adam Walker in the first person singular and past tense, covering the events from 1967
starting from his meeting Born and Margot to the horrifying murder he witnessed. On the other side, the second
chapter of the book is much more complex than the first one. The time of its action is 2007, and it is narrated by
Jim, describing the events from the moment Adam had contacted him for the first time, to the moment when he
sent him the second part of his book. The second chapter actually makes clear that the first chapter is the first
part of the book that Adam Walker wrote and sent to his friend from college, named Spring. Besides Jim‘s first
person narrative, the chapter also contains the two letters written by Adam and the entire text of the second part
of Adam‘s novel, named Summer, which actually makes the bigger part of the chapter. Adam uses second
person narration and historic present tense to describe the events of the summer of 1967 that he spent in New
York sharing a flat with his sister and working in a library. Summer presents probably the strangest and the most
compromising topics in the book talking about the specific features of Adam‘s relation to his family after the
tragic death of his brother, and also about his rather strange, passionate and incestuous relation with his sister,
which had started to develop in 1961 and reached its climax in the summer of 1967. The third chapter consists of
the continuation of Jim‘s narration up to the point when he goes to meet Adam and finds about his death, the
letter that Adam has left him and the third part of Adam‘s book named Fall, consisting of brief, reporting
sentences, written in third person singular and in present tense what gives the narration a feeling of permanent
acceleration, with the events that seem directly connected one to another, without any unnecessary details. The
text itself describes the events from the fall of 1967 from his arrival to Paris to the moment of his deportation
back in the USA. Finally, the fourth chapter of the novel Invisible brings a sort of conclusion and calming down
to the entire narration. It consists of two parts: Jim‘s narration, a brief letter that Cecile wrote to him and a part
from her diary describing her meeting Rudolf Born in 2002.
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In such a way, with a novel based on the writing of one man about the novel he got from his friend, the
notions of truth and reality are completely dim and subjective, and, at the level of the novel, almost treated as
irrelevant. The novel exists as such, and the readers are left to answer and interpret the questions that come from
it. On the other side, its other purpose is to shock, both through the uncertainty and relativity of the protagonists‘
identities and through the detailed description of an incestuous relation.
Autoreferentiality
Many of the things stated in the previous chapter might be applied in discussing the autoreferentiality of
the novel Invisible. It is a novel for itself that exists within itself, creating a closed story covering almost 40
years, that can be reconstructed from its narration. During the entire novel, and, eventually, after reading it, a
reader is fully aware of its fictionality, sometimes even a double one (in relation to real life and in relation to the
narrators form the novel). At the same time, it is deeply connected with writing and all the events from the
storyline exist as such only because they were written down by some of protagonists. The opposite thing can also
be said: the protagonists exist as identities with certain features only because someone wrote about them, or they
wrote about themselves.
Hybridity
It can clearly be seen that Invisible presents a novel whose story is told by use of various narrative
techniques, what makes it a sort of narrative collage. Various genres are embedded into its ―novel within a
novel‖ structure, starting from ordinary autobiographical stories, over love and sexual affairs to a crime story
based on a murder. The only thing that connects each of these genres is the permanent quest for truth that exists
on all narrative levels. Some Auster‘s autobiographical elements, especially in Jim‘s character, are also present.
Intertextuality
The intertextuality in the novel Invisible primarily occurs on the relation of the textual units – narratives
that make the novel. In other words, Jim‘s story, being the framework of the novel, its development, legitimacy,
validity and truthfulness are completely dependent on the validity and truthfulness of the texts written by Adam,
while the conclusion of the novel is based on the testimony coming from Cecile‘s diary, what, on the level of the
entire novel makes a grid of mutually dependent stories that exist and make sense only observed as a totality.
Also, at the very beginning of the book, there is a sort of intertextual association connected with the
man who later turns to be the main (or the only) villain of the novel – Rudolf Born, whose surname Adam
associates with Bertran de Born, twelfth-century Provencal poet. Henry II believed Bertran had supported the
rebellion of his son Henry the Young King and, as a result, Dante Alighieri portrayed him in the Inferno as a
sower of schism, punished in the eighth circle of Hell (Canto XXVIII). Later in the book, there is also Auster‘s
translation of one of de Born‘s war poems, which presents the correction of a previous translation done From
French.
Conclusion
The novels Man in the Dark and Invisible belong to the category of most recent Paul Auster‘s novels.
Both of them use different postmodern narrative strategies, and that usage is in a mutually dependant relation
with their stories, structures, contents and characters. While Man in the Dark is relatively simple both in terms of
its story and narrative, Invisible is much more complex and the identification of narrative strategies that might be
found in each novel is directly related to that fact, with all the of them being logically and tastefully distributed
in both novels. Finally, it can be said that the named novels present some general postmodern narrative features
of Paul Auster‘s prose works.
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References
Abbot, H. P. (2002). The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative: Cambridge: University Press.
Auster, P. (2008). Man in the Dark. London: Faber and Faber
Auster, P. (2009). Invisible. London: Faber and Faber
http://en.wikipedia.org
Hutcheon, L. (1988). The Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction. London: Routledge.
LeńiĤ, Z. (2008). Teorija knjiņevnosti. Beograd: Sluņbeni glasnik.
Martin, B. (2008). Paul Auster‘s Postmodernity. New York & London: Routledge.
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Postmodern Narrative Strategies in Paul Auster's Novels Man in the Dark and Invisible
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Kovačević, Darko
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In many of his novels Paul Auster uses characteristic postmodern narrative strategies in order to tell their stories, introduce the characters and depict the atmosphere. The two novels that are the central topic of this paper, "Man in the Dark" and "Invisible", belong to the category of his recent novels, and, observed both as separate units and as a whole, present an excellent example for the identification and analysis of such strategies. After a brief general introduction about postmodern narrative strategies in literature, the strategies used in the named novels will be identified and analyzed, with respect to various narrative theories that exist in present time, and that will bring to some general conclusions at the final part of the paper.
Date
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2011-05
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Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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Text
1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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DOMESTIC MOTIVATION IN METAPHORICAL
CONSTRUCTIONS
Dalibor KesiĤ
Odsjek za engleski jezik i knjiņevnost
Filolońki Fakultet, Univerzitet u Banjoj Luci
bore@blic.net
Summary
The main focus of this paper is a comparison of cultural perceptions and motivation in
metaphoric constructions reflected through phraseology used in American English and
Serbian languages. Phraseology used in these languages is seen as collective wisdom
shaped through centuries. The premise of the analytical methodology used in the paper is
that there is a strong correlation between cultures and phrases that they use, or, in other
words, the phrases used in a culture are not mere linguistic creations but an archetypal
engendering of beliefs, thoughts, history and cognitive horizons and limitation.
The paper is comprised of three main parts whose sequence is arranged so that the first
part elucidates the basic concepts underpinning the function and notion of phraseology.
Different views are provided in an attempt to induce a comprehensive framework theory
which would encompass and reflect all the properties of phraseology and usher the reader
into the next part.
Part two looks closely into a substantial number of American English common
phraseologisms and almost as many Serbian ones. They are compared and segregated into
groups in a way that makes the inference that follows easier and more exact.
The phrases having been analyzed and statistically processed, conclusions are laid out in
the last part about the most apparent similarities and differences existing in the two
languages.
Key words: phraseology, American English, Serbian, culture, metaphor, semantics,
motivation
I.
We all now that words are symbols and signs that help us mark and comprehend the world around us.
But we are also aware that apart from these two dimensions of words there is a third one, one that is not easily
explained and serves to convey messages whose meaning surpasses the mere aggregation of the meanings of
constituent lexemes. Nowhere is this illusive role of words so well manifested as in phraseology. In
phraseology, words merge in syntagms, larger groups, in meaningful units, whose real meaning resists the literal
comprehension of their lexical constituents and offers us a new creative language that is easy to use but not so
easy to explain in all its complexity.
In each cultural context, there are typical modes of expression that assemble words in order to signify
something that is not limited to the sum of the meanings of the single words that compose them; an extra
meaning, usually metaphorical, becomes part and parcel of this particular assembly. "To find oneself between
hammer and anvil" does not literally mean to be in that physical condition; it means rather to be in a stressing or
very difficult situation. In our everyday life we seldom find the hammer or anvil in our immediate vicinity.
For decades now, phraseology has been a part of linguistics that has never been decidedly defined.
Definitions of phraseology are everything but consistent. There are a few reasons for that. A phraseologism is
seen by some as anything that has a solidly molded form with no variations in lexical composition regardless of
the usage, argot, expressiveness, poetical note or frequency as long as it has an invariable lexical composition
known as such to speakers of the language. This would imply that phraseology encompasses proverbs, sayings,
idiolect and every other form of collocated wording used to denote an object, advice, idea or anything else with a
meaning that, to some extent, deviates from the exact meaning of the words used in them. Others are far stricter
in their understanding of phraseology and believe that only those language constructions whose meaning is
clearly different from the sum of meanings of the secluded words, can be called phraseologisms.
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Phraseologisms – or expressions that would aspire at becoming so – are formed in huge quantities, but
do not always succeed. Sometimes, they are formed and disappear almost simultaneously. The only instances
that create problems for the translator are the stable, recurrent lexical idioms, that for their metaphorical meaning
do not rely only on the reader‘s logic at the time of reading, but also, and above all, on the value that such a
metaphor has assumed in the history of the language under discussion.
A frequently encountered definition of phraseologisms is that they are metaphorical linguistic
constructions existing in one language and untranslatable in others. Indeed, phraseologisms sometimes pose a
nightmare to the translator. The first obstacle for the translator consists in recognizing phraseologisms. If
unrecognized, they are translated interpreting the meaning of the single words to the letter, with doubtful
outcome, to say the least. The translator is always on alert in order to catch a passage that is marked, they form a
particular sensitivity allowing them, hopefully, to stop and think about an unusual formulation even when, in
their experience, they have never run across that particular idiomatic expression. Comparing and contrasting
phraseologisms existing in American English and Serbian, we shall see that almost a half of them are mutually
translatable. Of course, there will always be those locally generated, such as ―kruņi kao kińa oko Kragujevca'' or
''no joy in Mudville‖ that will have to be left to translators‘ own devices.
Once the expression is identified, the next problem consists in decoding it. All authors agree that
dictionaries are not always reliable tools in this sense. First, they do not contain all phraseologisms, partly
because every day new ones are formed and partly because they add considerably to the dictionary‘s physical
volume and it is often not practical to include them all. The second problem consists in the identification of a
phraseologism under a given entry: "to be between hammer and anvil" can be found under the words "between",
or "anvil", or "hammer", or "be", but usually if it is present under one entry it will be absent in all the others;
otherwise, the dictionary would be too redundant.
The latter problem is avoidable to some extent if one has an electronic version of the dictionary, and its
software for the dictionary data management allows the so-called "full-text search". A searchable dictionary of
phraseologisms should offer our phrase when either ―anvil‖, ―hammer‖ or ―between‖ is searched for. One
would, of course expect to have to filter through other phraseologisms containing these words (―what is said
stays between these four walls‖, ―between the rock and a hard place‖, ―using a sledge-hammer to crack a nut‖).
The third problem is the use of bilingual dictionaries. In this case, the provided solutions are not
explanations of meanings of phraseologisms that, in the compiler‘s intentions, should serve to translate them into
the other language. Since there is seldom a good coincidence of meaning between phraseologisms, there is a very
high risk of finding others that have different metaphors, a different meaning, and are not at all fit for specific
cases.
There are phraseologisms that are arguably universal. Some of them are taken over from other
languages in a form that is conspicuously foreign, but have nevertheless become popular. Such are ―all roads
lead to Rome‖, ―carpe diem/seize the day‖, ―veni, vidi, vici‖, ―Pyrrhic victory‖. Others are felt as if they have
always belonged to the language, such as the ―ņito i kukolj‖(―wheat and chaff‖) proverb, whereas, in fact, they
were also taken form another language. The source of this last one is in the Bible, and it appeared in a Serbian
charter as early as XII-XIII century.
In the most fortunate cases, in two cultures the same phraseologism has formed based on the same
metaphor. It is the case of the mentioned example, "being between hammer and anvil", existing also in Serbian:
―izmeħu ĦekiĤa i nakovnja'' and I would be little surprised if it were found in many other languages. This paper
aims to explore the proportion of phraseologisms that are literally translatable without any loss of their
expressiveness. In other cases, the translator opts for a different idiom, based on a different metaphor, that, in the
translator‘s opinion, conveys the same kind of contextual meaning.
In a connotative text the choice of a translating idiom can be a big problem, because the author‘s
intention can be to use a given metaphor, that is functional to the network of intertextual references, and to the
clues willingly distributed by the author for the model reader inclined to make given conjectures, and the
replacing idiom can radically shift the metaphor‘s tenor, misleading the reader of the metatext. If, on the other
hand, what counts most is only transporting the denotative meaning, for example when the notion of "never" is
expressed through a phraseologisms such as ―when the moon turns to green cheese‖, one can use different
metaphors without great difficulties ―kadnavrbi rodi groņħe''.
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There is, moreover, the possibility of a non-phraseological translation of an idiom. This choice is
preferred when the denotative meaning of the translation act is chosen as a dominant, and one is ready to
compromise as to the presentation of the expressive colour, of the meaning nuances, of connotation and
aphoristic form.
In the case of non-phraseological rendering, there are two possibilities: one can opt for a lexical
translation or for a calque. The lexical translation consists ofthe explicationof the denotative meaning of the
phraseologismthrough other words, giving up all the other style and connotation aspects. In the case of the "to
have a bigger fish to fry" idiom, a lexical rendering could be "to have a more important matter to attend to".
The calque, on the other hand, would consist of translating the idiom to the exact letters into a culture
where such a form is not recognized as an idiom: in this case the reader of the recipient culture perceives the
idiom as unusual and feels the problem to interpret it in a non literal, metaphorical way. The calque has the
advantage of preserving intact all second-degree, non-denotative references, that in some authors‘ strategies can
bear an essential importance. It is true that the reconstruction of the denotative meaning is left to the recipient
culture‘s ability, but it is true as well that the metaphor is an essential, primordial semiotic mechanism, which
therefore belongs to all cultures.
II.
In order to segregate phraseologisms existing in the two languages, a breakdown is suggested which is
based on their mutual translatability. Conforming to the intricacy of the issue described above, I propose that the
most logical way to do this is to split phraseologisms into three groups. The first group includes those American
English phraseologisms which have exact equivalents in Serbian in terms of their meaning and lexical
composition. The second group includes those American English phraseologismsthat do not have exact
equivalents in Serbian in terms of words used therein, but there are Serbian phraseologisms that have near the
same meaning, notwithstanding the lexical difference. The third group includes those American English
phraseologisms that have neither semantic nor lexical equivalents in Serbian, and, as such, have to be interpreted
in a less metaphorical fashion. The following examples of American English phraseologisms are taken from a
book on the most commonly used American sayings and proverbs, which contains over one thousand
phraseologisms, and they have been grouped in accordance with the segregation described above. 36
GROUP I – Lexical and Semantic Congruence
Examples:
All‘s well that ends well – Sve je dobrošto se dobrosvrši
Havesomethingup the sleeve – Imati nešto u rukavu
No smokewithoutfire – Gdje ima dima ima i vatre
To pouroil on fire – Dolijevati ulje na vatru
Attack is the best form of defense – Napad je najbolja odbrana
Barkingdogsneverbite – Pas koji laje ne ujeda
Birds of a featherflocktogether – Svaka ptica svome jatu leti
Blacksheep – Crna ovca
It makesmy hair stand (up) on the end – Diţe mi se kosa na glavi
It's the tip of the iceberg – To je vrh ledenog brijega
The endjustifies the means – Cilj opravdava sredstva
Looking for a needle in a haystack – Traţiti iglu u plastu sijena
Aneye for aneye, a tooth for a tooth – Oko za oko, zub za zub
A faultconfessed is half redressed – Ko prizna pola mu se prašta
A friend in need is a friend indeed – Prijatelj u nevolji je pravi prijatelj; U nevolji se prijatelj poznaje
To go through the mill – Proći sito i rešeto
Overmydeadbody – Samo preko mene mrtvog
One swallowdoesnotmake a summer – Jedna lasta ne čini proljeće
He wholaughs last, laughsbest – Ko se zadnji smije najslaĎe se smije
Neverlook a gifthorse in the mouth – Poklonjenom konju se ne gleda u zube
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Titelman, Gregory (2000). America‘s Most Popular Proverbs and Sayings. New York: Random House.
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Prevention is betterthan cure – Bolje spriječiti nego liječiti
Let the dustsettle – Nek' se slegne prašina
The last drop thatmakes the cup runover – Kap koja je prelila čašu
Readbetween the lines – Čitati izmeĎu redova
Silence is golden – ģutanje je zlato
GROUP II - Lexical Incongruence, Semantic Similarity
Examples:
Talk of the devil – Mi o vuku, a vuk na vrata
The appledoesn'tfall far from the tree – Iverje ne pada daleko od klade
You can'teatyourcakeandhaveittoo – Ne moţeš imati i jare i pare
The cat is out of the bag – Došlo djelo na vidjelo
Getup on the wrong side of the bed – Ustati na lijevu nogu
The game is notworth the candle – Skuplja pita od tepsije
A great tree attracts the wind– Za dobrim konjem prašina se diže
Mightmakesright – Sila boga ne moli
Long absent, soon forgotten – Daleko od očiju, daleko od srca
Give him an inch and he will take a mile – Daš mu prst a on hoĤe ruku
Birdsoncesnaredfearallbushes – Koga su zmije ujedale taj se i guštera plaši; Ko se o mlijeko opekao duva i u
jogurt; Ko se opekao i u hladno duva
Out of the blue – Kao grom iz vedra neba
Comparingapplesandoranges – Porediti babe i ţabe
Have a screwloose – Fali mu daska u glavi
To reinvent the wheel – Izumiti toplu vodu
Kick against the pricks – Ići uz dlaku; Bosti se s rogatima
In hisshoes – Na njegovom mjestu
The earlybirdcatches the worm – Ko rano rani dvije sreće grabi; Ko prvi djevojci njegova djevojka
It's the last straw that broke the camel's back – To je kap koja je prelila čašu
Fightfirewithfire – Klin se klinom izbija
It's a piece of cake – To je mačiji kašalj
Make hay while the sun shines – GvoţĎe se kuje dok je vruće
GROUP III - American English Phraseologisms without Equivalents in Serbian
These need to be interpreted less metaphorically
Examples:
Put your money where your mouth is – Start doing as you say
Marching to a different drummer – To disobey authority and pursue own principles
Close but no cigar – Almost right, but still insufficiently so
Curiosity killed the cat – Curiosity can be dangerous
A rising tide will lift all boats – An overall improvement will affect all individual segments
Don't cry over spilled milk – Regrets are not productive and bring no avail
Don't judge a book by its cover – Essence and real quality lies within
Don't throw out the baby with the bath water – Do not be overly critical and neglect positives things
Everything is coming up roses – Positive developments and the feeling of joy related therewith
The fat is in the fire; The genie is out of the bottle – Events have started and their course cannot be reversed
To have a bigger fish to fry – To have a more important matter to attend to
A shot in the arm – An influx of energy, financial or another kind of assistance
Scratch my back and I‘ll scratch yours – Mutual help results in synergy
It's all smoke and mirrors – It is a fallacious and deliberate illusion
Keep a low profile – Do not attract much attention
Keep your powder dry – Be ready and alert
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III.
Staying with the said book and continuing the segregation of the phraseologisms in line with the above
listed examples, one eventually ends up with larger and more representative figures and percentages. Out of
1005 analyzed American English phraseologisms, 321 or 32.94% of them have exact equivalents in Serbian,
both in terms of lexical composition and meaning, 269 or 26.76% of them, do not have exact lexical matching
with Serbian phraseologisms that convey the same meaning, and 415 or 40.30% of them have neither lexical nor
semantic equivalents in Serbian, and, as such, they need to be interpreted in a less metaphoric fashion.
Chart 1. Participation of the three groups of American English phraseologisms in accordance with their
semantic and lexical congruence with Serbian phraseologisms
Reading and analyzing the phraseology of the two languages, and conceding that the above elaboration
is somewhat one-sided as it does not really consider the logical fourth group of Serbian phraseologisms without
American English equivalents (obrati bostan;biti deveta rupa na svirali), one still gets the impression that
American English phraseology is far more embeded in the language, at least in terms of its presence in literature,
both beletristics and science. There are dozens of English phraseologic dicitonaries as well as theoretical books
aiming to elucidate the phenomena of phraseology, whereas those that tackle the same issue in Serbian are few
and far between.
American phraseologisms are also very present in everyday speech, covering all kinds of topics and
referring to different spheres of life. They have a very pragmatic function and are useful tools in all kinds of
situations. They convey orders, feelings of dismay or jubilance. Serbian phraseologisms, on the other hand, lack
the pragmatic facility so abundantly present in American English. What they have to offset that shortcoming is
their evident poetical note. Rhyme is far more present in Serbian phraseology. In fact, 2.5 more Serbian
phraseologisms rhyme than is the case in American English, even though English morphology is more
convenient for rhyming. This can be explained by centuries of oral tradition is Serbian, which prefers rhyme and
preserves it better.
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References
Ammer, Christine (1997) The American Heritage Dictionary o Idioms. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company
BabiĤ, S. (1978-1979) Zašto se kaţe: naći se u nebranom groţĎu. Zagreb: Jezik
Baz, Patros D. (1963) A Dictionary of Proverbs. New York: Philosophical Library
Black, M. (1962) ModelsandMetaphors. New York: Cornell University Press
Bugarski, R. (1996) Uvod u opštulingvistiku. Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek
Collis, Harry. (1992) 101 American English Proverbs. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books
Donne, John(1975) Devotions upon Emergent Occasions.Edited by Anthony Raspa. Montreal: McGill-Queen‘s
University Press.
Funk, Charles Earle (1948) A Hog on Ice and Other Curious Expressions. New York: Harper & Row
Funk, Charles Earle (1955) Heavens to Betsy and Other Curious Sayings. New York: Harper & Row.
GavriloviĤ, A. (1900) Pogled u ţivotsrpskihnarodnihposlovica XIX veka, Aleksinac: KaradņiĤ.
Gordon, W. J. J (1966) The Metaphorical Way of Knowing. Cambridge MA: Porpoise.
Hawkesworth, C. (1998) Colloquial Croatian and Serbian. London: Routhledge
KovaĦeviĤ, Ņivorad (2002) Engleskosrpskifrazeološkirečnik. Beograd: FilipVińnjiĤ.
MateńiĤ, J. (1980) Frazemkaoprevodilački problem (referatna X maħunarodnomsastankuslavista u Vukovedane)
Beograd, 1980.
MateńiĤ, J. (1982) Frazeološkirječnihhrvatskogilisrpskogjezika. Zagreb: Ńkolskaknjiga.
Menac, A. (1970-1971) O strukturifrazeologizama, Zagreb: Jezik, god. XVIII. Br. 1.
MrńeviĤ-RadoviĤ, Dragana. (1987) Frazeološke glagolsko imeničke sintagme u savremenomsrpskohrvatskom
jeziku. Beograd: Filolońki Fakultet.
Titelman, Gregory 2000. America‘s Most Popular Proverbs and Sayings. New York: Random House
291
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Title
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DOMESTIC MOTIVATION IN METAPHORICAL CONSTRUCTIONS
Author
Author
Kesić, Dalibor
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The main focus of this paper is a comparison of cultural perceptions and motivation in metaphoric constructions reflected through phraseology used in American English and Serbian languages. Phraseology used in these languages is seen as collective wisdom shaped through centuries. The premise of the analytical methodology used in the paper is that there is a strong correlation between cultures and phrases that they use, or, in other words, the phrases used in a culture are not mere linguistic creations but an archetypal engendering of beliefs, thoughts, history and cognitive horizons and limitation. The paper is comprised of three main parts whose sequence is arranged so that the first part elucidates the basic concepts underpinning the function and notion of phraseology. Different views are provided in an attempt to induce a comprehensive framework theory which would encompass and reflect all the properties of phraseology and usher the reader into the next part. Part two looks closely into a substantial number of American English common phraseologisms and almost as many Serbian ones. They are compared and segregated into groups in a way that makes the inference that follows easier and more exact. The phrases having been analyzed and statistically processed, conclusions are laid out in the last part about the most apparent similarities and differences existing in the two languages.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
P Philology. Linguistics
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1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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OYUN VE BULMACA ETKĠNLĠKLERĠYLE YABANCILARA TÜRKÇE
KELĠME ÖĞRETĠM YÖNTEMĠ
Ahmet Gürdal
International Burch University, Eğitim Fakùltesi,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù,
Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek
ahmedim64@gmail.com
Mustafa Arslan
International Burch University, Eğitim Fakùltesi,
Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Öğretmenliği Bôlùmù,
Saraybosna, Bosna-Hersek
marslan@ibu.edu.ba
Özet: Makalenin amacı oyun ve bulmaca etkinlikleriyle yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime
ôğretim yôntemlerini açıklamaktır. Yabancı dillerin kelime ôğretiminde ôğrenci
motivasyonun sağlanması için oyun ve benzeri etkinliklere sıkça yer verilmektedir.
Yabancıların hızlı ve kalıcı bir Ģekilde Tùrkçe kelimeleri ôğrenmelerini sağlamak
amacıyla ilgili çalıĢmalar incelenmiĢ, oyun ve bulmaca yôntemi ùzerine dikkatler
çekilmiĢtir. Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretenler ôzellikle kelime ôğretiminde bu çalıĢmada
açıklanan etkinlikleri test ederek konuyla ilgili tecrùbelerini geliĢtirebilirler.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Bulmaca ve Oyun Yôntemi, Kelime Öğretimi, Yabancılara Tùrkçe
Öğretimi
GiriĢ
Kelime ôğretimi, yabancı dil ôğretiminin ônemli unsurlarından biridir. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde kelime
ôğretim teknikleri ùzerine birçok çalıĢma yapılmıĢtır. Bu çalıĢmaların en ônemli amacı, ‗ikinci dil edinenlere en
hızlı ve kalıcı bir Ģekilde kelimeler nasıl ôğretilebilir?‘ sorusuna yanıt bulmaktır.
Bireyin kendini ifade edip iletiĢim kurabilmesi için yeterli kelime dağarcığına sahip olması
gerekmektedir (Özbay ve Melanlıoğlu, 2008). Yabancı dil ôğrenenler, ne kadar çok kelime bilirlerse, o kadar
ôğrendikleri dilde iletiĢime geçebilirler. Kelimelerin yabancı dil ôğrenenlere farklı yôntemlerle ôğretilip,
kelimeleri kavramaları sağlanmalıdır.
Dil ôğretiminde oyunlar ve bulmacalar derse ve iletiĢime çeĢitlilik katarken dersi daha ilginç ve
eğlenceli hale getirir (Kaya ve Yapıcı, 2007). Bu tùr aktiviteler farklı zekâ tùrlerine sahip kiĢilerin derse olan
ilgisini artırdığı gibi kalıcı ôğrenmeyi de sağlamaktadır.
Bu çalıĢmada oyun ve bulmaca etkinlikleriyle yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretim yôntemleri ùzerinde
durulmuĢ, ilgili kaynaklar incelenerek bu bağlamda konu açıklanmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır.
1. Oyunla Kelime Öğretimi
―Sôzcùklerin ôğretilmesi için uzun bir sùreç gerekir. Ġlk duyulduğunda kısa sùreli belleğe alınan
sôzcùkler, uzun sùreli belleğe aktarılmazlarsa çabuk unutulurlar‖ (Çetinkaya, 2005). Öğretilmesi hedeflenen
kelimeler ne kadar farklı etkinliklerle ôğrencilere kavratılırsa ôğrenme de o kadar kalıcı olacaktır. Yabancı dil
ôğretiminde oyunlarla her yaĢ grubundaki bireylere kelime ôğretilebilir ancak farklı yaĢ grupları için farklı
yôntemler kullanılmalıdır. Genel olarak bu oyunlar telaffuz ve sôzcùk bilgisini daha iyi pekiĢtirmek için sınıf
içinde uygulanan etkinliklerdir (Demirel, 2008). Uzun bir sùrede ôğretilebilecek bir kelimeyi oyunla daha kısa
bir zamanda ve meraklandırarak ôğretmek mùmkùndùr. Oyun etkinlikleriyle yabancı dil ôğrenenler kelimeleri
farkında olmadan edinirler.
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1.1 Yabancılara Türkçe Kelime Öğretiminde Kullanılan Oyunlar
Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde oyunlar etkin olarak kullanılmalıdır. Kelimelerin daha hızlı
ôğretilmesi ve kalıcı belleğe aktarılması amacıyla sınıf içinde uygulanabilecek oyun tùrleri Ģunlardır:
1.1.1 Adam Asmaca
Bu kelime oyunu grup halinde oynanabildiği gibi iki ôğrenci arasında da oynanabilmektedir. Grup
halinde oynanması durumunda ôğretmen sınıftaki ôğrenci sayısına gôre sınıfı gruplara bôlmelidir.
Adam asmaca oyunu için bulunması hedeflenen kelimenin harfleri adedince tahtaya kutucuklar
çizilmelidir. Kutucukların içine ônceden bazı ipucu harfler yazılmalıdır. Öğrenciler kutucukta yazılan kelimeyi
bulmak için sırasıyla harf sôylemelidirler. YanlıĢ sôyledikleri her harf için asılacak adamın bir parçası çizilir
(Bk. Resim 1.1). Öğrenciler çôp adamı astırmadan doğru kelimeleri sôyleyerek hedef kelimeyi tahmin
etmelidirler. Bu oyun ôğrencilerin Tùrkçedeki sesleri ve sembolleri daha iyi tanımalarını ve kelime bilgilerini
geliĢtirmelerini sağlar (Dumanlı, 2007).
Örnek:
K
T
K
Resim 1.1 Adam asmaca oyununun çizgi hâli.
1.1.2 Bilen Oturur
Bu oyun eĢanlamlı ve zıt anlamlı kelimelerin kavratılmasında etkin olarak kullanılmalıdır. Öğretmen, eĢ
anlamlı veya zıt anlamlı kelimeleri tahtaya yazmalıdır. Sınıftaki bùtùn ôğrencileri ayağa kaldırmalı ve tahtadaki
eĢ anlamlı veya zıt anlamlı kelimelerin zıddını veya eĢanlamlısını sırayla ôğrencilere sormalıdır. Doğru yanıtı
veren ayaktaki ôğrenci yerine oturur. Tahtadaki bùtùn kelimelerin eĢ ve zıt anlamlıları bulunana kadar etkinlik
devam eder (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003a).
Örnek:
EĢanlamlılar
Siyah
Beyaz
Bùyùk
Anı
Çabuk
Zıt Anlamlılar
Sıcak
Uzun
Kùçùk
Sert
YanlıĢ
1.1.3 Son Harften Kelime Türetme
Son Harften Yeni Kelime Türetme Oyunu için iki ôğrenci tahtaya kaldırılmalıdır. Ġlk ôğrencinin
sôyleyeceği kelimenin son harfiyle ikinci ôğrenci ônceden belirlenen bir sùre içinde yeni bir kelime tùretmeye
çalıĢmalıdır. Aynı kelime iki defa sôylenmemelidir. Her yeni kelime için ikinci ôğrencinin hanesine puan yazılır.
Bu uygulama ile ôğrenciler kelimelerin sôyleniĢlerini tekrar ederek pekiĢtirirler.
Örnek:
Ali
Kalem
Ayak
ġehir
Az
Nilüfer
Masa
KardeĢ
Rùya
Zil
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1.1.4 Kelime Türetme
Oyunun amacı karıĢık olarak verilen harflerden en uzun kelimeyi tùretmektir. Öğretmen tahtaya karıĢık
olarak harfler yazılmalı ve sınıfı iki gruba ayırmalıdır. Belirlenen sùrede verilen harflerden en uzun ve doğru
kelimeyi tùreten grup tùretilen kelimedeki harf adetince puan kazanır. Gruplar en uzun kelimeyi bulmak için
isterlerse bir joker harf de kullanabilirler. Öğrencilerin bu etkinlikle Tùrkçe sesleri, yazılıĢlarını ve kelimeleri
daha iyi tanımaları sağlanmıĢ olur (Yalın, 2005).
Örnek:
K-A-M-S-T-R-C-E ?(Joker)
A grubu
B grubu
H -A-S-R-E-T
R-E-S-Ġ-M
H harfi joker
Ġ harfi joker
1.1.5 EĢini Bul
EĢini bul oyunu için iki takım resimli ve isimlerin yazılmıĢ olduğu kùçùk kartlardan faydalanılmalıdır
(Bk. Resim 1.2). Bu resimler karıĢtırılarak iki ôğrenciye eĢit olarak paylaĢtırılmalıdır. Oyuna baĢlayan
ôğrencinin ortaya koyduğu kart diğer ôğrencide varsa yerdeki kartı alır. En çok kart toplayan ôğrenci baĢarılı
olur. Gôrsel içerikli kartlar yardımıyla ôğrencilerin dikkatleri kelimelere çekilir ve bu kelimeler pekiĢtirilir
(MEGEP, 2007a).
Resim 1.2 EĢini bul oyununun resimli kartları.
1.1.6 Meslek Bulma
Öğretmen daha ônce ôğretmiĢ olduğu meslek isimlerinin yazılı olduğu kâğıtları ôğrencilere
dağıtmalıdır. Öğrenciler bu kâğıtları ellerinde tutmalıdırlar. Öğretmen, ôğrencilere dağıttığı kâğıtlardaki
meslekleri iki ôğrenciye buldurmak için ipucu cùmleler sôylemelidir. Öğretmenin verdiği ipucu cùmlelerle
dağıtılan kâğıttaki kelimeyi bulan ôğrenci diğer mesleği de bulma hakkını elde eder. En çok mesleği bulan
ôğrenci etkinliği baĢarmıĢ sayılır. Öğrencilerin iĢittiklerini anlama ve muhakeme becerilerini geliĢtirmek
bakımından bu etkinliklere sıkça yer verilmelidir (Gùrbùz, 2004).
Örnek:
Doktor
Hastanede çalıĢır.
Hastaları tedavi eder.
Beyaz ônlùk giyer.
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Türkçe Öğretmeni
Okulda çalıĢır.
Ders anlatır.
Tùrkçe ôğretir.
1.1.7 Hadi Anlat Bakalım
Öğrencilerin konuĢma becerisini geliĢtirmek için ôğretmen bu etkinliği zaman zaman uygulamalıdır.
Öğretmen, sınıfı A ve B olmak ùzere iki gruba bôlmelidir. Gruptan bazı ôğrenciler sôzcù olarak belirlenmelidir.
Öğretmen, anlatılacak kelimeyi sessizce sôzcùnùn kulağına sôylemeli ve sôzcùğù anlatması için bir dakika sùre
vermelidir. Verilen sùrede sôzcù mimikleriyle ve beden dili yardımıyla kelimeyi anlatmaya çalıĢmalıdır. Verilen
sùrede ilk grup kelimeyi bilemezse ikinci gruba sôz hakkı verilir. En çok puanı alan grup ôğretmen tarafından
değiĢik Ģekillerde ôdùllendirilebilir (Demir, 2009).
1.1.8 Nazlı‘nın Kedisi
Nazlı‘nın Kedisi Oyunu‘nda ôğretmen ôncelikle ôrnek bir cùmle yazmalı ve Nazlı‘nın kedisine ait bir
ôzelliği vurgulamalıdır. Sôylediği ôzelliğin baĢ harfiyle baĢlayan yeni ôzellikler ôğrenciler tarafından
sôylenmelidir. En çok yeni ôzelliği bulan ôğrenci etkinliği baĢarıyla tamamlar. Oyun gruplar hâlinde de
uygulanabilir. Sıfatların kavratılması açısından bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin ilgisini çekecektir (Ġzgôren, 1999a).
Örnek:
Öğretmen: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zekidir.
Öğrenci: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zariftir.
Öğrenci: Nazlı‘nın kedisi çok zayıftır.
1.1.9 BaĢ Harfleri BirleĢtir
Öğretmen, bir kelime sôylemeli ve ôğrenciler bu kelimenin harflerini kullanarak yeni sôzcùkler
tùretmelidir. Bu kelimeleri kullanarak tùretilen yeni kelimeler yukarıdan aĢağıya sıralandığında baĢ harfleri
ôğretmenin verdiği ilk kelimenin harf sırasına uygun olmalıdır. Bu etkinlik daha çok gruplar oluĢturularak
yapılmalıdır. Öğrenciler bu aktivitelerle karĢılıklı olarak yeni kelimeleri ve telaffuzlarını ôğrenerek kelime
haznelerini geliĢtirirler (Ġzgôren, 1999b).
Örnek:
PENCERE
Pazar
Ev
Nar
Ceviz
Erik
Resim
El
1.1.10 Kelimelerle Beyin Fırtınası
Öğrencilere verilen bir kelimeyi çağrıĢtıran yakın kelimeleri sôylemeleri esasına dayanan bir etkinliktir.
Verilen kelimeyi anımsatan en çok sôzcùğù sôyleyen ôğrenci bu etkinliği baĢarıyla tamamlamıĢ olur (Bk. Resim
1.3). Bir bağlam çerçevesinde ôğrencilerin kelime bilgileri geliĢtirilir (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003b).
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Resim 1.3 Beyin fırtınası oyunuyla ilgili Ģekil.
1.1.11 Nesi Var?
Sınıftan ôğretmenin belirlediği bir ôğrenci sınıf dıĢına çıkarılmalıdır. Sınıftaki bùtùn ôğrenciler bir
kelime ùzerinde anlaĢmalı sonra dıĢarı gônderilen ôğrenci sınıfa davet edilmelidir. Seçilen ôğrenci, sınıf
tarafından belirlenen kelimeyi bulmak için ‗Nesi var?‘ Ģeklinde sınıfa sorular yôneltmelidir. Seçilen ôğrenci
gizlenen kelimeyi soru-cevap yôntemiyle tahmin etmeye çalıĢmalıdır. Bu etkinlikte soru–cevap metodunun
kullanılmasıyla ôğrencilerin konuĢma ve kelimeleri kullanma becerileri geliĢtirilir (MEGEP, 2007b).
Örnek:
Sınıftaki ôğrenciler, kapı kelimesi ùzerinde anlaĢmıĢlardır.
Seçilen ôğrenci sınıftaki ôğrencilere ‗Nesi var?‘ Ģeklinde sorular yôneltir.
Öğrenciler:
—
Kolu var.
—
Nesi var?
—
Açılıp kapanır.
—
Nesi var?
—
Anahtarı var.
1.1.12 Kulaktan Kulağa
Öğretmen, sıradaki ôğrencinin kulağına bir kelime fısıldamalı ve kelimeyi duyan ôğrenci hızla
yanındaki diğer ôğrencinin kulağına hedef kelimeyi doğru olarak telaffuz etmelidir. Öğretmen, en son ôğrenciye
gelindiğinde kulaktan kulağa sôylenen kelimenin doğruluğunu kontrol eder. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin dinleme
ve telaffuz becerileri geliĢtirilir (MEB Özel Tevfik Fikret Okulları, 2010).
1.1.13 Zıddını Söyle
Sınıftaki A grubuna ônceden belirlenen sıfatlar yazılarak dağıtılmalıdır. Sınıftaki B grubuna ise A
grubuna dağıtılan sıfatların tam zıtları yazılarak dağıtılmalıdır. Öğretmen A grubundaki bir ôğrenciye sôz
vererek elindeki sıfatlardan birini sôylemesini ister. A grubundaki ôğrencinin sôylemiĢ olduğu kelimenin tam
zıddı olan B grubundaki ôğrenci el kaldırarak kendini belli eder. Yeni sıfatı sôyleme hakkı B grubundaki
ôğrenciye geçmiĢ olur. Bu tùr etkinlikler ôğrencilerin telaffuzlarını geliĢtirir ve dildeki gramer yapılarını
tanımalarını sağlar (Altun, 2010).
Örnek:
A Grubu
Acele
YavaĢ
Acı
Ön
B Grubu
Cahil
Korkak
Dolu
Batı
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1.1.14 Evet-Hayır
Öğretmen, ôğrencilerin ônceden ôğrendikleri kelimelerden yazarak bir kutuya koymalı ve seçtiği
ôğrenciden bu sôzcùklerden birini çekmesini istemelidir. Öğrencinin çektiği kelimeyi sınıftaki diğer ôğrenciler,
sorular yardımıyla tahmin etmeye çalıĢmalıdırlar. Seçilen ôğrenci Evet veya Hayır Ģeklinde cevaplar verir.
Doğru kelimeyi bulan ôğrenci kutudan yeni sôzcùk çekme hakkını kazanır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrencilerin soru-cevap
metoduyla Tùrkçe konuĢma becerileri geliĢtirilmiĢ olur (TaĢdemir, vd. 2003c).
Örnek:
Tahtaya kalkan ôğrenci elma kelimesini masadaki kutudan çekmiĢ olsun.
— Bu kitap mı?
— Hayır.
— Bu muz mu?
— Hayır.
— Bu gôz mù?
— Hayır.
— Bu elma mı?
— Evet.
1.1.15 Bingo
Yeni ôğretilecek veya tekrar edilmek istenen 15-20 kelime ôğretmen tarafından tahtaya yazılmalıdır.
Öğretmen, ôğrencilerden tahtada yazılı olan kelimelerden beĢ tanesini seçip defterlerine yazmasını istemelidir
(Bk. Resim 1.4). Öğretmen, tahtadaki kelimelerden rastgele birini sôyler ve ôğretmenin sôylediği kelime,
defterinde yazılı olan ôğrenci Bingo Ģeklinde seslenir ve defterindeki o kelimenin ùstùnù çizer. Defterindeki
bùtùn kelimeleri bingo yapan ôğrenci etkinliği birincilikle tamamlamıĢ olur. Bingo oyunu ôğrencilerin
telaffuzlarını geliĢtirir, dil ôğretiminin renklenmesi ve ôğrencilerin motive olması bakımından ônemli bir
etkinliktir (MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu BaĢkanlığı, 2006).
Resim 1.4 Bingo oyununda tahtaya yazılan kelimeleri gôsteren Ģekil.
Öğrencinin defterine yazdığı kelimeler:
Patlıcan
Elma
Portakal
Salatalık
ViĢne
1.1.16 Tombala
Tombala oyunu ôğrencinin gôrsel ve iĢitsel belleğini geliĢtirici bir etkinliktir. Öğretmen birçok
sôzcùğùn resminden oluĢan bir kart oluĢturmalıdır (Bk. Resim 1.5). Bu kartı çoğaltarak bùtùn sınıfa dağıtmalıdır.
Bu kartta bulunan resimlerin kelimelerini kùçùk kâğıtlara yazarak bir kutu veya torbaya koymalıdır. Öğretmenin
kutu veya torbadan rastgele çektiği kelimenin resmi bulunan ôğrenciler, o resmin ùzerini kùçùk bir kâğıtla
kapatmalıdırlar. Bu Ģekilde karttaki bùtùn resimleri ilk kapatan ôğrenci birinci olur (KKTC Milli Eğitim ve
Kùltùr Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi Mùdùrlùğù, 2009).
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Resim 1.5 Tombala oyununun kartı.
1.1.17 Ġsimlere Sıfat Bulma
Öğrencilerin Tùrkçedeki sôz varlığını tanımaları bakımından bu etkinlik ônemlidir. Sınıf dôrt gruba
ayrılmalı ve grupların baĢına bir baĢkan seçilmelidir. BaĢkan grupta oyunun yôneticisi olarak bir isim sôylemeli
ve arkadaĢlarından bu isme sıfat bulmalarını istemelidir. Sırası gelen ôğrenci doğru sôylenen isme doğru bir sıfat
sôylerse ônceden belirlenen puanı kazanır. Grupta en çok puanı alan ôğrenci, o grubun birincisi olur (Ġzgôren,
1999c).
Örnek:
Ayakkabı- eski, yeni, gùzel, kirli
Hava- soğuk, sıcak, kapalı, açık
Elbise- temiz, renkli, siyah, eski
1.1.18 Alfabe Çorbası
Sınıf dôrt gruba bôlùnmeli ve her grubun bir sôzcùsù seçilmelidir. Öğretmen bir harf sôylemeli ve 20
saniye sùre tutarak bu zaman içinde sôylenen harfle baĢlayan kelimeler tùretilmesini istemelidir. En çok kelimeyi
tùreten grup, tùrettiği kelime adetince belirlenen puanı kazanır. Bu etkinlikle ôğrenciler Tùrkçedeki sesleri ve
kelimeleri daha iyi tanırlar.
Örnek:
K
Kalem
Kedi
Kurt
Kulak
Kibrit
1.1.19 Bak ve Yaz
Bu etkinlik ôğrencilerin doğru yazma becerilerini geliĢtirir. Öğretmen, ôğrencilerden projeksiyon
vasıtasıyla yansıtılan resimlerin isimlerini defterlerine yazmasını istemelidir. Gôsterilen resimdeki kelimelerin
isimlerini doğru yazan ôğrenciler ôğretmen tarafından ôdùllendirerek motive edilirler.
2. Bulmacayla Kelime Öğretimi
Bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemi ôğrencilerin ilgilerini ôğrenilen dildeki kelimeler ùzerine
yoğunlaĢtıran bir yôntemdir. Dolayısıyla bulmaca yôntemi ôğrencilerin eğlenerek yeni kelimeler ôğrenmelerini
ve ôğrenilenleri tekrar etmelerini sağlar. Bu metotla yabancı dil olarak Tùrkçe ôğrenenlerin daha çok dikkatleri
derse çekilmiĢ olur. Bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemiyle kelimelerin zihinde kalıcılığı artırılır. Bulmacayla
yabancılara kelime ôğretiminde kullanılabilecek aktiviteler Ģu Ģekilde gruplandırılmıĢtır:
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2.1. Kare Bulmaca
Kare bulmaca yôntemi yabancı dillerin kelime ôğretiminde en çok kullanılan etkinliktir. Yabancılara
Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde kullanılmak ùzere ôğrencilerin seviyelerine uygun olarak kare bulmacalar
hazırlanmalıdır. Genel olarak kare bulmacalar sağdan sola veya yukarıdan aĢağıya Ģeklindedir (Bk. Resim 2.1).
Kare bulmacayı çôzmeye istenilen yerden veya istenilen sorudan baĢlanabilir. Kare bulmacayla kelime ôğretim
yônteminde bazı sùtunlarda iki soru vardır. Birinci soru a ikinci soru b olarak belirtilmiĢtir.
Kare bulmaca temel seviye Tùrkçe ôğrenen ôğrenciler için daha basit ve anlayabilecekleri seviyede
olmalıdır. Öğrencileri sùrùkleyebilmek için birinci sorular ôğrencinin bildiği basit kelimelerden seçilmelidir.
Kare bulmacanın ilk ôrneğini ôğretmen ôğrencilerle sınıfta birlikte çôzmelidir. Evde veya boĢ zamanlarında
çôzmeleri için ôğrencilere hazır kare bulmacalar verilmelidir. Kare bulmaca yôntemi ôğrencilerin ôğrendikleri
kelimeleri tekrarlamalarını ve yeni kelimeler ôğrenmelerini sağlar (Karatay, 2007).
Resim 2.1 Kare bulmacanın resmi.
Soldan sağa
1. Bir yapıya girmeyi sağlayan veya odaları birleĢtiren ince uzun geçit.
2. a. Binme, yùk çekme ve taĢıma gibi hizmetlerde kullanılan tek tırnaklı bir hayvan.
b.
Bir
soru
3. Yakın kelimesinin zıttı.
4. a. KiĢiler veya nesneler arasında bağlantı sağlayan Ģey, vasıta.
b. Bir nota.
5.
Bir
ağaç
6. a. BaĢımızı kaplayan kıllara ne ad verilir?
b.
Çok
kelimesinin
7.
Beyaz
kelimesinin
sıfatı.
tùrù.
zıttı.
eĢanlamlısı.
Yukarıdan aĢağıya
1. .....lem yazı yazmak için kullandığımız aracın ilk iki harfi.
2. Evin bir bôlùmù ................... odası.
3. ........m bir malın fiyatını artırmaya ne ad verilir. Ġlk iki harfini boĢluklara yazınız.
4. Hastalanınca doktor reçeteye ne yazar?
5. Çakmak fiilinin emir halini yazınız.
6. a. Bir sayı.
b. Tùrk halk mùziğinde kullanılan, gôvdesi ağaçtan oyularak yapılmıĢ, telli, uzun saplı çalgı, bağlama.
7. Varlıkların, doğadaki gôrùnùĢlerinin kalem, fırça gibi araçlarla kâğıt, bez vb. ùzerinde yapılan biçimlere ne
ad
verilir?
2.2. Sarmal Bulmaca
Sarmal bulmacada hedef kelimelerin kimi harfleri bulmacanın içerisine yerleĢtirilmelidir. Öğrenciler
bu harflerden hareket ederek ilgili kelimeyi bulmaya çalıĢmalıdırlar. Bulmacada numaralandırılan boĢluklara
gelecek kelimelerin ipuçları verilmelidir (Bk. Resim 2.2). Öğretmenin birinci ipucunu okuyarak ilk ôrnek
uygulamayı kendisi yapmalıdır. Öğrencilere evde kendilerinin dolduracakları hazır sarmal bulmacalardan
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verilmelidir. Bu tùr alıĢtırmalarla ôğrencilerin okuduklarını anlama ve okuduklarından sonuca varma becerileri
geliĢtirilir (GùmùĢ, 2010).
Örnek:
Ġpuçları:
1. Elbise diker.
2. Meyve ve sebze satar.
3. Ekmek yapar ve satar.
4. Ders anlatır.
5. Ev kadını.
6. Hastaları tedavi eder.
7. Uçak ve helikopter kullanır.
8. Araba sùrer.
Resim 2.2 Sarmal bulmacanın resmi.
2.3. Kelime Avı
Kelime avında ôğretilmesi hedeflenen kelimeler ônceden tespit edilmelidir. Öğrenciler, karıĢık harf
tablosundan soldan sağa, sağdan sola, yukarıdan aĢağıya ve aĢağıdan yukarıya çizerek ilgili kelimeleri bulmaya
çalıĢırlar (Bk. Resim 2.3). Kelime avı etkinliği ilk olarak ôğretmen kontrolùnde sınıfta uygulanmalıdır. Öğrenci
çalıĢma kitabında bulunan benzer ôrnek, ôğrenciler tarafından çôzùlmelidir. Bu aktiviteyle ôğrencilerin
kelimeleri daha iyi tanımaları sağlanır ve okuma-yazma becerileri geliĢtirilir (ġengùl ve Akçin, 2010).
Resim 2.3 Kelime avıyla ilgili bulmaca resmi (Öztùrk, vd. 2010).
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2.4. Sözcük YerleĢtirme
Sôzcùk yerleĢtirme etkinliğinde iki sôzcùk bulmacanın içine yerleĢtirilmelidir. Bu sôzcùklerden hareket
ederek ônceden belirlenen diğer sôzcùklerin doğru bir Ģekilde boĢ karelere yerleĢtirilmesi sağlanır (Bk. Resim
2.4). Öğretmen ilk uygulamayı kendisi yapmalıdır. Amaç kelimelerin doğru yerleĢtirilerek ôğrenci dikkatinin
kelime ùzerine çekilmesidir. Bu alıĢtırmayla ôğrencilerin harf-kelime analizi yapmaları ve kelimeleri daha iyi
tanımaları sağlanır (YıldızbaĢ ve Parlakyıldız, 2004).
Resim 2.4 Sôzlùk yerleĢtirme bulmacasının resmi (Tural, 2010).
2.5. Nesne Bulmaca
Nesne bulmaca sadece bilgisayar ortamında uygulanabilen bir etkinliktir. Amaç bilgisayar ekranının sağ
tarafında verilen kelimeleri ekranın sol tarafındaki sınıfta bulunan eĢyalarla doğru olarak eĢleĢtirmektir (Bk.
Resim 2.5). Doğru tıklanan nesne için ôğrenci belli bir puan kazanır veya yanlıĢ tıklamada puan kaybeder.
Tekrar oyna butonuna tıklandığında ekranın sağ tarafında farklı kelimeler yer alır. Projeksiyon yardımıyla grup
etkinlikleri de yapılabilir. Öğrenciler, gôrdùkleri somut nesneleri daha çabuk kavrarlar (MEB Tebliğler Dergisi,
2000).
Resim 2.5 Nesne bulmacadan bir gôrùntù (Öztùrk, vd. 2007).
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2.6. Resimli Bulmaca
Rakamla belirtilen eĢya veya nesnelerin adının kutucuklara doğru yazılmasıyla gerçekleĢtirilen bir
etkinliktir (Bk. Resim 2.6). Bu aktivite ôğrencilerin kendi kendilerine kolaylıkla uygulayabilecekleri bir
yôntemdir. Resimli bulmacalarda gôrsel duyular harekete geçirilir ve ôğrencilerin ôğrenilen kelimeleri kolay
anımsamaları sağlanır. Ayrıca bu aktiviteyle ôğrencilerin yazma becerileri geliĢtirilir (DemirbaĢ, vd. 2010).
Resim 2.6 Resimli bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
2.7. Piramit Bulmaca
Piramit bulmacadaki amaç ortasında O harfi olan kelimeleri yazmaktır (Bk. Resim 2.7). Öğretmen
farklı harflerin kullanıldığı ôrnek piramit bulmacalar hazırlamalıdır. Öğretmen, hazır piramit bulmacalarından
birini bùtùn ôğrencilere dağıtmalı ve bulmacayı çôzdùrmelidir. Piramit bulmaca yôntemi, sınıfta gruplar
oluĢturularak da uygulanabilir. Piramit bulmaca, ôğrencilerin kelime hazinelerini yoklamak ve yeni kelimeler
ôğrenmelerini sağlamak bakımından ônemlidir.
Resim 2.7 Piramit bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
2.8. Resimli Kare Bulmaca
Resimli kare bulmaca bilgisayar ortamında uygulanabilen bir aktivitedir. Resimli kare bulmaca farklı
konular ùzerinde hazırlanabilir. Bulmacada soldan sağa ve yukarıdan aĢağıya olmak ùzere sorular
bulunmaktadır. Bulmacayı çôzebilmek için kutudaki sayıların ùzerine tıklanmalıdır. Örneğin, bir yazan sayıya
tıklandığında iki resim ekrana gelir. Birinci resim soldan sağa yazılacak alanla ilgilidir. Resimdeki nesnenin adı
boĢluğa yazılmalı ve tamam butonu tıklanmalıdır. Ġkinci resimde bulunan nesnenin adı ise hemen yanındaki
boĢluğa yazılıp tamam butonu tıklanmalıdır (Bk. Resim 2.8). Bulmacayı çôzen kelimeyi hatırlayamazsa ipucu
butonuna tıklandığında ilk harf ipucu olarak verilir. Etkinlik tamamlandıktan sonra Kontrol et butonuna
tıklandığında doğru ve yanlıĢlar gôsterilir. YanlıĢ cevapların tekrar yapılması gerektiği uyarısı ekrana yansır.
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Teknolojik eğitim araçlarıyla gerçekleĢtirilen aktiviteler ôğrencilerin ilgilerini konuya çekmektedir. Bu
bakımdan resimli kare bulmaca yôntemiyle ôğrencilere Tùrkçe kelimeler ôğretmek onların kelimeleri isteyerek
ôğrenmelerini sağlayacaktır.
Resim 2.8 Resimli kare bulmacaya ait bir gôrùntù.
2.9. Bu Nedir?
Bu alıĢtırmada son harfi verilen varlıkların, eĢyaların ve kavramların ipuçlarıyla bulunması amaçlanır.
Öğrenciler numaralandırılmıĢ beyaz kutuları doldurmak için ônce verilen ipuçlarını okumalıdırlar. Verilen ipucu
yardımıyla son harfi K olan varlığın, eĢyanın veya kavramın ismini boĢluklara yazmalıdırlar (Bk. Resim 2.9). Bu
etkinlik sınıfta gruplar oluĢturularak da uygulanabilir. Öğrencilerin bu alıĢtırmalarla kelimeleri doğru yazma ve
okuduklarını anlama becerileri geliĢtirilir.
Resim 2.9 ‗Bu nedir?‘ bulmacasına ait bir uygulama.
Ġpuçları:
1. Sùtùnù içtiğimiz hayvan.
2. K harfi ile baĢlayan bir sebze.
3. Acıkınca yapılan Ģey.
4. Kesmeye yarayan alet.
5. Yemek yerken kullanılır.
6. Yemek yemek için kullanılan kap.
7. Yemek yapmak için kullanılır.
8. Su içmekte kullanılır.
9. Temel gıda maddesi. Undan yapılır.
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10. Yemekten sonra geriye kalan kirli Ģeyler.
11. Ağaçların solunum yapan yeĢil gôrùnùmlù kısmı.
12. Uyuma veya dinlenmek amacıyla ùzerine yatılan eĢya.
2.10. Hatırlatmaca
Belirlenen kelimelerle baĢka kelimeleri çağrıĢtırmayı hedefleyen bir aktivitedir. NumaralandırılmıĢ
kelime gruplarının anımsattığı yeni sôzcùk bulmacadaki ilgili boĢluğa yazılmalıdır (Bk. Resim 2.10).
Öğrencilere alıĢtırmanın nasıl uygulandığı ayrıntılı olarak açıklanmalıdır. Hazırlanan ôrnek bulmaca sınıfta
ôğrencilerle birlikte çôzùlmelidir. Öğrenciler bu aktivite ile kelimeleri bir bağlam içerisinde ôğrenirler.
Resim 2.10 Hatırlatmaca bulmacaya ait bir uygulama.
Sonuç
Yabancı dil ôğretiminde sınıf içi ôğrenmenin monotonluktan kurtarılmasında sınıf içi oyunlar ve
bulmaca etkinlikleri ôğrenmeyi olumlu olarak etkilemekte ve bilinenleri uygulama imkânı sunmaktadır
(Demirel, 1978). Oyun ve bulmacayla kelime ôğretim yôntemi, ôğrencilerin derse olan ilgilerini artırmakta ve
ôğrencilerin yaparak, yaĢayarak ôğrenmelerini sağlamaktadır. Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretimi ùzerinde
çalıĢan eğitimciler, bu tùr etkinliklerden derslerinde azami derecede istifade etmelidirler.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretme amacı ile hazırlanan ders kitaplarında ve çalıĢma kitaplarında oyun ve
bulmaca bôlùmù mutlaka olmalıdır. Bu konuda en dikkat çeken yayın, Dilset Yayınlarıdır. Bu tùr çalıĢmalara
diğer yayınlar da kitaplarında daha çok yer vermelidir.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe kelime ôğretiminde kullanılabilecek bulmaca kitaplarının olmaması bùyùk bir
eksikliktir. Bu tùr bulmaca kitapları diğer dillerin kelime ôğretiminde etkin olarak kullanılmaktadır.
Yabancılara Tùrkçe ôğretenlerin, oyun ve bulmacalarla alakalı hazırlamıĢ oldukları çalıĢmaları
paylaĢabilecekleri bir sosyal paylaĢım sitesi kurulmalı ve bu Ģekilde bilgi ve tecrùbe paylaĢımı sağlanmalıdır.
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Kaynaklar
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Demir, M. (2009). Ġmam-Hatip Liselerinde Arapça KonuĢma Öğretimine Etkinlik Temelli Bir YaklaĢım. Yùksek
Lisans Tezi. Ankara. Sayfa 56.
DemirbaĢ, H., Karadağ, M., Usta, H., Bozçalı, M. (2010). Tùrkçe ve Tùrk Kùltùrù ÇalıĢma Kitabı. MEB Devlet
Kitapları. Sayfa 23.
Demirel, Ö. (1978). Tam ôğrenme. Eğitim ve Bilim dergisi, Ankara, Sayfa 46-50.
Demirel, Ö. (2008). Yabancı Dil Öğretimi, Pegem Akademi, Ankara, Sayfa 92.
Dumanlı, E. (2007). Zaman Gazetesi Ailem Eki, Ġstanbul, 26 Ocak 2007 Cuma, Sayfa 13.
GùmùĢ, S. (2010). Çiftli Sarmal Bulmaca. http: //bullmacaservisi.com/01.01.2011.
Gùrbùz, G. (2004). Fransızcadaki Seslerin Oyunlarla Öğretimi. Ankara Üniversitesi TÖMER Dil Dergisi. Sayı
124. Sayfa 88.
Ġzgôren, K. M. (1999a). Oyunlarla Dil Öğretimi, Academyplus Yayınları, Ankara, Sayfa 69.
Ġzgôren, K. M. (1999b). Oyunlarla Dil Öğretimi, Academyplus Yayınları, Ankara, Sayfa 69.
Ġzgôren, K. M. (1999c). Oyunlarla Dil Öğretimi, Academyplus Yayınları, Ankara, Sayfa 69.
Karatay, H. (2007). Kelime Öğretimi. Gazi Eğitim Fakùltesi Dergisi. Cilt 27, Sayı 1, Sayfa 121.
Kaya, Ü. Ve Yapıcı, ġ. (2007). Ġlkôğretim 1. Kademede oyun tekniğinin Ġngilizce ôğretimine katkısı, Yùksek
lisans tezi, Afyonkarahisar, Sayfa 30.
Kuzey Kıbrıs Tùrk Cumhuriyeti Milli Eğitim ve Kùltùr Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Dairesi Mùdùrlùğù, (2009).
Ġllkokul Temel Eğitim 1. Kademe Hayat Bilgisi Öğretim Programı(1., 2. ve 3. Sınıflar). LefkoĢa. Sayfa 10.
MEB Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu BaĢkanlığı, (2006). Ġmam-Hatip Liseleri ve Anadolu Ġmam-Hatip Liseleri
Arapça Dersi Öğretim Programı. Ankara, Sayfa 19.
MEB Tebliğler Dergisi, (2000). Okul Öncesi Eğitim Kurumları ve Ġlkôğretim Okulu Yabancı Dil Öğretim
Etkinlikleri Çerçeve Programı. Cilt 63. Sayı 2511. Sayfa 6.
MEB Özel Tevfik Fikret Okulları, (2010). Ġlkôğretim Fransızca Dersi 6-8. Sınıflar Öğretim Programı. Sayfa 25.
MEGEP, (2007a). MEB. Mesleki Eğitimin ve Öğretimin Gùçlendirilmesi Projesi. Çocuk GeliĢimi ve Eğitimi,
Ankara. Sayfa 28-32.
MEGEP, (2007b). MEB. Mesleki Eğitimin ve Öğretimin Gùçlendirilmesi Projesi. Çocuk GeliĢimi ve Eğitimi,
Özel Eğitimde Oyun Etkinlikleri, Ankara. Sayfa 24.
Özbay, M. ve Melanlıoğlu, D. (2008). Yùzùncù Yıl Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakùltesi Dergisi. Haziran 2008. Cilt:
V, Sayı: 1, Sayfa 33.
Öztùrk, T., Akçay, S., Gùn, S., TaĢdemir, E., Çelebi, M., ÖzulaĢ, Ġ., ġerif, A., Karakoyun, E., Murt, M., BoztaĢ,
A. (2010). Açılım ÇalıĢma Kitabı 1, Dilset Yayınları, Ġzmir, Sayfa 7.
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�1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics
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Öztùrk, T., Yiğit, A., Akçay, S., TaĢdemir, E., BaĢak, S.S. (2007). GôkkuĢağı EtkileĢimli Tùrkçe Öğretimi
Uygulamaları 1 Cd‘si, Dilset Yayınları.
ġengùl, H., Akçin, N. (2010). Zihinsel Yetersizliği Olan Öğrencilere Okuma-Yazma Öğretme Konusunda Özel
Eğitim Öğretmenlerinin GôrùĢleri. Anakara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakùltesi Dergisi. Cilt 43. Sayı 2.
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TaĢdemir, E., Bilkan, N. ve Can, H. (2003b). Tùrkçe Öğretim Teknikleri, Dilset Yayınları, Ġzmir, Sayfa 11.
TaĢdemir, E., Bilkan, N. ve Can, H. (2003c). Tùrkçe Öğretim Teknikleri, Dilset Yayınları, Ġzmir, Sayfa 21.
Tural, B. (2010). Bugùn Gazetesi, Bul-Çôz Eki, 25 Temmuz Pazar, Sayfa 2.
Yalın, A. (2005) Haydi Kızlar Okula. Kız Çocuklarının OkullaĢmasına Destek Kampanyası. Öğretmen El Kitabı,
Ankara, Sayfa 109.
YıldızbaĢ, F., Parlakyıldız, B. (2004). Okul Öncesi Eğitimde Öğretmenlerin Okuma Yazmaya Hazırlık
ÇalıĢmalarına Yônelik Uygulamalarının ve GôrùĢlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. XIII. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri
Kurultayı, 6-9 Temmuz 2004, Ġnônù Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakùltesi, Malatya. Sayfa 4.
50
�
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Dyslexia/dysgraphia and foreign-language learning: analysis of written discourse (an example from Croatia)
Author
Author
Kaldonek, Agnieszka
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Dyslexia is a learning disability that can significantly affect both the learning process of a foreign language and competences in a foreign language. Although dyslexia is highly individualized, dyslexic people usually face problems with sound differentiation, pronunciation and visual discrimination, since they lack phonological perception. This in turn affects their reading and writing skills. Additionally, dyslexia is characterized by non-linguistic symptoms such as memory deficit, concentration dysfunction, spatial disorientation, information processing and organization, as well as difficulties relating to perceptual abilities, rapid naming, sequencing, and the automaticity of basic skills (European Dyslexia Association). The aim of this paper is to present the outcomes of research conducted on dyslexic/dysgraphic learners of English (the focus group) and non-dyslexic learners of English (the control group), both of whose mother tongue is Croatian. The research is based on a comparative analysis of written discourse. The objective of the research was twofold: to identify differences between the groups of the participants and to check whether dyslexia affects competences in a foreign language in the same way as the native language of a learner. The outcomes of the research are in line with the current theories on the issue, but also reveal some interesting aspects about the effect of dyslexia on learning foreign languages.
Date
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2011-05
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P Philology. Linguistics
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1078
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TEAMWORK -Activities for Communication in English-
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AKBAROV, AZAMAT
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The intent in putting this book together was to provide students with models of language, and ample opportunities to use them meaning fully, purposively, and creatively for self-expression, and thereby to gain practical experience, communicative skills, and confidence in using English. The emphasis is on performance of language through developing ability to "think in English". The requirement is that students actively engage and participate in using language for communication and thereby develop their skills through interaction in English. While emphasis is on fluency development, accuracy practice is also provided through the language modeled and subsequent exercises to help students enhance their communicative competence in using English.
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IBU Publications
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P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PE English,PR English literature
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PDF Text
Text
ARMIN ŠABOTIĆ
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY
DEPARTMENT
M.A. Thesis
REVISION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE
HS CABLE NET INFORMATION SYSTEM
GRAD. PROJECT/Master’s THESIS
by
ARMIN ŠABOTIĆ
Project Supervisor
2011
MELIHA HANDŽIĆ
SARAJEVO
May, 2011
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
REVISION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE
HS CABLE NET INFORMATION SYSTEM
ARMIN ŠABOTIĆ
M.S./M.A., MBA, 2010/2011
Submitted to the Graduate Study Unit
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Business Administraion, MBA
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
2010/2011
INTERNATIONAL BURCH UNIVERSITY
FACULTY
2
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
ECONOMICS, MANAGEMENT
REVISION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE
HS CABLE NET INFORMATION SYSTEM
ARMIN ŠABOTIĆ
APPROVED BY:
Prof. MELIHA HANDŽIĆ
_____________________
Prof. ALI GOKSU
_____________________
APPROVAL DATE: 28.04.2011.
3
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
ABSTRACT
Through the cable internet speed levels incerased and prices decreased which led to great user
satisfaction, however, still there are certain issues needed to be revealed in order to achieve a
greater level of service quality and also to meet the consumer needs.
The purpose of this project is to evaluate problem-solving solutions for the information
system of the HS cable internet. After a brief analysis of the cable internet history and IS
structure the project focuses on lacks and problems detected during the analysis,
implementing new software applications with the aim of detecting and preventing problems
the HS cable internet deals with. Beside problem detection and prevention another task was to
accelerate the problem-solving process by implementing another application, related to the
problem detection software, which will print intervention prescriptions on site fulfilled by the
workers in charge. Implementing these ideas will also lead to a better operator-user
relationship, since problems will be detected, prevented and solved in a quicker time frame.
TABLE OF CONTENT
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
PREFACE
CURRENT INFORMATION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
PROBLEMS WITH THE CURRENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
PROBLEM DETECTION
THE ISSUING OF INTERVENTION ORDERS
ISSUING OF AN ORDER BASED ON A PROBLEM REPORT
ISSUING OF AN ORDER BASED ON THE APP. SEARCH RESULTS
SIGNAL VALUES SIGNIFICANT FOR THE ANALYSIS
DATABASE REVIEW
THE PROCEDURE OF ISSUING THE INTERVENTION ORDERS
APPLICATION IMPLEMENTATION RESULTS
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE LIST
GLOSSARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
First of all I want to thank my parents and my professor, without their support and love this all
wouldn’t be possible. My project work couldn’t be accomplished without the great help of
prof. Meliha Handžić.
Introduction to project
6
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The cable internet was a revolution for enabeling users to access the internet. The previous
technologies were far from user-friendly, offering low speed levels and high prices.
As known in telecommunications cable Internet is a form of a broadband Internet access that
uses the cable television infrastructure. Cable Internet is the bridge from the Internet provider
to the subscriber. It is connected to the existing cable television network infrastructure but
also many factors are important such as telephone networks, cable modems and providers. All
these fact are crucial for providing the best service to consumers. [1]
The HS cable television and internet exist since the year 2005. From the very beginning on
great efforts were made to ensure a competitive position on the market. Also the gaining of
pottencial users and their trust was a big issue since the cable internet technology still was
unknown territory at that time. But that condition should not last for long.
Soon people realized that through the cable internet speed levels incerased and prices
decreased which led to great user satisfaction . Through years of hard work and improvement.
the HS cable internet became one of the leading providers at the domestic market. Although it
was a long and hard way to go, now a days the HS cable internet provides its services for
more than 15.000 users.
The key of success, as in any other business, was a well organized and accurate infrastructure.
However, while revising the information system of the HS cable internet author realized that
still there are certain issues and operator/user relationship problems needed to be revealed in
order to achieve a greater level of service quality and also meet the consumer needs. Together
with the technician team of the HS cable internet author tried to evaluate problem solving
solutions by revising and improving the current information system.
In order of being able to recognize the lacks and potential improvement strategies for the HS
cable net, author naturally first had to get an insight to the current information system. The
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
technicians at the HS cable net help desk guided me through the entire infrastructure ,
explaining me the purpose, services and tasks of the same. Author summarized the basic
information about the current information system, visualizing the whole matter with a scheme
of the originally implemented system.
After getting a clear overview of the main tasks, author was able to start with the problem
recognition and the problem area detection. Further on the work deals with the segments in
which problems were occurring, describing the nature of the detected problems. The gained
information here enables us to evaluate problem detection criteria.
Beside the criteria for problem detection it was also necessary to define the real parameters
based on which values the problems will be detected. The next step is the order issuing in
sense of taking action after the problem detection. At this stage we introduce our problem
solving solution, the new software application, describing its nature and purpose.
The last stage of the problem detection and prevention is the order issuing and printing part.
In other words, in this phase orders are being issued and printed to be accomplished by
technicians at the user addresses. All stages are visually supported by schemes and database
screenshots, so the whole process could be understood more clearly.
Current information system description
( before implementing the problem solving software application)
8
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The information system of the HS cable internet was originally purposed for information
revision in order to create a service payment bill based on a contract. The services mentioned
include cable TV, internet services via the HS cable TV infrastructure (cable internet) and
digital television. When talking about these issues it is important to consider the following
tasks:
-
the registration of new users as well as the activation and de-activation of already
existing users
-
the creation of analytic user cards for service payment tracking
-
the printing of bills
-
oversight over the consumer’s spending over a internet based access [2]
Figure 1. Scheme of the originally implemented information system
Problems with the old information system
9
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Although the present HS cable internet information system was based on a good concept, still
it was not efficient enough to deal with the problems that occurred over the time. Problems
occurred in the following segments:
1. The records for ordered interventions concerning:
- Mistakes made while issuing the intervention orders:
Lacks in order records (insufficient information about users)
Delays with order issuing and interventions
The lost of orders caused by inobservance of technicians in charge
-Lack of information for the statistical processing:
The missing of a database for storing the information about the
intervention order issuing
Order searching by predetermined criteria (time frame, user address etc.)
was not possible
- Mistakes made during order returns
Mistakes concerning records about the user and technician in charge
2. Vague information about end user link statistics
- The link statistics are conditioned by the signal quality
- Lack of records about present link statistics
- The need for preventive actions in order of improving service quality
- Report creation and problem identification at the net location/segment
All in all the problems with the current information systems reflected in a lack of segments
for modem monitoring on the user side, in the hard realization of keeping statistic records
about the number of accomplished interventions at a single user’s account and the number of
overall interventions and issued orders. Another difficulty was the impossibility of taking
preventive actions in sense of modem monitoring in real time, based on which, potential
problems could be identified and solved without causing the user any trouble with it.
10
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Since the current information system did not have the necessary segments for the problem
solving solution, improvement measures had to be evaluated.
The main focus was on the problem prevention and detection segment and also on the ordered
intervention records. The whole problem solving idea was first visually sketched:
Figure 2. The problem-solving solution
Problem detection
Problems can be detected in two ways:
1.By a user reporting the problem
2.By an application for searching real parameters predetermined by a given criteria
To understand this it is first necessary to define the real parameters based on which values the
potential problem will be detected.
The issuing of intervention orders
11
�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The procedure for issuing an intervention order is based on two principles:
1. Issuing of an order based on a problem report
2. Issuing of an order based on the application search results ( following a predetermined
criteria)
The issuing of an order based on a problem report
Obviously this type of order issuing is based on user reports. The necessary information is
gathered based on the user requests at the help desk.
The issuing of an order based on the application search results
With the increase of HS cable internet users, the previously mentioned way of order
issuing becomes more and more insufficient for enabling a high quality service. The
reasons are as following:
1. The technicians are spending too much time on single user problems since they are not
informed in detail about its nature.
2. The quality of the done work is not measurable
3. Actions for problem prevention are hard to enable
Because of these reasons it often came to great user dissatisfaction. Sometimes they had to
wait up to 24h for problem/solving action. Since the number of users was growing rapidly
from day to day, preventive actions had to be taken to keep a reasonable quality level of user
satisfaction with the goal of keeping already existing users and also attracting potential users
of the HS cable internet. This could be only done by improving the efficiency and speed of
the technicians on site.
The order issuing using the application is done by 4 steps:
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
1. The application is gathering and storing the signal values both from the cable modems
and also from the CMTS.
2. The database is being searched for modems which values are depart the regular ones.
3. The assignment of the problematic signal to the corresponding user.
4. Order printing including a detailed problem description and instructions for problem
solving actions on court.
Before describing the application nature lets first take a look at the stages a modem has to
pass for registering on the net, so the end user could access the internet. At the figure 3 the
single steps are shown. [3]
Figure 3. Registration stages [8]
The cable modem first has to be sinchronized to the downstream freaquency of the
CMTS,after which the CMTS is sharing information to the cable modem hronologicaly,
from the first to the last upstream until the modem sinchronizes to the one that is covering
that area. At the next step the cable modem is sending a DHCP request which is being
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
delivered to the DHCP server. The server in return responds with an IP adress which will
be used by the modem , and also with the IP adress of the TFTP server and the
configuration file for the modem. After receiving the response of the DHCP server the
cable modem is downloading the configuration file from the TFTP server.The last step is
the verification,then the cable modem is ready for use.
Database review
Figure 4. Information about the user modem
Like already mentioned the application is storing the values to the database, in this case a
MySQL database is being used. The database is reloading every 12 hours with new
information which automatically become available for browsing over the web interface.
Figure 5.. Web interface for modem search
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
In the following example the option for showing all the modems that have the SNR value
below 27dB is chosen, the result is shown at the picutre below:
Figure 6. List of modems given by a predetermined criteria
From the gathered results we can clearly see that all the modems that have their SNR value
below 27dB have working problems. We can also evalute this from the number of lost RF
connections with the CMTS,number of errors during package transfers ( both,debugged and
those that could not have been debugged).
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The information gathered from the cable modem need to be associated to the already existing
billing application where the user information is stored. The association is being done through
the cable modem MAC adress , which is automatically being stored at the billing application
when the user registers [6]. Other information being also stored are shown below :
Figure 7.User information
How these information look like for some existing users is shown below :
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 8.Various user information
The information important for us are the user name, adress and phone number. Additional to
these information , the signal value is being enrolled at the order that the technician takes
over.
The tracking of the technician's work is enabled by using the application for the real time
information download from the modem . The application is developed in the C++programing
language, using SNMP ( Simpe Network Management Protocol ) for information gathering
from a cable modem in a given interval, in our case - every second. This application enables
us keeping record about our technicians work on site, having also a clear picture of the results
of his work.
The aim of this measure is that the signal correction is being made without the intervention of
the user.In some cases the user doesn't even notice some interventions.
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Figure 9 Real time modem monitoring [9]
This way preventive actions are being taken even before it comes to the case that a signal
problem occures which leads to modem work difficulties. The technician comes on site and
takes the signal to an optimal level. That way great user satisfaction is achieved- the problem
is prevented on time, there is no need for the user to call our help desk and to wait for actions
to be taken
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Figure 10 Improved search information system segment
Using the database as an information source for keeping records about the cable modem
condition, it is possible to have a clear vision about the activities needed to be processed in
order of improving the system work. In figure 10 we can see the visualized relationship and
principe of work of the information system segments so the work principle could be
understood. [7]
The procedure of issuing the intervention orders
Beside the detection and prevention segment of the improved HS cable net information
system, the order record application is also a very important part of the new management
system. This application is first of all extremely user friendly thanks to a clear and simple
structure. The picture below shows the opening part of the application.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 11 Opening part of application
First of all, the authorized person has to enter his/her username and password, in order of
ensuring a reasonable security level. This level can be increased by importing more parameter
requests like IP adress etc.
The entry of a new intervention order requires a large set of information about the single user
and the problem type ( example : adress,name and surname, phone number, problem
description and other additional information that are relevant for the intervention on court.
(picture 2). Also, it is important to specify the technician who obliges and issues the order.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 12 The entry of new orders
The figures 11 and 12 in detail show the order issuing procedure, listing all obliged orders and
also user information. In practice it came out as very usefull having an insight to these
information, especially in situations when interventions are not being fullfiled ( no matter
what reason). In that case we can exactly see who and when issued/obliged the order and why
it has not been accomplished.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 13 Order printing
The picture above shows the next step – the printing of issued orders.
The day to day business procedure includes order issuing with the aim of enabling high
quality sevice,on time, defined by the operator/user contract.
Figure 14 Detailed list of entered intervention orders
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After accomplishing the intervention on court, the orders previously issued to the technicians
in charge, are being returned. Once again we can see the benefits of such an organization
inside the information system management (figures 15 , 16 ).
Figure 15 Procedure of order return
The order return clearly shows the present status of the issued intervention also including the
technician statements. This all leads to a clear definition of reposnsibilities, either single or
work teams in charge.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 16 Procedure of order return ( continued )
In case the intervention order status needs to be checked, this application enables searching
tasks by various criteria (name and surname,adress etc.). The order status is checkable at any
time from its issuing, showing all the changes and actions that have been made under some
given circumstances ( figure 16 ). Since the order takeover and return dates are also evidented,
this is also a criteria for measuring the efficiency of technicians on site.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 16b Order search by a given criteria
In case information editing is neccessary at an already defined order prescription, the
procedure is easily implemented. First of all the editing candidates are selected .
After that the technician in charge is selected, keeping records of the authorized person who is
editing the order. This is very important for having an insight to the changes being made by
the responsible technician, so every step is justified at the later revision.
The goal of these measures is to eliminated every form of irresponsibility and indolence at
work, so our operator/user relationship could remain on a high level of satifsaction.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
Figure 17 Selecting the order we want to edit
Figure 18 Procedure of editing the entered order / Technician change
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
This application also enables the creation and insight to statistic parameter reports based on
the number of issued intervention orders. There are many possibilities for defining the type
and purpose of the report, creating weekly report based orders, where one can clearly see the
list of issued orders made in the last 7 days.
Figure 19 Searching the orders of the last week
Also you have the opportunity to create a report based on a monthly level
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Figure 20 Search by months
Another possible opportunity is to create an issued intervention order report based on the
technicians in site,their number of orders and adresses taken or on the net segment for which
the intervention is required .
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Figure 21 Current records of issued order interventions
The weekly report can also be considered as an insight to the technicians efficiency on site .
This way we create a clear picture about the engagement of the technicians and about
eventually lacks when talking about work responsabilities.
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Figure 22 Order records of the last week
The above mentioned report can also be created as a year report shown at the picture below:
Figure 23 Report for a selected year [5]
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Figure 24 Order records for a given year ( per months )
Finally, it is important to present an exact description of the above mentioned information
system segment. The picture below shows the cleary defined relationships and principles of
work picture. For a complete understanding of the matter you also need to involve the steps
in application use which author defined above.
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Figure 25 Scheme of information system segments
After entering the information for the order issuing via the application, we store all the
mentioned information into our database, which represents the main part of the enire system.
Any changes and actions made then will be recorded , updating the database every time.
The report creation in any form, as well as the given searches and changes require the access
to the database with the aim of accessability , editing and filtrating of entered information.
Results of implementing the application
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
When talking about steps forward we made in sense of problem solving improvement and
higher user satisfaction level, time has shown that the implementation of those new segments
was a very good decision. From the statistics in figure 26 below we can see why :
Figure 26 Order records indicated per months
Figure 26 clearly shows that the number of issued order intervention is decreasing from
month to month (except the period of April and May which is not relevant for our statistics
because of bad wheatear circumstances ). For example in August a technician had 907 orders
to accomplish, in September it was only 408. This is the most relevant indicator for the
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
decrease of problems by using this application. In other words, the less the number of
intervention orders , the better the service quality ( since there are falling problem tendencies).
Another important fact is that the number of calls at our help desk decreased from about 480
(every 2 minutes a user was calling to report a problem ) to about 120 during the work time (
8 hours). We obviously see that the HS cable internet crew made a step forward when talking
about problem solving measures, which resulted in great user approvals and positive
reactions.
Conclusion
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The HS cable internet as one of the leading internet providers has a huge responsibility over
its users. Therefore the HS technician team is working hard on meeting the user needs in
every sense. Being aware of the fact that a high quality service is the only way to defend its
leading position at the completion market, constant revisions and system make-over are a
must in this business. Since the technologies are improving from day to day, the most
important issue is to be up- to date with those changes and to recognize and take new
opportunities of the technology universe. Although the originally implemented information
system was based on a good work principle, it still could not avoid user dissatisfaction caused
by various technical problems. The constantly growing number of HS cable net users was
both the motivation for improving the information system and also an indicator for the
growing problems caused by lacks in the infrastructure. After revising the information system,
segments in which changes needed to be made were clearly defined. The implementation of a
new problem detection and prevention software was the first step in ensuring an updated high
quality service. Together with the order printing application this should become a powerful
instrument for meeting user needs. User comments and also the empirical statistics showed
that the HS cable internet surely made a huge step on its way of improvement in sense of
operator / user relationship, organization and work discipline. This way a move from a
reactive to a proactive way of troubleshooting was enabled. The final product of this is a
satisfied user, which is off course the main concern. However, still there is a long way to go
when talking about successful service providing. For the further work new goals have already
been set. The future plans involve the acceleration of the problem detection and problem
solving time frames by a constant implementing of new technologies.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
The ideas for the necessary actions to be taken are evaluated through the day to day work
experience. These days the idea of an alarm system for preventing and recognizing problems
is being evaluated, so user dissatisfaction caused by connection problems, which is the most
common problem, can be avoided. This measure should alarm in cases when the cable modem
signal quality is not on an appropriate level. The realization of this planned innovation would
involve a preventive problem detection that the alarm application would forward to the
technicians in charge via mail, sending them a detailed report about the problem and its
nature. The implementation of this application is planned as soon as possible, with high
expectations set. All in all the HS cable internet is giving great effort to meet their goals in
order of ensuring a high quality service level, satisfying current user needs and also attracting
new users in sense of expanding their business at the competition market.
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Reference list
[1]
Hranac, R., “More on CMTS SNR.” Communications Technology, Oct. 2003.
[2]
Interview with dipl.ing Sulejman Colo, IT manager,KaTv Hs, July,2009
[3]
"More on Cable Modems Upstream Signal Levels." .
http://www.cable360.net/ct/data/More-on-Cable-Modem-Upstream-SignalLevels_15089.html Available. [Accessed : June 19, 2009 ]
[4] Downey, J. “Upstream FEC Errors and SNR as Ways to Ensure Data Quality and
Throughput.” Cisco Systems (Document ID: 49780):
www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk86/tk319/technologies_white_paper09186a0080231a71.html
Available [Accessed : June 19 , 2009 ]
[5]
L. Storfer, ""Enhancing Cable Modem TCP Performance" ,Cable Broadband
Communication group, Texas Instruments, July 2003
[6]
"How Stuff Work." http://www.howstuffworks.com/cable-modem.htm/printable
Available [Accessed : August 08, 2009]
[7]
Currivan, B., “Cable Modem Physical Layer Specification and Design.” In Cable
Modems: Current
Technologies and Applications, International Engineering Consortium, Chicago, 1999.
[8]
KaTv, "KaTv DataBase System." Available. [Accessed : August 27, 2009 ]
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
[9]
KaTv, "Real Time Monitoring Application." Available. [Accessed : August 29, 2009 ]
Glossary
CMTS / cable modem termination system or CMTS is equipment typically found in a cable
company's headed, or at cable company hub site, and is used to provide high speed data
services, such as cable internet or Voice over IP, to cable subscribers.
SNR / Signal-to-noise ratio is an electrical engineering measurement, also used in other fields
(such as scientific measurement or biological cell signaling), defined as the ratio of a signal
power to the noise power corrupting the signal.
RF / A coaxial RF connector is an electrical connector designed to work at radio frequencies
in the multi-megahertz range. RF connectors are typically used with coaxial cables and are
designed to maintain the shielding that the coaxial design offers
HFC network / Hybrid fiber-coaxial is a telecommunications industry term for a broadband
network which combines optical fiber and coaxial cable.
SNMP/ Simple Network Management Protocol is used in network management systems to
monitor network-attached devices for conditions that warrant administrative attention
PHP / Hypertext Preprocessor, is a widely used, general-purpose scripting language that was
originally designed for web development, to produce dynamic web pages.
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�Revision and improvement of the HS cable net information system
39
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
744
Title
A name given to the resource
REVISION AND IMPROVEMENT OF THE HS CABLE NET INFORMATION SYSTEM
Author
Author
Sabotic, Armin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Through the cable internet speed levels incerased and prices decreased which led to great user satisfaction, however, still there are certain issues needed to be revealed in order to achieve a greater level of service quality and also to meet the consumer needs. The purpose of this project is to evaluate problem-solving solutions for the information system of the HS cable internet. After a brief analysis of the cable internet history and IS structure the project focuses on lacks and problems detected during the analysis, implementing new software applications with the aim of detecting and preventing problems the HS cable internet deals with. Beside problem detection and prevention another task was to accelerate the problem-solving process by implementing another application, related to the problem detection software, which will print intervention prescriptions on site fulfilled by the workers in charge. Implementing these ideas will also lead to a better operator-user relationship, since problems will be detected, prevented and solved in a quicker time frame.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2011-05-12
Keywords
Keywords.
Thesis
NonPeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)