89 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b42b26bedbb406296eae0243ec9d8417.pdf 83002f24ee9e6d3852af44573f809bac PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Challenge of Intercultural Communicative Competence for Polish Learners Christopher Brighton Krosno State College, Poland. cwbrighton@yahoo.co.uk Abstract: Intercultural Communicative Competence is a well established field of study with a well documented and constructed theoretical model which also provides clear skills and goals attainable for ICC learners. The skills, goals and attitudes can be evaluated by the use of Self-Awareness Inventories with an ICC training programme utilising SAI data. The question is what are the challenges of developing an intercultural ability which faced by largely homogeneous cultural societies, such as Poland. Much of current Polish research into ICC is limited and focused on investigating Polish intercultural business experiences or examining Hofstede‘s dimensions in relation to specific cultural groups and regions. Little work has been undertaken on the issues that Polish people face in developing ICC. This paper will present findings of research conducted regarding challenges that Polish learners of ICC face in the developing the necessary skills and goals. The paper is based on an SAI which was developed by the author specifically to evaluate socio-cultural background factors and their relationship to the development of ICC skills. The results of the survey provide indicators to certain areas which may hamper or effect intercultural communicative competence. The challenge of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) is something which we all face in the current era of globalisation. ICC is an ever present in the interconnected spheres of education, media, business and our own social networks. The issue is not how we deal with ‗the other‘ but how we approach and how we understand the concept of being an Intercultural Communicator. In modern society we can transcend borders virtually and really with little difficulty. No longer are nations as closed to foreign travellers as they once were and great distances across time zones can be made insignificant with messenger programmes. As a result, people are arguably more connected today than at any time in the past and this connectedness creates the real challenge of intercultural communicative competence. The challenge is created by our home nation‘s approach to the issue, the purpose and the reasons of being an intercultural communicator. Most importantly, the challenge is individual and connected to our understanding of the intercultural concept. This paper will examine the challenges and approaches to being an intercultural communicator in Poland. 1.1. Evaluating Intercultural Communicative Competence The development of the notion of intercultural is largely credited to Edward Hall (The Silent Language, 1959). Since this time, the rise of the field has seen a plethora of work and studies conducted into what is understood as being intercultural (for example: Ting-Toomey, 1999; Geert Hofstede; Gert Jan Hofstede, 2005) as well as how to evaluate and measure intercultural communicative competence (Chris Brown; Kasey Knight, 1999). The field has become multidisciplinary and been taken into health care and drama studies, which is far removed from the initial diplomatic and business approach. This in turn has advanced the concept and definition of ICC which can be argued, makes it more difficult to locate and accurately specify (Castle Sinicrope et.al 2007; Rathje, 2007). Moreover, the number of ICC evaluation tools at the disposal of the researcher is ever growing (Pusch, 2004). Each of these tools approaches the concept of ICC in a different manner from a pen and paper test as used by Self-Awareness Inventories (SAI) to observations, evaluations and continuous assessment as used by the Portfolio approach. Which approach the researcher uses can provide a definition and structure of what is intercultural. However, the problem can be alleviated by cross-checking the areas, attitudes and aspects of behaviour the various tools evaluate and the primary definitions of being an intercultural communicator. When this is undertaken several themes emerge which suggest a baseline for evaluation. These are: 275 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The work environment The area in which we live The ability to empathise with others Our curiosity Our ability to adapt to new situations Home and Family life These themes operate both at an intracultural and intercultural level. Within our home society, we build over time the abilities to deal with the situations we face in each category on a daily basis providing an intracultural ability. This ability is rarely challenged or changed until we face an intercultural situation where the realities of the situation differ from those we are used to. The purpose of evaluating intercultural competence is to identify and acknowledge the areas we may have difficulties with. For the current study, English language students of Krosno and Tarnow State College were evaluated to determine their intercultural ability as well as understand the background factors that may influence intercultural competence. In order to achieve this goal, a survey entitled ―The Socio-Cultural Background Survey‖ was created which was part Self-Awareness Inventory and part personal questionnaire. The SAI was developed and utilizes many of the techniques and styles of questions that can be found in major inventories and portfolios. (see: Tucker, 1999; Kelley & Meyers, 2003; Janet M. Bennett; Milton J. Bennett, 2004; Michael Byram et.al 2005). The questions in the SAI were categorized in three areas of Politics, Education and Family, which covered the themes mentioned above. Questions which related to the first two themes of work and our areas of living were assigned as being Politics as they are influenced by the rules, laws and social notions of the society in which we live. The second two themes of empathy and curiosity were assigned to Education as the system and structure of schooling teaches these skills. The final area of Family was given to questions that asked about our ability to adapt and our home life. Accompanying the inventory was a personal questionnaire that evaluated background factors that may influence intercultural competence. The aspects questioned include: time spent abroad either for work or holiday; access to social networks such as Facebook and Twitter; as well as the area the respondent lives in – city, town or village. The data from the inventories has been calculated and correlated to answers provided by the respondents in the inventory creating these three clear categories for evaluation. The corpus of the study was 119 students from Krosno and Tarnow State College, who represent a specific sector of Polish Higher Education. The State College, or PWSZ sector in Polish, was established in 1999 to represent students from non-university cities and provides education to the first degree (Bachelor or Licentiate) level. Current 2008 figures indicate there are over 93,000 students in the State College sector with most students coming from rural or less affluent backgrounds as indicated by scholarships and allowances for almost 20,000 students (2009, pp. 49, 248). This is further supported by the data provided by the corpus as only 24 students declared they lived in a city against 48 who stated town and 47 who stated village. The cities where State Colleges are located are less well known and less popular for tourism than the university cities in Poland. Tarnow has a population of 115,000 and Krosno a population of 50,000 so they can be said to be representative of medium and small city Poland. More importantly, as has been stated, the students of the State College institutions are not necessarily city dwellers, but reflect a more rural background. As such the respondents represent a large portion of the Polish population which are outside the remit of most intercultural studies done so far, which have heavily focussed on business aspects of ICC (Silwa, 2007) or have been conducted in a university setting (Bandura, 2007). 1.2. Challenges Intercultural Competence The research conducted on the corpus of 119 students produced the following mean results for the categories of Politics, Education and Family: Politics Education Family 42.93 44.15 40.73 276 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In order to create a clearer understanding of the challenges and the concept of being an intercultural communicator the data was further analysed based on responses in the background questionnaire. The following information presents the findings and evaluates the data in the areas of: City, Town and Village; Work and Holidays Abroad; and Access to Social Networking sites. 1.2.1. City, Town and Village Where you live can be one of the most influential aspects to developing intercultural competence. In larger cities there is greater diversity as well as greater chances of encountering larger groups of tourists, business visitors and migrants. Other factors may include the location of the city – whether it is on a main transit route or tourist trail – and festivals, celebrations and cross-border links. The size of the city is not directly relevant, although a larger city should be able to support a large base of diversity as well as a larger business community. In Poland the large cities are university cities – Warsaw, Krakow, Lodz, Wroclaw, Poznan, Gdansk, Katowice etc. – with large tourist attractions, business communities and cultural diversity. Krosno and Tarnow, although smaller, are located on principal trade routes and close to the Slovakian border as well as having tourist attractions in the city architecture. This is supported by the scoring for 24 city dwellers from the corpus. In the mean scores of Politics, Education and Family the results were: Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 City Dwellers Corpus of 24 Town Dwellers Corpus of 48 Village Dwellers Corpus of 47 42.92 44.00 43.81 43.58 44.23 42.21 40.71 39.90 41.34 In terms of difference to the overall corpus there is little difference between the mean scores of Politics and Family. However, village respondents have a much lower score in Education which is 1.94 points lower than the overall average. Moreover, town dwellers have a higher score for Politics which is 1.07 higher than the overall average. These slight differences in scores from the overall average for city, town and village dwellers indicates that intercultural competence is not hindered or advanced by the location in which you live. This may be said to go against conventional wisdom or common sense which would consider the location as an important factor in the development of intercultural competence. However, the findings indicate that this is not the case which is a positive comment as if location was an important influencing factor then the lottery of location would be essential for intercultural competence. Therefore, location cannot be said to be a challenge of developing intercultural competence for Polish learners. 1.2.2. Work and Holidays Abroad Due to the increasingly globalised nature of employment it is more common today for people to migrate in search of employment. In the Polish case this has been a long part of history with waves of emigration over the past several centuries. The recent past, since 1989, has seen Western Europe as the major destination with an estimated two million Polish people migrating to the UK since Poland became a full member of the EU on 1st May 2004. Over the following years many of these migrants have returned to Poland, but the UK, Ireland, Sweden and, from 1st May 2011, Germany are the most popular legal destinations. For students, especially learning a foreign language, the attraction of spending a summer or longer abroad is twofold: on the one hand they can improve their language skills and on the other they can earn money. Those who seek work abroad experience culture shock as well as undergoing an unsettling experience as they relocate. Clearly, the difficulties of moving from your home to a foreign country are great and as such not everyone is persuaded to or willing to make such a move. From the student respondents only 37 had spent time working abroad whereas 60 had spent time abroad on holiday. Only 22 students replied that they had never been abroad for a holiday or for work. The mean scores for Politics, Education and Family were: 277 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 Work Abroad Corpus of 37 Holiday Abroad Corpus of 60 Never been Abroad Corpus of 22 43.81 43.77 41.86 45.24 44.13 42.05 42.49 39.80 39.77 As can be seen from the presented data, the students who had spent time working abroad score higher in each category than those who have only been on holiday, never been abroad and the overall average from the corpus of 119. This is a significant finding and indicates the benefits of long-term stay in a foreign country as well as the interaction with others in a normal environment. All of the students who had worked abroad had spent between one month and one year employed abroad. The social setting of their work, no matter what sector of the economy, enabled them to experience and to have contact with members of the foreign culture in a normal non-tourist related environment. Furthermore, the nature of living and working creates the need for greater interaction with different parts of the foreign culture from transportation, shopping, renting accommodation and social settings. All of these factors increase and clearly have an influence on intercultural competence as the six factors mentioned earlier all come in to play. In the case of the students who had been only on holiday the slight rise in the mean score for Politics and the slight decrease in the mean score for Family are not significant. The holiday experience does not provide access to the real foreign culture as tourist centres are often more liberal and accepting of differences among tourists as well as promoting culture in a tourist manner. The tourist centre purpose is to facilitate and provide a service to the guests, providing for their expectations, desires and demands. The results are clearly significant when compared with those students who have never been abroad. In all categories those who had never been abroad scored lower than the average of the corpus of 119. Specifically, in relation to those who had worked abroad, the differences for those who had never been abroad were: -2.21 in Politics; -3.20 in Education; and -2.72 in Family. These differences are significant and indicate the importance of experience which is gained from being abroad. Even in contrast to those students who had been only on holiday, those who had never been abroad scored lower. Therefore, in terms of developing intercultural competence spending time abroad is essential. For Polish learners this is a challenge, especially in light of the economic circumstances for many of the State College students who rely upon scholarships and assistance grants. 1.2.3. Access to Social Networks The final area for comparison is students‘ access to social networks and their range of friends and contacts on the sites. Over the past few years the growth of social networking sites has mirrored or been partly responsible for the greater globalisation of society. No longer can we only speak of business and companies being global, but now ideas, trends and gossip is global with what happens in one part of the world becoming a topic for the whole world. The rise of Facebook and Twitter only illustrate the interconnected nature of people in today‘s world. In Poland, Nasza Klasa, which is a similar portal to Facebook and was originally designed to reunite classmates, has a dominant position in the market. However, even the Polish social network community is becoming influenced by Facebook with its global reach. Out of the 119 students surveyed, 76 have a social network page with 51 having contact with foreigners and 25 having contact only with other Polish people. Forty-three people responded that they had no social network site access. The mean results in Politics, Education and Family were: Corpus of 119 Politics 42.93 Education 44.15 Family 40.73 Social Network with foreign contacts 43.88 44.45 41.76 278 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Corpus of 51 Social Network with no foreign contacts 43.08 43.80 40.24 Corpus of 25 No Social Network 43.09 43.84 39.51 Corpus of 43 In comparison, those students who had foreign contacts on their social network site had a higher mean score than those who did not and those who had no social network. The differences between the scores are not very significant, but indicate that contact with foreigners does provide broader horizons and greater intercultural competence. This is an important piece of information and shows how even limited foreign contacts can influence understanding of other cultures. Moreover, all 37 people who had worked abroad had foreign contacts on their social network site, again indicating that even after their period of working abroad was over they kept in contact with those who they had met. Creating cross-cultural networks is an essential part of developing intercultural competence as it provides access to information about other cultures as well as encouraging communication and the exchange of ideas, thoughts and experiences. The challenge is for those Polish learners who do not have access to social network sites to do so at the earliest opportunity. 1.3. Conclusions The learners of English at the State Colleges in Krosno and Tarnow illustrate many of the challenges that are faced by Polish learners. Firstly, the students come from a variety of locations which present specific challenges to overcome. Most importantly, as can be seen from the statistics quoted with regards to scholarships and assistance grants, many of the students who attend the State College sector come from lower income backgrounds which affect their access to modern technology and foreign visits due to the financial costs. However, the location itself does not impair the development of intercultural competence given the right framework and opportunities to develop. The presented data illustrates that greater communication with foreign cultures does increase intercultural competence. In terms of experience of being abroad, work and holiday provide clearer understanding of the rules, laws and social notions of society not only of where we live but also of where we are. This is shown by both groups of respondents scoring higher Politics averages than those who have never been abroad. Furthermore, access to a social network, especially with foreign contacts, creates better intercultural competence. This is because of the global nature of today‘s social society with Facebook campaigns, groups and associations which are open to everyone. Providing access to greater foreign exchange programmes, for example via the Erasmus scheme in Higher Education, and encouraging the development of social network communication, either formally between institutions or informally, will clearly be of benefit to the development of intercultural communicative competence. 279 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Bandura, E. (2007). Nauczyciel Jako Mediator Kulturowy. Krakow: Tertium. Castle Sinicrope; John Norris; Yukiko Watanabe. (2007, Fall). Understanding and Assessing Intercultural Competence: A summary of Theory, Research and Practice (Technical Report for the Foreign Language Program Evaluation Project). Second Language Studies , 26 (1), pp. 1-58. Chris Brown; Kasey Knight. (1999). Introduction to Self-Awareness Inventories. In S. M. Fowler, Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods (pp. 19-30). Boston, MA: Intercultural Press. (2009). Concise Statistical Yearbook of Poland. Warsaw: Central Statistics Office GUS. Geert Hofstede; Gert Jan Hofstede. (2005). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw Hill. Hall, E. T. (1959). The Silent Language. New York: Random House. IDI_Sample. (2006, 05 04). Retrieved 03 02, 2010, from The OFFICIAL Site of the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI): http://www.idiinventory.com/pdf/idi_sample.pdf Janet M. Bennett; Milton J. Bennett. (2004). Developing Intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and Domestic Diversity. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett, Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 147-165). Thousand Oakes: Sage Publications. Kelley, C., & Meyers, J. (2003). CCAI Sample Report. Chicago: Vangent Inc. Michael Byram; Torsten Kùhlmann; Bernd Mùller-Jacquier; Gerhard Budin. (2005, 01 21). INCA The Theory. Retrieved 02 13, 2010, from Inca project: http://www.incaproject.org/en_downloads/24_INCA_THE_THEORY_eng_final.pdf Paige, R. M. (2004). Instrumentation in Intercultural Training. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett, Handbook of Intercultural Training: Third Edition (pp. 85-128). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Portfolio of Intercultural Competence. (2004, 12 17). Retrieved 02 13, 2010, from INCA project: http://www.incaproject.org/en_downloads/24_INCA_THE_THEORY_eng_final.pdf Pusch, M. D. (2004). Intercultural Training in Historical Perspective. In J. M. Dan Landis, Handbook of Intercultural Training (3rd Edition ed., pp. 13-36). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Rathje, S. (2007). Intercultural Competence: The Status and Future of a Controversial Concept. Langauge and Intercultural Communication , 7 (4), pp. 254-266. Silwa, A. (2007, June 03). Overview of Polish Publications about Intercultural Communication in Business. Retrieved January 20, 2010, from http://www.sjo.ae.wroc.pl/Raport%20o%20badanich.pdf Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating Across Cultures. New York: Guilford. Tucker, M. F. (1999). Self-Awareness and Development Using the Overseas Assignment Inventory. In S. Fowler (Ed.), Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods (pp. 45-52). Boston MA: Intercultural Press. 280 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 42 Title A name given to the resource The Challenge of Intercultural Communicative Competence for Polish Learners Author Author Brighton, Christopher Abstract A summary of the resource. Intercultural Communicative Competence is a well established field of study with a well documented and constructed theoretical model which also provides clear skills and goals attainable for ICC learners. The skills, goals and attitudes can be evaluated by the use of Self-Awareness Inventories with an ICC training programme utilising SAI data. The question is what are the challenges of developing an intercultural ability which faced by largely homogeneous cultural societies, such as Poland. Much of current Polish research into ICC is limited and focused on investigating Polish intercultural business experiences or examining Hofstede‘s dimensions in relation to specific cultural groups and regions. Little work has been undertaken on the issues that Polish people face in developing ICC. This paper will present findings of research conducted regarding challenges that Polish learners of ICC face in the developing the necessary skills and goals. The paper is based on an SAI which was developed by the author specifically to evaluate socio-cultural background factors and their relationship to the development of ICC skills. The results of the survey provide indicators to certain areas which may hamper or effect intercultural communicative competence. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/846030292cb546960fae6f48decab464.pdf c8f3fb1c10ac5386f119ec3b830e559f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Ana BradiĦiĤ Italian High School – Rijeka, Croatia Teacher of English and German Language and Literature ana.bradicic1@ri.t-com.hr Abstract: Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome. Key Words: Lexicon, crosslinguistic influence, similarity perception Introduction For a number of years studies of crosslinguistic influence24 (CLI) focused on the role of the first language in the acquisition of the second language, and the analysis of errors in the learners‘ second language production had the main role in establishing the predictive force of transfer (Larsen-Freeman and Long, 1991). The results of more recent studies have shown that all languages acquired after the first language might be the source of CLI when learning a new language (Cenoz, 2001; Dewaele, 1998; Ringbom, 1987; Selinker and Baumgartner-Cohen, 1995; Williams and Hammarberg, 1998). Several factors have been identified as relevant in this process, among which crosslinguistic similarity25, language proficiency, context of communication, age, recency of language use and the ―foreign language effect‖ or the L2 status. In the case of the second language, its ability to function as a source language for CLI is not determined as much by the order of acquisition as by other factors such as proficiency in the source language, frequency and recency of use, and the degree of similarity to the recipient language. Since the majority of studies deal with language production, it is necessary to investigate CLI effects in perception and comprehension in order to gain a deeper understanding of the process of third 24 Crosslinguistic influence, the term proposed by Kellerman and Sharwood Smith in 1986, is used in the literature as the equivalent of the term transfer or interference, and it includes the wide range of psycholinguistic phenomena which result from the contact of two languages, including preference, positive and negative transfer, avoidance and borrowing (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). 25 The phenomenon called linguistic distance, typological similarity, psychotypology and crosslinguistic similarity refers to the degree of similarity between the source language and the recipient language. It determines the possibility of the appearance of transfer (Kellerman, 1977; Ringbom, 1978; Wode, 1976; Cenoz, 2001; Ringbom, 2001, 2007). 140 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language acquisition26. While in language production the speaker starts from the preverbal intention and assigns it a linguistic form, comprehension has its starting point in the lexical form the reader or listener gives meaning to by linking the language form to the semantic knowledge he possess (Ringbom, 2001). Therefore learners try to find similarities between the languages they know in order to establish a relationship of equivalence between them, and in this process formal similarities have a greater importance in comprehension than in language production (Ringbom, 2007). However, it is important to distinguish between objective and subjective similarity, but also between objective and subjective difference. Objective similarities are often not the same as subjective similarities since it is the subjective perception of the speaker to determine the degree of transferability of certain language features from the source language to the recipient language (Kellerman, 1978). The subjective crosslinguistic similarity influences the degree to which the learner relies on the source language in learning and using the target language, whereas objective similarity affects the likelihood that transfer will be positive or negative (Odlin, 1989). However, objective similarities and differences and subjective differences don't lead to transfer, but it is the crosslinguistic similarities that the learners perceive or assume to exist, that form the basis of interlingual identifications that generate most types of transfer (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Perceived language distance is therefore considered the main factor influencing crosslinguistic similarity, and formal similarity between all language systems known to the learner a constant factor of crosslinguistic influence (De Angelis and Selinker, 2001). The importance of perceived crosslinguistic similarity has been attested in all areas of language knowledge, from phonology, morphosyntax to the discourse, but it is mostly evident in the field of the lexicon. Crosslinguistic similarity is most obviously perceived on the basis of formally similar or identical individual items or words. The similarities may also be functional or semantic. Formal similarity is perceived first, in that getting the word form precedes getting the word meaning, and most cases involving the transfer of formal properties seem to reflect perceived similarities, while many cases of semantic transfer seem to occur merely on the basis of assumed similarities and often despite observable differences. Moreover, in the case of formal transfer the source language tends to be a closely related language, that is a source language that the learner perceives as being closely related to the recipient language, whereas semantic transfer strongly tends to come from a language in which the learner is highly proficient, most commonly the L1 but also an L2 in cases where the learner is highly advanced in the L2 (Ringbom, 1987, 2001; Cenoz, 2001). Although perceived similarity mainly facilitates learning, especially when cognate languages are concerned, it can also lead to errors in production and comprehension, as in the case of false friends, i.e. lexemes that belong to different languages, but because of their formal similarity lead to wrong conclusions about their meaning (Gabryś-Barker, 2006, Ringbom, 2007). The first encounter with cognates often leads to an approximate understanding and it doesn't require much cognitive effort on the part of the learners since they easily connect the core meaning of words with the same or similar form. However, on more advanced levels of language learning, it is necessary to invest a greater cognitive effort to acquire the full meaning of lexical units, their stylistic and contextual components (N. Ellis, 1994, 1997; Nemser, 1998; Singleton, 1999). Despite the fact that the research of lexical transfer has received much attention, due to the complexity of this phenomenon that includes several dimensions of lexical knowledge, it is necessary to investigate the implications of this process in multilingual speakers where lateral transfer is manifested, i.e. the transfer from the L2 to the L3 (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Method of the Study The main goal of this study is to gain an insight into the perception of lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers. With regard to objective and subjective similarity, the aim is to establish if the subjects perceive crosslinguistic lexical similarity in reading comprehension, and if so, to which degree they rely on semantic, i.e. formal similarity. Furthermore, the aim is to establish the existence of a relationship between the perception of lexical similarities of L2 Italian and L3 English with the subjects‘ characteristics (first language, Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of L2 Italian, length of studying and language proficiency in L3 26 For the purpose of this paper, it is important to underline the difference between the second (L2) and the third language (L3), since when acquiring the L2 the learner has at his disposal only the knowledge of his L1, whereas when acquiring the third language (L3), he already possesses the knowledge of the previously learnt languages (Hammarberg; 2001). Therefore, an adult learner who starts learning an L3 or an L4, possesses metalinguistic knowledge and learning strategies that a learner of the L2 doesn't have (Hufeisen, 1998). 141 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo English, self-rated language knowledge of English and Italian and formal evaluation in L2 and L3 at the end of the school year) and the features of the lexical items included with reference to word class membership, historical relatedness and semantic and formal similarity. The study of the perception of lexical similarity between L2 English and L3 Swedish (Utgof, 2008) represents the methodological starting point and the basis of this work. Sampling The present study includes 69 subjects, students of a high school in Croatia where the language of instruction is Italian. 35 of them are students of the first class and have been studying English for 7 years and 34 of them are students of the fourth class and have been studying English for 10 years. All informants are bilingual speakers whose L1 is mostly Croatian and the L2 is Italian, which is mainly used only as the language of instruction. The subjects differ also on the following points: Italian language learning experience, context and frequency of use of the Italian language, self-rated proficiency in L2 and L3 and the formal mark they have in the subjects Italian language and literature and English language at the end of the school year 2009/2010. Materials and Analysis Processes The questionnaire used to gather the data consists of a first part involving similarity judgements for 28 word pairs varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity. Formal similarity was computed by means of the normalized Levenshtein distance, which is a string edit distance for measuring the amount of difference between two strings of characters taking into consideration their length. Since similarity and difference are expressed by a reciprocal measure, the measure of formal similarity is given precedence in consonance with the theoretical assumption that learners tend to rely more on similarities than on differences (Ringbom, 2007). The measure of semantic similarity is given by the similarity ratings of five experienced Croatian-Italian bilingual teachers of English. The included lexical items differ also in their grammatical category, etymological origin, and out of 28 word pairs, there are 23 word pairs that belong to the category of deceptive cognates. Although English belongs to the Germanic language family, a significant number of lexemes has its origin in Latin, so in terms of its lexicon it can plausibly be regarded as a Romance language (Singleton, 2006), which has important implications for the psychotypological effect. It is therefore obvious that a learner who has a knowledge of Italian will encounter a whole array of English words whose meaning he can associate with a previously acquired language. However, deceptive cognates can lead to wrong conclusions since their meaning in English doesn't match the meaning of a similar word in Italian. The importance of context lies in the possibility of lexical and conceptual processing of ambiguous lexemes and in aiding comprehension (Gianico and Altarriba, 2008). All test items have therefore been contextualized and included into sentences provided by the British National Corpus for the English sentences and by Corpora e lessici dell‘italiano parlato e scritto and Corpus dell‘italiano scritto contemporaneo for the Italian sentences. The British National Corpus is an exemplary representative corpus, used in many previous studies, while the corpora of Italian have been chosen for ease of access and their content including spoken and written language as well as literary texts. The sentences were skimmed and chosen at random, and some were edited for length to fit in the form. The included items were checked against the vocabulary list included in the student‘s book used in grade 1 and 4 (Soars, L. and J., 2005, 2009) and chosen according to the researcher‘s judgment. To exemplify the mode of analysis, it has to be mentioned that the similarity ratings have been given on a scale ranging from 10 (totally different) to 100 (completely the same) as in the study of lexical similarity perception between Swedish and English by Utgof (2008). The usage of ciphers was abandoned in hope that the students would place a mark after their intuition rather than concentrate on mechanically choosing a number. The respondents were asked to place a cross on the line to reflect how similar they considered the word pairs to be. Language biography is the second part of the questionnaire supplying information about the biographical characteristics of the informants, context of acquisition and use of L2 Italian and L3 English. Findings and Discussion In order to establish and differentiate the effects of formal and semantic similarity on the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and verify the effects of the grade the subjects attend, i.e. the level of L3 proficiency, a threeway ANOVA with repeated measurements on 2 factors was performed followed by post hoc Scheffé tests where appropriate (i.e. if the F score was statistically significant) (Table 1.). The word pairs have been divided into two categories according to the degree of their formal and semantic similarity with values ranging from 0 – 0.50 for 142 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low similarity and 0.51 – 1 for high similarity. The alpha for achieving statistical significance was set at .05. Additionally, effect sizes were calculated to examine the strength of the relationship between the variables. Table 1. Effects of formal similarity, semantic similarity, grade and their interaction on English-Italian word pair similarity judgements η Factor F1,67 formal similarity 19.23** .22 semantic similarity 25.51** .28 Grade 0.70 .01 formal similarity * semantic similarity 0.01 .00 formal similarity * grade 2.56 .04 semantic similarity * grade 4.46* .06 formal similarity. * semantic similarity * grade 0.19 .00 *p<.05; ** p<.01 As can be seen from Table 1., in analyzing the role of formal similarity and the role of English proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, the only statistically significant effect is that of formal similarity. What is interesting is that there is a negative relationship between formal similarity and similarity judgments, i.e. formally more similar word pairs are perceived as less similar. Based on the size of the effect, 28% of the answers‘ variance can be explained on the basis of semantic similarity and 22% on the basis of formal similarity. As to the effects of formal similarity, English language proficiency level, i.e. grade, and their interaction on English-Italian word pairs similarity judgments, there is a statistically significant effect of semantic similarity. In other words, highly similar lexical items have received higher similarity ratings. Grade hasn‘t been found statistically significant, whereas there is a statistically significant interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgments although the effect size is relatively small. While the ratings of the grade 1 subjects tend to be more uniform, grade 4 students rely more on semantic similarity when expressing their similarity judgments. Although the strength of the effect of the interaction between semantic similarity and age on similarity ratings is relatively small, it is interesting to note that the effects of semantic similarity on similarity ratings are different with age. As shown in Picture 1., the range of semantic similarity ratings is larger in the ratings of older students (grade 4) than of the younger ones (grade 1), which is in accordance with the finding that crosslinguistic similarity perception on more advanced levels is based on previously acquired lexical knowledge. The first grade students‘ ratings, whose lexical knowledge is on a lower level compared to that of the fourth grade students, are similar to those of the older students, since they have given low similarity ratings for semantically different words and higher ratings for semantically more similar words, but their ratings are in a smaller range, around the middle values on the rating scale, probably due to their fear of giving the ―wrong‖ rating. 143 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 0.70 Similarity rating 0.65 Grade 0.60 first 0.55 fourth 0.50 0.45 0.40 low high Semantic similarity Picture 1. Effects of the interaction of semantic similarity and grade on word pairs similarity judgements In order to test the correlation between similarity ratings and the subjects' first language, a one-way ANOVA was performed, whereby no significant effect of the first language on the overall similarity rating was found (Table 2.). The subjects gave uniform ratings of crosslinguistic similarity regardless of their L1 since the majority of them have Croatian as their L1 and use Italian as an L2 in the schooling context. However, even when they speak Italian in their family, they use Croatian in everyday communication in the broader community. In view of the language specificity of our subjects, this finding is in line with the results of previous studies indicating semantic transfer taking place from the first language or, in the case of high proficiency, from the second language. Table 2. ANOVA results for the effects of L1 on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor first language F1,67 η2 1.11 .02 In the analysis of variance of the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the experience of the learning of the Italian language, no significant effect of the L2 learning experience on the ratings of the similarity of lexical pairs was found (Table 3.). All informants evaluated their experience of learning Italian as very positive or neutral, and no one expressed any negative experiences connected to the acquisition of their L2. Out of 69 students, 29 of them rated the experience of learning Italian as very positive, 20 positive and 20 neutral. Table 3. ANOVA results for the effects of L2 learning experience on lexical pairs similarity ratings. Factor Italian language learning experience F2,66 0.46 η2 .01 The correlation between the ratings of crosslinguistic similarity and the use of the Italian language in the formal (school, church) and informal (family, friends) context has been analysed using the linear regression analysis. As can be seen from Table 4., the model can't be regarded as statistically significant. The formal context is generally irrelevant with respect to the similarity ratings, while the use of L2 Italian in the informal 144 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo context is a negative predictor, although on the limit of statistical significance, of similarity ratings. In other words, the subjects rate lexical pairs as less similar the more they use Italian in informal situations. This could be explained by the fact that those speakers that use Italian with family and friends have Italian as their dominant language, whereby there is no effect of the second language which has been recognised as one of the most influential factors of crosslinguistic influence, and a high language proficiency implies a greater attention given to semantic, and not to formal features of a word. Table 4. Regression analysis results for the crosslinguistic similarity ratings and the context of use of L2 Italian (formal and informal context). Predictor Formal Informal  p .18 .18 -.26 .05 R2*.0.6; F2,66=2.12, p>.05 As shown in Table 5., no statistically significant correlation between lexical pairs similarity rating and self-rated knowledge of Italian was found. However, it is significantly connected to the mark at the end of the school year in that subject. In fact, L2 proficiency has been recognised as one of the relevant factors in crosslinguistic influence. Table 5. Connection between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in Italian and the mark in the subject Italian language and literature at the end of the school year. 1 1. similarity rating 2. self-rated knowledge of Italian 3. formal evaluation in Italian 2 .15 3 .28* .33** *p<.05; ** p<.01 Similarity ratings don't show a correlation neither with the self-rated knowledge of English nor with the mark at the end of the school year in that subject (Table 6.). However, it is interesting to note that the correlation between self-rated knowledge and the mark at the end of the school year is bigger in the case of L3 English than L2 Italian. This can be explained by the fact that Italian is regarded as the students‘ first language, so the teachers set higher expectations and the students themselves are more self-critical with respect to their knowledge of Italian and rate it lower than is the case with English. Table 6. Correlation between similarity ratings, self-rated knowledge in English and the mark in the subject English language at the end of the school year. 1 4. similarity rating 5. self-rated knowledge of English 6. formal evaluation in English 2 -.08 3 .01 .70** ** p<.01 145 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In order to test the effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal and semantic similarity on English-Italian word pairs‘ similarity judgments, a series of one-way ANOVAs with repeated measurements on one factor was performed. Word pairs have been divided into two groups according to grammatical category (the same – different), genetic relatedness (the same – different), and membership of the category of deceptive cognates. Effects of all the mentioned variables have been found statistically significant. Words belonging to the same word class are rated as more similar than words belonging to different grammatical categories. Likewise, a statistically significant effect of etymological similarity has been established and in this case the effect size is the largest. True cognates are perceived as more similar than words having a different etymological origin. The effect of the deceptive cognates is also statistically significant. Words of high formal similarity but semantically completely or partially different are rated as less similar (Table.7.). This finding can be brought into relationship with the first finding (Table 1.) regarding low similarity ratings for formally similar items indicating that the subjects rely more on semantic than formal similarity which is in line with the results of the study we took as our starting point (Utgof, 2008). Table 7. Effects of word class similarity, etymological similarity and formal-semantic similarity on English- Italian word pairs similarity judgements η2 Factor F1,68 word class similarity 14.97** .18 etymological similarity 61.54** .48 deceptive cognates 13.84** .17 ** p<.01 The results of this study indicate a statistically significant correlation between crosslinguistic similarity and the experience of learning the Italian language, the context and frequency of use of the Italian language, the length of learning and proficiency in English, self-rated language proficiency in L2 and L3 and formal evaluation. Words belonging to the same word class and of the same etymological origin have been rated as more similar. Whereas in the case of word class membership results can be brought into connection with the lexemes being contextualized and thus facilitating comprehension, explicit knowledge of the etymological origin isn‘t available to high school students since at this level the learning and teaching of both English and Italian is approached from a synchronic view, and the mechanism of forming interlingual associations doesn‘t depend on the origin of a lexical item but on the perception of lexemes as analogous in the mind of the language user (OlujiĤ and Bońnjak Botica, 2007). However, what should be remembered is that transfer is an internal phenomenon that exists in the minds of individual language users and springs from the interaction of languages stored and processed within the same mind. Perceived crosslinguistic similarity also depends on individual learning styles and the characteristics of each individual learner (Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, the conclusion is that Croatian-Italian bilingual speakers perceive crosslinguistic similarities between the English and the Italian language, and that their perception is related to both formal and semantic crosslinguistic similarity. As to the words which coincide in both meaning and form, the first grade students rate these words as less similar than fourth grade students since it is necessary to acquire a certain level of language proficiency for transfer to occur and crosslinguistic influence is manifested on more advanced levels of language learning when the learner has acquired additional competences and recognizes similarities between the source language and the recipient language (Wode, 1976; in Jarvis and Pavlenko, 2008). In the case of deceptive cognates the students on the more advanced level of language proficiency rely more on their lexical knowledge and rate deceptive cognates as more different although they are words of high formal similarity, as opposed to first grade students who rely more on formal similarity. In order to facilitate L3 acquisition, an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity should be adopted so that the knowledge of all previously acquired languages might get activated with the purpose of promoting positive transfer, enhancing learners‘ receptive strategies for inferring word meanings and developing metalinguistic awareness. On the other hand, in the case of deceptive cognates and partial 146 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo translation equivalents there is the need to emphasize semantic and conceptual crosslinguistic differences and to use interlingual comparisons so as to make the students aware of negative transfer. Therefore, CLI implicitly as a reciprocal, multi-directional influence of all the language systems possessed by an individual, and explicitly as a learning strategy, facilitates the process of learning not only the English language, but also for those bilingual speakers whose dominant language is Croatian, the learning of Italian vocabulary by means of lexical similarities with English. Since this study has included a limited sample it is clear that the findings have a limited generalizability and there is a need for replication that would address a wider range of contexts and include appropriate monolingual controls, especially monolingual speakers whose L1 is Croatian and who study both Italian and English in a formal context as foreign languages and are similar to the subjects of this study on a range of sociodemographic variables. 147 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References British National Corpus. Retrieved February 2, 2009, from http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ Browne, V., Mendes, E. and Natali, G. (2009). More and more False Friends, Bugs & Bugbears. Dizionario di ambigue affinità e tranelli nella traduzione tra inglese e italiano (seconda edizione). Bologna: Zanichelli. Cenoz, J. (2001). 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(ed.), Cross-linguistic Influence in Second Language Lexicon. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Soars, L. and J. (2009). Headway Intermediate. Oxford: OUP. Soars, L. and J. (2005). Headway Upper-Intermediate. Oxford: OUP. Utgof, D. (2008). The Perception of Lexical Similarities between L2 English and L3 Swedish. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from http://liu.divaportal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:128172 Williams, S. and Hammarberg, B. (1998). Language switches in L3 production: Implications for a polyglot speaking model. In: Applied Linguistics, 19 (3), 295-333. Wode, H. (1976). Developmental sequences in naturalistic second language acquisition. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 11, 1-13. 149 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 25 Title A name given to the resource Perceived lexical similarities between L2 Italian and L3 English in the reading comprehension of Croatian-Italian bilingual EFL learners Author Author Bradičić, Ana Abstract A summary of the resource. Recent studies investigating transfer in language acquisition have shown that not only the knowledge of a first language, but also all other languages known to a person may facilitate the acquisition of a new language. This is also the case with languages belonging to different language families such as English and Italian, which, nonetheless, have many conspicuous lexical similarities. Whereas studies have concentrated on language production and error analysis, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of investigating third language comprehension as well. The present study examines the perception of lexical similarities in written text comprehension by Croatian-Italian bilinguals who are at two distinct levels of English proficiency. A form involving similarity judgments for lexical items varying in the degree of formal and semantic similarity has been designed drawing on real language use as provided by corpora. The results obtained are compared to objective formal similarity as provided by a string matching algorithm, the normalized Levenshtein distance. Results suggest that the ratings of lexical similarity perceived by the learners are related to formal and semantic word similarity. They also indicate that in the case of semantically similar words older students rely more on previously acquired lexical knowledge, whereas younger learners tend to give more uniform ratings relying more on formal similarity. We suggest that an explicit approach to raising the learners‘ awareness of language similarity and to promoting transfer as a learning strategy would improve the third language learning process and its outcome Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd87379a5b5f9e65e3583177e2f067ee.pdf b3b9c48741ea0823a10b552507f0b863 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Azize BoĢnak Department of American Culture and Literature Fatih University Istanbul, TURKEY abosnak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection . INTRODUCTION The ultimate aim of reading is to develop better thinking skills while acquiring knowledge. Reading in a sense is more than covering the printed material. Francis Bacon warns against the mistake that people tend to make; either reading to dispute and reject, or reading and accepting it uncritically as if printed materials are all undisputable facts. For him the right way is ―weighing and considering‖ what is read. ―To read without reflection is like eating without digesting,‖ says Edmund Burke to emphasize the importance of reasoning (cited in Adams: 1999, 196). Reasoning in reading sets the mind at work; examining, making decisions, interpreting, comparing, collating, questioning, criticizing and similar mental activities. Reasoning enforces reading to be an active and dynamic process. Reading courses in ELT at college level aim at enabling students to acquire reading skills and strategies at cognitive and meta-cognitive levels. At the cognitive level, as Douglas Brown puts it, the reader uses strategies such as repetition, grouping, recombination, deduction, inferring and so forth. The aim is to manipulate the learning material. The meta-cognitive level is gained through planning, thinking about the learning process and evaluating it (Brown: 2000, 115). While developing the cognitive and meta-cognitive skills and strategies students are also supposed to acquire critical reading. Critical readers are also critical thinkers. They carefully evaluate the evidence presented in the written material, analyze the different views, and make sound judgments. Teaching critical literacy means helping students ―see and question dominant power themes (Wolk: 2003, 101).‖ These themes do not only exist in the text, but also in the society and world. Thus, in a broader sense, textual reading is also about reading the life. Students practice in seeing and questioning without being told what to think, but being encouraged to develop unfixed, versatile points of view with an inquisitive mind. Critical reading: Critical reading is an active, intellectually engaged process in which the reader participates in an inner dialogue with the writer. Most people read uncritically and so miss some part of what is expressed while distorting other parts. A critical reader realizes the way in which reading, by its very nature, means entering into a point of view other than our own, the point of view of the writer. A critical reader actively looks for assumptions, key concepts and ideas, reasons and justifications, supporting examples, parallel experiences, implications and consequences, and any other structural features of the written text, to interpret and assess it accurately and fairly. See elements of thought. Teaching reading is about conveying the ardor for reading across students. Similarly, the joy of reasoning both analytical and critical is transferred into the classroom. However, reasoning, or better thinking are 196 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo not one of the concerns of traditional discipline-based teaching. Explicit instruction of thinking is unusual in most higher education institutions. Thinking is multi-dimensional and can be done in different ways and at different levels. Critical thinking as a higher level thinking in which one evaluates the processes and problems are identified and solved. Some colleges and universities offer specific courses in which models of efficient thinking are designed to be taught to students (Halpern: 1998, 449). I believe that Reading courses provide the good grounds for instructing thinking skills engraved into reading skills. Therefore in the following part of this paper, I am going to focus on some models of instruction in the Reading course, which will contribute to creating a syllabus that includes reading skills as well as analytical and critical thinking skills, . To be analytical is a prerequisite in critical reading; therefore analytical skills will be considered as inherent elements in critical reading ABOUT THE DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION The first and most important insight necessary for the appropriate design of instruction and curriculum is that content is, in the last analysis, nothing more nor less than a mode of thinking. There is no way to learn a body of content without learning the concepts which define and structure it. There is no way to learn a concept without learning how to use it in thinking something through. Hence, to learn the concept of democracy is to learn how to figure out whether some group is functioning democratically or not. To learn the concept of fair play is to learn how to figure out whether someone is being fair in the manner in which they are participating in a game. To learn the concept of a novel is to learn how to distinguish a novel from a play or short story. To learn the concept of a family is to learn how to distinguish a family from a gang or club. To learn anybody of content, therefore, it is necessary to learn to think accurately and reasonably with the concepts that define the content (DasBender: 2010, 38). To this point the majority of teachers and students approach content, not as a mode of thinking, not as a system for thought, or even as a system of thought, but rather as a sequence of stuff to be routinely "covered" and committed to memory. When content is approached in this lower order way, there is no basis for intellectual growth, no deep structures of knowledge formed, no basis for long term grasp and control. Instructional design involves a teacher thinking about instruction in both structural and tactical ways. Overall structural thinking-for example, about the concept for the course-can help free a teacher from the Didactic Model into which we have been conditioned and the ineffective teaching that invariably accompanies it. Simple and complex tactical thinking can provide the means by which we can follow through on our structural decisions in an effective way. Our teaching will not be transformed simply because we philosophically believe in the value of critical thinking. We must find practical ways to bring it into instruction, both structurally and tactically. The following part includes some teaching techniques and subjects that are expected to improve thinking skills of students while improving their reading skills. The importance of thinking and good reasoning is reminded to students through these techniques and subject s throughout the reading process. Teaching Students How to Question Thinking is not driven by answers but by questions. Questions define tasks, express problems and delineate issues. Answers on the other hand, often signal a full stop in thought. Only when an answer generates a further question does thought continue its life as such. It is true that only students who have questions are really thinking and learning. It is possible to give students an examination on any subject by just asking them to list all of the questions that they have about a subject, including all questions generated by their first list of questions. Unfortunately, most students ask virtually none of these thought-stimulating types of questions. They tend to stick to dead questions like "Is this going to be on the test?" The questions that imply the desire not to think. Most teachers in turn are not themselves generators of questions and answers of their own; that is, are not seriously engaged in thinking through or rethinking through their own subjects. Rather, they are purveyors of the questions and answers of others-usually those of a textbook. We must continually remind ourselves that thinking begins with respect to some content only when questions are generated by both teachers and students. If we want thinking we must stimulate it with questions that lead students to further questions. We must overcome what previous schooling has done to the thinking of students. We must reactivate minds that are largely dead when we receive them. We must give our students what might be called "artificial cogitation" (the intellectual equivalent of artificial respiration). 197 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An example of a preliminary technique to teach creating questions: SQR can be taught as a preliminary questioning technique in which students firstly surveys the main title and the sub-titles, and change them into question forms. After forming the questions they look for the answers by reading the text. This creates a sense of focus in the minds of the students. Having Students Evaluate the Organization of the Text All texts are bound to the organizational rules of the genre they belong to. Even if they do not conform perfectly to the rules, they still bear a sense of organization, and coherence. In Reading courses for freshmen in language departments, organizational rules for the paragraph, the essay and the narrative (the short story) are commonly taught. Students read the details of the text at the same time they analyze the cohesive devices that contributes to overall coherence and unity. In this way students learn to switch back and forth from overall structure of the text to the details in the meaning. This technique provides good grounds to trigger the students‘ evaluative faculties. The teacher should encourage them to criticize the organizational shortcomings of the text. They can also compare different texts of the same genre and evaluate their organizational qualities. For instance; while analyzing the way the thesis statement is presented in an essay, and how the supporting ideas match with the thesis, they can also compare the essay with another one that follows a different organizational system of its own. Another example is that when students analyze the elements of the short story, they can also evaluate which elements are stronger than others and how they contribute to the themes better. Thus, teaching the organization of a text, and having students consider the meaning and the organization together can create the opportunity of evaluating the text in a more intricate way, which would lead to more intensive thinking. Teaching Writing / Discourse Patterns Teaching the discourse patterns of a text separately is another technique to contribute to the thinking skills. By examining the way a writer develops the argument, the reader can better penetrate into the reasoning in the argument. To evaluate what the writer is saying by looking into how the writer is saying it whether through: _ using examples, statistics, or anecdotes, _ comparing and contrasting two or more ideas of subjects, _ using definitions, _ showing the effect of some cause or action, _ classifying, _ persuasive argumentation or objective exposition Analysis of the writing / discourse patterns can enable students to think more distinctly about the argumentation style of the writer. It can facilitate better reasoning about the main idea of the text, and also pave the way for building up to more critical evaluation of the style and the meaning. Teaching Further Analysis towards Making Analytic Distinctions When we analyze, we break a whole into parts. We do this because understanding complex wholes requires understanding them through the interplay of their parts. Success in thinking requires developing, first of all, an analytic mind. The structures that define the parts of thinking include goals and purposes, problems and issues, information and data, inferences and conclusions, concepts and theories, assumptions and beliefs, implications and consequences, viewpoints and perspectives. To assess thinking, we apply universal intellectual standards to both parts and whole. These standards are the criteria by which thinking is judged by educated and reasonable persons. Unfortunately, most people are unaware of these standards. These standards include, but are not limited to, clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, depth, breadth, logicalness, and fairness. 198 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Analysis and evaluation are crucial skills for all students to master. They are required in learning any significant body of content in a non-trivial way. Students are commonly asked to analyze poems, chapters in textbooks, concepts and ideas, essays, novels, and articles. Other than these teachers can have their students get aware of some further analytic distinctions that will lead to critical thinking. For instance, the distinction _ between facts and interpretations, which emphasizes that interpretations or opinions should not be taken as facts; _ between matters of taste and matters of judgment, which is to show that opinion, can be based on a taste, or on a judgment. The former while expressing a preference that may not need strong evidence to support, the latter needs sound argumentation with supportive evidence. What if the controversial issues like any sort of discrimination, mercy killings, voting for a candidate, laws concerning different issues and etc. are being discussed as a matter of taste rather than matters of judgment; _between the author‘s ideological stance and her/his ideas, which is to make students aware that people sometimes display rejection towards the writer without knowing what s/he is saying due to some preconceived ideas about the writer, or contrary to this, they may be inclined to accept whatever exposed by a certain writer. _between the quality of the expression and the validity of the meaning, which is to raise the awareness that some pompous eloquent expressions can evoke a great response the validity of the meaning of which can be quite questionable. On the other hand, poorly expressed realities may not take enough attention (Adams: 1999, 197199). These further analytic distinctions teachers make together with students can motivate students to invest more into thinking, changing their position towards the text from being more receptive and submissive to being more evaluative and dominant. Teaching about Authors‘ Attitude, Tone and Bias An author‘s personal way of approaching a subject is the indication of his/her attitude. Sometimes authors sound objective, sometimes quite subjective by letting their personal feelings known by the reader. The author‘s likes, dislikes, agreements, disagreements, and biases are revealed. The tone of an author becomes conspicuous through his/her choices of words, expressions, and the way the author makes up sentences. For instance, the tone of an author about a serious issue like war can be so humorous that the reader cannot help laughing. This does not mean that the author finds wars funny. Quite opposite, s/he might be trying to show the absurdity of the reasons that sometimes cause the war. An author‘s attitude and tone traced in the text reveal whether s/he is biased for or against a subject. Bias is the mental leaning or inclination. We must clearly distinguish two different senses of the word ‘‘bias‘‘. One is neutral, the other negative. In the neutral sense we are referring simply to the fact that, because of one's point of view, one notices some things rather than others, emphasizes some points rather than others, and thinks in one direction rather than others. This is not in itself a criticism because thinking within a point of view is unavoidable. In the negative sense, we are implying blindness or irrational resistance to weaknesses within one's own point of view or to the strength or insight within a point of view one opposes. To be able to spot the biases is a higher level awareness which require critical reading. Introducing this skill to students can improve their critical look at the text. Teaching the Logical Fallacies and Propaganda Commonly used in the text Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments. By learning to look for them in one‘s own and others' writings, one can strengthen his/her ability to evaluate the arguments they make, read, and hear. It is important to realize two things about fallacies: First, fallacious arguments are very common and can be quite persuasive, at least to the casual reader or listener. One can find dozens of examples of fallacious reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, and other sources. Second, it is sometimes hard to evaluate whether an argument is fallacious. An argument might be very weak, somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very strong. An argument that has several stages or parts might have some strong sections and some weak ones. The goal of teaching this subject is not only to teach how to label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free, but to help students look critically at their own arguments. Some of the most common examples of these fallacies are as follows (Hurley: 2008, 149-173): 199 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Hasty generalization: Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes about people ("librarians are shy and smart," "wealthy people are snobs," etc.) are a common example of the principle underlying hasty generalization. Missing the point: The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws. For example: "The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime. Right now, the punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty should be the punishment for drunk driving." The argument actually supports several conclusions—"The punishment for drunk driving should be very serious," in particular—but it doesn't support the claim that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted. In such cases one should ask himself/herself what kind of evidence would be required to support such a conclusion, and then see if you've actually given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or extreme conclusion is being drawn. Post hoc (also called false cause): This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "post hoc, ergo propter hoc," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this." Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes later—for example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related as cause and event. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation. For example, "This government raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. The president is responsible for the rise in crime." The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other. Weak Analogy: Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas, or situations. If the two things that are being compared aren't really alike in the relevant respects, the analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy. For example: "Guns are like hammers—they're both tools with metal parts that could be used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers—so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous." While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal parts, being tools, and being potentially useful for violence) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we restrict guns because they can easily be used to kill large numbers of people at a distance. This is a feature hammers do not share—it'd be hard to kill a crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak, and so is the argument based on it. If you think about it, you can make an analogy of some kind between almost any two things in the world: "My paper is like a mud puddle because they both get bigger when it rains (I work more when I'm stuck inside) and they're both kind of murky." So the mere fact that one draws an analogy between two things doesn't prove much, by itself. It is needed to think more analytically to identify what properties are important to the claim one is making, and see whether the two things being compared both share those properties. Appeal to authority: Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who really isn't much of an expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority. For example: "We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy Handsome, have publicly stated their opposition to it." While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters having to do with acting, there's no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political opinions—he is probably no more of an authority on the death penalty than the person writing the paper . Other than logical fallacies, teaching how to detect the propaganda techniques used in the text provide good means to empowering students thinking skills. The following can be chosen to teach among the most commonly used propaganda techniques (Adams: 1999, 218-220). Name Calling: This technique uses words, or labels that have bad or negative meanings to certain people. A propaganda that uses the negative labels against others call for the biases against those people. ―Sexist‖, ―leftist‖, ―yuppie‖, ―terrorist‖ can be used to sway people to be for or against a person or a group. 200 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Glittering Generalities: This technique is the opposite of name calling. It is used to win the reader / listener over by using words or phrases that are acceptable to most people: ―motherhood,‖ ―faith in God,‖ ―honesty,‖ ―the wisdom of our founding fathers,‖ ―family- man,‖ ―freedom fighters‖. The fallacy is that they are used in vague and meaningless way, in the hope that the nice words will become associated with the person. The words here glitter with nice sounds, but their sparkle is not real because the meaning is empty. Distortion or Twisting: This technique uses only half-truths or part-truths. Rather than telling the whole truth, propagandists and advertisers sometimes only pick what sounds good or bad and ―twist‖ the facts in a way that best suits the purpose. The materials which include distorted or twisted arguments can be a good material while teaching students thinking better. Good reasoning, alert readers will certainly enjoy not falling into the trap easily. Sloagans: The use of catchy words or phrases is another technique of propagandists. During World War II, the slogan ―Remember Pearl Harbor‖ was used to get people to buy war bonds and to make certain sacrifices needed for the war effort. Phrases such as ―In God We Trust‖ and ―United We Stand‖ are all used to influence our thinking and to make us feel we are together and of one mind. This method can be good or bad. As with all propaganda methods, we need to read or think beyond the words and seek the facts. CONCLUSION We now recognize that analytical and critical thinking, by its very nature, requires, for example, the recognition that all reasoning occurs within points of view and frames of reference; that all reasoning proceeds from some goals and objectives, has an informational base; that all data when used in reasoning must be interpreted, that interpretation involves concepts; that concepts entail assumptions, and that all basic inferences in thought have implications. We now recognize that each of these dimensions of thinking need to be monitored and that problems of thinking can occur in any of them. Independent of the subject studied, students need to be able to articulate thinking about thinking that reflects basic command of the intellectual dimensions of thought: "Let‘s see, what is the most fundamental issue here?‖ ―From what point of view should I approach this problem?‖ ―Does it make sense for me to assume this?‖ ―From these data may I infer this?‖ ―What is implied in this graph?‖ ―What is the fundamental concept here?‖ ―Is this consistent with that?‖ ―What makes this question complex?‖ ―How could I check the accuracy of these data?‖ ―If this is so, what else is implied?‖ ―Is this a credible source of information?‖ In teaching and learning that focuses on analytical and critical thinking is the recognition that critical thinking instruction can be explicitly done, and be facilitated including some teaching items into the syllabus such as questioning techniques, organizational inquiries combined with comprehension of content, analysis of writing/ discourse patterns, some certain analytical distinctions that are made in connection to the biases about the writer and his/her ideas, the validity of the quality expressions, facts and interpretations, issues of taste and issues of judgment and so on. Other than teaching to make these distinctions, students can be equipped with the ability of recognizing logical fallacies and propagandist languages hidden in the text. In addition they can be explicitly taught how to question the attitude, and biases of authors that are revealed in between the lines. With intellectual language, students can be taught thinking skills that moves within any subject field. What is more, there is no reason in principle that students cannot take the basic tools of critical thought which they learn in one domain of study and extend it (with appropriate adjustments) to all the other domains and subjects which they study. As for FLT departments, analytical and critical thinking of the students empowered in reading classes will definitely contribute to students‘ intellectual performance in other classes. 201 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adams, W. Royce and Jane Brody, (1999). Reading Beyond Words. 6 th Ed. New York: Harcourt Color Publisher. Brown, Douglas, (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. 4th Ed. NY: Longman. Daspender, Gita, (2010). ―Critical Thinking in College Writing: From the Personal to the AcademicLowe.‖ (Eds. In) Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing. Pavel Zemliansky and Charles Lowe. Volume 2. SC: Parlor Press. Hurley, Patrick J, (2008). A Concise Introduction to Logic. New York: Thomson Learning. Lunsford, Andrea and John Ruszkiewicz, (2010). Everything‘s an Argument. 5th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin. Sears, A., and J. Parsons. ―Toward Critical Thinking as an Ethic.‖ Theory and Research In Social Education, 1991, 19, 45–46. Wolk, Steven. ―Teaching for critical literacy in social studies.‖ The Social Studies. May-June 2003 v94 i3 p101(6) 202 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 31 Title A name given to the resource FOSTERING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANALYTICAL AND CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS IN AN UNDERGRADUATE READING COURSE Author Author Bosnak, Azize Abstract A summary of the resource. Language departments of most universities have a purpose in offering a reading course to freshmen. Students need to get prepared for heavy academic reading load, and learn how to tackle with texts of different lengths and genres. Reading, generally, is an analytical and critical process. It requires reflection and desicionmaking. Reading comprehension enhances through better thinking skills. However, thinking skills are not explicitly taught in reading classes. Modern trends in teaching reading skills integrate explicit instruction of analythical thinking and critical thinking skills. This paper seeks the ways of designing a reading course for freshmen in which identifyable analythical and critical thinking skills are integrated into reading skills, and the reading subjects and activities emphatically foster thinking and reflection. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2afed6f74adec36192d2bbbd6d80676.pdf 8f91f374f7d61a095d3e128b99e64c24 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame u Italiji Gordana BojiĦiĤ Studijski program za italijanski jezik I knjiņevnost Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ, Univerzitet Crne Gore bgole81@yahoo.com Apstrakt: M. Garavelli (1971:2003) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima „una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi‖. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Razlog za njegovu tako veliku upotrebu moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). U radu Ĥemo prenijeti klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila u zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se nalaze subjekat i predikat i ograniĦiti se na primjere u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame. KljuĦne rijeĦi: italijanski jezik, jezik reklame, nominalni stil Uvod Sloboda je bez sumnje najoĦiglednija karakteristika jezika reklame. Ona se prepoznaje u leksici (neprestano stvaranje novih rijeĦi, naziva za proizvode), sintaksi (izostavljanje glagola, Ħlana, predloga) i stilu (izbor rijeĦi, upotreba stilskih figura). Ovako je, u osnovi, Marcel Galliot (1954: 7) opisao jezik reklame, jedan od najņivljih struĦnih jezika, koji, buduĤi da je svakodnevno prisutan u svim zemljama, obuhvata sve aspekte nańeg svakodnevnog ņivota. Zbog ove njegove jedinstvene prirode koja ga stavlja negdje na pola puta izmeħu struĦnog i razgovornog jezika, jezik reklame Ħini taĦku u kojoj se susreĤu daleke i neobiĦne jeziĦke realnosti, tako da mu je povjeren ne bań lak zadatak da uskladi te realnosti i uĦini ih izraņajnim kroz inovativna a ponekad i smjela reńenja. Ako se nadoveņemo na Galliotovo objańnjenje, moņemo bez sumnje tvrditi da je jedna od osnovnih karakteristika ovog jezika, koji ne moņemo nazvati prostim jeziĦkim kodom, buduĤi da je i sam skup raznih kodova i potkodova, njegova velika sloboda. To je jezik Ħije se izraņajne moguĤnosti neprestano ńire, toliko da ponekad, kako tvrde jeziĦki puristi, prelazi granice prihvatljivosti. Testa (1988: 107) smatra da postoje tri osnovna razloga zbog kojih jezik reklame mora biti inovativan: - Una novità formale può rendere curioso un messaggio che non comunica novità sostanziali, ma che d'altra parte intende ricordare alcune importanti caratteristiche del prodotto. - Tra la lingua parlata e il linguaggio pubblicitario l'interscambio è costante. Chi si occupa di comunicazione dovrebbe poter cogliere tempestivamente le mode e i mutamenti verbali, per poi rielaborarli e riproporli al pubblico con le opportune variazioni. - Molto spesso prodotti analoghi vantano performance simili. In questi casi l'originalità del trattamento creativo e del linguaggio può servire a ristabilire qualche differenza. Ad attribuire al prodotto oggettivamente allineato con gli altri un valore soggettivo corrispondente alle attese del target. Reklama, dakle, nije samo mjesto gdje se sreĤu i prepliĤu razliĦiti jeziĦki kodovi, od jezika tehnike do ņargona, od stranih jezika do knjiņevnog jezika, veĤ i plodno tle za jeziĦko eksperimentisanje a istovremeno i jedan od osnovnih razloga, prema lingvistima, takozvanog fenomena jeziĦke anemije koja, kako istiĦe Maria Corti (1978: 142), putem progresivne i stalne kristalizacije formi i rijeĦi, atrofira i sputava potencijale karakteristiĦne za svaki jezik. Jezik reklame je imao pozitivan uticaj u odbacivanju jednog previńe „krutog‖ italijanskog jezika koji je bio bliņi knjiņevnom nego razgovornom jeziku, jer je uveo u upotrebu jednostavnije sintaktiĦke konstrukcije. Jedna od takvih sintaktiĦkih pojava je sve veĤe prisustvo nominalnih knstrukcija u jeziku reklame. 508 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nominalni stil Ńta je to nominalni stil? Brojne su definicije a neveńĤemo samo neke od njih. Orlandoni (2005: 19) smatra da nominalni stil predstavlja transformaciju glagola u imenicu, odnosno prelaz obiĦnog glagola u frazeolońki izraz, i datu pojavu vidi kao osnovnu karakterstiku jezika politike. Scarpa (2001) nominalizaciju definińe kao transformaciju glagolske sintagme u imeniĦku sintagmu Ħime se, eliminacijom relativnih reĦenica, postiņe sintaktiĦka konciznost. Meħutim, nominalizacija dovodi i do velike leksiĦke gustine, ukidanja moĤi samih glagola koji, ukoliko su i navedeni, bivaju svedeni na ulogu kopule, kao i do semantiĦki sloņenih izraza koji mogu nańkoditi razumijevanju teksta. Mortara Garavelli (1971: 273) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima ―una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi.‖ Dardano (2001: 327) smatra da je sasvim pogreńno shvatanje da glagol, odnosno predikat, predstavlja sintaktiĦki centar reĦenice. Kao glavni argument u tom smislu navodi upravo nominalni stil. Fenomen da imenica preovladava nad glagolom karakteristika je razliĦitih sektorskih jezika, ne samo u Italiji, nego svuda u svijetu, prije svega u jeziku novina, birokratskom i tehniĦkom jeziku. U tim poljima autori jeziĦkih poruka, kako u pisanom tako i u govornom jeziku, maksimalno koriste imenice i odnose meħu imenicama, pridjevima, predlozima, prilozima i sl. Klasa glagola se svodi na malobrojne elemente, i to prije svega na glagol biti koji najĦeńĤe moņe biti eliminisan, a da pritom znaĦenje poruke ne bude naruńeno. Dardano, dalje, istiĦe da je upravo jezik reklame uticao na ńirenje nominalnog stila, prije svega u ńtampanim medijima. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Otkuda tolika upotreba imenskih reĦenica? Razlog za to moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame PolazeĤi od Dardanove tvrdnje da se nominalni stil rasprostranio upravo zahvaljujuĤi jeziku reklame, pokuńali smo da utvrdimo koliko je zaista prisustvo ove pojave u tom sektorskom jeziku. Joń je Cardona (1974: 46) prije skoro pola vijeka smatrao nominalizaciju osnovnom karakteristikom jezika reklame koja privlaĦi paņnju primaoca poruke upravo zahvaljujuĤi svojoj neobiĦnosti koja istovremeno uspjeva da prenese osnovnu poruku. Prilikom analize, kao model smo uzeli klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila koju daje Mortara Garavelli (1971) a svi primjeri odnose se na novinske i televizijske reklame. Data klasifikacija Ĥe nam pomoĤi i da utvrdimo koji je to tip nominalnog stila najfrekventniji u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame u Italiji. Mortara Garavelli polazi od stava da u svakoj jeziĦkoj poruci mora postojati subjekat (ono o Ħemu se govori) i predikat (koji govori neńto o subjektu). Odnos izmeħu subjekta i predikata smatra se osnovnim sintaktiĦkim odnosom. U zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se ta dva osnovna elementa nalaze, ona izdvaja Ħetiri osnovne grupe sa odreħenim podgrupama. 1. grupa: kada postoje subjekat koji je nosilac poruke i imenski predikat u okviru kojeg se pretpostavlja postojanje kopule. RazliĦiti podtipovi su konstrukcije u kojima pronalazimo neku od sledeĤih kombinacija: a) dvije imenice: imenica u funkciji predikata mora prethoditi imenici u funkciji subjekta jer bi u suprotnom sluĦaju u pitanju bila apozicija: ―Ecco la novità giovane, la Peugeot 206 station wagon.‖ b) infinitiv (subjekat) + imenica (predikat), i c) infinitiv (subjekat) + pridjev (predikat) u kojima takoħe predikat mora prethoditi subjektu. Nijesmo pronańli primjer za ove dvije konstrukcije u korpusu ovog rada. d) imenica (subjekat) + pridjev (predikat): ―La casa in Laterizio: logica, ed ecologica. Microclima ottimale, acuistica perfetta, resistenza alle intemperie, nessun bisogno di manutenzione, estetica e sicurezza certificate, totale rispetto dell‘ambiente... Oggi come sempre. Andil Assolaterizi‖164; ili Ħesta konstrukcija offerta valida fino al... 164 L‘espresso, n.33, 25/08/2005: 166. 509 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo U prvu grupu spadaju joń neki podtipovi, u kojima je, meħutim, predikat predstavljen imenskim oblikom glagola ili prilogom: e) imenica + particip prezenta: ―Nuovo Colour Surge Impossibly Glossy. Scandalosamente lucido. Spudoratamente brillante. Incredibilmente idratante. In una parola irresistibile. In 10 tonalità ultra sexy. Clinique165. f) imenica + particip prošli: ―Nuova Citroën C3. Decisamente sconsigliata ai timidi‖166; ―MatiSpa: la nuova linea di trattamenti e prodotti con i principi attivi degli estratti marini e oli essenziali, studiata per ogni tua esigenza. Qualità esclusiva. Straordinaria efficacia. Puro piacere‖167. g) imenica + predlog a + infinitiv i h) imenica (ili imenska sintagma) + prilog. Za ove dvije kategorije nijesmo pronańli primjere u korpusu. 2. grupa: kada postoji imenska sintagma, obiĦno prońirena, koja ima ulogu predikata u odnosu na subjekat koji se ne pojavljuje u reĦenici (tzv. soggetto sottinteso). Postoje sledeĤi podtipovi: a) imenica (+ atribut) i b) jedan ili više povezanih pridjeva, iza kojih slijede priloške odredbe za koliĦinu ili relativne reĦenice Nijesmo pronańli primjere u korpusu. 3. grupa: ne postoje posebno izdvojeni subjekat i predikat; nalazimo samo jedan imenski element koji moņe imati ulogu ili subjekta ili predikata. U ovoj grupi se izdvajaju tri podtipa, kako postepeno raste glagolska vrijednost: a) deverbali kojima slijedi neka odrednica: ―risposte per i tuoi bisogni― b) deverbal ili infinitiv kojem prethodi odrednica i c) infinitiv + sintagma koja oznaĦava vršioca radnje: za koje, opet, nema primjera u korpusu. 4. grupa: postoji samo jedan imenski element, koji uvijek ima funckiju subjekta. Predikat se obiĦno odreħuje logiĦkim putem, pomoĤu oblika koji ukazuju na postojanje subjekta (c‘è), koji ustanovljavaju njegovo postojanje (si vede) ili ga smjeńtaju u odreħenu sredinu (si trova). Ovaj tip se najeĦeńĤe sreĤe u reklamama. Navodimo samo neke od primjera: ―Lea ceramiche. Emozioni in casa. STONEHENGE. Atmosfere millenarie per ambienti d‘avanguardia. Superfici naturali o satinate in 4 colori e 4 formati diversi. Lea. La passione della Ceramica168‖; ―Linea solare Sisley. In pieno sole. Per tutte le pelli. Un vero successo‖169. Mortara Garavelli posebno izdvaja druge tri kategorije koje se mogu smatrati nominalnim stilom. To su: 1. giustapposizione, odnosno izostavljanje predloga i veznika: ―‘Unica‘ Tim con super-autoricarica, tutti ti chiamano tutti ti ricaricano‖170; ―Aperol soda, beati gli avidi.‖171 2. imenske grupe u ulozi apozicije (obiĦno ovakve reĦenice pronalazimo na samom kraju reklame): ―Mondiali Fifa 2006, il videogioco ufficiale per PC e Play-station‖172 165 Cosmopolitan, n.5, maggio 2005: 19. TV: Canale 5. 167 Silhouette, n.8, agosto 2005: 12. 168 Casamica, n.4, 5/04/2003: 202. 169 Donna moderna, n.31, 31/07/2002: 35. 170 idem. 171 Gioia, n.8, 26/02/2002: 15 172 TV: Canale 5. 166 510 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Geomar. Bellezza naturale della terra e del mare"173; "Ariston. Il tuo prossimo desiderio"174; ―Collistar. Leader nei trattamenti corpo‖175; ―Leicht. Cucine tedesche"176; ―Iodase complex e Ice. Il personal trainer contro la cellulite. Crema iodase complete‖177 3.imenske grupe u ulozi atributa: ―Nuova Citroën C3. Unica, decisa e inconfodibile‖178; ―Tutti pazzi per il mais. Buono, buonissimo‖179; ―Il Fiat JTD Diesel Common Rail. Più pulito, potente e performante...‖180; ―Mascara extrablack. Allungante. Incurvante. Volume‖181. Osnovna razlika izmeħu imenskih kategorija u ulozi apozicije i atributa ogleda se prije svega u Ħinjenici da kod prvih nukleus nominalne grupe predstavljaju imenice dok je u drugoj grupi ta uloga prepuńtena pridjevima i participima. ZakljuĦak Ukoliko osmotrimo ovaj kratak pregled ostaje nam da zakljuĦimo da su u jeziku reklame najbrojniji primjeri koji se mogu svrstati u prvu i Ħetvrtu grupu, dok primjera za drugu i treĤu grupu gotovo da i nema. Uopńte gledajuĤi, nominalni stil je glavno obiljeņje jezika reklame upravo radi njene ekonomiĦnosti i efikasnosti. Ako je, dakle, nominalni stil sredstvo kojim se postiņe jeziĦka ekonomiĦnost, jasno nam je da je moguĤe eliminisati iz teksta elemente koji imaju malu informativnu vrijednost (Ħlanovi, veznici, predlozi), a da to nije moguĤe kada su u pitanju imenice i pridjevi pomoĤu kojih se postiņe najveĤa ekonomiĦnost uz najmanje upotrebljenih rijeĦi. 173 Silhouette, n.4, aprile 2005: 154. Gioia, n.21, 29/05/2001: 170. 175 Silhouette, n.4, aprile 2005: 69. 176 TV: Rai 1. 177 Cosmopolitan n.6, giugno 2005: 261. 178 TV: Canale 5 179 TV: Rai 1. 180 idem. 181 Donna moderna, n.31, 31/07/2002: 127. 174 511 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCE AA.VV. (1974). Fenomeni morfologici e sintattici nell‘italiano contemporaneo. Roma: Bulzoni. Id. (1991). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Milano: Mursia. Baldini, M. (a cura di). (2003). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Le fantaparole. Roma: Armando. Cardona, G. R. (1974). La lingua della pubblicità. Ravenna: Longo. Corti, M. (1978). Il linguaggio della pubblicità. In A. Chiantera (a cura di), Una lingua in vendita. L‘italiano della pubblicità. Roma: NIS, pp. 139-159. Dardano, M. (1981). Il linguaggio dei giornali italiani, Bari: Laterza. Id. (2003). Il linguaggio dei giornali: il registro pubblicitario. In M. Baldini (a cura di), Il linguaggio della pubblicità. Le fantaparole. Roma: Armando, pp. 199-206. Dardano, M., Trifone, P. (2001). La nuova grammatica della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. Galliot, M. (1954). Essai sur la langue de la réclame contemporaine. Toulouse: Edouard Privat. Mortara Garavelli, B. (1971). Fra norma e invenzione: lo stile nominale. In Studi di grammatica italiana I. Firenze: Sansoni, pp. 271-315. Orlandoni, O. (2005). Tecnica della comunicazione scritta. http://www.scribd.com/doc/51102460/TecnicaDella-Comunicazione-Scritta-Imparare-A-Scrivere-Uniroma Scarpa, F. (2001). La traduzione specializzata: lingue speciali e mediazione linguistica. Milano: Hoepli. Sergio, G. (2004). Il linguaggio della pubblicità radiofonica. Roma: Aracne. Testa, A. (1988). La parola immaginata. Parma: Pratiche. Zingarelli, N. (2001). Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. 512 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 77 Title A name given to the resource Nominalni stil u jeziku reklame u Italiji Author Author Bojičić, Gordana Abstract A summary of the resource. M. Garavelli (1971:2003) definińe nominalni stil kao sintaktiĦku jedinicu koja u osnovi ima „una frase in cui la funzione predicativa è affidata a una forma della classe morfologica dei nomi‖. U italijanskom jeziku uopńte, nominalni stil je toliko rasprostranjen da je postepeno izgubio sopstvenu stilsku moĤ. Razlog za njegovu tako veliku upotrebu moņe biti taj ńto se imenske reĦenice smatraju idealnim sredstvom koje moņe odgovoriti zahtjevu jeziĦke ekonomiĦnosti, posebno u nekim kanalima prenońenja (prije svega usmenom, ali i pisanom: u jeziku novina pa i samoj reklami). U radu Ĥemo prenijeti klasifikaciju razliĦitih vrsta nominalnog stila u zavisnosti od pozicije u kojoj se nalaze subjekat i predikat i ograniĦiti se na primjere u jeziku televizijske i novinske reklame. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c747e5392a7c68471de0bf2184cd36e2.pdf 35f9dca322b13cc17e90ac358df640a2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Francesca Bertonazzi Università degli Studi di Parma francesca.bertonazzi@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Key words: multilinguistic and multicultural analysis; Indo-European and Semitic languages; cultural studies; embryo; applied linguistics. Introduction The concept of ―embryo‖ is hard to define nowadays, and so it was in the ancient world. Modern tecnologies help us in defining stages of development and features, but many problems emerge talking about the existence before birth: why some parts take shape before others? Why are some embryos male and others female? When does the sparkle of life enter into the foetus allowing it to be considered a person? Today some of these questions find a complete answer in medicine and biology. This presentation wants to display how the Indo-European world answers to the questions mentioned above and a few others. In some cases, Semitic culture will be examinated for a comparison. Starting point of the presentation is a Sanskrit medical-philosophical essay, the Garbhopaniṣ ad, which illustrates, in a chronological order, the development of the embryo (garbhas in Sanskrit) from the fertilization to the birth: for every stage of development there will be a comparison with other significant texts from Greek, Latin and Semitic culture, underlining linguistic and cultural affinities or differences. Texts regarded for this paper: Garbhopaniṣ ad (hereafter abbreviated as Garbh.Up.), Aristotle‘s Tw%n periè taè z§%a i|storiéon (History of Animals, H.A.), Aristotle‘s Periè z§éwn geneésewv (Generation of Anilmals, G.A.), Hippocrates‘ Periè gonh%v (On generation, On Gen.), Hippocrates‘ Periè fuésiov paidiéou (On the nature of the Infant, Nat.Inf.), Macrobius‘ Somnium Scipionis (Dream of Scipio), Aulus Gellius‘ Noctes Atticae, Censorinus‘ De Die Natali, the Bible, the Torah, the Koran. This short presentation of the embryo‘s question does not claim to be complete and exhaustive 106; only significant texts will be presented and discussed; in particular only the most significant pieces of the Latin tradition, largely related to the Greek one, will be offered. 106 For a general bibliography see at least: Benveniste (1945), Edde (1993), Filliozat (1943; 1975), Hoernle (1905), Krug (1990). 464 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo All translations from Sanskrit, Greek and Latin are mine; for Hebrew and Arabic the translations are provided by the critical edition of texts. A short linguistic apparatus in the endnotes, especially for the Sanskrit pieces, is aimed at a better understanding of the text. Stages of development Fertilization The traditional idea, accepted by most of the ancient authors, is that the embryo is formed from the union of blood (woman‘s product) and sperm (man‘s product). In the very beginning of Garbh.Up. the anonymous Author claims that the embryo has ―two origins‖107, and further in the text he adds: ―the embryo is born of the union of blood and sperm‖108; more precisely blood is produced by a sort of liquid secreted by the body whereas sperm originates from the spinal cord109. Hippocrates instead joins two different theories: according to the first one, sperm comes from all over the body; while, according to the second one, it comes from the brain and through the spinal cord arrives into kidneys and then into testicles110. In Garbh.Up. there is no an indication of when a woman can surely know she is pregnant; Aristotle on the contrary says she can be sure of it because of the dryness of the womb, ideal condition for sperm to remain into uterus; if it does not slide out within seven days, the woman is pregnant111. Another question is how the gender of the embryo can be established; Garbh.Up. makes the issue clear in few words: ―A male is created by a male flux excess, a female is created by a female flux excess‖ 112. Similarly Hippocrates: ―If the weakest semen is bigger than the strongest one and controls it, (the embryo) becomes female; if instead the strongest semen is bigger than the weakest one and controls it, (the embryo) is male‖113. Aristotle, on the other hand, amply deals with the gender issue and presents different hypothesis elaborated by Greek philosophers in order to refute them. First of all, Anaxagoras asserts that the opposition of gender is in the semen: a male embryo places itself on the right part of the uterus, a female embryo on the left part. According to Empedocles, a hot uterus generates a male, a cold one a female: high or low temperature is caused by menstruation flow; Democritus affirms that the difference is due to the prevalence of sperm over the blood (G.A., 4,1 764a). However, the Aristotle‘s position is very clear: ―the male's semen is different, because the male possesses in itself the principle that can make it able to move and to concoct the nourishment, instead the female's semen contains material only‖114. After defining the causes which create a male or a female foetus, Aristotle adds that the complete development of each part of the female embryo is slower than the development of the male one: as a matter of fact, girls born at ten months are more common than boys 115; the reason of this delay is the different heat between male, whose flesh is hotter, and female, whose flesh is warmer. Similarly Hippocrates considers the female semen weaker and moister and this is the reason of the delay in the growth of female foetus116. 107 ―dviyoni ‖. Dvi-: two; yoni-: womb, from √yu- ―to join‖. ―śukraśo itasa yogād āvartate garbho‖. śuklo: ―white; sperm‖, attested also as śukras-, from √śuc- ―to shine‖; śo itā-: ―blood‖; garbha-: ―embryo‖, from √grah- ―to receive‖. 109 ―rasāc cho ita (āvartate); majjātaḥ śukra (āvartate)‖. Rasa- ―liquid secreted by the body‖; cho ita = śo itā ―blood‖; majja- ―spinal cord‖. 110 ―[...] teiénei gaèr kaiè e\v tou%ton e\k pantoèv tou% swématov, kaiè diacwrei% e\k tou% e\gkefaélou e\v thèn o\sfuèn kaiè e\v paèn toè sw%ma kaiè e\v toèn mueloén, kaiè e\x au\tou% teiénousin o|doié, w$ste kaiè e\pieénai tou% u|grou% e\v au\toèn kaiè a\pocwrei%n. \Ephèn deè e!lq+ e\v tou%ton yoèn mueloèn h| gonhé, cwrei% paraè touèv nefrouèv: tauèt+ gaèr h| o|doév e\sti diaè flebw%n, kh!n oi| nefroiè e|lkwqeèwsin, e!stin o£te kaiè ai/ma sumfeéretai: paraè deè tw%n nefrw%n e!rcetai diaè tw%n o\rciéwn mesaétwn e\v toè ai\doi%on [...]‖. On Gen., 1,2-3. 111 ―Giénetai deè shmei%on tou% suneilhfeénai tai%v gunaixién, o£tan eu\quèv geénhtai metaè thèn o|miliéan o| toépov xhroév [...]. \Eaèn deè e|ptaè e\mmeién+ (toè speérma) h|meérav, faneroèn o£ti ei!lhptai: ai| gaèr kalouémenai e\kruéseiv e\n tauétaiv giénontai tai%v h|meéraiv.‖. H.A., 7,3,583. 112 ―pitū reto‘tirekāt puruṣo bhavati | mātūḥ reto‘tirekāt striyo‖. Pit - ―father‖; retas-: ―flux‖; ‘tirekāt: ati+reka: ―excess‖; puruṣa: ―male‖; māt - ―mother‖; striyo: ―female‖. 113 ―h!n gaèr poll§% pleéon toè a\sqeneèv speérma +& tou% i\scuroteérou, kratei%tai toè i\scuroèn kaiè micqeèn t§% a\sqenei% e\v qh%lu perihneécqh: h!n deè pleéon +& toè i\scuroèn tou% a\sqeneéov, krathq+% te toè a\sqeneév, e\s a!rsen perihneécqh‖.On Gen., 6,2. 114 ―Diafeérei deè toè tou% a!rrenov speérma, o£ti e!cei a\rchèn e\n e|aut§% toiauéthn oi£an kinei%n kaiè e\n t§% z§é§ kaiè diapeéttein thèn e\scaéthn trofhén, toè deè tou% qhéleov u£lhn moénon.‖. G.A., 4,1 766b. 115 ―Teéwv meèn ou&n pa%san thèn teleiéwsin tw%n moriéwn braduéteron a\polambaénei toè qh%lu tou% a!rrenov, kaiè dekaémhna giénetai ma%llon tw%n a\rreénwn‖. H.A., 7,3, 583b. 108 116 ―Ai!tion d‘ e\stin o£ti toè qh%lu ph%gnutai u£steron kaiè a\rqrou%tai,o£ti h| gonhè a\sqenesteérh e\sti kaiè u|groteérh th%v qhleéhv h! tou% a!rsenov: kaiè a\naégkh e\stiè kataè tou%ton toèn loégon u£steron toè qh%lu ph%gnusqai h! toè a!rsen [...]‖. On Gen., 18,8. 465 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From initial stages to 3rd month As regards the growth of each part of the body, Aristotle claims that is not so easy to define an exact order: ―it is not easy affirming if the parts formed first are those which exist with a view to something else, or if something else exists with a view to those‖ 117. A philosophic answer can be found few lines ahead: ―the parts formed first are those which contain the principle and are on the top of the body. Indeed the head and the eyes are more developed in the appearing of embryo, instead the bottom parts, like legs, are small‖118. Starting point of Aristotle‘s theory is totally rational and philosophical, unlike the Garbh.Up.‘s point of view: as all the aspects of life, the order of embryo‘s growth is governed by a deity119 too, and so there is no uncertainty about development. ―At the right time, from perfect union, in one night, the embryo becomes a infinitesimal part, in seven nights roundness, after half month spherical mass, in a month compact structure, in two months the head is formed, in three months the feet are too‖120. The Authors disagree about the very initial stages: Aristotle affirms that after the fertilization a thin membrane surrounds sperm, taking the form of egg (H.A. 7,6,586a), but he does not specify how long it takes. Hippocrates claims that female and male semen, joining together, make a single semen; staying in the uterus, being warmed up, it receives and emits a breath; then it grows and surrounds itself with a continuous and viscous membrane. At a certain point, something thin comes out (i.e. umbilical cord) while the rest of semen becomes a sphere into the membrane (Nat.Inf. XII,6). Then he describes accurately a six-day embryo: ―It is like removing the shell from an egg, in which the liquid inside membrane is clear; the mass is red and spherical; in the membrane, there are white and thick fibres, rolled up with a light-red and thick liquid, and around it, on the external side, some blood clots. In the middle of the membrane, something leans out, and it seems the umbilical cord: it enables inspirations and expirations‖121. Similarly Gellius, quoting Marcus Terentius Varro, claims that, after fertilization, in seven days the embryo coagulates and takes shape; in four weeks penis, head and spinal cord are formed; in seven weeks a foetus completes its shaping in the uterus122. In a piece of numerology in his Somnium Scipionis, talking about the number seven, Macrobius quotes Hippocrates about the description of a six-day embryo123, then, two other philosophers, Straton and Diocles, about the development of the embryo in following weeks 124. The opinion that, at beginning of life, embryo has a round shape is shared by both Koran and Torah. The very first Sura revealed by God to Muhammad is just about al'alaq, the clot125. Also a well-know psalm, Psalm 139,16, states: ―Your eyes saw my golem; all the days ordained for me were written in your book before one of them came to be‖126; golem can be translate roughly as 'unformed body', suggesting an idea of something living, 117 ―Dioè ou\ r|çédion dielei%n poétera proétera tw%n moriéwn, o£sa a!llou e£neka, h! ou/ e£neka tau%ta‖. G.A., 2,6, 742a. ―Kaiè diaè tou%to prw%ton meèn toè e!con thèn a\rchèn giénetai moérion, ei&t‘ e\coémenon toè a!nw kuétov. Dioè taè periè thèn kefalhèn kaiè taè o!mmata meégista kat‘a\rcaèv faiénetai toi%v e\mbruéoiv, taè deè kaétw tou% o\mfalou%, oi/on taè kw%la mikraé‖. G.A., 2,6 742b. 119 In Garbh.Up. Prajapati, the demiurge who had created Universe and material world. 120 ― tukāle sa prayogād ekarātroṣita kalala bhavati saptarātroṣita budbuda bhavati ardhamāsābhyantare a pi ḍo bhavati māsābhyantare ka hino bhavati māsadvyena śiraḥ sa padyate māsatrayena pādapradeśo bhavati‖. Sa prayogād: ―perfect union‖; kalala : ―infinitesimal part‖; budbuda : ―roundness‖; pi ḍo: ―spherical mass‖; ka hino: ―compact structure‖; śiraḥ: ―head‖; pādapradeśo: ―feet‖. 121 ―[...] oi/on ei! tiv §\ou% w\mou% toè e!xw lepuérion perieéloi, e\n deè t§% e !ndon u|meéni toè e!ndon u|groèn diafaiénoito: o| troépov meén tiv h&n toiou%tov a$liv ei\pei%n: h&n deè kaiè e\ruqroèn kaiè strogguélon: e\n deè t§% u|meéni e\faiénonto e\neou%%sai i&nev leukaiè kaiè paceéai, ei\lhmeénai suén i\cw%ri pacei% kaiè e\ruqr§%, kaiè a\mfi toèn u|meéna e!xwqen ai|maélwpev: kataè deè meéson tou% u|meénov a\pei%ce leptoén ti o$ moi e\doékei ei&nai o\mfaloév, ka\keién§ thèn pnohèn kaiè ei!sw kaiè e!xw poiei%sqai toè prw%ton: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 13,3. 118 122 ―'Nam cum in uterum' inquit 'mulieris genitale semen datum est, primis septem diebus conglobatur coagulaturque fitque ad capiendam figuram idoneum. Post deinde quarta hebdomade, quod eius virile secus futurum est, caput et spina, quae est in dorso, informatur. Septima autem fere hebdomade, id est nono et quadrigesimo die, totus' inquit 'homo in utero absoluitur'‖. Noctes Atticae, III,10,7. 123 ―Verum semine semel intra formandi hominis monetam locato, hoc primum artifex natura molitur ut die septimo folliculum genuino circumdet umori ex membrana tam tenui qualis in ovo ab exteriore testa clauditur et intra se claudit liquorem‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,63. For the original Hippocrates‘ text see endnote n.16. ―Straton vero Peripateticus et Diocles Carystius per septenos dies concepti corporis fabricam hac observatione dispensant, ut hebdomade secunda credant guttas sanguinis in superficie folliculi de quo diximus apparere, terzia demergi eas introrsum ad ipsum conceptionis humorem, quarta humorem ipsum coagulari ut quiddam velut inter carnem ac sanguinem liquida adhuc soliditate conveniat, quinta vero interdum fingi in ipsa substantia humoris humanam figuram, magnitudine quidem apis, sed ut in illa brevitate membra omnia et designata totius corporis liniamenta consistant‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,65. 125 ―Read! In the name of the Father who had created! Who had created human being from a clot‖. Sura 96th, 1-2. 126 ―Golmi ra'u 'enèkha / we'al sifrekha kullam jikkatèvu / jamim jutztzàru / welo' echad bahem‖, Psalm 139,16. 124 466 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of human being nevertheless. Similarly a passage by Jeremiah 127 and another one by Isaiah128 seem to grant a status of person to the embryo. However, an extract in the Book of Exodus, which deals with crimes, claims that punishment is heavier in case of injury for the woman, but not in case of premature birth 129. From 4th to 6th month ―In four months ankles, digestive system and hips (are formed), in five months the back and the vertebral column, in six months mouth, nose, eyes, ears‖130. According to Garbh.Up., during the fourth month a very important stage takes place: the foetus is provided with internal organs and bones; from this moment, the foetus can receive nourishment from its mother through the umbilical cord and it is able to move into the uterus. Hippocrates does not provide exact time of each stage of development, but he draws up a list of each part 131: ―Bones hardens due to heat; so the foetus ramifies like a tree. The internal side and the external one become more articulated. The head is fixed on shoulders; arms and forearms on sides; legs are separated; tendons are connected with joints; nose and ears lean out of flesh and becomes punctured; eyes are filled with crystal liquid and gender is known. Internal organs becomes complete‖ and then the foetus starts breathing. Special attention must be paid to growth of bones and tendons. In Archaic Greek there was not a specific word to define ―living body‖ 132, however a stock expression ―gui%a kaiè meélh‖133, suggesting the union of tendons and limbs, is attested. Recognized as fundamental parts of the human being, skin, flesh, bones and tendons are what God created first in a man according to Job134. The anonymous Author of Garbh.Up. says that tendons are produced from fat and bones from tendons135, and both develop themselves during the fifth month. According to Aristotle, tendons and bones are created from the same elements, that is spermatic and nutritional residual; that is why they do not develop in adulthood, instead nails and hair grow lifelong because they receive an external nourishment136. Tendons and bones are deprived of moistness due to interior heat, and so they become strong and fire can not burn them, like clay137. One more detail: both in Garbh.Up. and in Aristotle, nails and hair are considered as impurities: ―there are three kind of impurity‖138, ―Nature makes flesh and the other sense organs with a better material, and with residual it makes bones, tendons, hair, nails, hooves and similar parts‖139; Hippocrates instead does not consider them as impurities, however he claims that nails and hair grow up at the same time140. 127 ―Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart: I appointed you as a prophet to the nations‖. Jeremiah,1,5. 128 ―Before I was born the Lord called me: from my mother's womb he has spoken my name‖. Isaiah 49,1. 129 ―If men who are fighting hit a pregnant woman and she gives birth prematurely but there is no serious injury, the offender must be fined whatever the woman's husband demands and the court allows. But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise‖. Exodus, 21,22-25. 130 ― ṣ | ṣaṣthe māse mukhanāsikākṣ ‖. Gulpha-: ―ankles‖; ja hara-: ―digestive system‖; ka a-: ―hips‖; ṣ -: ―back‖; : ―vertebral column‖; mukha-: ―mouth‖; nāsikā:- ―nose‖; ākṣi:- ―eyes‖; śrotrā-: ―ears‖. 131 ―Kaiè taè o\steéa sklhruénetai u|poè th%v qeérmhv phgnuémena: kaiè dhè kaiè diozou%tai w|v deéndron: kaiè a\rqrou%tai a!meinon kaiè taè ei!sw tou% swématov kaiè taè e!xw: kaiè h£ te kefalhè giénetai a\festhkui%a a\poè toi%n w!moin, kaiè oi| braciéonev kaiè oi| phéceiv a\poè tw%n pleureéwn: kaiè taè skeélea diiéstatai a\p‘ a\llhélwn: kaiè taè neu%ra e\pai^ssetai a\mfiè taèv fuésiav tw%n a!rqrwn kaiè au\taè stomou%tai: kaiè h| r|ièv kaiè taè ou!ata a\fiéstatai e\n t+%si sarxiè kaiè tetrhénetai: kaiè oi| o\fqalmoiè e\mpiéplantai u|grou% kaqarou%: kaiè toè ai\doi%on dh%lon giénetai o|koéteroén e\sti: kaiè taè splaégcna diarqrou%tai: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 17,2-3. 132 In fact, the homeric word sw%ma suggests the dead body, the cadaver. 133 For the explanation of this stock expression see Snell (1948). 134 ―Did you not pour me out like milk / and curdle me like cheese, / clothe me with skin and flesh / and knit me together with bones and tendons?‖. Job, 10, 10-11. 135 ―medasaḥ snāyavaḥ snāyubhyo ‘stīni ‖. medo: ―fat‖; snāyavaḥ: ―tendons‖; asthi: ―bone‖. 136 ―Toèn au\toèn deè troépon toi%v o\stoi%v kaiè taè neu%ra suniéstatai kaiè e\k tw%n au\tw%n, e\k th%v spermatikh%v perittwésewv kaiè th%v qreptikh%v. !Onucev deè kaiè triécev kaiè o|plaiè kaiè keérata kaiè r|uégch kaiè taè plh%ktra tw%n o\rniéqwn, kaiè ei! ti toiou%ton e£teroén e\sti moérion, e\k th%v e\pikthétou trofh%v kaiè th%v au\xhtikh%v, h£n te paraè tou% qhéleov e\pikta%tai kaiè th%v quéraqen. Diaè tou%to taè meèn o\sta% meécri tinoèv lambaénei thèn au!xhsi ‖. G.A., 2,6, 744b-745a. 137 ― |Upoè deè th%v e\ntoèv qermoéthtov taé te neu%ra kaiè taè o\sta% giénetai, xhrainomeénhv th%v u|groéthtov. Dioè kaiè a!lutaé e\sti taè o\sta% u|poè tou% puroév, kaqaéper keéramov‖. G.A., 2,6, 743a. 138 “ ”; tri-: “three”; mala-: “impurity”. “Ou£twv e\n toi%v ginomeénoiv au\toi%v h| fuésiv e\k meèn th%v kaqarwtaéthv u£lhv saérkav kaiè tw%n a!llwn ai\sqhthriéwn taè swémata suniésthsin, e\k deè tw%n perittwmaétwn o\sta% kaiè neu%ra kaiè triécav, e!ti 139 467 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From 7th to 10th months, pregnancy duration and birth As far as the last stages of gestation are concerned, Garbh.Up. affirms that in seven months the foetus becomes a human being, it is viable and can survive in case of premature birth; during the eight month the foetus has in nuce its characteristics and features, and at ninth month it is born completely provided with sense organs and cognitive ability, it remembers the previous life and knows good karma from evil karma141. Also Aristotle declares that the foetus is not able to live before the seventh month; if it is born during the seventh months, it is possible that some parts like ears and nostrils are not completely formed, but they can develop after birth and the baby can live nevertheless142. Common experience teaches that the normal duration of pregnancy is 38 weeks, that corresponds to nine months and a half. Obviously the ancient texts confirm this situation, some in implicit way (like Garbh.Up., see further), some in explicit one, like Aristotle: ―Pregnancy lasts seven, eight, nine months, usually ten months; for some women it lasts until eleventh month‖143. Macrobius, more interested in numerology than in medicine, says that Nature has fixed the term for birth at nine months, but in some cases, due to a mathematical calculation, it can be anticipated at seventh144. Instead Censorinus displays a Chaldean theory which explains that men can be born only at seventh, ninth or tenth month because of the position of the stars and the Sun 145. Normally the foetus, in the initial stages, has the head at the top of the uterus, then during the last weeks of gestation, it turns itself until it puts the head at the bottom of the uterus, and it is born from the head; this natural fact is confirmed by Aristotle146, nevertheless Hippocrates seems to doubt about it147. The moment of birth is considered from foetus‘ point of view both in Hippocrates' text and in Garbh.Up.: ―But the foetus, who was in a condition of happiness, arrived to uterus‘ opening, with its mind oppressed by a mechanic grip, unhappy, new-born, touched by Visnu‘s wind, does not remember previous births and deaths and does not know good karma from evil karma‖148. Hippocrates asserts the foetus, having no enough nourishment from its mother during the tenth month149, breaks with hands and legs one of membranes in which is surrounded and then is able to be born (Nat.Inf., 30,1). Instead Aristotle presents birth from mother‘s point of view. He focuses on the pain the woman feels: ―if the pain is very hard and concentrated on the womb, birth will be faster; if it is concentrated on ankles, birth will be painful; if it is concentrated on the bottom of the womb, birth will be fast‖ (H.A. 7,9,586b ). d‘ o!nucav kaiè o|plaèv kaiè paénta taè toiau%ta: dioè teleutai%a tau%ta lambaénei thèn suéstasin, o£tan h!dh giénetai periéttwma th%v fuésewv‖. G.A., 2,6,744b. 140 ― £Ama deè toi%sin o!nuxi kaiè ai| triécev e\n t+% kefal+% r|izou%ntai […]‖. Nat.Inf., 20,1. 141 ―saptame māse jīvena sa yukto bhavati / aṣ ame māse sarvasa pūr o bhavati [...] atha navame māsi sarvalakṣa a pūrno bhavati pūrvajāti smarati k tak ta ca karma vibhāti śubhāśubha ca karma vindati‖. Saptame: ―seven‖; jīvena: ―life‖; aṣ : ―eight‖; : ―full of features‖; navame: ―nine‖; sarvalakṣ : ―full of features and provided with sens organs‖; : ―previous life‖. 142 ― £Osa meè ou&n giénetai proétera tw%n e|ptaè mhnw%n, ou\deèn ou\dam+% duénatai zh%v: taè d' e|ptaémhna goénima giénetai prw%ton, a\sqenh% deè taè pollaè (dioè kaiè spargaou%sin e\riéoiv au\taé), pollaè deè kaiè tw%n poérwn e\niéouv e!conta a\sciéstouv, oi/on w!twn kaiè mukthérwn: a\ll' e\pauxanomeénoiv diarqrou%tai, kaiè biou%si pollaè kaiè tw%n toiouétwn‖ . H.A., 7,4, 584b. 143 ―[...] kaiè gaèr e|ptaémhna kaiè o\ktaémhna kaiè e\nneaémhna giénetai, kaiè dekaémhna toè plei%ston‖. H.A., 7,4, 584a. 144 ―Humano partui frequentiorem usum novem mensium certo numerorum modulamine natura constituit, sed ratio sub adsciti senarii numeri multiplicatione procedens etiam septem menses compulit usurpari‖. Somnium Scipionis, I,6,14. 145 ―Sed nunc Chaldaeorum ratio breviter tractanda est, explicandumque cur septimo mense et nono et decimo tantummodo posse hominnes nasci arbitrentur [...] Itaque eum (Sun), qui stellas ipsas quibus movemur permovet, animam nobis dare qua regamur potentissimumque in nos esse moderarique, quando post conceptionem veniamus in lucem‖. De Die Natali, VIII, 13. 146 ― !Ecei d o|moiéwv paènta taè z§%a thèn kefalhèn a!nw toè prw%ton: au\xamoémena deè kaiè proèv thèn e!xodon o|rmw%nta kaétw periaégetai, kaiè h| geénesiév e\stin h| kataè fuésin e\piè kefalhén‖. H.A., 7,8,586b. See also On Gen., 4,9,777a. 147 ―Toè deè paidiéon e\n t+%si mhétr+sin e\oèn twè cei%re e!cei proèv t+%si geénusi kaiè thèn kefalhèn plhsiéon toi%n podoi%n: kaiè ou\k e!stin a\trekeié+ kri%nai, ou\d h!n i!d+v e\n t+%si mhétr+si toè paidiéon, poéteron thèn kefalhèn a!nw e!cei h! kaétw: e\k deè tou% o\mfalou% tetameénoi ei\sièn oi| u|meénev, a\nteécontev au\toé.‖. Nat.Inf., 28,1. 148 ―atha jantuḥ ranprīyo niśata ḍyamāno mahatā duḥkhena jātamātrāstu vaiṣ ṣ ‖. 149 ―Ou£tw deè kaiè toè paidiéon, o|koétan au\xhq+%, ou\k e!ti duénatai h| mhéthr trofhèn pareécein a\rkeéousan: zhteéon ou&n pleiéw trofhèn th%v pareouéshv toè e!mbruon a\skariézon r|hégnusi touèv u|meénav, kaiè luqeèn tou% desmou% cwrei% o|mou% e!xw: kaiè tau%ta giénetai e\n deéka mhsiè toè makroétaton‖. Nat.Inf., 30,9. 468 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Twins, malformations, sterility In short, few words about some marginal aspects. According to Garbh.Up., twins are generated from the separation of man's semen in two parts by the action of (sacred) wind150. Similarly Hippocrates affirms that twins are generated from one fertilization only151; when man's semen comes into the uterus, it divides itself in two parts, and each of these is surrounded by one membrane152. If the semen into one part only is strong, embryo becomes male; if it is weak, it becomes female; if the strong semen comes into both parts, there will be two males, if the weak one comes into both, there will be females 153. Aristotle specifies the maximum number of twins is five; in one special case only, a woman generated twenty newborns in four pregnancies, five each time; he affirms also that for the human beings (unlike others animals) few twins survive if they are male and female twins (H.A. 7,4,584b ). As regards of malformations, Aristotle says they are caused by an excessive lack of movement of spermatic residual154; similarly Garbh.Up.'s Author affirms the cause of blindness, limp, hump and dwarfism is excessive quantity of tamas155. Hippocrates contemplates only cripples: ―if foetus is a cripple into the uterus, I say that is the product of a contusion, due to a mother's blow or fall or some kind of violence; [...] or foetus can be a cripple for another reason: if uterus' space is too small for the complete articulation, body moves backwards and foetus becomes a cripple inside the uterus‖156. In conclusion, sterility is due to equality of male and female semen in Garbh.Up., instead in Deuteronomy it is caused by a devine punishment157. Conclusions Despite the differences carried by the classical texts - especially about the gender issue, the first weeks' development and each part's formation - there is a substantial agreement among the authors about the main questions of the embryo‘s growth: both male and female‘s semen are involved in its formation; in the beginnig it has a nearly round shape; the fetus is viable from the seventh month and it may be born from that time until the tenth month of gestation. Most of all, a common feature between Indo-European and Semitic culture is the idea of human life's beginning connected with a round form (see endnotes n.15, 20 and 21): the embryo is considered like a clot or a lump, something already potentially viable, as the Biblical God talks to it in its mother‘s womb (endnotes n.22 and 23). However, unlike Greek and Latin tradition, an accurate description of the stages of embryo and foetus‘ prenatal life seems generally to lack in the Semitic texts. 150 ―anyonyavāyuparipīḍitaśukradvaividhyāt tanuḥ syāt tato yugmāḥ prajāyante‖. Yugmāḥ: ―twins‖. 151 ―Diéduma deè giénetai meèn a\f‘ e|noèv lagneuématov: [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. ―[...] £Otan deè h| gonhè tuéc+ scisqei%sa e\v duéo koélpouv a\fikomeénh kaiè ai| mh%trai deéxwntai thèn gonhèn kaiè toi%n koélpoin mhdeéterov e\v toèn e£teron calaés+, cwrisqei%sa dhè e\n e|kateér§ koélp§ u|menou%tai kaiè zwou%tai t§% au\t§% troép§ §/per kaiè toè e£n ei!retai‖. Nat.Inf., 31,1. 153 ―[...] \Ev o|koéteron d‘ a!n tw%n koélpwn tuéc+ h| gonhè pacuteérh kaiè i\scuroteérh e\selqou%sa, kei&qi a!rsen giénetai: e\v o|koéteron d‘ a!n u|groteérh kaiè a\sqenesterhè, kei&qi qh%lu giénetai: h!n d‘ e\v a!mfw i\scurhè e\seélq+, a!mfw a!rsena giénetai: h!n deè a\sqenhév, a!mfw qhélea giénetai [...]‖. Nat.Inf., 31,3. 154 ―Kaq' o£son d' a!n e\lleiép+ h! u|perbaéll+, h! cei%ron a\potelei% h! a\naéphron toè ginoémenon [...]‖. On Gen., 2,6,743a. 155 ―vyākulitamanaso‘ndhāḥ khaðjāḥ kubjā vāmanā bhavanti ‖. Andhāḥ: ―blind‖; khaðjāḥ: ―limp‖; kubjā: ―hump‖; vāmanā: ―dwarf‖. Tamas, ―passive power‖, is one of the three nature's elements with rajas (passionate power) and sattva (rational power). 156 ―Toè deè phrwqeèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si paidiéon fhmiè au\toè h! flasqeèn phrwqh%nai th%v mhtroèv plhgeiéshv kataè toè e!mbruon h! pesouéshv h! a!llou tinoèv biaiéou paqhématov prov genomeénou t+% mhtrié:[...] h! e|teér§ troép§ toi§%de phrou%tai paidiéa, e\phèn e\n t+%si mhétr+si kataè toè cwriéon kaq‘ o£ ti kaiè h\rqrwéqh stenoèn +&, a\naégkh e\n sten§% kineumeénou tou% swématov phrou%sqai kat‘ e\kei%no toè cwriéon: [...]‖. On Gen., 10,1-2. 157 ―And he will love thee, and bless thee, and multiply thee: he will also bless the fruit of thy womb, and the fruit of thy land, thy corn, and thy wine, and thine oil, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep, in the land which he sware unto thy fathers to give thee. Thou shalt be blessed above all people: there shall not be male or female barren among you, or among your cattle‖. Deuteronomy, 7,13-14. 152 469 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Armisen-Marchetti, M. (2001). Macrobe, Commentaire au Songe de Scipion, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Benveniste, E. (1945). La doctrine médicale des Indo-Européens. Revue de l‘histoire des religions, n. 130 (1945) 5-12. Cavazza, F. (1985). (a c. di), Aulo Gellio, Le notti attiche, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. Edde, G. (1993). La medicina indiana, Milano: Xenia. Filliozat, J. (1943). Magie et médicine, Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Filliozat, J. (1975) La doctrine classique de la médicine indienne; ses origines et ses parallèles grecques, Paris: Ecole francaise d'Extreme-Orient Fontanella, V. (1992). Censorino, Il giorno natalizio, Bologna: Zanichelli editore. G.A. = Louis (1961) H.A. = Louis (1964) Hoernle, A. F. (1905). Studies in the Medicine of Ancient India, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Génération, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Joly, R. (1970). Hippocrate, De la Nature de l‘Enfant, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Krug, A. (1990). La medicina nel mondo classico, Firenze: Giunti. Louis, P. (1961). Aristote, De la Génération des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Louis, P. (1964). Aristote, Histoire des Animaux, Paris: Les Belles Lettres. Nat.Inf. = Joly (1970) On Gen. = Joly (1970) Snell, B. (1948). Die Entdeckung des Geistes. Studien zur Entstehung des europäischen Denkens bei den Griechen, Hamburg: Claasen Verlag. 470 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 70 Title A name given to the resource The concept of ―embryo‖ between the Indo-European and the Semitic worlds: a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis. Author Author Bertonazzi, Francesca Abstract A summary of the resource. The present contribution aims to a multilinguistic and multicultural analysis of the concept of ‗embryo‘ both in Indo-European and Semitic worlds. The question about embryo‘s status is strictly linked to the present ethic and medical scientific environments. Leaving out bioethical problems, this contribution sketches the main features of the concept of embryo mostly from a linguistic point of view and then tries to value some cultural consequences. Starting with the presentation of the Garbhopaniṣ ad, an ancient Sanskrit text, composed between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, that illustrated the development of embryo from the fertilization and the very first weeks of pregnancy to birth, through a representative selection of Greek and Latin Authors who explicate embryo‘s nature, its features, its development and the moment in which a foetus can be considered a human being (the exempla are selected from both medical and philosophical classical texts), we close with a few words about the ―embryo‖ in semitic languages and cultures. The analysis is about linguistics (with a close terminological examination) and cultural studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4ce662996fe71cca5dabfdd92499815a.pdf 5163d7f51e199c9dffed86c6f5c0813a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City BaĢar Batur ELT Department, Faculty of Education Ishik University, Iraq b.batur@ishikuniversity.net Abstract In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Key Words: Erbil, information Technologies, high school. Introduction The rapidly developing technologies are in all parts of today‘s world as it is associated with terms information era, information society and globalism. Thus, it is inevitable to use them in education. Technology exists with the existence of humankind and is used in all steps of education (Yanpar, 2005). For a long time, the name of technology in education had been book and blackboard. Later on, some other materials were also begun to be used. Many films, bands, slides, tapes related to the subjects and cinema, projections, cassette players, overhead projectors to show them, and also plenty of physics and chemistry laboratory materials set in schools all over the world (MEB,1983). It is now inevitable for education to make use of scientific and technological facilities. The information burst in this age, which means the rapid and continuous increase in the quantity and details of information, requires renewal of course subjects and educational materials every year and delivery of new information to students and teachers on time (Alkan et. al., 1995; Alkan, 2005). Education is a process that both brings in skills and transfers information. In this process, handling of information is the base. Information technologies, especially computers, generally function as supporting means in teaching and learning processes. Educational institutions both start and direct the social changes and progress. With those characteristics, educational institutions have to follow technological developments, learn how to use them and use these technologies. In other words, educational institutions should build up the students eligible for information age by considering characteristics of information society (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Ozkul and Girginer list the reasons to use technology in education (Ozkul, Girginer, 2001): 1. Increasing the access to education, 2. Increasing the educational quality, 3. Decreasing the educational cost efficacy, 4. Responding the essentiality of changing technology, 5. Providing the skills that students need both in their work and private life. When technology is considered, we think about computers. Computers revolutionized by changing the system and structure of classical education. Today, computers are used in all aspects of education (Ġsman, 2001). The most important product which emerge as a result of technological developments is, certainly, computer. But all other tools and technologies that provide information and help to use it are also called information technologies (Canan and Topaloglu, 2006). Information technologies are used in different ways in education. They can be grouped in four (Yasar, 1998); 1. 2. 3. using as means of instruction, using as report preparation tool, using in development of software, 225 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. using in administrative works Using information technologies as means of instruction has also many benefits. These can be listed as (Yasar, 1998): 1. using information technologies as means of lesson presentation, 2. using information technologies to practice and repetition, 3. using information technologies as a private instructor, 4. using information technologies as means of presenting simulation activities, 5. using information technologies for informative games, 6. using information technologies to communicate, 7. using internet supported activities. In the administrative works content, the first area in which computer is used effectively and intensely is measurement and evaluation. It is obvious that measurement and evaluation activities take teacher‘s time and require great effort. Computer decreases the teacher‘s burden to a little. A teacher can benefit from computer during measurement and evaluation in such ways (Akkoyunlu, 1998); preparation of question banks, preparation of tests, saving exam results, evaluation of exam results, and analysis of test items. Moreover, the use of computer in administrative works in schools facilitates the daily work (Akkoyunlu, 1998). Using management programs such as planning, budget, personnel, payroll, accounting and using special programs about student registration and reporting increase the quality of administrative duties (Baykal, 1991). Internet is the most preferred way of collecting information during lesson preparation process by teachers. Teachers may direct students to internet in order them to search and get information. Searches in internet come after the use of word processing programs and educational software among the computer activities of students in schools (Becker, 1999). As a result, it is obvious that using information technologies, especially computer, internet and projections is indispensable part of today‘s education and education quality and efficacy without using technology is low. The Aim of the Research The aim of this research is to determine how much the high school teachers in Erbil, Iraq, use information technologies during lesson and lesson preparation process, to determine the meaningful differences about it depending on gender, age and experience year. Method of the Research The method of the research is quantitative research approach and survey method. A survey, which had derived from a survey taken from Learning Community Project of Ohio University, USA, and used in a research in Sakarya, Turkey (Isman, 2002), was prepared and applied to high school teachers in Erbil. There were 41 questions in the survey. 8 questions were about teachers themselves. 33 questions were about information technologies. Universe and Sampling Universe of the research comprises high school teachers in Erbil City, Iraq. Sampling includes 65 teachers in 7 high schools. These high schools were chosen according to their successes in national exams. The most successful high schools, the less successful and mean ones were chosen. Survey was filled by randomly chosen teachers who were in break. Information About The Sampling Teachers answered 8 questions about themselves. As a result the following information is obtained about them. Sampling included: 1. Male: 40 people (61, 5 %) 2. Female: 25 people (38, 5 %) Teachers‘ branch of teaching are given in the following table: Number of Course Teachers Percentage 226 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arabic 8 12.3 Physical Education 2 3.1 Biology 1 1.5 Geography 1 1.5 Religion 1 1.5 Physics 7 10.8 Economy 2 3.1 English 9 13.8 Chemistry 6 9.2 Kurdish 10 15.4 Math 14 21.5 Guidance 1 1.5 History 3 4.6 Total 65 100 We grouped teachers into three according to their ages: 1. 30 years old and under : 14 people (21,5 %) 2. between 31 – 40 years old: 30 people (46,2 %) 3. 40 years old and over: 21 people (32,3 %) Most of the teachers were over 31 but in contrast experience year average were low. Teachers had service in government as: 1. 10 years and under: 39 people (60 %) 2. between 11 – 20 years: 24 people (36,9 %) 3. 21 years and over: 2 people (3,1 %) Most of the teachers are university graduates. Educational level of the teachers is: 1. 2-year institute graduates: 1 person (1,5 %) 2. 4-year university graduates: 63 people (96,9 %) 3. Graduate degree: 1 person (1,5 %) In order to understand computer skills level of teachers, there were questions about computer and internet usage. According to teachers‘ answers, their computer skills statistics, owning computer and internet at home statistics are below. The number of teachers who can use computer is high and owning computer and internet connection at home rate is also high. 1. Teachers who can use computer: 57 people (87,7 %) 2. Teachers who can not use computer: 8 people (12,3 %) 1. Teachers who have computer at home: 54 people (83,1 %) 2. Teachers who don‘t have computer at home: 11 people (16,9 %) 1. Teachers who have internet connection at home: 35 people (53,8 % ) 2. Teachers who don‘t have internet connection at home: 30 people (46,2 % ) Findings And Technology Usage Of High School Teachers Of Erbil In the second part of the survey, there were questions about information technologies and teachers were supposed to choose one of the four choices (I have never used, I have rarely used, I have frequently used, I have always used) for each technology. There was another column to obtain whether the technology is available at school. Results are given below, with titles in groups of thirty three technologies and on tables of numbers and percentages. 227 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Black/White Board, Graphics, Big Picture, Book, Panel, Caricature, And Diagram Black/white board, graphics, big picture, book are available in all schools of Erbil. In two (28,5 %) of the seven schools attended the survey, teachers say panel for announcements is not available in their schools. Caricature is not available in five (71,5 %) of the seven schools while diagram is available in four (57,1 %). All of the teachers use boards. They use books as well. The rate of teachers who don‘t use book is 4,6 percent. They are chemistry, English and history teachers and it seems they are using their own lesson notes and make students to dictate. Most of the teachers are not using graphics (61,5 % not using, 23,1 % always used ), caricature (81,5 % not using, 7,7 % always used) and diagram (69,2 % not using, 18,5 % always used) while nearly half of them are using big pictures (50,8 % using, 26,2 % always used). 58,5 percent of the teachers use panels for announcements. It is interesting to observe that most of the teachers are not using graphics, diagrams, and big pictures while 43 percent of the teachers are teaching in scientific branches (biology, physics, chemistry, economy, and math). Desktop Computer, Laptop, Windows, Word, PowerPoint, Excel Except from one (14,2 %) of the seven schools, desktop computer is available while only two (28,5 %) of them have laptop. So Windows, Word, PowerPoint and Excel software are not available only in one (14, 2 %) of the schools. In most of the schools, computers are used for office works. It is remarkable to learn that some schools have computer labs and multimedia classes while some others don‘t have even a computer. 32,3 percent of teachers use desktop computer during lessons (18,5 % always used) and lesson preparation process while only 24,6 percent of teachers use laptop (15,4 % always used). Parallel to these statistics, most of the teachers are not using computer software such as Windows (73,8 % not using, 15,5 % always used), Word (72,3 % not using, 16,9 % always used), PowerPoint (80 % not using, 6,2 % always used), Excel (80 % not using, 1,5 % always used). When we consider that 87, 7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home, these rates of using computers are too low. Thus, most of the teachers are supposed to use traditional presentation methods instead of computer assisted one or preparing materials and documents such as worksheets and exam papers by writing on papers. Scanner, Digital Camera, LCD Panel, Multimedia, Printer, Television, CD/DVD, Film Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have scanner and film. Three (42, 8 %) of them have digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia and television. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have printer, CD/DVD is available in 71,4 percent (5) of the schools. Most of the teachers are not using these technologies. The rates of teachers not used them are higher than the availability rates. The rates of teachers don‘t use scanner (81,5 % not using, 3,1 % always used), digital camera (87,7 % not using, 6,2 % always used), LCD Panel (90,8 % not using, 6,2 % always used), multimedia (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), printer (80 % not using, 12,3 % always used), television (86,2 % not using, 9,2 % always used), CD/DVD (76,9 % not using, 13,8 % always used) and film (84,6 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are very high. Usage of presentation technologies such as television, LCD Panel, projection and computer seems to be similar to each other. Video camera, Radio, Cassette Player, Tape Cassette, Overhead Projector, Smartboard, Projector Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have video camera. Three (42, 8 %) of them have radio and tape cassette. While 57,1 percent (4) of the schools have projection and cassette player, overhead projector is available in 14,2 percent (1) of the schools. None of the schools have a smartboard. According to the answers of the teachers, 89, 2 percent of the teachers don‘t use video camera (3,1 % always used) while 87,7 percent don‘t use radio (6,2 % always used). 73,8 percent of the teachers don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used) while 78,5 percent don‘t use cassette player (16,9 % always used). 87,7 percent of the teachers don‘t use overhead projector (7,7 % always used) while 84,6 percent don‘t use projector (7,7 % always used). Since smartboard is not available in any of the schools, none of the teachers use smartboard. 228 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Local network, internet network, www pages, search engines, e-mail Two (28, 5 %) of the seven schools have internet connection while only one (14, 2 %) of them have local network. But 87,7 percent of teachers can use computers and 83,1 percent have computer at home. 53,8 percent of these teachers have internet connection at home. Although teachers have computers and internet connection at home, it seems they are not using them a lot for their courses. According to the answers given for the survey, the rates of teachers not using local network (96,9 % not using, 0 % always used), internet network (86,2 % not using, 6,2 % always used), www pages (84,6 % not using, 7,7 % always used), search engines (96,9 % not using, 3,1 % always used), e-mail (81,5 % not using, 9,2 % always used) are quite high. Gender, age and experience year issues There were teachers from both genders in the survey. Except from few technologies, meaningful differences are not obtained in the survey about the technology usage of male and female teachers. In fifteen technologies, the difference was less than 5 percent. It is identified that female teachers use seventeen of technologies more than male teachers (board, book, Windows, Word, Excel, digital camera, LCD panel, multimedia, printer, television, film, video camera, tape cassette, overhead projector, internet network, www pages and e-mail).Male teachers use fifteen technologies more than female teachers (graphics, big picture, panel, caricature, diagram, desktop computer, laptop, PowerPoint, printer, CD/DVD, radio, cassette player, projection, local network and search engines). There were three age groups in the sampling (30 and under, between 30-40, 40 and over). It is obtained that the older the teachers are the less they use information technologies except from big picture, panel and overhead projector. It is opposite in these three items. 40 years old and older teachers are better in using caricature and diagram while teachers between 31 and 40 are better in using digital camera, multimedia, projection, local network and internet network. Teachers were grouped into two categories according to their experience year; 10 years and under, over 10 years. The more teachers have experience year, the less they use information technologies except from six of technologies (caricature, diagram, digital camera, video camera, overhead projector and projection). 229 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 67,7 4,6 9,2 18,5 75,4 4,6 4,6 15,4 73,8 4,6 6,2 15,4 72,3 4,6 6,2 16,9 80,0 7,7 6,2 6,2 83,1 9,2 6,2 1,5 81,5 9,2 6,2 3,1 87,7 3,1 3,1 6,2 90,8 1,5 1,5 6,2 84,6 4,6 3,1 7,7 CD/DVD Television Printer Film Video camera Radio Cassette Player 44 3 6 12 49 3 3 10 48 3 4 10 47 3 4 11 52 5 4 4 54 6 4 1 53 6 4 2 57 2 2 4 59 1 1 4 55 3 2 5 Internet Local Smartboa Overhead Tape Projection Network Network rd Projector Cassette never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used www pages have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Percentage 0,0 1,5 13,8 84,6 61,5 6,2 9,2 23,1 49,2 4,6 20,0 26,2 4,6 21,5 18,5 55,4 41,5 16,9 23,1 18,5 81,5 7,7 3,1 7,7 69,2 6,2 6,2 18,5 Search Engines I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I Number of Teachers 0 1 9 55 40 4 6 15 32 3 13 17 3 14 12 36 27 11 15 12 53 5 2 5 45 4 4 12 E-mail Multimedi LCD a Panel Digital Scanner Excel Camera Powerpoin Word t Windows Laptop Desktop Caricatur Diagram Panel Computer e Book Big Picture Black Graphics /White Board Technol ogy Answers I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I have never used I have rarely used I have frequently used I have always used I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have have Number of Teachers 52 1 4 8 56 2 1 6 50 3 3 9 55 3 1 6 58 3 2 2 57 3 1 4 48 4 2 11 51 2 1 11 57 3 0 5 65 0 0 0 never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used never used rarely used frequently used always used 55 2 3 5 63 1 1 0 56 3 2 4 55 2 3 5 63 0 0 2 53 5 1 6 Percentage 80,0 1,5 6,2 12,3 86,2 3,1 1,5 9,2 76,9 4,6 4,6 13,8 84,6 4,6 1,5 9,2 89,2 4,6 3,1 3,1 87,7 4,6 1,5 6,2 73,8 6,2 3,1 16,9 78,5 3,1 1,5 16,9 87,7 4,6 0,0 7,7 100,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 1,5 1,5 0,0 86,2 4,6 3,1 6,2 84,6 3,1 4,6 7,7 96,9 0,0 0,0 3,1 81,5 7,7 1,5 9,2 Table: Results of Survey about Information Technologies 230 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusion The results of the survey can be assessed both for teachers and schools. According to the results, it seems high schools of Erbil are insufficient for most of the information technologies. Even the number of computers is not enough or they are only used for office works instead of lessons. It is observed that some schools don‘t have most of the technologies even a computer while some of them have most of them. Secondly, teachers are not using information technologies sufficiently in their lessons and lesson preparation process. It seems that is because of lock of materials in schools. But teachers don‘t seem eager to use technology in their classes while we consider that most of the teachers have computer at home. We can advise in service trainings for teachers. The holiday periods are long in Iraq. Teachers are free in the summer. There are some curriculum changes in Erbil but teachers are still in adaptation period of using new course books and curriculum. It is more essential to do the educational reforms both in schools and related faculties of universities. References Akkoyunlu, B. (1998). ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler (e-book). Ünite 1-3. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/1265/unite01.pdf (online 15/05/2010) Alkan, C., Deryakulu, D., Simsek, N. (1995). Eğitim Teknolojisine GiriĢ. Ankara: Önder Matbaacılık Alkan, C. (2005). Eğitim Teknolojisi. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Baykal, A. (1991). Eğitimde Bilgisayar: Yararları ve Yetersizlikleri. YaĢadıkça Eğitim, Issue:14. Ġstanbul. Becker, H.J. (1999). Internet Use By Teachers. http://www.crito.uci.edu/TLC/findings/internet-use/startpage.htm (online 15/05/2010). Canan ,Ö., Toplaoğlu, S. (2006). 4. ve 5. Sınıf Öğrencilerinin Bilgi Teknolojileri Sınıflarını Aktif Kullanımına Yônelik Tutumları. 6. Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Konferansı. Gazi Mağusa. Ġsman, A. (2002). Sakarya Ġli Öğretmenlerinin Eğitim Teknolojileri Yônùndeki Yeterlilikleri. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, Volume 1, Issue 1, Article 10. Ġsman, A. (2001). Bilgisayar ve Eğitim. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Sakarya. MEB. (1983). Eğitim Araçları TeĢkilatı ve Hizmetleri. Ankara: MEB Yayınları. Özkul E. Girginer N. (2001). Uzaktan Eğitimde Teknoloji ve Etkinlik. I.Uluslararası Eğitim Teknolojileri Sempozyum Bildirisi. Sakarya. Yanpar, T. (2005). Öğretim Teknolojileri ve Materyal GeliĢtirme. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. YaĢar, ġ. (1998). Eğitimde Bilgisayarların Etkin Kullanımı. Ünite 07 – ÇağdaĢ Eğitimde Yeni Teknolojiler. EskiĢehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıkôğretim Fakùltesi Yayınları. http://www.aof.edu.tr/kitap/IOLTP/2276/unite07.pdf (online 15/05/2010) 231 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 34 Title A name given to the resource Technology Usage of Teachers in High Schools of Erbil City Author Author Batur, BaĢar Abstract A summary of the resource. In this research, high school teachers‘ technology usage rates in lessons or prelesson period in Erbil City, Kurdistan Region-Iraq, is studied. A questionnaire was prepared and the survey was done in April 2010 in 7 high schools on 65 teachers. The research included most of the technologies in education such as board, book, projection and internet. According to the results, it is obtained that high school teachers in Erbil have never used some technologies and are not using some technologies sufficiently except from boards and books. One of the reasons for this is identified as these technologies are not available in schools. It is remarkable that most of the teachers have computers and internet connection at home but they are not using these technologies for their lessons despite the striking improvements in educational technologies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7b3290aea07841cc4526699ed11ed6a8.pdf 0b73db7109a9b2dd30184f615f2f79e6 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey Daniel Basílio Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal dgsbasilio@ua.pt Maria Helena de Araújo e Sá Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal helenasa@ua.pt Ana Raquel Simões Department of Education / CIDTFF Aveiro University, Portugal anaraquel@ua.pt Abstract: This paper proposes to present an ongoing research project aiming at diagnosing the reciprocal language and cultural images of Portuguese learners of Turkish and Turkish learners of Portuguese as foreign languages in the Higher Education context. As a case-study format project following an eminently qualitative approach, it includes the application, analysis and interpretation of the results of three distinct and sequential data-collection instruments: two questionnaires/surveys, a collective interview, and an on-line platform that will serve as a space for the interaction of the students of both countries. Conclusions are to be taken on how the images/social representations the two groups of students construct of each other pertain on their knowledge and attitudes towards each other, and, ultimately, on their intercultural competence. Based on these conclusions, ―cultural awareness‖ and intercultural competence development guidelines, at the level of foreign language learning – teaching, are to be devised and provided to be applied in Portuguese and Turkish higher education institutions. In this article we intend to account for the first questionnaire/survey, a more quantitatively devised data collection instrument, which has been already applied to the students involved in the study. Key Words: Images / Social Representations, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Language Teaching Introduction Given the importance of intercultural dialogue in an increasingly globalized world, this research Project − ―Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey‖− intents to contribute to the rapprochement of two countries that appear to be distant in what concerns the linguistic, cultural, social, and religious factors that structure them, although they share a similar peripheral geographical position in the European continent, a recent past of some economical frailty, and an imperial history: Portugal and Turkey. In the present geopolitical conjuncture, in which Turkey is a candidate for European Union (EU) membership, the EU must be regarded as constituting, in its plurality, a unitary entity when confronted with a non-member state, with a majorly Muslim population, and most of its territory geographically located in the Asian continent. This project, centered on the reciprocal images of Portuguese and Turkish students who are learning, respectively, Turkish and Portuguese, as a foreign language, in the higher education context, aims at answering the need for a cultural mediation between the two countries, and at contributing to a tightening of the relations between them. 292 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As higher education institutions are a privileged space for the creation and maintenance of contact and cooperation between their public, namely through foreign languages teaching /learning programs and internationalization strategies, they more and more assume the responsibility of fostering ways of developing their public‘s competences to cope with the raising complexity inherent to contemporary societies. As this complexity reflects itself on the identity and communication processes, the images/ social representations37 of the language and culture that each group builds of the other will be analyzed as to set forth a diagnosis of the shared reciprocal images. This diagnosis will be taken as a basis for the identification of factors of rapprochement and distancing between the two groups and the conception of cultural mediation strategies within the framework of an intercultural approach that, at a formative level and in the context of Higher Education in both countries, should concur to the promotion of intercultural dialogue as a means of strengthening mutual understanding between the people from either culture. 1. Theoretical framework 1.1. Educational challenges of a new century – the intercultural requirement Delors (1996) and Morin (1999) claimed that education in the 21st century ought to be envisaged as a continual process of individual and collective development, in what respects competences and knowledge. They also highlighted its role in the tightening of interpersonal, communal, and international relationships, before the challenges mankind would have to face, realizing that human beings are as deeply involved in each other's existence as they are in each other's rejection. Bohm (1980) and Morin (2008) connected the factors hindering human beings from working together for a common goal with a fragmented and disconnected view of reality, and urged for its reconstruction: it is the way thought is organized that will enable human-beings to find their place and act in the world as individuals, and as members of mankind. In this sense, Abdallah-Pretceille (1999), adopting an intercultural perspective, proposes a conceptual and methodological paradigm of diversity. He highlights the processes that define individuals and groups in relation to the Other, regards the questioning of identity facing alterity as an essential value, and adopts a way of thinking that simultaneously tells apart and reconstructs universality. Proposing a rethinking of cultural knowledge in a heterogeneous context, and privileging an analysis of complexity over one of structures and states, implying interpreting and analyzing interactions on a hermeneutical basis that opposes "doing culture" to "being culture" (cf. Abdallah-Pretceille, 2006). This conception has a deep bearing on Intercultural Education (IE), which aims at promoting intercultural competence and dialogue for the development of multicultural democratic societies, by raising the individual's consciousness of cultural differences; on the construction of a common basis of dialogue rooted on the knowledge of other cultures and one's own; on the psychological processes of acculturation and intercultural contact; and on intercultural communication. We thus recognize, with Birzea (2003), that interculturality is fundamentally characterized by reciprocal relations and by the capacity of entities to take on shared responsibilities, and create common identities by developing common projects. It should, therefore, be instituted as a universal element of education at all levels (Bleszynska, 2008). 1.2. Intercultural Education in Higher Education In the field of educational policies, the Council of Europe (CoE) has fostered strategies that make the European space one of privileged Intercultural Dialogue (ID), the role of the higher education institutions being seen as of paramount importance in its re-enforcement. ID is defined as a process of open exchange of ideas between individuals and groups of different ethnical, cultural, religious, and linguistic traditions, upon a basis of mutual respect, aiming at improving understanding of diverse practices and world views, strengthening cooperation, enabling adaptation of individuals, and promoting tolerance and acceptance of the other (cf. CoE, 2008). 37 As, in this text, the concept of images is used in close association with the concept of social representations we will choose to maintain the use of only the term ―images‖ as it is the one mostly used in the field of Language Didactics. 293 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo For the CoE, one of the priority purposes of contemporary educational systems is to supply learners with language and intercultural competences that enable them to efficiently act as citizen members of an increasingly larger and more complex community, to acquire knowledge, and develop attitudes of openness to alterity (cf. Beacco, Byram, Coste & Fleming, 2009: s/p), i.e. to develop a view of language and culture learning based on plurilingual and intercultural educational principles. Therefore, one of the greatest challenges Foreign Language Teaching faces today is that of supplying learners with language and intercultural competences that allow them to efficiently interact in a progressively broader community. 1.3. Images of languages and cultures in Foreign Language Education To face this challenge with the necessary tools it is of paramount importance for Language Education to act upon the images of the language that students are learning, of the people who speak it, and of their culture. To achieve this aim, Language Didactics (LD) proposes a concept of images as systems of interpretation of reality anchored in historical, social-identitary, cognitive and discursive processes, specific to each subject or group, and partaking in their process of grasping and constructing reality, influencing the ways in which the subject or group interact with it (Andrade, Araöjo e Sá & Moreira, 2007). The notion of images in LD adopts the characteristics of an ―immigrant‖, ―nomad‖ and ―carrefour‖ concept (cf. Vasseur, 2001; Muller & De Pietro, 2001), which simultaneously avert its conceptual crystallization and contribute for it to be approached by multiple theoretical and methodological perspectives. The reciprocal images of the individuals are understood to be crucial in cross-cultural communication (cf. Doise & Palmonari, 1986), and the LD reference framework for the images of languages and cultures constitutes an effective contribution to educational strategies and practices that aim at developing intercultural communication as an interaction of different world visions. Consequently, LD, as a scientific discipline aiming at playing an active role within the framework of complex cultural social-political contexts (cf. Alarcão, Andrade, Araöjo e Sá, Melo-Pfeiffer & Santos, 2009), puts forward a conception of images rooted on the principle that its comprehension gives access to individual or group world views, permitting to explain how subjects build reality, and proposes to effectively intervene in the teaching /learning context (cf. Mariko, 2005; Andrade, Araöjo e Sá & Moreira, 2007 ). In this sense we intend to follow two approaches to the study of images in the context of Language Didactics: as diagnosis, testimony, or evidence of social reality; as constitutive of social reality, which implies working on images through images, so as to contribute to their (re/des)construction (cf. Mariko, 2005). 2. Proposal of a research baseline hypothesis: images of language and culture are related by mutual implication to Intercultural Competence This project is developed in the confluence of these two trends of imagological studies in LD. The ways social images relate to the dimensions focused on by the multidimensional models of intercultural competence (e.g. Byram, 1997; Risager, 2007) are analysed so as to contribute to the development of the Portuguese and Turkish students' IC, and promote ID between the two countries. We, thus, depart from the relation of mutual implication between the dimensions contemplated in the multidimensional models of IC, and the images of language and culture individuals build of each other. This relation is implicit in the baseline definitions of both concepts: − Images: socially constructed, shared knowledge, with practical bearings that contribute to the construction of a common reality for a determined social group; systems of representation of reality responsible for the orientation and organization of social behaviour (Jodelet, 1997), accounting for the ways of interaction with the Other (Doise & Palmonari, 1986, Abric, 1994), and for the subject's understanding of the social dynamics he takes part in (Vala, 1993). − IC: adequate, effective management of the interaction between individuals with different affective, cognitive, behavioral orientations that are a result of different group or cultural affiliations, as this interaction becomes an intercultural process (Spitzberg & Chagnon, 2009). We thus intend to contribute to an optimization of diversity on the basis of "reciprocal valuing" constituted by heterogeneousness − realizing how differences can enrich us, considering how fundamentally identical we are". (Abdallah-Pretceille & Porcher, 1996: 20). It this sense of mutual enrichment that heartens this study, and prevails throughout it. 294 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Research project ―Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey‖ description 3.1. Main objectives Three main research objectives structure this project: 1) To diagnose the reciprocal images of Portuguese and Turkish higher education students, respectively learning Turkish and Portuguese language; account for the factors involved in the construction of such images; identify and analyse the relations between these images. 2) To devise a theoretical tool based on a referential framework for the development of the students' Intercultural Competence, and of ID in the Portuguese and Turkish higher education context. 3) To contribute to Intercultural Education and Foreign Language Teaching with the proposal of strategic guidelines focused on language education practices aiming at developing the students' Intercultural Competence, and promoting ID between Portugal and Turkey. 3.2. Main stages As an eminently imagological comparative study, this project will focus on the reciprocal images of students of a Turkish university, and of two Portuguese universities, respectively, learning Portuguese and Turkish as a foreign language in their Higher Education language learning context. Two distinct, but complementary, sequential stages are contemplated: a) The first stage is intended to identify, describe and categorize the reciprocal images of the two groups in question. A comparative analysis of these images will be developed, aiming at the understanding of how they interrelate in terms of similarity or difference regarding their nature and function, and of the factors involved in their construction. The interference of the images on both groups' ability to communicate and relate to each other will also be scrutinized. Based on the results, a theoretical referential framework will be constructed highlighting the interconnection between the conclusions of the analysis and categorization of the images, and the multidimensional model of Intercultural Competence. b) The second phase is focused on the development of strategic guidelines of intervention at the foreign language (Portuguese and Turkish as foreign languages) education level. Based on the objectives inherent to IE, and on the interconnection of images and Intercultural Competence, it is intended to improve the students' Intercultural Competence, their awareness of the intrinsic value of the each other's language and culture , and their ability to reflect upon their own culture when faced with the other's, as crucial to the development of positive attitudes regarding diversity. 3.3. Methodological design Considering that the field of Education research is that of an unrepeatable, mutable reality, with an undetermined number of conditioning factors, assumptions, and purposes (cf. Amado & Boavida, 2008: 226), a constructivist approach was adopted, of an ontological and epistemological nature, based on the conception of knowledge as co-constructed in a collaborative process, focusing on the research process itself, and not disregarding the intervention and influence of the researcher himself. (cf. Guba & Lincoln, 1994). It takes the form of a "multiple cases" variant of a case study project, as it includes more than only one case (cf. Yin, 2009). A contemporary phenomenon is focused on, in a real life context, by means of a comprehensive research strategy, aiming at approaching its understanding through a systematic, detailed, intensive, deepened, and interactive examination (cf. Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). The results obtained are not intended to be generalized, as they aim, on the contrary, at achieving a deeper level of understanding of the issues in study. Two imagological complementary approaches are adopted: a thematized approach, which takes images as elements liable to explain competences inherent to an individual or group, and which aims at 295 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo understanding the individual's world organization system; and a non-thematized or constructivist approach, which focuses on the dynamical nature of images, and aims at devising educational activities that should favour the (re)construction of those very images (cf. Vasseur, 2001; Mùller & de Pietro, 2001). Data collection and analysis are, thus, carried out according to quantitative-qualitative continuum model (Niglas, 2004), and the following data collection tools were adopted: 1) inquire by questionnaire − Two distinct questionnaires are applied: (1) ―Images‖ will focus on the reciprocal images of the inquired; (2) "Intercultural‖ will take the form of a selfreport by the inquired on aspects connected with intercultural communication; it is intended to gather information on how the inquired describe and assess themselves in what concerns their own intercultural capacities, rather than to assess their intercultural competence levels. 2) focus group technique − inherent to a qualitative research, it propitiates an approach to different individuals' diverse views on a predefined theme. Based on inductive research strategies, results are largely descriptive, seen as a way of complementing or deepening the information gathered through other methods, and contributing to hypothesizing in subsequent data collecting and analysis phases and / or future research (cf. Stewart; Shamdasani & Rook, 2007); 3) on-line interaction platform − interaction between the two publics in study is recorded in the form of an on-line platform specially designed for the purpose, in which groups are intended to interact in order to fulfill a task within the context of a collaborative work to be integrated in the teaching programs of Portuguese and Turkish language courses attended by the classes of the students participating in this project. 4. Description of the ―Images‖ questionnaire This questionnaire is applied to the Higher Education Portuguese and Turkish students attending, respectively, Turkish and Portuguese as FL language courses in both countries. Four different classes were selected: two classes of a Portuguese Language course of a Turkish University and two classes of a Turkish language course of two different Portuguese Universities. The students are attending the second semester of either the first or second year of the respective language courses. The construction of this questionnaire, its application and the planning of the subsequent processes of analysis of its results were guided by the following main research questions: 1. What is the biographical, academic and professional profile of the students involved? 2. What images of the native and foreign languages (Portuguese and Turkish), and of their speakers and culture are shared by the participants? 3. What are the main factors which are likely to interfere in the construction of the reciprocal images of the participants? 4. At what level can the images of the two groups of participants be inter-related? 5. What are the implications of these images on the processes of approaching/distancing of the students regarding their counterpart‘s language, people and culture? The questionnaire was structured as to obtain an answer to these questions, focusing mainly on the collection of data related to the reciprocal images of the two groups, and divided in five distinct sections, presented in Table 1. Table 1: ―Images‖ questionnaire sections and respective data collection objectives. Sections Objectives 1. Personal Data Describe the subjects in what concerns: Sex, age, nationality. Professional experience. Academic experience (level of education, study cycle, institution, department, and name of the course being taken, participation and/or desire to participate in mobility programs). 2. Linguistic Biography Describe the subjects' linguistic biography: Mother language(s); parents' mother language(s). Significant experience abroad; reasons for experience; acquisition of the language(s) of the host country. FLs learnt; learning context; competence (self-assessment); motivations for learning 296 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FLs used (contexts and motives). 3. Images of the Turkish and Portuguese Languages 4. Images of the Turkish and Portuguese people and cultures 5. Opinions and attitudes regarding the EU Describe the self- / hetero – images of the subjects regarding Turkish and Portuguese languages: Motivations for learning Portuguese/Turkish as FL. Level of difficulty in learning Portuguese/Turkish Images of the Turkish Language. Images of the Portuguese Language. Images of the status of the Turkish/Portuguese language in different contexts, and of its future development. Describe the images regarding the Turkish and Portuguese people and cultures: Visits to Turkey/Portugal; contexts of the visit; interest in visiting the country. Contacts/relationships with Turkish/Portuguese natives or descendents; nature of contact/relationship. Images of the Turkish people (self- / hetero-images) Images of the Portuguese people (self- / hetero-images) Images regarding the general representation of Turkish people shared by the Portuguese people. Images regarding the general representation of Portuguese people shared by the Turkish people. Factors concurring to the rapprochement between Portuguese and Turkish people. Factors concurring to the distancing between Portuguese and Turkish people. Degree of comfort to establish social and affective relations with Turkish/Portuguese people. Political and social images of Turkey and Portugal. Degree of identification with the Turkish/Portuguese people. Images of the influence of religion on different social and political spheres in Portugal and Turkey. Images of the status of Turkey and Portugal at the intellectual, cultural, economical, and industrial level in different contexts, and of the future development of the two countries. Describe the opinions and attitudes of the participants regarding the UE: Positioning regarding the membership of Portugal/Turkey in the EU. Political and social aspects of the EU. European identity. Degree of confidence regarding the future of the EU. Level of a sense of belonging to a progressively larger geographical or cultural context. Association of certain political, social, economical, and religious values to the EU, Turkey, Portugal, or none of them. Degree of support, or opposition, to the integration of Turkey in the EU. Challenges that Turkey faces as a candidate State to the integration in the EU. Concerning the questions typology, a range of Open-ended and Closed-ended formats were selected: Open-ended; word-associations; multiple-choice (open- and closed-ended); categorical (open- and closedended); Likert-scale. This instrument had already been subjected to a validation and pre-testing process, having also been adapted to a digital format to be available on-line. Both the divulgation and filling of the ―Images‖ questionnaire is processed through the internet. 4.1 Expected outcomes and future valence of the use of the ―Images‖ questionnaire The treatment of the collected data is expected to: - present a characterization of the students' profile; understand their motivation to learn Portuguese and Turkish as foreign language; know the nature and level of communicational and relational experiences with their counterpart; present a characterization of the images that both groups construct regarding their own language and culture and their counterpart‘s; 297 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - understand the level of influence of the participants‘ opinions and attitudes regarding the EU on their reciprocal images (Portugal being a member-State of this institution, and Turkey being a longtime candidate to the integration in the EU) These results will propitiate the reaching of conclusions on the participants‘ self- and hetero-images that should provide a basis for a comparative analysis intended to highlight the main similarities and differences of the nature, characteristics, and background of the reciprocal images of the two groups of students, and elicit some further conclusions on the factors that might come to play a role in intercultural communication between Portuguese and Turkish people. A set of conclusions on the images that either group constructs and shares regarding the other will have an intrinsic value for the academic research in Language Didactics and IE, as well as for other disciplines in the area of the social studies. It will also provide a basis for the planning and construction of the data collection instruments and techniques to be applied in the development of this research project: the collective interviews (based on the technique of focus-group) and the on-line interaction platform. The data collection instruments based on an eminently qualitative methodology will help deepen the knowledge and understanding of the participants‘ reciprocal images, and of the interconnection between these images and the participants‘ ability to be involved in effective intercultural communication with each other. Conclusion The ultimate aim of this research project is to promote an effective ID between Turkish and Portuguese people through the proposal of strategic guidelines focused on education practices in foreign language education (Portuguese and Turkish), in a Higher Education context, intended to further develop the students' IC and raise their awareness of their counterpart‘s language and culture. The tightening of the connections between the two countries is seen as extremely beneficial not only in a conjectural intercultural communication framework to be promoted and developed in the Higher Education context, at an intellectual, economical, political, and cultural level. In face of the complexity and variety of the factors involved in the construction and use of the images of languages and cultures, as well as in the different dimensions that are part of IC, we chose to follow a holistic paradigmatic approach, in the planning, structuring, and developing stages of the present project. This approach was based mainly on the epistemological and scientific frameworks presented by Bohm (2008) and Morin (2008), which are based, respectively, on the conceptions of ―Wholeness‖ and ―Complexity‖. These approaches are considered fundamental when studying the factors involved in the study of images and intercultural communication, primarily because both approaches present a conception of the self as a simultaneously individual and collective reality and give emphasis to the complexity and interconnectedness of this same reality. The contemporary challenges facing all human beings and nations stress the urgency for a further epistemological development in science, which has to be based on the development of a ―new way of thinking‖ (Bohm, 2008; Morin, 2008). In this sense, and viewing the world as a ―complex wholeness", this project answers the need for a transdisciplinary perspective that propitiates the problematization of the questions under study in a wider and more complex way, allowing for the dissolution of barriers intrinsic to the disciplinary stratification of sciences, in particular of the Social and Human Sciences (cf. Geertz, 1989). In clear opposition to the latter's fragmentary view of reality we chose to make use of theoretical frameworks from different disciplinary scientific areas, as well as to adopt and implement different methodologically based data collection instruments and processes of analysis of their products. We believe that only by interconnecting different views and methodologies will it be possible to answer the questions that orientate this project, following, at the same time, the principle that scientific explanations do not consist in the reduction of complexity to simplicity, but rather in replacing a less intelligible complexity by a more intelligible one (cf. Levi-Strauss, 1996). We therefore chose to adopt a holistic approach to face the questions we raised, assuming that only a holistic approach will make it possible to achieve a simultaneously broader and deeper understanding not only of the ties that unify individuals as human beings, but also of the factors involved in bringing them apart. It is through the profound understanding of the complexities involved that strategies based on the notion of ID may be designed and carried out to promote tolerance and openness to diversity. 298 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As a final conclusion and a way of portraying the holistic paradigm prevailing throughout this project we transcribe Daniel Faria's words from his poem ―Labirinto I‖: ―Never again shall I divide The birds – their singing and their wingsTo find the precise weight Of their rising body.‖ References Abdallah-Pretceille, M. (1999). L‘éducation interculturelle. Paris: PUF. Abdallah-Pretceille, M., & Porcher, L. (1996). Éducation et communication interculturelle. Paris: PUF. Abric, J. C. (1994). Pratiques sociales et représentations. Paris: PUF. Alarcão, I., Andrade, A. I., Araöjo e Sá, M. H., Melo-Pfeiffer, S. & Santos, L. (2009). Intercompréhension et plurilinguisme: (re)configurateurs épistémologiques d‘une didactique des langues? ÉLA, Revue de didactologie des langues-cultures et de lexiculturologie, Approches plurielles et multimodales, 153, 11-24. Amado, J. & Boavida, J. (2008). Ciências da Educação: Epistemologia, Identidade e Perspectivas. Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra. Andrade, A.I. , Araöjo e Sá, M.H. & Moreira, G. (coord.) (2007). Imagens das Lìnguas e do Plurilinguismo: Princìpios e Sugestões de Intervenção Educativa. Cadernos do LALE . Série Propostas. Aveiro: Universidade de Aveiro Beacco, J., Byram, M., Coste, D. & Fleming, M. (2009). Plateforme de ressources et de références pour l‘éducation plurilingue et pluriculturelle. Strasbourg : Division des Politiques Linguistiques, Conseil de l‘Europe. Birzea C., (2003). ―Learning Democracy. Education Policies within the Council of Europe‖. Session of the Standing Conference of European Ministers of Education on Intercultural education: managing diversity, strengthening democracy, Athènes, Grèce, 10-12 novembre. Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (1994). Investigação qualitativa em educação: uma introdução à teoria e aos métodos. Porto: Porto Editora Bleszynska, K. M. (2008). Constructing intercultural education. Intercultural Education, 19(6), 537-545. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and assessing intercultural communicative competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Bohm, D. (2008). Wholeness and the implicate order. London; New York: Routledge. Byram, M. (2007). Plurilingualism in Europe and its implications. In British Council (Ed.), Berlin Conference 26-27January 2007 - Preparing for the world of work– language education for the future - conference report. Berlin: British Council. Castellotti, V., & Moore, D. (2002). Social Representations of Languages and Teaching. Reference Study. Strasburg: Language Policy Division, DGIV, Council of Europe. Council of Europe(2008). White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue: ―Living together as equals in dignity‖. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Delors, J (1996). Learning the treasure within: report to UNESCO of the international commission of education for the twenty-first Century. Paris: UNESCO. Doise, W., & Palmonari, A. (1986). L‘étude des représentations sociales. Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé. Geertz, C. (1989 ). ―El impacto del concepto de cultura en el concepto del hombre‖. La interpretaciñn de las culturas (pp. 43-59). Barcelona Gedisa 299 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994) Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin, & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105-117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Jodelet, D. (1997). Les représentations sociales. Paris: PUF. Lévi-Strauss, C. (1966). The savage mind. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Mariko, H. (2005). La notion de représentation en didactique des langues. Enseignement du français au Japon, 33, 69-86. Morin, E. (2008). On complexity. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Morin, E. (1999). Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l‘éducation du futur. Paris: UNESCO. Mùller, N., & De Pietro, J. F. (2001). Que faire de la notion de représentations? Que faire des représentations? Questions méthodologiques et didactiques à partir de travaux sur le róle des représentations dans l‘apprentissage d‘une langue. In D. Moore (Coord.), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage. Références, modèles, données et méthodes (pp. 51-65). Paris: Didier. Niglas, K. (2004). The combined use of qualitative and quantitative methods in educational research. Tallin: Tallin Pedagogical University. Risager, K. (2007). Language and culture pedagogy: From a national to a transnational paradigm. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. Spitzberg, B., & Chagnon, G. (2009). Conceptualizing intercultural competence. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.), The SAGE handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 2-52). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Stewart, D. W., Shamdasani, P. N., & Rook, D. W. (2007). Focus groups: theory and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications. Vala, J. (1993). Psicologia Social. Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian. Vasseur, M. T. (2001). Places discursives, imaginaire dialogique et apprentissage de la langue. In D. Moore (Coord.), Les représentations des langues et de leur apprentissage. Références, modèles, données et méthodes (pp. 133-148). Paris: Didier. Yin, R. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. California: Sage Publications. 300 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 45 Title A name given to the resource Reciprocal images of Turkish and Portuguese university students: for an intercultural mediation between Portugal and Turkey Author Author Basílio, Daniel de Araújo e Sá, Maria Helena Simões, Ana Raquel Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper proposes to present an ongoing research project aiming at diagnosing the reciprocal language and cultural images of Portuguese learners of Turkish and Turkish learners of Portuguese as foreign languages in the Higher Education context. As a case-study format project following an eminently qualitative approach, it includes the application, analysis and interpretation of the results of three distinct and sequential data-collection instruments: two questionnaires/surveys, a collective interview, and an on-line platform that will serve as a space for the interaction of the students of both countries. Conclusions are to be taken on how the images/social representations the two groups of students construct of each other pertain on their knowledge and attitudes towards each other, and, ultimately, on their intercultural competence. Based on these conclusions, ―cultural awareness‖ and intercultural competence development guidelines, at the level of foreign language learning – teaching, are to be devised and provided to be applied in Portuguese and Turkish higher education institutions. In this article we intend to account for the first questionnaire/survey, a more quantitatively devised data collection instrument, which has been already applied to the students involved in the study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d8159db02732c1f9259835df34afcdbd.pdf 79743106bdb5a90e13805efd702de25a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Gözde Balıkçı Department of Foreign Language Education, Faculty of Education Middle East Technical University, Turkey balikci@metu.edu.tr Abstract: The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Introduction In the field of second language learning and teaching, the question of how to learn/ teach huge amount of vocabulary of a foreign language has always been discussed. There have been lots of methods and techniques developed to find solution to this vocabulary learning problem. ―With the growth of corpus linguistics there has been increasing interest in collocations. In addition, Lewis‘ influential Lexical Approach (1993) stressed the importance of learning collocations.‖ (Shin& Nation, 2008). Firth who was the introducer of the term ―collocation‖ claims that ―you shall know a word by the company it keeps" (as cited in Kennedy, 2003).Therefore, he claimed that collocations should be taken into consideration while teaching and learning vocabulary. This small scale study primarily concerned with the concept of collocation and the use of collocations by advanced learners of English who are also prospective teachers‘ of English. It is important to know how advanced learners of English who are probably learning and using that language for at least five years are dealing with collocations. While the necessity of teaching and learning collocations are widely accepted among the researchers, it is worth investigating the use of collocations by the prospective teachers who are real practitioners in the classroom. If they give importance to the collocations and make use of them, then it may be concluded that they will teach collocations to their students, as well. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate twenty advanced learners‘ of English writings studying in the Foreign Language Teaching Department to explore their use of collocations specifically adjective- noun and noun -noun collocations. The main questions are; do they use these types of collocations while writing essays, how many noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations do they use and what are their mistakes while producing these collocations. In order to answer these questions, twenty students‘ analysis papers are investigated and noun-noun and adjective-noun pairs are manually extracted from the text. Then, these pairs are counted and it is decided whether they can be called as collocations so their collocational strength is determined by using Oxford Collocations Dictionary (OCD) and British National Corpus (BNC) and Google. It is believed that the results obtained from this study will probably make positive contribution to the field and it will provide us with insights into the use of collocations by advanced learners. Firstly, as there are various definitions of collocations among the linguists, these definitions and different approaches to collocations and the classification of them will be mentioned and discussed. Then, the importance of collocations for second language learners will be discussed. The studies carried out to investigate the use of collocations by advanced learners will be under investigation and their common findings will be thoroughly examined. Afterwards, the procedure of the study and the results will be explained. The findings and the implications of the study for the field will be carefully examined. 513 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Defining Collocations As stated above the term ―collocation‖ was first introduced by Firth (1957) who argued that ―you shall judge a word by the company it keeps.‖ ―Although the concept has long been a popular topic in linguistics there is no universally accepted formal definition of collocation (Lewis, 2001; Grant and Bauer 2004, as cited in Wang& Shaw,2008). ―Therefore, there are various terms such as ―fixed expression, word-combination, idiom, phrase, prefabricated language.‖ (Wang& Shaw,2008) Leśniewska (2006) has stated that ―collocations are notoriously difficult to define and different (often slightly contradictory) definitions proliferate in the literature‖. In his much quoted study, ―Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency‖ Howarth (1998) has examined various approaches to define collocations and he defines them as ―combinations of words with a syntactic function as constituents of sentences (such as noun or prepositional phrases or verb and object constructions). He also pointed out another problem and stated that: Although the term phraseology (the study of word combinations) is increasingly used by writers in a number of language related disciplines, the field has perhaps not yet achieved wide recognition in applied linguistics nor are the implications of research within the field fully understood by or easily available to language teachers. (p.24). Howarth (1998) has provided us with a figure illustrating this continuum; Free combinations Restricted Figurative Idioms collocations Blow a fuse Blow your own Lexical composites Blow a trumpet trumpet verb+noun Under the table Under attack Under the Grammatical microscope composites Preposition+noun Figure 2 Collocational continuum (Howarth, 1998) Pure idioms Blow the gaff Under the weather According to Howarth (1998); Free combinations (also referred to as open and free collocations) include elements used in their literal senses and freely substitutable (carry a trumpet, on top of the table). Restricted collocations have one component (usually the preposition, verb or adjective ‗collocator‘ of the base noun, to use Haussmann‘s (1979) terms) that is used in specialized, often figurative sense only found in the context of a limited number of collocates. (p. 28) Wang&Shaw (2008) define restricted collocations (also referred to as fixed combinations or collocations) usually have one item used in a non-literal sense, often a specialized, or figurative sense, and the other used in its normal meaning such as run a company, bitterly contested. The vocabulary choice is less predictable in this category of collocations than in free collocations. In terms of idioms, figurative ones have metaphorical meanings and have a literal interpretation, pure idioms have a unitary meaning that cannot be derived from the meanings of the components, and are the most opaque and fixed category. (p. 28). The role of collocations in second language learning and teaching Lewis (1997), in his ‗lexical approach‘ theory points out that fluency in a foreign language is conditioned by the acquisition of a number of pre-fabricated chunks. He also regards collocation as central feature of a language production. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Lewis (2000) has also claimed that the number of collocations understood as word combinations is greater than the number of all words because the same words can occur in various collocations. That is the reason why even advanced learners have difficulties in producing collocations. In addition, collocational competence which is suggested by Hill (1999) enables learners to produce texts which not only grammatically correct or merely probable or hypothetical but, authentic, which means it is this collocation which a native speaker would use in this specific situation. (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Shin & Nation (2008) has discussed the question of why collocations should be learned and taught. They stated that the main reason is ―they help learners‘ language use, both with development of fluency and native like selection.‖ (p.340). 514 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pawler and Sydner (1983) argue that there is usually more than one possible way of saying something but only one or two of these ways sound natural to a native speaker of the language. (as cited in Shin & Nation ,2008) Moreover, Oxford Collocations Dictionary claims that ―with the right choice of word combinations you can express your ideas much more convincingly‖. Therefore knowledge of collocations can be considered very important for developing writing skills in a second language, as well. Collocations as a source of difficulty for advanced learners Although Nesselhauf (2003) has stated ―especially at an advanced level, learners‘ difficulties with collocations have not been investigated in much detail so far‖, some important researches have been carried out in this field. DeCock et al(1998), Oppenheim (2000), Foster (2001), and Adolphs and Durrow (2004) have all looked at the use of formulaic language in advanced non-native speech, while Yorio (1989), Granger (1998), Lorenz (1999), Howarth (1998), Kaszubski (2000) and Nesselhauf (2005) have investigated writing (as cited in Durrant &Schmitt, 2009). Durrant and Schmitt (2009) pointed out the general picture emerged from these studies; Advanced learners do appear to use formulaic language (in some cases quite selfconsciously (Oppenheim 2000), but often not to the same extent as natives (Foster 2001, Granger 1998; Howarth 1998). At the same time, learners tend to overuse (in comparison to native norms) a small range of favourite phrases, especially if they are frequent/ neutral items or are cognate to L1 forms. (Foster (2001) Granger (1998) Kaszubski (2000) Lorenz (1999), Nesselhauf (2005), DeCock et al(1998). Wang & Shaw (2008) have summarised the results of some other studies investigating collocational errors made by EFL learners. They have stated that one of the difficulties in collocation use is the lack of knowledge as to collocational possibilities of verbs (Lennon, 1996); hence mismatches between lexical items as in stop the fire instead of put out the fire. A second type of error is blending (Howarth, 1998) such as pay care (blend of pay attention and take care). Nesselhauf (2003), in his much quoted study, found out that all errors made by advanced learners of English stem from the mismatch between the verb and noun. Prepositional errors as in the raise the question about (raise the question of) and determiner errors as in get the permission (get permission) are also fairly frequent among advanced EFL learners. Most of the studies focusing on the analysis of verb- direct object collocations in a corpus of academic writing (Nesselhauf, 2003, Howarth, 1998) suggest that ―the most problematic area for learners in terms of collocational knowledge is made up by the collocations which are on the borderline between free combinations and restricted ones.‖ (as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Howarth claimed that; It may be claimed that the problem facing the non-native writer or speaker is knowing which of a range of collocational options are restricted and which are free. Unlike idioms and more restricted collocations, the ‗somewhat restricted‘ word combinations are not learned as wholes. It appears that the ability to manipulate such clusters (collocations which are partly restricted) is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a sign of true native speaker competence and is a useful indicator of degrees of proficiency across the boundary between non-native and native competence‖(p.38). Although it is not possible to find out studies analysing noun-noun or adjective-noun collocations, most of the studies investigating verb- noun collocations find out that the most problematic category for even advanced learners of English is the use of restricted collocations such as take a picture (as we cannot say take a movie or film). Leśniewska (2006) states that these findings fit in with certain implications of the psycholinguistics research, namely, that fixed multi-word units, such as idioms, may be less problematic for learners than subtler kinds of restrictions. Because when a second language learner encounters idioms that are opaque and figurative compared to the collocations, the idioms will probably attract the attention of the learners. Therefore; they will be more permanent as they are perceived as salient. In addition, Leśniewska (2006) has claimed that ―because of the demanding nature of foreign language production, learners seem to rely on familiar expressions, which recalled as wholes, contribute fluency. While there is no empirical support for the view that the learners use fewer formulaic expressions, there is evidence that they use fewer restricted collocations.‖ Siyanova&Schmitt (2008) conducted a study investigating processing of adjective –noun collocations (social services) among advanced learners of English. Overall, the studies carried out by them suggest that ―L2 learners are capable of producing a large number of 515 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appropriate collocations but that underlying intuitions and the fluency with collocations of even advanced learners do not seem to match those of native speakers.‖ Waller (1993) has carried out research exploring the characteristics of near-native proficiency as they are thought to demonstrate themselves in writing. The texts are collected from both native speakers and non native speakers at the advanced level. In the light of this study, Waller concluded that in learners‘ writings the most tangible marker of non- nativeness is the use of collocations. He states that ―what is even more interesting, however, is that problems in collocational usage were found to be restricted to the texts written by non-native speakers, whereas other problems (e.g. syntactic errors, or lexical errors other than collocational) were found in both groups of texts. Therefore, Waller concludes that the use of collocations may create ―a foreign accent in writing‖. (Waller, 1993, as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Kälkvist (1998) reached similar conclusions in his study analyzing the types of collocational errors made by advanced Swedish learners of English. ―The most common type of error was that of overextension, which resulted in awkward collocations, pointing to the unawareness of usage restrictions on the part of the students.‖(as cited in Leśniewska, 2006). Three main findings aroused from Durrant and Schmitt‘ study (2009) which investigated both advanced learners and native speakers of English. When compared to native speakers, learners use more high frequency collocations. Also learners make at least as much use of collocations as do natives. In addition, they overuse strong collocations in comparison to native norms. Learners rely on forms which are common in the language. Thus, it may be concluded that second language learners do acquire quite effectively much of the high-frequency phraseology of the target language. (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). It is suggested that ― language teachers wishing to hasten their students along the route of developing an authentic native like phraseology may benefit from drawing their attention to collocations that are less common but strongly associated items (e.g. densely populated, bated breath, preconceived notions)‖ (Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). These are the studies analysing advanced learners‘ use of collocations in their written productions. In essence, most of them suggest that advanced learners make use of collocations however; they make mistakes while using the restricted collocations rather than free combinations or idioms. In addition, they may overuse most frequent collocations probably due to the greater exposure to these collocations. Although these various studies appear to give the same results, prior to making generalisations, one should be careful. As Howarth (1998) has warned; While analyzing what makes an individual collocation non-standard can help in understanding what the non-native has done on a particular occasion, and some general conclusions can be drawn, there is a need for alternative perspectives to increase our understanding of deeper processes of acquisition such as learner strategies. In discussing strategies in relation to phraseology, one must distinguish between two different phenomena. On the one hand, there is the repeated use of routines and patterns as an early communication strategy used by a speaker to overcome a lack of linguistic resources (discussed in Krashen and Scarcella 1978), on the other hand, there are cognitive strategies used by more advanced learners when consciously attending to collocational knowledge. (p.39). Howarth (1998) has also listed five strategies the learners adopted while using collocations. Therefore, one should take these strategies into consideration while investigating the use of collocations by the learners. These strategies are ―avoidance, experimentation, transfer, analogy, and repetition.‖ Avoidance refers to the strategy that learners adopt when they cannot produce the target collocation, they can simply avoid using it. Experimentation can be adopted by the risk taker learners. When they do not know an English restricted collocation, they can try to find a synonymous one (free combination). Also the learners can simply transfer a L1 collocation to L2 if they cannot find a suitable one. The process of adapting a known L2 collocation which is called analogy (by substituting one element for another known lexical item) could be regarded as a form of intralingual L2 transfer and it is claimed to be highly productive. Lastly, ―repetition can be adopted if the learners do not have enough confidence or inclination to extend collocations by analogy, a writer may fall back on the repeated use of a limited number of known collocations‖. (p. 41). Methodology The participants: For this study, I worked with twenty students nearly at the age of twenty who are first year students in the Foreign Language Education Department at METU. Their educational background and level of English is nearly same. All of them graduated from teacher training high school. They passed YDS and EPE exam to enter the department at which they are studying now. Therefore, they are at advanced level. At the department, they are taking courses contextual grammar, linguistics, advanced reading and writing, oral 516 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo communication skills, English literature. Therefore, they are mainly focusing on English language; they also try to develop their language skills. In addition to these must courses, all of them took an elective course; ―Critical Reading and Thinking‖. Throughout the semester, I attended that course in order to make observations. The Data: During the course, they read articles on some controversial issues such as abortion, gun control, bilingualism, gay marriages and international adoption. Each week is spent on one controversial issue. Besides reading articles on the topic, they watched a movie about the same issue. Then each student is required to write a rhetorical analysis of one issue. In these analysis, they are expected to evaluate the writer‘s and the director‘s point of view, their approach to the topics, their way of expressing their thoughts and refuting other people‘s ideas. While analysing the articles and movies, they try to detect the specific strategies that the writers and directors use. In addition, they try to find out the appeals (logical, emotional, and ethical) that writers achieve to have. Finally, they try to examine the fallacies in the movie or in the articles. Therefore, my data include twenty rhetorical analysis reports sixty seven pages long. Their topics are gun control, gay marriages and international adoption. According to Leśniewska (2006), there are different ways of assessing collocational knowledge such as analyzing the language production of learners either written or spoken, using corpora of L2 writing analyzing only specific, pre-selected collocations, eliciting collocational decisions of learners for specific items using gap filling tasks or in the form of closed tasks such as multiple choice.(p.96). The procedure: Of these data collection methods mentioned above, I only used the first one, analyzing the language production of learners in a written form. First of all, I read all of the papers, and then I chose to investigate noun-noun and adjective-noun collocations. In the literature, nearly all of the researchers study the verb-noun collocations as they are more frequent and they are more widely used than the noun-noun or adjective- noun collocations. Identification of word combinations: The present analysis is limited to directly noun-noun and adjective-noun combinations. They are chosen because they are particularly common in the texts analysed. First of all, all of the noun-noun and adjective- noun pairs are extracted manually. Combinations such as pronouns, possessives, semi determiners- as listed in Biber et al. (1999), i.e. same, other, next, such (as cited in Durrant& Schmitt, 2009) are not included. Also the quotations are not included in the analysis as they do not represent learners‘ real performance. However, as these papers are analysis papers so learners quoted extensively from the writers of the articles. In addition, when encountered such phrases currency of the subject matter I did not separate them. The total number of words that learners write in their papers (including content and function words) is 43986. This procedure retrieved a total of 937 noun-noun and adjective- noun combinations. However, this number includes repeated word combinations as well. I do not name them as collocations yet as some of them have never appeared in the British National Corpus (BNC) or Oxford Collocation Dictionary (OCD). Calculation of collocational strength: While evaluating these combinations in terms of collocational strength I used BNC, OCD and Google. The main aim of the evaluation is first to find out if the words are really collocating with each other and how frequently they are collocating. BNC is apparently preferred by many researchers (Nesselhauf, 2005, Shin &Nation, 2008, Durrant&Schmitt, 2009). Nesselhauf (2005) explains why he uses BNC in his much quoted study; The British National Corpus consists of 100 million words of modern British English. It contains about 90 million words of written language and 10 million words of spoken language of various text typed ranging from formal academic prose and popular fiction to transcribed radio shows and informal conversation. (Nesselhauf, 2005). OCD is also well known collocation dictionary which contains 150.000 collocations of 9.000 nouns and verbs and adjectives. (Oxford Collocation Dictionary, 2002). The reason why I used Google is trying to find out the frequency of the word combinations. Google can be unreliable source of information; therefore I used it with meticulous care. I examined the websites that Google offered to find out whether they are trustable or not. For most of the word combinations I looked at first OCD to find out if the dictionary gives the collocation. If the word combination is in the dictionary, it is accepted as collocation. If not, then I searched the word combination in the BNC. When I could not find the pair in the BNC, then I googled it. If the number of the results given by the Google is under thousand, then the word pair is not accepted as collocation, some of them are accepted as free collocations. The results: The total number of words is retrieved from the twenty papers are 43989. (including content, function words and quoted words). There are sixty seven pages of papers. 285 word combinations are noun –noun collocations, 652 combinations are adjective-noun combinations. All of the collocations in the papers can be found in Appendix A. If we exclude the repeated collocations, there are 698 combinations in which 188 noun-noun combinations and 510 adjective noun combinations occur. Only one noun-noun combination is considered as wrong; humane sentiment. (it may be human sentiment). 15 adjective-noun combinations are considered as wrong. These findings can be seen in the table and in the figure below; 517 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Number of papers analysed: 20 The total number of words : 43989 Total page of the papers: 67 The number of combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of noun-noun combinations (repeated combinations included): 937 285 The number of adjective-noun combinations (repeated combinations included) : The number of collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of adjective-noun collocations (repeated ones are excluded): The number of noun-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations The number of adjective-noun combinations that are not accepted as collocations Table 1 Summary of the numbers of retrieved combinations 652 698 188 510 1 15 Figure 3 Analysis of the types of collocations Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations The possible source of error 518 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. interrupted internet L1 transfer first hand related events Intralingual error certain happenings Intralingual error neat mantage Grammatical error second hand alternative Intralingual error oncoming questions Intralingual error well known reputation L1 transfer ethnic roots L1 transfer respectable awards L1 transfer furious comments Intralingual error pathetic movies Grammatical error pitiable feelings Intralingual error legitimate judgements L1 transfer constant beliefs Intralingual error first hand opinions Intralingual error Table 2 Word combinations that are not accepted as collocations and possible sources of errors The Discussion The study has aimed to find out the extent to which advanced learners of English make use of word combinations, how learners are dealing with collocations. Although the learners wrote these papers at their homes without time pressure, it may be inferred from the results that they did not use collocations extensively. To be able to write effectively, they should have made use of these word combinations. As Howarth (1998) suggested that learners can use some strategies while using collocations, maybe these students opt to make avoidance and avoid using collocations. If the collocations are examined thoroughly, it can be clearly seen that the collocations used frequently are the ones used in the course frequently. While they are reading the passages, watching the movies, discussing about the controversial issues, they both use the collocations and they are exposed to these collocations such as controversial issue, striking movie, logical appeal, violent history, gun issue, emotional issue, single mother, contradictory issues....Therefore, it may be inferred that exposure to collocations may affect the use of collocations in a positive way. Furthermore, the learners repeated these collocations so they use another strategy Howarth (1998) mentioned; repetition. Although I did not intend to categorise collocations as free, restricted ones; the findings demonstrate that most of the collocations are free combinations. There are not much strong collocations. Therefore, this study also supports the other studies investigating the use of collocations in advanced learners‘ writings. As they also find out those learners heavily rely on free collocations as restricted ones are difficult to use (they can be considered more marked than the free collocations.) 519 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Durrant, P. Schmitt, N.(2009). To what extent do native and non-native writers make use of collocations? International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 47, pp.157-177. Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and Second Language Proficiency. Applied Linguistics. 19/1. 24-44. Kennedy, G. (2003). Amplifier Collocations in the British National Corpus: Implications for English Language Teaching. Tesol Quarretly 37/3, Lesnievska, J. (2006). Collocations and Second Language Use. Studia Linguistica.123, 95-105 Martynska, M. (2004). Do English language learners know collocations. Investigationes Linguisticae. 9/1-15. Nesselhauf. (2003). The use of Collocations by Advanced Learners of English. Applied Linguistics 24/2: 223242. Shin, D., Nation, P. (2008). Beyond Simple Words: The most frequent collocations in spoken English. ELT Journal. 62/4. 339-48. 520 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 78 Title A name given to the resource The Use Of Collocations By Advanced Learners Of English: Noun –Noun And Adjective-Noun Collocations Author Author Balıkçı, Gözde Abstract A summary of the resource. The study‘s main aim is to find out how advanced learners of English whose mother tongue is Turkish are dealing with collocations and where these learners‘ main errors stem from. In order to have a basic insight into the sources of error, the learners‘ written works will be exploited. The students are at the department of langugage teaching education and they will be the prospective teachers of English. This paper attempts to investigate these students‘ written works to figure out to what extent they make use of collocations, their sources of errors and mistakes. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d4b4cf17b060ab4fb9a86b67f72a035b.pdf c1ae51c1a1b882e70f06a19a40583a2f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Gurgen Balasanyan Department of Foreign Languages Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute gurgenbalasanyan@yahoo.com Abstract: The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Keywords: culture, culturology, dimensions of culture, intercultural communication, interculturality, non-formal education. Introduction As one of the founders of the contemporary disciplines on the study of culture – Edward Tylor states: ―…culture or civilization, taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society‖ (Haas, 1944). The statement claims that everything directly or indirectly related to the mankind, anything created or maintained is subjected to cultural influence. Does this mean that to be able to understand a person, to effectively communicate and to build proper relationships, one needs to master the cultural specifics of each and every individual? What is the relation of the individual to the nation? Is the culture necessarily brought down to nations and ethnicities or is this a concept which extends beyond demographic dimensions? The hypothesis we are putting before ourselves are the following: - Should interculturality be analyzed as a separate discipline in the learning agenda; - What is the effectiveness of non-formal education? Is it an alternative to formal education or a separate distinguished methodology kit that can be applied for particular needs. The work tends to serve the needs of the modern multinational society in terms of elaborating on what makes up an ―interculturally competent‖ individual; what it takes to understand a person, to avoid or to tackle intrapersonal, interpersonal and intergroup clashes of cultural coloring. It furtherly dwells upon how those competencies should be developed in a classroom and a non-classroom atmosphere. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper proposes an alternative viewpoint on developing the intercultural competences and intercultural sensitivity – non-formal education. The particular attention on the non-formal methodology block is justified by the fact that non-formal education gains more and more worldwide prioritization as an effective tool-kit which manages to best combine the usefulness with entertaining process. Already today and even more tomorrow, it is no longer sufficient to think only in terms of formal education. It is therefore necessary to widen our understanding of education, making life-long learning a 525 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reality. People continuously seek for alternative means of education; systems that would prove to be effective and goal-oriented and that would best satisfy human curiosity. The practical value of the work consists in the fact that the two interrelated areas that are taken under observation – the concept of interculturality and intercultural society and the development of intercultural competence through non-formal education, are underobserved and underapplied in Armenia. Being a vastly homogeneous monoethnic country, Armenia lack intercultural communication skills which makes it much harder to interact with the international visitors, to adopt tolerance and respect towards diversity and to be able to best get assimilated into a new cultural environment when shifting to a new country for a long- or short-term stay. Secondly, despite the educational reforms and innovations that are continuously being advocated in Armenia and despite the fact of her joining several reforms of the European Commission including the ―White Paper on Youth‖, the non-formal education is not only underapplied but also underestimated and not recognized. That‘s why the work draws parallels between formal and non-formal education trying to differentiate the ideology and implementation peculiarities that lie under each of them. Method of the Study The chain the work follows is based on the principle of ―general-specific-practical continuum‖: The study was mainly carried out in two phases. The first phase was to find out what are the tendencies for intercultural learning in the world, what is perceived by saying diversity at present, and how it is viewed in terms of learning and comprehension. The second phase, which derived primarily from the discovered need for new approaches to intercultural learning, was carried out through theoretical research on the main concepts and strategy frameworks. Finally, the paper was concluded with the classification of non-formal educational tools and the introduction of specific methods for stimulating intercultural learning. Apart from introducing different concepts and theories, it goes on proposing definite practical tools on intercultural learning. The icebreakers, energizers, role plays, and simulation games aim to give the non-formal education practitioner a vast diversity of tools that can be adopted according to the specific aim, atmosphere and audience characteristics. Stages of Intercultural Learning One of the first models on intercultural learning stages was suggested by Milton J. Bennett who viewed intercultural learning as a process of evolving the intercultural sensitivity. Bennett predicted the close link between the personal development and intercultural sensitivity and claimed that the development of cultural sensitivity should be an inseparable part of intercultural learning to reach effective communication process; his developmental model deals with the continuum of increasing sophistication in dealing with cultural difference, starting with ethnocentrism and decreasing to the recognition and acceptance of difference. He calls this stage as ethnorelativism. The main underlying concept of Bennett‘s model is what he calls ―differentiation‖ (Bennet, 1993), and how one develops the ability to recognize and live with difference. Differentiation can be interpreted in two ways: firstly, it refers to reality when people look at one and the same thing differently; secondly, it refers to the fact that cultures differ from one another in the way they maintain patterns of differentiation.; in other words, it refers to how people interpret the world around them. Therefore, intercultural sensitivity aims at developing the capacity in every individual to perceive the fact that people see things differently and respect the different worldviews. Ethnocentrism and Ethnorelativism as Stages for Intercultural Awareness As defined by Bennett, ethnocentrism is the stage when the person assumes his worldview being the only possible and the only right one. The most characteristic thing for ethnocentrism is denial: this is the stage when the person simply denies the existence of other worldviews. Denial leads either to isolation when the person cuts himself off the surrounding not to encounter the reality of difference; or to separation when the person intentionally puts the difference far away. However, we should note that separation is a stage up from isolation since in this case the person at least recognizes the difference (but of course, he does not accept it). The second stage identified by Bennett is defense: this is the process when the individual perceives difference as a threat since it offers an alternative to his form of reality. The attitude that is most probably to be adopted is denigration when the different worldview is perceived negatively and is strongly criticized. The other implication of defense is superiority, i.e. when the person considers his worldview as being superior and pays practically no attention on the other coexisting worldviews. Bennett also considers the opposite reaction – the socalled ―reversal‖, when the person perceives the other culture as superior and undervalues his own one. The last stage of ethnocentrism identified by Bennett is minimization, i.e. when the other culture is clearly recognized, yet an attempt is made to minimize or overlook its meaning. 526 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The key idea for ethnorelativism is the assumption that cultures can only be understood relative to one another and that particular behavior can be understood within a cultural context only. The first stage for ethnocentrism is acceptance; this is the stage when the person comes to accept the verbal and non-verbal difference behavior variations within cultures and to realize that those differences deserve respect. This ultimately leads to the recognition of values and the variations within those values that strongly predetermine the worldview and behavioral conduct. The following stage towards cultural sensitivity is adaptation; this is the reverse process for acceptance, i.e. when the person gives up his own values and norms to accept those of the other /dominant/ culture. This might ultimately lead to the loss of identity. Central to adaptation is empathy – the attempt to think of a particular thing or situation through the prism of the other culture only with no reference to his own one. Empathy might later enlarge to pluralism, i.e. looking at things through multiple cultural frames. The final stage as identified by Bennett is integration, when an attempt is made to integrate different frames into one. This might ultimately lead to the development of a person with no cultural identity, i.e. as someone being an integrated outsider. The first stage to integration is the contextual analysis of the situation through multiple cultural backgrounds. One thing to be made clear is that this final stage is identified by Bennett as an ―arrival point‖ not a final one. What Bennett‘s model tries to prove is that intercultural learning is a process that is described by continuous advancement (with the possibility to move back and forth in the process), and that it is possible to measure the person‘s intercultural awareness according to his degree of intercultural sensitivity. Summing up, we should say that Bennett‘s model proves how complex the process of intercultural learning is: starting with cultural identity and the realization of the identity to the recognition of the other worldviews and ultimately to their integration for better understanding the differences emerging on day-to-day basis. Finally, one of the key messages brought forth by Bennett is that although intercultural learning is analyzed on the individual level, it ultimately suggests the capacity to leave peacefully in a diverse environment. Intercultural Competence Regardless of the actual communication being of global or international character, intercultural communication principles remain the key guiding the process of exchanging meaningful and unambiguous information across cultural boundaries, in a way that preserves mutual respect and minimizes antagonism. These principles may have equal relevance when a tourist seeks help or when a politician advocates world peace. Intercultural principles concentrate on openness to the other, active respect for difference, mutual comprehension, active tolerance, validating the cultures present, providing equality of opportunities, fighting discrimination. Communication between different cultural identities can appear paradoxical in the sense that it requires recognition of the other both as similar and as different. In this context, according to Ouellet (Oullet, 1991), intercultural education can be designed to promote and to develop: a better comprehension of cultures in modern societies; a larger capacity of communication between people from different cultures; a more flexible attitude to the context of cultural diversity in society; a better capacity of participation in social interaction, and the recognition of the common heritage of humanity. As stated by different scholars /Brislin, Yoshida, Pedersen, Tong-Toomey/, the goal of intercultural learning is to prepare people for more effective interpersonal relations when they interact with individuals from different cultures other than their own; in other words, it is about facilitating effective communication. As we will later on touch upon the idea, most of the scholars identify the need for the intercultural communication and learning being organized in the way to ensure the process itself is enjoyable and interactive. Advancing with the main competences identified as important for intercultural communication, especially that in an educational environment, we should bring them down as follows: observing, identifying and recognizing; comparing and contrasting; negotiating meaning; dealing with or tolerating ambiguity; effectively interpreting messages; limiting the possibility of misinterpretation; defending one's own point of view while acknowledging the legitimacy of others; accepting difference. Interculturally competent are the students who possess the above identified capacities that can be classified under knowledge (cognition), attitudes (emotions) and skills (behavior) and who are able to: 527 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (i.e. have a good understanding and awareness of their own culture); be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures; understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (i.e. understand and be aware of what other people think of their own culture); be aware of how they see the target culture. In other words, intercultural learning is a bilateral process; you observe the target culture and get to understand your own one in between. The better perception of one‘s own culture will undoubtedly contribute to the better understanding the other cultures, recognizing and accepting the difference, and living in diversity with tolerance and open for new information with every step one makes with a representative of another culture. Above all, despite the fact that there is not an educational discipline as intercultural learning, there are keys that aim at guiding the process of acquisition of proper skills, among them: Confidence and Respect : Building up confidence is a cornerstone of intercultural learning; it is a prerequisite that we feel comfortable to share different viewpoints, perceptions and feelings, to arrive at acceptance and understanding. It requires a lot of patience and sensitivity in order to create such a learning atmosphere which enables us to listen to each other as equals, to empower each individual‘s self-confidence. This means that we need to give space to everybody‘s expression; to value all experiences, talents and contributions; our various needs and expectations. When the big part of what we might share is about values, norms and strong basic assumptions, we will need a lot of confidence in the ones we share with. Mutual trust goes hand in hand with mutual respect, honesty in our sharing. Experiencing Identity: We, as human beings, have our own cultural identity, which means, our own background and experience; and the learning process is achieved through overcoming the obstacles and the barriers stemming for the culture. We have all a personal reality which has shaped us, and we will continue to live there, enriched with new knowledge and experience. That means, in intercultural learning processes, we have to deal constantly with where we come from, what we have lived and encountered. Trying to understand ourselves, our own identity, is a prerequisite to encounter others. Constructed Realities: Nothing is absolute. There are many ways to read and discern reality. Even the representatives of one and the same culture interpret the situations and the circumstances differently; this is true in all its senses: we have seen it both in the verbal and non-verbal communications as well as in basic assumptions such as that of time and space. Consequently, the learning process should be accompanied by some efforts: to respect personal freedom and decision, to accept other views equally and seek the reconciliation of different viewpoints, and to be conscious of our personal responsibility. In Dialogue with the Other Intercultural learning places ―the other‖ at the heart of understanding. It starts through dialogue. Oftentimes it is challenging to perceive your own self and the other as being different yet complementing each other. In this understanding, the other becomes indispensable for a new discovery of the self. The process towards such an intercultural sensitivity implies – understood as a process towards the other – to touch and change our very self. Intercultural learning opens up the chance to identify with the perspective of the other, the respectful experience of attempting to ―walk in each others‘ shoes‖ without pretending to live what the other lives. It can enable us to experience and learn real solidarity, believing in the strength of co-operation. Intercultural learning in this context is as well a way to discover our own capacity for action. And this, again proves the theory of mutuality that we have touched upon in the previous section when speaking of the mutuality of the discovery and learning process in intercultural communication. Questions and Change Therefore, we need to accept that there is not always an answer, but remain in constant search, accepting and welcoming change. Reflecting on it, we will need the capacity to question ourselves. Intercultural education places the other at the center of relations. It encourages a continuous questioning of presuppositions, of things we normally take for granted and encourages a constant opening to the unknown and the not understood. In a process of interaction and mutual discovery every human being can fulfill himself or herself – personally, socially and globally. In the intercultural context, the shame is to avoiding asking questions rather 528 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo than vividly showing that something is new and unknown to the interlocutor; the important thing here is the openness of the latter for new information and perception of the other culture with all its diverse system. Comprehensive Involvement Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behavior in an intensive way. The comprehension of the complexity of this process and all its implications demand a lot from us. Language as element of culture is a central aspect in intercultural communication, and at the same time limited, often a source of misunderstanding. It must thereby not be used as a means of dominance – especially considering different language skills – but can be one tool of communication. All other signs – like body language – have to be equally respected. Since we are fully involved in this kind of learning, we should allow ourselves to be completely part of the processes happening (*see Chapter 2 – Interculturality for a more comprehensive information on the cultural coloring of verbal and non-verbal communication). Potential for Conflict If we see the variety of perceptions different cultures have of time, space, social and personal relations, etc. it will be very probable to suppose the raise of conflicts or uneasy situations in intercultural communication. Hence, we need to develop conflict management skills, while considering the complexity when dealing with the notion of culture. The key factor here is the belief that diversity is helpful and enriching, and it creates ground for new information and joyful learning. Not every conflict has necessarily a solution, but it certainly needs to be expressed. Under the Surface Intercultural learning aims at very deep processes and changes of attitudes and behaviors. It means to deal a good part with the invisible forces and elements of our culture, of our inner self (see: Iceberg Model presented in Chapter 2), many things beneath the ―water surface‖ are unconscious and cannot be expressed clearly. This discovery implies tensions with which we have to deal. It is obviously not easy to accompany people in this process. The most important thing is that we need the courage to go further, to challenge ourselves and others. A Complex Matter in a Complex World Trying to summarize the issues pointed out above, it becomes clear that we need very careful and comprehensive approaches allowing a maximum of discernment. Even culture goes beyond national borders and knows many forms and overlapping. Moreover, the cultures themselves are not homogenous; they are comprised of cultures held by community groups or even individuals. Many perspectives have to be met, tensions have to be considered. It is a challenge to any educational approach not to simplify the variety of reasons and implications present, the different values emphasized, the different realities and histories lived. Intercultural learning approaches need to respect these diverse experiences, interpretations and knowledge and adopt diverse methodologies accordingly. Conclusion The study has shown that culture is neither a homogeneous unit not a static, clear-cut phenomenon; it is a complex system of shared values, behavioral conduct, worldview and treatment that guide the human interaction wherever he/she is involved. It is a system characterized by its dimensions and components which come together as a whole shaping the human individuality and its unity with the community; hence, culture is directly communication-relevant. What we have meant by saying communication-relevant is that the whole communication process, starting with initiating a conversation with a particular person on a particular topic to its effective flow and the final conclusion is determined by the condition of how culturally competent the interlocutors are. The modern world has erased the boundaries between the states and therefore, for any specialist, for any full member of the present-day society, it is far not enough to limit oneself by the genetic cultural competence that is delivered by nature to be able to interact with the ―species‖ of one‘s own culture. One should be able to be as sensitive when talking to a Muslim /if we are allowed to generalize it to this largest scale/ as one would be when talking to a Buddhist; and how can a person possibly do so if he/she does not know that the single movement of the thumb denotes completely different concepts in those cultures, let along the perception of time of positioning; One should never be offended when being avoided to look in the eye and vice versa – to be as direct as holding the hand of someone one has known for less than an hour; One should never predict that the 529 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo low-context information that would be easily interpretable by his culture would be as easily digested by a person holding another culture; and finally one should never think that to ask ―How much do you earn‖ is as nonprovocative as it would be in his culture. The study helps to identify why in cultures like Armenian it is more common to see isolation and defense towards something that seems, new, different and why people with monoethnic communities have got the perception of superiority towards other cultures. It has shown that the cultural or intercultural adaptation is a long lasting process, and the degree to which the person would shift from the denial of the foreign culture into accepting it depends on how tolerant and interculturally sensitive the person is. This is all that makes up the subject-matter of intercultural learning. Furtherly, the thesis brought into comparison the different educational settings and drew parallels between the effectiveness of each of them as being structured, half-structured and non-structured. It managed to show that the horizontal relationship between the instructor and the pupil is more effective compared to the vertical relationship when dealing with intercultural learning and capacity development. The diversity of the tools and methodologies offered in the work show that non-formal education, being more dynamic and more adjustable to the specifics and the needs of the particular classroom, offers instructor/trainer/teacher more varieties for being able to reach the learning objective to the most possible extent. The work furtherly showed that being inclusive and entertaining in character, the non-formal education methodologies are more acceptable in the diverse audience. A person would feel more reluctant to identify himself and his opinion when directly asked the question than when it is done through a simulation game; the education and learning process would be more inclusive when the student himself is part of the process through a simulation game on an unknown culture than when having to read and prepare a report on it; the instructor would more easily break the ease of communication between the newly formed group through an icebreaker on the names and the ability to remember those names than when going through the register and identifying each one‘s full name separately. And finally, the study showed that the non-formal learning process is not genuine and perfect in character either; it more difficult to assess in terms of evaluation and in terms of holding the learner accountable for the knowledge he has to acquire. The non-formal education tools presented in the work are designed primarily for developing the intercultural competence and sensitivity; however, they can be adjusted to other learning needs. The latter can be done in accordance with the peculiarities of the audience, the preference of the participants and the instructor and on the resources available at hand. The proposed continuation of the work might be the investigation of intercultural learning on an educational policy level to bring it into the school curricula to be applied directly or in-between the other school subjects. The question that should be raised is whether intercultural learning should be investigated mandatorily a t school or the outdoor and non-structured activities are enough to meet the basic needs. The second question that remains unaddressed as relevant for the Armenian reality is the following: what hiders the spread recognition of both of the non-formal education as a methodology skit and of the achievements one can mark in a non-formal structure in Armenia; what are the steps needed for advocating nonformal learning and its recognition on a state level; why the YouthPass and the like still under the shadow as certificates for competence and knowledge. 530 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCE Allport, G. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Amir, Y. (1969). Contact Hypothesis and Ethnic Relations. Psychological Bulletin , pp. 319-342. Baepler, P. (2003). White Slaves, African Masters. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 588(1) , 90-111. Bennet, M. (1993). Towards ethnorelativism: a developmental model of intercultural sensitivity. Paige. Boas, F. (1907). Anthropology. Boas, F. (1909). Decorative Designs in Alaskan Needlecases: A Study in the History of Conventional Designs Based on Materials in the US National Museum. The University of Chicago Press. Brewer, M. (1996). When Contact is not Enough: Social and Intergroup Cooperation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 291-303. Carron, G., & Carr-Hill, R. (1991). Non-FOrmal Education: Information and Planning Issues. Internaitonal Institute for Educational Planning, Research: UNESCO. Cirigliano, G. (1981). La Educacion Abierta. Buenos Aires: El Ateneo. Combs, P. (1973). New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth. New York: International Council for Educational Development. Croft, T., & Crolla, V. e. (2003). Toolkit 8: Social Inclusion. Council of Europe: Department of Youth and Sport. Gaertner, S. D. (1996). Revisiting the Contact Hypothesis: The Induction of a Common in Group Identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20 , 271-290. Haas, M. R. (1944). Men's and Women's Speech in Koasati. Language, Vol. 20, No. 3 , 142-149. Hager, D. (2010). New Problems in Intercultural Education. 30 (4), 162-167. Hal, E. &. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences: Keys to Success in West Germany, France, and the United Sates. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press. Harper, D. (2001). Online Etymological Dictionary. Hofstede, G. (1986). Cultural Differences in Learning and Teaching. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10 , pp. 301-320. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. London: McGraw-Hill. Humphreys, D. (n.d.). Diversity in College Curriculum: How Colleges and Universities are Preparing Students for a Changing World. Retrieved September 20, 2002, from Diversity Web: http://www.diversityweb.org/leadersguide/DREI/bod.html Jeunesse, Y. F. (2005). Policy Paper on Recognition of Non-FOrmal Education: Confirming the Competences of Young People in the Knowledge Society. Juffer, K. (1985). Researching Culture Shock: The Culture Schock Adoptation Inventory. US Information Agency. Kleis, J. L. ((1973)). Toward a contextual definitionof non-formal education. Non-formal education discussion papers , pp. 3-6. Marginson, S. (2000). Rethinking academic work in the global era. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management (22), pp. 23-25. 531 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mason, D. (n.d.). Culture Shock: A Fish out of Water. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from http://international.ouc.bc.ca/cultureshock/printext.htm McGrew, W. (1998). Culture in Nonhuman Primates. Annual Review of Anthropology , p. 323. Mills, H. G. (1954). Character and Social Structure. London: O.U.P. Mitter, S. (2002). Coyote 6. Strasbourg: Council of Europe: Direcotrate of Youth and Sport: European Youth Cenre, Strasbourg. Otton, M. (2002). Intercultural Learning and Diversity in Higher Education. Oullet, F. (1991). L‘Éducation interculturelle: essai sur le contenu de la formation des maîtres. Paris: Editions L'Harmattan. Paige, R. (1993). Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth: Intercultural Press. Rose, C. (2008). Intercultural Learning. British Council, Italy. Ruth, B. (1934). Patterns of Culture. Boston: Houghton Miflin. Smith, D. (1997). Diversity Works: The Emerging Picture of How Students Benefit. Washington, DC: AAC&U. Teekens, H. (2001). Teaching and Learning in the International Classroom. Amsterdam: Nuffic. Ting-Toomey, S. (2005). Understanding Intercultural Communication. Los Angeles: Roxbury Publishing Company. Tomasello, M. (1999). The Human Adaptation for Culture. Annual Review of Anthropology 28. Tylor, E. (1920). Primitive Culture. London: John Murrain. Tylor, M. (2007). European Portfolio for Youth Leaders and Youth Workers. Council of Europe: Directorate of Youth and Sport. Tylor, W. (1948). A Study of Archeology Memoir 69. American Anthropological Association , 96. UNESCO. (2006). Guidebook for Planning Education in Emergency and Reconstruction. UNESCO. Wehmeier, S. (2000). Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, 6th Edition. Oxford University Press. Yoshida, R. B. (1994). Intercultural Communication Training: An Introduction. Thousand Oaks, CA. 532 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 80 Title A name given to the resource Intercultural Learning and Non-Formal Education Author Author Balasanyan, Gurgen Abstract A summary of the resource. The modern world of globalization offers a vast field for bringing cultures together and making the previous distances disappear. Nowadays, people with different cultural backgrounds share the same neighborhood. The question is whether people representing different cultures live next to each other hating the others and the diversity or whether they appreciate the value of intercultural society; whether the interaction between the two presupposes an inevitable clash or it is rather a process leading to harmony; whether different cultures can coexist based on mutual acceptance or respect; whether there are some processes to go through and whether there are certain difficulties to cope with. The paper introduces the dimension of cultures, the possible fusions and clashes among the societies or individuals representing different cultural backgrounds and sharing different mindsets on reality. It targets the question of how to deal with difference; how to build trust and tolerance between the representatives of an oriental culture with that of western; how to have a Christian live next to a Muslim? How can we valorize those cultures and learn throughout the process? Speaking of learning in intercultural communication, the paper underlines the key competences that should be developed in the ―citizen of the world‖. When doing so, we introduce alternative approaches to the process of information acquisition, sharing, and breaking the barricades – non-formal education tools found in the paper tend to bring interculturality to the level of consciousness and develop the sense of ―devouring diversity‖ from a more practical point of view. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0f29278c8d8a167a7a3d5690e7b53d5a.pdf e758a973d6268014235b6f2f0c241546 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mass Media (TV and Radio) News and Language Learning Taher Bahrani Taher_bahrani@yahoo.com Faculty of language and linguistics, University of Malaya Tam Shu Sim tams@um.edu.my Faculty of language and linguistics University of Malaya Abstract: Two important issues regarding the selection and preparation of TV news for language learning are: the content of the news and the linguistic difficulty. Content is described as being specialized or universal. Universal contexts are likely to be more comprehensible than specialized contexts. As for the linguistic difficulty, it consists of acoustic, lexical/syntactic and text-type difficulties. With regard to texttype, four types of spoken and visual elements are identified: symbolic, referential, schematic, and iconic. Audiovisual texts with greater iconic combinations are likely to be more comprehensible for language learning. Key words: mass media, news, selection, content, linguistic difficulty Introduction In the last few years, the output of TV news has exploded both in English and non-English speaking countries such as Iran and Japan. For example, in Iran, there are two channels broadcasting English news. One is Press TV which is broadcasted 24 hours 7 days a week in English and IRINN which is broadcasted some hours in English every day. In Japan, the satellite channel NHK 1 alone provides more than 24 hours of TV news in English each week, including the news bulletins of CNN, BBC, etc. TV news programming in English is not only a vast and growing language learning resource which provides meaningful opportunities for non-reciprocal listening but a vital and immediate alternative source of information. The pedagogical and informative aspects of news broadcasts in English may therefore often and dramatically intersect. Although much has already been written about the pedagogical values, selecting and using mass media technologies such as video, film, and CDs in general in the second language classroom (Cooper et al., 1991; Joiner, 1990; Rubin, 1995; Stempleski & Arcario, 1992), less research has focused on the pedagogical problems of selecting and presenting TV news (Brinton & Gaskill, 1978; Cooper, 1996; Gruba, 1997; Meinhof, 1998). Regarding the increasing accessibility of TV news in English, this paper focuses on the criteria for selecting TV news stories to be used as a pedagogically valuable material for language learning. This paper mainly aims at the selection criteria for TV news stories. The two main categories for assessing the pedagogical value of TV news are: a) background knowledge or content schemata and b) the linguistic difficulties of processing combinations of visual and auditory messages This research is based upon a course I have taught in current affairs to a group of Iranian University EFL students, including both males and females, of intermediate proficiency (N=30). Although these students have low self-confidence with regard to their abilities to listen to authentic materials such as TV news, they are very much motivated and have a high degree of interest in this kind of authentic materials. In terms of understanding TV news, factors such as interest and motivation may be more important than linguistic ability for native and non-native speakers alike (Wodak, 1987). The class met 4 hours per week for 3 months in a foreign language context. Moreover, the responsibility for selection of materials was on the teacher. 1161 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo TV and radio news in language learning Exposure to mass media news, for example, TV and radio news, the pedagogical value of such materials, and the possibility of using TV and radio news at all levels of EFL/ESL settings in order to enhance different language skills have been the focus of so many studies. In a research conducted by Brinton and Gaskill (1978), the effect of listening to TV and radio news on improving EFL students‘ listening comprehension was studied. Brinton and Gaskill (1978) argue that using TV and radio news utterances as teaching material has proved effective on improving listening comprehension of EFL learners having difficulty in dealing with comprehending news utterances. However, Brinton and Gaskil do not mention any thing about the kind of news to be selected. A similar study which focused on using TV news to improve listening proficiency was also conducted by Poon (1992). In addition to the above mentioned studies, Baker (1996) also focused on the pedagogical value of TV news in EFL classes and listening comprehension. According to Baker (1996), TV and radio news can help EFL students improve their listening comprehension. The use of fast speech such as those of TV and radio news in EFL/ESL classrooms has also been studied by some other scholars. In this regard, Cauldwell (1996) conducted a study aiming at discovering the relationship between direct encounters with fast speech such as TV and radio news and teaching listening to EFL students. Accordingly, students may have some problems copping with fast speech at first. However, EFL students can diminish these problems and improve their listening through great amount of exposure to fast speech. Another short study conducted by Mackenzie (1997) also highlighted the possibility of using TV and radio news reports at all levels of EFL learning. The study rejected the assumption that because the reporters speak too fast, the content is too complex, and the vocabulary is too difficult, TV and radio news cannot be used at lowest levels of EFL situations. Mackenzie study included some techniques to be used by the teachers while trying to use news in their classes. As the matter of fact, Mackenzie did not say anything about criteria for the selection of news. What he focused on was the use of fast news at all levels with different techniques. Regarding proficiency and comprehension of television and radio news in a foreign language, a research by Berber (1997) highlighted the point that through enough exposure to these materials, students can easily cope with the comprehension of such materials. Cabaj and Nicolic (2000) also noted that a great amount of exposure to TV and radio news could help students to cope with TV and radio news broadcasts easier. Moreover, through exposure to TV news and radio programs students acquire the knowledge, structures, strategies, and vocabularies they can use in everyday situations. In the same line, a study was conducted by Bell (2003) focusing on the pedagogical value and informative aspects of TV and radio news broadcasts in EFL settings. He considered background knowledge or content schemata, formal schemata, and linguistic difficulty as three broad categories for selecting any kinds of TV and radio news stories for the EFL classrooms. However, Wetzel et al. (1994), in their study, found that TV news is not always helpful in comprehension. In short, the majority of the aforementioned descriptive and experimental works have been conducted on the pedagogical value and the effect of exposure to TV and radio news genre on promoting different language skills especially listening comprehension but none of them has specifically focused on the discovering the nature of the news to set a clear criteria for the selection of the news. This is one of the initial reasons to carry out the present study. Research design The research design of this paper is in the tradition of the hermeneutic paradigm of naturalistic and action research (Freeman, 1998). It focuses on two modes of enquiry. First, by introspection, it seeks to make explicit the process of material selection by the teacher-researcher. This is seen as part of an ongoing process in teacher research to articulate and represent what teachers know and are learning through their work in the classroom. Second, the paper reflects upon the use of selected materials in the classroom within the framework of action research. Content Schemata Research in cognitive science suggests that knowledge is organized in the form of schemata (Rumelhart, 1980). Weaver (1994, P.18) defines a schema as ―an organized chunk of knowledge or experience, often accompanied by feelings‖. According to Bell (1991), Schemata aid the interpretation 1162 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of both linguistic and non-linguistic sensory data by providing a context in order to predict meaning and fill in missing information. In second language reading research, Carrell (1983, 1984, and 1987) has highlighted the connection between comprehension and background knowledge established in first language research. Non-native readers are often unable to make the necessary connections between text and background knowledge and so tend to rely more on linguistic cues than background knowledge. In L2 listening research, several studies have noted the link between topic familiarity and comprehension (Chiang & Dunkel, 1992; Long, 1990; Tchaicha, 1996). The practical implication of studies of comprehension and background knowledge for the teaching of listening comprehension has been to stress the importance of activating appropriate schemata in pre-listening activities. Here, this paper is concerned with how schema theory informs the selection of TV news items and how schemata interact with context. Exogenous context and endogenous context Exogenous contexts require prior knowledge. The nature of this prior knowledge may be specialized or universal. Specialized contexts such as Iran, Japan, or Iraq require such massive prior knowledge that even many native speakers may lack the appropriate schemata. Endogenous contexts, such as news film of a sporting incident or natural disaster, require little or no prior knowledge in that they create their own contexts (although, of course, learners will need the appropriate vocabulary to be able to talk about what they see happening in the video sequence). In other words, the visuals speak for themselves. Of course, individual TV news items may be made up of degrees of exogenous and endogenous contexts. According to Cooper (1996), episodic news stories are dependent on knowledge of the previous events in the story and so put special conditions on comprehension. Similarly nonepisodic news items, while not requiring knowledge of a prior story, may still require large amounts of background knowledge. In news items which required more declarative knowledge, the media literacy of individual students became a more important factor in understanding. From this discussion, certain pedagogical implications for material selection emerge. Endogenous contexts are likely to be the most exploitable type of news story in the language classroom, but such contexts are likely to account for a small fraction of the news items in any one bulletin. TV news items with universal exogenous contexts, though somewhat less accessible to students, are likely to be far more available. A key factor is the degree to which students can empathize with such items through their own experiences, for example having a bike accident or having a bike stolen, etc. In this case, the participants in this study showed their interest in TV news items with universal exogenous contexts more. It is important to remember that schemata are socially constructed and therefore often culturally specific mental categories into which events and individuals are sorted. Although Japanese and Iranians may share the mental category of carry-on luggage, the content of that category may vary. Carry-on luggage in Iran may be stereotypically associated with the frustration of flying brought on by both the need to carry on as much luggage as possible and the inadequacy of the space provided. From the Japanese perspective, carry-on luggage may be considered a convenience and passengers feel obliged to allow others space for their carry-on items. News items with imputed universal appeal may therefore facilitate understanding not only with regard to the discourse under study but on the larger level of cross-cultural communication. The news, therefore, provides a particularly illuminating view of the stereotypical categories and preoccupations of a particular culture. The selection and treatment of news items reflects shared stereotypes of media producers and consumers of news within a particular social context; news may be seen as a creation of a journalistic process. It is suggested that TV news items with universal exogenous contexts are likely to be the most available and the most accessible to students. Yet before such items are used in the classroom their 1163 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appeal needs to be tested through such devices as questionnaires. And during their presentation their value as newsworthy items in the culture of origin needs to be made explicit. This was actually done in this research and related news episodes were selected based on the participants of this study. As the matter of fact, at the end of each session, the researcher asked the participants about their favorite topic for the next news item to be selected and prepared for them. Linguistic Difficulty Linguistic difficulties are defined here under three headings of text characteristics: acoustic, lexis/syntax and text-type (which include both visual and linguistic text):  Acoustic: The acoustic characteristics of a text include speech-rate, pause phenomena, hesitation, stress and rhythmic patterning. 1. Lexis/Syntax: TV news as a whole and news items in particular contain a high degree of redundancy. Redundancy in input is generally understood to aid second language comprehension (Chaudron, 1983; Chiang & Dunkel, 1992). Chiang & Dunkel found that repetition of constituents, paraphrase, and synonyms work best with higher levels.  Text Type: Narrative vs. non-narrative text: Research into native speaker comprehension of TV news suggests that viewers experience substantial comprehension and recall difficulties (Bell, 1991). Stories with a clear narrative story line tend to be processed easier than those without, but for the most part TV news is made up of non-narrative text. In L2 listening comprehension research, Shohamy and Inbar (1991) found that when they compared the relative comprehensibility of three text types: TV news broadcast using a prewritten, edited monologue, and an interactive consultative dialogue, the news item was the most difficult to process. Brown (1995) has shown that narrative texts are easier for L2 learners to listen to and recall than expository texts are, and further, events described in chronological order are easier to recall than narratives with disrupted sequences or flashbacks. This suggests that the general trend of network American TV news towards dramatic framing of news stories, news as ―infotainment‖ and the conversationalization of TV news discourse are likely to have beneficial effects for L2 processing. A. The union of spoken and visual texts: Perhaps one of the least understood features of TV news broadcasts is the combination of words and pictures, especially which has primacy in the process of decoding. The established semiotic view exemplified by Gruba (1997) is to argue for the dependence of images on verbal text or, to be more exact, the narrowing down of the multiplicity of imagistic interpretations by the spoken text. As Gruba (1997) notes, such a view appears to be rather simplistic. First, distinguishing between what we hear and what we see is not necessarily a difference between words and pictures but a difference in the way we receive the information though our eyes and ears (Meinhof, 1998). Inscriptions, captions, posters, diagrams for example appear on the visual track while the soundtrack may carry background noises and music as well as the spoken text. Second, it may be better to conceive of words and pictures creating a whole message unit rather than separate entities. Certainly, there will be instances when the linguistic text drives the comprehension of the visual input and there will also be instances where the visuals are dominant, but for the most part comprehension will depend on the interaction between the two. Gruba notes: Visual elements do not ‗merely‘ provide support for verbal elements: they are better thought of as an integral element in videotext that interplays with verbal elements to influence a listener‘s emerging interpretation. (1997, P.134). Written language is also considered a notational symbol but the degree of unambiguity between the symbol and the concept referred to is weaker. On the other end of the continuum, nonnotational symbol systems like film, video and abstract art may suggest multiple meanings that may not consistently refer to specific concepts. Meinhof (1998) has identified three ways in which text and images can be said to interrelate: overlap, displacement, and dichotomy. When words and pictures overlap they are identical or in a 1164 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo metonymic relation. Text and images which can be described in terms of displacement refer to different action components, such as the cause and effect of an action. The images may be of the effects of an explosion while the spoken text discusses the causes. Other examples of displacement are the way that images can be used thematically to illustrate the spoken text or to comment on and draw inferences from the spoken text. Meinhof gives the example of a speech asking for more money to fight drugs with accompanying visuals of police raids and treatment centers, which make comments on how that money might be spent. And finally texts and images may be dichotomous where they refer to different actions altogether–the input from the visual channel may be unhelpful, distracting, or misleading. Consequently, the degree of fit between words and images is very important factor regarding comprehension. In a research into the comprehension of video materials by native speakers, Wetzel et al. (1994) conclude that whereas audio-video material is on the whole more comprehensible than audio material, in the area of TV news the visual element is not always found to be a help to comprehension. Information recall from the news seems to be positively affected by the degree to which the auditory and visual elements meaningfully correspond and negatively affected when they are incongruent. Gruba (1997), studying L2 learners‘ comprehension of a Japanese TV news item found that more proficient viewers were less dependent on visuals for comprehension of the text–a finding which supports earlier work with other visual material (Mueller, 1980, Wolff, 1987) and favored the audio track if the visual element mismatched. Gruba notes that there was a sense that the listeners knew that the ―real story‖ was in the audio track and that images were misleading. Although more proficient listeners tended to rely less on the visual elements for comprehension, they nevertheless noticed more detail in the visuals than less proficient viewers, who were far more dependent on visuals for comprehension. Visual elements were more closely attended to when they were judged to be salient or provided novel information to the listener. Gruba found evidence to suggest that images and words worked together to confirm a listener‘s understanding of a particular element: audio clues could be confirmed by visuals and vice-versa; visual clues could be confirmed by the spoken track. The ramifications of the above discussion for the exploitation of TV news material in the second language classroom are therefore two folds in terms of criteria for selection and criteria for use. All news items are made up of varying degrees of symbolic, referential, schematic and iconic relationships between words and images. However, TV items which have more of an iconic or overlap relationship between words and pictures are likely to be better understood. In an overlap or iconic situation the viewer may be able to pick up cues from both image and wording. And the more iconic the relationship between words and pictures the more likely the TV news item is to provide an endogenous context. But again, as Wetzel (1994) has pointed out, it is the degree of fit between words and pictures which is crucial. In sum, the more iconic the relationship between words and images, the greater the likelihood that words and images will be self-supporting; the more symbolic the relationship between words and images (and this is more often the case with TV news), the greater the likelihood that the relationship will be dichotomous. Tuffs and Tudor (1990) comparing native speaker and non-native speaker interpretations of visual images used in British television, argue that non-native speaker comprehension is seriously disadvantaged by their lack of familiarity with both the denotation and connotation of these images in British culture. As such the isolation of pertinent visual images can be a powerful tool for the teaching of cultural aspects of the target language. Cooper (1996) suggests focusing students‘ attention primarily on the visual channel and using their speculations about the meanings of these images as a way of structuring the listening task. Cooper notes that such an approach brings to the surface not only the students‘ knowledge of how their countries‘ media work but how media works in the target language culture. Meinhof (1998) suggests that such ―metadiscursive‖ knowledge can have a wider learning effect by not only supporting language and cultural learning but also by helping learners critically assess TV itself, both in their own culture and in the target culture. Conclusion Those elements in TV news which make a particular news item suitable pedagogical material for the second language classroom can be considered now. 1165 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo First, universal exogenous and endogenous contexts are more accessible and understandable to language learners than specialized exogenous contexts, which may require more background knowledge and schema building. While endogenous contexts require little or no prior knowledge, these kinds of TV news stories tend to be less common. Universal exogenous contexts also require prior knowledge, but it is a kind of prior knowledge that language learners can be expected to already have, even though they may not have the vocabulary to express that knowledge. Questionnaires are a good way of monitoring whether students have the expected prior knowledge of universal topics such as studying, working, sleeping, etc. At the same time, an important point to remember is about expecting that the existence of a shared mental category presumes that the category will contain the same knowledge. For example, Japanese and Iranians perceptions of carry-on luggage may differ markedly. Such divergent interpretations of the same experience might be a source of cross-cultural enquiry that could shed light on both the target and the student‘s own culture. Second is the issue of criteria in linguistic difficulty. Intensive listening fulfills students‘ needs to work on bottom-up processing difficulties and balanced top-down approaches to listening comprehension. A selectional criterion based on words suggests that news items that use nonspecialized, componential lexical sets will be easier for second language learners to handle. Redundancy of input, both linguistic and visual, are important in selecting appropriate material, and increased redundancy of input is often found in news stories with a high degree of thematic unity. With regard to text type, many difficulties in processing TV news can be assigned to the nonnarrative structure of the news. News as infotainment and the use of dramatic framing tend to ―narrativize‖ TV news and make it more accessible for native and non-native speakers alike. A further element of text type is the mix of talking heads and voiceover visuals. Language learners may best benefit from a balance of delivery modes. And, with respect to the complex interplay of words and images, the iconic relationship of words and images is likely to have the greatest degree of fit between the visual and spoken channels, and this together with the higher likelihood that iconic word/image relationships will appear more in narrative texts, makes iconic audiovisual texts easier to process for second language learners. News items consist of combinations of iconic, schematic, referential and symbolic relationships between words and pictures. Symbolic relationships between words and images are more likely to be dichotomous, driving language learners either to seek understanding in the visual or the audio tracks depending on their proficiency. It should be noted here that this paper tried to help the teachers in the selection of appropriate TV news material for the second language classroom. 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 595 Title A name given to the resource Mass Media (TV and Radio) News and Language Learning Author Author Bahrani, Taher Sim, Tam Shu Abstract A summary of the resource. Two important issues regarding the selection and preparation of TV news for language learning are: the content of the news and the linguistic difficulty. Content is described as being specialized or universal. Universal contexts are likely to be more comprehensible than specialized contexts. As for the linguistic difficulty, it consists of acoustic, lexical/syntactic and text-type difficulties. With regard to texttype, four types of spoken and visual elements are identified: symbolic, referential, schematic, and iconic. Audiovisual texts with greater iconic combinations are likely to be more comprehensible for language learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics