87 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6eb9150d28f226942a0553f753ff0768.pdf 07baada9bdb9e26d1a5bade9b37ae0b5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fransız ġâiri ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Setter Durmaz Qafqaz Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakùltesi, Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı, Öğretim Gôrevlisi. sehdur@yahoo.com ; sdurmaz1@qu.edu.az Özet: ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da yaĢamıĢtır. Kùltùrlù bir aile ortamında yetiĢen Verne, divânında belirttiği ùzere, kısa bir sùre içinde Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca, Arapça, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Daha on bir yaĢındayken anadili olan Fransızca ile yazdığı Ģiirlerini bu yaĢlarda kitap olarak bastıran Verne; Ġtalyanca, Tùrkçe ve Farsça yazdığı Ģiirlerini de 16 yaĢında litografya usølù ile Paris‘te bastırır. Verne‘nin divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bu makalede, ġarl Verne‘nin hayatı, Ģâirliği, dil ôğrenmeye olan merakı, ôzellikle Tùrkçe‘ye olan ilgisi, bunun ôtesinde de Klâsik Tùrk Dili‘ne olan hayranlığı ve bunun Ģiirlerine olan etkisi hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde Fransız tesirinin yoğun olduğu 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça ôğrenen ve her iki lisanda Ģiirler yazan genç Fransız Ģâiri ġarl Verne‘nin bir divân ortaya koyacak kadar- Tùrk diline ve kùltùrùne olan hayranlığı ortaya konmuĢ olacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: ġarl Verne, Fransa, Paris, Tùrk Dili, Klâsik ġiir, Divân. The Place and Importance of Turkish Language in Charles Verney`s Life Abstract: Charles Verney lived in France in 19th century. He was brought up in one of the civilized families, as he showed in his divan he managed to master Latin, Italian, Spanish, English, Germany, Greek, Arabic, Persian and Turkish languages in a short period of time. Though he was a child, Charles Verney was interested in the Eastern languages and literatures and he learned the Ottoman literature to himself, after he fell in love with the Turkish culture and literature and then he began to write classical poems in Turkish language. He was only 11 years old, when he published his poems book that he wrote in French in his mother tongue. He published his another poems book that he wrote in Italian, Turkish and Persian languages with lithography method when he was 16 years old, in Paris. Verney`s ―Divan-i Verne‖ in Turkish and French languages, was published with his own endeavor in Paris is on our hand. The ―Divan- i Verne‖ is composed of 112 pages with the long preamble and poems in Turkish and Persian. Poems in Persian occupy nearly 20 pages of the book. This article concerns Verne`s life, his poetry, his interest in learning a language, specially in Turkish language and Classical Turkish Literature and their influence on his poems. Thus, the admiration of Charles Verney, who was capable enough to learn Turkish and French to himself and write poems in both languages and put forward divan, towards the Turkish culture and language as well as the great French impact on our literature and society in 19th century, have been researched in this article. Key Words: Charles Verney, France, Paris, Turkish, Classical Poem, Divan. GiriĢ 1100 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tùrk Edebiyatı‘nda Batı etkisi, 19. yùzyılda Tanzîmât Fermanı‘yla baĢlar. 1839‘da ilan edilen Tanzîmât Fermanı, Tùrk toplumu için bir dônùm noktası olur. Bu yùzyıl, Osmanlı Devleti‘nin değiĢme ihtiyacı hissetttiği bir zamandır. Bu değiĢme ihtiyacı, toplumun bùtùnùnde kendini hissettirir. Tùrk aydınları, Fransız dili ve kùltùrù vasıtasıyla Batı‘yı tanımaya baĢlarlar. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde bu yıllarda meydana gelen Fransız tesiri kesintisiz olarak 1950‘lere kadar devam eder. Bu tarihe kadar Batı, bize Fransa yoluyla gelir. Diğer milletlere olan ilgi zaman zaman gôrùlse de ônemli ve devamlı olan Fransa ve Fransız tesiridir. Okullarda Batı dili olarak Fransızca ôğretilmektedir. Tùrk aydınları sanat, ilim, fikir gibi çok çeĢitli alanlarda Fransızca‘ya ilgi duyarlar, Fransız kùltùrùnù takip ederler ve Fransız mùelliflerini okurlar. Dùnyada geliĢmeleri Fransızca‘dan takip ederler. Siyasî, sosyal, kùltùrel alanda gôrùlen bu Fransız tesiri, siyasî iliĢkilerle izah edilebilir. Bundan baĢka Fransa‘nın, o devirde diğer Avrupa milletlerine de tesir eden ùstùn bir devlet olduğu unutulmamalıdır. (Ercilasun, 1997: 271) ĠĢte, edebiyatımızda Batı tesirinin hissdedildiği, Tùrk aydınlarının her yônden Fransa‘ya ilgi duydukları bôyle bir dônemde, Fransa‘da, klâsik Tùrk Ģiirimize hayran bir genç yetiĢir. ―ġarl Verne‖ adlı bu Fransız genci, kendi kendine ôğrendiği Tùrkçe ile henùz 14 yaĢındayken basılacak bir divançe oluĢturacak sayıda Ģiirler sôyler. 19. Yùzyıl edebiyatında dikkat çeken hadiselerden biri olarak tarihe geçen bu durum, Tùrk kùltùrùnùn Avrupa‘daki yansımalarının bu dônemde de devam ettiğini gôstermesi bakımından ônemlidir. (ġentùrk, 2004: 468) ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatı Verne‘nin hayatı ile ilgili bilgiler oldukça yetersizdir. Mevcut bilgilerin çoğunu, 1858‘de Paris‘te kendi gayretleri ile bastırdığı divânından ôğreniyoruz. ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 1842‘de Paris‘te doğmuĢtur. Doğu Ģiirlerinde ―Verne‖, Fransız dilinde ise ―ġarl Verne‖ mahlasını kullanmıĢtır. Bu mahlasları tercih etmesinin sebebini, divânına yazdığı mukaddimede Ģu ifadesiyle açıklar: ―Familyamın ismi, yani ensâbımda nâm-ı pederi ―Verne‖ olmağla eĢ‘âr-ı Ģarkiyemde tahallusumdur. Ancak lisân-ı Fransavî‘de babamın nâmı olan adıma ―ġarl Verne‖ nâm-ı mahsûsumdur.‖ (Durmaz, 2007: 17) Babası, Paris‘in tanınmıĢ sîmâlarından olup, ilim ve irfan ehli, akıl ve hùner sahibi bir Ģahıstır. Annesi ise, kendi ifadesiyle asîl ve nezih bir kadındır. Verne, divânının ônsôzùnde anne ve babasını Ģôyle tavsif eder: ―…vâlide-i pâk-dâmenim ve nahl-i ilm ü maârif enîs-i dâniĢ, mukîm-i halvet-i sadâkat, sâkin-i kiĢver-i hüner, bu zamânede Ģâh-ı kelâm-ı mensûr-i inĢâ-yı Fransavî a‗ni be-peder-i sâhib hırednimin himmetleri ile derûn-i dilimde nuqr olunan ‗aĢqullaha âsârını fâĢ etmege kâm-bîn oldum...‖ (Durmaz, 2007: 14) Hem Fransız Edebiyatı, hem Tùrk Edebiyatı, hem de bildiği diğer dillerin edebiyatları için ônemli ve enteresan bir Ģahsiyet olan Verne, maalesef edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamamıĢtır. Tùrk edebiyatında, ancak bir iki yazıda kendisine temas edilmiĢ, onunla ilgili teferruatlı bir çalıĢma yapılmamıĢtır. Tespit edebildiğimiz kadarıyla Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından hiç sôz edilmemektedir. Ancak ilerleyen zamanda ve bazı imkanların elde edilmesi ile Verne‘nin doğduğu mahalle ve vaftiz edildiği kilisenin kayıtlarına ulaĢılabilirse onun hakkındaki bilgilerimiz daha da artacaktır. Verne‘nin kaç yaĢında ve nerede vefat ettiği, bu divânından baĢka eserlerinin varlığı Ģu an için bize malum değildir. (Bayram, 2002: 156 ġâirliği ve Türkçe ġiirleri Kendisini "Fransız, Ġtalyan, Tùrkî ve Fârisî Ģâir" diye tanıtan Verne, Fransızca Ģiirlerini, ilk kez 1854 yılında Paris'te basılan bir kitapta toplar. Aynı yıl III. Napolyon için 16 sayfalık bir baĢka Ģiir kitabı daha yayımlar. Bu sırada henùz 11 yaĢındadır. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile de ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Verne‘yi ―Ondôrdùnde Dâhî Bir ġâir‖ olarak anan Ġskender Pala, genç Ģâirin klâsik tarzda yazdığı Ģiirlerini, aĢağıdaki beyitleri ôrnek gôstererek Ģôyle ôver: ―Dehânın gonca-i handâna benzer Lebin bir gevher-i rahĢâna benzer 1101 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ruhun gül, kâkülün sünbül, sözün mül, Husûlî, ravza-i rıdvâna benzer‖ Bu beyitleri 14 yaĢında bir çocuğun yazdığını sôylesek Ģimdi kim inanır? Divân Ģiirinin yaygın teâmùlleri doğrultusunda ağzı, gùlen (açılmıĢ) bir goncaya; dudağı, parlak bir akike benzetip yanağa gùl, kâküle sùnbùl, (sevgilinin ağzından çıkan) söze de Ģarap etkisini yakıĢtıran bu çocuk, bùtùn bu saydıklarını cennet bahçelerinden bir kesit olarak algılayıp dinî bir kùltùrù de Ģiirine yansıtıyor. Evet, bu beyitleri ve bunlara benzer pek çok beyitleri yazan, ancak 14 yaĢında bir çocuktur. Hem de 14 yaĢındayken kendi kendine Tùrkçe ôğrenen bir Fransız çocuğu. (Pala, 2002: 191) ġiirlerinde aĢk, güzellik, ayrılık, tabiat vs. gibi klâsik Ģiirin konularını ele alan Verne, okuduğu Ģiirlerin tesirinde kalarak, benzer ifadeleri sık sık tekrar. ġiirlerinin dili standart Ģiir dilidir. Ancak Osmanlı Ģâirlerinin kullanmadığı bazı Batı kaynaklı kelimeler, Verne‘nin Ģiir dilinde yer almıĢtır. Bunlar, diploma, vapur, Napolyon, vb. kelimelerdir. Ayrıca Verne, Ģiirlerinde rediflere ağırlık vermiĢtir. Bazen bir kelime, bazen de iki ùç kelimeden oluĢan rediflerle Ģiirlerini tamamlamaya çalıĢmıĢtır. Yeni kelimeler ve ifadeler bulma zorluğu, onu daha çok redif kullanmaya sevk etmiĢ olabilir. (Durmaz, 2007: 4) Verne, Hristiyan olmasına rağmen, Ģiirlerinde ôzellikle Ġslâmî terminolojiyi elden geldiğince baĢarıyla kullanmıĢtır. (ġentùrk, 2004, 469) Onun, Ģiirlerine ―Besmele‖ ile baĢlaması, dibâcesinde Allah‘a hamd u senâ etmesi, Ġslâm kùltùrùnù de kullanmaktan çekinmediğini gôsterir. ġiirlerinin bazı kısımlarında ise, kendi dinine ait kelimeleri kullanmaktan çekinmez ve bir bakıma Ġslâm‘la ilgili kelimelerin yanında Hristiyanlık‘la ilgili ifadelerden de istifade eder: ―Bilir kim Îsevî olmakda vahdet din-i Verne‘dir Ana kâfir dese Allah‘ını bilmezlenir ol büt‖ (Divân-ı Verne, G. 14 / 7) ... ―Verne Ġncil‘i ġerif‘i oku hem tefsir et Lahn-i nutkun olacak dehre her âyetde lezîz‖ (Divân-ı Verne, G. 25 / 7) AĢağıda numøne olması açısından Verne‘ye ait bir Ģiir verilmiĢtir: ―Hikmet-i aĢkda üstâdım ben Manzar-ı hayret-i Bağdâdım ben Emr-i hattı rakam-ı kilkimdir Kâtib-i Hüsrev-i bî-dâdım ben Subh u Ģâm eĢk-feĢânlıkdır iĢim Nâzım-ı hâtır-ı nâ-Ģâdım ben Gurbet-i hicre bu dünyâda gelip MüsteĢâr-ı sefer-i yâdım ben Yazdı Verne bu gazelde hâlin Dedi sevdâ ile ber-bâdım ben.‖ (Bayram, 2002, 158) Pala da, edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamayan, -tespit edilebildiği kadarıyla- Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından bahsedilmeyen Verne‘yi Ģu gazeliyle yâd eder: ―Belki milletin seni unutmuĢtur. Ama biz unutmayacağız ve senin arzuna uyarak bir gazelinden beyitler okuyacağız: ―Ey dost, nâme-i gam u ahzânımı oku Tefsîr-i renc-i hâtır-ı giryânımı oku Ger bilmek istesen nola derdini gönlümün Bak levh-i sîneme varak-ı cânımı oku … Satr-ı vefâtım ile kodum temmetü‘l-kitâb Târîh-i aĢk-ı ömr-i perîĢânımı oku Ey yâr, nâm-ı Verne‘yi nisyân eyleme 1102 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Erdim kemâl-i aĢkına dîvânımı oku.‖ 1. Dostum, hùzùn ve gamlarımı yazdığım Ģu mektubumu oku da; ağlayan kalbimin sıkıntılarının tefsirini bir bir ôğren. 2. Gônlùmdeki derdin ne olduğunu bilmek istersen eğer; kalbime bak ve (orada aĢkınla dolu olan) can sayfasını oku. 3. PeriĢan ômrùmùn aĢkının tarihini oku ki; o kitabın son satırı (senin aĢkın ile) ôldùğùme dâir bir cùmleden ibarettir. 4. Ey sevgili! Sakın ola ki Verne adını unutma. Zira divânımı alıp okuyacak olursan, senin aĢkında kemâle erdiğimi gôreceksin. (Pala, 2002: 194) Divân-ı Verne Osmanlı Devleti‘ne karĢı derin bir muhabbet besleyen, Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ne bùyùk bir hayranlık duyan ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), gayretli bir çalıĢma neticesinde bir yılda Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Birkaç yılda yazdığı Ģiirlerini, Paris‘te bastırıp, baĢ tarafına bir resmini de koyduğu bu Ģiir kitabına, Ģark geleneğine uygun olarak ―Divân-ı Verne‖ adını verir. Verne‘nin ―Divân-ı Verne‖ adıyla, kendi gayretleri ile Paris‘te bastırdığı Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirleri, bugùn elimizdedir. -2007 yılında, ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖ adı altında yùksek lisans tezi olarak çalıĢtığım- Verne‘nin Divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bir kısmı âdi talik ve litoğrafya ile, diğer kısmı nesîh ile basılmıĢtır. Kitabın kapak sayfası, ―Divân-ı Verne‖ ifadesi ile baĢlamaktadır. Sonra, ―On bir yaĢından on altı yaĢına kadar ġarl Verne‘nin inĢâ ve terkib eylediği Fransız ve Talyan ve Türkî ve Fârisî eĢ‘ârdır.‖ cùmlesi bulunmaktadır. Daha sonra ise Ġslâmî geleneğine uygun olarak ―Bismillâhirrahmânirrahîm‖ âyeti yer almaktadır. (Akùn, 1994: 422) Verne, divânına, dili ağır sayılabilecek bir dibâce ile baĢlamıĢtır. Bu dibâcenin ilk kısmında, Allah ôvgùsù ve ona Ģùkùr ifadeleri yer alır. Verne, Allah‘a olan sonsuz hamd ve Ģùkùr hislerini Ģu beyitleriyle dile getirir: ―Hamd u minnet ol hudâvend-i zemîn ü cennete ġükr-i bî-hadd ü sümâr ol hâlık-ı bî-illete‖ Dibâcenin ilerleyen kısımlarda: ―Gazeldir safâ- bahĢ-ı ehl-i nazar Gazeldir gül-i bostân-ı ehl-i hüner‖ beytiyle baĢlayan gazel bahsinde olan bir manzøme yer alır. Bu uzun dibâceden sonra, ―Ġbtidâ-yı EĢ‘âr‖ baĢlığı ile Ģiirler baĢlar. Ġlk Ģiirler, devlet bùyùklerine ôvgù mahiyetinde yazılmıĢ kasidelerdir. Bunlardan ilki Sultan Abdùlmecid‘in methine dâir bir kasidedir. AĢağıdaki beyitler o kasidedendir: ―Söyle kim açdım Fransa‘da kitab-ı ömrümü Söyle on bir yaĢda oldum Ģâir-i Ģîrin zebân Mahrem oldum hâcesiz elhamdülillah Türkî‘ye Eyledi ülfet benimle bu lisân-ı dilsitân Etmedim asla azimet belde-i Ġstanbul‘a Lîk Paris‘den beni îsal eder fikr u gümân.‖ (Divân-ı Verne, K. 1/ 27-29) Sultan Abdülmecid ôvgùsùndeki kasîdeden sonra Farsça olarak, Ġran ġahı Nasruddin hakkında, sonra sırasıyla, DıĢ ĠĢleri MüĢiri Fuad PaĢa, Maslahatgüzâr Haydar Efendi, Kıbrıslı PaĢa, Kaymakam Nasûhî Bey ôvgùsùndeki Tùrkçe Ģiirler yer almaktadır. Sonra ―elif-bâ‖ sırasına uygun olarak az miktarda Farsça gazeller, daha sonra da Türkçe gazeller vardır. Gazellerinin sayısı 84‘tùr. Gazellerden sonra bir terci-i bend ve bir de murabba yer almaktadır. Son kısım ise baĢkalarının Verne‘nin Ģiirlerini ve Ģâirliğini ôvdùkleri bazı manzømelere ayrılmıĢtır. Bu manzømeleri yazanlar, Ġran Vezir-i Âzâmı Ferruh Han, Maslahatgüzâr Haydar Efendi, Nezih Bey‘in babası Ata Bey, Nezih Bey, Emin Efendi ve Cemil Bey‘dir. Verne‘nin Ģâirliğini ve Ģiirini ôven Ata Bey onun için: 1103 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ― Fünûn u hem fütüvvetde yegâne bir hüner-verdir Mürüvvetde nazîri Avrupa‘da yok desem bâhir Fransa‘da görülmüĢ mü bu yolda Türkçe bir nâzım Ata, Örfî gibi dense sezâdır misli yok Ģâir.‖ diyecek kadar ona gùvenir ve hakkında hùsn-i muamelede bulunur. (Pala, 2002: 193) ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Ġlk eğitimini, ailesinden alan dâhi Verne‘nin, diğer ilimlerden ziyade dil ôğrenmeye hevesi vardır. Ailesinin ona sağladığı imkânlarla, yabancı dil ôğrenme merakı daha da artar. Evlerine gelen muallimler vasıtasıyla, henùz çocuk sayılacak bir yaĢta, zengin bir asilzâde olan babasının da teĢvikiyle, birçok yabancı dili, çok kısa zamanda ôğrenmeyi baĢarmıĢtır. Verne‘nin, divânında ôğrendiğini belirttiği yabancı diller Ģunlardır: Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca ve Yahudi dillerinin yanı sıra Arapça, Farsça ve Türkçe. Pala, Verne‘nin dil ôğrenme merakını ve ôğrendiği dilleri Ģôyle ôzetler: ―Zengin bir asilzâde olan babasının teĢvîkiyle yabancı dil ôğrenmeye heves etmiĢ. Ancak bir mùddet sonra yabancı dil zevki onun çocuk ruhunda bir sevdaya dônùĢmùĢ olmalı ki arka arkaya Ġngiliz, Alman, Ġspanyol, Ġtalyan, Grek, Yunan, Latin, Yahudi lisanlarını ôğrenivermiĢ. Malikâneye gelip giden hocalara her gùn bir yenisi eklenmiĢ. Sonra eve Arapça ve Farsça hocaları da girmiĢ. Verne, lisandan arda kalan zamanında Ģiirle meĢgul olmuĢ ve henùz 11 yaĢında iken Fransızca Ģiirlerini bir kitap olarak bastırtmıĢ. Bu arada ġark lisanları ile birlikte ġark Ģiirini de tanımıĢ. O yıllarda Mùslùman ġark‘ın en bùyùk devleti olan Osmanlı hakkında tarifi zor bir iĢtiyak duymaya baĢlamıĢ ve Osmanlı lisanına hasret çeker olmuĢ. Kim bilir ôyle bir cihan devletinin lisanı ve edebiyatı nasıl muhteĢem olmalıdır, diye bir Tùrkçe hocası aranmıĢ. Ancak bu mùmkùn olamamıĢ. Verne için bu bir engel teĢkil etmemiĢ ve oturup kendi kendisine Tùrkçe ôğrenmeye koyulmuĢ. Sıkı bir çalıĢma ile bir yılda Tùrkçe ôğrenmiĢ. Ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olmuĢ ve Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlamıĢ. Nihayet 16 yaĢına kadar yazdığı Tùrkçe Ģiirlerini Farsça Ģiirleriyle beraber litoğrafya usulùyle bastırmıĢ.‖ (Pala, 2002: 191-192) Genç Ģâir, Abdùlmecid Han‘a sunduğu bir arîzada, Paris‘te doğduğunu, Fransa‘da ikamet ettiğini, kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça‘yı ôğrendiğini Ģôyle ifade eder: ―ġevketlü mehâbetlü kerâmetlü pâdiĢâh-ı Âli Osmân Gâzi Sultân Abdülmecid Hân Hazretleri; Hak-i pây-ı Ģâhânelerine arzû beyân kılmağa bu bende-i bî-mikdârdır cesâret eder ki Paris Ģehrinde tevellüd edip ve Fransa‘da dâimâ ikâmetimle hod be hod yani hocasız elsine-i behiye-i Türkî ve Fârisîye âĢina olduğumda bu iki zebânın rüsûm-ı Ģîvesini hakîrâne tahsil eylediğimden on dört yaĢımdan on altı yaĢıma kadar tasnîf ettiğim eĢ‘ârı Fransavîye ve Ġtaliyaneyi müĢtemil diğer bir dîvânımın dahî tab‘ı neĢrolunduğu…‖ (Ġnal, 1988: 1984) Verne, Tùrkçe‘yi kaç yaĢında ve nasıl ôğrendiğini Ģu mısra ile beyan eder: ―Hâcesiz on dört yaĢında Ģâir oldum Türkî‘de.‖ Henùz 14 yaĢındayken bu dilleri ôğrenen ve bunlardan Ġtalyanca, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ile Ģiirler yazan bir Ģahsın dâhi olduğunu sôylemek herhalde hata değildir. Ġnal da Verne‘nin Tùrk dilinde gôsterdiği Ģâirlik kudretini Ģu ifadeleriyle takdir eder: ―Paris‘te kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça tahsil eden ve ùstùnde hoca hakkı olmayan bir Fransız çocuğunun, o iki lisanda nazım ve nesir yazması takdir ve taacùbe Ģayandır. Çùnkù bir çocuğun kendi lisanında nazım ve nesre -mùmkin mertebe- muktedir olması bile mùhim bir mesele iken yabancı lisanda, bâhusus çocuklukta o yolda kudret gôstermek doğrusu fevkalade bir keyfiyettir.‖ (Ġnal, 1988: 1985) Sonuç ―ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi‖ konulu bu çalıĢmadan elde edilen sonuçları Ģu maddelerde bir araya getirmek mùmkùndùr: 1. Edebiyatımızda Batı tesirinin hissededildiği bir dônemde, Fransa‘da Tùrk diline ve klâsik Tùrk Ģiirimize hayran bir genç yetiĢir. ―ġarl Verne‖ adlı bu Fransız genci, kendi kendine bir yıl gibi kısa bir sùrede Tùrkçe‘yi ôğrenir ve henùz çocuk yaĢında bir divânçe oluĢturacak sayıda Ģiirler yazar. ġâirin, çocukluğunda okuduğu tarih kitapları nedeniyle Osmanlı ile Ġran dilleri ve kùltùrlerine ilgi duyduğu sôylenmektedir. 1104 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Verne, sonradan ôğrendiği hem Tùrk, hem de Fars dilinde gùzel Ģiirler yazacak kadar Ģâir tabiatlı bir insandır. BaĢka bir ùlkede, klâsik Tùrk Ģiirinin hayâl dùnyasına aĢina olacak kadar bu kùltùrù tanımıĢ ve okuyucuya hiç de yabancılık çekmediği, mazmunları, edebî sanatları, dil ve ùslup ôzelliği ile mùkemmele yakın bir Ģiir sunmuĢtur. Verne‘nin bu Ģiir dùnyasına Tùrkçe yazılmıĢ divânları okuyarak girdiği dùĢùnùlebilir. Ayrıca, Fransa‘da bulunan Osmanlılar‘la sohbet etmiĢ ve bu Ģekilde malumat almıĢ olabilir. 3. Hem Fransız Edebiyatı, hem Tùrk Edebiyatı hem de bildiği diğer dillerin edebiyatları için ônemli ve enteresan bir Ģahsiyet olan Verne, maalesef edebiyat tarihlerinde hak ettiği yeri alamamıĢtır. Tùrk edebiyatında, ancak bir iki yazıda kendisine temas edilmiĢ, onunla ilgili teferruatlı bir çalıĢma yapılmamıĢtır. Tespit edilebildiği kadarıyla Fransız Edebiyatı‘nda adından hiç sôz edilmemektedir. Bu bakımdan 2007 yılında, Qafqaz Üniversitesi‘nde ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖ adı altında çalıĢtığım yùksek lisans tezi, edebiyat âlemine kazandırılmıĢ bir yeniliktir. 4. Verne, Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi‘nde, ilk defa Ġbnùlemin Mahmut Kemâl Ġnal‘ın himmetiyle satırlara geçmiĢtir. Ġbnùlemin, ―Son Asır Türk ġâirleri‖ eserinde Verne Divânı‘ndan istihraç ettiği bilgilerle gayet gùzel bir terceme-i hâl yazmıĢ ve Verne‘yi, ôverek ihya etmiĢtir. Ġbnùlemin, onun hakkında ―Paris‘te kendi kendine Türkçe ve Farsça tahsil eden ve üstünde hoca hakkı olmayan bir Fransız çocuğunun, o iki lisanda nazım ve nesir yazması takdir ve taaccübe Ģayandır. Çünkü bir çocuğun kendi lisanında nazım ve nesre mümkün mertebe muktedir olması bile mühim bir mesele iken yabancı lisanda, bahusus çocuklukta o yolda kudret göstermesi, doğrusu fevkalâde bir keyfiyettir‖ buyurur. 5. Verne, divânından da açıkça anlaĢıldığına gôre, Ġstanbul‘a gittikçe çoğalan bir hasret duyar ve Osmanlı‘yı yakından tanıyabilmek için can atar. Hattâ bir ara PâdiĢâh‘a da -19. asır Tùrk nesrinin ideal ôrnekleri arasında yer alabilecek- bir arîze sunarak Ġstanbul‘a gelmek istediğini yazar. Divânında bu arîzeye de yer verir. Ancak daha sonra onun Ġstanbul‘a gelip gelmediği hakkında bir malumat verilmez. Yazdığı Ģiirlerde de bu konuda bir ip ucuna rastlanmaz. Bize gôre herhâlde Ġstanbul‘u gôrmeden, Osmanlı insanının hasretiyle bu dùnyaya veda etmiĢtir. Zira eğer aksi vârid olsaydı, kim bilir bôyle bir seyahatten iki ùlke adına ne mùkemmel neticeler çıkabilirdi? Belki de, eldeki divânından baĢka nice Ģiirleri ve nesir ôrnekleri, bugùn dillerde dolaĢacak ve ihtimâl ki kùltùrùmùz yeni bir Pierre Loti ve bir Aziyâde daha kazanmıĢ olacaktı. (Pala, 2002: 191-192) 6. Son olarak, bu çalıĢma ile Tùrk kùltùrùnùn 19. yùzyılda Fransa‘daki yansımalarının bir gôstergesi olan ġarl Verne‘nin Tùrk diline olan hayranlığı ve bu dildeki Ģâirlik istidâtı gùn yùzùne çıkarılmaya çalıĢılmıĢtır. 1105 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Akùn, Ömer Faruk (1994). ―Divan Edebiyatı‖, Ġslam Ansiklopedisi, C. 9., Ġstanbul: Tùrkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları. Ayverdi, Ġlhan (2006). Misâlli Büyük Türkçe Sözlük, I-II-III Cilt, Ġstanbul: Kubbealtı NeĢriyâtı. Bayram, Ömer (2002). ―Verne: Klâsik Tùrk Edebiyatına Hayran Bir ġair‖ AMEA Nizami Adına Edebiyat Ġnstitutu, Azerbaycan-Hollandiya Dostluk Cemiyeti, Anane ve GloballaĢma Uluslararası Ġlmi Sempozyumu Materyalleri, s. 156-158. Durmaz, Setter (2007). ―ġarl Verne Divânı (Ġnceleme-Metin-Sôzlùk)‖, (YayımlanmamıĢ Yùksek Lisans Tezi), Bakù: Qafqaz Üniversitesi. Ercilasun, Bilge (1997). Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Üzerine Ġncelemeler, C. 1, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Ġnal, Ġbnùlemin Mahmut Kemal (1988). Son Asır Türk ġairleri, C. IV. Ġstanbul: Dergâh Yayınları. Pala, Ġskender (2002). ġairlerin Dilinden, Ġstanbul: L&M Yayınları. Sami, ġemseddin (2002). Kâmûs-ı Türkî, 12. Baskı, Ġstanbul: Çağrı Yayınları. ġentùrk, Ahmet Atillâ, KARTAL, Ahmet (2004). Eski Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Dergâh Yayınları. Verne, ġarl (Charles Verney) (1858). Divân-ı Verne (Arap Alfabesi ile), Paris. 1106 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 588 Title A name given to the resource Fransız ġâiri ġarl Verne‘nin Hayatında Türk Dilinin Yeri ve Önemi Author Author Durmaz, Setter Abstract A summary of the resource. ġarl Verne (Charles Verney), 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da yaĢamıĢtır. Kùltùrlù bir aile ortamında yetiĢen Verne, divânında belirttiği ùzere, kısa bir sùre içinde Latince, Ġtalyanca, Ġspanyolca, Ġngilizce, Almanca, Yunanca, Arapça, Farsça ve Tùrkçe ôğrenir. Henùz çocuk denebilecek yaĢta, Doğu dilleri ve edebiyatları ile ilgilenen Verne, kendi kendine Osmanlı Tùrkçesi‘ni ôğrenir, ardından Tùrk kùltùr ve edebiyatına âĢık olur ve klâsik tarzda Tùrkçe Ģiirler yazmaya baĢlar. Daha on bir yaĢındayken anadili olan Fransızca ile yazdığı Ģiirlerini bu yaĢlarda kitap olarak bastıran Verne; Ġtalyanca, Tùrkçe ve Farsça yazdığı Ģiirlerini de 16 yaĢında litografya usølù ile Paris‘te bastırır. Verne‘nin divânı, 112 sayfadan ibaret olup, uzun bir dibâce ile birlikte, Tùrkçe ve Farsça Ģiirlerden oluĢur. Farsça Ģiirler, yaklaĢık 20 sayfadır. Bu makalede, ġarl Verne‘nin hayatı, Ģâirliği, dil ôğrenmeye olan merakı, ôzellikle Tùrkçe‘ye olan ilgisi, bunun ôtesinde de Klâsik Tùrk Dili‘ne olan hayranlığı ve bunun Ģiirlerine olan etkisi hakkında bilgi verilecektir. Bôylece edebiyatımızda ve cemiyetimizde Fransız tesirinin yoğun olduğu 19. Yùzyılda, Fransa‘da kendi kendine Tùrkçe ve Farsça ôğrenen ve her iki lisanda Ģiirler yazan genç Fransız Ģâiri ġarl Verne‘nin - bir divân ortaya koyacak kadar- Tùrk diline ve kùltùrùne olan hayranlığı ortaya konmuĢ olacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/87eb3b39069a81bd5aee8053f6cf1b5f.pdf 10284cf74caab49db6002a1954bc9670 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo INTERCULTURAL COMMUNIVATIVE COMPETENCE - Intercultural Dialogue in Teaching Foreign Language LiteratureTatjana Dumitraskovic University of East sarajevo Faculty of Pedagogy,Bijeljina e-mail: tanjadumi@yahoo.com Abstract: In all European countries pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behaviour in an intensive way. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. That is why it must not be used as a means of dominance, but can be one tool of communication. Teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural skills. We cannot be competent in a foreign language if we do not understand the culture that has shaped it and how that culture relates to our first language culture. It is not only essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in doing so, help them to understand other cultures. Key words: intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, foreign language, intercultural communicative competence INTRODUCTION In all European countries cultural pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. What is meant by the word `culture`? All ideas about intercultural learning are built on an implicit or explicit idea about culture. We can define it as a way of life, a set of social practices, a system of beliefs, a shared history or set of experiences. A culture may be synonymous with a country, or a region, or a nationality or it may cross several countries or regions. The most famous model of culture was developed by Edward T. Hall in 1976. It is the iceberg analogy of culture. (Hall 1976) There are some aspects of the culture that are visible, while the larger portion is hidden beneath the surface. The external part of culture is what we see and is the tip of the iceberg. It includes behaviors and some beliefs. It is supported by the much larger part if the iceberg, underneath the water line and therefore invisible. Nonetheless, this lower part of the iceberg is the powerful foundation. It is the internal part of culture and it is below the surface of a society and includes some beliefs and the values and thought patterns that underlie behavior. According to Hall the only way to learn the internal culture of others is to actively participate in their culture. We cannot judge a new culture based only on what we see when we first enter it. We must spend more time in that new culture, get to know its individuals and interact with them. It is the only way to uncover the values and beliefs that underlie the behavior of that society. That is why it is 1169 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo difficult at times to understand people with different backgrounds – because we may spot the visible parts of `their iceberg`, but we cannot at once see what are the foundations that these parts rest upon. What is intercultural learning? The term ``intercultural learning`` can be understood on different levels. On a more literal level, intercultural learning refers to an individual process of acquiring knowledge, attitudes, or behavior that is connected with the interaction of different cultures. But, very often, intercultural learning is seen in a larger context to denote a concept of how people with different backgrounds can live peacefully, and the process that is needed to build such a society. Although there is no clearly defined educational discipline known as ―intercultural learning‖ it can be understood as the process of becoming more aware of and better understanding of one` s own culture and other cultures all around the world. The aim of intercultural learning is to increase international and cross-cultural tolerance and understanding. This can take a lot of forms - intercultural learning can be applied in all fields of education. ( Amorim 2001). Here I suggest some basic principles of importance concerning intercultural learning with special emphasis on intercultural learning in language teaching. Approaching intetrcultural learning: a question of attitude Experiencing Identity Before being able to understand other cultures, we have to know ourselves, our own background and experience. Trying to understand ourselves, our own identity, is a preriquisite to encounter others ( Claire Kramsch 1993) Confidence and Respect Building up confidence is a cornerstone of intercultural learning in order to achieve the openess necessary for a mutual learning process. It requires a lot of patience and sensitivity in order to create a learning atmosphere which enables us to listen each other's opinions and feelings as equals and to promote self-confidence and mutual trust. In this sense it is necessary to: -Give space to everybody's expression; -Value all experiences, talents and contributions; -Discuss our needs and expectations openly. In Dialogue with the «Other» Intercultural learning should be understood as aprocess towards the «other». The «other» is at the heart of understanding. It starts with dialogue and is a process that challenges us to perceive us and the «other» as different but nevertheless complementary. Constant Change and Questioning The experience of intercultural learning is one of constant change. We have open questions and will raise new ones. Therefore, we need to accept that there is not always an answer, but remain in constant search, accepting and welcoming change. So we have to prepare to question our assumptions, ideas and to break away from our old beliefs and traditions. The Potential of Conflict If we see the variety of perceptions different cultures have of time, space, social and personal relations … it appears evident that conflict is sometimes at the heart of intercultural learning. Not every conflict has necessarily a solution but it certainly needs to be expressed. An environment that creates the conditions for sel-confidence and mutual trust should also be an environment where people feel confortable about expressing their: -Insecurities -Doubts -Misunderstandings -Frustrations and -Hurt feelings At the same time these models invite us to discuss the differences without labelling it. We need to develop conflict management skills, while considering complexity when dealing with the notion of culture. Intercultural learning implies a search, means new insecurities, and that carries a natural conflictive potential. Diversity can be experienced as helpful and enriching, towards new forms and 1170 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo new solutions, consequently, we can try to unlock the constructive elements and opportunities of conflicts. Intercultural communicative competence (Intercultural dialogue in teaching foreign language literature) Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behavior in an intensive way. The comprehension of the complexity of this process demands a lot of us. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. But it is at the same time limited, often a source of misunderstanding. It must thereby not be used as a means of dominance – especially considering different language skills – but can be one tool of communication. That` s why teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural awareness skills. Here the role of foreign language teachers is crucial. There will have been points in most teachers` careers when we have stopped to wonder ―What am I actually doing?‖ Being an English teacher for ten years I have often asked that question myself. For too long, we have been concentrating on structures and forms, filling our students up with all the requisite grammar and vocabulary, polishing their pronunciation and encouraging their communicative skills without helping them to be able to genuinely communicate with and understand the real world outside the classroom at all. In my opinion, if our students are to use their language skills to comprehend and communicate in the global village, intercultural awareness is crucial. Intercultural awareness Intercultural awareness in language learning is often talked about as if it were a ―fifth skill‖ – the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. But, language itself is defined by a culture and culture in language teaching is not an expendable fifth skill, ―tacked on‖, to the teaching of speaking, reading, listening and writing, but the very core it. We cannot be competent in the language if we do not also understand the culture that has shaped and informed it. We cannot learn a second language if we do not have an awareness of that culture, and how that culture relates to our own first language/first culture. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural awareness is a collection of skills and attitudes better thought of as a competence. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in so doing, help them to interpret and understand other cultures. It is not just a body of knowledge, but a set of practices requiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. ( Alan Pulverness 2000) Raised awareness of what we do and of the vital importance of these skills already makes intercultural communicative competence a more attainable goal. Despite the fact that the competence is more than just a body of knowledge, intercultural awareness skills can be developed by designing materials which have cultural and intercultural themes as their content. Intercultural awareness and perspectives on communication It has been suggested that intercultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. ( Milton 1993). Interculturally students should be able to …. 1. look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (i.e. have a good understanding and awareness of their own culture) 2. be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures 3. understand or see the target culture from its own perspective ( i.e. understand and be aware of what other people think of their own culture) 4. be aware of how they see the target culture Ways to develop intercultural competence There is, as has been noted earlier, a great gap between knowledge and the ability to use that knowledge in terms of communication and the manipulation of that communication. In order to bridge this gap and frame a relevant syllabus its contents should be made to bear a resemblance to the social contexts. This awareness of the social context can be had from the world of literature which depicts 1171 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo society in all its hues and colors in a language as varied as it is authentic and natural. It is here that the learner might encounter his real world outside the classrooms. The syllabus should include verbal and non-verbal communication, short narratives, short stories, dialogues, conversations, and interviews. These short literary texts will, thus: • help teachers first to acquaint themselves with language use to develop their own competence and understand language as a social phenomenon, and not as an exclusive branch of learning. • transform the classrooms as the stage in which there is real practice of communicative language. • help teachers to consider language as entailing social acceptability; in other words, they can look to classroom language as carrying resemblance with the outside language. As a result, this would raise communication to the level of a social responsibility. • develop the intellectual ability of the learners and expose them to a variety of linguistic and literary expressions and communicative functions of language. • contextualize the language to help the learner to acquire grammar implicitly. • incorporate linguistic competence into communicative competence by putting language into use in different social situations. Literary texts take into account the functions of language in different realistic situations outside the conditioned atmosphere of the classrooms. The employment of such literary components such as narratives, short stories, one - person acts, fables, dialogues and short social situations, will help learners to use different forms of the language in one notion of the language. It will, more importantly, motivate and inspire the learners to know more and keep his or her interest intact. Prof. Charles Blatchford of the Department of English as a second language at the University of Hawaii(1972) opines, ―the study of English literature is a luxury that cannot be indulged during the limited a mount of time allocated to English‖( Charles Blatchford 1972) But, is it really so? Elsa Auerbach in her book, Making Meaning, Making Change says that once the teacher has identified major themes in students' lives with these "ways in," she can use a variety of ready-to-hand "tools" to draw students into the deliberate use of language to address the issues they see as important. These tools can include fables, proverbs, published works of fiction, even children's books. One of the most powerful tools is what she calls "codes," carefully scripted dialogues in which characters reveal very controversial attitudes towards pressing social questions, such as racism, crime, or sexual harassment. By involving students in discussion about these codes, they not only acquire the language to address these issues, but they also begin to learn how to take positions on these issues themselves. ( Elsa Aurbach 1992) Culture and language learning Literary texts include cultural uses of linguistic expressions such as stylistics, pragmatics and semantics. This social communication reflects the usage of different language aspects in the literary texts. Moreover, in the study of language and culture, literary study can make a valuable contribution in tracing the development of the language in all its components and skills. What is more important is that, non- native students need to be exposed to various literary texts in order to be able to consider the others' culture in their international communication. Therefore, the non-native learners' curriculum should include teaching literary texts or literature to facilitate such international communication for the students. Furthermore, literature consists of some lexical items and expressions, which cannot be found in the linguistic texts. Literary texts and literature texts contextualized and socialized language items and lead naturally to the use of actual words and expressions in real situations. As regards the learning of English as a Second language at the higher level, Prof. Blatchford says, ―there may be more justification for literary studies where English is a second rather than a foreign language.‖ ( Charles Blatchford 1973:5) It is an undeniable fact that the resources of language can be fully utilized by taking recourse to literature as an important aspect of language learning. Foreign language teachers can also develop their students` intercultural communicative competence in the foreign language classroom by encouraging them: 1. to produce a guide book, poster or webpage for visitors to their town, country or region. They should not only describe famous sites and places to visit, but also give visitors advice about what they may find strange or unusual about their own culture. 2. to read articles, short stories or extracts from books, newspapers, magazines written by people who have visited the students` town, country or region. 1172 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. to familiarize students with sources of information about the target culture. Again, apart from newspapers and websites that can be invaluable source of reading materials here, literary texts often depict and interrogate their own cultures. 4. the non-native teacher has available role to play here, being a person from one culture who has certain amount of knowledge or experience of target culture. If students have visited the target culture, they can recount their experiences by giving a written or oral presentation with advice for other students. If there is no such source available, students can do a creative writing activity – imagining a journey into the target culture with all the problems and misunderstandings they may encounter and creatively resolving them. (Milton 1993) At this step, students can measure their knowledge and awareness of the target culture at the end of a course compared to the beginning of the course. When should we introduce this? Previously, ―cultural awareness‖ has often only been seen as something for advanced learners, an extension exercise that can be ―tacked on‖ to an ordinary lesson. This is partly due to the frequent error of assuming that it is impossible to explain intellectual concepts in level one English. Intercultural awareness, as a fundamental feature of language learning, is important at all levels. How does this affect the role of the teacher? Intercultural learning gives the teacher a role of an educator. This makes many teachers feel uncomfortable, especially with the idea that we may be influencing our students in some way. Are we responsible for transmitting some kind of ideology to our students? I think not. We are just helping them to become more aware of the world around them, and to better interact with that world. These are the most important roles of the teachers. Moreover, EFL teachers tend to have a wide variety of different backgrounds in different disciplines. They may have had the experience of living in, adjusting to and understanding a different culture. It is imperative on the part of the language teacher to provide learners with interesting short stories from the finest treasures of English literature to induce in them a desire to make reading as a habit and develop text reading strategies. Foreign language learners benefit from reading target-language literature because it gives practice in the pragmatic contextualization of linguistic expression. There is a lot they can bring to a job. They are unique mediators of cultural relativity. CONCLUSION Intercultural learning aims at very deep processes and changes of attitudes and behaviors. It implies dealing most of the time with the invisible forces of culture, those beneath the surface. It is a process of discovery that implies personal engagement and questioning from both sides. It implies risks and tensions, but also opportunities and solutions. It is obviously not easy to accompany people in this process. On the one hand, we need courage to go further, to challenge ourselves and others. On the other hand, we have to be very careful and respectful to peoples` needs and the limits of these processes. It is a question of striking the right balance between challenging ourselves to move further away from our assumptions and respecting our differences as equal elements of reality. And that is not always easy. Literature or literary text can bridge, to a large extent, the acute realization of the cultural differences that is eating into our understanding of normal and natural human differences. Literature opens the windows to intercultural awareness while at the same time nurturing empathy, a tolerance for diversity, and the fostering of intelligence. Poetry would go a long way in providing language learners with the expansion of their experience of larger human reality which in turn can shape his language and provide more meaning and richness to it. But, very often a reaction of some teachers when faced with these ideas is ―Why bother?‖. There is a feeling that we help our students to communicate anyhow, and that if culture is an integral part of the language then students will just pick it up, that culture is impossible to teach, that we shouldn‘t be seen to be foisting values on our students …. I would say that in order to make our job relevant and meaningful, teaching intercultural awareness is vital. So, the answer to the question that many of us, teachers, have asked ourselves ―What am I actually doing?‖ could be: Helping our students to understand, interact with and – hopefully – change for the 1173 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo better world we all live in. Given the current global situation, there are few jobs more important than this. REFERENCES Kramsch (1993): Claire Kramsch,. Context and Culture Teaching. Oxford University Press Kramsch, (1998): Claire Kramsch. Language and Culture. Oxford University Presss Pulverness (2000): Alan Pulverness. Changing Skies. Swan Communications, Amorim (2001): Luis Amorim Intercultural Learning. Community Foundation Transatlantic Fellowship, Orientation Session, Washington D.C. June 2-4 Blatchor ( 1973) Blatchford, Charles H. Blatchford, Newspapers: Vehicles for Teaching ESOLwith a Cultural Focus, TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 2, TESOL Inc. New York Auerbach(1992) Elsa Auerbach. Making Meaning Making Change: Participatory Curriculum Development for Adult ESL Literacy, Mc Henry Inc., Illinois. Milton (1993):Bennet Milton J. ``Towards a Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity``in R. Michael Paige, ed. Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Bennet (2000): Janet M. Bennett. ``Cultural Marginality:Identity Issues in Intercultural Training,`` in R. Michael Paige, ed. Education for Intercultural Experience. Milton J. Bennet and Janet M. Bennet 1174 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 596 Title A name given to the resource INTERCULTURAL COMMUNIVATIVE COMPETENCE - Intercultural Dialogue in Teaching Foreign Language Literature- Author Author Dumitraskovic, Tatjana Abstract A summary of the resource. In all European countries pluralism and diversity has become an every day reality. To ensure a harmonious interaction between people and groups with different cultural and religious identities, respect for cultural diversity, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation are becoming basic social skills needed by every European citizen. Intercultural learning, intercultural dialogue, intercultural competence must be understood as one of the preconditions for individuals to cope with the new challenges of having to build societies that must be based on respecting people in their diversity. Intercultural learning is an experience which involves all senses and levels of learning, knowledge, emotions, behaviour in an intensive way. Language is one of the most visible elements of culture and in that sense a central aspect in intercultural communication. That is why it must not be used as a means of dominance, but can be one tool of communication. Teaching foreign languages means not only teaching the language itself but to constantly develop intercultural awareness through intercultural communicative competence and intercultural skills. We cannot be competent in a foreign language if we do not understand the culture that has shaped it and how that culture relates to our first language culture. It is not only essential to have cultural awareness, but also intercultural awareness. Intercultural communicative competence is an attempt to raise students` awareness of their own culture, and in doing so, help them to understand other cultures. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9518a7d250b8a778641b4e2d9a551377.pdf a472a28cd81019ea6e1a0593f9be0ee8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ABSTRACTS 1409 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo PRISONERS OF DREAMS AND DEFEATED DREAMERS: DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS VS. THE CONSUL, THE TANNER, AND THE ACTRESS Adriana Carina Duban "1 Decembrie 1918" University of Alba Iulia, Romania carina_beba@yahoo.com The present paper attempts to offer a comparative study between Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama Desire under the Elms and Diplomatul, tãbãcarul Ģi actriţa (The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress) by Carol Ardeleanu. I will undertake to compare two stories about aspiration towards high-class status, beauty, happiness, freedom, and justice paid for by sacrifice, suffering and extreme passion that dominate the characters‘ lives. Both in Desire under the Elms and in The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress the characters are prisoners of their own passions, vices and dreams. The walls, the ground, the protagonists‘ manner of speaking, etc. become signs of imprisonment as well. Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama and The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress therefore draw their ‗life‘ from what is genuine in the human experience and existence. In the end, the characters cannot find a way to escape from their houses and environments, and become prisoners of disillusionment, coffins, or unrealistic aspirations. Both authors share a tragic vision of existence, and focus on tragic stories about ―prisoners‖ of dreams and defeated romantic dreamers. Key words: imprisonment, disillusionment, vice, passion, dream 1410 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Metacognitive awareness of using reading strategies in SLA Ahmad Alhaqbani The Department of Linguistics Macquarie University, Australia alhaqbani27@gmail.com While use of reading strategies is considered beneficial to second language learners, metacognitive awareness of using reading strategies is a critical aspect to skilled reading, especially in the academic contexts. This presentation is part of a large-scale study which aims to investigate a) the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies among non-native undergraduate students of Arabic, and b) if there is any relationship between the students' awareness of the reading strategies and their reading comprehension. 122 undergraduate students, who were studying Arabic as their second language, participated in this study, which took place at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia. This presentation will start by providing a brief theoretical background of the study then an overview of the methodology will be outlined, which include the self-report questionnaire (Survey of Reading Strategies SORS) as well as the reading comprehension test. This presentation will also show the preliminary results of the study along with its implications for teaching reading strategies to second language learners of Arabic. It is anticipated that this study will provide a better understanding about the reading strategies and behaviors that those students use when reading Arabic academic texts. 1411 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Afterthoughts on Stability of Idioms Anahit Hovhannisyan Gyumri State Pedagogical Institute, Armenia a_hovhannisyan@mail.ru Recent linguistic and psychological research in this field has shown that the traditional approach to the study of idioms should be reconsidered from a new angle. In numerous publications on the subject it has been convincingly shown that in a particular context such units undergo semantic changes as a result of which the original and figurative meanings of the components are brought back to life to make a new metaphoric sense. In the frame of this presentation we‘ll make an attempt to prove that in a definite speech idioms undergo not only semantic but also structural changes. Semantic and structural aspects are considered as two sides of the same coin and therefore should be analyzed in one complexity. There has been established a set of elementary devices every one of which is metalinguistically designated: substitution, insertion, ellipsis, etc. What we actually find in speech is the combination of these devices which results in very complex metasemiotic process when a new metaphor or ―metametaphor‖ is created. The examples of various kinds account also for a much greater syntactic flexibility of an idiom that linguists used to claim: in a particular discourse situation the order of constituents is changed. Keywords: metametaphor, metasemiotic process, syntactic flexibility, discourse situation 1412 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS OF CROATIAN MEDICAL DISCOURSE ANAMARIJA GJURAN-COHA SCHOOL OF MEDICINEE, UNIVERSITY OF RIJEKA, Croatia agjuran@medri.hr BRIGITA BOSNAR-VALKOVIģ FACULTY FOR TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT, UNIVERSITY OF RIJEKA, Croatia bbosnarvalkovic@fthm.hr Medical language is aimed at communication among physicians and (or) other health professionals and patients. Undoubtly, it has been affected by globalization, a process that has an impact on socioeconomic, political, cultural and language dimension of society. The development of globalization has been closely associated with the power and dominance of English. It influenced the languages for special purposes (LSP), which are liable to changes and innovations on all levels. Thje aim of this paper is to examine the linguistic features of Croatian medical discourse. Functional styles relevant to medical discourse, frequent usage of anglicisms, unnecessary abbreviations, changes on the syntactic and semantic levels will be analyzed as well as attitudes of health care professionals towards the influx of anglicisms into Croatian medical terminology. Key words: LSP, medical discourse, Croatian medical terminology, attitudes 1413 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FREQUENCY, TYPE AND EFFECTIVENESS OF COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES OF PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS OF ENGLISH IN TURKEY Banu Inan English Language Teaching Department Kocaeli University, Turkey banu.inan@kocaeli.edu.tr When the basic purpose is conveying the messages and remaining in a conversation in an EFL context, communication strategies are of great significance for learners of English. Knowledge based on these strategies is extremely important for prospective teachers of English, who will teach such strategies to their students in the future. The aim of this research is to identify the difficulties and the frequency, type and effectiveness of the communication strategies used to cope with these difficulties by the prospective teachers of English at a Turkish University. The findings will be discussed in detail during the presentation. Key Words: communication strategies, prospective teachers of English 1414 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Comparative Study of Football Commentators‘ Discourse in English and Persian Languages Biook Behnam Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran behnam_biook@yahoo.com Neda Bimesl Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran n_bimesl@yahoo.com In various contexts, different types of language are selected to make the language forms appropriate to situations. In this spirit, in sport context, without much planning time, sport commentators have to use language in a form that would make them able to quickly describe the activities as fluently and accurately as possible. Thus, a particular use of language is demanded in commentaries. Beard (1998) defines commentary as reporting simultaneously what is seen on the screen. Under time pressure, as Holmes (2008) notes, they use a telegraphic grammar which involves syntactic reductions and inversions of normal word order. According to Kuiper (2000), they also use special kind of formulas and routines in order to help them to speak fluently during a running commentary. Thus, their language follows certain linguistic formulas and has got distinctive vocabulary and grammatical features. Ferguson (1983) has suggested a framework for analyzing the language of a sport commentator. These are six selected syntactic characteristics including, simplification, inversions, result expressions, heavy noun modifiers, tense usage and routines. This study wants to compare the similarities between English and Persian commentators' language use according to Ferguson's (1983) suggested framework. Using one English and one Persian Football matches‘ transcriptions, the study will examine only three of these features including: simplifications (subject, main verb, auxiliary be and pronoun plus to be), inversions (passive construction) and heavy noun modifiers. In order to have a better picture, the frequency and percentage of similar points will be evaluated and presented through separate graphs. 1415 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REASONS FOR USING OR AVOIDING GAMES IN AN EFL CLASSROOM Danica Milovan Jerotijevic The Faculty of Philology and Arts, Serbia and Montenegro danicajerotijevic@gmail.com Miljana Stojkovic High Business School, Serbia and Montenegro nele_trajce@yahoo.com The aim of the present paper is to determine the reasons why teachers` and students`either use or avoid games in the classroom, as well as to discover the possible obstacles of using games in an EFL classroom. The research was conducted on teachers and students of the English language in Leskovac and Nis, cities in southern Serbia. The main research technique employed was a questionnaire. 197 participants, 178 students and 19 teachers, participated in the afore mentioned questionnaire. The results of the research prove that teachers as well as students have more reasons for using than for avoiding games in the classroom. Along with the research, the paper outlines certain obstacles that may appear when introducing game in the classroom which must be overcome. The results suggest that games should be introduced since both the teachers and students have found sufficient benefitial reasons for their usage. Furthermore, the research highlights some significant disadvantages of using games that teachers should beware of and try to overcome along with their students. Keywords: EFL, educational games, teachers, students 1416 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reflections on teacher trainees‘ understandings about teaching English that are gained through a kindergarten practicum Eda Üstünel English Language Teaching Muğla University, Turkey eda.ustunel@gmail.com In the teaching of very young learners, who are developing their L1 proficiency at the same time they are learning a foreign language, oral language ability and literacy skills in English are often assumed to develop concurrently and even to facilitate one another. Few studies, if any, have considered possible differences in approaches to language and literacy in teaching English as a foreign language to very young Turkish learners in the EFL classroom context. Thus, in this presentation, I suggest ways to teach very young Turkish EFL learners with a focus on oral language skills. For this purpose, 55 English language teacher trainees studying at their 3rd year at Muğla University typed reflective papers first at the beginning and then at the end of their kindergarten practicum experience. Each teacher trainee is asked to describe the following points in their reflective papers: Your knowledge about the linguistic development of children at the age of 5 in their first language (L1) and second/foreign language (L2) Any experience of teaching L1 and English to a child at the age of 5 you may have had Your thoughts and feelings on teaching English to very young learners in a Turkish EFL classroom context Your own definition of children at the age of 5 linguistically, cognitively and psychologically The reflective papers are collected and analysed by the researcher. The reflective papers show teacher trainees personal and professional growth over the semester by revising and developing points made in their ‗first day‘ writing. Moreover, each trainee is observed at his/her kindergarten practicum by the researcher. The researcher also conducts a semi-structured interview with each trainee on their first reflective paper and the teaching experience that they gain during the practicum. After the interview, each trainee is asked to write a reflective paper for the last time. Comments from these papers, classroom observations and interviews will be discussed in the light of trainees‘ understandings gained through the course and be supported with notes from their reflective papers. Keywords: Teaching English as a foreign language to very young learners, oral language development in EFL children, Turkish EFL children, kindergarten practicum, English language teacher trainees, personal and professional growth in teacher education. 1417 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Personalization in Advertising Discourse Elena Kurchenkova Volgograd State University, Russian Federation kurlena@mail.ru This article describes the concept of personalization as one of the strategies of advertising discourse. Under the personalization the author understands the use of language means in ad texts to release the recipient as an individual personality. Particular attention is paid to the tactics of dialogization, which is regarded as a special feature of personalization. 1418 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Effective Teachers' Behavior in ELT from Students' Perspectives Eyyup AKIL University of Gaziantep, Turkey e-akil@hotmail.com In this research, it was aimed to find out the ―Effective Teachers‘ Behavior (ETB)‖ used by the teachers in preparatory classes of Higher School of Foreign Languages in University of Gaziantep (HSFLUG). This study was carried out from students‘ perspective since they are at the core point of the teaching/learning process. 170 preparatory students at HSFLUG (n= 56 females and n= 114 males) participated in the study. Data was collected through a developed questionnaire which had thirty-five items. The reliability of the questionnaire was .96. The data analyses were conducted by descriptive and inferential statistics. Chi-square was applied for each item and it was understood that there were no significant difference between the English proficiency level of students and the way they evaluated their teachers. Significant difference was found only for eight items. Students‘ success was correlated with the scores that they gave to their teachers (r = -.063 and .411). As a result, no significant relationship between students‘ success and teachers‘ effectiveness was found. It was found that effective teachers‘ behavior does not have effect on students‘ success (t=14.87 and p= .62). 1419 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo MAMMA LI TURCHI: OTHERNESS IN WORLD LITERATURE Gıyasettin AYTAġ Department of Turkish Language Teaching Gazi University, Turkey giyaytas@gazi.edu.tr BaĢak Uysal Department of Turkish Language Teaching Gazi University, Turkey basakuysal@hotmail.com And now, what's going to happen to us without barbarians? They were, those people, a kind of solution. Kavafis Deep structure between societies and nations have been included much more than religious, politic and social confrontations. For analysing this deep structure there have been lots of studies in different disciplines. Literature teaching is one of the this areas, too. Image perception between cultures and societies has been recently studied in literature teaching. One of the important material about cultural perceptions for other societies in terms of others is widely-esteemed artificer's works. Because of this reason, to determine and identify image of people in determined period, these artificer's works will give us to lead. And we can gathered essential information for image perceptions from a novel, poem or any other artistic material. During historical processes societies's ways have been constantly intersected but sometimes contradicted. Even though these conflinctings have been solved, sometimes some of them have been postponed without finding a solution. Surely, these problems have been arised from confrontations in deep structure. In this study, image of Turks in 21st century world literature has been evaluated through cultural and historical backgrounds. For this aim, 10 novels from world literature have been detected and evaluated through different disciplines. These novels have been selected from African literature, American literature, Arabic literature, Asian literature, Australasian literature, English literature, European literature, Indian literature, Latin American literature and Russian literature. 21st century has been classificated a multicultural and multilingual world. In this respect, this study also has been tried to determine the term of "other" for societies and these findings will be important for multi-cultural world. 1420 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Narrativity Effect in Abstract Vocabulary Retention Hadi Farjami OfDepartment of English Language and Literature Semnan University, Iran hadifarjami@gmail.com There is considerable evidence from different studies that narratives and stories are effective assets in many areas of education, particularly those which have language as a goal. Learning the vocabulary of a language is both important and demanding. It is even more of a challenge when it comes to words with no palpable reference in the world outside, which is the case with abstract words. What proves to be an effective teaching strategy in many fields of education-- stories or narrative genre in general-- might be helpful with learning abstract words, too. So, this study investigated the effect of narrativity on the immediate and delayed retention of abstract words. The participants in the study were 40 female university students from different majors ranging from 18 to 20 in age and learning general English in a compulsory course. They participated in a two session vocabulary instruction program taught by one of the researchers. The teacher taught them fortyseven abstract words embedded in two stories and two non-narrative expository texts, which were paired two by two in terms of difficulty level and the abstract words they included. After administering a proficiency test for including homogenous subjects in the experiment, who could connect to the chosen texts and target vocabulary, the screened learners were randomly assigned to two groups of 20. During two sessions, the experimental group studied the forty-seven abstract words in the context of the two short stories, while the control group studied them through the two non-narrative passages. The results of achievement tests, administered immediately after the study sessions and after a one-week delay showed that those who studied abstract words in narrative texts outperformed those who studied them in non-narrative texts in both immediate and delayed recall. T-tests showed that the narrative group maintained a significant and substantial advantage in recall of abstract words over control students on each occasion. Key words: abstract vocabulary, narrativity, stories, vocabulary retention, text genre 1421 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Acquisition of derivational morphology in the Serbian EFL context: insights and implications Jelena Danilovic Department English, Faculty of Philology and Arts University of Kragujevac , Serbia and Montenegro jelenadanilce@gmail.com Jovana Dimitrijevic Savic Department English, Faculty of Philology and Arts University of Kragujevac , Serbia and Montenegro j.dimitrijevic.savic@gmail.com Although it has long been an under-researched topic in the field of applied linguistics, morphological knowledge is nowadays regarded as a key component of vocabulary acquisition. The past two decades have witnessed a proliferation of studies of both L1 and L2 learning contexts which shed light on various issues, ranging from morphological processing to receptive/productive knowledge of derivational and inflectional morphology. However, investigations into the acquisition of English morphology by Serbian EFL learners have, to our knowledge, been scarce. The purpose of this paper is, therefore, to explore the productive derivational knowledge of upper-intermediate Serbian EFL learners, first-year students majoring in English at the Faculty of Philology and Arts in Kragujevac, by means of three different instruments: a test focusing on the knowledge of the four main word family members (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs), a test of cognate and non-cognate derivatives employing six cognate English-Serbian suffixes (-ous/-oz(a)n, -ize/-izovati, -ation/-acija, -ism/iz(a)m, -ist/-ist(a), -ity/-itet) and a contextualized word-formation skill test. A combination of a qualitative and quantitative approach to data analysis has revealed the difficulties Serbian EFL learners have been experiencing in their morphology/vocabulary classes and it has enabled us to identify common mistakes and weak spots. Our results have pedagogical implications and could be put to use in curriculum design and methodology. 1422 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Applied Linguistics University Courses Among English Language Students Jelena Markovic Department of English language and literature, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina jelenam52@gmail.com Applied linguistics is a very young interdisciplinary field, having language and linguistics as its cornerstones, but also including psychology, sociology, pedagogy. It has been enormously growing in its scope ever since it first appeared. Highly respected by most practitioners, neglected by others, it is the discipline struggling for its final recognition among scientific disciplines. Among other courses, English language students at some departments attend applied linguistics courses. It is interesting to find out what they think of these courses. Therefore the aim of this article is to explore the attitudes of English language students towards courses of applied linguistics at their BA studies. The method used is a questionnaire designed so as to provide answers to the basic groups of questions: whether students find these courses as important as linguistic courses (morphology, syntax), whether they find them interesting, and whether they would like to broaden their applied linguistics knowledge. Key Words: linguistics, applied linguistics, attitude, usefulness, students 1423 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Comparative Study Of Compliment Responses in Russian And Turkish Jiydegul Alymidin kyzy English Language Teaching Department Fatih University, Turkey jiydegul@hotmail.com Nowadays as international relationships are increased in every area of our life the need for intercultural communication is becoming crucial. Intercultural competence is needed for an effective intercultural relationship. Especially, in foreign language teaching in order to learn a foreign language properly one needs to know the culture -the way of thinking, social values and the norms- of that society. The empirical researches carried out so far on differences in making refusals, thanking, apologizing and responding to compliments make it clear that the same speech act can be realized quite differently across different cultures. Al these studies show that not knowing the sociolinguistic rules of the target language may cause a pragmatic failure. This study investigates compliment responses (CR) among Russian Turkish and Turkish speakers. The data were collected through the use of written Discourse Completion Task (DTC), with 20 questions on 4 topics (appearance, character, ability and possession). Total 45 university students participated in the study. The study aimed at comparing and contrasting CRs in Russian and Turkish, helping students from different cultural background to understand each others better, reducing the possibility of intercultural and pragmatic failure. Key words: Compliment Responses, Intercultural Communication, Foreign Language Teaching, Pragmatic Failure 1424 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reducing The Anxiety Level While Developing Communicative Skills In English As a Foreign Language Joanna Lewińska English Philology Wszechnica Polska joanna.lewinska.net@gmail.com While developing communicative skills in a foreign language a teacher has to remember about individual preferences of students, their subjective expectations and different learning styles. Thus, a teacher has to vary the speaking techniques to offer as much opportunity as possible to make all learners find something interesting. Developing speaking skills definitely deserves a closer look. Adult students in particular during the early and intermediate stages of learning experience anxiety while speaking in a foreign language because they do not know enough words and phrases to express concepts they would like to. The causes of students‘ reluctance to speak are varied. In my presentation the major problems of Polish adult learners while speaking English will be discussed. In addition, a few effective techniques in reducing the anxiety level while speaking in English will be analysed. 1425 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Modernism vs. Postmodernism: A Study of Sam Shepard‘s Dramatic Dilemma Mehrnoosh Emamzadeh Sama College, Islamic Azad University, Iran mohnoosh20@yahoo.com The American dramatist, Sam Shepard (1943-present) has now gained a reputation as one of the icons of the postmodern aesthetics, actively engaged in American stage. In his plays, he traverses the modernist borders of logic, order and social coherence in order to picture a fractured mythic and cultural territory, filled with disintegration, loss of identity and bafflement. In some of his best dramatic works, he artistically portrays heroes who struggle to preserve their old self, while being inevitably entangled within the challenging games and rules of a wholly postmodern condition This paper attempts to analyze the various interpretive dilemmas and tensions in Sam Shepard‘s writings which can be seen as representing an unresolved conflict between modernist and postmodernist perspectives on such issues as fragmentation of language, nature of subjectivity and the search for coherence and meaning in mass culture. In doing so, attempts have been made to demonstrate how this challenging shift form modernist high arts to postmodernist embracing commercial forms, suggested in Shepard‘s discourse of popular culture, is marked by an awareness of the latter‘s limitations and obstacles and would ultimately reveal an ambivalence toward postmodernism itself .This undertaking will be an endeavor to answer these key questions: How is the erosion of distinction between high and popular culture, rendered in the conflict and tension among characters in the play? How are the dark possibilities of postmodern fractured discourse contrasted with the modernist notion of a centered and unified language? How do the plays impart the postmodern sense that subject is constituted in language and discourse? Key words: dramatic dilemma, Sam Shepard, language fragmentation 1426 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Croatian translations of Eugène Ionesco Mirna SindiĦiĤ Sabljo Department of French University of Zadar, Croatia msindici@unizd.hr Eugène Ionesco's work is present in Croatia since 1956 when his first play, The Bald Soprano, was staged in Zagreb. During the same decade two more of his plays (The Lesson, The Chairs) were also translated and staged. In the 1960‘s and 1970's a considerable number of Ionesco's essays and theoretical texts was translated, which is understandable considering the fact that Ionesco was an unofficial spokesman of the socalled the Theatre of the Absurd. Most of the translations of Ionesco‘s plays were published during and after the 1980‘s when he has already become a classic of the World literature and became a part of the School study program. The aim of this paper is to present the Croatian translations of Ionesco‘s work, taking into account a literary and historical context when the translations were made and published. A part of the paper will focus on a comparative analysis of the two existing Croatian translations of the Chairs, made by Radovan IvńiĤ and Ivan Kuńan. The paper will also consider the translation strategies (used in the translation of the titles and characters‘ names) adopted by the Croatian translators and the fact that a dramatic text cannot be translated in the same way as a prose text because its full potential is realized only in the performance. 1427 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo How Does Washback Influence Reading Comprehension in ESP Classes? Implications for Iranian Medical Students MohammadReza Kargozari Lecturer, English Department, MUMS Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran kargozarmr1@mums.ac.ir Vahideh Zolfaghari Mashhadi Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran zolfaghariv1@mums.ac.ir Mohammad Naser Shafiee Jafarabadi Head Of English Department, MUMS Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran shafieemn@mums.ac.ir Theoretical Background Good examinations are part of the education, without them education would be less effective. In fact, as Alderson (1984) mentioned, examination has a powerful influence on teaching. This influence of tests on teaching and learning is commonly referred to as washback. Literature indicates that testing washback is a complex concept that becomes even more complex under a variety of interpretations of the washback phenomenon on teaching and learning. Although it is widely perceived that washback exists, surprisingly little experimental research has been conducted into its existence in education in general, much less in language education. Aims The study has aimed to find convincing answers to the following questions: (1) Is there any relationship between continual formative tests and reading comprehension? (2) Does washback have any influence upon the EFL learners‘ English reading attitudes? Sample There are 130 medical students who enrolled at Mashhad University of Medical Sciences and have English course1 in four different classes, which two classes were randomly chosen as experimental and two classes as control group. By administering the Michigan Test of English Proficiency, in the very first session, the homogenity of two groups was approved. This test served as the pre-test for this study. At the end of the course, both groups will receive the same test as post-test to specify the effects of washback on their progress in reading comprehension. The participants‘ mother tongue is Persian, and all participants have been learning English as a foreign language at least for five years. Their age ranges between eighteen to twenty one years of age, and the average is nineteen years old. Method The material will be taught to both groups based on the method, which is prescribed by the Center for Studying and Compiling University Books in Humanities (SAMT), the researcher uses Chastain (1988) teaching reading strategies too. In experimental class after covering each lesson, students will receive a specific related formative test for that lesson. These tests meanwhile are the independent variables of this research. At the end of the course, both groups will receive post-test, to specify the effects of washback on their progress in reading comprehension. To know whether these formative tests have any effect on experimental students‘ attitudes, the data from the pre-administration of the English Reading Attitude Questionnaire (ERAQ) developed by Hung‘s (2000, cited in Chiang, 2005), which was held at the early stage of the course, will be compared with it's post administration which will be held one month after post test. Analysing of this study will have three sections in terms of treatment and measuring instruments utilized. The first section deals with reliability and descriptive statistics related to the reading comprehension tests applied. The second section discusses the students‘ performance on pre- and post-tests. Moreover, the third section reports the findings of the students‘ attitudes towards reading in English as will be measured by the English Reading Attitudes Questionnaire (ERAQ) in pre- and post-administration 1428 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Arabic-English bilingual children's metalinguistic awareness: Evidence from typological bilingualism Mohammed Nasser Alhuqbani Linguistics/Psycholinguistics King Fahd Secuirty College alhuqbani@yahoo.com This paper examined the effect of relative language typology on bilingual children's metalinguistic awareness. The participants were 37 Arabic-English bilingual children and 22 English monolingual children in grades K and 1. They received two tasks: word size judgment and lexical segmentation. Arabic-English bilinguals received similar tasks in Arabic. The English Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) was administered to all children. Arabic bilinguals were classified as balanced or unbalanced bilinguals based on their scores in the English PPVT and its equivalent test in Arabic (APVT). Overall, the results showed that children's ability to solve metalinguistic tasks improve with age and/or school experience regardless of task processing demands, bilingualism, relative language typology, or language of testing. 1429 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Global issues through intercultural communication, critical thinking & multiple intelligences Mustafa Zulkuf Altan Head of Foreign Languages Education Erciyes University, Turkey altanmz@erciyes.edu.tr English language teaching has always been accused of three important problems: lack of bringing real life to the classroom; the gap between EFL and main educational ideas; and the lack of content on its subject matter. Introducing global issues in EFL classes will not only resolve the aforementioned problems to some extent, but also will enable students to effectively acquire a foreign language while being empowered by the knowledge, skills, and commitment required by the 21st century world citizens. The presentation will introduce three areas to include global issues in EFL classes: intercultural communication, critical thinking and the theory of multiple intelligences. The presentation will especially focus and emphasize the 10th intelligence and how it relates to solving global problems. The speaker will be advocating an exciting approach which promotes global awareness, international understanding, and a commitment to working for a better world. 1430 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo One Language, Different Worlds – Aspects of Cross-Cultural Communication Training in a Business English Course Nataša Gajšt Department of Foreign Business Languages Faculty of Economics and Business University of Maribor, Slovenia natasa.gajst@uni-mb.si Verbal communication between the individuals belonging to different cultures is usually carried out in the language they all understand. Globalisation has placed English at the top of the languages used in international business. However, language is more than just vocabulary and syntax – language is a tool of communication, delivering a message. As business cooperation becomes increasingly culturally diverse, the need for understanding how ideas are expressed in individual cultures arises. Today, a vast majority of business communication in English is carried out by non-native speakers of English. The nationals of different countries use their language and speech in different ways and professionals using English for international business should be aware that the patterns of communication vary across the globe and that non-native speakers tend to apply the patterns of their native language when communicating in English. The main objective of the contribution is to highlight the differences in communication patterns of individual nations and how they relate to the use of English in international business. In our opinion, a business English course should provide the students with a core understanding of how communication differs across cultures despite being carried out in same language. The contribution first addresses the main dimensions of culture. Second, the use of language in bridging the communication gap is presented. The main focus of the paper is on different culture-specific communication patterns of business meetings, negotiations, presentations and written communication and how these aspects can be presented in a business English course. Key words: English as lingua franca, Business English, language teaching, communication patterns, specifics of culture, business meetings, business negotiations, intercultural competence 1431 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Turkish EFL Preserve Teachers‘ Characterization of EFL Teachers: A Survey Study Pinar Ersin Department of English Language Teaching Marmara University, Turkey persin@marmara.edu.tr Gokce Kurt Department of English Language Teaching Marmara University, Turkey gokcekurt@hotmail.com One of the key questions educational researchers investigate involves better understanding what it means to be a teacher. Researchers in general education have identified several universal teacher characteristics that transcend various disciplines. While educational researchers agree that these characteristics are relatively consistent across different subject matters, there is little agreement regarding discipline-specific teacher characteristics (Bell, 2005). The present study aims to investigate Turkish EFL preservice teachers‘ perceptions of the distinctive characteristics of EFL teachers. The data were collected by means of a questionnaire adopted from Lee (2009). Eighty-five freshmen level and ninety-eight senior level Turkish preservice teachers of English enrolled in a highly competitive state university in Istanbul, Turkey participated in the present study. Data were analyzed by using Statistical Package of the Social Sciences (SPSS) 13.0. The findings of the study will be discussed by referring to the relevant literature. By gaining a better understanding of what it means to be an EFL teacher in various settings, language teacher education can offer more nuanced portraits of the distinctiveness of EFL teachers in particular and English language teachers in general. 1432 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The awareness and preferences of EFL students on their perceptual learning styles Renan Saylağ English Language Instructor Bahcesehir University, Turkey renansaylag@gmail.com This study aims to examine the awareness and preferences of the students of EFL (English as a foreign language) at BahçeĢehir University Prep School on the perceptual learning styles. In this research, an interview and a learning style (VARK) inventory in a close-question format were conducted with 10 students by random sampling in order to identify the learning styles of the students. Before applying the questionnaire an interview with open-ended questions was applied in order to raise the students‘ awareness and to check out if they were aware of their own learning styles. This study also aimed to examine whether the students‘ awareness on their learning styles affects their academic performance. The results of the study showed that majority (%60) of the students are visual learners while the rest %20 appeared as auditory and the other %20 was included in both kinesthetic-visual and auditory in equal rates. 1433 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SECOND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH FOCUS ON FORM IN MEANING-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION IN TWO EFL CLASSES SAEED KARIMI AGHDAM ORDAKLOU ENGLISH DEPARTMENT TEHRAN TEACHER TRAINING UNIVERSITY, IRAN S_KARIMI_AGHDAM@YAHOO.MAIL.COM This paper sets out to report on an empirical scrutinization of effects of the form-focused instruction and one of the techniques of corrective feedback viz. recast on the accuracy of the EFL learners‘ performance in using third- person possessive determiners his and her while doing meaning –focused oral tasks by intermediate EFL learners in a language institute in Tehran , Iran. This study compared two EFL classes in which 15 learners were present. One group of learners received corrective feedback concerning third-person possessive determiners in the form of intensively recast- enriched classroom activities and the other control group was merely exposed to meaning-focused instructional interventions in which frequency of recast significantly was low compared with experimental group. Over two-week period, the instructional interactions and exchanges of 12 hours between teacher and students in both classes were video-recorded and transcribed. Participants‘ knowledge of third-person possessive determiners was assessed on the pre-post test basis drawing upon oral communicative tasks and the results were compared with one another aiming at shedding light on the effects of recasts on the interlanguage (IL) development of the learners and more specifically on the accuracy of the learners` performance in using one of the most difficult aspects of English grammar for learners of English whose mother tongue is Persian. The results suggest that frequency of recast as one of the conscious-raising techniques and treatments may yield significantly more accurate third-person possessive determiners use in learners' language production whose consciousness rose about targeted grammatical structure compared with learners who just were engaged in meaning-focused interactions in EFL class. It seems, therefore, that corrective reformulations in the form of recasts entail promotion of at least short-term accuracy in language use and interlanguage development of EFL learners` communicative competence 1434 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On the compounding and derivation in English: a report of a corpus investigation Stanimir Vojislav Rakic Belgrade University, Serbia and Montenegro starakic@gmail.com In the theory of lexical phonology and morphology, phonological and morphological rules are assigned to separate levels of the lexicon which are supposed to define their domain and manner of application. According to Kiparsky (1982), lexicon is divided into hierarchically ordered levels: (1) Level 1: 1st order affixes and irregular inflection Level 2: 2nd order affixes and compounding Level 3: regular inflection Postlexical level: syntax On the bases of the corpus of more than 7000 compounds extracted from Longman (2003) I analyse the distribution of affixes in the structure of English compounds, and conclude that both the first order and the second order affixes can take part on the building of compounds, while only the second order affixes can be affixed to compounds. I further analyse the cases of conversions, backformations and paradigmatic formations involving compounds having in mind hierarchical relations shown in (1). I particularly note derivations which violate or transgress these relations. Literature Kiparsky, P. (1982) Lexical phonology and morphology, u I.S. Yung (ed.) Linguistics in the morning calm, Seoul, Hanshin Publishing Co. 1435 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Evaluating the Bridge Between the Target and Learning Needs of Students ġeyda Selen Çimen Department of Foreign Language Education Middle East Technical University-Ankara s.selen.ozkan@gmail.com AyĢegül Daloğlu Department of Foreign Language Education Middle East Technical University-Ankara daloglu@metu.edu.tr This study aims to investigate the English Language needs of the students in the Intensive English Program at the School of Foreign Languages and the first-year students at the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University. The needs analysis in the study was conducted based on the three systematic steps suggested by Brown (1995). Answers to the following research questions are sought through a needs analysis study: · What are the English target language needs of preparatory school students who will attend the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the English language learning needs of first-year English-medium department students in the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the differences between the target and learning needs of preparatory school and first year of English-medium department students in the Faculty of Engineering in Muğla University? · What are the differences between the perceptions of preparatory school and departmental instructors on the students English language needs? Hutchinson and Waters‘ (1987; 54-55) define needs as ―the ability to comprehend and produce the linguistic features of the target situation‖ and their further distinction between target needs and learning needs are taken as the basis of this research study. The needs analysis in this study was conducted followed the three systematic steps suggested by Brown (1995): 1) Making basic decisions about the needs analysis, 2) Gathering information, and 3) Using the information. The data for the study was obtained through a questionnaire adapted from Canbay (2006) and the participants involved in the study are both instructors and students from the preparatory school and the faculty of engineering in Muğla University. SPSS14 packet program is used for analyzing the data and analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to analyze the differences between the independent groups. Frequencies and percentages demonstrate the perceptions on the target and learning needs of the students attending the preparatory school and English-medium departments of the faculty of engineering in Muğla University. And finally, conclusions are drawn and implications are identified accordingly. 1436 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Cultural Subtext of the Post-War British Cinema Tijana Parezanovic Faculty of Foreign Languages Alfa University, Serbia and Montenegro tijanaparezanovic@gmail.com This paper will aim to investigate the applicability of film to teaching English language, literature and culture, with the special focus placed on teaching British culture to university students. Although films represent original cultural phenomena, the theory of film has always been influenced by and perhaps dependent on other fields of study, including linguistics, literature and sociology. The first part of the paper deals with the analysis of cultural aspects of the classic comedies produced by Ealing Studios during the 40s and 50s. In exploring the conflict between individuals and the establishment, these comedies often made considerable use of the characteristically British humour, gallows humour and satire, the understanding of which requires comprehensive knowledge of the English language and British cultural idiosyncrasies. The Ealing Studios comedies provide a unique perspective on the spirit of post-war times, which makes them untypically useful in teaching the history and culture of the period. The second part of the paper deals with students‘ feedback on the use of films in academic courses and the analysis of the media‘s didactic value. 1437 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHONEME-PERCEPTUAL, PHONOLOGICAL AND ARTICULATION ABILITIES Tsvetanka Lukanova Tsenova Department of Special Education and Logopedics Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", Bulgaria cenova_cc@abv.bg The report focuses on the question for the content of phoneme-perceptual and phonological abilities in preschool-age children. Old and new theories in these areas are analyzed. The author presents a research on the ability of recognition of speech sounds into words in 268 preschool-age children with and without specific (functional) articulation disorders. The purpose is to explore the ability to identify (to recognize) the sounds in words in children from both groups as an indicator of the relationship between articulation, phoneme perception and phonological knowledge; to reveal the influence of the phonetic characteristics of speech sounds (phonemes) and of sound`s position in words on their identification. Quantitative but not qualitative differences are found between the two groups - all children use common identification strategy in respect of all sounds and for all children certain sounds are easier to identify than others. Moreover the research shows the influence of psychophonetic factors on the process of recognition of speech sounds into words. The main factors are the acoustic features of the speech sound and its position into the word. The results reflected in the speech-language therapy and in the teaching of native and foreign language. Key Words: speech perception, phonological knowledge, articulation disorders, phonological disorders, recognition of speech sounds into words. 1438 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Evaluation of Technical English Course at ESOGU FLD Ümit Özkanal Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Turkey ozkanal@gmail.com Eskisehir Osmangazi University Foreign Languages Department supplies an English preparatory program for the Mechanical, Computer and Electric-Electronics department students of the Engineering Faculty. As of 2009-2010 academic year, the FLD added an ESP course in the curriculum for the students so that they can become familiar with the technical vocabulary and phrases. The course was delivered in the second term of the academic year as two hours a week. A technical textbook was chosen for the students and the instructors delivered the course for 15 weeks. During the term 3 pop quizzes were applied and some questions related to the course were included in each mid-term. 300 students were involved in the study and they were given a Likert Type questionnaire containing questions about the course and if the course was useful in their first year academic courses. Most of the students expressed that the course was good in supplying them technical vocabulary and they felt themselves ready for the technical courses in the department. 1439 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Student Teacher‘s Professional Learning in Teaching Practicum Xiuli MA The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong musclely@gmail.com Mentorship in the teaching practicum is a key question in pre-service teacher education. The popular model is that student teachers (STs) get guidance from their teacher mentors and/or university supervisors. Distinct from the dominant global model, the practicum model of TCSL (Teaching Chinese as a Second Language) in mainland China is featured as non-mentorship, i.e., STs of TCSL are not provided with mentor support or other professional guidance in the teaching practicum. Given this context, how STs undertake their professional learning and achieve professional growth has rarely been addressed. This research aims to understand the learning experience of student teacher in a context devoid of teacher mentor. The target program in this study is a master program of TCSL in Beijing. Informed by Wenger's social learning theory and Brookfield's significant personal learning perspective, this study follows four STs during a four-month practicum and explores how they utilize resources available to undertake professional learning and achieve professional growth. Research methods in this study involve STs' reflective journal, interview and classroom observation. This paper will mainly discuss the initial finding of one case participating in this research. The findings reveal how the ST's effort to widen her professional community was demotivated by the context and how she achieved professional growth by resorting to her personal community. The findings shall shed light on the improvement of the current teacher education programmes of TCSL and also enrich our understanding towards the prospective teachers of teaching second language in diverse contexts. 1440 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 696 Title A name given to the resource PRISONERS OF DREAMS AND DEFEATED DREAMERS: DESIRE UNDER THE ELMS VS. THE CONSUL, THE TANNER, AND THE ACTRESS Author Author Duban, Adriana Carina Abstract A summary of the resource. The present paper attempts to offer a comparative study between Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama Desire under the Elms and Diplomatul, tãbãcarul Ģi actriţa (The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress) by Carol Ardeleanu. I will undertake to compare two stories about aspiration towards high-class status, beauty, happiness, freedom, and justice paid for by sacrifice, suffering and extreme passion that dominate the characters‘ lives. Both in Desire under the Elms and in The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress the characters are prisoners of their own passions, vices and dreams. The walls, the ground, the protagonists‘ manner of speaking, etc. become signs of imprisonment as well. Eugene O‘Neill‘s drama and The Consul, the Tanner, and the Actress therefore draw their ‗life‘ from what is genuine in the human experience and existence. In the end, the characters cannot find a way to escape from their houses and environments, and become prisoners of disillusionment, coffins, or unrealistic aspirations. Both authors share a tragic vision of existence, and focus on tragic stories about ―prisoners‖ of dreams and defeated romantic dreamers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a36652f97c420c7a6548cba0d890ab8f.pdf bc9213503174a8980ef45e71c44e9fbf PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nastava leksike stranog jezika na akademskim studijama Jelena DrljeviĤ Katedra za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filolońki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu drljevic@gmail.com Apstrakt: Cilj ovog rada je da pruņi teorijski uvid u dosadańnja istraņivanja koja se tiĦu metodike nastave leksike stranog jezika (L2). PolazeĤi od ovog opńeg okvira pokuńaĤemo da se u nastavku rada posebno zadrņimo na akademskoj leksiĦkoj kompetenciji stranog jezika. Naime, uzimajuĤi u obzir specifiĦan nastavni kontekst, kakav je filolońki fakultet uopńte, i ciljnu grupu, odnosno studentsku populaciju, potrudiĤemo se da definińemo leksiku stranog jezika koji se uĦi u akademskom okruņenju kao i pojedine aspekte njenog poduĦavanja. O usvajanju ovakve leksike treba razmińljati kao o neodvojivoj komponenti kurikuluma buduĤih nastavnika i prevodilaca. U tom smislu, postavljaju se brojna pitanja: Na koji naĦin moņemo najbolje da pribliņimo studentima leksiku stranog jezika? Kako organizovati plansko (odvojeno) uĦenje leksike, buduĤi da je i proces usvajanja leksike, u okviru usvajanja L2, odvojen segment? Koji je, ili kakav treba da bude, krajnji cilj uĦenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu? Kako Ĥe se nova leksika koristiti? Gde Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? Kada Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? i sliĦno. Dakle cilj nam je da definińemo okvire ovog bitnog jeziĦkog nivoa ali i odgovorimo na pitanje: kako treba da bude organizovana nastave leksike L2 u vezi sa potrebama studenata filolońkih studija. KljuĦne reĦi: nastava leksike, leksiĦka kompetencija L2, akademski kontekst Uvod UĦenje i usvajanje leksike kao sastavnog dela jeziĦke kompetencije u novijim lingvistiĦkim istraņivanjima zauzima veoma vaņno mesto. Da bi se na odgovarajuĤi naĦin sagledao i potom savladao sloņen i otvoren leksiĦki sistem nekog jezika neophodno je pristupiti mu organizovano i sistematiĦno. Koliko je takav zadatak teņak i koliko se istraņivaĦima interdisciplinarnih nauka Ħinio nemoguĤ u ranijim godinama svedoĦi i Ħinjenica da su plansko poduĦavanje leksike kao i organizovano prilagoħavanje njenog sistema ciljevima metodike nastave bili gotovo zanemareni sve do kraja osamdesetih i poĦetka devedesetih godina prońlog veka. PoĦev od tih godina leksika zauzima centralno mesto u istraņivanjima primenjene lingvistike i danas predstavlja neizostavni element nauĦnih diskusija u oblasti usvajanja maternjeg i stranog jezika (Scholfield, 1999: 678). 1. LeksiĦka kompetencija stranog jezika U skladu sa opńte prihvaĤenim komunikativnim pristupom u nastavi stranih jezika posebnu paņnju treba posvetiti leksici, jeziĦkoj komponenti bez Ħijeg razvoja ni sam jezik ne bi mogao da ostvari valjano svoju osnovnu funkciju: govor. Pojedini autori insistiraju na razlici izmeħu leksiĦkog znanja i leksiĦke kompetencije, termina koji se u nauĦnoj literaturi Ħesto zamenjuju i koriste za oznaĦavanje istog koncepta. Na polju psiholingvistiĦkih istraņivanja ovu razliku moņemo pojednostavljeno objasniti Ħinjenicom da se leksiĦko znanje odnosi na znanje koje uĦenik pripisuje formi, znaĦenju, gramatiĦkom korińĤenju, upotrebi u sociolingvistiĦkom kontekstu. Takvo znanje je smeńteno u generalnoj memoriji ali se nalazi izvan jedinice mentalnog leksikona. LeksiĦka kompetencija, s druge strane, oznaĦava poznavanje osnovnih leksiĦkih informacija koje su postale sastavni deo jedinice mentalnog leksikona i koje je moguĤe automatski pokrenuti u komunikaciji (Jiang, 2000: 64-66). Moņemo reĤi da je leksiĦka kompetencija dostignuta onda kada je ostvareno zadovoljavajuĤe povezivanje nekoliko uslovljenih psiholońkih procesa: uĦenik prvo primeĤuje reĦ, potom je ponovo uoĦava i prepoznaje da bi u poslednjoj fazi dońlo do samostalne i kreativne upotrebe date reĦi u odgovarajuĤem kontekstu. Iz ovoga moņemo da zakljuĦimo da leksika povezuje sve 4 jeziĦke veńtine: produktivne i receptivne, usmene i pisane (Jordan, 2000: 149). LeksiĦka kompetencija podrazumeva i izlaņenje iz Ħisto leksiĦkih okvira. Ona je neodvojiva od poznavanja ńireg koncepta, odnosno kulturolońkog konteksta u koji je jedna reĦ smeńtena i u kojem ona funkcionińe u korelaciji sa ostalim leksiĦkim jedinicama. BuduĤi da su konceptualne predstave, usled razliĦitih druńtvenih, socijalnih ili istorijskih faktora, Ħesto drugaĦije odreħene u razliĦitim jezicima, mogli bismo da zakljuĦimo da je uĦenikov zadatak da, pońto je shvatio znaĦenje nove L2 reĦi i usvojio semantiĦki ekvivalent, odredi i semantiĦku granicu u datom kontekstu. Odreħivanje ove granice usloviĤe, na kraju krajeva, pravilnu ili nepravilnu upotrebu odreħene reĦi u 680 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo nekom kontekstu. Podsetimo se lingvistiĦke postavke da »svaki jezik ureħuje svet razliĦito s obzirom na svoju leksiĦku strukturu, i da leksikalizovani koncepti i konfiguracije koncepata variraju od jezika do jezika« (Singleton, 2006: 132). LeksiĦka kompetencija se u ZajedniĦkom evropskom okviru za ņive jezike (ZEO) vrednuje i na osnovu parametra vladanja leksikom u kojem se ocenjuje kontinuitet i primerenost upotrebe odreħenih reĦi kao i teņina greńke koja bi u veĤoj ili manjoj meri mogla da utiĦe na tok konverzacije. Dakle, ova komponenta predstavlja kvalitativni aspekat poznavanja leksiĦkog fonda (Diadori, Palermo, Troncarelli, 2009: 150). 2. Nastava leksike stranog jezika Da li je opravdano pričati o didaktici koja bi se isključivo bavila samo leksikom, odvojenom od ostalih lingvističkih aspekata? Namerno smo upotrebili reĦ opravdano jer nam sama priroda leksike odnosno uĦenja i uspeńnog usvajanja novih reĦi ne dozvoljava da o njoj razmińljamo kao o sistemu koji bi bio izolovan od ostalih jeziĦkih komponenata. S druge strane, opravdanje za posebno i izdvojeno poduĦavanje leksike treba potraņiti u psiholingvistiĦkim istraņivanjima koja dokazuju da je proces usvajanja leksike drugog jezika odvojen segment unutar celokupnog procesa usvajanja L2 (Jiang, 2000, 2002, 2004). Pod nastavom leksike misli se na planski osmińljenu didaktiku u kojoj bi primena odreħenih teorijskih objańnjenja, tehnika i strategija uĦenja leksike dovela do razvoja leksiĦkog znanja i leksiĦke kompetencije kod studenata. Cilj ovakve didaktike je razvijanje sposobnosti povezivanja gramatiĦkog i semantiĦkog aspekta reĦi, lakńe uĦenje i memorisanje kao i pravilna upotreba nove leksike u odgovarajuĤem kontekstu. PonoviĤemo, meħutim, da je plansko poduĦavanje leksike dugo bilo zanemareno. Jedan od razloga verovatno je i Ħinjenica da leksiĦki sistem predstavlja mnogo otvoreniji sistem od gramatiĦkog sistema pa je samim tim i mnogo teņe regulisati ga. U planiranoj nastavi leksike treba pre svega utvrditi ciljeve jeziĦkog kursa i na osnovu njega izabrati izmeħu pisanog i govornog jezika, nivoa i naĦina predstavljanja struĦne terminologije, treba usmeriti posebnu paņnju na receptivno ili produktivno leksiĦko znanje. Potom, treba definisati potrebe uĦenika i obratiti paņnju na spoljańnje i unutrańnje faktore koji u velikoj meri mogu uticati na tok i uspeńnost tog uĦenja. U narednoj fazi treba pristupiti selekciji leksike. Kriterijumi leksiĦke selekcije mogu biti jeziĦki i nejeziĦki. U jeziĦke kriterijume ubrajamo: frekventnost odnosno broj pojavljivanja nekog elementa u ispitanom korpusu. Ovde pre svega mislimo na funkcionalne reĦi koje nemaju veliku komunikativnu funkciju ali su neophodne za gramatiĦku ispravnost (Ħlan, zamenica, predlog). Ostale frekventne reĦi su imenice, glagoli, prilozi, pridevi a potom dolaze reĦi odreħenog broja i definisanog smisla (ńkola, kuĤa, dete). Tek na kraju imamo tehniĦke termine. Ostali jeziĦki kriterijumi tiĦu se distribucije ili disperzije odnosno upotrebne vrednosti reĦi u razliĦitim vremenskim periodima i kontekstima. JeziĦke kriterijume utvrħujemo i na osnovu parametra disponibilnosti odnosno „stepena moguĤnosti sa kojim Ĥe se jedna reĦ pojaviti u datim situacijama―. U nejeziĦke kriterijume svrstavamo: savladljivost jezika, motivaciju, potrebe, ciljeve, uzrast i sliĦno ( VuĦo, 1998: 27-30). U organizovanoj nastavi leksike moņemo kao dva posebna aspekta izdvojiti predstavljanje novih reĦi, koje nastavnik varira shodno situaciji na Ħasu, ciljnoj grupi i jeziĦkom nivou, i rad na tehnikama i strategijama uĦenja leksike koje treba razvijati kod uĦenika joń u najranijoj fazi uĦenja. Takoħe, nastavnik bi trebalo da u planski osmińljenoj nastavi leksike ponudi veliki broj aktivnosti i veņbanja i implementira ih kroz tri pristupa u uĦenju leksike: spontano ili sluĦajno uĦenje (incidental learning), ciljano uĦenje (intentional learning) i razvijanje strategija (independent strategy development). SluĦajno uĦenje se odvija kroz Ħitanje i sluńanje. Ovde bi nastavnik trebalo da obezbedi dovoljno materijala za ekstenzivno Ħitanje i sluńanje. Ovakav vid usvajanja novog vokabulara najprikladniji je kod uĦenika koji veĤ vladaju osnovnim fondom reĦi i kod kojih je steĦeno znanje duboko i stabilno. Ciljano uĦenje se odvija putem eksplicitnih instrukcija i najvińe odgovara uĦenicima sa ograniĦenim leksiĦkim znanjem. Jedna od strategija koju treba razvijati kod uĦenika jeste pogaħanje znaĦenja reĦi iz konteksta. Ova strategija, prikladna takoħe i za uĦenike koji poseduju solidno i stabilno leksiĦko znanje, nije uvek uspeńna ali svakako doprinosi produbljivanju i uveĤanju vokabulara (Hunt, Alan i Beglar, 2002: 258-265). Mnogi priznati autori smatraju da je metodiku nastave leksike moguĤe uspeńno organizovati samo ako se nove reĦi naħu u ńirem kontekstu, odnosno kao deo ukupnog procesa usvajanja novog jezika. Na taj naĦin se omoguĤava prelazak reĦi u dugoroĦan, stabilan leksiĦki fond. Za usvajanje leksike neophodno je da postoji objedinjeno prouĦavanje gramatiĦkih i semantiĦkih osobenosti nove lekseme u kojem se ciljna leksema nikako ne sme naĤi sama, veĤ u paru, grozdu tj. skupu ili semantiĦkom polju (Marello, 1996: 182-183). 2.1. Nastava leksike stranog jezika na filološkim studijama Cilj univerzitetske nastave stranih jezika i filolońkih studija, kao primarnog nauĦnog i nastavnog koncepta u ovoj obrazovnoj oblasti u Republici Srbiji, jeste dostizanje i povezivanje najvińih znanja i kompetencija u oblasti jezika, kulture i knjiņevnosti. Znanja o stranom jeziku, kao glavnom predmetu, kao i usvajanje i upotreba tog jezika 681 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo predstavljaju spoj znanja iz teorijskih disciplina, ovladavanje jeziĦkim veńtinama kao i nuņno dostizanje odgovarajuĤe sociolingvistiĦke i pragmatiĦke kompetencije. LeksiĦko znanje i kompetenciju nemoguĤe je odvojiti od specifiĦnih studentskih potreba i veoma zahtevnih ciljeva nastavnog plana i programa. Studije italijanskog jezika na Filolońkom fakultetu u Beogradu, kao izmeħu ostalog i studije drugih stranih jezika, podrazumevaju odliĦno ovladavanje teorijskim disciplinama (fonetika i fonologija, leksikologija, morfologija, semantika, sintaksa, istorijska gramatika, istorija jezika, kontrastivna analiza itd.). Uz ovakav studijski program, u nastavu jezika se od 2006 godine, kada je na Filolońkom fakultetu sprovedena reforma u skladu sa naĦelima bolonjske deklaracije, uvode i posebni predmeti Ħiji je cilj razvoj osnovnih produktivnih i receptivnih jeziĦkih veńtina. Ovi predmeti obiĦno nose naziv Savremeni italijanski, engleski, nemački (SamardņiĤ, 2007: 532533). U kontekstu nańeg rada veoma je bitno pomenuti da nastava leksikologije u treĤem i Ħetvrtom semestru zauzima centralno mesto meħu jeziĦkim predmetima koji mogu doprineti uveĤanju leksiĦkog znanja i kompetencije. Bogat program ovog predmeta obuhvata izmeħu ostalog i upoznavanje sa leksikolońkom, leksiĦkom i leksikografskom terminologijom, predstavljanje osnovnih vrsta reĦnika i obuku za njihovo korińĤenje, upoznavanje sa sastavom leksike italijanskog jezika, endogenim i egzogenim izvorima reĦniĦkog bogaĤenja. Fond obuhvata dva Ħasa nedeljno, predispitne aktivnosti podrazumevaju izradu seminarskog rada i polaganje dva kolokvijuma, dok je zavrńni ispit u formi pismenog testa. 2.1.1. Anketa Cilj ankete koju smo sproveli ńkolske 2010/2011 godine bio je da ispita mińljenje grupe nastavnika italijanskog jezika o naĦinima sprovoħenja nastave leksike u fakultetskom kontekstu, ciljevima uĦenja leksike stranog jezika i ostalim aspektima usvajanja ovog jeziĦkog nivoa. Nastavnici ukljuĦeni u anketu drņe veņbe na prvoj, drugoj i treĤoj godini na predmetu savremeni italijanski jezik, dok jedan nastavnik drņi i veņbe prevoħenja sa italijanskog na srpski jezik. U anketi je uĦestvovalo ukupno 7 nastavnika sa katedre za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost. Anketa se sastojala od 21 pitanja od kojih je najveĤi broj koncipiran po principu ocenjivanja od 1 do 7, pri Ħemu 1, 2 i 3 oznaĦavaju uglavom negativan stav ili ocenu, Ħetvorka, uslovno reĦeno, predstavlja neodluĦnost ispitanika, dok 5, 6, i 7 izraņavaju pozitivan stav ispitanika. Pored ocenjivanja, nastavnici su pozvani i da obrazloņe svoju ocenu, daju eventualne predloge ili primere vezane za postavljeno pitanje. Manji broj pitanja je otvorenog tipa ili vińestrukog izbora (DA/NE ili REDOVNO/ĥESTO/PONEKAD/RETKO/NIKAD). Podaci su obraħeni kvantitativno, metodom deskriptivne analize. Za potrebe ovog rada obradili smo pitanja koja se tiĦu: - koncepta uĦenja jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu - nivoa posveĤivanja posebne paņnje nastavi leksike - eksplicitnih saveta koji se daju studentima u cilju lakńeg uĦenja nove leksike - aspekata koje je neophodno ojaĦati ili ukljuĦiti u nastavu jezika. - krajnjih ciljeva uĦenja i usvajanja leksike L2 u fakultetskom kontekstu Kako bismo opisali kontekst u kojem se uĦi italijanski jezik na Filolońkom fakultetu u Beogradu od nastavnika smo zatraņili da ocene koliko se paņnje pridaje sledeĤim aspektima jezika: gramatici, leksici, izgovoru, kulturi i razvoju jeziĦkih veńtina. Radi preglednijeg Ħitanja rezultata ovog pitanja predstavljamo histogram broj 1: Kao ńto se vidi iz histograma 86% nastavnika smatra da se najveĤa paņnja (ocena 7) u nastavi jezika posveĤuje gramatici, ńto potvrħuje i dalje centralno mesto koje teorijske discipline zauzimaju u fakultetskoj nastavi jezika. Iako u ocenjivanju paņnje koja se posveĤuje leksiĦkom aspektu uĦenja jezika generalno preovlaħuju veoma visoke ocene (4, 6 ili 7), ipak se primeĤuje primetan pad u odnosu na gramatiku. Veoma je interesantna korelacija koja postoji izmeħu posveĤivanja paņnje leksiĦkom aspektu i razvoju jeziĦkih veńtina. Iz ovog podatka bismo mogli 682 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo skromno da zakljuĦimo da povezanost ova dva jeziĦka aspekta nije sluĦajna i da moņda upravo nastava savremenog jezika ostavlja najvińe prostora za implementiranje planski osmińljene nastave leksike. Prema rezultatima ankete svi ispitanici redovno posveĤuju posebnu paņnju leksici na svojim veņbama. 57% ispitanika u najveĤoj meri (ocena 7) posebno obraħuje sa studentima ovaj aspekat jezika, dok preostalih 43% to Ħini u veoma velikoj meri (ocena 6). NajveĤi broj ispitanika navodi da se zbog same prirode predmeta (savremeni italijanski jezik) kao i udņbenika koji se u okviru njega koriste, leksici, kao i gramatici, posveĤuje puno paņnje. Pre svega se obraħuje leksika obuhvaĤena udņbenikom a potom se ona dodatno prońiruje kroz veņbanja posveĤena razvoju usmene produkcije. VeĤina ispitanika podvlaĦi da ovo prońirivanje kao i obnavljanje veĤ poznate leksike u velikoj meri zavisi i od interesovanja studenata i njihovih konkretnih pitanja. Na pitanje da li daju eksplicitne savete studentima u vezi sa lakńim uĦenjem i usvajanjem nove leksike 3 ispitanika odgovorila su da to redovno Ħine, 3 Ħesto a samo je jedan ispitanik odgovorio da ponekad daje eksplicitne savete studentima. Svi ispitanici, u najveĤoj meri, savetuju studentima da prate i van nastavne sadrņaje (film, muziku, ńtampu i sl.). 86% ispitanika najĦeńĤe savetuje studentima da Ħitaju i koriste tehnike povezivanja leksiĦkih i drugih teorijskih znanja. U 71% sluĦajeva najĦeńĤi saveti nastavnika tiĦu se ukazivanja na tehnike i strategije uĦenja novih reĦi kao i savetovanje studenata da koriste reĦnike. Samo jedan ispitanik uopńte ne daje savete koji se tiĦu tehnika i strategija uĦenja novih reĦi niti upuĤuje na naĦine povezivanja leksiĦkih i drugih teorijskih znanja. U skladu sa prethodno iznetim podacima svi ispitanici se slaņu da nastava leksike treba da bude planski osmińljena, zasnovana na teorijskim znanjima, proverenim strategijama i tehnikama uĦenja jer bi to doprinelo njenom efikasnijem i lakńem usvajanju. Posebno nam se korisno i praktiĦno Ħini mińljenje jednog ispitanika koji smatra da bi „...nastavni plan trebalo da obuhvati korpus obavezne leksike koju studenti usvajaju na odreħenom nivou uĦenja jezika, uz dopunski korpus koji bi trebalo da predstavlja uvod odnosno pripremu (informaciju, neńto ńto su Ħuli, iako ne u potpunosti usvojili) za usvajanje obaveznog leksiĦkog korpusa na vińim nivoima―. U pitanju koje se tiĦe unapreħenja aspekata nastave jezika koji su u vezi sa dostizanjem boljeg leksiĦkog znanja i kompetencije, ispitanici je trebalo da posebno ocene vaņnost konsolidovanja ili uvoħenja 6 elemenata metodike nastave leksike. U obradi podataka dobili smo sledeĤe rezultate: 100% ispitanika ocenjuje visokim ocenama (5, 6, 7) predlog uvoħenja periodiĦnih leksiĦkih testova. Kod 86% ispitanika primeĤujemo konstantu u visokom ocenjivanju (5, 6, 7) predloga da se uveĤa broj Ħasova leksiĦkih veņbanja, da se vińe insistira na upotrebi jednojeziĦnih i dvojeziĦnih reĦnika i da se bolje usklade teorijski predmeti i razvoj pragmatiĦkih i sociolingvistiĦkih kompetencija. Neophodnost veĤe integracije nastave knjiņevnosti i jezika kao i uĦestalije pruņanje eksplicitnih instrukcija/sugestija u uĦenju i usvajanju nove leksike ocenjeni su kao veoma vaņni kod 71% ispitanika. Samo 14% nastavnika primetno nisko vrednuje (ocenama od 1 do 3) vaņnost eksplicitnih instrukcija i bolje integrisanje teorijskih predmeta i pragmatiĦkih ili sociolingvistiĦkih kompetencija. Ovaj deo ankete nam dokazuje da nastavnici prepoznaju i prihvataju neophodnost izmena i dopunjavanja aspekata nastave koji se tiĦu leksike. Interesantan je, po nama, podatak da se svi ispitanici slaņu da bi uvoħenje periodiĦnih testova doprinelo boljem uspehu studenata. Ovakvo mińljenje nastavnika u skladu je sa principima bolonjske reforme koji propisuju obavezno planiranje kontrole znanja uĦenika u odreħenim vremenskim i programskim razmacima pre organizovanja krajnjeg ispita. Na otvoreno pitanje: Koji treba da bude krajnji cilj učenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu i kakvu leksiku shodno budućem zanimanju treba da imaju studenti po završetku filoloških studija ispitanici odgovaraju veoma opńirno i detaljno. Kod svih ispitanika preovlaħuje mińljenje da leksika koju studenti treba da poseduju po zavrńetku studija treba da se kreĤe u veoma ńirokom rasponu. To podrazumeva najńiru leksiku opńteg karaktera koja bi zadovoljila konverzacijske potrebe, specifiĦnu leksiku vezanu za knjiņevnost (na kojoj se u fakultetskom kontekstu veoma insistira) kao i osnove uskostruĦne leksike. Svi ispitani nastavnici, takoħe, dele i mińljenje da bi filolońke studije trebalo da ukljuĦe u svoj kurikulum i nastavu barem najosnovnijeg leksiĦkog fonda jezika struke. Ovakvu leksiku bi, potom, studenti razvijali u profesionalnom pravcu koji izaberu (predavaĦi, prevodioci knjiņevnih dela, usmeni prevodioci, prevodioci tehniĦkih tekstova, nauĦni radnici itd.). 2 ispitanika primeĤuju da bi jedan od naĦina uvoħenja ovakvih kurseva u fakultetsku nastavu svakako podrazumevao i osposobljavanje studenata da, na osnovu postojeĤih znanja, a uz pomoĤ tehnika i strategija uĦenja, struĦnjaka za datu oblast ili odgovarajuĤih leksikona, enciklopedija, Interneta i sliĦno, mogu samostalno da pronalaze, uĦe i primenjuju struĦnu terminologiju. ZakljuĦak U ovom radu smo najpre definisali leksiĦko znanje i leksiĦku kompetenciju. Videli smo koja je razlika izmeħu ova dva leksiĦka pojma, kako se razvija leksiĦka kompetencija i ńta ona podrazumeva. U drugom poglavlju smo se zadrņali na razliĦitim aspektima organizovanja nastave leksike. Videli smo o kojim sve parametrima treba razmińljati ukoliko ņelimo da sistemski osmislimo leksiĦki deo jeziĦkog kursa. Iz ove ńire perspektive smo potom usmerili paņnju na uĦenje i usvajanje leksike u specifiĦnom nastavnom kontekstu – filolońkom fakultetu. Prikazali smo najpre osnovne aspekte nastavnog plana i programa generalno filolońkih studija da bismo potom opisali kurikulum katedre za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost. U poslednjem delu ovog poglavlja predstavili smo rezultate nekih delova ankete koja je podeljena nastavnicima katedre za italijanski jezik i 683 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo knjiņevnost. Nańi ispitanici, u okviru predmeta savremeni italijanski jezik, rade na razvoju osnovnih jeziĦkih veńtina. Podaci koje smo dobili u tom istraņivanju pokazuju da veĤina nastavnika smatra da nastava leksike u okviru poduĦavanja stranog jezika treba da predstavlja izdvojen, planski osmińljen, aspekat. Mińljene ispitanika nam pokazuje da u metodici nastave leksike treba raditi pre svega na uvoħenju leksiĦkih testova, poveĤanju broja Ħasova leksiĦkih veņbanja i boljem usklaħivanju teorijskih disciplina sa upotrebnim komponentama jezika. Dragocen podatak tiĦe se stava nastavnika o krajnjim ciljevima uĦenja i usvajanja leksiĦkih znanja i kompetencija. Leksika koju studenti treba da poseduju po zavrńetku filolońkih studija treba da se kreĤe u ńirokom rasponu: od leksike opńteg karaktera do osnova uskostruĦne leksike Ħije bi poznavanje pomoglo buduĤim nastavnicima, pismenim i usmenim prevodiocima kao i nauĦnim radnicima da samostalno, profesionalno i kreativno obavljaju ove pozive. Ostaje da zakljuĦimo kako nastava leksike mora da predstavlja deo univerzitetskog kurikuluma i kao takva treba da bude sastavni deo jeziĦko-obrazovne politike. U takvoj nastavi imperativ treba da predstavljaju potrebe jeziĦkog kursa, studentske potrebe, zahtevi trņińta a primarno treba razmińljati o najraznovrsnijim tehnikama i strategijama leksiĦkog uĦenja jer jedino one mogu olakńati studentima uĦenje i usvajanje nove leksike i doprineti njenom kvantitetu i odgovarajuĤem akademskom kvalitetu. Summary The paper examines how the teaching of foreign lexicon is designed at the philology studies within a university concept and particularly as a part of the curriculum for future lecturers, interpreters and scientific workers. A survey conducted among Italian language teachers revealed that lexical schooling is seen as more productive if lectured in compliance with curriculum but designed as a separate and programmatic segment (whole). It has been concluded that application of certain theoretical explanations, techniques and strategies in such designed curriculum would result in better development of lexical knowledge and competence. The goal of such didactics is the development of a competency in association of grammatical and semantically dimension of a word, faster learning and acquiring as well as the contextually proper use of a lexicon. References Diadori, P., Palermo, M. i Troncarelli, D., (2009). Manuale di didattica dell‘italiano L2 (str. 149 – 152). Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. Hunt, A., Beglar, D. (2002). Current Research and Practice in Teaching Vocabulary. U Richards, J. i Renandya, W., (prir.), Methodology in Language Teaching, An Anthology of Current Practice (str. 258-265). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jiang, N. (2000). Lexical Representation and Development in a Second Language. Applied Linguistics, 21 (1), 4777. Jordan, J.J. (2000). English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers (str. 149-152). Cambridge University Press. Marello, C., Corda, A. (2004). Lessico. Insegnarlo e impararlo. Perugia: Guerra Edizioni. SamardņiĤ, M. (2007). MoguĤnost prilagoħavanja nastave teorijskih jeziĦkih disciplina zahtevima ZajedniĦkog Evropskog Okvira za ņive jezike. U VuĦo, J., (prir.), Savremene tendencije u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti. (str. 532540). Beograd: Ministarstvo za nauku i zańtitu ņivotne sredine. Filolońki fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu. Scholfield, P. J. (1999). Vocabulary: Second Language Pedagogy. U Spolsky, B., (prir.), Concise Encyclopedia of Educational Linguistics (str. 678 – 682). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Pergamon. Singleton, D. (2006). Lexical Transfer: Interlexical or Intralexical?. U Arabski, J. (prir.), Cross-linguistic Influences in the Second Language Lexicon (str. 130-143). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd. VuĦo, J. (1998). Leksika udţbenika stranog jezika. Podgorica: Univerzitet Crne Gore, Cetinje: Ńtamparija Obod d.d. 684 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 102 Title A name given to the resource Nastava leksike stranog jezika na akademskim studijama Author Author Drljević, Jelena Abstract A summary of the resource. Cilj ovog rada je da pruņi teorijski uvid u dosadańnja istraņivanja koja se tiĦu metodike nastave leksike stranog jezika (L2). PolazeĤi od ovog opńeg okvira pokuńaĤemo da se u nastavku rada posebno zadrņimo na akademskoj leksiĦkoj kompetenciji stranog jezika. Naime, uzimajuĤi u obzir specifiĦan nastavni kontekst, kakav je filolońki fakultet uopńte, i ciljnu grupu, odnosno studentsku populaciju, potrudiĤemo se da definińemo leksiku stranog jezika koji se uĦi u akademskom okruņenju kao i pojedine aspekte njenog poduĦavanja. O usvajanju ovakve leksike treba razmińljati kao o neodvojivoj komponenti kurikuluma buduĤih nastavnika i prevodilaca. U tom smislu, postavljaju se brojna pitanja: Na koji naĦin moņemo najbolje da pribliņimo studentima leksiku stranog jezika? Kako organizovati plansko (odvojeno) uĦenje leksike, buduĤi da je i proces usvajanja leksike, u okviru usvajanja L2, odvojen segment? Koji je, ili kakav treba da bude, krajnji cilj uĦenja i usvajanja leksike stranog jezika u fakultetskom kontekstu? Kako Ĥe se nova leksika koristiti? Gde Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? Kada Ĥe se takva leksika koristiti? i sliĦno. Dakle cilj nam je da definińemo okvire ovog bitnog jeziĦkog nivoa ali i odgovorimo na pitanje: kako treba da bude organizovana nastave leksike L2 u vezi sa potrebama studenata filolońkih studija. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60ed8b20b56c7dbba11808f15ea9cca7.pdf 50ebe38f18f784f0b0c845fef34ac1fc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ÇağdaĢ Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Vazgeçilemezlik Nedenleri Doç. Dr. Candemir Doğan Fen Edebiyat Fakùltesi Dicle Üniversitesi, Turkey can.dogan@hotmail.com Yrd.Doç.Dr.Süleyman Doğan Eğitim Fakùltesi Fatih Üniversitesi, Turkey sdogan@fatih.edu.tr, sudogan@yildiz.edu.tr Özet Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde kullanılan sistemli ilk yôntem olarak bilinir. Hedef dilin, dilbilgisi kuralları yoluyla ôğretimi ve buna dayalı olarak anadile çeviri yapma yôntemiyle, yabancı dil ôğretme geleneğini baĢlattı, hala değiĢik biçim ve farklı yôntemler içinde varlığını sùrdùrmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dilin ôğretiminde dilin, dilbilgisi sisteminin ôğretilmesi gerekliliği ùzerine kurulmuĢtur. Gùnùmùz çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin hem kaynağı hem de tùm istenmezliğine rağmen yabancı dil ôğretiminin bir vazgeçilemezidir. Bu bildiride yôntemin tamamen birbirine zıt olan kabul ile ret konumları arasına sıkıĢan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde yeri ve değerinin belirlenmesine çalıĢılacaktır. Yôntemin temsil ettiği ya hep ya da hiç iki aĢırı uçlu dùzleminin, kabul tarafında yer alan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin bağımsız bir yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemi olarak yùklendiği iĢlevleri, ôğretim uygulamaları ve ôzellikleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenecektir. Ret yônùnù oluĢturan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemine tepki olarak ortaya çıkan çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemlerinin içinde bile vazgeçilemez bir parça olarak yer almasının nedenleri ayrıntılı olarak belirlenmeye çalıĢılacaktır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Yabanca dil ôğrenimi, dil bilgisi, çeviri yôntemi, ôğretim. 1. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yönteminin Tarihçesi Ġnsanoğlunun bilinen ilk dil ôğretim çalıĢmaları, yaklaĢık iki asır ôncesinden baĢladığı sanılmaktadır. Yabancı bir dilin ôğretimine ilk ihtiyaç duyulmasıyla birlikte baĢlayan dilbilgisi yapılarının analizi ve yazılı metinlerin çevirisi bu yôntemin baĢlangıcı sayılır. Genelde ilk sistematik hale geldiği için daha çok yabancı dil ôğretiminin ilk denemesi olarak ôn plâna çıkan Yunanca ve Lâtincenin analizi için geliĢtirilen dilbilgisi ôğretim yôntemi, yabancı dili sekiz ayrı bôlùmde inceler. Bunlar; isim, fiil, sıfat, tanımlıklar, zamirler, edatlar, zarflar ve bağlaçlardır. Bu dillerin yazılı metinlerden sekiz kategoriyle ilgili dil kuralları çıkarılarak, çeviri çalıĢmalarıyla birlikte ôğretilmeye çalıĢılmıĢtır. Dilbilgisi ôğretimi, 18. yùzyıl dilbilimcileri tarafından Yunan ve Roma klâsik dil ôğretiminin ôtesine taĢındı ve dilbilgisi kurallarının oluĢturulması için yine aynı sekiz kategori odağa alınarak Ġngilizce ôğretimine uyarlandı. GeliĢmelere bağlı olarak, bir dil analiz edilirken kelime yapısı ve sôzdizimi kuralları değiĢebilen sôzel iletiĢimde dilbilgisel iĢlevin etkin kullanımının pek uygun olmayacağı ile genelde her bir kuralın birden çok istisnası olduğu gerçeği ortaya çıkarıldı. (Herron, 1976). Bununla birlikte, geleneksel Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yaklaĢımı, yakın zamana kadar pek çok ùlkede yabancı dil ôğretim pedagojisinin temelini oluĢturmayı sùrdùrdù. Halen de yabancı dil ôğretiminde birincil yôntem olarak bazı ùlkelerde kullanımı devam etmektedir. Özellikle de hedef dilin bir yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminde; dilbilgisi kurallarının analizi, anadile çevirisi, kelimelerin ezberlenmesi esas alınarak ôğretildiği sınıflar için ônemini hala korumaktadır. 2. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ĠletiĢimsel Dil YaklaĢımları Dilbilimciler, 19. yùzyılın sonu ve 20. yùzyılın baĢlarından itibaren yaptıkları, dùnya dilleri arasındaki karĢılaĢtırmalarla, sekiz parçalı dilbilgisi ôrgùtsel ôğretim çerçevesinin, dilin iletiĢim maksatlı ôğretimine uygun olmadığını tespit ettiler. Özellikle hiçbir yazılı biçimi olmayan pek çok dùnya dilinin mutlaka ses sisteminin kullanımıyla ôğretilmesi gerektiğini savundular. Bu yaklaĢıma uygun olarak hedef dil Ģu ùç alt sisteme ayrılarak, 256 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo analiz edilmeye baĢlandı: Ses sistemi (fonoloji) ile kelimelerin yapısını inceleyen (morfoloji), bu iki bilim dalı tarafından ùretilen ayrı birimleri, iletiĢim maksadıyla birleĢtirerek anlamlı bir yapı biçimine getiren (sözdizimi) sistemi, yapısalcı veya tanımlayıcı dilbilim yaklaĢımı Ģeklinde geliĢmeye baĢladı. Dil, yapısalcı gôrùĢ ve davranıĢçı psikolojinin uyarı-tepki prensipleri doğrultusunda değerlendirilerek, yabancı dil ôğrenimi için ĠĢitselDilsel ve Direkt yaklaĢımlar ortaya çıktı. Ġkinci Dùnya SavaĢı'ndan sonra ĠĢitsel-Dilsel ve onu izleyen yıllarda doğrudan dil ôğretim yaklaĢımlarının ortaya çıkmasıyla, yabancı dilde iletiĢim becerisinin akıcılığını geliĢtirmek için çalıĢmalar yapıldı. Bu çabalar, aynı zamanda ônemli dil yapıbilgisine sahip olan ancak, dili bir tùrlù iletiĢimde kullanamayan ôğrencileri yetiĢtiren Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemine bir tepkiyi temsil etti. Bu tepkilere rağmen yôntem, daha da sistemleĢtirilerek kurallar dizileri halinde sunulan, genellikle kural ve istisnaları Ģeklinde baĢlayan ve daha karmaĢık biçimleriyle anlatılan ve doğrusal bir Ģekilde devam ederek resmi bir dilbilgisi ôğretimi biçiminde varlığını sùrdùrmeyi baĢardı. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri ôğretim programı, hedef dil yapısıyla karĢılaĢtırmalı analizlerine bağlı ve potansiyel zorlukları vurgular. Bu yaklaĢımın pedagojik temelleri, hedef dilde alıĢtırmaların tekrarı ve bùyùk bir gayretle doğru ùretiminin ôğretimine dayanır. Krashen, yabancı dil edinim hipotezini, dinleme, konuĢma, zevk için okuma ve anlamlı dil kullanımı gibi faaliyetleri, "Monitör Modeli"yle çeĢitli yônlerden yoğun anlaĢılır girdiye maruz kalan ve gerçek iletiĢim sùrecinde dil yeterliliğini doğal dil edinimi yoluyla elde eden ôğrenciler ùzerine kurmuĢtur. Bunun için iletiĢimsel yôntemin yabancı dil ôğretiminde açıktan dilbilgisi ôğretim, ôğrenim veya yanlıĢları dùzeltme ôzelliği yoktur. Dil kurallarının ôğrencilerin kendi dil sezgileriyle "doğruluk" deneyimi kazanarak oluĢacağı kabul edilir. (Krashen & Terrell, 1983) Yabancı dilde sağlıklı iletiĢim yetkinliği için dilbilgisinin çok ônemli olduğunu kabul eden araĢtırmacı, yôntembilimci ve uygulayıcılar, dilbilgisinin talimatlarla değil, anlamlı girdi yoluyla elde edilmesi gerektiğini savunmaktadırlar. Sadece iletiĢimsel yaklaĢım yoluyla, akademik ve meslekî yabancı dilde belirli konuĢma, yazma biçimbilgisi veya becerileri olmadan, doğal ôğrenme sùreciyle ulaĢmanın zor olduğu kabul edilir. Yabancı dilde yùksek dùzeyde akademik, profesyonel, meslekî sôzlù ve yazılı bilgi aktarımında yetkinlik ve performans için dilin doğrulama yeterliliği ve etkin iĢleyen geliĢmiĢ dilbilgisine sahip olma zorunludur. ĠletiĢim yôntembilimi, bu salt sınırlamaları aĢmak için yeni bir yaklaĢımla dilbilgisi ôğretimini iletiĢimsel dil kullanımıyla birlikte ôrgùn ôğretimle birleĢtirmiĢtir. Çùnkù dilbilgisi ôğretimi olmadan yabancı bir dilin gerçek yapısal biçimiyle bilinçli ôğrenilemeyeceği anlaĢılmıĢ ve "biçime odaklanmak" olarak adlandırılan dilbilgisi ônem kazanmıĢtır. Sadece iletiĢimsel ùretim için daha çok hedef dilbilgisi yapısının gerekmesi, anlama odaklı kullanımın ôğretimde yer almasına sebep olmuĢtur. Yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin geldiği bu noktada; hedef dilin, dilbilgisinin bizzat kendisinin ônemsiz veya gereksizliğinden daha çok dilbilgisi kurallarının belli dizilerle ôğretildiği salt yapısal geleneksel mùfredatla ôğretimine tepkilerin geliĢtiği açıkça anlaĢılır. Çùnkù bir dilin dilbilgisi, yabancı dil olarak ôğrenimi ve o dilde iletiĢim yeterliliğinin bir gùvencesidir. Yabancı dil ôğrenen ôğrencilerin, hedef dilde iletiĢim sùrecine sağlıklı katılımları için dilbilgisi kurallarının sadece resmi bilgi niteliğinde değil, ôğrencileri akıl, ruh ve dilsel olarak doyuma ulaĢtırması da gerekir. Hedef dilin talimat formlarını elde etmiĢ, geliĢtirmiĢ ve ùretim aĢamasına hazır hale getirmiĢ bir ôğrenci o dili doğru ve endiĢesiz konuĢabilir. ĠletiĢimsel yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemleri, Dilbilgisi-Çeviri mùfredatlarının resmi talimatlar altında yapıldığı, çağın gerisinde kaldığı ve dili sınıfta iletiĢimde kullanmadığından doğruluk dùzeyi çok dùĢùk dilbilgisel ùretimin gerçekleĢmediğini ileri sùrerler. Aslında bu dùĢùnce, ôğrencilerin dil ôğrenme ve baĢarı dùzeyi oranları bakımından, ôğretimde sağladığı avantajları belirleme ve karĢılaĢtırılmasının araĢtırılmasını destekler. Ancak araĢtırmalar, aynı zamanda iletiĢimsel dil ile dilbilgisi ôğretimini bùtùnleĢtiren yôntemlerin ôğretimi hedeflenen yapıların ôzelliklerini, bağlamında tanıyarak ve kullanarak ôğrencilerin geliĢmeleri gerektiğini de ortaya koymuĢtur. (Ellis & Fotos, 1991). Birçok yabancı dil ôğretmeni ve araĢtırmacı, mevcut dilbilgisi ôğretiminde ôğretilen kuralı, ôğrenciler bir kez dahi kullanmasalar bile; "bilincin yükseliĢi" duygusuyla farkındalık bilincini geliĢtirdiğine inanıyorlar. Yabancı dilde kazanılan dilbilgisel farkındalık, belirli formlarda talimatlarla değil, sadece ùretilen "girdi geliĢtirme" nin ortaya çıkarabileceği anlam odaklı bilgi giriĢiyle yapılan iĢlemlerin ôzelliklerinin kavranmasıyla ôğrenilebilir. Bazı araĢtırmacılar, dilbilgisinin yine hedef dilin dilbilgisi niteliğiyle ôğreniminin de ayrıca iletiĢimsel girdi sağlamaya hizmet edebileceğine dikkat çekerler. Ancak dilbilgisinin bu nitelikte bir iĢlevi yùklenebilmesi için ôğrencilerin kuralları ôzùmsemesi gerektiğini de Ģart koĢarlar. (Fotos & Ellis, 1991). Bu ôzellikler edinilerek 257 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bir yabancı dilin iletiĢimsel kullanımının az olması, ôğretim hedeflerinin eksik kalmasından kaynaklanan bir durumdur. Bu nedenle, ôrgùn eğitim kurumlarında geliĢtirilen dilbilgisi yapılarının ôğrenciler için daha anlamlı ve uygulanabilir yapılarak daha kolay içselleĢtirilebileceği kabul edilir. Dilbilgisi ôğretiminin akıl, ruh ve dilbilim temelleriyle biçimlendirilmesini gerektiren bu gôrùĢe gôre dilbilgisi ôğretimi Ģu iki temel ôzelliği taĢıması gerekir: 1. Dilbilgisi sistemin açık veya nedenlerini açıklayıcı bilgisi: Hedef dilin alıĢtırmalar yoluyla dilbilgisi kuralları ve biçimleri hakkında bilinçli saklı ya da uygulamayla geliĢtirilmiĢ bilgiler edinilmelidir. 2. Dilbilgisi bilinçaltı anlam odaklı sistem bilgisi: Hedef dil sisteminin bilinçsizce anlam odaklı iletiĢim eylemleri yoluyla geliĢtirilmesine hizmet eden ve dili konuĢmayı sağlayan bir yetenektir. ĠletiĢimsel yôntem, yabancı dil edinimini ôğrencilerin kendi sezgisel "doğruluk" yetilerinin geliĢmesi için aĢırı girdiye maruz kalmasıyla deneyim kazanmaları olarak gôrùr. Buna karĢın dilbilim araĢtırmacıları, yôntembilimcileri ve uygulayıcıları dilbilgisel yetkinlik için maksatlı ôğretimin zorunlu olduğunu ifade ederler. (Brown, 1994). Öğrencilerin bu ihtiyacı dilbilgisi formlarını edinmeleri için ayrıca bilinçlendirme faaliyetleri yapılması ve dilbilgisi kurallarına karĢı farkındalık bilincinin oluĢumuna destek verilmesi ve teĢvik edilmesi gerekir. Dil sistemleri son derece karmaĢık bir dùzlemde çok birleĢenli iĢlerler. Dilbilgisi; sesbilim, kelimebilimi, sôzdizimi, anlambilimi, iletiĢim ortamı gerçeklerine uygun dilsel ùretim ve dili konuĢan toplumun sosyokùltùrel yapısı gibi çok sayıda ôzelliklerin aynı anda gôrevleriyle bilinmesi gerekir. Tùm bu bileĢenlerin birlikte çôzùmùnde bilinçaltına egemen olan iyi bir dilbilgisi becerisinin gerekliliği tartıĢmasızdır. Ancak bir yabancı dilin, dilbilgisinin ôğretiminde diller arasındaki, ôğrenenler arasındaki farkların, ôğrenme durumları, tùrleri ve ulaĢmak istenen hedefe uygun bir ôğretim yolunun belirlenmesi de ôğretimin bir baĢka gereğidir. 3. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve Doğrudan Dil Öğretimi Doğal yollardan dil ôğrenmenin sağladığı iletiĢimsel doğruluk gùvenine eĢdeğer bir gùvenin yabancı dilde de sağlanması gerekir. Bu gùveni sağlamanın tek yolu, yabancı dilin dilbilgisini açık maksatlı ôğretmektir. Nitelikli dilbilgisi bilmenin iletiĢimde ôzgùven sağlama gibi olumlu bir gôrevi vardır. Yani hedef dilin dilbilgisini çok iyi bilen ôğrenci, hedef dili endiĢesiz ve yetkin bir biçimde kullanır. Dilin yapıları, sôzlù iletiĢim ve yazılı metin çôzùmùyle ilgili çalıĢmalarda kendisini rahat hisseder. GeçmiĢe gôre gùnùmùzde artık dilbilgisinin iletiĢimi etkileme biçimi daha iyi biliniyor. Dùzenli gôrevler yapan kurallardan oluĢan temel bir niteliği olan dilbilgisi, kendi ôzgùn yapısının daha iyi bilinmesiyle daha verimli ôğretimini de mùmkùndùr. Sôzlù ya da yazılı iletiĢimde dilbilgisinin etkisiyle ilgili yapılan araĢtırma ve deneysel çalıĢmalar, ôğrencilerin ihtiyaçlarına hizmet eden ve sôzlù yapılan yazılı dil analizleri, konuĢma ve dilin temel niteliği olan dilbilgisi kurallarının ôğretiminin zorunlu olduğunu belirlemiĢtir. Pek çok farklı dùzeylerde sınıf içi uygulama araĢtırma ve teknikler de, en iyi dilsel yeterliliğin dilbilgisi ôğretimi içeren yaklaĢımlar olduğu da belirlenmiĢtir. (Biber, 1988). Dil yapılarının içeriksel ve yapısal kullanımı birlikte incelenerek yapıyla anlam arasındaki bağlantıları dilbilgisi analizleriyle belirlenir. Analizler, konuĢma veya yazılı metinlerin içinde çeĢitli etkileĢimsel anlamların nasıl ifade edildiğine ıĢık tutar. Dilbilgisi analizleri, yazılı ve sôzlù ifadelerin dilbilgisi yapılarını ôğretme ve ôğrenmede pratik bir yol da sağlar. Öğrenciler, iletiĢim bağlamlarıyla dilbilgisi arasındaki etkileĢimin nasıl olduğunu, anlam ile sôylem arsındaki iliĢkiyi sosyolinguistik ôzelliklerine bağlı kalarak, anadil yapılarıyla karĢılaĢtırdıklarında değiĢim nasıl olduğunu fark ederler. Ancak sôzlù ve yazılı dil incelemesi yapılabilmesi ve anlaĢılır olması için dilbilgisinin, ôğrencilerin dilsel dùzenliliklerle ilgili iç gôrù elde etmiĢ olmaları gerekir. Dilbilgisel yapıların açıklanmasıyla yabancı dilin, dilbilgisinin ôğretimi, dilin genel yapısı hakkında ôğrenciyi bilgilendirir. Dilbilgisi analizleri çoğu zaman iletiĢim etkinliklerinde kullanılacak yapıların oluĢumunda kilit rol oynar. Örneğin yancùmlelerin ôğretimi, anlamlarına uygun kullanımını, niteliklerini, tùrleriyle ilgili bilgileri ôğrenciler, ôğretmenler ve ders aracı yazarları için bir ôlçù oluĢturabilir. Analiz anlaĢmaları ôğretmenler, ôğretim programları ve ders kitabı yazarları için eğitimin odaklarını belirlemeye yardımcı olabilir. Deneysel araĢtırmalar, doğal yollarla ôğrenilen anadil ile dilbilgisi yoluyla ôğrenilen bir yabancı dilin, farklı mantık sistemiyle kullanıldığını belirlemiĢtir. Bunun için anadilleri farklı olanlar, yabancı bir dili ôğrenirken, dilbilgisi geliĢimi de farklı olur. Bir yabancı dili ôğrenenler, farklı yaĢlarda olursa yabancı dilin dilbilgisini ôğrenmeleri de farklılık gôsterir. Aynı Ģekilde farklı mùktesebatlı yabancı dil ôğrencilerinin ôğrenimi 258 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo de farklı olur. Bir dili ôğrenenler doğal olarak meydana gelen dilbilgisiyle ilgili dùĢùnceleri farklı Ģekillerde ortaya koydukları ve farklı ortamlarda dilin kullanımına tahsis ettiklerini belirlemiĢtir. Bunun için uygulamalı dilbilim, ôğretim araçlarının etkinliğini arttırmak için bulguların zenginliğine gôre ôğretmen ve yôntembilimcilere teknik bir ortam oluĢturmaya çalıĢır. (Ellis & Fotos, 1991). 4. Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisinin Yeri Dilbilgisi ôğretim ve ôğrenimi, ôğrencinin hedef dilin sôzdizimsel sistemini içselleĢtirerek yetkinlikte ve doğrulukta geliĢmesini kolaylaĢtıracak akıcılık geliĢimiyle baĢlamalıdır. ĠletiĢimsel ve etkileĢimsel etkinlikler yoluyla ôğrencilerin ôğrendikleri biçim ùzerine kesin dilbilgisi kuralarının yerleĢtirilmesi gerekir. Öğretimle ilgili mùfredat, kitaplar ve gôrev plânları gibi araçların tùmù sağlıklı dilbilgisi kurallarını gùçlù bir biçimde temsil edilebilecek biçimde dùzenlenmelidir. Sınıf etkinliklerinin etrafında odaklandığı faaliyetlerin tùmù etkili dilbilgisel kullanıma hizmet edecek nitelikte dùzenlenmelidir. Bunlar; ôğretmen ile ôğrenci, ôğrenci ile gôrev arasındaki dilbilgisel yoğun ôğretim maksadıyla etkileĢimsel olarak birbirini desteklemesi gerekir. Öğretmenler, dilbilgisi ôğretimini ilgi çekici faaliyetlerle ôğrencinin Ģahsıyla kiĢiselleĢtirir, baĢarı odaklı faaliyetlerle katılımcı ôğrenmeyle dilbilgisi yeteneklerini geliĢtirebilirler. Aslında katılımcı dilbilgisi ôğrenimi için kesin bağlı kalınması gereken ôzel ôğretim yôntemlerinden daha çok her fırsatın maksada uygun hale getirilerek değerlendirilmesi daha etkili olur. Dilbilgisi ôğretimine bu iĢlevleri kazandırma ôğretmenler, ôğretmen eğitimcileri, yôntembilimciler için en sıkıntılı konulardan biridir. Bir yandan yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisi ôğretimine karĢı Ģiddetli sakındırmaya karĢı, Ġngilizce uzman dil eğitiminin dùnya çapında en ônemli dayanaklarından birinin hala dilbilgisi olması, dilbilgisine karĢı olumsuz tutumların yeniden gôzden geçirilmesini gerektirmektedir. Öyle ki; Ġngilizceyi yabancı dil olarak ôğreten ônde gelen tùm kurumların ôğretim kitapları ve yayın listelerinde dilbilgisi kitapları en baĢta gelmekte ve en çok satan kitaplar arasında yer almaya devam etmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemi, tùm aleyhte tutumlara rağmen hala pek çok ùlkede yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemi olarak kullanılmakta, hatta yabancı dil ôğretiminin çekirdeğini oluĢturmaktadır. Bugùn gelinen noktada, dilbilgisi ve çeviri çalıĢmaları olmaksızın yabancı dil ôğretim uygulamalarının baĢarısız olacağı açıktır. Bu zorunluluktan dolayı dilbilgisine en karĢı yôntemlerde dahi dilbilgisi ôğretimiyle ilgili yeniden bir yumuĢama baĢlamıĢtır. 5. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Öğretiminin Zamanlaması Geleneksel yaklaĢımlar dilbilgisi ôğretiminin, dil ôğretimin ilk baĢlangıç aĢamasında yapılması gerektiği yônùndedir. Ancak bu uygulama ôğrenme alıĢkanlığı oluĢumuyla ilgili davranıĢçı ôğrenme kuramı kaynaklı olduğu için eleĢtirilmiĢtir. Dilbilgisi dilsel yeteneklerle iç içe yoğrulmuĢ bir biçimde ôğretilmelidir. Öğretimin baĢından itibaren aĢamalı ve dilbilgisi kuralları tam ôğretilirse, ôğrenciler daha sonra yanlıĢları unutma, doğrularını ôğrenmek zorunda kalarak emek ve zaman harcamazlar. Bu yol, yabancı dil edinim teorileri tarafından desteklenmese de dilsel "hata, günah gibi sirayet edicidir, her ne pahasına olursa onun sinmesinden kaçınılmalıdır." (Brooks, 1960). Gùnùmùz yabancı dil eğitiminde yaygın karĢılaĢılan hatalar, dil ôğrenim sùreçlerinin hem doğal hem de kaçınılmaz bir sonucu olarak kabul edildiğinden ônemsenmez. Bunun için artık dilsel hataları ônleme maksatlı dilbilgisi ôğretiminin teorik bir dayanağı da kalmamıĢtır. Ancak yabancı dil ôğretiminde hataların aĢırı toleransla karĢılanması, alıĢkanlık oluĢturmasına sebep olmaktadır. Bir dili anadil olarak ôğrenen ve bilinçaltında dilin doğruluk sistemi olanların dahi zaman azman dilsel hatalarını doğrulama aracı olarak kullandıkları dilbilgisinin, bu niteliklerden yoksun ve yabancı dil olarak ôğrendiği için her an doğrulama dùzeneğine sahip biri için gereksiz gôrmek zaten pek doğru olamaz. Bunun için dilbilgisiyle ilgili tartıĢmalar, gereksizliğinden daha çok ôğretim biçimi ve zamanlamasıyla ilgilidir. 6. Görev Odaklı Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Öğretimi Dilbilgisi-Çeviri yôntemi, ôğrencilere yapısal olarak dili doğru kullanma yeteneği kazandırmasına rağmen, genellikle gerçek iletiĢimde kullanma yeteneği eksik ôğrenciler yetiĢtirmekle eleĢtirilir. Hedef dilin dilbilgisi kurallarını, kelime ve diğer bilgilerin tekrar ve ezberlenmesiyle ôğrenimi, konuĢma, okuma ve yazmada en kùçùk bir hatanın dahi hemen dùzeltilmesi gibi yapısal ôğretim yaklaĢımları belirgin ôzelliklerdir. Bu 259 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ôzellikleri de eleĢtirilen Dilbilgisi-Çeviri, dil ôğretiminde son yıllarda tamamen baĢarısız iĢlemi gôrmesine neden olmuĢtur. Ancak dilbilgisi odaklı ôğretimin araĢtırma bulgularıyla yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisinin gerekliliği açıkça ispatlanmıĢ ve dil ôğretiminde; "Sunma, Uygulama ve Üretim" (Presentation, Practice and Production, PPP) yaklaĢımının temelini oluĢturan teori geçerliliğini yitirmiĢtir. Belirli bir biçim ùzerinde aĢırı odaklanmanın neden olduğu ôğrenme ve otomatikleĢme, yani ôğrencilerin ôğretilen Ģeyi sırayla ôğretildiği için ôğrendikleriyle ilgili inanç artık dilbilim ve psikoloji için çok gùvenilir değildir." (Hinkel & Fotos, 2002). Dilbilgisel bilgilerin zayıf kaldığı uygulamaların gùçlendirilmesi için Asya ùlkeleri devlet okullarında geçerli eğilim, ôğretim yôntembilim tùrùnù belirleme ve geliĢimini sağlama maksatlı yapılan giriĢimler, dil ôğretiminin bir birleĢeni olarak dil incelemelerini Ģu esaslara dayandırılması gereğini ortaya koymuĢtur: 1. Dilsel Yapılar: Fonetik, diksiyon, yapıbilim, biçimbilim, sôzdizimi, anlambilim gibi dili oluĢturan tùm yapısal birimlerin ihtiyaçlar ôlçùsùnde bilinmesi gerekir. 2. Durumsal Müktesebatlar: Bir dil birimini çevreleyen, ondan ônce veya sonra gelen, birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim veya birimler bùtùnùnùn kavranması gerekir. Bir sôzùn geliĢi, sôzùn ônù arkası, bağlamı, olaylar, durumlar, iliĢkiler ôrgùsùyle bağlantısı, kısaca her yapının hem gôrùntùsel, hem de anlamsal bir bùtùnlùğù vardır ve bunun sağlanması dil ôğretiminin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır. 3. ĠletiĢimsel Uygulamalar: Dil ôğretimi, iletiĢimle bùtùnleĢen bir yapıda anlamlı olur. ĠletiĢim, dilin yapısal ve anlamsal ôgelerinin ôtesinde nitelikler taĢır. Sôzùn nerede sôylendiği, kim tarafından sôylendiği, ne zaman, ne biçimde, neden, nasıl jest mimik ve vùcut dili kullanılarak sôylendiği de ônemlidir. Zaten "iletiĢimsel iĢlev" ya da dilin temel "hedefi" de budur. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde dilbilgisine odaklanama, ôğrenimin Ģu farklı basamaklı ôğrenme sùreci içinde olmasını gerektirir: 1. Girdi: Dilsel ùretime esas oluĢturacak bilgi, dil kullanımını gerçekleĢtirmeye yardımcı olan gùç ve araçların birleĢimi, iletiĢim hazırlıklarıdır. 2. Ġdrak: EdinilmiĢ bilgileri ôğrencinin kendi ôz malı durumuna getirmesi, ôzùmsemesi ve kendi ùsløbuna benzer bir hala getirmesidir. 3. Edinim: Öğrencinin edinilen bilgileri kendi mùlkù haline getirdikten sonra dilediği gibi ùzerinde tasarruf yaparak kullanmasıdır. 4. EriĢim: Edinilen bilgileri her zaman hakkıyla kullanıma açlma yeteneğini kazanma, gerektiğinde bilgilere kolayca ulaĢma, anadil ile hedef dil arasında kolayca bilgi ve kullanım geçiĢleri yapabilme becerisini kazanmaktır. 5. Çıktı: Bu basamağa kadar yapılan iĢlemlerden elde edilen ùrùn, dilsel ùretim maksatlı ortaya çıkan iletiĢimsel sonuçlardır. Yabancı dilin edinim ve kullanım sùreci olan bu beĢ iĢlemin omurgasını dilbilgisi oluĢturur. Bunun için hedef dilin ôğretiminde, biçimin ôğretimine odaklanan bir yôntemin izlenmesi gerekir. Bu ilkeler, aynı zamanda genel anlamda dilsel iletiĢim ôğretiminin de parçaları sayılır. Öğrenci, ôğrenimin her iĢleminde dilbilgisinden mutlaka yararlanır. Yapısal iĢlemler için uygun kelime seçimi, morfoloji bilgisine, cùmle dizimi iĢlemleri için sôzdizimi bilgisine gerek vardır. Doğru yapılı, anlamlı anlatımlı iletiĢim ancak yeterli dilbilgisi bilgisiyle baĢarılabileceğinden ôğretimi de kaçınılmazdır. Sonuç Dilbilgisi-Çeviri her zaman iletiĢim gôrevinin ayrılmaz bir parçasıdır ve ondan soyutlanan anlamlı bir iletiĢim etkinliğinin olması mùmkùn değildir. Dilbilgisi-Çevirinin yabancı dil ôğretiminde odak bir gôrevi vardır ve yabancı dil ôğretiminin bu çerçevede biçimlenmesi zorunludur. Vazgeçilemez niteliği sebebiyle determinist dilbilgisi, yùzyıllardır yabancı dil ôğretiminde kullanılmıĢ ve kullanımı devam etmektedir. Geleneksel dilbilgisi dilin; daha soyut mùkemmel bir sistem olması için daha çok, her dilin kendi eski yazılı metinlerinden kuralların sùzùlmesi ve dilin temel birimi ôzelliğini taĢıyan cùmlenin çôzùmlenerek insan davranıĢlarına odak Ģeklinde sistemleĢmesiyle oluĢan kurallar dizisidir. Bu sistemin ôğretimiyle ilgili problemler, onun yok sayılmasıyla çôzùlememiĢ bilâkis artmıĢtır. Öyleyse çôzùm dilbilgisinin programlarda nasıl yer alıp ôğretileceğinin belirlenmesindedir. Hacı Mehmet Zihni Efendinin: "Sözde dilbilgisi, yemekte tuz gibidir" (Efendi, 1991), ôlçùsùyle dilbilgisi ôğretilirse ne yokluğu ne de varlığı problem olur. Dilbilgisi ôğretimine karĢı çıkma yerine bu ôlçùlù yaklaĢım problemin çôzùmùne ônemli katkılar sağlayacağına inanıyoruz. 260 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Biber, D. (1998). Variation across sprtih andwriting. Cambridge, UK; Cambridge University Press. Brooks, B. (1960). Language and language learning. New York: Harcourt Brace and World. Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Efendi, M. Z. (1991). el-MùĢezzeb fî sarfi ve nahvi lisâni‘l-‗Arab, Ġstanbul, Marifet Yayınları. Herron, C. (1976). An investigation of the effectiveness of using an Advance Organizer in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78. 190–198. Hinkel, Eli; Fotos, Sandra, (2002) New Perspectives On Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms ESL and Applied Linguistics Professional Series, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Howatt, A. (1984). A history of English language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S., & Terrell, T. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. New York: Pergamon. 261 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 39 Title A name given to the resource Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yöntemi ve ÇağdaĢ Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Vazgeçilemezlik Nedenleri Author Author Doç. Dr. Doğan, Candemir Yrd.Doç.Dr. Doğan, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde kullanılan sistemli ilk yôntem olarak bilinir. Hedef dilin, dilbilgisi kuralları yoluyla ôğretimi ve buna dayalı olarak anadile çeviri yapma yôntemiyle, yabancı dil ôğretme geleneğini baĢlattı, hala değiĢik biçim ve farklı yôntemler içinde varlığını sùrdùrmektedir. Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemi, yabancı dilin ôğretiminde dilin, dilbilgisi sisteminin ôğretilmesi gerekliliği ùzerine kurulmuĢtur. Gùnùmùz çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim yôntemlerinin hem kaynağı hem de tùm istenmezliğine rağmen yabancı dil ôğretiminin bir vazgeçilemezidir. Bu bildiride yôntemin tamamen birbirine zıt olan kabul ile ret konumları arasına sıkıĢan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğreniminde yeri ve değerinin belirlenmesine çalıĢılacaktır. Yôntemin temsil ettiği ya hep ya da hiç iki aĢırı uçlu dùzleminin, kabul tarafında yer alan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yônteminin bağımsız bir yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemi olarak yùklendiği iĢlevleri, ôğretim uygulamaları ve ôzellikleri ayrıntılı olarak incelenecektir. Ret yônùnù oluĢturan Dilbilgisi-Çeviri Yôntemine tepki olarak ortaya çıkan çağdaĢ yabancı dil ôğretim ve ôğrenim yôntemlerinin içinde bile vazgeçilemez bir parça olarak yer almasının nedenleri ayrıntılı olarak belirlenmeye çalıĢılacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1ee61fd37af88b1c2240d87083832f.pdf 31d17047411f990eaed18725ed607e9f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Doc.dr. Amel Alic University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sedin Habibovic, psychologist-therapist al-amel@bih.net.ba Abstract: Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Key words: cultural shock, enculturation, acculturation, Bosnian immigrants The experience of culture shock The process by which we come to know that there is a "proper" way of thinking, expressing, acting, etc, or, in other words, the process through which we learn our culture, is called socialization. It is a process through which individuals learn what is required of them to be successful members of certain groups, regardless of which group is concerned. The socialization process is unique in that it is simultaneously directed to the future and the past. It is directed forward in the sense of a man as he should be compared to expectations of a socio-cultural community, and backwards in terms of determining what are the important behaviours, values, and beliefs which we should continue to preserve. The socialization process is so powerful that people socialized in a particular socio-cultural context, are hardly aware that there are different realities. This results in culturocentrizam, a tendency to evaluate other people from the perspective of their own culture, believing in the fact that it is the only right and proper way of perceiving the world. This has also resulted in, among other things, occurrence of culture shock in situations when an individual comes into contact with new and unfamiliar cultural patterns. In the process of socialization, or enculturation, there is a greater variety of various influences that formatively affect the behaviour and thinking patterns of individuals (for example, their sexuality, nationality, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, religious beliefs, etc). Cultural shock in the recent literature is most often defined as a process of adjustment to a foreign and unfamiliar culture and environment. Psychological and sociological understanding of culture shock is used to describe the process of emotional, cognitive and physiological impact on the individual. In a multicultural context, the cultural shock is a kind of immersion in the non-specific conditions under which an individual is unsure of the expectations of others around him, but the uncertainty also 115 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo applies to his / her own actions. The term culture shock was introduced by Oberg Klaver (1960, according to Pedersen, 1995) to describe the distress caused by ignorance about a new culture and behaviour patterns of the same. In this state, the individual becomes aware of the fact that previously enacted symbols become invalid or acquire new meanings, resulting in a wide range of reactions, from the foggy and vague discomfort to profound disorientation. More recent literature suggests that understanding the process of culture shock is applied in every new situation in which a person can find himself/herself, such as changing jobs, establishing new relationships with others, or taking adequate social and emotional positions, as well as taking roles in each new environment. So over the past several decades, from Oberg to date, elucidating the process of cultural shock, spread from a mere encounter with a new culture on every situation where an individual is forced to adapt to an unfamiliar social system in which previously learned patterns of behaviour are no longer of any use. Experiencing culture shock is too often unpleasant (and unexpected) experience in which the individual simultaneously re-evaluate the old - a domestic, but also a new - a visiting culture. Until recently, researches have suggested that cultural shock involves only negative experiences. Thus, the Oberg originally cited only the negative aspects of this process:  the tension and pressure caused by psychological adjustment,  a sense of loss and deprivation increased by the loss of previously close people, friends, roles, etc.,  rejection of newcomers by a new culture and new society, confusion in terms of defining new roles, expectations, feelings, self-concept and self-determination,  unexpected nervousness, indignation towards new cultural forms, and  a sense of helplessness and discouragement after possible failures in the new environment. Educational model as opposed to medical, describes cultural shock as a process that takes place in several stages, which are developed and through which an individual passes - from the lower, more painful and more loaded with adaptive problems, to the higher stages, where the individual finally exceeds the initial problems and at the same time benefits psychologically, emotionally and socially. Each person in the new culture is going through at least five stages of culture shock (Pedersen, 1995): 1. Stage "honeymoon" or the first contact. On this stage differences intrigue, person research and inspect, select; emotional extent is desrcibed as excitement, stimulation, euphoria, everything is a game; on interpretation level person and groups noticing the difference, differences and similarities still work together, rationalization. 2. On stage of disintegration in person‘s perception of the environment differences collide and begin to bother, while common emotional reactions are confusion, disorientation, loss of empathy, isolation, loneliness. Besides depression and withdrawal, differences begin to bother crisis of confidence, seeking support and cultural ties. 3. Stage of reintegration is stage where differences are discarded, person‘s emotions fulfilled by anger, fury (conflict?), nervousness, and frustrations. As a result, some might behave rebelliousness, suspicion, hostility, opposition, and afterwards, this is the stage of the birth of the concept of "I like-i do not like", and rebellion as a way of searching for the confidence. 4. Stage of autonomy is the stage when differences and similarities are starting to legitimize. Person feels presumption, relaxation, re-occurring of empathy, and behaves safer, controlled, autonomous, and confident. On this stage the individual is negotiating with other cultures, and feel confidence that one can survive there. 5. Interdependent stage is the final stage on which differences and similarities are evaluated, and given the significance, person feels trust, humour, elements of the initial emotional response, expressiveness, creativity, updating, and starting to enjoy in some differences through discovering the benefits of new experiences. Experience and research of this problem points to the fact that the social frame of reference, specific cultural traditions, but also specific (idiosyncratic) learned patterns and strategies to cope with the phenomenon of culture shock, may lead to different outputs, particularly important in the understanding of cultural sensitivity. As previous findings suggest, strategies and stereotyped patterns of confrontation with the diversity also belong to common uniform strategies of raising children, which with the next generation can cause, not just a lack of sensitivity toward a new culture, but also distancing from the culture of origin. This phenomenon could be called the "boomerang effect" in which the younger generation often opts for a new culture in which they socialize on their own, while also standing up against the culture of origin of their parents. Comparing the social, emotional and intellectual resources and capital offered by a new society, children recognize inferiority of the culture of origin of their parents and are rebelling against the inefficiency of solving everyday problems suggested by 116 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo parents. This rebellion is often manifested in the refusal to communicate in their native language, in order to send a symbolic message of abolition of attachment to the culture of origin. If one adds the fact that circles in which the immigrant parents move, mostly belong to lower socio-economic strata of the new society (often the consequence of a lower educational culture), the impression of inferiority of the parents‘ culture gains in intensity. Research methods and results In this study, we combined qualitative and quantitative methods, with the obtained results derived from the semi structured interviews with members of two generations, the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, using the scale of intercultural sensitivity and scale of family relations in a sample of 40 children aged between 12 and 15, gathered in the Bosnian Cultural Centre in Phoenix, Arizona. We felt that the degree to overcome the culture shock towards other cultures can be established by examining the dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, and thus determine the relationships between the generations that represent the culture "in itself". This is especially important due to the fact that to the second generation in the Diaspora cultural shock is actually meeting with the culture of origin. To make that connection possible it is of great importance to take into account factors such as environmental background of parents, current family situation, family composition, parents' personal characteristics and personal characteristics of the child. This means that the issues on which it was possible to understand the context of the family treated the level of parental education levels and different socio-economic factors, family life, socio-psychological characteristics of family relations and communication between parents-children, and that would help to identify specificity of such influences on the level of intercultural sensitivity and overcome the culture shock, arose from the characteristics of families that are directed to the parent function: strategy for disciplining children, pedagogical logic on which parents insist, and perceptions of family circumstances and characteristics of relations parents - children. Application of intercultural sensitivity scale enabled us to connect information about family circumstances with scores of five factors of IC: cultural integration, behaviour scale, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others and the empathy scale. As we said before, it is noticeable that the first generation (today's parents) encountered a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the society in which they had to integrate, while for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment when the process of getting acquainted with the culture of origin, the culture of their ancestors began. The logical consequence of such strategies of coping with a new culture, especially because of the lack of a sense of emotional and intellectual capital, seeks to compensate for the increased activities in the field of creating social capital on the level of the generation of parents, and that capital is most easily achieved through forms of associating in jams, cultural clubs or similar. Unfortunately, the social capital that does not follow the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, in a number of immigrants has as a result placing the position of assimilation on one or conflict on other side, as exits in situations of intercultural meeting. Communication between generations of Bosnian immigrants in USA is overloaded with doubts whether to assimilate or to acculturate into, so called, American culture. Adopting of value system is rather difficult psychological state in which immigrants have to choose appropriate strategy how to be the part of American society, but still preserve basic and core cultural elements of their own tradition. In that sense, members of two different generations within families prefer opposite strategies: generation of parents keeps fresh memories, attitudes, and values adopted in culture of origin, and try to adjust life dynamic to traditional beliefs; on the other side, younger generations experience culture shock while being introduced with their parents culture, and feel themselves much more comfortable if choose opposite way of acculturation – the process of enculturation they associate to American culture, which means that they acculturate with parents culture. Children of immigrants are in some case in a better position to see strengths and weaknesses both of American and Bosnian culture than the origin Americans and Bosnians can do – they still have another culture (at home or at school, etc.) with which they compare. Being somehow in-between seems to be for most of Bosnian immigrants an advantage, since they have opportunity to pick the better sides of living in American society. In list bellow, we offer both advantages and disadvantages of Bosnian families, as members of minority groups in American society: STRENTGHS CHALLENGES Strong work orientation Dealing with the opposite system of values and beliefs 117 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strong motivation to achieve Being judged and as financially risk Religious orientation Building self-esteem Caring parenting Remaining family centred Shift to concept of egalitarian marriages Maintaining tradition Familism Overcoming the language barrier both between family, society, and generations High family cohesion and adaptation Extended – family system Acculturating and enculturation across generations Traditional beliefs Bilingual language skills Adaptability into WASP culture Table 1. Strengths and challenges of Bosnian families in USA For those who come from functional families, who take an advantage of adaptability of family system, it is much easier to adapt to society. It is obvious that being the part of majority provides speaking English language, to achieve higher educational achievement, mobility in job market, avoid discrimination, to prefer life style of majority having in mind that life style reflect the taste and values of social status. Yet, in the same time the younger generations of Bosnian immigrants, at the contrary to their American peers, still experience the advantages of extended families, collectivism, and emotional kinship bands etc. As already indicated in the introduction, in this paper we describe our experiences and results of research methods. The following are basic observations with no intention of entering into the deeper nature thereof. We believe that the listed observations can be a good basis for future researches or future programmes work with communities in the Diaspora. Analysis of the subscales revealed that the observed groups within the subscales of the cultural integration showed with the scores that the arithmetic mean is 42 compared to a maximum of 63, which represents a moderately high rank of the achieved scores of culture integration. On the subscale of intercultural behaviour we also obtained moderately high scores. On the subscale of intellectual interaction the observed group achieved scores slightly above average. On a scale of empathy results may assess high. On a scale of attitudes toward others they achieve scores below average, and it could be used as a possible interpretation the earlier observations of parents who belong to immigrant cultures in which the transmission of distance to children was observed as a reaction to fears of a potential interruption of communication with the culture of origin. The total score on all five subscales showed a slightly above average score, as the arithmetic mean is 132.66. We were interested in whether gender can be considered a significant criterion variable, and in this sense we have observed different styles of upbringing in conjunction with the five factors of intercultural sensitivity. For all observed subscales, the total score revealed no statistically significant differences in gender. This indicates that there is approximately a similar style of bringing up the boys and the girls in this immigrant culture. Analysis of all five subscales of intercultural sensitivity in relation to domination of pedagogical logic that parents use showed no statistically significant difference in the observed sample. The only, but insignificant difference was noticed within the subscales of cultural integration, where it was shown that those children whose parents more often use praises and encouragements to raise their children achieve higher scores compared to children whose parents use more bans and punishments. Next interesting fact, worth of additional consideration, lies in the fact that unlike the previous, children whose parents use the bans and punishments achieve a bit higher scores on a scale of attitudes towards others in relation to children whose parents used more praise and encouragements. From this data we could draw the conclusion that a bit more authoritarian parental behaviour may, to some extent, result in the eventual escape from the culture of origin (the family milieu) in a new culture (especially in cases of immigrant cultures). Here it is important to remind you of the fact that the authoritarian behaviour in the domestic culture would probably have as a consequence conflicting results: 118 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo xenophobia, authoritarian submission, ethnocentrism ... This data suggests that identical behaviour in different cultural and socializing circumstances may result in different outcomes. Comparing with the assessment of family relationships within the scale we find that respondents who believe their family is a source of comfort and satisfaction showed higher scores on all subscales of intercultural sensitivity. From this it can be concluded that a greater degree of openness towards others is based largely on coordinated and well-ordered family relationships. Analysis of the item "When I grow up and I have a family it will be in many ways similar to my current family" shows that 37% disagreed with this statement, while 38% were not sure, which makes a total of 75% sample of those who do not identify with their family in terms of living in a foreign culture. This points to the fact that the Bosnian families in the U.S. (at least within the sample), do not represent an adequate working model of identification and intercultural integration into the culture of the United States. Evidence for this claim is found in data obtained by observation within family relationship, where it was noticed that the children of immigrants refuse to communicate with their parents in the Bosnian language as a symbolic act to break the culture of origin. Poorer language skills can be attributed to time spent together in everyday interactions because of the parents being too busy but also some other important criteria variables such as parental level of language production, socio-economic status, educational level, the development of receptive-expressive language, greater participation of lower auto and congrate language in relation to a higher literal and abstract language, etc. At the level of understanding within the family, analysis of the item ―In my family no one understands me" shows that the family itself has the potential to overcome the gap between generations and considering different circumstances of socialization. In this part, the recommendation to parents would be related to overcoming these kinds of problems by adopting a more suitable strategy for the overall pedagogical culture of parental behaviour. Analysis of the items "I am proud of my family" and "Members of my family are good to each other," showed that there are still emotional attachments between parents and children, indicating a significant potential for the family as a place that is a source of emotional energy and the subsequent potential for intercultural sensitivity. These items showed that most respondents pointed to their family as a place to develop safe relations and adequate interaction which is reflected in high scores across all subscales. It is interesting that the analysis of beliefs and following religious practices proved to be a very important criterion variable. Specifically, respondents who claim that their families believe in religious values, and regularly practice religious customs, achieve higher scores across all five factors of intercultural sensitivity. Conclusion We see that most immigrants consistently idealize their own culture, the culture of origin, or subjective culture. This phenomenon is also evident when observing the emigrants during their stay in their own culture, but the process of idealizing is then reversed, i.e. during a visit to their homeland immigrants tend to idealize the culture of the country where they are currently living. Because of this contrary emotional reactions depending on the current physical positions, this could be marked as a notion of two-way idealization, with positive emotions obviously directed to the own, but also to the new, current culture. Just for the reason of super saturation with the phenomenon of two-way idealization in every conversation we find it appropriate to call this phenomenon the phenomenon of binoculars. Persistence in such a perception of reality shows that most members of these communities are certainly at the stage of autonomy, explaining the degree of their integration and overcoming the cultural shock of the previously elaborated model. We observed that when introducing guests with the symbols of culture in which they reside expatriates express pride and satisfaction. They are very satisfied with showing the progress of culture, achievements, ordering, natural beauty, which could be considered as indicators of successful adaptation of most immigrants. This opinion clearly points to the fact that a number of immigrants are in a state of disintegration. It would be very important in future studies to examine the relationship between the length of residence in a new culture and the stage at which the subjects are, and what other variables significantly affect, within the branching of the observed sample, the inversely proportional idealization. It is evident that the stages in which are some respondents have a powerful impact on the cohesion within the immigrants organization. Belonging to a certain stage also produces attitudes towards community organizations. People who are on a level of disintegration propose greater community cohesion and a kind of prudence and closeness to the members of the new culture. People on a level of autonomy alleviate such proposals and explain the benefits of cooperation. It would therefore be very important to continue with strengthening the position of the people on the level of autonomy and the work of the subgroups in the community following the model of overcoming culture shock. In this regard we consider that it would be necessary to develop programmes for each stage of adjustment. Significant influence on overcoming culture shock is related to the functionality of the family system. Families that have 119 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo managed to balance the dimensions of adaptation and internal cohesion, but also change and stability, with its structurality and flexibility have much more successful encounter with another culture. In this way, they more effectively respond to situations to reconcile differences between the system of family values (culture of origin) and wider social circles of a new culture that imposes a different value system. This is confirmed by the results of the analysis of the perception scales of family relations and all five dimensions of intercultural sensitivity, where it turned out that functional family relationships highly correlated with cultural integration, scale of behaviour, intellectual interaction, attitudes toward others, and scale of empathy. Total family relationships have proved to be, ultimately, the essential and with the ability to cope with cultural shock on both relations: family - new culture, but also generations of parents - generations of children. The functionality of family relationships is definitely a key criterion variable to reach the stage of reintegration and autonomy. REFERENCE Furnham, A., Bochner, S. (1986). Culture Shock – Psychological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments. London: Methuen & Co. Hofstede, G.H. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations. London: Sage Publications, Inc. Olson, D.H., DeFrain, J. (2003). Marriages and Families: Intimacy, Diversity and Strengths. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies. Sue, D.W., Sue, d. (2008). Counseling the Culturally Diverse. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Pedersen, P. (1995). The Five Stages of Culture Shock. Greenwood Press. Ward, C., Bochner, S., Furnham, A. (2001). The Psychology of Culture Shock. Routledge. 120 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 21 Title A name given to the resource HOW TO DEAL WITH CULTURAL SHOCK? – THE CASE OF BOSNIAN IMMIGRANTS IN THE USA Author Author Doc.dr. Alic, Amel Abstract A summary of the resource. Question of overcoming the cultural shock and assuming the position in relation to the new culture is very important, not only for a great number of modern societies coloured by multicultural elements and need to most adequately answer the demands of minority groups, but it is also important for understanding the problems of immigrants and IDP groups within a society. Seen from the perspective of the sociology of education and sociology of family but also culturally sensitive pedagogy, understanding the stages of cultural shock is therefore applicable in working with minority groups, immigrants and IDP families and individuals but also in understanding the needs of a large number of Bosnians who have fled Bosnia in recent decades and found a refuge and a chance for a new life in some of the countries of the EU, the USA or Australia. In our researches, by using Questionnaire of Cultural Sensitivity with members of two generations, and applying the systematic observation of behaviour and communication in natural conditions, we came to a number of interesting conclusions. Specifically, it is obvious that the first generation (today‘s parents) experienced a cultural shock when faced with the norms of the new society in which they had to integrate, but for their children, due to the absence of stronger ties with the country of origin, the cultural shock began the moment they opened up the process of familiarization with the culture of origin, culture of their ancestors. The logical consequence of such strategies of facing the new culture, especially because of the lack of sense of emotional and intellectual capital regarding parents‘ generation, seeks to compensate with the increased activities in the area of creating social capital. This capital is most easily achieved through forms of association in a jam, cultural clubs and the like. Unfortunately, social capital which is not followed by the accumulation and production of appropriate emotional and intellectual capital, with a number of immigrants has resulted in placing the position of assimilation on one or seclusion on the other side as stereotypical strategies to find an outlet in situations of intellectual encounters. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77c4b173ff73b6c9179dfddff6966dd0.pdf 8e0520c9a415559e41c18bfb3c38b95c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIOCULTURAL DISTANCE Beatrice Demont PhD Student in University of Genoa, Italy beadbea@hotmail.com Abstract During a research period in Japan I had the opportunity to follow a number of students learning the Italian language, both from Universities and private contexts. According to an anthropologic interpretation, meetings between cultures is based on practices that cannot be reduced to feelings or individual ideas; the sociocultural aspect is an open system, and not sheltered from external influences; so there is not a privileged point of view for a detached observation, because a meeting is equal and is an exchange of meanings produced from both the parts. Meeting another culture carries a number of differences that can be misunderstood. The singular knowledge of the foreign language, even if useful, does not constitute a guarantee to understand the culture of a society. Incomprehension of attitudes or an improper use of the language are maybe not sufficient to damage a relationship, but they have the ability to complicate it, and for the same reason stereotypes often block other possible interpretations. Teaching implies a bi-directional communication that needs to give an input to the student but also an understandable feedback for the teacher. The communicative exchange between two cultures is furthermore difficult when we try to understand the psychological influence of linguistic signals in verbal and non-verbal communication. In that way, the relationship between teacher and student is a delicate balance that can easily be upset, especially in cultures such as the Italian and Japanese ones which are very far from one another. I shall illustrate, in a summarised form, the description of the subjects under study by means of appropriate tables in this report, analyzing the oral production, the learning processes and the cultural differences that could create misunderstandings. Key words: stereotypes, cultural differences, learning processes. INTRODUCTION An American anthropologist, Ralph Linton, said that culture was like water for a fish: a fish lives in water but is not aware of the fact of being surrounded by water. We are just like that fish in our own culture and we do not realize this fact, instead we see the culture of the others (Linton, 1961). In order to observe our culture from the outside it requires the desire to do it and the skill to decentralize oneself, accepting the fact that also others can be at the centre of things. In order to do this, sciences such as anthropology, ethnology, psychology and sociology propose different methods which allow man to study and understand culture and cultures. The greatest difficulty lies in the fact that each individual tends to have an innate ethno-centric mechanism (Geertz, 1988), and due to this he has the tendency to classify and evaluate others in order to categorize them into his own group (in-group) or out of it (out-group). Cultural stereotypes are born from this point onwards which give rise to a higher resistance and are very difficult to modify or uproot (Pike, 1954). In their turn these stereotypes easily predispose an action in that they are closely associated to cultural prejudices and they very often provoke negative or even hostile behaviour towards other cultural groups (Anolli, 2004). Intercultural psychology notably reduces risks of ethno-centrism in that it observes, values and interprets the differences in individual functioning between different cultural and ethnic groups, relationships and psychological, socio-cultural, ecological and biological variables as well as the changes that concern such values, without classifying the groups (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, Dasen, 1994). Cultural differences are born out of numerous factors: historical, environmental, economic, political ones etc. and the actual act of comparison which permits the discovery of new values: we are what we are in incessant acts of becoming (Anolli, 2006). Naturally, ethnical barriers may be overcome but they cannot be absent because they serve the purpose of manifesting social production of cultural differences. Focusing on the language, cultural and location unit brings to the mind‘s eye an ethnic group as an immutable entity having closed and clear-cut barriers. In effect, the definition of an ethnic group should instead 232 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo base itself on criteria used by those involved to feel united one with the other or to possibly outline a distinction (Barth, 1969,1994). Therefore, the meeting with another culture carries with itself a series of differences which may, in some ways, be misunderstood. The sole knowledge of the foreign language, however useful it may be, does not constitute a guarantee for the comprehension of the cultural structure (Gannon, 1997). In fact, words limit our representation of the world and of ourselves (Kitayama, 2004), in that we translate that which we feel by means of a linguistic code that already, in itself, represents a category. (Wierzbicka, 1999). In a certain sense, behaviour is always a type of state of predisposition to act in a certain way, but it is only one of the factors that intervene in determining effective behaviour side by side with the circumstances of that situation on one hand, and then with the regulations, values and daily habits of the social community on the other hand (Berruto, 1995). Many considerations can be interpreted with a somewhat limited vision if not even a stereotypical one, and this precludes many other possible interpretations. It is sufficient to consider that one type of behaviour then may be seen as polite in one country, may be seen quite mistakenly as hostile or sheepish in another, and as a consequence one often arrives at a negative classification of it. This is due to prejudices, or rather behaviour that we have in mind beforehand, independently of having ever had direct contact or knowledge with the next person. In fact prejudice is based on that pre-established category (stereotypes) which come to be attributed to an object based on an unfounded (or wrong) generalization (Baroni, 1983). METHOD OF STUDY This type of research includes both social and educational contexts in a set of holistic and empirical research at the same time. Thanks to an interdisciplinary approach based on the foundations of anthropology, psychology, sociology and education, it has been possible to have a right assessment about the problem. Anyway thanks to questionnaires and interviews with the directly and indirectly involved persons, it has been possible to converge views and data, describing the thoughts of the social actors involved. SAMPLING The research has been carried out in two geographical contexts and different school contexts of language learning, both in Italy and in Japan. In Japan approximately a quantity of 220 students has been observed. In Italy a quantity of about 30 Japanese students has been under observation. In Japan, students have been examined mainly in the city of Kyōto in both academic and private sectors. We have taken into consideration 5 Universities, where Italian is studied as a foreign language: the Kyōto Gaikokugo Daigaku, Kyōto Daigaku, Dōshisha Daigaku, Kyōto Sangyō Daigaku, Ritsumeikan Daigaku. In the private sector we have taken the data given by the Italian Institute of Culture in Kyōto and Tokyo. In Italy, on the other hand, the research has been carried out mainly in the city of Genoa in a private school. As a confirmation of the main aspects noted during this research, there is a corroboration of interviews with different, both Italian and Japanese, teachers met both in Italy and Japan. Anyway the general framework that is possible to obtain from the Japanese students remains linked, in spite of all efforts, to a Western perspective, and it is very difficult to be able to provide the details of a decentralised vision on a scientific basis, or to be able to assess the foreign teacher as in the perspective of a Japanese student. MAIN SOCIO-CULTURAL PROBLEMS The act of teaching in itself includes two-directional communication, or rather the input provided by the teacher to the student and then the return act, or the feedback; then also the output provided by the student to the teacher which above all is useful for the teacher to understand if the provided input has been taken in. The area that shall be dealt with in the next chapter concerns communication because, as is somewhat predictable, it is not a simple process; in fact, communication is nothing else than a delicate balance which may be easily interrupted or render particularly difficult the requisite compatibilities which do not subsist for the exchange of messages. The communicative exchange between two cultures is rather complex in that factors come into play which are not always noted; in this case there are not only linguistic signals but also those parameters tightly bound to the culture which concerns non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is the psychological dimension that produces and supports the definition of the self and the other in a more or less explicit manner. By means of this faculty it is possible to carry out different 233 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo functions that take on an important role in human social behaviour, it in fact allows the definition of the act taking place, the addition of implicit messages, to contain indirect requests bound to the behaviour of the interlocutor and to make richer the verbal content with elements and nuances laden with meaning. According to elementary psychology, non-verbal communication is held to be more spontaneous and ‗natural‘ than verbal communication in that it is less subject to forms of voluntary control. For this reason, it would be a greater ‗revealing agent‘ of the individual‘s state of mind since it would allow a filtering through of the individual‘s reactions and intentions. This would also happen in spite of what is actually said (Anolli 2002). Therefore, the verbal form would serve the function of denoting, the non verbal one of connoting; if the former includes the relevance of semantic material, then the second includes emotional information (D‘Urso, 1988) Non verbal communication varies notably from culture to culture and cannot be seen as just a ‗colouring agent‘ of the verbal version (Rimé, Schiaratura, 1991) but rather as a basic action for obtaining an enlightened comprehension where the word is not sufficient. Kinesics, taken from the Greek ‗kynesis‘-movement- as we have already said refers to facial expressions, looks, body language, physical contact between the interlocutors and to gesticulatory behaviour. In a way similar to verbal behaviour, every culture develops its own kinetic language and it shares its signs and meanings based on a network of rules and conventions. Traditionally, eye contact in oriental cultures is limited, more over in Japan, and is regarded as the boundary between bad manners and an invasion of one‘s privacy. However, in the majority of western countries, the act of looking directly into a person‘s eye is seen as a sign of sincerity, spontaneity and of interest. In fact, during a normal day to day conversation the look on a person‘s face takes up a ponderous quantity of time and serves the function of sending and gathering information. In the west, without this eye contact people do not get the actual impression to be communication with one another. Generally speaking, people who look at other people with greater frequency are perceived as being extroverts, socially skilled, enterprising and gifted with a good amount of self-control. In contrast to this, people who have the tendency to avoid eye contact are often thought to be suffering from some type of psychological problem. As with all cultures that come into contact with one another, these behavioural types are subject to variations, but nevertheless they leave their marks. In Japan, eye contact is however seen as a sign of aggression if it takes place between two strangers, and the use of a ‗glance‘ between members of different genders remains different (Balboni, 1999) In the field of gestural behaviour, of great expression, generally speaking, are nods of the head and hand gestures. Head gestures play an important role in the rate of progress of an interaction, for example a nod of the head from a person who is listening is commonly seen by the person who is speaking as a sign of attention or assent and can also be seen as a sign to continue with the output of information. This does not mean to say that the same nod of the head in Japan for example is seen with approval; in this country it is more tied in with the concept of listening, in that each frank and direct declaration gets considered more or less as a manifestation of vulgarity (Zimmerman, 1985). Hand gestures vary greatly from culture to culture; there are cultures with a small usage of the hands when communicating and also cultures with a high usage. The Italian people would be classed as ‗high gestural‘, where as well as semiotically independent gestures (emblems), therefore provided with a precise meaning and which are shared socially, illustrator agent gestures are very pronounced (they accompany verbal communication and they ‗illustrate‘ that which is being said), the emotive indicators, (tied to an emotional state) and illustrator gestures (they regulate the interaction, they permit the stressing of the speech in ‗points‘ of emphasis or for indicating a change of ‗position‘ in the speech strategy). In this context the Japanese culture is diametrically opposed, the only gestures used are generally speaking ‗emblems‘, and in this case hand gestures become more animated only in cases of refusal or prohibition. Facial mimicry serves important different functions in interaction between people; in fact the face represents the part of the body that is more specialized on an expressive and communicative level. Through facial gestures we manage to express spontaneous emotions, and also deliberate ones, which have the objective of dissimulating other emotions or of showing a form of social convention such as, for example, ‗circumstantial smiles‘. Precisely under this aspect, once again Japan has a true and proper culture, the smile is often seen as a type of condescending behaviour that is very often misunderstood by the foreigner. The smile‘s social convention therefore frequently hides embarrassment or difficulty. 234 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We have to remember that there is a certain grade of separation between facial expressions and internal psychological states, in the sense that not everything that appears on the face necessarily indicates an internal emotional experience. Also there is a certain dissociability between that internal and external. Facial movements are also an important element in the coordination of the communicative exchange, they facilitate the alternation of the ‗who speaks next?‘ situation, and then the synchronism between the interlocutors. The glance generally makes a contribution in this exercise, for the collection of feedback information, to show attention and interest, and also to understand whose turn it is to speak during a conversation. As we have already said, the glance is however somewhat limited in Japan. On this point we must include a type of non-verbal conversation typically Japanese which is called ‗Haragei‘, that literally means ‗visceral language‘. It is a language/non-language made up more or less of silences, lulls in exchanges, and slow reflexions in which the interlocutor is scrutinized. This could be compared to a type of intuition in which words only act as an adjunct and do not express the true concept (Corddry, 1975). At this point a form of communication shall be added which constitutes a strategic way of communicating and has numerous meanings- this is quite simply, silence. Silence is not simply the absence of communication but it has well-defined rules with numerous variable standards from culture to culture. Generally speaking, western cultures are characterized by a type of communication with low contextualization and one witnesses a rapid change over in exchanges, conversational lulls are relatively reduced and silence is considered to be a threat or lack of cooperation in conversational management. As opposed to this, oriental cultures are typified by a high-contextualized communication, the participants exercise long periods of silence between one exchange and another and these are signals of reflexion and deliberation. In the Japanese culture, silence or mugon 無言 (むごん) is very often a symptom of trust, harmony and understanding (McVeigh, 1997). Chronemics, from the Greek ‗Khrñnos‘ or ―time‖, studies the use of time, and also in this case it varies greatly according to the culture. As well as the rhythm of the speech, the turns taken to speak and the length of the pauses in relation to the content, one must also add the sense of time in general (Anolli, 2003). This would be the punctuality, perception of future and past events, time management (Hall, 1983), etc. One presupposes that the concept of time not only has a notable influence on socio-cultural competence, but also operates in the syntactical construction of the language itself (D‘arcais, Wiley, 1978). Examples of chronemic differences between Italian and other cultures are numerous, but in this case the risk is run of losing count of historical, cultural and individual variables and then to be overly influenced entirely by stereotypes (Lipovetsky, 1989). The fact however remains that generally speaking there is a certain diffidence upon the concept of punctuality when we turn towards Italians and that this contributes to relationships with Japanese people. Proxemics studies the use that a person makes of the distance and the space of social and working organization and of interpersonal relationships. In particular, in the field of communication, inter-personal distance and orientation towards the interlocutor have important consequences on the efficacy of the interaction. The distinction between the different types of distance includes four areas which may vary from a maximum and a minimum according to the influence due to socio-cultural factors. The Japanese culture may be located between those cultures having a distance where spatial reduction is perceived as an encroachment, against the Italian culture which is characterized by a culture of vicinity and which considers distance as a symptom of coldness and hostility. At the same time, from an anthropological point of view, given the elevated population density in the big urban centres, life in Japan forces upon man a lifestyle in which distance is reduced, and for this reason right from infancy respect for interpersonal space is inculcated so as not to bother the next person. In this category, Japan may be placed among the countries having a ‗no-contact‘ culture, in fact the haptic is very limited and as a consequence bodily contact between people is avoided as much as possible (Balboni, 1999). On the other hand, in line with many other Latin or Arab cultures, Italy plays a part in the culture of contact. Maybe the socio-cultural aspects are not the most complex to describe, but they are when it comes to an analysis. This is because often they are the ones that, more than anything else, are subjectively bound. Beneath are those aspects that shall be taken into consideration that may influence the class didactic progress, and this phenomenon shall be looked into further on in this paper. 235 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Shame culture‖ 恥の文化(はじのぶんか - hajinobunka) is one of these. This has been analysed by numerous psychologists and, according to an analysis carried out by Kent (Kent, 1992), it may be understood both as a private phenomenon (embarrassment) and a public one. Shame has fundamentals based upon society itself and on psychological ideals. (Sakuta, 1967). Along with many other oriental cultures, Japan can be located in the area of collectivism, while individualism is found in many western cultures. It would be opportune to add to this that, ‗ Individualism and collectivism do not constitute two opposing poles in a unique dimension, but are rather two independent dimensions, further defined within their internal areas‘. (Anolli, 2004). Among its various characteristics, collectivism often has a strong sense of ‗social harmony‘ and lends priority to group objectives with respect to those of the individual. The sense of belonging to a group, that may be either for work or study, is very important in the Japanese culture, therefore competition stands at an acceptable limit between different groups, but even in this case it is always experienced with a collective spirit aimed at achieving a wider social wellbeing. In one group on its own, the competition on the contrary would shatter a fundamental balance, and this is one of the reasons why competition is also avoided in the classes. Amongst the various forms brought into play to avoid competition, ‗haji‘ (understood as shyness) is the ideal, in that it tends to flatten out the personality as it were, and not put the individual on show (Sumiko, 2000). The concept of ‘on‘ is tied to a sense of duty, to which each and every Japanese person is tightly bound; the concept of ‗giri‘ instead represents the good name and reputation. In the case of the Japanese, the ‗giri‘ must never in any way be dishonoured (Benedict, 1968). There is an aspect of communication that is not separable from socio-cultural characteristics, or rather the communicative competence relative to the conquest of the emotional filter. This filter is a psychological-emotive block due to a form of mental self-defence against states of anxiety. This anxiety, as also reported in Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning by Krashen, in fact has had a very powerful influence and jeopardises linguistic acquisition (Balboni, 2004). There are many characteristics that cause the emotive block to come into the field of linguistics; this is because the higher the knowledge of a language, the easier it is to get over the emotive block. However, a psychological factor remains which is consequence of being tied to both to the typology of the student (behaviour towards studying or the teacher, personal confidence, individual organisational skills, a more or less extrovert character etc.) and to the cultural origin. This is due to the fact that was discussed previously; students may be more predisposed than others to this emotive block. According to the Communication Accommodation Theory worked on by Giles and Coupland (Giles, Coupland, 1991), following determined strategies of synchronisation and accommodation of linguistic and extra-linguistic signals, it is possible to arrive at a position of convergence which allows a good interaction in communicative exchange, avoiding in this way divergence which would on the contrary not facilitate the understanding of an input. The Communication Accommodation Theory is favourable towards a meeting point that does not include a masking of culture or, even worse, the imitation of others. It uses a perspective that works side by side with a balanced management, which in the case of education respects that which the student thinks without giving up other positions on the part of the teacher. It therefore requires a pause control, the use of proxemics and gestemics, vocal intensity, enunciation length and also the use of vocal frequency (a tone of voice which is too high and strident can cause problems in much the same way that low and monotonous tone of voice can be boring). Psychological social research of language has illustrated how behaviour and reactions towards a person are strongly determined also by the way that person speaks and by the relative ‗speaker‘s paradigm of evaluation‘ which is activated by the listener (Giles, Johnson, 1995). In every communicative relationship between two people a continuous work of deconstruction and reconstruction equivalent to an upturning of perspective is necessary to an exchange. The occurrence of a true and proper inter-subject communication is in fact tied to the capacity of an individual to alternately take on his own and the other person‘s plan of reference, reconstructing the field every time without ever making his own point of view that specific privileged moment. (Mizzau, 1974). Teaching to an audience made up of different culture classes includes as a consequence a certain conscience of the use of these abilities that, above all in the collectivist culture, is particularly felt. On the other hand however, we find a more accommodating behaviour in the more individualistic cultures. (Gallois, Giles, 236 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Jones, Cargile, 1995). Therefore, one has to succeed in creating a type of empathy that allows the lowering of the emotional filter (Krashen, 1981). Also, according to Schumann, an increase in empathy between student and teacher would diminish the negative conditions caused by factors such as anxiety, stress, and it would obtain an improvement in learning as a result (Schumann, 1975). A condition of empathy leads the student to feel less the cultural distance in that this factor is of an emotional nature, and as a consequence can be managed with an approach of the psychological type. CONCLUSION Thanks to cultural psychology and other sciences, in this study we have been able to observe some of the more evident characteristics in the Japanese culture. The field circumscribed by education in the student-teacher relationship has given way to an understanding of the importance of the knowledge of various communicative signals, in that only a continuous interaction between them has allowed us to interpret signals and to understand the relative prerequisites. It has been also possible to also observe how some communication systems are to be limited to certain cultures and that it is not always possible to generalize by classifying behaviours; suffice it to bear in mind that among the western, non-verbal, vocal (shouting, crying, voice intonation) signal communication systems, and the non-vocal (smiles, a global motivator), some behavioural traits such as the lowered head, the fleeting glance, the scanty use of gestures, the absence of facial mimicry, the attenuated tone of voice etc. are more or less classified as characteristics of the depressed subject (Jones, Cumming, Horowitz 1981), characteristics which cannot obviously by applied to an intercultural context. Many reasons for intercultural incomprehension are born directly out of the absence of knowledge of certain communicative forms. An individual must know how to use a communicative signal in the same way in which the others use it. This mechanism ensures that the interlocutor comprehends that which he has learnt and that he is employing a ‗shared‘ communicative social sign, in this way one is able to produce and understand the same symbol with the same meaning. REFERENCES Luigi Anolli, Psicologia della comunicazione, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2002, p. 78. Luigi Anolli, Psicologia Generale, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2003, p.185. Luigi Anolli, Psicologia della cultura, Il Mulino, Bologna, 2004, p.266. Luigi Anolli, La mente multiculturale, Laterza, Roma-Bari, 2006, p.123. Paolo E. Balboni, Parole Comuni Culture Diverse - Guida Alla Comunicazione Interculturale, Saggi Marsilio, Venezia, 1999, p. 52. Paolo E. Balboni, Motivazione ed affettività nell'acquisizione di una lingua straniera, articolo in Punto Edu, 2004. Maria Rosa Baroni, Il linguaggio trasparente. Indagine psicolinguistica su chi parla e chi ascolta, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1983, p. 23 in Gaetano Berruto, Op. cit, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 111. Fredrik Barth, Ethnic groups and boundaries: The social organization of cultural difference, George Allen&Unwin, London, 1969, pp. 117-134. Fredrik Barth, I gruppi etnici e i loro confini, in V. Maher (a cura di), Questioni di etnicità, Torino, Rosenberg & Sellier 1994, p. 47 Ruth Benedict, Il crisantemo e la spada, Dedalo, Bari, 1968. Gaetano Berruto, Fondamenti di Sociolinguistica, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 110. 237 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo John W. Berry, Ype H. Poortinga, H. Segall, Pierre R. Dasen, Psicologia transculturale. Teoria, ricerca e applicazioni, Guerini e Associati, Milano, 1994. Noam Chomsky, Aspetti della teoria della sintassi, in Saggi Linguistici, Bollati Boringhieri, pp. 39- 258, 1979. Noam Chomsky, La conoscenza del linguaggio, Il saggiatore, Milan, 1989. Jane A. Corddry, Hara in A hundred things Japanese, p. 102, 1975. G.B.Flores D‘arcais, John Wiley & Sons, Studies in the perception of language, W.J.M.Levelt, Bath, 1978. Valentina D‘Urso, Rosanna Trentin, Psicologia delle Emozioni, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1988, p.101. Gallois, Giles, Jones, Cargile, etc, Accommodating intercultural encounters. Elaborations and Extensions, in R.L. Wiseman, Intercultural communication theory, Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage, 1995, 115-147. Martin J. Gannon, Global-Mente - Metafore culturali per capire 17 Paesi, Baldini & Castoldi, Milano, 1997 Clifford Geertz, Antropologia Interpretativa, Il Mulino, Bologna, 1988. Edward Twitchell Hall, The dance of life, Garden City, New York, Doubleday, 1983. Giles & Coupland, Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991. Howard Giles and Patricia Johnson, Ethnolinguistic identity theory: a social psychological approach to language maintenance, 1987 (cit. in Gaetano Berruto, Fondamenti di Sociolinguistica, Ed Laterza, Roma, 1995, p. 112). E. E. Jones, J. D. Cumming, & M. J. Horowitz, <Another look at the nonspecific hypothesis of therapeutic effectiveness>, in Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1988 e P. H. Waxer, <Channel contribution in anxiety displays>, in Journal of Research, in Personality, 15, 44,1981. Pauline Kent, Shame as social sanction in Japan, Japan Review, 1992, 3. Osamu Kitayama, Cross-Cultural Varieties in Experiencing affect, in The Language of emotions, Akhtar & Blum, USA, 2004, p. 37. Stephen D. Krashen, Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, cap. II, p. 23., 1981 Ralph Linton, abridged by Adelin Linton, The Tree of Culture, Knopf, 1961. Gilles Lipovetsky, L‘impero dell‘effimero, la moda nelle società moderne, Garzanti, Milano, 1989, p. 182. Marina Mizzau, Prospettive della comunicazione interpersonale, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1974, pp. 60-61. Brian J. McVeigh, Life in a Japanese Women's College, The Nissan Institute/Routledge Japanese Studies Series, London, 1997, p. 76. Kenneth Pike, Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Structure of Human Behavior, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Glendale, California, 1954 Sakuta, K., Haji no bunka saiko [Reconsideration of shame culture],Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1967. Bernard Rimé & Loris Schiaratura, Gesture and Speech, in Fundamentals of Nonverbal Behavior, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 239-283. John H. Schumann, Second language acquisition: the pidginization hypothesis, University of California at Los Angeles, 1975, p. 401. Iwao Sumiko, Problem‘s among Japan‘s young, in Japan Echo, 2000, pp. 256-260. Anna Wierzbicka, Emotions Across Languages and Cultures: Diversity and Universals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 61. Mark Zimmerman, Dealing with the Japanese, Allen & Unwin, London,1985. 238 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 35 Title A name given to the resource FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODOLOGY IN THE CONTEXT OF SOCIOCULTURAL DISTANCE Author Author Demont, Beatrice Abstract A summary of the resource. During a research period in Japan I had the opportunity to follow a number of students learning the Italian language, both from Universities and private contexts. According to an anthropologic interpretation, meetings between cultures is based on practices that cannot be reduced to feelings or individual ideas; the sociocultural aspect is an open system, and not sheltered from external influences; so there is not a privileged point of view for a detached observation, because a meeting is equal and is an exchange of meanings produced from both the parts. Meeting another culture carries a number of differences that can be misunderstood. The singular knowledge of the foreign language, even if useful, does not constitute a guarantee to understand the culture of a society. Incomprehension of attitudes or an improper use of the language are maybe not sufficient to damage a relationship, but they have the ability to complicate it, and for the same reason stereotypes often block other possible interpretations. Teaching implies a bi-directional communication that needs to give an input to the student but also an understandable feedback for the teacher. The communicative exchange between two cultures is furthermore difficult when we try to understand the psychological influence of linguistic signals in verbal and non-verbal communication. In that way, the relationship between teacher and student is a delicate balance that can easily be upset, especially in cultures such as the Italian and Japanese ones which are very far from one another. I shall illustrate, in a summarised form, the description of the subjects under study by means of appropriate tables in this report, analyzing the oral production, the learning processes and the cultural differences that could create misunderstandings. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/72ffbb027bcd7da1a132d9122daf5f2a.pdf 2796d16fddb75b68bb1c272c19f5a910 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Difficulty of North American – r: an Analysis as a Pronunciation Difficulty Prof. Dr. Mehmet Demirezen Department of ELT, Hacettepe University, Ankara/ Turkey md49@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: The American-r phoneme, whose IPA sign is , which is a retroflex case of pronunciation, represents a very serious stumbling block in teaching standard American pronunciation to Turks. Due to use of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum, the American English phoneme / / has long been associated with relatively large amounts of articulatory variabilities as tap, flap, approximant, and the like. The endpoints of the articulatory continuum for / / can be analyzed via functionally different articulatory configurations with the accompaniment of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum). These endpoints as a different type of / / have been characterized in the literature as ―bunched‖ which means the use of tongue dorsum and ―retroflexed‖ that signifies the use of the tongue blade/tip, which gets to be a pronunciation difficulty for Turkish teachers of English. The primary purpose of the current study is to investigate the problematic pronunciation issue of American English /r/ phoneme for Turks. The goal of the present study is twofolded. The first goal is to solve the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in North American English (NAE) and tapping in British English (BrE) via its ambiguous perception by Turks due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sound, intervocalic positioning through phonotactics and crosslanguage phonetic interference. Key words: flapping, retroflexion, bunched articulation, tapping, neutralization Introduction There is a confusion in the explanation and definition of terms concerning a flap and a tap, and there apparently seems to be very little agreement among the phonologists on the definition of these two terms. Although the IPA takes flaps and taps to be the same thing, some phonologists insist on distinguishing them (Carr, 2008: 55; Trask, 1996). Giving phonetic explanations based on the place, point and manner of articulation of them inevitably lead to neutralization of flap and tap that happen to be misleading for the non-native learners of English. Such a dubious definition is given by Malmkj ker (1995:34-35): A flap or tap is a sound in whose articulation one speech organ strikes against the other just once….a retroflex: the curled-up tip of the tongue and the hard palate. A structural description among the flap, tap, and retroflex occurrences can be necessary here. To clarify the confusions on these two terms, some definitions given by the philologists must be compared and contrasted. Statement of the Problem: North American-r as a Wrong Pronunciation case The articulation and production of North American English-r is ambiguous. Many of Turkish English teachers are wrong in its pronunciation. This claim is specified by an analysis of the Turkish English teachers. Data is gathered from an examination of the oral English exam conducted at the Department of English Language Education in July 2010 on 27 Turkish English teachers, 9 of whom were males, 18 females, within age range of 25 to 34. They had a teaching experience of one year to 13 years. Each one has got an MA degree in Teaching English Education from 20 different state universities in Turkey. The subjects were all on-the-job teachers. The subjects were observed by the researcher while they were being asked questions on applied linguistic, ELT and EFL by five jury members. The speeches of the 27 MA applicants were listened in by the researcher when they were taking the Oral exam while answering the questions asked by five jurors. The subjects had no idea that they were being graded on the efficiency of pronunciation articulation of flaps, retroflex-r, and taps. Through critical listening techniques, their repeated pronunciation errors on the form of /r/ are captured by using the error hunt approach, shown in the following three diagnostic charts given below. The diagnostic test utilized here depends on the suggestion made by Baker (1993: 895 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 134) and is further modified by the author of this article. For each student via this diagnostic test, an inventory of the primary articulations in word-initial, word-medial, and word-final occurrences is kept for each and every student. The diagnostic test given below is kept, via a tracking activity by the present researcher, on each applicant‘s articulation over the problem-causing consonants at word-initial, word-medial, and word-final occurrences, and the result was: As a calculation, as it is seen in diagnostic chart 3, it was understood that only two of the applicants were using the bunched form of /r/ phoneme because they had earned their AM degree in USA while the rest of the applicants were using a Turkish variant of NAE-r in all environments. There are several reasons of this ambiguous articulation of NAE-r by Turkish English teachers. In fact, the secondary goal of this paper is to show the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in NAE and tapping in BrE and its ambiguous perception by Turks, due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sounds, intervocalic cases and cross-language phonetic interference. The Phonetic Structure of /r/ in North American English The IPA-system recognizes at least eight kinds of /r/, which are articulatorily different from each other. The articulation of /r/-phoneme in form of retroflexion, in a back-bounded form of pronunciation, is impressive in North English English (NAE), pointing to its difference from British variant which is called a tap. The American flap is treated ambiguously by Turkish teachers and teacher trainees, who seriously fail to recognize and articulate it in its native form. A possible reason for this ambiguity stems from the impact of Turkish /r/- phoneme plays a serious on this failure as a cross phonetic influence. In NAE or GA , /r/ phoneme is a voiced alveolar flap (retroflex) or a bunched semivowel; in BrE, it is a/r/ is a voiced alveolar tap semivowel. Phonetically, it has four types of 896 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo occurrences in the structure of the English language, exhibited in the following words: The symbol / / stands for a retroflex-r: When it is a consonant, it is accepted as a liguid in both NAE and BrE /r/, being a semi-vowel, in a syllableinitiating position, functions as on-glide; in a syllable-terminating position, it functions as off-glide, without any hold (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:102). Different Varieties of /r/ in NAE and BRE In the structure of English, the /r/ phoneme very frequently takes place in form of different variants, like a consonant, semi-vowel, approximant, glide, or retroflex. Among NAE and BrE dialects, the usage of /r/ phoneme differs characteristically. When consonant r is an on-glide as in run or red there occur only a few distinguishing differences among the dialect regions. There are however, many phonetic situations where the General American speaker uses r as an off-glide but where the typical New Englander or Southerner drops the sound or uses a non rcolored glide. The word car for instance, would be kar in GA but might be k : in some other regions. Note that the vowel is characteristically lengthened in this case (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:345). There are also some differences of the definition on /r/. For example, the American r is classified as a voiced linguapalatal glide. It is produced by the gliding movements of the organs of articulation. (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987: 345). The retroflex- r, when it functions as a consonant is considered to be a liquid… .. Thus, at the beginning of a word and followed by a vowel, the retroflex r typically functions as a consonant while at the peak of a syllable it appears to function as a vowel low (Wolfram and Johnson, 1982: 21). The alveolar continuant , produced with the tongue blade raised towards the alveolar ridge and the sides of the tongue in contact with the molars, forming a narrow channel down the middle of the tongue, heard in many kinds of English including RP (Davenport and Hannahs, 1998: 32). Thus, these definitions indicate that it is bound to be pronunciation problem causer to non-native speaking teachers and trainees because of its tap, flap, and retroflex allophones. Confusion: Different Definitions on TAPS and FLAPS There is a serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps because there are many dubious definitions on them (Platt et al., 372 ; Ladefoged , 2006: 171-172) Some phoneticians distinguish between taps and flaps in terms of the articulatory movements involved (Crystal, 2008: 477). Phonetically dubious definitions of terms are harmful to learners since they curtail and blur the learning process. Often there is no strict distinction between taps and flaps (Bussman,1996:1178). Trask (1996:146) states, the confusion of definition on them must be avoided. Similarly, some phoneticians distinguish systematically between flaps and taps, on the grounds that in the case of flaps the articulator which makes the contact is returning to a position of rest, whereas in the case of taps this is not so, and the contact 897 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo resembles a very rapid stop articulation (Crystal, 2008: 191). This is a very sensible definition that carries phonetic plausibility. The term retroflex is a phonetic classification of consonant sound on the basis of place of articulation. It ―refers to a sound made when the tip of the tongue is curled back in the direction of the front part of the hard palate – in other words, just behind the alveolar ridge. The degree of retroflexion varies considerably between sounds and dialects. The quality of r sounds traditionally associated with American English, and with many rural British English dialects (especially in the South West), illustrates one main group of retroflex sounds‖ (Crystal, 2008: 415). There are two basic varieties of retroflex-r in NAE. The first one is the retroflex flap-r during the articulation of which the tip of the tongue raised up to the hard palate to touch in a back-bounded manner; that‘s why it is retroflex flap-r. For the tongue tip raised version, the tip of the tongue (apico) is elevated and points directly towards the rear of the alveolar ridge (postalveolar). For the retroflex articulation, the body of the tongue is hallowed and the tongue is bent backwards in a more retroflex position. Here the term apico refers to the underside of the tongue as it curls backward approximating the front portion of the palatal area (prepalatal) (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140- A great majority of Turkish learners of English and teachers on-the-job do not articulate it in the retroflex position, but pronounce it as Turkish /r/, which is very much similar to British-r in word-initial positions and before or after consonants. An other common articulation is the so-called bunched /r/. It has the following specific feaure of articulation: The middle part of the tongue is raised (mediodorsal) toward the middle part of the hard palate (mediopalatal); the tongue tip is relatively low, near and behind the front lower incisors. In addition, the tongue is retracted into a compact ―bunched form‖, giving this articulation its characteristic name (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140. According to IPA notation system, the bunched system does not have a representative phonetic symbol, the tongue-tip-raised version is / /, and the symbol / / is used for retroflexed central approximant (BaumanWaengler, 2009: 141). (Retroflex-r) (Bunched-r) Figure 1: Adapted from (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140) 898 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 2: Adapted from (Bauman-Waengler, 2009:140) (Combined Form) The articulations of Turkish teachers on NAE-r do not even approximate to this bunched form of /r/. Instead, they articulate it as they do in BrE-r in the environments of word-initial and post consonantal positions, the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar/dental teeth ridge that is almost like the Turkish form in terms of point and place of articulation, which boils down to mean that Turkish – r and British – r are very similar, as seen in in figure 3. Figure 3: British English –r (Adapted from: Kelly, 2000: 51) Conclusion The transcription of /r/ phoneme appears to be confusing right from the beginning because the r sounds have been transcribed in such a variety of ways and phonetic symbols in the IPA system. There is a considerable disagreement on the phonetic nature of flapped-/r/ in NAE; two forms of utterances are accepted: retroflex and bunched shapes. One of their observations is that NAE retroflexed / / is actually produced by a raised, laminal tongue blade, and not a curled tongue blade, but with a curled apex. In fact, a flap is a retroflex tap. The Turkish teachers can never approximate to this position because no comparable r-sound exists in the phonemic inventory of Turkish. In the bunched form of articulation the tip of the tongue is relatively kept low, but Turkish teachers again cannot approximate their r-articulations to the bunched form either. Turks tend to approximate their r-articulation through a phonetically oriented neutralization process in all environments. Apparently, both the phonetic characteristics and phonological structure of a speaker's native language are also influential on this issue. In fact, /r/ is also difficult sound to be acquired infantile speech for Americans (Shriberg, 1993; Sander, 1972) and Turkish infantile speech as well. It is notoriously difficult for American children to learn to produce (McGowan et al., 2003). Sander (1972) reported that the median age for acquisition of /r/ for American children was 3 years, and it was not until age 6 years that 90% of children produced /r/ correctly. By nature and composition as a speech sound, /r/ in itself poses an intrinsic difficulty for the non-native language teachers. Foreign speakers have a multitude of problems with the r sounds. A principal reason is that many modern languages have r‘s that differ conspicuously from the American. When the foreign sound is carried into English, the result may be a very prominent dialect feature. The fact that foreigner‘s native sound bears some general resemblance to American r may make learning the r all the more difficult (Tiffany and Carrell, 1987:346; Yamada and Tohkura, 1992) One of the greatest difficulties seems to be teaching the foreign speaker to treat r as a retroflex or bunched form. Such a difficulty of pronunciation inefficiency, which damages the beauty of pronunciation and points to the heavy existence of native accent in the subjects, waits to be rehabilitated. 899 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Baker, A. (1981). Ship or Sheep? An Intermediate Pronunciation Course, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Baker, A. (1993). Introducing English Pronunciation. A Teacher‘s Guide to Tree or Three and Ship or Sheep. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Bauman-Waengler, J. (2009). Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology: From concepts to Transcription. Boston: Pearson. Bussmann, H. (1998). Routledge Dictionary of Language and linguistics. London: Routledge. Carr, P. (2008). A Glossary of Phonology. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd. 900 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (76th ed.). Maldon: Blackwell Publishing Company. Davenport, M. and Hannahs, S. J. (1998). Introducing phonetics and phonology. London: Arnold. Kelly, G. (2008). How to Teach Pronunciation. Longman: Pearson Education Limited. Ladefoged, P. and Maddieson, I. (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. Malmkj r, C. (1995). The Linguistics Encycplopedia. London: Routledge McGowan, R. S. and Nittrouer, S. and Manning, C. (2004). Development of in young, Midwestern, American children. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 115, February 2004, 871-884. Richards, J. C., Platt, J, and Platt, H. (1992). Dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman Group Limited. Roach, P. (2009). Glossary. A little Encyclopeida of phonetics. Sander, E. K. (1972). ‗‗When are speech sounds learned?‘‘ J. Speech Hear Disord. 37, 55–63. Skandera, P. and Burleigh, P. (2005). A manual of English Phonetics and Phonology. Gunter: Narr Verlag Tùbingen. Shriberg, L.D. (1993). Four new speech and prosody-voice measures for genetic research and other studies in developmental phonological disorders. J. Speech Hear. Res. 36, 105-140. Tiffany, W. and Carrell, J. (1987). Phonetics: Theory and Application. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Trask, R. L. (1996). Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology. London: Routledge. Wolfram, W and Johnson, R. (1982). Phonological analysis: Focus on American English. Englewood Cliffs, N. J: Prentice-Hall, Inc., p. 24). Yamada, R.A., Tohkura, Y. (1992). Perception of American English /r/ and /l/ by native speakers of Japanese. In Tohkura, Y., Vatikiotis-Bateson, E., Sagisaka, Y. (Eds.), Speech Perception, Production, and Linguistic Structure. IOS Press, Burke, VA. 901 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 554 Title A name given to the resource The Difficulty of North American – r: an Analysis as a Pronunciation Difficulty Author Author Demirezen, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. The American-r phoneme, whose IPA sign is , which is a retroflex case of pronunciation, represents a very serious stumbling block in teaching standard American pronunciation to Turks. Due to use of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum, the American English phoneme / / has long been associated with relatively large amounts of articulatory variabilities as tap, flap, approximant, and the like. The endpoints of the articulatory continuum for / / can be analyzed via functionally different articulatory configurations with the accompaniment of different primary articulators (tongue tip vs. tongue dorsum). These endpoints as a different type of / / have been characterized in the literature as ―bunched‖ which means the use of tongue dorsum and ―retroflexed‖ that signifies the use of the tongue blade/tip, which gets to be a pronunciation difficulty for Turkish teachers of English. The primary purpose of the current study is to investigate the problematic pronunciation issue of American English /r/ phoneme for Turks. The goal of the present study is twofolded. The first goal is to solve the serious confusion in the definition of taps and flaps, and the second is to explore the phonetic context of word-initial-medial-final flapping of / / into retroflexion in North American English (NAE) and tapping in British English (BrE) via its ambiguous perception by Turks due to such observable entities, namely, preceding or following sound, intervocalic positioning through phonotactics and crosslanguage phonetic interference. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bef3ef51a45240643689431efd06a0bb.pdf 7e885757e04714e099c25f1f964ddf98 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Why objectives in teaching English? Shpresa Delija Faculty of Foreign Language Semantics Applied Linguistic and Glotodidactica Tirana University Albania delija.sh@gmail.com Abstract: Being under constant political, economical and social change especially after the 90-s our country has had an urgent need to change its education system. So in recent years, the Albanian Government has shown great interest in teaching and learning English in accordance with European standards by amending new laws (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) to promote English teaching and learning in order to meet the needs and interests of students. In order to make English teaching available for our students it is important to lead EFL teachers towards successful teaching, which means having a well designed lesson plan via well organized objectives. As Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky say in their book (1999, 22), objectives will be addressed concurrently and throughout the course, which means that without objectives there will be no language lesson. So the paper deals with the reasons why teachers need to be upgraded professionally and how objectives help them enhance language teaching in their language classes. The paper also gives answers to the following questions: What principles should the language teachers consider while setting objectives? Why should they follow them? How do students benefit from a well planned lesson plan? Data collection from these questions pointed out the importance of professionalism in teaching English in our schools. Identifying the reasons of the big changes made teachers become aware of their professional development in order to implement contemporary teaching methods. Key words: design lesson plan, implement teaching methods, objectives, professionalism, set objectives. Why objectives in teaching English? Over the last 21 years Albania has changed a lot in all spheres of life, education system included. The opening of Albania to Europe and the world set big tasks to the people to learn foreign languages especially English as an international means of communication. People of all ages and especially young people love to go abroad for different reasons: study, work, research or travel. So learning English as a foreign language has become a necessity for every one by making it a must. Nowadays, English teaching and learning comprise an important part of the school curricula, which reflect the National Strategy for the Development of pre university education (2008) that states Foreign languages policy of the Ministry of Education and Science are designed and applied in accordance with the development in our country and in concert with the EU policy in this regard, following two basic EU directives, multilingualism and intercultural education. Being the Government‘s priority new laws and amendments are passed by the Government and the Parliament in order to further develop English teaching in Albania. According to the Law of the Higher Education in Albania (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) everyone has the right to be educated, and in 2012 the high school students are not going to do four exams but five, where English is obligatory (Revista Mësuesi no.1, 2010). Therefore, great tasks were set forth to the English teachers to change their way of teaching that leads towards communicative learning. The need to regulate the Albanian school system to the European standards and to the levels of foreign language competence as described by the Council of Europe (The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) 2002), asks for professional English teachers that meet the above standards. There is a growing demand for wellqualified EFL teachers who are able to teach communicatively but also have the desire and responsibility for growing professionally in order to keep up with the changing needs and interests of their students. This demand can be met if methods of teaching and learning are modified in line with 1123 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the curricula and syllabus objectives in oder to provide them with language skills. As Don Snow has pointed out (2007, 3, 19) students‘learning depends ultimately on their own efforts and the teachers on their own side should be reasonably successful learners of English, which means that they themselves should give their students a better understanding of how to learn and use the language correctly. In 2005 an analysis of the higher education in Albania was made in order to see which statndards were to be fulfilled hence the implimentation of Bologna System would be easier. This study concerned the following: a) Get sufficient information about Bologna System; b) Teaching quality in our schools; c) ELP for university and high school students d) Language text books and other teaching materials. In the study, therefore, we, faculty teaching staff made a deep analysis of all the problems we encountered such as the qualification of teaching staff in line with the European standards in education, authentic textbooks, the design of ELP, and improvement of teaching methods. We made a deep analysis on these problems, and after getting the sufficient information about Bologna System, and then afterwards we started to apply it in all levels of high education. These changes asked for teaching quality in English and the best thing to start with was through setting clear objectives and goals in teaching. Focus on Objectives The focus of this paper is on the importance the teacher growth has in setting clear objectives and goals during the course planning. Don Snow emphasizes the idea that the goals of the language course serve as the focus around which everything else is built (2007, 37). Through a good planning of the course the teachers know where their students are going. They also lead students to climb up the ladders of the language knowledge towards the acquisition of communicative language skills through cooperative learning, thus making possible the throw out of their traditional lessons (Spencer Kagan & Miguel Kagan, 2009, 1.5, 1.6). There are two assumptions in this research: Why professionalism in the teaching process and Why objectives help teaching EFL? The first assumption has to do with learning teaching and how teachers could be throughout the teaching career (Jim Scrivener, 2009, 370). They should understand curriculum content and goals, including the subject matter and skills to be taught, and the students‘ needs as well. Teachers should know their students‘ needs and interests and at the same time they should know how their students learn and develop during the teaching and learning process within social contexts. The second assumption concerns the way teachers should set objectives in order to accomplish successfully their duty. Course aims and objectives should be: a) explicit and shared, b) knowledgeable and c) practicable (Angi Malderez & Caroline Bodòczky, 1999, 22 – 23). In studies conducted about Teacher Education by Viljo Kohonen (2002, 40) it is stated that teachers should clarify their personal aims and interests for themselves to promote reflective learning. He goes further with the idea of the teacher‘s portfolio as a tool for teachers to get upgraded professionally (40). To have portfolio teachers need to know how to identify students‘ needs and interests which help them set course objectives in order to cascade them in objectives for their lesson plans. This assertion was based on research which has shown that without group discussion you cannot come to the right solutions. Providing teachers with sufficient knowledge on teaching and learning objectives results from the research prove that training teachers how to design course objectives should influence professional development of teachers. Method In the context of the drawbacks traditional teaching methods have I constructed a study to identify teachers‘ professional development via the set of teaching objectives that could benefit English language student teachers in Albania. I started with the proposition that teachers‘ growth could affect better organized course design and lesson plans, which, with well designed objectives, could affect English language learning. Participants I did a case-study which was focused on some questions addressed to some student teachers (A), newly assigned teachers (B), and experienced teachers in 5 primary schools in Tirana. I examined the following research questions: 1124 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A: What pedagogical skills and strategies should the student teachers need to have in EFL learning and teaching? B: What methods can be used to create a communicative language environment in your classes? Both groups of participants of this research (A and B) answered the above questions, which data was used for this study. Group A and B were composed of student teachers and newly assigned teachers, whose goal in life was to become English language teachers in undergraduate levels of schooling. The young teachers teach in 5 primary schools, whereas the student teachers study to become English teachers. There were mainly 10 newly assigned teachers and 20 student teachers, all of them females of 21 – 26 years old. They were selected randomly. There were no male because there are few male teachers in the primary schools in Albania. It has not yet become a profession for men to teach young learners. The study occurred in a six - month period (January- June 2008), in course of which I observed the needs and interests of the respective study groups. I handed out questionnaires and then interviewed the young teachers and the student teachers as well. I had talks with them in order to get sufficient data for my research. I made the interviews once in a month for three months in a row (from January – April). The interviews concerned professional development of the young EFL teachers in Albania. Each interview lasted 15 minutes. There were experienced teachers that participated in this research. They played mostly a shaded role but of student teachers‘ benefit. The student teachers and the newly assigned teachers observed the experienced teachers‘ lessons for exchanging experiences. Procedure The data was collected at the end of April 2009 from all the actors that took part in the study. I interviewed them randomly. I interviewed the newly assigned and the student English language teachers at different times of the day to get to know better their needs, interests and their mood. I used these techniques for the interview because I wanted to judge them from the psychological point of view and what the effect their mental state at different times of the day gave on the teaching process. I evaluated their background in English as well. I involved these actors in the study in order to better see how teacher professionalism can help learning in the English class. The student teachers also observed 10 English classes in primary schools and attended the classes of experienced teachers in order to see the pedagogy they used. The student teachers talked with the experienced teachers and noted down the skills and the strategies they should have as future teachers to make the lessons effective. After the observed lesson they exchanged ideas about teaching and especially about course design and lesson plan. They were concerned mainly in the setting of course and lesson plan objectives. During the observation of the EFL classes the student teachers were divided into groups of five because classes are very big in the Albania. As the focus in this study was to find ways to professionalize EFL teaching I asked the student teachers to dot down all the steps that experienced teachers used during their teaching. The student teachers contrasted their teaching with their own theoretical background together with the theory they were provided at the university. So, during the observation 5 student teachers focused on lesson planning mainly on objectives, the next 5 focused on course design mainly on course objectives, the other 5 focused on the objectives of the tests, and the last 5 focused on the objectives the learners have set for their own learning. I used the following rubrics for the observation, questionnaires, and the interview. The ranking was: ―strongly disagree,‖ ―disagree,‖ ―neutral,‖ ―agree‖ and ―strongly agree‖, and the ranking of ―never‖, ―sometimes‖, and ―always‖. Participants in this study collected data about classroom setting, classroom conditions, the students conduct during the English lesson, the teachers‘ behavior and their communication in class (gestures, eye contact, and intonation). The use of all these techniques in data collection provided me with evidence from which strategies and teaching tips were identified. Findings and Results Data collected from the interviews, questionnaires and observations are presented in Tables 1, 2, and 3 in the Appendix. The data were not only in quantity but also qualitative while examining the questions. In examining the collected data either in quality or quantity, there were clear distinctions between what the student teachers get at the university and what they face in the real life in the schools they have started teaching. So the newly assigned teachers confessed that they never face the same situation as they are taught at school. Four of them said that they are sometimes treated well by the senior teachers, and what is very much to be deserved is the training. They never get training at schools, which affect their teaching and especially the setting of the course and lesson objectives. As for their psychological state concerning teaching during the parts of the day they emphasized that they always feel good while teaching in the morning. This shows that in the morning they are fresh and full of energy to give their utmost in their teaching process. This means that they sleep well during the night which according to Gais and Born (2001) sleep debt affects considerably the teachers‘ thinking and mood, whereas Sirito 1125 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (2003) says that lack of sleep brings loss of energy, lethargy and emotional instability. The teachers‘ mood in teaching is very important during the teaching process. The merrier, the more tranquiller, the more organized and the more love they put on their teaching, the better the results are on the students and the teachers‘ sides. Class conditions also affect teaching. According to the results of table 1 I may say that classroom environment in the piloted schools does not attract the language learners towards a standardized learning, which needs to be improved. Conclusion This study gives evidence on the importance of teacher training at school and outside it. It also emphasizes the fact that EFL course design and lesson plans in terms of clear set objectives are very crucial in teaching in line with the European standards. It is also important to point out what works best in teaching EFL to student teachers and the newly ones in order to give them the possibility to get developed professionally. The collected data provided by all the actors in this study made possible the identification of the actual situation in our schools and what is more important the tasks set for the national trainers in order to apply teacher trainings in the schools. Training EFL teachers and especially the young teachers for professional growth can be applied in all the schools in Albania. This will increase the desire for students to learn English better and at the same time it will motivate the student teachers to teach professionally. 1126 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky (1999), Mentor Course A resource book for trainer-trainers, 2223. Don Snow, (2007), From Language Learner to Language Teacher, 3, 19. Gais, S., Plihal, W., Wagner, U and Born, J., 2000. Midlife in Insomnia. National Neuroscience Journal, 13 Pp 1335 – 1339. Jim Scrivener, (2009), Learning Teaching, 370. Julian Edge, Continuing Professional Development, 2002, 40. Sirota, A., Csisovari, J. Buhl, D and Buzsaki, G., 2003. Proceeding of National Academy of Science, U.S.A. 100: Pp 2065 – 2069. Spencer Kagan & Miguel Kagan, 2009, Kagan Cooperative Learning. 1.5, 1.6. Revista Mësuesi no. 1, May 2010. The Law on Higher Education amended by a new law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010 Strategjia Kombëtare për Arsimin e Lartë ‗SKALA‘ - 2008-2013 APPENDIX 1 Table 1. Observation by student teachers and newly assigned teachers Strongly Disagree Neutral disagree Lessons are done in lively and comfortable classrooms. Quotes and posters on the walls inspire teaching. Bulletin boards are found in all the language classrooms. Students are interested in the language lesson. Teachers are kind, helpful and do their best to upgrade professionally. Language teachers attract their students by using authentic materials in class. Teachers use only communicative teaching methods Students are always in the center of teaching. Total 15 - - 12 - 8 3 13 14 Agree Strongly agree 3 22 - 15 10 5 - 20 7 - 4 - 3 7 - 13 5 - - 11 3 - 20 12 66 37 73 49 15 15 APPENDIX 2 1127 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Never Sometimes Always Table 2 The interview to the newly assigned teachers 3 4 5 1 2 APPENDIX 3 1. Are you faced with the same teaching situation you were taught at school? 2. Do you find a friendly situation in the school since at the very beginning of the school year? 3. Do you exchange experience with the older teachers at your school? 4. Do you get teacher training at your school by the senior teachers? 5. Do you read professional books in order to develop professionally? 6. Have you observed classes from the experienced teachers? 7. Do all of you talk about your teaching methods and especially about course objectives? 8. Do you find setting objectives to your teaching difficult? 8. Do you feel good while teaching in: a. the morning? b. the afternoon? c. the evening? TOTAL 10 - - - - 6 4 - - - 3 5 - - 2 - - - 10 - 2 - 8 - - 6 - - - - 25 2 4 - 3 31 7 - - 3 20 8 Always 4 - 3 1 2 - 4 Never Sometimes 8 5 1128 37 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Do student teachers study teaching because they have a goal in their life? 2. Do they take part in micro-teaching while they have seminars in class? 3. Are they conscious of what they study and why they study teaching English? 4. Do you find teaching English interesting? 14 7 5. Does teaching make you feel always inspiring? 2 6. Are the teaching materials useful for you in the future career? 3 6 12 8 16 4 3 10 12 6 9 7. Do you set objectives easily? 9 5 3 12 8. Do setting objectives help you in your teaching? TOTAL 20 - 33 62 - 1129 10 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 591 Title A name given to the resource Why objectives in teaching English? Author Author Delija, Shpresa Abstract A summary of the resource. Being under constant political, economical and social change especially after the 90-s our country has had an urgent need to change its education system. So in recent years, the Albanian Government has shown great interest in teaching and learning English in accordance with European standards by amending new laws (law no. 10 307, dated 22.07.2010) to promote English teaching and learning in order to meet the needs and interests of students. In order to make English teaching available for our students it is important to lead EFL teachers towards successful teaching, which means having a well designed lesson plan via well organized objectives. As Agni Malderez and Caroline Bodòczky say in their book (1999, 22), objectives will be addressed concurrently and throughout the course, which means that without objectives there will be no language lesson. So the paper deals with the reasons why teachers need to be upgraded professionally and how objectives help them enhance language teaching in their language classes. The paper also gives answers to the following questions: What principles should the language teachers consider while setting objectives? Why should they follow them? How do students benefit from a well planned lesson plan? Data collection from these questions pointed out the importance of professionalism in teaching English in our schools. Identifying the reasons of the big changes made teachers become aware of their professional development in order to implement contemporary teaching methods. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f3bb53c815d9f0a70fbf423a47615638.pdf 65264272179df15a2d44210367ffab69 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Izabela DankiĤ Faculty of Philosophy University of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina izabela.dankic@gmail.com Abstract: Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Key Words: practitioner research, teacher training, reflective practice Introduction In FL language teacher education, it is assumed that student teachers need to acquire the knowledge taught in introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses to become effective practitioners. The extent of impact of these courses on pre-service teacher beliefs, knowledge and practice is the subject of many debates and studies. Some even claim that teacher education courses seem to have little impact (Woods, 1996; Peacock, 2001; Lo, 2005; Busch, 2010) because students resist changing their pre-existing beliefs and position on learning resulting from their previous experiences. Therefore, they suggest that pre-service teachers should take into account the belief systems of their students in order to improve the outcome of training and promote reflective teaching since it seems to have a stronger effect on the belief systems than exclusive declarative knowledge teaching. Mann (2005, p. 108) points out that findings of several studies indicate that more reflective teachers are better able to monitor, make real-time decisions and respond to the changing needs of learners than less reflective teachers‖. Reflection, reflective practice or reflective teaching are all terms which are differently defined, but they encompass processes which involve ―meta-thinking (thinking about thinking) in which we consider the relationship between our thoughts and our actions in a particular context‖ (Shkedi, 2000, p. 95)‖ or ―inner dialogue‖ (Mann, 2005, p. 33). Loughran states that ―for others, it [reflective practice] is a well defined and crafted practice that carries very specific meaning and associated action‖ (Loughran, 2002, p. 33). Reflective teaching can also be seen as „an approach to teaching which is based on a belief that teachers can improve their understanding of teaching and the quality of their own teaching by reflecting critically on their teaching experiences‖ (Richards, 2002, p. 23). They are to collect data on their own teaching practices by recording them, to reflect on their actions through journal writing and to review them by discussing them with their peers or by examining the recordings (Richards, 2002, p. 23). Halbach (2002) reports in her research that all entries made by teachers in their reflective journals could be classified into three types: summarizing, exemplifying and commenting. Amobi (2005) discusses a framework for analyzing reflectivity. It consists of four categories: describing, informing, confronting and reconstructing. She asked the teacher trainers to direct their attention in their teaching journals to answering these three questions in order for her to be able to construct their ―reflective thinking on their teaching practice‖ (Amobi, 2005, p. 119) according to the four categories: 1) What did I intend to do in this lesson? (informing) 2) What did I do? (confronting and reconstructing) 3) What would I do differently if I were to teach this lesson again? (confronting and reconstructing) The subjects in Amobi‘s study had minimal difficulties answering the first two questions, but some of them experienced problems in answering the third question related to confronting and reconstructing aspect of reflection. 656 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Different personal, professional and contextual factors may contribute to problems related to the teacher‘s ability to reflect, and, therefore, Stanley (1998) introduces several phases in the development of reflective teaching which involve engaging in reflection, thinking, using, sustaining and practicing reflection. Although many experts agree on the importance of reflection in pre-service teacher training, practitioners indicate that some students might find it difficult to reflect. One of the reasons stated was that some students could not see any value in writing reflections (Gunn, 2010, p. 218). We decided to explore the extent to which a reflective approach to teacher training is suitable for the students of English language and literature at the Mostar University (Bosnia and Herzegovina). The Outline of the Study The courses under study are the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University. These students study to become English teachers and it is expected that after these courses they will master basic theoretical postulates behind the second language acquisition and methods of teaching English. The practical experience of teaching in these courses is limited to peer teaching each other (microteaching experience) and the real classroom experience (field experience) is a separate course and left for the last semester of their education. The Mostar University is a public university, but due to the difficult financial and political situation, it is forced to find outside sources to support its operations. As far as the English teaching program is concerned, the lack of field experience is not felt in the long run due to the mandatory requirement that all graduates planning to work as teachers must pass a state teaching exam which among other requirements asks from students to observe, teach and study for a lengthy period of time with the state appointed mentors who are experienced elementary and/or secondary school English teachers. Using the principled framework of Exploratory Practice (EP), we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in these classes in order to follow their development. We have decided to apply EP because it is an approach to practitioner research which is devoted to understanding the quality of foreign language classroom life. In teaching pre-service teachers to develop reflective habits of mind, it is recommended that teacher educators determine the content to be reflected on and the quality of reflection (Valli, 1997). The present study inquired into reflective practice of pre-service teachers when asked to revisit their experience in the observed classes, their teaching actions and peers‘ and teacher‘s evaluation in a microteaching experience. As Amobi (2005) successfully analyzed recurring themes of reflectivity, we have also decided to conduct the analysis of the themes of reflectivity but our analysis is based on the free participants reflective journals and their position papers after the observed courses. Participants and Instructional Procedures Participants (N=35) were students enrolled in the fourth year second language acquisition (SLA) course and later as the fifth year students in a general methods (GM) course in 2010. They ranged in age from 22- 26 with no prior teaching experience. These courses met for 135 minutes once a week for 15 weeks. The SLA course did not include any microteaching. Students were required as a part of this course to write a journal which might include reflections on their experiences in the class, content and issues covered in the course, assignments they had to complete or in general to contribute to the class through their own critical thinking. The GM course did not include any field experience, but one microteaching activity. The students prepared a micro-lesson to teach to their peers exclusively using one of the 10 selected modern methods. This activity was commented on by the peers after the lesson, but was evaluated by the teacher. Data Collection and Analysis Processes We gathered the data during the courses from the participants‘ journals and in the GM course also from the post-course reflection in the form of 5-6 page long assumption paper in which they were asked to present their personal/philosophical perspective on the conclusions they were drawing about a particular assumption of teaching and learning based clearly on their readings, their experience in the course and their past experiences as a learner. Halbach (2002, pp. 245-246) writes that the type of reflection the students are able to produce and whether they comment on the course methodology indicates the effect of the course on their ability to be reflective and think critically. She distinguishes three degrees of reflection: - Summarizing – Students do not show any significant degree of introspection or reflection, but simply summarize the ideas and content covered in class. 657 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - Exemplifying – Students show a certain degree of introspection supported with their own experience as students. Commenting – As a result of meaningful reflection on the issues presented in the class, students comment and pose questions clearly indicating critical thinking. Findings and Discussion Judging from the type of reflection students were able to carry out at the end of the SLA course, only three students produced entries which reflected their own critical thinking. The rest of the students stayed at the level of exemplifying, with ten students staying at the level of summarizing. Only three of these students had struggled with the course material, and eventually needed more time to complete requirements and pass the course later than the other observed students The puzzle area was that none offered any comments in relation to the methodology used in the course, except for offering comments which can fall in the category of evaluation. We supposed that their awareness towards methodological questions has not been raised sufficiently as a result of their first encounter with such requirement. Nevertheless, the journal entries students kept for the GM course did not change. They were primarily made as a reflection to course readings and included limited introspection, although the classroom participation of the majority of students indicated active involvement and critical thinking. In discussion with them, we found out that there were several reasons for their limited journal entries. The first one was that they found that reflective and critical approach to writing consumes time which they decided not to spend on a requirement which carried only 10 % of their final grade. They also pointed out that they felt more comfortable to comment participating in classroom discussions, rather than to write their comments in the journal. When asked to explain this position they agreed that they would not be able to be direct and open, as they were when participating in the classroom discussions, because of the problems of how to put their comments in writing and also because these comments are a written record of their position. As one student said, they wanted to complete assignments to pass the course and they did not want to risk ―offending‖ the teacher if it turns out that their position is opposite to one presented by the teacher or if it questions the position of the teacher. In some other courses, they might risk having their grade lowered by being openly reflective. The advantage of the GM course in comparison to the SLA course was that students were required to write an assumption paper which would indicate whether attitudes to language learning/teaching changed as a result of the work done in the course. Halbach (2002) following the same group of students during two academic years found that rate of change was quite low and about half of her 23 students produced final paper which did not reflect communicative language teaching methodology the course was oriented towards. Unlike the students in the Halbach study, all students in our study reflected on the modern methods in their assumption papers. One could suggest that all students changed their attitudes towards learning/teaching upon completing this course. But, further analysis of their papers revealed that only six students offered reflective comments which would indicate critical thinking on selected aspects of modern methods, while 11 of them did not move beyond the first degree of reflection – summarizing. The others exhibited the second degree of reflection – exemplifying and reflected on their personal experiences. Only four students reflected on their experience related to the microteaching activity in the class. The students who were highly reflective were also the students whose English skills were more advanced in comparison to those who stayed at the level of summarizing. The Bologna reformed higher education allows English students to transfer courses which they do not successfully complete into next academic year, so it might happen that students are completing even 10 courses at the same time. If their English proficiency is not up to the requirement to freely reflect, the cause might be in low university entrance requirements and a system which allows students to combine courses, collect points and pass courses with minimal effort. Throughout their education from elementary school up to university in Bosnia and Herzegovina, students are not encouraged to critically think and reflect. Although the higher system of education got reformed, it is still heavily founded on the transmission of knowledge and students are required to reproduce it to prove that they have mastered it. Conclusions and Recommendations This short study points to similar results as Halbach found in her study. These English students in Mostar are not fully prepared for and open to reflection. Socio-cultural issues involving the educational system which does not encourage critical thinking and personal perspective which indicates that the objective is to complete the requirements to pass the course might suggest that reflective practice should not be encouraged. On the contrary, reflection should be used as a means to help the English students become aware of their teaching practice and themselves as learners and future teachers (Farell, 2004). Discussion proved to be a successful 658 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo instrument for finding the causes of resistance to reflection and teachers should not hesitate to use any means which would help their students become independent life-long learners and being reflective is just one of them. References Allwright, D. (2005). Developing principles for practitioner research: The case for exploratory practice. The Modern Language Journal, 89, iii, Amobi, F. (2005). Pre-service teachers‘ reflectivity on the sequence and consequence of teaching actions in a microteaching experience. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(1), 115-130 Busch, D. (2010). Pre-service teacher beliefs about language learning: The second language acquisition course as an agent of change. Language Teaching Research, 14 (3), 318-337. Farrell, T. S. C. (2004). Reflective practice in action. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press Halbach, A. (2002). Exporting methodologies: The reflective approach in teacher training. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15 (3), 243-250. Lo, Y. (2005). Relevance of knowledge of second language acquisition: An in-depth case study of a non-native EFL teacher. In N. Bartels Ed.), Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education: Vol. 4. Educational linguistics (pp. 135-158). New York: Springer. Loughran, J. J. (2002). Effective reflective practice: In search of meaning in learning about teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (1), 33-43. Mann, S. (2005). Language teacher‘s development. Language Teaching, 38, 103-118. Peacock, M. (2001). Pre-service ESL teachers‘ beliefs about second language learning: A longitudinal study. System, 29, 177-195. Richards, J. C. (2002). Theories of teaching in language teaching. In J. C. Richards and W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice (pp. 19-25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Shkedi, A. (2000). Educating reflective teachers for teaching culturally valued subjects: Evaluation of a teachertraining project. Evaluation and Research in Education, 14 (2), 94-110. Stanley, C. (1998). A framework for teacher reflectivity. TESOL Quarterly, 32(3), 584-591. Valli , L. (1997). Listening to other voices: A description of teacher reflection in the United States. Peabody Journal of Education, 72, 67-88. Woods, D. (1996). Teacher cognition in language teaching: Beliefs, decision-making, and classroom practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 659 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 98 Title A name given to the resource Student ―Resistance‖ to Reflection: Pre-service Teacher Training at the Mostar University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Dankić, Izabela Abstract A summary of the resource. Reflection is seen as an important contributor to teacher development, but many students offer resistance when asked to become reflective. Adopting the principled framework of Exploratory Practice, we investigated the student reaction when being asked to reflect on their own learning and teaching in the fourth and fifth year introductory foreign language acquisition and teaching methods courses at the Mostar University, (B-H). Some students showed resistance to keeping reflective journal and to examining their beliefs. This practitioner research is a contribution to current discussions on how to encourage students to become productively reflective. It is an attempt to help our understanding of reflection and its role in the professional lives of (E)FL teachers. It also suggests that the perceived resistance to reflection may involve personal and sociocultural issues. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics