86 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9cad8601c3e9f0fe1167f1125ff73eb4.pdf 7364156156640f846b48cfa38e6e6edb PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dreaminess in the Poetry of Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica Ghita-Nica Florentina Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Faculty of Letters and Arts Institution Address Blvd. Victoria, No.10, Sibiu, 550024, Romania County Sibiu, tel. 0269236207 floryghitanica@yahoo.com Abstract:The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the dreaminess occurs in the poetry of Petre Stoica, Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine. The method of diacronics followed by the symbolic one, have been used in the scientific stage of the work. Through an analytical approach there have been comments made on the lyrical vision, which expresses a passion for dreaming. Thus we have observed the favorable context for dreaming, that is the night. Night is the time dimension that opens an imaginary universe like a Russian doll, and poetry itself becomes a dream you do not want to ever wake up from. No wonder the poet is associated with the myth of Scheherazade, who has to tell a story every night in order to survive. The theme of death is present in the poem as it is said that during sleep the soul leaves the body and travels (this is a Romantic specific motif), from which emerged the idea that, because of its journey, the soul which returned to its body that was let to sleep, might not recognize the body and the man is fated to die. The motif of the mirror is also one that expresses duplication and also the gateway to a mysterious beyond. Thus, the dream imagery of the three poets mentioned previously is recognized by a variety of images whose isomorphisms reflect overflowing exultation. One of them is the product of an agreement by which the poetic spirit forgets its own finitude, living the bliss of integration into an indeterminate reality, which is present in the isomorphic images of light, a dreaming that integrates it. Keywords:night, mirror, dream, love, death Introduction Petre Stoica's originality of poetry is to promote neomodernist aesthetic directions such as George Badarau says: the vision of the poem is a dream, and in a dream plans can be combined with different images; literature is an area of ambiguity, of allusions, of connotation; the sentimental story is not a value in itself but is only a pretext ; the words are true characters of a sentimental story ; the theme of creation is intertwined with the theme of love ; the artist is a man with creative powers, who sublimates his passions, as he lives (2007, p.9) . Method of the Study The research method used to achieve this was the comparative essay. I noticed the way by which it is revealed the idea of dreaminess to each of the three poets: Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica. With this first method we found a bridge between modernist and neomodernist poetry .This binder is that the modernist and neomodernist poet is, according Al.MuĢina's claim, a producer, generating reality, it is not an imitator. He produces objects that are inserted in reality with real objects that are inserted alongside the existing objects, it produces objective correlative. Moreover, what the poet produces higher (...) is reality. Wedding poems are signs of ideas. The poet is not making copies of copy, he indicates in the real world, second, the Idea (1994, p.102). Comparative method was seconded to the analytical. Through it we managed to find similar lyrical visions. AscultaţiCitiţi fonetic 502 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion It is necessary to report to the symbolic importance of night, the one that provides the favorable background for the refuge in the imagination, in order to show the dream state characteristic to the lyrical self. Jean Ferre (2003, p.82) says that at the Greeks, Nyx (the Night) was the daughter of Chaos and the mother of Uranus and Gaia. Her other offsprings were the Sleep and Death. The Celts, who think that the world was in darkness at the beginning, start their day during nighttime. They also considered the nights, and not the days, like other people did. The night is the time for discretion, of the secrets, of guilty relationships. It is the nighttime when Leander joins Héro, when Léa knew, when Dagda met Boann and Uther Pendragon made love to Ygerne. However, night is obscure for a period of time. After night, day comes and there is light. James Hall (1974. p.286) himself presented this concept of night, who considers that in the vision of the Renaissance humanists, Night and Day were destructive powers which continuously showed the inexorable passage of time and even decay and death. This is why they are sometimes represented as rodents, as a white rat and a black rat, generally. Personified night floats in the sky, sometimes in a blue starry blanket. It may have a child in each arm, a white one, who is Sleep, and a black one, who is Death. Her usual attributes are a chovet, the masks (which can be worn by putti) and poppies, sometimes as a crown. Night is sometimes accompanied by Morfeus asleep, the God of Dreams, which may himself be crowned with poppies (Giordano, Riccardi Palace, Florence). She is well seated, with folded wings, her head in her hands and the two children asleep beside her. Here is how many representations and meanings the night has, so that a meaning continues the other and undoubtedly they leave their marks on the poetry in question. But, Michel Pastoureau (1992, p.134) observes that in the imaginary and the iconographic codes, the night is less colorful, less variegated than it is described in the vocabulary. It is almost always bleak: black, gray, brown and especially blue. Indeed, in picture the night is often more blue than black. It was already this case in the Age of Enlightenment in the Painture of Middle Ages and it is still in the advertising posters, in books for children (but not in children's drawings, which are almost always yellow and not black) and comics. And starting from this idea, we will highlight some night‘s associations with the dream, of the book of dreams with the world of childhood where imagination is in expansion and every event requires importance due to the force of its expressiveness. For example, the poem entitled Dreamers Who Leave written by Petre Stoica (1970, p.30) is a surrealist one, and the inverted grotesque vision of death is felt by the image of the slaughterhouse (the slaughterhouse is one of Baudelaire‘s phrases, like the dream, a phrase of Baudelaire and Verlaine, but we talk about it later): After last night's hail the road signs were changed romance number four leads to the hemlock area where at dawn I put a wreath on the tomb of Marshal Till Owl Mirror tango seven points us to the slaughterhouse under the emblem with tibia the peacock rotates invariably the disc of happiness quadrille nine points to the way to the port dreamers who go will find certainty in the belly of the shark there is also colophony listen to the propellers there are also other indicators equally accurate important is just to grease the machine for automatic thoughts otherwise you violate the traffic law and without your will you become a cavy breeder. To be absorbed by this image of death, the lyric self creates the word [Owl Mirror]. So the mirror is a motif through which it is made the passage to another world, to extramundane, although we apparently find the idea of the existence of a time machine, a machine that allows human movement in a mythical ancestral time, and why not, which is operated by the desire of the lyric self to walk through the past and future. We said earlier that there is a trinitarian similarity between Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine and Petre Stoica. The three, and there may be others but we have not looked at other fields, share the dream, which they include in some poems. Here it is one of Verlaine‘s poems (2008, p.36), My Familiar Dream :Ascultaţi 503 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Citiţi foneticAscultaţiCitiţi fonetic [I often have some strange and striking dreams about an unknown girl, of love we share, each time the same, each time a different air about her swirls, who understands it seems. (…) A statue‘s sightless stare, the look she gave. Voice, - still echo of friends in the grave.] And Petre Stoica's poetry parallelism (1991, p.11), The Dream Comes on the Private Staircase: (…) The one that in my life was a pillar of amethyst entered in the blood of the flowers from the cemetery I sometimes ask for her on the phone but her voice is just a short shout of lamb //(…)// the skin tattooed by kisses is wrinkled the sweet seals are harsh to the touch they look like the hooves of the devil // (…). What is the common point of the two poets? The node would be the forms taken by the love for the beloved one. If for Verlaine, the beloved woman is an oneiric, anonymous creation that is charmful due to her silence which can be compared to the statues‘ one, the girlfriend died for the Romanian lyrical self, and the idea of communicating even after death, which is an impossible thing in the objective reality, is suggested by the painful feeling of her loss. But let us not forget Charles Baudelaire (2009, p.174) with his poem entitled The Dream of a Curious Person: [Have you known such savory grief as I? Do people say "Strange fellow !" whom you meet? my amorous soul, when I was due to die, Felt longing mixed with horror; pain seemed sweet. Anguish and ardent hope (no factious whim) Were mixed; (…) I felt that dreadful dawn around me grow With no surprise or vestige of a thrill. The curtain rose and I stayed waiting still.] For the latter poet, sweet love status can be confused with that of death as he is still waiting for the one to which he was fated. Desire and horror are feelings that express the ambiguity of feelings and hidden love by the idea of suggesting a show whose curtain had risen uncovering his heart. The curtain is a metaphor of night velvet, because, as I said first, it is the main factor of dream. There are three ways to love and three ways to survive by waiting, pain and, not least, by refusing the existence. I gave these three examples to highlight the similarity Petre Stoica's poetry to the two French poets mentioned above. And not by accident I did that, but to emphasize the preference for sonnet, the fixed-form poetry, that Shakespeare loved much. But, for Petre Stoica, the sonnet failed, because his poem is mixed. He does not keep rhyme nor pace, like Verlaine and Baudelaire did. But the intensity of reading the two made him not keep the curtain‘s motif stated by Baudelaire , in the Idyllic Poem from the volume Magritte‘s Pipe (2005, p.17): It is an evening identical to yesterday evening identical to all evenings in the town that during the day is dancing as a ballerina with one leg // it is an evening with a taste of rancid lard // behind the curtains behind the words 504 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the ideals merge with the TV fluid dreams have uncertain color aspirations fit in a single bowel emptied with fervor in the morning. In his discourse on dream interpretation, Sigmund Freud (1967, p.454) confesses that we shall recognize in dream manifestations two almost independent characters from each other. One is the currently scenic figuration (outline) and its omission could be, and the other one is turning thought into visual images and speech. Therefore, the importance in highlighting the lyrical self is given by images formation, which is updated. Thus Sigmund Freud ( 1967, p. 455 ) continues by saying that the mental place corresponds to the optical device (the device that forms the image) up to a certain point. In the case of the microscope and telescope, we say that these are ideal points that do not correspond to any tangible parts of the device. So image formation is made by the visual device, that is the eye. And our perceptions are united in our memory by each other, and this above all after their first meeting in simultaneity. We call this association.(…) Our memories and you should understand the most serious of us are part of the unconscious nature. They can be played in conscious, but there is no doubt that they can deploy all the effects they have in unconscious state. What we call our nature is based on our impressions memory pathways. And these are impressions that have the largest effect on us, those of early youth, which are almost never conscious. But if memories are part of consciousness, they do not express any sensitive or very poor quality compared to perceptions. If we now find the confirmation that the memory and quality that characterizes consciousness exclude each other in the system ( 1967, p.457-458 ) we see that the unconscious has the biggest power to preserve the all these memories and to re-create them by understanding the outside world, through knowledge. But knowing the objective world involves the subjective note when the lyrical self allows the imagination to work. Repression is the one that gets the value in the lyrical text as the self splits. It hides, while creating many alter-egos, for example in the poem entitled You Can Buy a Book of Dreams written by Petre Stoica ( 1970, p. 45) , the poet is in the position of the seller, of the merchant of illusions: Since you came to the fair autumn visit my stall investigate my concept of life here ladies here dear singers I have jars with homunculi to be exposed to the offices I have mirrors that show you a pure soul you can buy a grater so that you could grate at will your intelligence and horseradish your talent rank are still untouched on the cheap you can buy a book of dreams (roses you dream under tank tracks soon you will sing) at the same affordable price / (…) . The use of the self by the possessive pronoun ―my‖ expresses selfishness. Sophie Jama ( 1997, p. 124-125 ) specifies that the staging of the dream experience through words is obligatory achieved by the personal pronoun ―I‖ and it is based on an idea which is shifted in relation to its appearance. In this case, the linguistic expression of the subject is so famous that no attention is paid to it, when it is woken up. The linguistic expression itself gains a particular interest in the events from the dream that are remembered. (...) The dream forces us to have a meeting with ourselves. And this meeting is like a certificate for our neighbor, it is also inherent for the way we express. This fundamental point requires lengthy development but it has been facilitated by understanding the presented dream experiences, namely a clear return on the border concept regarding dreams, whose status is very high. The lyrics we mention to better express the idea of Sophie Jama are the following: I have mirrors that show you a pure soul you can buy a grater so that you could grate at will your intelligence and horseradish your talent rank are still 505 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo untouched on the cheap you can buy a book of dreams (roses you dream under tank tracks soon you will sing) at the same affordable price. We insisted to repeat them because Sophie Jama (1997, p.125 ) says that this feeling of the dreamer - the physical limit of the world awaked from the delirium of its sleep - coincides with the temporal and spatial memories that are different in relation to their occurrence and storage in the memory. The images of a dream have some points in common with the images we see in the mirror, this reflective surface which is the borderline between two separate areas. We reflect with a detachment from ourselves, being surrounded by a more or less known world, even though it is slightly distorted because the unconscious (in the Freudian sense) is undoubtedly expressed. It has to be mentioned that the unconscious ignores the social time. If some tangible actions have left no path in memory (they have left no trace in memory), their revenge is a dream, by the presence of the action that has not been lived yet, but which is remembered very well. Space and time – space and time overnight – are therefore void. This is the feeling transmitted by dream, because, in order to grasp the overall situation of the human experience, it is first necessary for someone to know the sensitivity level that allows him/her to ask questions. In a phenomenology of perception, the expression of the split of individual is an essential factor for the formation of all speeches attached to dream knowledge. This ability to communicate through language has as a result the particular position of the dream, the manner it is explained leading even to the role of human beings in the universe. Conclusions and Recommendations The poetry of triumvirate : Verlaine, Baudelaire and Petre Stoica is the triumph of a dream on a frustrating existence. The only thing that survives death is love. The three poets, put the theme of love under the sign of seduction into a fascination that allows to decipher the unpredictable reality of the mysteries of life and abyss. They use this technique of focusing on detail and the stop-frame on the unusual events that generated the image. 506 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Baudelaire, Charles. (2009) Les fleurs du mal.Paris: Pocket, Translation in http://www.rottentomatoes.com/vine/showthread.php?threadid=197334 Bădărau, George . (2007) Neomodernismul românesc.IaĢi: Institutul European Ferre, Jean. (2003)Dictionnaire des symboles, des mythes et des mythologies. Paris:Rocher Freud, Sigmund . (1967)L'interpretation des rêves.Paris: Press Universitaires de France Hall, James . (1974 )Dictionnaire des mythes et des symboles.Paris: Gérard Monfort Jama, Sophie . (1997) Anthropologie du rêve.Paris: Presses Universitaires de France Musina, Al. (1994) Poetica explorării în lirica sec.XX.Bucureşti, teză de doctorat Pastoureau, Michel . (1992) Dictionnaire des couleurs de notre temps.Symbolique et société.Paris:Bonneton Stoica, Petre . (1970) A box with snakes, Bucuresti:Cartea Românească Stoica, Petre . (1991) Dream comes on service scale, Bucuresti:Cartea Românească Verlaine, Paul (2008) Mon rêve familier, in Poèmes saturniens. Paris: Librairie Générale Française Translation by Jonathan Robin 18 April 1998 in http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/my-familiar-dreamtranslations-paul-verlaine-mon-r-ve-familier/ Thanks Research conducted under Project 7706 SOPHRD growing role of PhDs and PhD competitiveness in a united Europe financed by European Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources Development from 2007 to 2013. 507 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 76 Title A name given to the resource Dreaminess in the Poetry of Baudelaire, Verlaine and Petre Stoica Author Author Florentina, Ghita-Nica Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to highlight how the dreaminess occurs in the poetry of Petre Stoica, Charles Baudelaire and Paul Verlaine. The method of diacronics followed by the symbolic one, have been used in the scientific stage of the work. Through an analytical approach there have been comments made on the lyrical vision, which expresses a passion for dreaming. Thus we have observed the favorable context for dreaming, that is the night. Night is the time dimension that opens an imaginary universe like a Russian doll, and poetry itself becomes a dream you do not want to ever wake up from. No wonder the poet is associated with the myth of Scheherazade, who has to tell a story every night in order to survive. The theme of death is present in the poem as it is said that during sleep the soul leaves the body and travels (this is a Romantic specific motif), from which emerged the idea that, because of its journey, the soul which returned to its body that was let to sleep, might not recognize the body and the man is fated to die. The motif of the mirror is also one that expresses duplication and also the gateway to a mysterious beyond. Thus, the dream imagery of the three poets mentioned previously is recognized by a variety of images whose isomorphisms reflect overflowing exultation. One of them is the product of an agreement by which the poetic spirit forgets its own finitude, living the bliss of integration into an indeterminate reality, which is present in the isomorphic images of light, a dreaming that integrates it. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/91211652f363a0fd94660914435b66e9.pdf 5e92c4885f0ddceee24da9c051e7ce97 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RUTHENIAN-SERBIAN DICTIONARY Mihajlo Fejsa Faculty of Philosopy, Department of Ruthenian University of Novi Sad, Serbia / Vojvodina feysam@eunet.rs Abstract: After publishing the biligual Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српско-русински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк), in two volumes (Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1995; Institute for Textbooks, Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1997), the Julijan RamaĦ`s team started a new project – Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Русинскo-српски речник / Руско-сербски словнїк). In about ten years the team that consisted of four members succeeded in accomplishing the project sponsored by the Ministry of Science. The result is a voluminous bilingual dictionary published under the same title by the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians and the Department of the Ruthenian Studies in 2010. The characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: 1. stating the precise meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; 2. grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; 3. the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; 4. tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); 5. the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; 6. the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian philology has by all means been placed on a higher level among Slavic philologies. KEY WORDS: Bilingual dictionary, Ruthenian lexicography, Serbian lexicography, Vojvodina`s Ruthenians Introduction The Year 2010 was a historic year for the Ruthenian national community in Vojvodina / Serbia. This was the year when the long-awaited Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Руско-сербски словнїк / Русинско-српски речник), the first one of its kind, came into being. Editor-in-chief, Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, and the authors, besides Prof. RamaĦ (prepared the letters from A to Є), and the Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa (prepared the letters from Ж to Н), M.A. Helena Meħeńi (prepared the letters from O to Р) and Prof. Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko (prepared the letters from С to Я). The reviewers were Prof. Dr. Aleksander D. DuliĦenko from Tartu (Estonia) and Prof. Dr. Bogoljub StankoviĤ from Belgrade. Publishers were the Faculty of Philosophy - the Department of Ruthenian Studies and the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians. It is an undisputed fact that the Dictionary is a capital work of Ruthenian and Serbian lexicographies. As a matter of fact a three decades long project was completed by publishing the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary. Forty people were included in composing the first and so far the only lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language, ten people processed the cards and four linguists finalized this great lexicographical project by preparing the manuscript. The importance of the project is even greater if we bear in mind that the Vojvodinian Ruthenians present the smallest national minority, whose language is the official language of tthe Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. According to the last 2002 census there are 15,626 members of the Ruthenian national minority in Vojvodina, representing 0.77 % of the population of Vojvodina and 15,905 members in the Republic of Serbia, representing 0.2 % of the population of Serbia (Фејса, 2010: 190). Many more numerous peoples do not have such a dictionary. Before presenting the Ruthenian-Serbian dictionary, published in one volume, we need to remind that, chronologically, the publication of another capital lexicographical work, the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српскорусински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк) in two volumes, preceded. The work on the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary lasted two decades. In the mid seventies of the 20th century the Society for the Ruthenian Language and Literature began systematic work on a project that was expected to result in the Serbian-Ruthenian and RuthenianSerbian dictionaries. The most prominent Serbian lexicographer, academician Mitar Peńikan, was consulted in the initial phase. The project was transfered to the newly established Department for the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad in 1981. Professors Julian RamaĦ and Mihajlo Fejsa included the first generations of students of the study group in forming the lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language. Since the lexicographic research presented a priority of all priorities, grammar and sintactic research was in a way neglected. We can say that the students of the first generations of the Department of Ruthenian studies were in a way victims of the project. The two professors of the Department who simply could not do all the work alone consciously directed them to 930 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language investigations, namely to cultural-linguistic ones. Even the topics of the first diploma works were in connection with the main goals of the lexicographic project, for example: Ruthenian clothes, house, customs, food, religion, proverbs, making of wagons etc. Well-organized and coordinated work between students and professors brought the Ruthenian national minority in Serbia / Vojvodina the first and only lexicographic catalogue of lexemes of the Ruthenian language. The Ruthenians living in the Carpathian area - in Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, Hungary, Rumania - Croatia and other countries do not have a similar. Leader of the project, Professor RamaĦ, said several times that a two-way dictionary should have been made at the beginning of the 20th century, in the times of national awakening, when the first cultural organization of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians, the Ruthenian Popular Educational Society (1919), was founded and when Dr. Havrijil Kosteljnik published the first grammar of the Ruthenian language (Граматика бачваньско-рускей бешеди, 1923; see Костельник, 1975), but at those times ―20,000 Ruthenians did not have intellectual strength the other European peoples had, and our dictionaries had to be late‖ (Хома-Цветкович, 2010: 47-48). The team consisted of Professor RamaĦ, Professor Fejsa and MA Meħeńi Helena, from the Translation Service of Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, prepared the manuscript for the 250th anniversary of the Ruthenian settlement in BaĦka. The first volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Сербско-руски словнїк) was printed in 1995, and, in a few years, the second volume - in 1997. The Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary is the basis of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (2010). At the end of 90s of the 20th century, immediately after the release of the second volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary, the Department for the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy initiated activities for compilation of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, which was from the very beginning conceived as the second phase of the overall project. The Lexicographic card file made for Serbian entries in the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary was now given to new generations of students of the Department to make another catalogue but this time with Ruthenian entries in the first place. At the same time, Professor RamaĦ`s team (extended to Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko from Zagreb) supplemented the card file with vernacular vocabulary and vocabulary extracted from the works of famous Ruthenian writers. Words from the literary works and magazines, which were published in the meantime, were also included in the card file. Compared with the previous two-volume dictionary, the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is one volume shorter. Partly because the authors feared that a two-volume dictionary, expanded with new entries, would be even more voluminous, and in global and domestic economic crisis it would be difficult to publish such a dictionary, and partly because of the prevailing opinion that it was necessary to include specific Ruthenian words in the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary. It was considered that professional terms from various fields, which are basically internationalisms, were not particularly important in this case. Hence, technical, botanical and other terms were not included in the manuscript; the authors paid more attention to the words from the vernacular. It was imperative not to lose those words that are specific for the Ruthenian language. Whole attention was given to the words related to the life of Ruthenians in the past, although some of them are slowly being forgotten and replaced spontaneously with the nearest equivalent from the Serbian language. For example: бабрачка (Serb. пипав посао, Engl. tedious job), байлаґовац (Serb. бактати се, Engl. work on with difficulty), висобачиц (Serb. изгрдити, испсовати; Engl. scold, repremand), кухтариц (Serb. претурати, претраживати; Engl. rummage through, search through), опаскудзиц (Serb. оскврнавити, покварити; Engl. spoil, dishonour), стирмиц (Serb. дреждати; Engl. wait for a long time), чаварґовац (Serb. препродавати, шпекулисати; Engl. resell, speculate on the stock market) (ХомаЦветкович, 2010: 49). The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is descriptive, bilingual, and translative. The authors devoted a lot of time to define semantic structure of polysemous words. Words with multiple meanings have several Serbian equivalents and each of the meanings is regularly illustrated with a few examples. The noun хижа, which has equivalents кућа and соба in the Serbian language (respectively house and room in English language), is illustrated with twelve examples (for example ~ до хладку, Serb. кућа у хладу, Engl. house in the shade; предня ~, Serb. предња соба, Engl. front room). The noun спреводзка also has two equivalents in the Serbian language – превара and лаж (Engl. fraud, deceit and lie, falsehood). Because of the numerous illustrations of polysemous lexemes the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is suitable not only for comparative and contrastive linguistic research but also for broader investigations pertaining to Ruthenian culture. It is interesting, for example, to notice that there is a developed semantic field of hygiene, and a few verbs that convey different actions in relation to washing exist in the Ruthenian language. Thus, пере ce и коса, и зуби, и одело, и суёе ... in the Serbian language, or, in other words, the verb прати is almost exclusive for the use in these situations in Serbian, whereas there are several verbs to convey the same hygienic actions in Ruthenian: умивац руки и твар, змивац власи, чухац зуби, райбац шмати, орайбовац дакого (као старатељ), помивац судзину, вимивац / виплоковац (Serb. испирањем чистити од примеса, испирати). We observe a number of verbs in English too; the verb wash (hands, face, hair, laundry) prevails, but there are verbs rinse (dishes, wash), brush (teeth), gargle (one`s throat), pan (gold) as well. On the other hand, there are not enough Ruthenian adjectives to convey all the nuances that are expressed by Serbian adjectives. This is particularly noticeable in the adjectives that create semantic fields of beautiful and terrible. For a woman who is лепa / згоднa / љупкa / дивна ... и прелепа, 931 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo предивна (beautiful / pretty / lovely / wonderful ... and most beautiful, most wonderful) there exist only adjectives красна / шумна ... и прекрасна in Ruthenian; in order to fill the gaps in the semantic fields Ruthenian speakers simply borrow the Serbian equivalents and because of that, nowadays, even writers and proofreaders are in a dilemma whether to treat the adjectives зґодна and любка as a part of standardized lexicon, or as a part of colloquial lexicon. The Ruthenian adverb страшнє (in its variants страшно, страхотно) has three equivalents in Serbian страшно, грозно and жестоко (horribly, terribly, awfully and severely), and the gaps are filled by borrowing from Serbian - ужасно, or, in teenage speech, горор, which is not noted in the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary since it is a recent borrowing from Serbian (based on English model). The authors paid special attention to interlingual homonymy, that is to identification of so-called ―false friends‖ - the words that are in the Ruthenian and Serbian languages equal or nearly equal in shape, by sound, but different in meaning. The goal was to eliminate false associations that arise when translating certain lexemes from one language to another. Let us give a few examples of ―false friends‖ for this occasion. The Ruthenian noun рок has three equivalents in Serbian: година (Engl. year), годиште (Engl. age group, generation) and год (Engl. ring on a tree); according to interlingual homonymy (or ―false friendship‖) the Serbian noun година (Engl. year) equals the Ruthenian noun годзина, but its meaning is different - час, сат (Engl. hour, clock); the noun рок enters the spoken (colloquial, non-standard) language, but the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary does not accept it in the written (literary, standard) language, as opposed to the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary, which recognized the noun рок in military (meaning deadline) and dance (< rock and roll) terminologies (as replacements for the noun, the nouns час and термин are recommended, meaning period of time, fixed or limited period of time, term). The Ruthenian verb топиц does not equal the Serbian verb топити, but the Serbian verb ложити (Engl. start a fire, heat); the synonym for топити in Serbian is отапати, аnd its Ruthenian equivalent is пущац (Engl. melt, dissolve). The Ruthenian noun облак (window) does not correspond to the Serbian noun облак (cloud), but to the Serbian noun прозор (window). The Ruthenian noun образ (icon) does not correspond to the Serbian noun образ (cheek) since it is its ―false friend‖, and its ―true fiend‖ is икона; the Ruthenian noun лїцо (cheek) also has а ―false friend‖, since its translation equivalent in Serbian is not лице (Ruthen. твар, Engl. face) but the mentioned noun образ (cheek). The Ruthenian adverb просто has four Serbian equivalents, of which two are ―false friends‖ and two are ―true friends‖: право (straight, directly), усправно (vertically, uprightly), просто, грубо (rudely, cruelly) and просто, једноставно (simply). Нєдзеля is only недеља as one of the days of the week (Saturday), and тидзень is недеља as seven days from Saturday midnight to Sunday midnight (week). The Ruthenian noun пара has the followiing equivalents: (1) Serb. пар (Engl. pair), Serb. супружник, партнер (Engl. spouse, partner), Serb. пар (Engl. match), (2) Serb. пара (Engl. steam, vapour) and (3) Serb. пара (Engl. para, one hundredth оf a dinar). There are several more characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, which undoubtedly represent a significant contribution to the Ruthenian lexicology: 1. First and exceptionally important is the presence of rich phraseology. Editor in chief of the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary, prof. Dr. Julian RamaĦ, is also the author of the first phraseological dictionary of the Ruthenian language (see Рамач, 1987). The Ruthenian phrases from the phraseological dictionary were incorporated in both the Serbian-Ruthenian dictionary and the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary, and a lot of new ones were added. Hundreds of expressions and idioms are preserved for future generations in this way. Many of them are not frequent even today. Let us have a look at the entry dedicated to the noun Бог (Serb. Бог, Engl. God). If the authors have not provided about 50 phrases, the entry would have been like this: Бог/бог х. бог. Both Serbian and Ruthenian use the Cyrillic script and it looks as if the two nouns were the same but they are only written in the same way; there is a significant difference between the pronunciation of the consonant г in the two languages since it is velar in Serbian and glottal in Ruthenian (Serb. /bog/, Ruthen./boh/). For example: Кому ~ тому и шицки святи (Serb. Коме Бог томе и сви свети, Engl. If God helps you all the saints will help you too), Най ше ~ о нїм стара (Serb. Шта му Бог да, Engl. May God help him), Не суди боже престац (Serb. Ни конца ни краја чему, Engl. That goes on endlessly), Я о боже ти о коже (Serb. Ја у клин ти у плочу, Engl. We cannot understand each other), Дай Боже (Serb. Из твојих уста у божије уши, Engl. May God grant it), Нє дай Боже (Serb. Не дај Боже / Далеко било, Engl. God forbid) ... 2. About 38,000 entries are arranged in alphabetical order, according to the order of Ruthenian alphabet letters, and translation equivalents of the Serbian language were regularly given. On the basis of extensive lexicographic card file of the Ruthenian language the authors isolated the relevant meanings and provided explicit interpretations in parentheses. The isolated meanings are illustrated with clear and unambiguous examples. As far as examples are concerned we may say that the authors did their best to reflect the spirit of Ruthenian. 3. The authors provided valuable grammar information, which is necessary for a standard dictionary, as well. Verbal government (for example опитац ше дакому, буц одушевени з даким або з дачим, нє вериц ше наслухац дакого або дацо), aspect (зак., нєзак.), changes at the end of stems of nouns and verbs before inflectional endings (for ex. желєнїц, -нєє), and irregular comparison (for ex. positive добри, comparative лєпши) are assigned regularly. Thanks to the description of grammatical characteristics of Ruthenian words the whole language is offered to philologists-linguists worldwide to carry out researches of various kinds. 932 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. In connection with the previous we need to point out that whereas the inflected words (declinable and conjugated words: nouns, pronouns, adjectives, numbers and verbs) were sufficiently dealt with by the rysinists, the uninflected words (adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations and particles) were somehow forgotten and kept aside. In this dictionary, they were also examined in details. 5. The presence of acronyms says a lot about the stylistic use (беш., експр., франт., пей., ауґм., дем.), about the frequency of Ruthenian words (рид., заст., коц.), about the use in different professions (церкв., кул., анат., зоол., ист.) etc. 6. In comparison with the two-volume Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary a significant step towards modernization of the Ruthenian orthography rules was made. Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa who prepares the Orthographical Dictonary of the Ruthenian Language made certain corrections in the manuscript of the RuthenianSerbian Dictionary in the proofreading stage. Modernization of the Ruthenian orthography is particularly noticeable in loanwords that caused uncertainties of writing for years. For example, анґлийски/английски, ґранит/гранїт, мозаик/мозаїк, космонаут/космонавт, шпиюн/шпион, анеґдота/анекдота, ґрам/грам, гулиґан/хулиґан, каузални/кавзални, наивни/наївни, пиджама/пижама, Русия/Росия and many others. Since doublets generally do not express any differences in meaning they were considered redundant. However, different languages have exerted influence on Ruthenian, such as Hungarian, German, Church Slavonic, Serbian, and, in modern times, English. All of them have left traces. Influence of intermediary languages is perceived too. There are many cases when two languages have left variants and because of that unification of affixes is almost impossible. That is the reason why the authors did not unify all variants in the Ruthenian-Serbian dictionary and they left - алуминий and алуминиюм, алпинист and алпиниста, критицизм and критицизем etc. This applies to the following verbs as well: верзирац and верзировац, третовац and третировац etc. 7. Some lexical differences were brought to BaĦka 260 years ago. The Vojvodinian Ruthenians did not come from one place in the Carpathian area. They mostly came from those Austro-Hungarian counties which are today in eastern Slovakia (Ńariń and Zemplin). As a result, there are variants or synonyms in Ruthenian (see Фейса, 1996, 1997). The authors of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary showed tolerance to them and treated them as a part of the standardized language whereas Nikola N. KoĦiń so called kucurisms (variants from the village of Kucura) marked with asterisk, treating them as if they were irregular. The authors accepted both existing variants: бетелїнa and требиконїнa (Serb. детелина; Engl. clover), кичкиричu and гвиздочки (Serb. зеленкаде; Engl. daffodils), and бухти и пампушки (Serb. мекике, крофне; Engl. doughnuts). If we recall that the second volume of the Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary was published only 12 years before the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (in 1998) and that the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was prepared by only 4 lexicographers (Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa, Prof. Dr. Oksana-Đitko Timko and M. A. Helena Meħeńi) it can be said that the linguists of professor RamaĦ`s team were diligent and efficient. In addition to this it is important to emphasize that this publication also represents a tangible proof that the state institutions take into account the rights of national minorities and apply the principle of positive discrimination. Although the authors were afraid that it would be almost impossible to publish the dictionary, especially in the conditions of domestic and world financial crisis, after the preparation of the manuscript it proved not to a problem. The necessary funds were provided by the Executive Council of Autonomous Province Vojvodina, Provincial Secretariat for Culture and the Provincial Secretariat for Administration, Regulations and National Minorities. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was printed in the printing shop of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Special thanks are to be expressed to Janos Oros, the chief of the Interpreter Services of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary is by all means a highly significant and useful product of the project that lasted three decades. It is useful for translators, journalists, teachers, and Slavists. It will certainly help all those who want to improve their Ruthenian.The capital bilingual lexicographic work places Ruthenian in a higher place in the Slavic and world philology. The Dictionary is a kind of mine for comparative lexicological researches. Apart from this the Dictionary is of particular importance for the preservation of the Ruthenian national identity in Vojvodina. Summary The paper presents the description of the conditions in which the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary was being produced and offers explanations why this work lasted so long. The Ruthenian Society for Language and Literature started the work systematically, following the propositions given by Dr. Mitar Peńikan from the Institute of the Serbian Language at the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Art. In 1981 the project was taken over by the Chair of the Ruthenian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy in Novi Sad. As a matter of fact the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (2010) represents the second phase of three decades long lexicographic work. Efforts have been made to include the complete vocabulary of the Ruthenian vernacular 933 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and literary language into the Dictionary. The authors are Prof. Dr. Julijan RamaĦ, Prof. Dr. Mihajlo Fejsa, Dr. Oksana Timko-Đitko and M.A. Helena Meħeńi. Some of the characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: precise stating the meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary has multiple significance: the team of Ruthenian linguists have learned the lexicographic trade; a systematic description of the vocabulary of the Ruthenian language has been carried out by means of Serbian vocabulary; the Dictionary opens the way for understanding the accomplishments of the Ruthenian literature and for studying Ruthenian cultural and national heritage. Generally speaking, the Dictionary has scientific, pedagogical, cultural, international significance for the Ruthenian national community, and it represents an important moment in the cultural life in Vojvodina from the viewpoint of the Serbian-Ruthenian / RuthenianSerbian cultural relations and cooperation. Its printing has financially been supported by AP Vojvodina authorities. References желєзо с. 1. гвожёе, железо; ляте ~ ливено гвожёе; сирове ~ метал. сирово гвожёе; кляпчисте ~ буд. пљошто гвожёе; бетонске ~ буд. бетонско гвожёе; 2. оп. желєзко (2); 3. (метална часц ступки) тучак; 4. желєза мн. окови, вериге; положиц дакому желєза бацити кога у окове; # ~ ше кує док є горуце гвожёе се кује док је вруће; тварди як ~ тврд као гвожёе желєзов(и) -а -о/-е гвожёевит; ~ вода гвожёевита вода желєни -а -е 1. зелен; ~ трава зелена трава; ~ очи зелене очи; ~ овоц зелено воће; ~ од єду (гнїву) зелен од једа (љутине, беса); офарбиц на желєно обојити зелено; 2. прен. зелен, жутокљун; ещи є ~ још је зелен; 3. зеленишни; ~ гной польопр. зеленишно ёубриво; # Желєни штварток церкв. Велики четвртак; ~ пасуля 934 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo боранија, махуна; ~ шено младокосно сено; желєни алѡи бот. зелене алге (Chlorophita); ~ батощкар бот. зелени бичар (Euglena viridis); ~ ящурка зоол. зелембаћ (Lacerta viridis); ~ лиска зоол. журка (Gallinula chloropus); ~ зеба (зебочка) зоол. зелентарка (Carduelis chloris) желєнїдло с. зеленило, зелен желєнїц1 -їм (фарбиц на желєно) нєзак. зеленити желєнїц2 -нєєм и -їм (поставац желєни) нєзак. зеленети; желєнєє од зависци зелени од зависти желєнїц ше -нєєм ше и -їм ше нєзак. зеленети се; желєнєю ше винїци зелене се виногради желєнкасти -а -е зеленкаст; ~ конь зеленкаст (зелени) коњ, зеленко; ~ крава зеленкаста крава, зекуља желєнкастошиви -а -е зеленкастосив желєнокадераш х. ист. зеленокадераш, зеленаш желєнооки -а -е зеленоок желєнява ж. зелен, зелениш, поврће желєнь ж. 1. рид. (желєнїдло) зелениш; 2. карт. карта са зеленим листом (у тзв. маёарским картама) жем х. 1. земља, земљиште, тле, тло; обрабяц ~ обраёивати земљу; писковита ~ песковита земља; каменїста ~ каменита земља; здрава ~ здрава земља, здравица; трешенє жеми земљотрес; 2. (держава) земља; странска ~ страна земља; 3. правн. земљиште; будовательна ~ граёевинско земљиште; 4. (глїна) глина, земља; # препаднєм до жеми земљо, отвори се (зини, пропадни, прогутај); як кед би до жеми препаднул (скапал) као да га је земља прогутала, као да је у земљу пропао; як спод жеми (зявели ше и под.) као из земље (појавише се и сл.); як нєбо и ~, як нєбо од жеми као небо и земља; нај му будзе лєгка чарна ~ лака му црна земља; анї на нєбе анї на жеми ни на небу ни на земљи, измеёу неба и земље; обецана ~ обећана земља; препаднуц до жеми од ганьби пропасти у земљу од стида (срама); Свята ~ рлґ. Света земља; зровнац зоз жему сравнити са земљом; спущиц на ~ прен. спустити на земљу; чарна ~ прен. црна земља жемасти -а -е земљаст жемиска ж. ауґм. и пейор. земљетина жемичка ж. дем. и гипок. земљица жемлїк х. земичка жемлїчок х. дем. од жемлїк жемни -а -е 1. (хтори дава жем) земни; ~ плод земни плод; ~ ѡаз земни гас; 2. оп. жемов(и) (1); # ~ ягода бот. јагода (Fragaria vulgaris); мамица (Fragaria vesca) жемов(и) -а -о/-е 1. (хтори ше одноши на роботу зоз жему) земљан; жемово роботи земљани радови; 2. земљишни; ~ рента земљишна рента; ~ (ѡрунтовна) кнїжка земљишна књига; 3. (хтори припада жеми або ше одноши на жем ) земљин; земаљски; жемова скора земљина кора; ~ куля земаљска кугла жемовласнїк и жемомаєтнїк х. земљовласник, земљопоседник жемовласнїцки и жемомаєтнїцки -а -е земљовласнички, земљопоседнички жемовяза ж. ел. земљоспој жемоуз х. ґеоґр. земљоуз, превлака жемочка ж. оп. жемичка жемски -а -е оп. жемов(и) (3) жемунїца и жемянка ж. земуница жена ж. 1. з розл. знач. жена; вжац за жену (оженїц ше) узети за жену; ти права ~ прен. ти си права жена; мужового брата ~ деверка; ~ оцового брата стрина; 2. женско; 3. чељаде; # явна ~ јавна жена; лєгка ~ лака жена; хлоп ~ човек жена, женски Петко; привесц ище єдну ~, оженїц ше на жену оженити се на жену; бегац за женми трчати за женама, женскарити женантни -а -е женантни, снебивајући женєти -а -е оп. оженєти жениска ж. женетина, жентурина, жентура(ча) женирац (ше) -ам (ше) и женировац (ше) -руєм (ше) зак. и нєзак. женирати се женїдба ж. женидба женїдбов(и) -а -о/-е женидбени женїн -а -о 1. женин; 2. женїно мн. женин род, тазбина женїска ж. оп. жениска женїц -їм нєзак. женити; ~ сина женити сина; # ~ дакого з метлу женити кога прутом (каишем и сл.) женїц ше -їм ше нєзак. 1. женити се; 2. (з даким) женити се (с киме), женити (кога); сце ше з ню женїц хоће да је жени женка ж. беш. зоол. (самица) женка женов -а -о женин; ~ род, ~ родзина оп. женїн (2) женово мн. оп. женїн (2) женозабойнїк х. женоубица женолюбец -бца х. женољубац женонєнависнїк х. женомрзац, мрзижена 935 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo женочка ж. дем. и гипок. женица, женчица, женче женскарош х. беш. женскар(ош), женар женски -а -е женски; # ~ глава (жена) женска глава; ~ род ґрам. женски род; ~ рима лит. женска рима; ~ дзецко женско дете; ~ лоза женска лоза; ~ часи менструација женскосц ж. оп. женственосц женствени -а -е женствен женственосц ж. женственост жентица ж. ист. жентица (напитак од овчијег млека) женяч х. (млоди) женик, жењеник женячка ж. рид. оп. женїдба жерсей х. жерсеј жертва ж. жертва; # принєсц жертву принети жертву жертвени -а -е жртвени жертвенїк х. жртвеник жертвованє с. жртвовање жертвовац -твуєм зак. и нєзак. жртвовати жертвовац ше -твуєм ше зак. и нєзак. жртвовати се жесц жем зак. (шицко поєсц) појести жетон х. жетон жец х. зет жецов -а -о 1. зетов, зетовљев; ~ фамелия зетова породица, зетовина; 2. оп. жецовски жецовски -а -е зетовски жецовство ж. зетство живец -вца х. живац; # страциц живци изгубити живце живи -а -е з розл. знач.жив; ище є ~ још је жив; вон барз ~ дзецко он је јако живо дете; ~ розгварка жив разговор; # ~ вага жива вага; ~ огень жива ватра (огањ); ~ вода празн. жива вода; ~ ограда (плот) жива ограда, живица; ~ рана жива рана; ~ мур живи зид; ~ существо (єство) живо биће; ~ стрибло хем. живо сребро, жива; слуп живого стрибла хем. живин стуб; масц зоз живого стрибла живина маст; ~ як живе стрибло (о нємирному дзецку) као жива; лєдво остац ~ изнети живу главу; анї ~ анї мертви ни жив ни мртав; нєт анї живей души ни живе душе нема живина ж. збир. живина живинар х. живинар живинарнїк х. живинарник живински -а -е живински живинарство с. живинарство живиц (ше) живим (ше) нєзак. заст. издржавати (се), хранити (се); # най це Бог живи нека те Бог поживи (чува) живканє с. зевање, зев живкац -ам нєзак. зевати; вон нєпреривно живка он стално зева живкац ше -ам ше нєзак. безос. зевати; живка ше ми од допитосци зевам од досаде живкнуц -нєм зак. зевнути живкнуц ше -нєм ше зак. безос. зевнути; живкло ше му зевнуо је живкнуце с. ґрам. зев, хијат живо присл. живо живодрани -а -е: цап (козак) ~ јарац живодерац живомученїк х. живомученик живооки -а -е живоок живопис х. живопис живописатель и живописец -сца х. живописац живописецки -а -е живописачки живописни -а -е живописан живописно присл. живописно живородни -а -е: ~ трава бот. жива трава (Erodium citutarium) живосц ж. живост; живахност живот х. 1. а) живот; вона ми шицко у живоце она ми је све у животу; 2. анат. утроба, изнутрица; # без живота без живота; борба на ~ и шмерц борба на живот и смрт; малженски ~ брачни живот; вични (загробни) ~ вечни (загробни) живот; врациц дакого до живота (вилїчиц) вратити некога у живот; голи ~ голи живот; давац знаки живота давати знаке живота; ~ му виши на цверенки живот му виси о концу (о нити); жертвовац свой ~ за дакого жртвовати свој живот за некога; загорчиц дакому ~ загорчати живот некоме; медзи животом и шмерцу измеёу живота и смрти; позбуц дакого живота лишити кога живота; нє ма вецей живота нема му 936 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo више живота; одняц себе ~ одузети себи живот; провадзиц ~ проводити живот; запровадзиц до живота (закон и под.) спровести у живот (закон и сл.); положиц ~ на коцку ставити живот на коцку; ступиц до живота (о закону и под.) ступити у живот; опасне за ~ опасно по живот; полни живота пун живота, животан; ; ~ на веру живот на веру REFERENCES BariĤ, E. (2007), Rusinski jezik u procijepu prošlosti i budućnosti, Zagreb: Institut za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje. Ѡуставсон, С. (1983), ‖Руски язик у Югославиї – дияхрония и синхрония‖, Творчосц, 9, 20-30. Дуличенко, А. Д. (1973), ‖Г. Костельник и його `Граматика бачваньско-рускей бешеди`‖, Шветлосц, 67-76. Дуличенко, А. Д. (1981), „Русинский язык‖ у: Супрун, А. Е. и Калюта, А. М. (1981), Введение в славянскую филологию, Минск: Вышeйшая школа, 132-134. Дуличенко, А. Д. (2003-2004), Славянские литературные микроязыки I-II, Образцы текстов, Тарту: Издательство Тартуского университета. Костельник, Г. (1975), Проза, Нови Сад: Руске слово. Кочиш, М. М. (1971), Правопис руского язика, Нови Сад: Покраїнски завод за видаванє учебнїкох. Кочиш, М. М. (1972), Приручни терминолоґийни словнїк сербскогрватско-руско-українски, Нови Сад: Руске слово. Кочиш, М. М. (1977), Ґраматика руского язика: Фонетика – морфолоґия – лексика I, Нови Сад: Покраїнски завод за видаванє учебнїкох. Кочиш, М. М. (1978), Линґвистични роботи, Нови Сад: Руске слово. Маѡочи, П. Р. и Фейса, М. (1998), Бешедуйме по анґлийски и по руски / Let`s Speak English and Rusyn, Нови Сад: Руске слово. Magocsi, P. R. i Pop I. (2002), editors, Encyclopedia of Rusyn History and Culture, Toronto - Buffalo - London: University of Toronto Press. Медєши, Г. (2008), Язик наш насущни, Нови Сад: Дружтво за руски язик, литературу и културу. Надь, Г. Г. (1983), Линґвистични статї и розправи, Нови Сад: Руске слово. Папуѡа, И., Рамач. Ю, Медєши, Г., Фейса, М. и др. (2006), ред., Словнїк медицинскей терминолоґиї сербсколатинско-руски, Нови Сад: Дружтво за руски язик, литературу и културу. Рамач, Ю. (1983), Руска лексика, Нови Сад: Универзитет у Новим Садзе, Филозофски факултет, Институт за педаѡоѡию, Катедра за руски язик и литературу. Рамач, Ю. (1987), Фразеолошки речник: српскохрватско-русински, Нови Сад: Филозофски факултет – Завод за издавање уџбеника. Рамач, Ю., Фейса, М. и Медєши, Г. (1995, 1997), Српско-русински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк, I-II, Беоѡрад – Нови Сад: Завод за учебнїки и наставни средства – Универзитет у Новом Садзе, Филозофски факултет, Катедра за руски язик и литературу – Дружтво за руски язик и литературу. 937 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Рамач, Ю. (2002), Ґраматика руского язика, Београд: Завод за уџбенике и наставна средства. Рамач, Ю., Тимко-Дїтко, О., Медєши, Г. и Фейса, М. (2010), Руско-сербски словнїк / Русинско-српски речник, Нови Сад: Универзитет у Новом Садзе, Филозофски факултет, Катедра за руски язик и литературу и Завод за културу войводянских Руснацох. Сеѡеди, К. (2007), ‖Русинисти-линѡвисти‖ у: Русини/Руснаци/Ruthenians (1745-2005) I, Нови Сад: Филозофски факултет - Одсек за русинистику, ИК Прометеј, КПД ДОК - Куцура, 248-252. Стоянац, Н., Пиянович, П. Тамаш, Ю. и Сабо, С (1996), ред., Руснаци / Русини 1745-1995, Нови Сад: Завод за уџбенике и наставна средства - Филозофски факултет, Катедра за русински језик и књижевност Фейса, М. (1992), ―Tри жридла проблемох у нормованю руского язика‖, Шветлосц, 2-6, 150-160. Фейса, М. (1993), ‖Руски - бешеда, диялект чи язик‖, Studia Ruthenica, 3, Дружтво за руски язик и литературу, 83-105. Фейса, М. (1996), ―Коцуризми и норма‖ у: Руснаци / Русини 1745-1995, Нови Сад: Завод за уџбенике и наставна средства, 95-115. Фейса, М. (1997), ―Карпатскосц коцуризмох‖ у: Зборнїк роботох зоз III конґреса Русинох/Руснацох/ Лемкох, Руски Керестур: Руска матка, 155-168. Фейса, М. (2000), ―Дїєслова на суфикс -ира и одредзованє видових одношеньох у руским язику‖, Studia Ruthenica, 7, Дружтво за руски язик и литературу, 20-24. Фейса, М. (2004), «Социолинѡвистични аспект руского язика: Войводинa» у: Русиньский язик, Opole: Uniwersytet Opolski, Instytut Filologii Polskiej, 373-383. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Основни характеристики руского язика у поровнаню зоз другима славянскима язиками‖ у: Славянские литературные микроязыки и языковые контакты, Тарту: Тартуский университет, Кафедра славянской филологии - Королевская шведская академия литературы, истории и древностей, 90-100. Фейса, М. (2007), «Руско-анѡлийска контрастивистика‖ у: Русини/Руснаци/ Ruthenians (1745-2005) I, Нови Сад: Филозофски факултет - Одсек за русинистику, ИК Прометеј, КПД ДОК - Куцура. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Линѡвистична творчосц Гавриїла Г. Надя‖, Годишњак Филозофског факултета у Новом Саду, књ. XXII, Филозофски факултет, 293-302. Фейса, М. (2007), ―Характеристики линѡвистичней творчосци Гавриїла Г. Надя‖, Studia Ruthenica, 12, Дружтво за руски язик, литературу и културу, 115-124. Фейса, М. и Медєши Г. (2007), ―Правописни проблеми руского язика у Войводини‖ у: Jazyková kultúra a jaziková norma v rusìnskom jazyku, Preńov: Preńovská univerzita v Preńove , Ústav regionálnih a národnostných ńtödiì. Фейса, М. (2008), ―Руски язик у урядовей сфери‖ у: Русиньскый язык меджі двома конґресами, Пряшів: Світовый конѡрес Русинів, Інштітут русиньского языка і културы Пряшівской універзіты в Пряшові, 92-95. Фейса, М. (2009), ―Найвисши ступень меншинского образованя» у: Карпатские русины в славянском мире, Москва - Братислава: Univerzita Komenskeho v Bratislave, Filozofická fakulta, Katedra vńeobecných dejìn, Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова, Исторический факультет, Кафедра истории южных и западных славян, 257-269. Фейса, М. (2009), ―Tенденциї розвою нормованя руского язика войводянских Pуснацох» у: Труды и материалы, Москва: Московский государственный университет имени М. В. Ломоносова, 177. Фейса, М. (2009), Функционованє конструкциї/форми Вø у преношеню часо-видових одношеньох у 938 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo приповедкох Гавриїла Костельника, Нови Сад: ИК Прометеј – Филозофски факултет, Оддзелєнє за русинистику. Фејса, М. (2010), Нова Србија и њена русинска мањина / Нова Сербия и єй руска меншина / The New Serbia and Its Ruthenian Minority, Нови Сад: ИК Прометеј, КПД ДОК. Хома-Цветкович, Блаженка (2010), ―Терашнїм и будуцим ѡенерациийом‖ у: Руски християнски календар, Нови Сад: Новинско-видавательна установа Руске слово, Християнски часопис Дзвони, 47-50. 939 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 558 Title A name given to the resource RUTHENIAN-SERBIAN DICTIONARY Author Author Fejsa, Mihajlo Abstract A summary of the resource. After publishing the biligual Serbian-Ruthenian Dictionary (Српско-русински речник / Сербско-руски словнїк), in two volumes (Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1995; Institute for Textbooks, Department of the Ruthenian Studies, 1997), the Julijan RamaĦ`s team started a new project – Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary (Русинскo-српски речник / Руско-сербски словнїк). In about ten years the team that consisted of four members succeeded in accomplishing the project sponsored by the Ministry of Science. The result is a voluminous bilingual dictionary published under the same title by the Institute for Culture of the Vojvodinian Ruthenians and the Department of the Ruthenian Studies in 2010. The characteristics of the Ruthenian-Serbian Dictionary are: 1. stating the precise meaning of Ruthenian words followed by explicite explanations in Serbian; 2. grammatical remarks, including a detailed elaboration of undeclined words; 3. the presence of abbreviations pointing to stylistic use, the use for special purposes, and the frequency of Ruthenian words; 4. tolerance in using synonyms or variants (especially those from Kucura); 5. the presence of rich Ruthenian phraseology, unregistered so far; 6. the endevour to present as many Serbian equivalents as possible. The Ruthenian philology has by all means been placed on a higher level among Slavic philologies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b149a0964522daee1cb8f6e05cab592e.pdf 853a76caa1407b480d99856bcac75c05 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Misrepresentations of Turks in Early Modern Drama and Motivations Underlying This Denigration M. Fatih Esen International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina fesen@ibu.edu.ba Melih Karakuzu Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey mkarakuzu@yahoo.com Abstract: There is no uncertainty about the popularity of the Ottoman Turk in Early Modern Drama. This study will discuss the biased representations of and allusions made to the Ottoman Turk in several early modern plays, the whole of which exceeds 40 in number, and a distinct focus will be drawn on the playwrights‘ exploitative attitudes and the reasons motivating such attitudes towards the Turkish material, together with their impacts on the playgoers of the time, consequently, the society in general. Key words: Early Modern Drama, misrepresentation, denigration, Ottoman, Turks Introduction Early modern Europe definitely was well aware of the existence of the Turk or Ottoman. Early modern representations of the Ottoman, its sultans and Turks in general were presented in such a manner especially through drama that it made it felt as if it was being newly introduced to the European public. The implication was assumedly due to the fact that the extensive number of plays that focused on the Turkish material and the playwright‘s consecutive productions on the theme. In fact, it is well known that the European acquaintance of the ―Turk‖ dates further back, if not earlier, to the times of crusades. However, little was known about the Ottoman. The concurrence of the flowering of the drama during Elizabeth‘s reign and the Ottoman Turks being the dominant power of the time helped the representations of this relation and acknowledgement become intensified. But these representations, having no objective foundations, were mostly allusions misrepresenting and demeaning the Ottomans. Historical context The Ottoman Turks were the dominant power in the Eastern Mediterranean and much of Eastern Europe in the early modern period. By the seventeenth century, the lands that they possessed consisted of Istanbul, Greece, the Balkans, Hungary, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North African shore. Their passage to Thrace and Balkans was before the conquest of Constantinople. Adrianople was made capital by Murad I in 1369 after taking parts of Thrace. He overcame the Serbs in 1389 in Kosovo. In 1444 ottoman were victorious in Varna which was followed by another victory at the second battle of Kosovo Ottoman powers prevailed again at Varna in 1444 and at the second battle at Kosovo in 1448. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmet II annexed Serbia (1454–1455) and took Morea from Venice (1458–1460). As Bernard Lewis remarked, the loss of Constantinople was, for most Europeans, a great historical disaster. It was a defeat of Christendom which has never been repaired (Lewis, 1953). Suleyman besieged Vienna in 1529 (without success), but his military and diplomatic strategies achieved a standoff with the Hapsburgs until Hungary, too, was annexed in 1541. The Turks took Cyprus in 1570, and a Christian fleet enjoyed a rare victory at Lepanto in 1571, but from 1575–1590, the sultans were chiefly engaged in the east, notably in a prolonged and bitter war with Persia. The empire experienced the first assassination of a reigning sultan in the early seventeenth century, followed by a brief revival under Murad IV (reigned 1623– 1640). But after Mehmed IV‘s unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1683 and the defeat at Zenta, the treaty of Karlowitz (1699) effectively provided for the Ottoman withdrawal from Europe. The traces of Ottoman system ended only with the revolution of Kemal Ataturk in 1923 and the abolition of the Sultanate. However, early modern period ottoman reputation was much more different than it was in its declining period. Early modern Europe viewed ottoman as masters of a sophisticated and well administered empire. As Barbara and Charles Jelavich (1974) remarks: The negative opinion often held of Ottoman civilization is usually based on judgments made in the 18th and 19th centuries, when the state was in a period of 867 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo obvious decline. In the 15th and 16th centuries, however, Ottoman institutions may have offered the Balkan Christian a better life than he had led previously. This remark is undoubtedly one of the rare views which don‘t show a negative attitude towards the ottoman civilization. Much of the attributions used by the early modern people to refer to the ottoman as Vitkus (2000) puts it, included, ―aggression, lust, suspicion, murderous conspiracy, sudden cruelty masquerading as justice, merciless violence rather than ‗Christian charity,‘ wrathful vengeance instead of turning the other cheek‖. According to Linda McJannet (2006) ―Pejorative epithets associated with the Ottomans in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries included ―bloody,‖ ―cruel,‖ and ―barbarous.‖ The Turks were compared to forces of nature (whirlwinds or floods) or beasts (wolves, vipers, boars) and depicted in bestial terms such as ―unbridled‖ or ―swarming.‖ Their rule was described as ―tyranny‖ or a ―yoke.‖‖ Certainly these derogatory epithets are only a portion of the depictions that early modern discourse used to describe the Ottoman Turks. As for Europe, particularly England, Elizabeth‘s reign marked the beginnings towards becoming an imperial power and its prestige varied from place to place. When Elizabeth I ascended the throne, Soliman the magnificent was storming towards the heart of Europe raising fear of invasion by the Turks. The ottomans were expanding rapidly throughout Europe. They posed a continuous threat to Christian monarchs in Europe between the fifteenth and the eighteenth centuries. Christian monarchs were establishing their permanent colonies in the new world while, concurrently, they were facing the threat at home of being colonized.(Vitkus, 2000) Military aggression and cultural competition between Christians and Muslims experienced at the time have been the basis for the prevailing conception of Islamic culture during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. An English writer Richard Knolles, in his History of the Turks, refers to the ottoman Turks as "the scourge of God and the present terror of the world.‖ (Hakluyt, 1905) The fear of Turkish expansion was strongly felt at the time, and any news of a Christian victory against Islam was a cause for rejoicing. In 1565, when Ottoman forces abandoned their long siege of Malta, a "form of thanksgiving" was issued by the archbishop of Canterbury that was to be read in all English churches every Sunday, Wednesday, and Friday. The service, used in celebration, closed with this prayer: ―Almightye and everlyving God … we thy disobedient and rebellious children, nowe by the juste judgemente sore afflicted and in great daunger to be oppressed, by thine and our sworne and most deadlye enemyes the Turkes, Infidels, and Miscreantes, doe make humble sute to the throne of thy grace for thy mercye.‖ The prayer characterizes the Turks as ―impure, wicked, and abhominable lyfe.‖ The Turk ―goeth aboute to set up, to extol, and to magnify that wicked monster and damned soule Mahumet.‖(Dimmock, 2005). But the defeat of the Turkish fleet at Lepanto proved to be only a temporary setback to Ottoman expansion. During the Renaissance, learned opinion was divided on how Christendom should respond to its Islamic rivals in the east, particularly with respect to the morality of war against them. As Timothy Hampton observes, ―Opinion varied . . . from the claim that the Turks must be wiped out through a new crusade, to the notion that they were a scourge sent by God to teach Christian Europe about its own sins.‖(Hampton, 1993). Criticism on Some of the Representative Plays According to anti-Islamic tales told in the West, the violence and cruelty of Turks and Moors was enacted in both public and private—on the field of battle and within the palace walls. Shakespeare's tragic hero is a Moorish warrior whose public militarism becomes, in the privacy of his bedroom, a version of the sultan's overprotective absolutism in his imperial harem. By the time Othello murders Desdemona, he has converted to erotic, Islamic evil and conformed to the European stereotype of the irascible, libidinous Muslim. He becomes a representative of the Venetians' greatest foe, the "malignant Turk" (5.2.351), and his suicide is a final effort to punish himself for his reversion to such an identity. In Othello (1604), Turkish cruelty and violence are threatened and then displaced, but it wasn‘t the only play performed in the Elizabethan and Early Stuart theater that brought Turkish villains to center stage, representing Islamic culture in the form of Moorish or Turkish characters. The best known of these plays are Marlowe's Tamburlaine, Parts I & II (1587- 88) and his Jew of Malta {1589). Examples of Islamic might, murderousness, and wealth are also found in George Peele‘s Battle of Alcazar (1588) and Soliman and Perseda (1590), Robert Greene's Alphonsus, King of Aragon (1588) and Orlando Furioso (1589), The Famous History of the Life and Death of Captain Thomas Stukeley (1596), Thomas Dekker's Lusts Dominion (1600), Thomas Heywood's The Fair Maid of the West, Part I (1602), Thomas Goffe's The Courageous Turk (1618) and The Raging Turk (1618), John Fletcher 868 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and Philip Massinger‘s The Knight of Malta (1618), Thomas Middleton and William Rowley‘s All‘s Lost by Lust (1620), as well as the three plays that Vitkus has covered in his book Three Turk Plays bookwhich are Selimus, A Christian turned Turk and The Renegado. These theatrical representations of Islamic power took the stage during a time when the Turkish Empire was at its highest posing a continuous threat to Christian Europe. For London theatergoers, the Turk was not an imaginary bogey, and the Turk plays are not simply fantasies about fictional demons lurking at the edges of the civilized world. These plays and other early modem writings dealing with the Turks express an anxious interest in Islamic power that is both complicated and overdetermined. Here forward I will try to illustrate a few of the period‘s plays and the way they represent the Ottoman sultans of course where the sultan represents the whole ottomans and in broader terms the Muslim world since the word ―Turk‖ over time came to represent and become a connotation for ―Muslim/Islam‖. The motivations underlying the adaptations and decorative additions made to the text will be discussed further in the text. One of these plays where the Ottoman Sultan was negatively portrayed is The Couragious Turk, or Amurath the First (1615-23) by Thomas Goffe. The play is about the conquest of Serbia and Bulgaria in general. However, the first two acts are depictions of how the sultan Murad, first, fell in love with a concubine named Eumorphe, then how he murdered her. And it also includes the sultan‘s murder by a wounded Christian captain, Cobelitz. Its implication is on the sensuality and volatile love affairs of the sultans. Another play which is the pioneering play of the period which can be characterized as the Turkish plays is Christopher Marlowe‘s Tamburlaine the Great part I(1587) (Steane, 1969). Marlowe was the first professional dramatist to portray an Ottoman sultan on the public stage even though there are few others written before Tamburlaine but were not performed on the stage. In Tamburlaine the Great the representation is of Bayazid I. it is based on the war of Ancora and the captivation of Bayazid with his wife Zabina. Once Bayazid‘s army was defeated and the couple was captured, they were publicly ridiculed. Bayazid was kept in a cage and was chained. He was fed with leftovers and he was used as Tamburlaine‘s foot stool as he ascended his horse. Zabina was made a servant. And according to the play, Bayazid, not being able to stand these debasements he smashed his head on the iron cage‘s bars and thus committed a suicide. It is true that Bayazid I was defeated and captured by Tamburlaine but historically he was never used as a foot stool or he would hardly have considered committing a suicide since suicide is strictly banned in Islam. Bayazid II was also hosted in Thomas Goffrey‘s (1963) The Raging Turk, or, Bayazeth the Second. The play presents a series of plots involving intrigues and treacheries between Bayazid II, his three sons, bashas and generals. Sultan Selim, who was known as Selim the Grim, was also a character which inspired a play as well. He ascended the throne of the Ottoman Empire by forcing the abdication of his father, Bayazid II, and by killing his brothers. He also defeated the Mamluks in Syria and Egypt, and thus assumed the title of ‗Caliph‘, a religious title equivalent to the vicegerent of the Prophet. With this title, he became the recognized religious head of forty million of his 'subjects' and the spiritual and temporal head of the empire. In this respect, he gained control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Selim I appears in the anonymous play Selimus, Emperor of the Turkes (1588)(Vitkus, 2000) The play presents the cruel and violent actions of Selimus, the Ottoman prince who kills his brothers Acomat and Corkut, and dethrones and poisons his father Bayazid on his way to attain sole rulership of the Ottoman Empire. The play lacks historical accuracy with regards to the events that took place in the history. It is historically not true, for example, that Selimus murdered his father or that Bayazid was poisoned. These appear to have been inserted by the author to emphasize the point of Turkish ―cruelty.‖ The first scene of the play opens with the lamenting of Bayazid about his late situation concerning the greed of Selimus and the future of the Ottoman Empire. In the same scene, through the words of Bayazid, the audience is prepared for an unmatched ―tyrant,‖ Selimus, whose ―hands do itch to have the crown,/ And he will have it—or else pull [Bayazid]down./ Is he a prince? Ah no, he is a sea,/ Into which run nought but ambitious reaches,/ Seditious complots, murther, fraud, and hate.‖ (1.77-80). In fact, these characteristics, attributed to Selimus here, were part of the dominant religious and political discourse in which the stereotypical features of the Turks were represented in early modern England. Hence, in the second scene, Selimus does not prove his father wrong in the judgement of his son as he reveals his true intentions to Sinam Bassa. If Bayazid does not hand over the crown to Selimus, his ―right hand is resolved/ To end the period with a fatal stab‖ (2. 166-167). From the very beginning, we learn that he is a Machiavellian, ready to commit patricide. When Sinam Bassa reminds him of the ―revenging God‖ who would punish him for his sins after his death (2.185-186), Selimus defies both God and religion, concluding that ―An empire, Sinam, is so sweet a thing,/ As I could be a devil to be a king‖ (2.203-204). It was a commonplace in the early modern popular fiction and drama to represent Turks as unjust, tyrannical and lusty pagans associated with Satanism. The Ottoman Sultan Selimus, with his greedy lust for power, then, becomes ―a typical example of this kind of oriental despotism‖(Vitkus, 2000). 869 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo He also appears in Christopher Marlowe‘s Jew of Malta first performed in 1589-90. Although the play centers around the Jewish character Barabas, Selim ‗Calymath‘ comes to Malta to collect the ten years tribute and the plot revolves around getting rid of this problem. (Steane, 1969) Another sultan portrayed in early modern plays is Mahomet (the Conqueror). Some borrowings are made and used in the play from the legend of Mahomet and Irene. According to this legend Mahomet (Mehmet II) falls in love with Irene, an enslaved Christian, and does not care for his responsibilities as a sultan, but later kills her to prove that his obligations are far more important and this way reattain authority over janissaries. This legendary subject was first portrayed by George Peele in the Turkish Mahomet and Hyrin the Fair Greek (1594) which has been lost (Chew, 1965). Also Gilbert Swinhoe‘s Unhappy Fair Irene (written 1640; printed 1658). The play is set in Adrianople. Irene, a Christian captive rescued from the hands of a common soldier, is presented to Mahomet by a captain. The sultan falls in love with her and summons a Mufti to marry them. Irene asks him to delay it for a week and is granted this request, but in fact, she has secretly arranged for her lover, a Greek nobleman named Paeologus, to meet her at the city gate and escape. In the meanwhile, Irene puts off the Sultan with fair promises, who becomes more and more infatuated with her. As a result, he neglects his responsibilities and the Janissaries beat upon the palace door. Mahomet, in order to restore their trust in him kills Irene. Paeologus, returning to meet her and escape, finds her corpse and commits suicide. Soliman the Lawmaker also known as ―Soliman the Magnificent‖ was maybe the most distinguished of the Ottoman sultans either because the Ottoman boundaries were at their nearest to the heart of Europe, the thought of which had been haunting the Europeans for a while then, or because the Ottoman power was at its highest, which again brought about the ambiguous feelings of fear and envy to the European senses. Soliman first appeared as ‗Solyman‘ in the Latin play Solymannidea Tragodia (1581) of unknown authorship. The play opens with a prologue by the ghost of Selymus (Selim), the father of Soliman, in which he foretells the ruin of his house through the crime of Rhode, against her stepson. Soliman is disturbed by his son Mustapha‘s popularity. Rhode, Selymus‘ mother, after consulting a wicked official named Roxanes, tries to direct events in order to win Selymus the throne, by creating hatred for Mustapha in Soliman‘s heart, instead of imprisoning him. Then Rhode and Roxanes bring accusations against Mustapha, he is deprived of his offices; but an old vow made by the Sultan is his supposed safeguard against capital punishment. However, he is poisoned without Soliman‘s knowledge. Mustapha has a dream where Mahomet tells him that he will be with him in Paradise in three days, which Mustapha interprets to mean that he will ascend the throne in the promised time. An interview follows between Soliman and his son, and the Sultan convinced of Mustapha‘s loyalty and innocence, countermands an order he has given for his execution. However, a messenger arrives, telling Soliman that twelve eunuchs have strangled Mustapha (Chew, 1965). There is also a separate play about Soliman‘s son Mustapha, named Mustapha (1608) by Fulke Greville. It is a closet drama- a play intended to be read not to be performed- about the final years of Soliman‘s reign and the murder of his son. Although it was under the influence of evil counselors and his wife Khourrem, Soliman caused the death of his son Mustapha. This was an act that exemplified ‗Turkish cruelty‘. For late sixteenth-century western Christians, the locus classicus of the raging Turk might have been Soliman the Magnificent‘s execution of his son Mustapha in 1553. Historians writing before Mustapha‘s death acknowledged Soliman‘s greatness, while often portraying him as an exception to the Ottoman rule. In executing Mustapha, however, Soliman seemed to revert from ―magnificence‖ to the alleged norm of ―Ottoman cruelty‖, thus, doubly reinforcing the stereotype. Two more tragedies where Soliman appears are Thomas Kyd‘s Soliman and Perseda (1589-1599) and William Davenant‘s The Siege of Rhodes (1656). After an unsuccessful siege in 1480, the Ottomans captured the island of Rhodes in 1523 and ruled it until 191214. This event which took place in the reign of Sultan Soliman horrified Christendom. In both tragedies, Soliman occupies a central role with Ibrahim Pasha (Erastus in Kyd‘s play, and Alphonso in Davenant‘s). Soliman and Ibrahim grew together as a child and Ibrahim rose to become a constant companion and vizier when Soliman became a Sultan. However, in the midst of a brilliant career as general, administrator, and diplomat, Ibrahim Pasha was said to be killed by Soliman‘s command in 1536 which again gives way to ill repute because the incident might set connections to much discussed notion of fratricide in Ottoman dynasty due to Ibrahim pasha and Soliman‘s closeness in their youths. In the play, Soliman and Perseda a young maiden of Rhodes, laments the absence of her lover Erastus, a Rhodian knight. She sees Lucina wearing the chain which she had given Erastus and unaware that Erastus lost it and the chain was found by Lucina‘s lover, Perseda accuses Erastus of unfaithfulness. Erastus, on his attempt to regain the chain, causes the death of Lucina‘s lover and flees to Constantinople. Perseda decides to follow Erastus but is captured by the Turks, and is presented to Soliman. On laying eyes on her, the Sultan falls in love with her, but she rejects him 870 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo threatening to commit suicide. At that moment Erastus arrives on the premises and the long lost lovers are reunited. Soliman promises their marriage and the couple leave for Rhodes. Soliman, still devoured by passion, and mortified at having allowed Perseda to leave, listens to Brusor, his counsellor, who suggests that he should get rid of Erastus by charging him with a crime. Erastus is called back by Soliman for a visit and, on his arrival, is accused of treachery and is beheaded. Perseda, to avenge his death, disguises herself as a man and puts up a brave resistance against the Turks. As the Turks advance to the walls of Rhodes, Perseda appears and defies them. She then falls but, before dying, she kills Soliman by kissing him with poisoned lips. The play, as in most ―Turkish plays‖ implicitly embroiders the stereotyped opinions onto the image of Turks and blames all the negative epithets on the Turkish sultans. Motivations Underlying Denigrations A natural feeling of curiosity arises from within after seeing considerable number of plays making references to Turks or the Ottoman Sultans most of which are denigrating and demeaning the image of Turk. One, then, feels obliged to ask, ―Why would there be so many plays about it? Why is the Turk always portrayed negatively? Is it just because of enmity? Is it just the fear of the possibility of having to confront the most mighty and powerful enemy at the battlefield? Or is it the religious difference? There could be many other questions aiming to figure out what the European concern which produced this genre of drama was. I will focus on a few of the significant motivations underlying this kind of unfair, prejudiced, undeserved libel which actually drew considerable scholarship onto the field. The major factor behind the origination of the denigration of Turks, according to the general opinion, is the fear that, especially after the fall of Constantinople, the Turks would attack Europe and enslave or, in their understanding, colonize the European territories. There have been instances that brought bishops to organize gathering of prayers to ask from God that they be protected from Turkish invasion, or they would ask the release of Christian lands under Turkish rule. Robert Schwoebel in his book The Shadow of the Crescent mentions that the bishop of Agar Athos monastery in Greece, upon the fall of Constantinople, commented that this incident was the most unfortunate event that ever happened to them and he prayed for the liberation of the people and the city under Ottoman rule (Schwoebel, 1967). However, along with this commonly held opinion which underlies the fear factor that yields such works of deflection and diversion of historical facts, there are some other factors which are presented as less important, though, when supported by evidence, makes stronger sense to readers which do not become parts with the early modern European opinion. The notion that the denigration we speak of is very much related with the religious rivalry of Christendom and Islam has also been prevalent in scholarly contexts. As Englishmen were becoming more involved with international trade and interacting more with the Ottoman and Muslim peoples, they were losing more people to Islam. People were converting to the religion of Turks and the term ―Turning Turk‖ became widely used as a connotation to conversion to Islam. As Vitkus (2000) mentions in his book: … despite more extensive contact between Englishmen and Muslims, English representations of Islamic society written at this time continue to paint an inaccurate picture. In scripts for the stage and in other accounts, the facts about Islamic or Ottoman culture and its power are often imbedded within or distorted by demonizing fantasies. Furthermore, the historical reality of the Ottoman threat and real anxieties about the Turks were rarely represented or expressed without the accompaniment of anti-Islamic polemic. To the Christian West the Ottoman Turks were the renewal and the reinforcement of Islamic power the first phase of which was at the time of Early Caliphate. Early modern Europe culture produced images of Islam as imaginary resolutions of real anxieties about Islamic wealth and might. For this reason, the rise of Islam under Turkish safeguard was seen as a force which put a weak and divided Christendom to shame. The prospect of conversion to Islam was a sensational subject. It inspired anxious fascination. Therefore, during the seventeenth century English readers and theatre-goers were offered large amount of descriptions and portrayals of the image of the Turk and the printed material on the Ottoman culture and religion increased. While Muslims or ―Mahometans‖ as they were often called were inaccurately depicted as pagans who had made an idol of their prophet, there was also a tendency to ignore their religious identity in favor of a label that signified a barbaric ethnicity. As Bernard Lewis (1993) mentions, Europeans in various parts of the continent showed a curious reluctance to call the Muslims by any name with a religious connotation, preferring to call them by ethnic names, the obvious purpose of which was to diminish their stature and significance and to reduce them to something local or even tribal. At various 871 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo times and in various places, Europeans called the Muslims Saracens, Moors, Turks, or Tatars, according to which of the Muslim peoples they have encountered. Thus far mentioned attitudes of Early modern European society which showed an eager stance to denigrate the ―every other‖ that did not conform to its general opinion resulted in producing works which often times did not see any harm in manipulating the history and adapting it in a way which would fit the public taste. I will further claim in this paper that the early modern European society did not produce distinguished literary figures whose sole purpose was to educate the public devotedly on their cause. As we can derive from the literary works of the period that this cause was to establish a uniform opinion regarding the Turks as the general enemy and Islam as the false religion. Instead, these figures exploited the interest of the public in the genre of Turk plays in which the ―terror of the world‖ was being used as a ―foot stool‖ creating in the theatergoers a feeling of exaltation and satisfaction that the enemy is a base being and the European is noble and superior. As such a reward would cling the theatre-goers to the theatre and to these theatrical works that would function as an ecstasy that would fire the public with enthusiasm to form a public unity against the ―general enemy‖ and a counter stance towards Islam reinforcing the commitment to Christendom. However, parallel to these intentions we come to notice that the theatre companies of the early modern period had other material concerns. The genre of Turk plays had a significant value for acting companies in terms of art, ideology and more importantly commerce. When the operations of the playhouses of the time are taken into account, there becomes a collective enterprise spirit visible among acting companies. Jeffrey Masten (1997) argues that ―all‖ plays, whether composed by one or more than one dramatist, are forms of collaboration. Kyd and Marlowe were influential in promoting a new playhouse culture that would flourish throughout 1590s. However, Turk narrative contributed to the material implications of this influence which makes the case for a company and inter-company approach to drama in this period. It is remarkable to note here that even in the case of Shakespeare until he wrote Othello for the King‘s Men Company, he didn‘t turn to the Ottoman material to write a Turk play; however, in 1590s he referred to the theme in at least 13 of his plays. We can conclude here that the demand from the public and the acting companies was probably so high that the distinguished playwrights of the period such as Shakespeare, Marlowe, Dekker, Greene, and Peele felt pressure to write plays dealing with the Ottoman Turks and Islam. Louis Wann (1915) claims that: With the plays of the period distributed thus widely among the important playwrights of the time, we are justified in the assertion that the production of oriental plays was not due to the fancy of any one author or group of authors, but that the interest of the Elizabethans was so considerable as to induce a majority of the main playwrights to write at least one play dealing with oriental matter. The staging of Ottoman was sustained by artistic cross-fertilization that was, for dramatists, actors, and playgoers collectively, collaborative and competitive. As Mark Hutchings (2007) states; Indeed, in one sense the notion of a play "market" currently in vogue is perhaps particularly appropriate, for if the Turkish material metaphorically (and, in the form of reusable stage properties and transferable costumes, literally) operated as part of the playhouse economy, it was both a component and a by-product of England's controversial trading partnership with the Ottoman Empire. A visual illustration of the influence of the genre in tabular form is available below. The table involves a list of plays, dates of performances and publication, the acting company and the dramatist concerned. Some plays in the list are not primarily concerned with the staging of the Ottoman. In some cases a play incidentally refers to the Turks. A distinction has been made to distinguish a text in which the Turk plays a significant role (indicated thus *) and those in which an allusion is made in passing (indicated thus#). It is worth mentioning here that allusion in text and allusion in act could be two very different and very important aspects. Representations in act could very well be used to manipulate, to convey the intended meanings. Mark Hutchings (2007) underlines this notion thus, All of these plays were part of a narrative that operated collectively, and the point is that even where a reference in a play is brief and apparently nondescript, such a "quotation" nonetheless participated in both calling up an established narrative and importing various resonances the narrative had into that play in performance; indeed, there must have been many acts of physical quotation, where a character, 872 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo play, or actor was evoked or "remembered" on stage, that have simply left no textual trace This is so important a tool for the drama which makes distortion and falsifying possible if one intends to exploit an ideology. The table below incorporates the information available on Henslowe‘s Diary. This diary is considered to be the single most important document of early modern English theatre history. It was owned by Philip Henslowe who was an Elizabethan theatrical entrepreneur. His diary is a valuable source of information on the theatre of the period. It is a collection of memoranda and notes that record payments to writers, box office takings, and lists of money lent. Also of interest are records of the purchase of expensive costumes and of stage properties. Therefore it is a valuable source which sheds light to modern day‘s interpretations of early modern theatre. It is not difficult to draw from the table how influential the Turkish genre was. * denotes text lost ** denotes fragments only extant *** denotes plot extant # denotes reference to Turks/Ottoman Empire in text Table 1 The list of Turk plays taken from Mark Hutchings, 2007 Date of earliest likely Perf. Title (Pub.) Venue Company Author c.1576-79 The Blacksmith's Daughter Theatre? Leicester's Anon* 1580 The Soldan and the Duke Court 14 Feb. of—— Derby's Anon* c.1580-1603 (MS) Tomumbeius sive Sultanici in Aegypto Imperii Eversio 1582 (MS) The Three Ladies London Solvmannidae 1587(1590) 1 Tamburlaine Rose/Theatre Admiral's Marlowe c.1587 (>1592) The Spanish Tragedy Rose? Strange's Kyd 1587(1599) Alphonsus, King of Aragon Rose? Queen's Greene 1588(1590) 2 Tamburlaine Admiral's Marlowe 1588 The Turkish Mahomet and Hiren the Fair Greek (Admiral's in 1594?) Peele* c.1588 Doctor Faustus Rose? Strange's Marlowe c.1588-92 1 Tamar Cham Rose Strange's Admiral's Anon* 1589(1594) The Battle of Alcazar Rose Admiral's Peele c.1589 (1632) The Jew of Malta Theatre? Strange's Admiral's Marlowe 1581 (1584) of Salterne Theatre? Leicester's Anon Rose/Theatre 1590(1623) Friar Bacon and Friar Strange's Bungay 1 Henry VI Rose? 1591 (1594) Orlando Furioso Rose Queen's Admiral's 1591 (1594) The Taming of the Shrew Theatre? Chamberlain's c.1589 (1594) Wilson Greene Admiral's Strange's? Shakespeare # Greene (& Rowley?) Shakespeare# 873 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1591 (1623) 1591 1591 c.1591 (1594) c.1592? (1592) 1592(1594) 1592 1592 (MS) 1593(1661) The Comedy of Errors Theatre? Edward I Richard III Theatre The True Tragedy of Richard HI Soliman and Perseda 1 Selimus Theatre? 2 Tamar Cham John of Bordeaux The Tragical History of Guy of Warwick 1594 Gesta Grayorum 1595 (1597) Richard II A Midsummer Dream c.1595 Night's Chamberlain's? Queen's? Pembroke's Shakespeare # Peele # Shakespeare Queen's Anon# Queen's Strange's Strange's? Kyd? Greene? Anon* Greene? Anon Royal Entertainment Gentlemen of Gray's Inn Theatre? Chamberlain's Theatre Chamberlain's Admiral's Bacon?. Campion. Davison** Shakespeare # Shakespeare # Anon (Heywood in part?) Greville 1596(1605) Captain Thomas Stukeley Rose 1596(1609) Mustapha Closet 1596(1600) The Merchant of Venice Theatre Chamberlain's 1597 (MS) Frederick and Basilea Admiral's Anon*; *** 1597(1598) 1597(1600) 1 Henry IV 2 Henry IV Theatre? Theatre? Chamberlain's Chamberlain's Shakespeare # Shakespeare # 1597(1602) The Merry Windsor Theatre? Chamberlain's Shakespeare # 1598 Vayvode Rose? Admiral's Chettle?* 1598(1600) 1598 1599(1600) 1599(1600) Much Ado About Nothing Every Man in His Humour Old Fortunatus Henry V Curtain Curtain? Rose /Fortune Curtain Globe Chamberlain's Chamberlain's Admiral's Chamberlain's 1599 The Love of a Grecian Lady (The Grecian Comedy 1599 Mahomet 1599 Mully Molloco Shakespeare # Jonson # Dekker Shakespeare # Anon* (Poss same play as The Turkish Mahomet andHiren the FairGreek) Anon* (Poss same play as above) Anon* (Poss same play as The Battle of Alcazar) Rose Admiral's Dekker # Globe Chamberlain's Rose Admiral's Shakespeare # Drayton. Hathway. Munday. and Wilson # Wives of 1599(1623) The Shoemaker's Holiday As You Like It 1599(1600) 1 Sir John Oldcastle c.1600 (1615) The Four Prentices of Rose? Red Bull London 1600 (1633) Alaham 1599(1600) Closet Admiral's? Queen Anne's Shakespeare # Heywood Greville 874 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1600(1655) Lust's Dominion Fortune? Admiral's 1600 (1601) Cynthia's Revels Black friars Black friars Children 1600 1600 c.1600-01 (1604) 1601 1601 (1601) 1601 (1602) 1602 1603-4 (1622) 1603-4 (1623) The Tartarian Cripple, Emperor of Constantinople Grim the Collier of Croydon Hamlet Day, Dekker, Haughton? Marston? Jonson # Anon* Globe Arabia Sitiens, or a Dream of a Dry Year (Mahomet and his Heaven, or Epimethea, Grand Empress of the deserts of Arabia, Or a Dream Dry Summer Or The WeatherWoman) George Scanderbeg Satiromastix Paul's The Capture of Stuhlweissenburg Admiral's Haughton Chamberlain's Shakespeare # Percy Oxford's Paul's Children Anon* Dekker Anon* Othello Globe Chamberlain's King's Shakespeare All's Well That Ends Well Globe Chamberlain's King's Shakespeare # Conclusion If we are to bring the case to a conclusion, the imbalance of the number of plays at different decades, distinguished playwright‘s inconsequential prolificacy, unnatural growth of drama, and theme-centered approaches of the dramatist and numerous other anomalies during the early modern period especially regarding the themes of Ottoman, Turks, and Islamic people raise the feeling of suspicion towards the literature on the specified theme. There is clear evidence that early modern playwrights mostly consulted earlier works on the field or on similar themes which were mostly histories whose reliability were in question. And there are innumerable instances that the dramatist version of an event and the historical fact often times conflicted. Moreover, it is evident now that the deflections in histories were also decorated providing them to serve biased purposes. Louis Wann (1915) clearly states: Needless to say, history was not then written in the scientific spirit. Each historian copied from his predecessor, with or without acknowledgement, and felt no compunction in coloring the narrative to increase its interest, or in mingling legend with fact, with the result that his successor honestly accepted the whole as fact and so transmitted it to his successor with his own embellishments. In the same source Wann (1915) blames all these misrepresentations on the historians whose works these dramatists consulted but that is something a reasonable mind cannot agree. Then we draw the conclusion that the integrity, sincerity, incorruptibility and righteousness of early modern dramatist whose works included or aimed misrepresentations of certain peoples exclusive of a sense of conscience while making judgments should be in question. 875 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Chew, S.,(1965). The Crescent and the Rose, New York: Octagon Books Inc. Dimmock, M.,(2005). New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England Aldershot, Ashgate Geoffrey, T., (1963). The Couragious Turk, or Amurath the First, and The Raging Turke, or Baiazet the Second, The Malone Society Reprints, Oxford: Oxford University Press, reprinted 1974 Hakluyt, R. The Principall Navigations, Voyages, and Discoveries of the English Nation made by Sea or over Land. . . . London, 1589. Facsimile reprint. With an introduction by David Beers Quinn and Raleigh Ashlin Skelton. Cambridge: For the Hakluyt Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem, 1965. ) Hampton, T. (1993). ― ‗Turkish Dogs,‘ Rabelais, Erasmus, and the Rhetoric of Alterity,‖ Representation 41 Hutchings, M. (2007)."The 'Turk Phenomenon' and the Repertory of the Late Elizabethan Playhouse". Early Modern Literary Studies Special Issue 16 (October, 2007) 10.1-39 Retrieved from : http://purl.oclc.org/emls/si16/hutcturk.htm. Jelavich, Barbara & Charles, (1974). ―Balkans, History of the,‖ Encylopaedia Britannica Macropaedia, 15th ed. 2: 621. Lewis, B., (1953). ―Europe and the Turks: The Civilization of the Ottoman Empire‖ First published in History Today magazine, October 1953, historiographically analyzed by Roger Crowley in the October 2010 issue. Lewis, B., (1993). Islam and the West, Oxford University Press. Masten, J., (1997). Textual Intercourse: Collaboration, Authorship, and Sexualities in Renaissance Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. McJannet, L., (2006). The sultan speaks, dialogue in English plays and histories about the Ottoman Turks Palgrave Macmillan, pp.16 Schwoebel, R., (1967). The Shadow of the Crescent: Renaissance Image of the Turks 1453-1517. Nieuwwkoop: B. de Graaf. Steane, J.B., (ed)( 1969). Christopher Marlowe, Jew of Malta. In Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., reprinted 1980 Steane, J.B., (ed)( 1969). Christopher Marlowe, The First Part of Tamburlaine the Great. In Christopher Marlowe: The Complete Plays, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd.; reprinted 1980. Swinhoe, G., (1658). The Tragedy of the Unhappy Fair Irene, London. Vitkus, D. J., (2000). Introduction. Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England. New York: Columbia UP. 876 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 126 Title A name given to the resource Misrepresentations of Turks in Early Modern Drama and Motivations Underlying This Denigration Author Author Esen, M. Fatih Karakuzu, Melih Abstract A summary of the resource. There is no uncertainty about the popularity of the Ottoman Turk in Early Modern Drama. This study will discuss the biased representations of and allusions made to the Ottoman Turk in several early modern plays, the whole of which exceeds 40 in number, and a distinct focus will be drawn on the playwrights‘ exploitative attitudes and the reasons motivating such attitudes towards the Turkish material, together with their impacts on the playgoers of the time, consequently, the society in general. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6cf197b09fca3fd062081b42354524c5.pdf dcadd46380f800d89b362526c138fabd PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Anlambilim Çerçevesinde Kelime ve ÇağrıĢım ĠliĢkisi Nazife Burcu Erden Tùrkçe Eğitimi Bôlùmù Gazi Üniversitesi, Tùrkiye nberden@gazi.edu.tr Özet: Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; dilin anlam çerçevesinde yadsınamaz bir yeri olan çağrıĢımın, anlambilim içerisindeki yeri ve ônemini ortaya koyarak dili kullanan bireylerin kelimelerin farklı anlamlarını daha iyi kavramalarını, temel anlam dıĢındaki sôyleyiĢleri daha bilinçli kullanmalarını sağlamaktır. Bu araĢtırmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman analizinden yararlanılmıĢtır. AraĢtırmada anlambilimin dilbilim, ruhbilim ve mantık ile olan iliĢkisi gôz ônùne alınarak dil ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢki ortaya konmuĢtur. AraĢtırmanın sonucunda; dilbilimin konusu olan dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, geliĢim ve değiĢim sùreçleri çağrıĢım çerçevesinde incelenerek dile ait ilk kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢının, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasının, aktarmaların oluĢumunun çağrıĢım unsuruna bağlı olduğu ortaya konmuĢtur. Anahtar Kelimeler: Anlambilim, dilbilim, kelime, çağrıĢım. GiriĢ Zihnin çalıĢma prensibi (Buzan, 1999) olarak tanımlanan çağrıĢım ; bireyin bir kelime, kavram, olgu ya da olaydan hareketle farklı dùĢùncelere ulaĢabilmesidir. Dolayısıyla içinde yaratıcılık olan her unsur, çağrıĢımsal iliĢkilerin sonucu olarak gôrùlmektedir. DùĢùnce geliĢtirme yollarından olan benzerlik, zıtlık, yakınlık, sıklık, zaman ve mekân iliĢkisi kurma; çağrıĢım ilkeleri adı altında Aristoteles‘ten gùnùmùze geliĢerek gelmiĢ ve çoklukla felsefe, psikoloji, eğitim ve gùnùmùzde dilbilim literatùrùnde yerini almıĢtır. Insanlığın temel ihtiyaçlarından biri iletiĢimdir. ĠletiĢimi sağlayan unsurlardan biri de dildir. Dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, ilk kelimelerin icadı, bizi yùzyıllar ôncesine gôtùrse de dil oluĢumundaki temel unsur olan çağrıĢım, bugùn kelimelere ve dile yôn vermede hâlâ ônemini korumaktadır. Dilin geliĢimini ve değiĢimini inceleyen anlambilim, bu ôzelliği sebebiyle çağrıĢımı temel alan bilim dallarından biridir. Anlambilim ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢkinin ortaya konmasıyla, dilin değiĢim ve geliĢim esasları da daha net anlaĢılmıĢ alacaktır. Anlambilim Guiraud‘ a gôre ùç temel bilim dalından beslenir. Bu ùç bilim dalını, ―Niçin ve nasıl iletiĢim sağlarız? Gôsterge nedir? ĠletiĢim sırasında bizim ve karĢımızdakinin zihninde neler olup biter? Bu iĢlemin dayanağı, fizyolojik ve ruhsal dùzeneği nedir?‖ gibi soruları irdeleyen ruhdilbilim, ―Gôstergenin gerçekle bağlantıları nelerdir? Hangi koĢullarda bir gôsterge, anlatmakla gôrevli olduğu bir nesne ya da duruma uygulanabilir? Doğru bir anlamlamayı sağlayan kurallar nelerdir?‖ gibi soruları irdeleyen mantık ―Sôzcùk nedir? Bir sôzcùğùn biçim ve anlamı arasındaki bağıntılar, sôzcùklerin iliĢkileri nelerdir? Sôzcùkler iĢlevlerini nasıl yerine getirir?‖ gibi sorunlarla ilgilenen dilbilim oluĢturmaktadır (Guiraud, 1999). Dil ve anlambilim iliĢkisi içerisinde ônemli role sahip olan çağrıĢımın, yıllarca dilin geliĢiminde etkin rol oynadığı tespit edilmiĢtir; ancak litaretùrde dil ve çağrıĢım iliĢkisi ùzerinde ana hatlarıyla ôzel bir yer verilmemiĢtir. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; anlambilim çerçevesinde çağrıĢımın dile olan etkilerini ortaya koyarak dile daha hakim bir kullanımın oluĢmasını sağlamaktır. Anlambilim ve dilbilim iliĢkisi, literatùrde sôzcùk anlambilimi olarak da yer almaktadır. Sôzcùkleri, Saussure gôstergeler olarak adlandırmakta ve gôstergeyi, bir kavramla iĢitsel bir imgeyi birleĢtiren unsur olarak tanımlamaktadır. Bu iki unsur sıkı sıkıya birbirine bağlıdır ve birbirini çağrıĢtırmaktadır (Saussure, 1998). Saussure‘e gôre, insan zihninde gôstergeler çeĢitli çağrıĢımların odak noktasıdır ve dôrt farklı koldan çeĢitli gôstergelerin çağrıĢımlarına yol açar (Aksan, 2009). Bunlar; aynı kôkten gelen ôgelerin (sev, sevgi, sevgili, sevmek, sevimli, sevimsiz vb.), anlamca yakınlığı olan ôgelerin (galeri, fuar, sergi, kermes vb.), biçim eĢliği gôsteren ôgelerin (bilgi, silgi, yergi, sevgi, vergi vb.) ve ses imgesi yakınlığı olan ôgelerin ( masa, yasa, tasa, kasa vb.) çağrıĢımlarıdır. ÇağrıĢımlar, sadece gôstergelerin değil; anlamların da oluĢum ve çeĢitlenmesinde etkin rol oynamaktadır. Anlam, gôstergelerden yola çıkılarak oluĢturulmaktadır. Gôndergesel ifadeler (temel anlam), yan anlamlar ve tasarımlar sôzcùğe dayalı bir anlam meydana getirmektedir. Wittgenstein‘in 987 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Sôzcùğùn anlamı, onun dil içindeki kullanımıdır.‖ (Wittgenstein‘den Akt. Aksan, 2009). sôzù gôstergelerin sadece tek bir temel anlama sahip olmalarına rağmen, değiĢik bağlamlar içinde farklı farklı kavramlara karĢılık geldiğinin altını çizmektedir. Bu da ôzellikle iletiĢimde, bağlamın ve dolayısıyla çağrıĢımların ne kadar ônemli olduğunu gôstermektedir. Bağlamların bizi farklı kavramlara gôtùrmesi, gôstergelerin yan ve mecaz anlamlar edinmesiyle mùmkùndùr. Yan anlam ve mecazlar, dilin anlam çerçevesini belirledikleri gibi dile zenginlik de kazandırmaktadırlar. Her ne kadar gôstergelerin nedensizliğinden bahsedilse de, dile ait ilk kelimelerin oluĢumunda bir nedenlilik gôrùlmektedir. Platon bu gôrùĢù ―Ġlk adların ortaya çıkıĢında kullanılan seslerin mutlaka doğaları gereği, objelere benzer olmaları gerekmektedir.‖ ifadesiyle anlatmaktadır. GùneĢi resmederken beyazı, gôkyùzùnde maviyi, toprakta kahverengiyi, denizde maviyi kullanmamızın sebebi ile ilk adların temsillerden oluĢması aynı temele dayanmaktadır. Yansıma olarak nitelendirilen kelimeler Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùnù destekler niteliktedir (Platon‘dan Akt. Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). Doğadan yola çıkarak çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesi ile oluĢturulan kelimeler, dilin geliĢim sùrecinde yine aynı ilke doğrultusunda yan ve mecaz anlamlar kazanarak dile zenginlik kazandırmaktadır. Kelimelerin yapı ve anlam değiĢimleri, aktarmalar ve bunlara bağlı olarak geliĢen anlamsal olaylar çağrıĢımın ilkeleriyle alakalıdır. ÇağrıĢım ilkeleri kullanaılarak anlama ve anlatmada aynı kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkleyerek daha geniĢ bir bakıĢ açısı oluĢturmamız mùmkùndùr. Bireyin kendini ifade etme ihtiyacının daha çok giderilebilmesi için, çağrıĢımsal iliĢkilerin oluĢturduğu ve sùrekli değiĢen dil çerçevesinin geniĢ sınırlarından haberdar olmak gerekir. Bunun için de anlambilim ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢkinin otaya konması gerekmektedir. Yöntem Bu çalıĢmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman inceleme yôntemi kullanılmıĢtır. Dokùman incelemesi, araĢtırılması hedeflenen olgu veya olgular hakkında bilgi içeren yazılı materyallerin analizini kapsamaktadır (Yıldırım ve Simsek, 2006). Problem Durumu Ana Problem Kelime kavramı ekseninde çağrıĢım ve anlambilimin iliĢkisi nedir? Alt Problemler ÇağrıĢımın, kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢları ve değiĢimlerindeki etkisi nedir? ÇağrıĢımın, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasına olan etkisi nedir? ÇağrıĢımın, aktarmalara olan etkisi nedir? Kelimelerin Ortaya ÇıkıĢı ve DeğiĢimi Kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢı ile ilgili gôrùĢ bildiren ilk isimlerden biri Platon‘dur. Platon doğalcı gôrùĢù savunan bir filozoftur. Dolayısıyla ona gôre adlar, baĢkalarına bilgi vermek ve bir Ģey ôğretmek içindir. Platon, adlar ile onların adlandırdıkları Ģeyler arasında doğal bir bağ olduğunu savunmaktadır (Platon‘dan Akt. Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). Porzig de ―Eski çağlarda bir dildeki sesin, seda çıkaran bir Ģeyle tabii iliĢkisi olmuĢtur; ancak bu iliĢki zamanla gôrùlemez hâle gelmiĢtir.‖ (Porzig, 2003). diyerek Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùnù pekiĢtirmiĢtir. Bir kelimenin anlam değiĢimine uğraması yùzyıllar alabilmektedir (Aksan, 2009). diyen Aksan da ilk baĢlarda kurulan anlamsal iliĢkilerin sonradan fark edilemeyebileceğini bu Ģekilde ifade eder. Gùnùmùzde ―yansıma sôzcùkler‖ olarak nitelendirilenler, Porzig ve Platon‘un bu gôrùĢùne ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Doğadan çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesiyle oluĢturulan yansıma sôzcùkler, her dilde mevcuttur. Tùrkçede kôpeğin ―havlamasına‖ ―hav hav‖ derken Ġngilizcede ―bark bark‖, Yunancada ―gav gav‖, Katalancada ―bup bup‖, Hintçede ―bho bho‖ denmesi, yansıma sôzcùklerin her dilde mevcut olduğunu ve doğayı taklit ederek oluĢturulduğunu gôstermektedir; ancak bu kelimeler sôyleniĢ ve ağız ôzelliklerine gôre farklılıklar gôstermektedir. Bununla ilgili olarak Platon, kelime oluĢturanların hepsinin aynı hecelerle iĢ gôrmemesini demircilere benzetir. Her demirci aynı amaç için aynı aleti yaparken aynı demir ùzerinde çalıĢmaz; ônemli olan ona aynı Ģekli vermektir. Aynı Ģekil verildiği sùrece ister burada, ister baĢka bir ùlkede olsun o alet yine de iĢ gôrùr (Platon‘dan Akt: Atademir ve Yetkin, 2000). 988 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Antishenes ise adların, adlandırdıkları Ģeylerin ôzlerini ya da doğalarını baĢkalarına aktarılmasını sağlayan unsurun adlar ile onların adlandırdıkları Ģeyler arasındaki iliĢki olduğunu ifade etmektedir. Ona gôre, adların zihnin duyu algısı yoluyla doğrudan bağlantı kurması ile bilinen, adlandırdıkları nesneye doğal bir benzerliği vardır ve adlandırdıkları nesneye benzemeyen adları ad olarak kabul etmemek gerekir. (Aysever, 2002). Kratylos'ta, Hermogenes'in ―Adların doğruluğunun alıĢkanlık ve anlaĢmadan baĢka bir ôlçùtù yoktur. Bir Ģeye hangi adı verirseniz doğru ad odur; sonra verdiğiniz adı bırakıp baĢka bir ad verecek olsanız bile, bu ikinci ad da en az ikincisi kadar doğru olacaktır. Hiçbir adın adlandırılan Ģeyle doğal bir bağı yoktur. Tek ôlçù onu kullanan insanların gelenekleri ve alıĢkanlıklarıdır .‖(Aysever, 2002). sôzù ise doğalcı gôrùĢten çok farklıdır; ancak her iki gôrùĢùn de ortak bir noktası vardır. Doğalcı gôrùĢe gôre kelimeler doğadaki karĢılıklarına benzer biçimde ifadelendirilmektedir. Burada, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesi sôz konusudur. Doğalcı olmayan gôrùĢe gôre, kelimeler alıĢkanlıklar sonucu zihinde kavramlarla eĢleĢmektedir. Anlam değiĢmeleri içerisinde yer alan anlam daralması, geniĢlemesi, iyileĢmesi ve kôtùleĢmesi gibi anlambilimsel olaylar, o kelimenin toplumun zihninde ilk halinden daha farklı çağrıĢımlar uyandırması ile gerçekleĢmektedir. Yabancı dilden alınan kelimeler, anlaĢmalar sonucu dilde yeni bir kavrama karĢılık gelmesine rağmen (kelime ve karĢılığı arasında herhangi bir benzerlik iliĢkisi kurulmadan) zamanla yabancı dilden alınan kelimenin dilde farklı bir kavramı karĢılamaya baĢladığı gôrùlùr. Bunun sebebi kelimenin bireylerin zihninde ilk zamanlarda karĢıladığı kavramı çağrıĢtırmıyor olmasıdır. ÇağrıĢım, zihnin çalıĢma prensibi olarak addedilmektedir (Buzan, 1999). Dolayısıyla dile yôn veren toplum, yaptığı her değiĢimde bu prensipten bilinçsiz de olsa faydalanmaktadır. Anlamın daralması ve geniĢlemesi de bu ilkeye gôre gerçekleĢmektedir. Örneğin, ônceleri ―uĢak‖ kelimesi ―çocuk‖ kavramını karĢılarken Ģimdi ―hizmet veren kiĢi‖ olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu değiĢme, ―çocuk‖un da ―hizmet eden, sôyleneni yapan‖ kiĢi olması ve bu iki kavram arasında bôyle bir benzerlik iliĢkisi kurulması sonucu gerçekleĢmiĢtir. Bu durum anlam daralması olarak gôrùlse de gùnùmùzde yerel ağızlarda çocuk için ―uĢak‖ kelimesinin kullanımına rastlanmaktadır (Uğur, 2001). Kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢlarının yanı sıra tùremelerinde de çağrıĢımın çok ônemli bir yer tuttuğu ifade edilmelidir. Sondan eklemeli bir dil olan Tùrkçede tùremiĢ sôzcùkler, yapım eki almıĢ sôzcùkler olarak tanımlanır ve kelimeye gelen ekin yapım eki olup olmadığının anlaĢılması için, ek alarak oluĢturulan kelime ile ek almadan ônceki hâli arasında bir iliĢki olması beklenir. Örneğin ―gôz‖ kelimesi basit hâldedir ve ―-lik‖ eki alarak ―gôzlùk‖ adı verilen yeni bir kavramın karĢılığı hâline gelir. Ancak gôz ve gôrmeyi kolaylaĢtırmak için kullanılan bir araç olan gôzlùk arasında, anlamca bir iliĢki vardır. ―gôzlùk‖ kelimesi ―gôz‖ kelimesini çağrıĢtırmaktadır. ―balık‖ kelimesi ise basittir; çùnkù kelimeyi birbiriyle alakalı iki farklı kavrama ayıramayız. ―bal‖ ve ―balık‖ arasında bir anlam iliĢkisi yoktur. Bal, bize balığı çağrıĢtırmamaktadır. Buradan hareketle, çağrıĢım kurulmadığı sùrece yeni kelimeler ve anlamalardan bahsetmenin gùç olduğunu sôylemek mùmkùndùr. Kelimelerin Yan Anlam Kazanması Kelimeler kullanıldıkça karĢıladıkları kavramların baĢka nesnelerle benzerlik, yakınlık ya da iliĢkilerine dayanılarak aktarmalara baĢvurulmakta, bunlar yavaĢ yavaĢ çok anlamlı duruma gelmekte ve yan anlam kazanmaktadır. Yan anlam; somuta eklenen yeni somut kavramlar, somuta eklenen yeni soyut kavramlar, soyuta eklenen yeni soyut kavramlar ve soyuta eklenen yeni somut kavramlar olmak ùzere dôrt farklı Ģekilde oluĢmaktadır (Ünlù, 1993). Kelimelerin yan anlam kazanma sùreçlerinde genellikle temel anlam çağrıĢımı merkezini, çekirdeği oluĢturmaktadır. Kimi kez biçimsel benzerlik, kimi kez iĢlev benzerliği kimi kez de konum ortaklığı bu çağrıĢımın sinyalleri olmuĢtur (Uğur, 2001). ÇağrıĢım ile kazanılan yan anlamlar, kelimenin kullanım çeĢitliliğini arttırdığı gibi anlamı da zenginleĢtirmektedir. Doğan Aksan‘a gôre (2009) yan anlam; insanoğlunun kavramları daha etkili, daha somut, daha kolay biçimde dile getirebilmek için aralarında biçim, iĢlev, amaç iliĢkisi ve yakınlığı bulunan baĢka kavramlara dayanarak açıklamak istemesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Bu da kelimelerin farklı anlamlar kazanmasını sağlamaktadır. Todorov, yan anlamla ilgili çağrıĢımları belli bir tasnife sokmuĢtur. Yan anlamları, iĢaretleyene bağlı çağrıĢımlar ve iĢaretlenene bağlı çağrıĢımlar olmak ùzere iki temel ùzerinde çeĢitlendirmiĢtir. Bu çağrıĢımlar benzerlik ve bitiĢiklik iliĢkisine dayanmaktadır (Todorov‘dan Akt. Filizok, 2011). a) ĠĢaretlenen benzerliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bu, eĢ anlamlılıktan doğan bir çağrıĢım Ģeklidir. Kelime bağlama dayalı olarak ya da sadece kendi temel anlamıyla iliĢkili olarak kendiyle eĢ anlama gelecek diğer kelimeyi çağrıĢtırabilmektedir. "Osmanlı zamanında okullar ùçe ayrılırdı." cùmlesinde "okul" kelimesi tarihsel bağlamdan dolayı "mektep" kelimesini çağrıĢtırabilir. b) ĠĢaretleyen benzerliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Burada ses benzerliği esas alınmaktadır. Ses 989 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo benzerliğine dayalı çağrıĢımlar ahenkle ilgili çağrıĢımlara sebep olduğu gibi eĢsesliliği de gùndeme getirmektedir. Tam veya yarım ses benzerlikleri baĢka kelimeleri çağrıĢtırır. Bôylece onlar da anlamlandırma alanına girer. Uyak, aliterasyonlar, eĢsesli kelimeler kolaylıkla çağrıĢım oluĢturabilmektedir. c) ĠĢaretleyen bitiĢikliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bir iĢaretin kullanımı bazen eski kullanımlarını ve eski bağlamını çağrıĢtırır. Bazı devirlerin bazı edebî akımların çok tekrarlanan, değiĢmeyen bir kelime kadrosu vardır. Bir eserde bôyle bir kelimenin kullanılması eski kullanımlarına bağlı anlamları çağrıĢtırır. Bir nevi metinler arası anlam transferi gerçekleĢir. Meselâ telmih ve parodide bitiĢikliklikten doğan yan anlamlar sôz konusudur. d) ĠĢaretlenen bitiĢikliğine dayanan yan anlamlar: Bazı kavramlar, yakın anlamlılığıyla birbirini çağrıĢtırır: Tilkinin kurnazlığı, suyun saflığı buna ôrnek gôsterilebilir (Todorov‘dan Akt. Filizok, 2001). ÇağrıĢım sonucu oluĢan yan anlamlar; dile zenginlik sağlamakta, kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkledikleri için dilin anlam çerçevesini de geniĢletmektedirler. Aktarmalar Pek çok dilbilimcinin dilin temel niteliklerinden saydığı ve çokanlamlılığı doğuran etkenlerin baĢında gelen anlam olayı, aktarmalardır. Aktarmalarda benzetmelerde olduğu gibi, anlatılmak istenen kavram, onunla bir yônden iliĢkisi, benzerliği, yakınlığı olan baĢka bir kavramla anlatılmaya çalıĢılır. Bôylelikle de gôsterge yeni bir anlam kazanmıĢ olur. Etkileyici ve gùçlù anlatım sağlayan sôz sanatları arasında ele alınan aktarmalar, aynı zamanda anlam değiĢmelerine yol açmaları sebebiyle dilciler ve dùĢùnùrler tarafından o çerçevede incelenmiĢ; Reisig ve Bréal‘den baĢlayarak anlambilimcilerin ùzerinde durdukları konu olmuĢtur (Aksan, 2009). Aktarmaların gerçekleĢmesini sağlayan en ônemli nedenlerden biri de yeni sôzcùk bulma hızımızla ôğrenme hızımız arasındaki bùyùk açıktır. Her yeni gôndergeye yeni bir gôsteren bulunabilmesinin olanaksızlığı da eldeki sôzcùklerin anlamca geniĢletilmesine sebep olmuĢtur (Uğur, 2007). Bu da yine kelime oluĢumunda çağrıĢımın ônemini ortaya koymaktadır. Özellikle doğadan doğaya yapılan aktarmalarla oluĢturulan yeni kelimeler, bunun en gùzel ôrneğidir. Aktarmalar, insandan doğaya, doğadan insana, doğadan doğaya olabildiği gibi, duygular arasında ve soyut-somut kavramlar arasında da olabilmektedir. ÇağrıĢım kavramını ilkeleriyle beraber ilk kez ortaya koyan Aristoteles, Poetica adlı eserinde ―yaĢamın akĢamı‖ aktarmasıyla çağrıĢım ve aktarma arasındaki iliĢkiyi de ôrneklemiĢ olmaktadır. ―Fısıldayan ağaçlar, omuzlarına beyaz Ģal atmıĢ dağlar, suskun ormanlar, kızgın sular, neĢeli ilkbahar, kùskùn yapraklar, veda Ģarkısı sôyleyen çiçekler‖ insana ait ôzelliklerin benzerlik ilkesiyle doğadaki varlıklara aktarılmasına ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Ağaç dal ve yapraklarının hafif bir rùzgâr esmesiyle hıĢırdaması ―fısıltı‖ yı çağrıĢtırmakta ve insandan doğaya bir aktarım sôz konusu olmaktadır. Buradaki çağrıĢımlar ne kadar gùçlùyse, aktarmalar da o denli kalıplaĢmaktadır. Bu durum daha çok doğadan insana aktarmalarda sôz konusudur.Cesur bir oğlan çocuğu için ―aslan‖, kurnaz biri için ―tilki‖ benzetmeleri bu durumu daha da somutlaĢtırmaktadır. ―kôpek, eĢek, domuz, kaz vb‖ kelimeler, aĢağılama amacıyla kullanılırken ―sert, piĢkin, tatlı, yumuĢak, yapıĢkan‖ gibi kelimeler insanların karakter ôzelliklerini ifade etmek için kullanılmaktadır. Bu kullanımlarda kùltùrel unsurlar belirleyici olmaktadır. Toplumsal kurallar, gelenek ve gôrenekler aktarmaların ve simgelerin oluĢumunda belirleyici unsurlardır ve gôstergelerle anlam arasındaki iliĢkiyi yani çağrıĢımları ortaya koymaktadırlar. Bu durum, çağrıĢımların kùltùrel değerlerle belirlendiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Doğadan doğaya aktarmalar Tùrkçede sıfat tamlamalarından ziyade birleĢik sôzcùk oluĢturmaktadır. ―kuĢburnu, keçi boynuzu, turna gagası, aslanağzı, horozibiği, aslanpençesi‖ gibi hayvanlardan bitkiye aktarmalar olabildiği gibi; ―çekiçbalığı, kılıçbalığı, kayıĢbalığı‖ gibi nesnelerden hayvanlara da aktarmalar yapmak ve yeni kelimeler oluĢturmak mùmkùndùr. Nesnelerden bitkilere aktarılarak oluĢmuĢ kelimelerden olan ―gelinfeneri çiçeği‖ incelenirse, çiçeğin eski dônemlerde yolu aydınlatmak için kullanılan gaz lambalarına benzediği ve ortasında sarı lamba gibi duran yuvarlak kısmının etrafında, tıpkı gelin duvağını andıran beyaz dantel gôrùnùmlù bir yaprağın olduğu dikkat çekmektedir. Bu çiçeği, ―gelinfeneri‖ olarak adlandırmak için gelin duvağını bilmek ve çiçeği gôrùnce bitki ve nesne arasında benzetmeye dayalı bir çağrıĢım iliĢkisi kurmak gerekmektedir. Gôrùntù ve davranıĢ benzerliği ile ―kırlangıçbalığı, kirpibalığı, kôpekbalığı‖ gibi hayvandan hayvana yapılan aktarmalar da yine benzerlik ilkesiyle yapılan çağrıĢıma ve bundan kaynaklanan kelime tùretimine ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. 990 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―viĢneçùrùğù, yavruağzı, gùlkurusu, gecemavisi, gôkmavisi‖ gibi doğadaki varlıkların, renkleri adlandırmak için kullanılması da renklerin o kavramları çağrıĢtırmasıyla alakalı olup yine çağrıĢımın kelime oluĢumundaki yerini ortaya koymaktadır. ―keskin bakıĢ, acı çığlık, tatlı sôz, yumuĢak huy‖ gibi ifadeler ise duyular arası aktarmalara ôrnektir. ―acı‖ tat alma duyumuzla algılayabileceğimiz bir hisken, ―acı çığlık‖ ifadesiyle duyma organımızın algıladığı bir duyu hâline gelmiĢtir. ―Acı‖ hissi, insanın canını yakan, onu mutsuz eden bir histir. ―Acı çığlık‖ ile de duyulan sesin insanı mutsuz ettiği, onda olumsuz duygular uyandırdığı ifade edilmektedir. Burada da yine benzerlik ilkesi etkin rol oynamaktadır. Bulgu ve Yorumlar Elde edilen bulgular çağrıĢım ve anlambilim iliĢkisi çerçevesinde, ùç baĢlık altında incelenerek yorumlanmıĢtır. Bu baĢlıklar ―kelime‖ ùst baĢlığı altında; kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢı ve değiĢimi, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanması ve aktarmalardır. 1. Kelimelerin Ortaya ÇıkıĢı Platon doğalcı bakıĢ açısıyla kelimelerin doğadaki seslerin taklidi ile oluĢtuğunu sôylemektedir. Bu da çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinin temel olduğu bir anlayıĢı ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Bu durum, kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢında bir nedenlilik olduğunu gôstermektedir. Ancak bu nedenlilik daha çok yansıma kelimelerde ortaya çıkmaktadır. Doğalcı gôrùĢù savunan bir diğer isim olan Antishenes ise adlandırdıkları nesneye benzemeyen adları ad olarak kabul dahi etmemektedir. Antishenes, bu konudaki doğalcı gôrùĢùnù çok dar ve katı bir çerçeve ile sınırlandırmıĢtır. Porzig de Platon‘a yakın bir gôrùĢ bildirirken kelimelerin ilk baĢta nedenli olsa dahi bu nedenliliğin ilerleyen zamanlarda gôzden kaybolduğunu belirtmiĢtir. Örneğin ―ôlmek‖ anlamına gelen ―gergek bulmak‖ kelime grubundaki ―gerek‖ kelimesinin Eski Tùrkçede ―eksik, noksan‖ anlamına gelmektedir (NiĢanyan, 2011). Ölmek kelimesi ise ―can vermek‖ (TDK, 2005) yani bir Ģeylerin eksilmesi anlamındadır. Ölùnce ruhun bedenden ayrıldığı, eksildiğine dair inançla anlam iliĢkisi kurularak yapılan bu kelime grubunda ilk baĢta fark edilemese de esasında açık bir bilinçlilik yani nedenlilik bulunmaktadır. Hermogenes ise doğalcı gôrùĢùn karĢıtıdır ve ona gôre kelime oluĢumunu sağlayan onu kullanan insanların gelenekleri ve alıĢkanlıklarıdır. Burada nedenlilik yoktur, dolayısıyla çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinden de sôz edilemez; ancak çağrıĢımın alıĢkanlıkların oluĢmasını sağlayan sıklık ilkesinin gôz ônùne alınması gerekmektedir. Kelime kullanımının alıĢkanlıklara bağlı olması; o dili kullanan toplumun zihninde, kelimeyi duyunca o kelimeyle ilgili kavramların çağrıĢması ile alakalıdır. Yani doğalcı bakıĢ açısıyla kelimelerin oluĢumunda benzerlik ilkesiyle kendini gôsteren çağrıĢım, alıĢkanlıkların kelimelere hayat verdiğini ileri sùren gôrùĢte kendini sıklık ilkesiyle var etmektedir. 2. Kelimelerin Yan Anlam Kazanması Belli bir bağlam ve konu olmaksızın bir kelimeyle karĢılaĢıldığında zihnimizde ona ait oluĢan imgeye temel anlam denmektedir. Temel anlam, kelimelerle varlıklar arasında kurulan iliĢkilerde en sık olanıdır. ÇağrıĢımın kolay ve hızlı olmasını sağlayan sıklık faktôrù, dilde temel anlam kavramının oluĢmasını sağlamıĢtır. En sık kullanılan anlamlar en çok ve en kolay akla gelen anlamlardır. Temel anlam, çağrıĢımın sıklık ilkesiyle açıklanırken yan anlam benzerlik ilkesiyle açıklanmaktadır. Literatùr taramasında da gôrùldùğù gibi yan anlamlar, çağrıĢım temelli olarak oluĢmaktadır. Bu oluĢumlar içerisinde en çok yer tutan, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesidir. Yan anlamlar, kelimelere farklı anlamlar yùkledikleri için dilin anlam çerçevesinin zenginleĢmesini sağlamaktadırlar. Yan anlam oluĢumunun temelinde çağrıĢımın olduğu gôz ônùne alınarak, dilin anlam çerçevesinin geniĢlemesinde çağrıĢıma dayalı bir nedenlilik olduğunu sôylemek mùmkùndùr. Dolayısıyla, yan anlam oluĢumunu sağlayan çağrıĢımın dile olan katkısını ortaya çıkarmak ônem taĢımaktadır. Yan anlam kazanan kelimeler, kelimenin temel anlamıyla mutlaka bir yônden ortaklık gôstermektedir. ―Testerenin diĢleri kırılmıĢ.‖ cùmlesindeki ―diĢ‖ kelimesi, temelde ―Çene kemiklerinin ùstùne dizili, ısırıp koparmaya ve çiğnemeye yarayan sert, beyaz organlardan her biri.‖ (TDK, 2005) olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Ġnsana ait bu parçanın cansız bir nesnede kullanılması, o nesnenin ùzerinde sıra sıra dizilmiĢ, kesip koparmaya yarayan, sert parçaların insan diĢine gôrsel ve iĢlev yônùnden benzerlik gôstermesinden kaynaklanmaktadır. Ġnsan diĢinin kesip koparmaya yarayan sıra sıra dizilmiĢ kısmı, testerenin kesmeye yarayan kısımlarıyla çeĢitli yônlerden bir benzerlik oluĢturmuĢ ve testerenin 991 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―diĢleri‖ insan diĢini çağrıĢtırmıĢtır. Dolayısıyla kelime artık yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. ―Bana dôrt diĢ sarımsak ver.‖ cùmlesindeki ―diĢ‖ sôzcùğù de insan diĢi gibi sıra sıra dizilmiĢ, yapı olarak uçları sivri, alt kısmı daha geniĢ ve beyaz renkte olan sarımsağın kısımlarını ifade etmek için kullanılmıĢtır. Bu ôrnekte hem renk, hem de Ģekil itibariyle bir benzerlik iliĢkisi gôrùlmektedir. ―Masanın ayağı kırılmıĢ‖ cùmlesindeki ―bacak‖ kelimesi, insanların ayakta dengede durabilmesi için gôvdenin altında bulunan bir uzuv anlamında kullanılır; ancak bu cùmlede, masanın dengede durabilmesi için masanın yùzeyinden yere uzanan kısım olarak kullanılmıĢtır. Ġnsan bacağının iĢlev ve gôrsel ôzelliği ile masanın altındaki kısımlar arasında çağrıĢım oluĢturulmuĢ ve kelime yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. ―Yolun baĢı, yokuĢun baĢı, dağın baĢı, çekmecenin gôzù, sıranın gôzù, mağaranın ağzı, bardağın ağzı, yorganın yùzù, sehpanın ayağı, kôprùnùn ayağı, kapının kolu vb‖ gibi pek çok kelime çağrıĢımlar sonucu yan anlam kazanmıĢtır. 3.Aktarmalar Aksan‘ın da belirttiği gibi, aktarmalar dilin sôyleyiĢ zenginliğini ve ifade gùcùnù arttırmaktadır. Aktarmaların doğadaki varlıklar arasında iliĢki kurarak kavramların birbiri yerine kullanılması ile oluĢtuğu dikkate alındığında çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinin, aktarmalarda çok ônemli bir yeri olduğu gôrùlmektedir. Dildeki pek çok birleĢik kelimenin, bu aktarmalar sonucu oluĢması çağrıĢımın; hem dilin kelime hazinesini hem de dilin anlam çerçevesini zenginleĢtiren ônemli bir unsur olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Sonuç ve Öneriler Sonuç Elde edilen bulgular neticesinde varılan en ônemli sonuç; kelime oluĢumu ve kelimelerin karĢıladıkları anlamların değiĢim ve geliĢim sùrecinde, nedensizlik ilkesinin var olduğu ancak pek çok kelimenin nedenlilik ilkesine bağlı olarak oluĢtuğu ve geliĢtiğidir. Bu nedenliliğin olmasını sağlayan unsur ise çağrıĢımdır. Her ùç alt probleme yônelik bulgu ve yorumlar incelendiğinde çağrıĢımın; kelime oluĢumu, değiĢimi ve geliĢimi sùrecinde etkin rol oynadığı literatùr desteğiyle tespit edilmiĢtir. Öneriler ÇağrıĢım temelli bir yan anlam ve mecaz anlam sôzlùğù hazırlanmalı ve bu anlamlar kelimenin temel anlamıyla iliĢkili olarak ortaya konmalıdır. Temel anlamla iliĢkilendirilerek ôğrenilen yan ve mecaz anlamlar daha iyi anlaĢılacaktır. Bu sôzlùğùn amacı kelime anlamlarının ne olduğunu açıklamaktan ziyade; bireylere yan ve mecaz anlamları tahmin etmeye yônelik bir yôntem sunmaktır. GeliĢen teknoloji ile birlikte dilimize giren yabancı kavramları aynen almaktansa, çağrıĢımın benzerlik ilkesinden yola çıkarak dilde mevcut olan kelimelerle iliĢkili ôz kavramlar oluĢturmak daha faydalı olacaktır. ―computer‖ için kullanılan‖ bilgisayar‖ kavramı bu ôneriye ôrnek teĢkil etmektedir. Bu ôrnekler ve oluĢumlar desteklenerek arttırılmalıdır. 992 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Referenses Aksan D. (2009). Anlambilim. (4. Basım). Engin Yayınevi. Aysever, R. L., (2001) Kratylos: Adların Doğruluğu ve Bilgi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakùltesi Dergisi, 19 l ( 2 ), 153-166. AytaĢ, G. (2009). ―Ġlköğretim Öğrencilerinin Anlama ve Kavrama ÇalıĢmalarında Kelime Hazinesinin Önemi‖. Tùrk Yurdu.. Buzan, T. (2009). MuhteĢem Hafızanızla TanıĢın, Ġstanbul: Boyut Matbaacılık. Erden, N. B. (2010). Tùrkçe Dersinde ÇağrıĢımın Kullanımı Ġle Ġlgili Gereklilikler ve Öneriler. Yùksek Lisans tezi. Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitùsù, Tùrkçe Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı. Guiraud P. (1999). Anlambilim. Çev: Vardar, B. Ġstanbul: Multilingual. Guiraud P. (1994). Gôstergebilim. Çev: Yalçın, M., Ankara: Ġmge Kitabevi. Kıran Z., Kıran, A. E. (2006). Dilbilime GiriĢ. (3. Baskı). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık. Platon. (2001). Phaidon. Çev: Kemal Yetkin , H. Ragıp Atademir, Ġstanbul: Sosyal Yayınlar. Porzig, W. (2003). Dil Denen Mucize. Çev: Ülkù,V. Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Saussure, D. F. (1998). Genel Dilbilim Dersleri. Çev: Vardar, B. Ġstanbul: Multilingual. TDK. (2005). Tùrkçe Sôzlùk (10.Baskı). Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. Uğur, N. (2007). Anlambilim. Ġstanbul: Doruk Yayımcılık. Yıldırım, A. ve Simsek, H. (2006). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel AraĢtırma Yôntemleri. Ankara: Seçkin Yayınları. Ünlù, M.(1993). Dil Bilgileri. Cem Yayınevi: Ġstanbul. http://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=gergek+bulmak, 15.04.2011 www.ege-edebiyat.org/modules.php?name=Downloads&d_op=get, 15.04.2011 993 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 565 Title A name given to the resource Anlambilim Çerçevesinde Kelime ve ÇağrıĢım ĠliĢkisi Author Author Erden, Nazife Burcu Abstract A summary of the resource. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı; dilin anlam çerçevesinde yadsınamaz bir yeri olan çağrıĢımın, anlambilim içerisindeki yeri ve ônemini ortaya koyarak dili kullanan bireylerin kelimelerin farklı anlamlarını daha iyi kavramalarını, temel anlam dıĢındaki sôyleyiĢleri daha bilinçli kullanmalarını sağlamaktır. Bu araĢtırmada nitel araĢtırma yôntemlerinden olan dokùman analizinden yararlanılmıĢtır. AraĢtırmada anlambilimin dilbilim, ruhbilim ve mantık ile olan iliĢkisi gôz ônùne alınarak dil ve çağrıĢım arasındaki iliĢki ortaya konmuĢtur. AraĢtırmanın sonucunda; dilbilimin konusu olan dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, geliĢim ve değiĢim sùreçleri çağrıĢım çerçevesinde incelenerek dile ait ilk kelimelerin ortaya çıkıĢının, kelimelerin yan anlam kazanmasının, aktarmaların oluĢumunun çağrıĢım unsuruna bağlı olduğu ortaya konmuĢtur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee9835345b84539cb67778cf282a0692.pdf 0f611020a3a214e8fdb397efdf593976 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ORHUN ABĠDELERĠNDEKĠ TAMLAMALARIN TÜRKĠYE TÜRKÇESĠNDEKĠ KULLANIMI Selim Emiroğlu Mevlana Üniversitesi, Tùrkçe Eğitimi semiroglu@mevlana.edu.tr Özet: Orhun abideleri, Tùrk dili ve edebiyatının ilk yazılı kaynaklarıdır. Bu taĢlar, hem maddi hem de manevi bakımdan Tùrk dili, kùltùrù ve tarihinin en değerli anıtlarıdır. Gôktùrkler dôneminde ve Gôktùrkçe olarak yazılmıĢ kitabelerde gùnùmùze ıĢık tutan ônemli mesajlar bulunmaktadır. Kitabelerde Tùrk dilini tùm ôzellikleriyle bulmak mùmkùndùr. ġiir lezzetinde ve sağlam bir Tùrkçeyle Tùrklùk Ģuuru gelecek kuĢaklara aktarılmıĢtır. Ebedi taĢlar denilen kitabeler ùzerine kazınmıĢ metinler, Tùrk dilinin geçirdiği evreleri ve değiĢimi takip etmek bakımından dikkate değerdir. Orhun Abideleri ùzerinde yerli ve yabancı olmak ùzere pek çok çalıĢma vardır. Bu çalıĢmada Orhun abidelerinin ùç ônemli yazıtı olan Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk yazıtları tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢ olup yazıtlardaki tamlamalar teker teker tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımları ele alınmıĢtır. Birkaç kùçùk ses ve ek değiĢimi dıĢında tamlamaların birçoğunun tarihi sùreç içerisinde değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı gôrùlmùĢtùr. Anahtar Kelimeler: Orhun Abideleri, tamlamalar, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi GiriĢ Asırlar ôncesinden bugùne ulaĢmıĢ dil abideleri olan Orhun yazıtlarını ifade etmek için pek çok Ģey sôylenebilir. Bu noktada çalıĢmamıza kaynaklık etmiĢ olan Orhun Abideleri kitabının yazarı Muharrem Ergin, Orhun Abidelerini Ģu Ģekilde vasıflandırır: ―Tùrk adının, Tùrk milletinin isminin geçtiği ilk Tùrkçe metin... Ġlk Tùrk tarihi... TaĢlar ùzerine yazılmıĢ tarih... Tùrk devlet adamlarının millete hesap vermesi, milletle hesaplaĢması… Devlet ve milletin karĢılıklı vazifeleri... Tùrk nizamının, Tùrk tôresinin, Tùrk medeniyetinin, yùksek Tùrk kùltùrùnùn bùyùk vesikası... Tùrk askerî dehasının, Tùrk askerlik san'atının esasları... Tùrk gururunun ilahî yùksekliği... Tùrk feragat ve faziletinin bùyùk ôrneği... Tùrk içtimaî hayatının ulvî tablosu... Tùrk edebiyatınım ilk Ģaheseri... Tùrk hitabet san'atının eriĢilmez Ģaheseri… Hùkùmdarâne eda ve ihtiĢamlı hitap tarzı… Yalın ve keskin ùslubun ĢaĢırtıcı numunesi... Tùrk milliyetçiliğinin temel kitabı... Bir kavmi bir millet yapabilecek eser... Asırlar içinden millî istikameti aydınlatan ıĢık... Tùrk dilinin mùbarek kaynağı... Tùrk yazı dilinin ilk, fakat harikulade iĢlek ôrneği... Tùrk yazı dilinin baĢlangıcını miladın ilk asırlarına çıkartan delil… Tùrk ordusunun kuruluĢunu en az 1250 sene ôteye gôtùren vesika... Tùrklùğùn en bùyùk iftihar vesilesi olan eser… Ġnsanlık âleminin sosyal muhteva bakımından en manalı mezar taĢları… Dùnyanın bugùn belki de en bùyùk meselesi olan Çin hakkında 1250 sene evvelki Tùrk ikâzı…‖ (Ergin, 2005: 4) Abideler, Tùrk medeniyetini dùnyaya ispat eden ilk belgelerimiz kabul edilir. Tema olarak abidelerin askeri yônù ôn plana çıkmaktadır. "Bu abidelerde, Bilge Kağan'ın kardeĢi Kùl Tigin ile birlikte Çinlilere karĢı yaptıkları istiklâl savaĢı ve Tùrk milletinin bùtùnlùğùnù yeniden sağlamak için verdikleri mùcadele anlatılmaktadır." (TimurtaĢ, 2005: 23). Orhun Abidelerinin dili gùnùmùz Tùrkçesinden çok uzak değildir. ―Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinden ne kadar farklı olursa olsun, kitabelerin dilini anlamak için ne bir eğitime ne de ôzel bir gayrete ihtiyaç vardır. Birkaç kelime ve birkaç kaide bilindiği takdirde, Tùrk dilinin bu eski Ģaheserini orijinalinden okumak ve anlamak mùmkùn olacaktır.‖ (Çelikel, 2007: 7) 1068 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orhun Abideleri, Tùrk dilinin Orhun Abidelerinden ônce de sistemli bir Ģekilde var olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bôlgede pek çok anıt ve taĢa rastlanır ama bunlar içinde en ônemlileri Orhun abideleridir. ―Orhun civarında Orhun yazısı ile yazılı daha başka kitabeler de bulunmuştur. Belli başlıları altı tanedir. Fakat bunların en büyükleri ve mühimleri bu üç tanesidir.” (Ergin, 2005: 5) Kitabeler, ôğùt veren bir ùslupta ve nutuk tùrùndedir. ―Bùyùk Tùrk komutanı Bilge Kağan bir nutuk havası içerisinde, bir vaiz, bir hatip gibi Tùrklerin tarih boyunca dikkate alması gerektiği çok ônemli uyarıları ve ôğùtleri o dônem insanının kalbine, gùnùmùze ulaĢması için de sağlam taĢlara yazdırtmıĢtır.‖ (Emiroğlu, 2010: 25) Arastırmacının Amacı Tùrk dilinin baĢlangıç noktası olan Orhun Abidelerinde Tùrkçenin gùzel ôrnek ve kullanımlarını içeren tamlamalar yer almaktadır. Ġç içe geçmiĢ veya mùstakil olarak pek çok tamlama ôrneği bulunmaktadır. Ġsim ve sıfat tamlaması olarak bunların tespit edilip gùnùmùze taĢınması gerekir. ÇalıĢma bu amaçla yapılmıĢtır. Arastirma Metodu Bu çalıĢmada Tùrk yazı dilinin dùnyaca kabul edilen ilk yazılı belgeleri olan Orhun Abideleri, tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢtir. ÇalıĢmada Muharrem Ergin‘in Orhun Abideleri adlı eseri esas alınmıĢtır. Eserdeki sırasıyla Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk anıtlarındaki yazılar cephe cephe ve satır satır incelendi. Tespit edilen tamlamalar isim ve sıfat tamlamaları olmaları bakımından sınıflandırıldı. Sôz konusu tamlamalardan gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanımı bulunanlar belirlendi. Tespit ve incelemeden sonra Orhun abidelerindeki tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesine olan etkileri ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımı bakımından bazı değerlendirmelere ulaĢıldı. Bulgular Orhun abidelerinde isim ve sıfat tamlamaları, her bir anıtın hangi cephesine ve satırına ait olduğu yônùyle Ģu Ģekilde çıkarılmıĢtır. KÜL TĠGĠN ÂBĠDESĠ Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlamaları Sıfat Tamlamaları 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 1. Satır: Bu ôd (Bu zaman) Ġni Yiginùm (Kùçùk ġadpıt Begler (ġadpıt Beyleri) Buyruķ BeglerkardeĢ) yeğenim) Biriki oġuĢum (Bùtùn soyum) (Buyruķ Beyleri) Otuz Tatar (Otuz Tatar) 2. Satır: Toķuz Oġuz Begleri ( Dokuz Oğuz Beyleri)2. Satır: Bu sabım (Bu sôzùm) Ġçreki budun (Ġçindeki Kùn toġsık (Gùn doğusu) Kùn ortasın (Gùn ortası)millet) Kùn batsık (Gùn batısı) Tùn ortasın (Gece ortası)Bunça budun (Bunca millet) 3. Satır: Tùrk Ķaġan (Tùrk kağanı) Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci3. Satır: Toķuz Ersin (Dokuz Ersin) 4. Satır: Ġl tutsıķ yir (Ġl tutulacak yer) nehri) Ötùken yıĢ (Ötùken ormanı) ġantung yazıkTemir Ķapıg (Demir Kapı) (ġantung ovası) 4. Satır: Yir Bayırķu (Yir Bayırku) Bu yir (Bu yer) Bunça yir (Bunca yer) 5. Satır: Sùçig sab (Tatlı sôz) YımĢak aġ (YumuĢak Ötùken yıĢipek) (Ötùken ormanı) Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Iraķ budun (Uzak millet) 5. Satır: Tabġaç budun sabı (Çin milletinin sôzù) 6. Satır: Anyıġ bilig (Kôtù Ģeyler) Edgù bilge kiĢi (Ġyi, 1069 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 6. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Çoġay yıĢbilgili insan) YımĢaķ aġı (YumuĢak ipek) Edgù alp kiĢi (Çogay ormanı) Tôgùhlù yazı (Tôgùhlù ovası) (Ġyi, cesur insan) 7. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Sùçig sab (Tatlı sôz) Bir kiĢi (Bir insan) 8. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Ötùken yir7. Satır: Anyıġ kiĢi (Kôtù insan) (Ötùken yeri) Yablaķ aġı (Kôtù mal) 10. Satır: Tùrk begler, budun (Tùrk beyleri, milleti) Bilig bilmez kiĢi (Bilgi bilmez kiĢi) Edgù aġı (iyi mal) 11. Satır: Tùrk budun begler (Tùrk milleti, beyleri) Ol sab (O sôz) ÖkùĢ kiĢi (Çok insan) Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) Mening sabım (Benim8. Satır: Ol yir ( O yer) sôzùm) 10. Satır: Yok çıġany budun (Aç fakir millet) Çiġany 12. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġanıng içreki bediĢci (Çin)budun (Fakir millet) Bu sab (Bu sôz) Az budun (Az Kağanının maiyetindeki resimci) On ok oġlı (On okmillet) oğlu) 11. Satır: Neng sabım (Ne sôzùm) 13. Satır: Yolluġ Tigin (Yolluğ Tigin) (Ebedî taĢ) Bu ôd (Bu zaman) Benggù taĢ Kôrùgme begler (Ġtaat eden beyler) 12. Satır: Adınçıġ bark (BambaĢka tùrbe) Adıncıġ bediz (BambaĢka resim) Kôngùlteki sab (Gônùldeki sôz) Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) 13. Satır: Erig yir (EriĢilir yer) Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) Bu bitig (Bu yazı) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlamaları Sıfat Tamlamaları 1. Satır: KiĢi oġlın ùze (Ġnsanoğlunun ùzeri) Tùrk1. Satır: Kôk tengri (Mavi gôk) budungilin tôrùsin (Tùrk milletinin2. Satır: Tôrt bulung (Dôrt taraf) ilini, tôresini) kapı) 2. Satır: Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) Tôrt budungdaķı budun Yaġız yir (Yağız yer) Temir Ķapıg (Demir (Dôrt taraftaki 6. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Tùrk budunmillet) (Tùrk milleti) 3. Satır: Ġdi oķsuz Kôk Tùrk (Pek teĢkilatsız Kôktùrk) 7. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Tùrk beglerBilge ķaġan (Bilgili kağan) Ap ķaġan (Cesur kağan) (Tùrk beyleri) Tùrk atı (Tùrk adı) Tabġaç atı (Çin4. Satır: Kùn toġsıķ (Gùn doğusu) Kùlùg ķaġan (Ünlù adı) Tabġaç ķaġan (Çin kağanı) kağan) 8. Satır: Tùrk ķara ķamaġ (Tùrk halk kitlesi) 5. Satır: Biligsiz ķaġan (Bilgisiz kağan) Kùn toġsıķ (Gùn doğusu) Yablaķ ķaġan Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin(Kôtù kağan) kağanı) 6. Satır: Ġlledùk il (Ġl yaptığı il) 9. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) 7. Satır: Ķaġanladuķ ķaġan (Kağan yaptığı kağan) 10. Satır: Tùrk ıduk yiri (Tùrk mukaddes yeri) Beglik urı oġlın (Beylik erkek evlat) Tabġaçġı (Çinli Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk Tengrisi (Tùrkbeyler) Tanrısı) ĠĢilik ķız oġlın (Hanımlık kız evladı) Tabġaġçı begler 11. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tengri tôpùsi(Çinli beyler) 1070 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (Gôgùn tepesi) 8. Satır: Elig yıl (Elli yıl) Temir Kapıġ (Demir Kapı) 13. Satır: Eçùm apam tôrùsi (Ecdadımın tôresi) 9. Satır: Ne ķaġanķa (Ne kağana) 14. Satır: Tabġaç budun (Çin milleti) Ġllig budun (Ġlli millet) Ķaġanlıġ budun (Kağanlı millet) 16. Satır: Baz Ķaġanıġ (Buz Kağanı) Tùrk budun10. Satır: Bunça iĢig kùçùg (Bunça iĢi gùcù) (Tùrk milleti) 11. Satır: Yiti yigirmi er (On yedi er) 17. Satır: TarduĢ budun (TarduĢ milleti) ġantung12. Satır: Balıķdaķı taġ (ġehirdeki dağ) yazıķ(ġantung ovası) 13. Satır: YitmiĢ er (YetmiĢ er) Yiti yùz er (Yedi yùz er) 18. Satır: TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) Tùrk tôrisin ıçġınmıĢ budun (Tùrk tôresini bırakmıĢ millet) 19. Satır: On oķ budun (On ok kavmi) 15. Satır: Ķırķ artuķı yiti yol (Kırk yedi defa) Yigirmi 20. Satır: Ķırķız budun (Kırgız kavmi) sùngùĢ (Yirmi savaĢ) Ķaġan at (Kağan adı) Kôgmen yir (Kôgmenin16. Satır: Ol tôrù (O tôre) 17. Satır: YeĢil Ögùz (YeĢil Nehir) yeri) Temir Ķapıġ (Demir 21. Satır: Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) TùrkKapı) budun (Tùrk milleti) 19. Satır: Eçùmùz apamız tutmiĢ yir (Ecdadımızın tuttuğu 22. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) yer) Tùrk Oġuz begleri budun (Tùrk Oğuz beyleri, milleti)Az budun (Az millet) 23. Satır: Bilge ķaġan (Bilgili kağan) 21. Satır: Ol ôd (O zaman) Idık Ötùken yıĢ budun (Mukaddes Ötùken ormanıAnça kazganmıĢ itmiĢ ilimiz (Öyle kazanılmıĢ ilimiz halkı tôremiz) 25. Satır: Ķırķız ķaġan (Kırgız Kağanı) 23. Satır: ErmiĢ barmıĢ edgù il(Hùr, mùstakil,iyi il) Tùrk budunug atı kùsi (Tùrk milletinin adı sanı) 24. Satır: Beklig urı olun (Beylik erkek evlat) 26. Satır: Ķanġımız eçimiz ķazġanmıĢ budun atıĠĢilik kız olġun (Hanımlık kız evlat) kùsù 25. Satır: Ġl birigme Tengri (Ġl veren Tanrı) Ol tengri (O (Babamızın, amcamızın kazanmıĢ olduğu adı sanı) Tarı) 27. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 26. Satır: Neng yılsıg budun (Varlıklı, zengin millet) 28. Satır: Oġuz budun (Oğuz kavmi) Yabız yablak budun (DùĢkùn, periĢan millet) Ķıtany Tatabı budun (Kıtay, Tatabı milleti) 27. Satır: Biriki budun (Bùtùn millet) 31. Satır: Ögùm kutun katun (Annem hatunun29. Satır: Ölteci budun (Ölecek millet) Yalıng budun devleti) (Çıplak millet) Çıġany budun (Fakir millet) Er at (Er adı) (Az millet) Az budun Eçim ķaġan ilin tôrùsin (Amcam kağanın iliniIgar illig (Değerli illi) Igar ķaġanlı (Değerli kağanlı) tôresini) 32. Satır: Tôrt bulunġdaķı budun (Dôr taraftaki millet) Ong tutuķ yurçın (Ong valinin31. Satır: Altı yigirmi yaĢ (On altı yaĢ) kayınbiraderi) Tabġaç Ong tutuk (Çinli Ong vali) 33. Satır: IĢbara Yamtar boz atıg (IĢbara Yamtar‘ınBiĢ tùmen sù (Elli bin asker) Ol at (O at) boz atı) 32. Satır: Ol sùg (O ordu) Bir otuz yaĢ (Yirmi bir yaĢ) 34. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) 33. Satır: Ol at (O at) Yùz artuk ok (Yùzden fazla ok) Tùrgi Yarġun kôl (Tùrgi Yargun gôlù) 34. Satır: Ol sùg ( O ordu) Azķınya er (Azıcık er) 35. Satır: Kôgmen yıĢ (Kôgmen ormanı) Ķırķız yıĢ36. Satır: Bir er (Bir er) Ġki er (Ġki er) Ol yıl ( O yıl) (Songa ormanı) Bayırķun aķ adġır (Bayırkunun ak37. Satır: BaĢġu boz at (Alnı beyaz at) 1071 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo aygırı) 38. Satır: Az tutuġ (Az valisi) Ol budun (O millet) 36. Satır: Bayırkunung ak adġırı (Bayırkunun ak39. Satır: Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci nehri) Temir ķapıġ (Demir aygırı) Kapı) Ķırķız ķaġan (Kırgız kağanı) Altun yıĢ (AltınYablaķ kiĢi er (Kôtù kimse er) ormanı) 40. Satır: Alp er (Cesur kiĢi) Antag ôd (Öyle bir zaman) 37. Satır: TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ kavmi) Az er (Az er) Ulug sùngùĢ (Bùyùk savaĢ) Aķ at (Beyaz at) TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanının askeri) 38. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan Buyruķı (TùrgiĢ kağanının Buyruķu) Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) 39. Satır: Soğdak budun (Soğd milleti) Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) Bizing sù atı (Bizim askerin atı) 40. Satır: Ķara TùrgiĢ budun (TùrgiĢ avam halkı) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: KoĢu tutuk (KoĢu vali) Karluk budun1. Satır: Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) (Karluk kavmi) 2. Satır: Ol sùngùĢ (O savaĢ) Ġki er (Ġki asker) Ķara Ķôl 3. Satır: Eçim ķaġan ili (Amcam Kağanın ili) (Kara Gôl) Ġzgil budun (Ġzgil milleti) Az budun (Az millet) Bir ķırķ yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ) 4. Satır: Ġzgil budun (Ġzgil milleti) 3. Satır: Az budun (Az millet) Toķuz Oġuz budun (Dokuz Oğuz milleti) 4. Satır: Ol at (o at) BiĢ yol (BeĢ defa) Bir yıl (Bir yıl) 5. Satır: 5. Satır: Azman aķ (Azman ak) Altı er (Altı asker) Sù tegiĢi (Asker hùcumu) 6. Satır: Ediz budun (Ediz kavmi) ÇuĢ baĢı (ÇuĢYitinç er (Yedinci er) Az yaġız ( Az yağız) Bir er (Bir baĢı) Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 7. Satır: Tigin yoġı (Tigin matemi) asker) 6. Satır: Toķuz er (Dokuz asker) Azman aķ (Azman ak) 7. Satır: Alpaġu on er (Yiğit on er) 8. Satır: Amġa ķarġan (Amga kalesi) Ebig baĢla8. Satır: Ġki er (Ġki asker) Az yaġız (Az yağız) (Evin baĢı) Ol sù (O ordu) Oġuz yaġı (Oğuz dùĢmanı) 11. Satır: Budunumun kôzi kaĢı (Milletmin gôzù9. Satır: Ögsùz ak (Öksùz ak) Toķuz er (Dokuz asker) kaĢı) Tatabı budun (Tatabı milleti) 10. Satır: Kôrùr kôz (Gôrùr gôz) Bilir bilig (Bilir akıl) 12. Satır: Bir tùmen aġı (On bin kiĢilik hazine) 12. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin Kağanı) Kùn batsıķ13. Satır: On ok oğlımı (On ok oğlumu) (Gùn batısı) Tùpùt Ķaġan (Tibet Kağanı) 13. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) Ķırķız Ķaġan (Kırgız Kağanı) Bark itgùçi (Tùrbe yapıcı) Bitig taĢ itgùçi (Kitabe taĢı yapıcısı) Tabġaç Ķaġan çıķanı (Çin Kağanının yeğeni) Kuzey-Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1072 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Satır: Ķon yıl (Koyun yılı) Bitig taĢın (Kitabe1. Satır: Toķuzunçu ay (Dokuzuncu ay) Yitinç ay (Yedici taĢını) ay) Biçin yıl (Maymun yılı) Tuyġut ilteber (TurgutĶırķ artuķı yiti yaĢ(Kırk yedi yaĢ) Bunça bedizig (Bunca vali) resimciyi) Güney-Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Kùl Tigin atısı (Kùl Tigin‘in yeğeni) 1. Satır: Bunça bitig (Bunca yazı) Yigirmi kùn (Yirmi gùn) Bu taĢ (Bu taĢ) Bu tam (Bu duvar) Iġar oġlan (Değerli oğlan) Güney-Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 1. Satır: Kùl Tigining altunın kùmùĢin aġısın barımın tôrt bing yılkısın (Kùlt Tigin‘in altınını, gùmùĢùnù, hazinesini, servetini, dôrt binlik at sùrùsùnù) Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) Tarķan at (Tarkan adı) BĠLGE KAĞAN ÂBĠDESĠ Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1073 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 1. Satır: TarġtamıĢ kôz (Yere dikilmiĢ gôz) Kerkùlùg begleri (Çadırlı beyleri) Tùrk Tengri (TùrkBu ôd ( Bu zaman) Tôrt bulunġ (Dôrt taraf) Tanrısı) 24. Satır: Yiti yigirmi yaĢ (On yedi yaĢ) Tùrk begler budun (Tùrk beyleri milleti) Sekiz yigirmi yaĢ (On sekiz yaĢ) 24. Satır: Tanġut budun (Tangut milleti) 25. Satır: Ol sùg (O ordu) Yigirmi yaĢ (Yirmi yaĢ) 26. Satır: Çik budun (Çik kavmi) Tabġaç Onġtutuk (Çinli Ong Vali) 27. Satır: Kôgmen yıĢ (Kôgmen ormanı) Altın yıĢ (AltınBiĢ tùmen sùr (Elli bin asker) Ġki otuz yaĢ (Yirmi iki orman) yaĢ) Ķırķız budun (Kırgız kavmi) ĠrtiĢ ôgùz (ĠrtiĢ nehri) TùrgiĢ26. Satır: Sekiz tùmen sù (Seksen bin asker) Altı otuz budun (TùrgiĢ kavmi) TùrgiĢ ķaġan sùsi (TùrgiĢ kağanınınyaĢ (Yirmi altı yaĢ) Az budun (Az millet) Yiti otuz ordusu) yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) Sùngùg batımı kar (Mızrak 29. Satır: Ķarluķ budun (Karluk milleti) batımı kar) Mening budunum (Benim milletim) 27. Satır: Ol yıl (O yıl) 30. Satır: Tolga ôgùz (Tolġa nehri) Tùrk budun (Tùrk28. Satır: Otuz yaĢ (Otuz yaĢ) BıĢ Balıķ (BeĢ balık) milleti Altı yol (Altı defa) Ne kiĢi (Ne kadar insan) 31. Satır: Tonġ Tigin yoġ Amġı ķorġan (Amgı kalesi) Otuz artuķı bir yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ) 32. Satır: Üç oġuz sùsi (Üç oğuz ordusu) 29. Satır: 33. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Oġuz budun (Oğuz30. Satır: Bir yıl (Bir yıl) Tôrt yol (Dôrt defa) kavmi) 35. Satır: Alp ķaġan (Kahraman kağan) Iduk yir 34. Satır: Oġuz budun (Oğuz kavmi) (Mukaddes yer) 35. Satır: Toķuz Oġuz buddun (Dokuz oğuz kavmi) 37. Satır: Yùzçe er (Yùz kadar asker) 37. Satır: Ķarġan ķısıl (Kargan vadisi) Uyġur ilteber38. Satır: Ol yılkı (O at sùrùsù) Otuz artuķı tôrt yaĢ (Uygur valisi) (Otuz dôrt yaĢ) 38. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 39. Satır: Edgù sab (Ġyi sôz) 39. Satır: Tatabı budun (Tatabı milleti) Tabġaç ķaġan (Çin40. Satır: Bir ķorġan (Bir kale) kağanı) 41. Satır: Ķorıġu iki ùç kiĢig (Koruyucu iki ùç kiĢi) Ķadırķan yıĢ (Ķadırķan ormanı) 40. Satır: Ķarluķ budun (Karluk milleti) Ķarluķ ilteber (Karluk valisi) 41. Satır: Kara budun (Halk kitlesi) Güney – Doğu Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 1. Satır: Yiti ôd (Yedi zaman) Yılıġçı er (Yağmacı asker) Güney Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 1. Satır: Tabġaç atlıg (Çin sùvarisini) 1. Satır: Bir tùmen artuķı yiti bing sùg (On yedi bin 7. Satır: Tatabı budun (Çin milleti) Ġlker taġ (Ġlker dağır) asker) 8. Satır: Tônges taġ (Tônges dağı) Ġlki kùn (Ġlk gùn) Ġkinti kùn (Ġkinci gùn) 1074 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 10.Satır: Laġzın yıl (Domuz yıl) It yıl (Kôpek yılı) 2. Satır: On artuķı sekiz yaĢ (On sekiz yaĢ) 11.Satır: Yoġ yıparıġ (Yas tôreni kokusu) Çından ıġaçOtuz artuķı toķuz yaĢ (Otuz dokuz yaĢ) (Sandal ağacı) 7. Satır: Alp er (Kahraman er) Elig yaĢ (Elli yaĢ) 13. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan ( Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 8. Satır: Tôrt tùmen sù (Kırk bin asker) Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) TarduĢ begler (TarduĢ beyleri) Üç tùmen sù (Otuz bin asker) ġadpıt begler (ġadpıt beyleri) Tôlis begler (Tôlis beyleri) 9. Satır: Uluġ oġul (Bùyùk oğul) 14. Satır: ġadpıt begler (ġadpıt beyleri) Toķuz yiġirmi yıl (On dokuz yıl) 15. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) 10.Satır: Onunç ay (Onuncu ay) BiĢinç ay (BeĢinci ay) 11. Satır: BiĢ yùz eren (BeĢ yùz yiğit) 12. Satır: Bunça budun (Bunca millet) Ķara kiĢin (Kar samusunu) Edgù ôzlùk at (Ġyi binek atı) Kôk teyeng (Mavi sincap) 15. Satır: Aġar taĢ (Ağır taĢ) Yoġun ıġ (Kalın ağaç) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim tamlaması Sıfat tamlaması 9. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ Kağanı) 9. Satır: Tôrt bulunġ (Dôrt taraf) Tôrt bulunġdaķı TùrgiĢ Ķaġan kızın (TùrgiĢ Kağanının kızı) budun 11. Satır: Kùn toġsık (Gùn doğusu) (Dôrt taraftaki millet) Uluġ tôrùn (Bùyùk tôren) 13. Satır: Tùrk begler (Tùrk beyleri) Tùrk budun (Tùrk10. Satır: Ertingù uluġ tôrùn (Fevkalade bùyùk tôren) milleti) 11. Satır: Sarıġ altın (Sarı altın) Özlùk at (Binek at) 14. Satır: Tabġaç Ķaġan (Çin kağanı) Mening sabımKôzùn kôrmedik kulkakın eĢidmedik budunum (Benim sôzùm) (Gôzle gôrùlmeyen kulakla iĢitilmeyen milletim) 15. Satır: On oķ oġlı (On ok oğlu) Ķara kiĢ (Kara samur) Ķırġaġlıġ ķutay (Kenarlı ipek) Ürùng kùmùĢ (Beyaz gùmùĢ) Kinlig iĢg (Ġperkli kumaĢ) 12. Satır: Kôk teyeng (Mavi sincap) 14. Satır: Adınçıġ barķ (BambaĢka tùrbe) Adınçıġ bediz (BambaĢka resim) Kôngùlteki sab (Gônùldeki sôz) 15. Satır: Benggù taĢ (Ebedi taĢ) TaĢ barķ (TaĢ tùrbe) Güney – Batı Cephesi Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Ay artuķı tôrt kùn (Bir ay dôrt gùn) TONYUKUK ÂBĠDESĠ Birinci TaĢ- Batı Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tabġaç ili (Çin ili) Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 4. Satır: Ġki ùlùg (Ġki kısım) Bir ùlùg (Bir kısım) Yiti 1075 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) yùz kiĢi (Yedi yùz kiĢi) 3. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk Sir Budun (Tùrk5. Satır: Toruķ buķalı (Zayıf boğa) Semiz buķalı Sir Milleti) (Semiz boğa) 6. Satır: Semiz buķa (Semiz boğa) Toruķ buķa (Zayıf boğa) Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Budun boġuzı (Milletin boğazı) 2. Satır: Azķınya Tùrk budun (Azıcık Tùrk milleti) 2. Satır: Kôrùg sabı (Casusun sôzù) 4. Satır: Biridin yan (Gùney taraf) Öngdin yan (Doğu Toķuz Oġuz budun (Dokuz oğuz milleti) taraf) 4. Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk Sir milleti) Yırındınta yan (Kuzey taraf) 8.Satır: Ötùken yıĢ (Ötùken ormanı) 5. Satır: Ol sab ( O sôz) Yuyka erkli (Yufka olan) 10. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 6. Satır: Yinçke erkli (Ġnce olan) 7. Satır: Ġki ùç bing sù (Ġki ùç bin asker) 8.Satır: Ötùntùk ôtùnç (Arz edilen maruzat) 10. Satır: Biriyeki budun (Gùneydeki millet) Ķurıyaķı yırıyaķı ôngreki budun (Batıdaki, kuzeydeki, doğudaki millet) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) Tùrk ķaġan (Tùrk1. Satır: Ġki sù (Ġki ordu) kağanı) 2. Satır: Üç otuz balıķ (Yirmi ùç Ģehir) ġantun balıķ (ġantung nehri) 3. Satır: Ol ùç ķaġan (O ùç kağan) 2. Satır: ġantung balıķ (ġantung Ģehri) Tabġaç ķaġan5. Satır: Ol sab (Sôz) (Çinkağanı) 7. Satır: Ol yol (o yol) On oķ ķaġan (On okkağanı) 3. Satır: Ķırķız kùçùk ķaġan (Kırgızın kuvvetli kağanı) Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) Tùrk ķaġan (Tùrk kağanı) 4. Satır: TùrgiĢ ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) 5. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 6. Satır: Kôgmen yolı (Kôgmenin yolu) 7. Satır: Az yir yolı (Az ùlkesinin yolu) Bir at oruķı (Bir at yolu) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1076 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Satır: Anı sub (Sanı suyu) 4. Satır: Ķırķız 1. Satır: Önreki er (Öndeki er) budunı (Kırgız kavmi) Kôgmen yıĢ2. Satır: On tùn (On gece) Yantaķı tuġ (Yandaki (Kôgmen ormanı) engel) 5. Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) 3. Satır: Ol sub (O su) 6.Satır: TùrgiĢ Ķaġan (TùrgiĢ kağanı) On oķ budun (On6. Satır: Ol sab ( O sôz) ok milleti) Tabġaç sùsi (Çin ordusu) 7. Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 9. Satır: Üç kôrùg (Üç casus) Ol sab (O sôz) Sù baĢı (Ordu11. Satır: Ol Sab (O sôz) komutanı) 8. Satır: Altın yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 9. Satır: On oķ sùsi (On ok ordusu) YarıĢ yazı (YarıĢ ovası) 10. Satır: Yelme ķarġu (KeĢif kolu) Ergùti urġıl (Nôbet iĢi) 11.Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) ĠrtiĢ ôgùz (ĠrtiĢ nehri (ĠrtiĢ nerhri) Batı Cephesi Ġkinci TaĢ Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1. Satır: YarıĢ yazı (YarıĢ ovası) 1. Satır: On tùmen sù (Yùz bin asker) Ol sab (O sôz) 2. Satır: Altun yıĢ (Altun ormanı) 3. Satır: Iduk yir (Mukaddes yer) 7. Satır: Ol oķ tùn budun (O aynı gece halkı) 4. Satır: Ġkinti kùn (Ġkinci gùn) On oķ begleri (On ok beyleri) 5. Satır: Ġki uç (Ġki uç) 8. Satır: On ok sùsi (On ok ordusu) 7. Satır: Eligçe er (Elli kadar er) Ol sab ( O sôz) 9. Satır: Bengilig Ek Taġı (Mukaddes Ek dağı) 8. Satır: Keligme begler (Gelen beyler) Azça budun (Az miktarda millet) 9. Satır: Yinçù ôgùz (Ġnci nehri) Güney Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 2. Satır: Soġdaķ budun (Soğdak milleti) Tùrk budun (Tùrk1.Satır: Temir Ķapıġ (Demir Kapı) milleti) 2. Satır: Temir Ķapıġ (Demir Kapı) 6. Satır: Tùrk Bôgù Ķaġan (Tùrk Bôgù Kağanı) 3. Satır: Ol yir (O yer) Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 4. Satır: Sarıġ altun (Sarı altın) Ürùng kùmùĢ (Beyaz gùmùĢ) Ķız ķuduz (Kız kadın) Egri teb (Eğri deve) Doğu Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması Sıfat Tamlaması 1077 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Satır: Tùrk budun (Tùrk milleti) 1.Satır: Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) 8. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) 2. Satır: Ķızıl ķan (Kızıl kan) Ķara terim (Kara terim) Uzun yelmeg (Uzun keĢif kolu) 3. Satır: Yanıġma yaġı (Silahlı dùĢman) 4. Satır: Yaraķlıg yaġıġ (Silahlı dùĢmanı) Tôgùnlùg atı (Damgalı atı) 6. Satır: Neng yirdeki ķaġanlıġ budun (Herhangi bir yerdeki kağanlı millet) 7. Satır: Ne bung (Ne sıkıntısı) Kuzey Cephesi Ġsim Tamlaması 2.Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) 3. Satır: Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) 4. Satır: Tùrk Bilge Ķaġan (Tùrk Bilge Kağanı) Tùrk Sir budun (Tùrk sir milleti) Oġuz budun (Oğuz milleti) Kitabelerin her satırında dil yadigârlarımızla karĢılaĢmak mùmkùndùr. "Yazıtlar, o gùnùn Tùrkçesini ve yer yer sanatlı anlatımlarıyla Tùrk yazınının en eski ôrneklerini yansıtmaları bakımından bùyùk ônem taĢımaktadır." (Aksan, 2000: 23). Yazıtlarda yer alan ôrnekler içerisinde ise tamlamalar ôzel bir yer tutmaktadır. Tamlamalar sôz varlığının ônemli unsurlarından olup sôz dizimi içerisinde en çok karĢılaĢılan sôzcùk grubudur. Ġsim ve sıfat tamlaması olarak ikiye ayrılır. Ġsim tamlaması, isimlerle kurulur. ―Bu kelime grubunda iki isim unsuru aitlik, içinde bulunma, sınırlandırma, belirtme vb. anlam ilgileri çerçevesinde birbirine bağlanır.‖ (Karahan, 2005: 42) sıfat tamlamasında ise ismi niteleyen veya belirten bir sıfat bulunur. Abidelerde hemen hemen her satırda isim ve sıfat tamlaması bulunmaktadır. Henùz yabancı dillerden etkilenmemiĢ bir Tùrkçe ile oluĢturulan bu tamlamaların pek çoğu gùnùmùze kadar değiĢim gôstermeden ulaĢmıĢtır. Ġsim tamlamalarının belirtili ve belirtisiz isim tamlaması ôrnekleri kùçùk ek değiĢimleri dıĢında aynen korunmuĢ ve gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢtır. ―Mening budunum‖ (Benim milletim), ―Tùrk budun‖ (Tùrk milleti)… Yer, yôn ve zaman bildiren tamlamaların tıpkı Orhun abidelerinde olduğu gibi Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanıldığı gôrùlmektedir: ―Kùn toġsık‖ (Gùn doğusu), ―Kùn ortasın‖ (Gùn ortası), ―Kùn batsık‖ (Gùn batısı), ―Tôrt bulung‖ (Dôrt taraf), ―Biridin yan‖ (Gùney taraf), ―Tùn ortasın‖ (Gece ortası), ―Yinçù ôgùz‖ (Ġnci nehri), ―Ötùken yıĢ‖ (Ötùken ormanı)… Orhun abideleri sıfat tamlamaları bakımından zengin bir içeriğe sahiptir. ―Genelde kısa cùmlelerle kesin hùkùmler bildiren yazıtlarda geniĢ bir sıfat yelpazesi ile karĢı karĢıya kalıyoruz.‖ (Kayra, 1996: 145). Sıfat tamlamaları içinde ağırlığı niteleme sıfatları oluĢturmaktadır. Tek tek tespit edip tablo halinde verdiğimiz tamlamalardan niteleme sıfatları bir sıfatla bir ismin birleĢmesinden oluĢtuğu ve genellikle sıfatın ekleĢmediği yapılar olduğu için kolayca anlaĢılmaktadır. Bu sıfat tamlamalarından bugùn için oldukça kolay bir Ģekilde anlaĢılacak olan ve Orhun abidelerinin gùnùmùze ulaĢtığını gôstermesi yônùyle Ģu tamlamalara bakılabilir: ―Alp er‖ (Cesur kiĢi), ―Aķ at‖ (Beyaz at), ―Ķara Ķôl‖ (Kara Gôl)… 1078 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Abidelerde ―bu‖ ve ―ol‖ iĢaret sıfatları ile oluĢturulmuĢ sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri gôrùlùr. ―Bu taĢ‖ (Bu taĢ) ―Bu tam‖ (Bu duvar); ―Ol tôrù‖ (O tôre), ―Ol sùg‖ (O ordu) gibi. ―Bu‖ iĢaret sôzcùğù değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢmıĢken ―ol‖ sôzcùğù Ģu an ―o‖ iĢaret sôzcùğù olarak kullanılmaktadır. Abidelerde sıfat tamlaması tùrlerinden soru sıfatları da bulunmaktadır. ―Ne ķaġanķa‖ (Ne kağana), ―Ne kiĢi‖ (Ne kadar insan), Ne bung (Ne sıkıntısı). Sıfat tamlamalarından belirsizlik bildiren tamlama ôrnekleri de gôrùlùr. ―Bunça budun‖ (Bunca millet), ―Azķınya er‖ (Azıcık er), ―Bir kiĢi‖ (Bir insan, birisi) Bazı sıfat tamlamalarının sıfat fiillerle kurulduğu gôrùlùr. Sôz konusu tamlamalardaki sıfat fiil ekleri ise gùnùmùze ulaĢamamıĢtır. Ancak anlamın korunduğu ve bunu karĢılayacak sıfat fiillerin Tùrkçede Ģu an bulunduğu gôrùlùr. ―Ġl tutsıķ yir‖ (Ġl tutulacak yer), ―Erig yir‖ (EriĢilir yer)… -çe ekinden yararlanarak kùçùltme anlamı taĢıyan ve gùnùmùze anlam olarak ulaĢan sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri de bulunur. ―Yùzçe er‖ (Yùz kadar asker), ―Eligçe er‖ (Elli kadar er) Abidelerde Ģu an Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki atasôzleri içinde yer alan sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri de vardır. Örneğin ―Sùçig sab‖ (tatlı sôz). Bu tamlama gùnùmùzde ―Tatlı sôz yılanı deliğinden çıkarır.‖ (Aksoy, 1995: 283) atasôzù içinde geçmektedir. ―Kôrùr kôz‖ (Gôrùr, gôren gôz) tamlaması da yine bir atasôzùnde ―Gôren gôzùn hakkı vardır.‖ (Aksoy, 1995: 146) Ģeklinde kullanılır. Abidelerde bazı sıfat tamlamalarında tamlayanın birden fazla sıfattan oluĢtuğu gôrùlùr ve bu kullanım gùnùmùzde de yaygındır. ―Edgù bilge kiĢi‖ (Ġyi, bilgili insan), ―Edgù alp kiĢi‖ (Ġyi, cesur insan)… Bazı isim tamlamalarında ise tamlananın birden fazla kelimeden oluĢtuğu gôrùlùr. ―Tùrk begler, budun‖ (Tùrk beyleri, milleti), ―Tùrk budunug atı kùsi‖ (Tùrk milletinin adı sanı) Renk bildiren sıfat tamlamalarının aradan asırlar geçmiĢ olmasına rağmen aynen korunduğu gôrùlùr: ―Kôk tengri‖ (Mavi gôk), ―Boz at‖ (boz at), ―Sarıġ altın‖ (Sarı altın) Sayı sıfatlarının bazılarının da abidelerde olduğu gibi gùnùmùzde kullanıldığı gôrùlmektedir. ―Bir er‖ (Bir kiĢi), ―Ġki er‖ (Ġki kiĢi)), YitmiĢ er (YetmiĢ kiĢi), Yigirmi kùn (Yirmi gùn)… Ancak o zamanın sayı sistemi farklı olduğundan abidelerde gôrùlen pek çok sayı sıfatı ise değiĢen sayı sistemleri ile birlikte abidelerde kalmıĢtır. ―Yiti yigirmi er‖ (On yedi kiĢi), ―Bir otuz yaĢ‖ (Yirmi bir yaĢ), Altı yigirmi yaĢ (On altı yaĢ), Yiti otuz yaĢ (Yirmi yedi yaĢ) gibi tamlamalarda onluklar arası sayı sistemi kullanılmıĢtır. ―Onluklar arası sayılar bir sonraki onluğa atılacak adımlar olarak dùĢùnùlùr ve buna gôre adlandırılır.‖ (Tekin, 2000: 129) Otuz artuķı bir yaĢ (Otuz bir yaĢ), ―Ķırķ artuķı yiti yol‖ (Kırk yedi defa) gibi sayı sıfatlarında ise baĢka bir sistem dikkati çeker. ―Asıl Orhon yazıtlarında 30‘dan sonraki sayılar genellikle katmanlı yapılardır. Bu yapılarda artukı -fazlası, artı- sôzcùğù birleĢtirici olarak kullanılır.‖ (Tekin, 2000: 130) bunun dıĢında 80 ve 90 ile yùzler ve binler niteleme yapılar olarak gôrùlùr. ―BiĢ yùz eren‖ (BeĢ yùz yiğit) Bazı tamlamaların sonradan birleĢik kelimeye dônùĢtùğù gôrùlmùĢtùr. ―Sù baĢı‖ (Ordu komutanı) tamlaması sonradan subaĢı biçiminde Osmanlı Tùrkçesinde kullanılmıĢ ve gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢmıĢtır. Abidelerde derecelendirilmiĢ ve kendi içinde karĢılaĢtırma ifade eden sıfat tamlaması ôrneği de vardır. ―Ġdi oķsuz Kôk Tùrk‖ bu tamlamayı Ergin, ―Pek teĢkilatsız Kôktùrk olarak‖ belirtmiĢtir. Buradaki pek sôzcùğù (Ġdi) sıfatın baĢına gelerek derecelendirme oluĢturmuĢtur. –ki ekiyle oluĢturulmuĢ tùremiĢ sıfat tamlaması ôrnekleri bulunmaktadır ve bunlardan bazıları gùnùmùzde de benzer Ģekilde kullanılmaktadır. ―…içreki bediĢci‖ (…maiyetindeki resimci), ―Ġçreki budun‖ (Ġçindeki millet) gùnùmùzde aitlik eki olan –ki, -de bulunma hali ile yaygın olarak kullanılır: Evdeki, sokaktaki…. Sıra sayı sıfatlarının oluĢturduğu tamlamalar da kolayca anlaĢılacak açıklıktadır ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde Ģu an aynı Ģekilde kullanılmaktadır. ―Yitinç er‖ (Yedinci kiĢi), ―Toķuzunçu ay‖ (Dokuzuncu ay), ―Yitinç ay‖ (Yedinci ay)… 1079 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bazı tamlamalar gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢ olmasına rağmen abidelerdeki Ģekliyle Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanılmamaktadır. Örneğin ―Bilig bilmez kiĢi‖ olarak geçen sıfat tamlaması ―bilgi bilmez kiĢi‖ olarak Tùrkiye Tùrkçesine çevrilir. Bu sıfat tamlamasını Orkun, ―bilir bilmez [cahil] kiĢi‖ (Orkun, 1994: 25), Ergin, ―bilgi bilmez kiĢi‖ (Ergin, 2005: ), Tekin ise ―cahil kiĢi‖ (Tekin, 2006: 23) olarak açıklamıĢtır. Gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde bilgi bilmez Ģeklinde iki kelime kullanımı yerine bilgisiz veya cahil kelimesi bulunmaktadır. Sonuc Orhun abidelerinin sôz varlığı ùzerine çeĢitli çalıĢmalar yapılabilir. Bu çalıĢmada tamlamalar esas alındı. ÇalıĢmanın bulgular bôlùmùnde ôncelikle abidelerdeki isim ve sıfat tamlamaları tablo halinde verildi. Abidelerde iç içe geçmiĢ veya tekrar eden sıfat ve isim tamlamaları sayılmazsa 250 civarında isim tamlaması, 300 civarında ise sıfat tamlaması bulunmaktadır. Tabloda verilen tamlamalar içinden isim ve sıfat tamlaması çeĢitleri olarak ve gùnùmùze ulaĢmıĢ olmaları bakımından çeĢitli ôrnekler seçildi ve sıralandı. Birçok tamlamanın herhangi bir değiĢime uğramadan dilde kullanılageldiği, bazılarının ise bir iki ek değiĢimi gôstererek ve anlamını koruyarak gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı ve Ģu an Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde kullanıldığı ortaya konuldu. Gùnùmùzde bu tamlamaların deyimlerimizde, atasôzlerimizde, yer-yôn adlarında ve gùnlùk kullanımlarda vs. bulunduğu gôrùldù. 1080 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Reference Aksan, D. (2000). Her Yônùyle Dil, Ana Çizgileriyle Dilbilim, Ankara: Atatùrk Kùltùr, Dil ve Tarih Yùksek Kurumu Yay. Aksan. D. (1996). Tùrkçenin Sôz Varlığı. Ankara: Engin Yayınevi. Aksoy, Ö. A. (1994): Atasôzleri ve Deyimler Sôzlùğù. Ġstanbul: Ġnkılâp Kitabevi. Aksoy Ö. A., Dilçin D. (1995): Tarama Sôzlùğù, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: 212/II Aksoy Ö. A., Dilçin D. (1995): Tarama Sôzlùğù, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları: 212/III Alyılmaz, C. (1994). Orhun Yazıtlarının Sôz Dizimi. Erzurum: Atatùrk Ünv. Yayınları. Çelikel, S. (2007). Orhun Kitabelerinin Gùnùmùz Tùrkçesindeki Sôz Varlığı, Trakya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitùsù. BasılmamıĢ Yùksek Lisans Tezi. Edirne. Ergin, M. (2005). Orhun Abideleri. Ġstanbul: Boğaziçi Yayınları. Emiroğlu, S. (2010). Manzum Nasihatnamelerin Eğitim Değeri Üzerine Bir Ġnceleme. Selçuk Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitùsù. BasılmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Konya. Karahan, L. (2005) Tùrkçede Sôz Dizimi, 8. Baskı. Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Kayra, O. K. (1996). ―Orhun Anıtlarında Sıfatlar, Sıfat Tamlamaları ve Bunlara ĠliĢkin Bazı Açıklamalar‖, TDAY Belleten, Ankara: TDK Yayınları. 145-158. Orkun, H. N. (1994). Eski Tùrk Yazıtları, Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Tekin T. (2006). Orhon Yazıtları. Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Tekin T. (2000). Orhon Tùrkçesi Grameri. Ankara: TDK Yayınları. Timurtas, F. K. (2005), Tarih Ġçinde Tùrk Edebiyatı, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. Tùrkçe Sôzlùk 2005, 10. Baskı, Ankara: Tùrk Dil Kurumu Yayınları. 1081 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 582 Title A name given to the resource ORHUN ABĠDELERĠNDEKĠ TAMLAMALARIN TÜRKĠYE TÜRKÇESĠNDEKĠ KULLANIMI Author Author Emiroğlu, Selim Abstract A summary of the resource. Orhun abideleri, Tùrk dili ve edebiyatının ilk yazılı kaynaklarıdır. Bu taĢlar, hem maddi hem de manevi bakımdan Tùrk dili, kùltùrù ve tarihinin en değerli anıtlarıdır. Gôktùrkler dôneminde ve Gôktùrkçe olarak yazılmıĢ kitabelerde gùnùmùze ıĢık tutan ônemli mesajlar bulunmaktadır. Kitabelerde Tùrk dilini tùm ôzellikleriyle bulmak mùmkùndùr. ġiir lezzetinde ve sağlam bir Tùrkçeyle Tùrklùk Ģuuru gelecek kuĢaklara aktarılmıĢtır. Ebedi taĢlar denilen kitabeler ùzerine kazınmıĢ metinler, Tùrk dilinin geçirdiği evreleri ve değiĢimi takip etmek bakımından dikkate değerdir. Orhun Abideleri ùzerinde yerli ve yabancı olmak ùzere pek çok çalıĢma vardır. Bu çalıĢmada Orhun abidelerinin ùç ônemli yazıtı olan Kùltigin, Bilge Kağan ve Tonyukuk yazıtları tamlamalar bakımından incelenmiĢ olup yazıtlardaki tamlamalar teker teker tespit edilmiĢtir. Bu tamlamaların gùnùmùz Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki kullanımları ele alınmıĢtır. Birkaç kùçùk ses ve ek değiĢimi dıĢında tamlamaların birçoğunun tarihi sùreç içerisinde değiĢmeden gùnùmùze kadar ulaĢtığı gôrùlmùĢtùr. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5a8053aca7a061138d50590f66bbac2f.pdf 5787d619d74c544334bebb2dbe0ad5ab PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Process of Foreign Language Acquisition in Azerbaijani Learners of Different Ages Heydar Eminli English language and literature Qafqaz University heidar_em@yahoo.com Abstract:The research paper is dedicated to the process of foreign/second language acquisition in children and adults. The problem of foreign or second language acquisition is not only the research area of applied linguistics, but also psychology, psycholinguistics, TEFL. The process of acquiring foreign language by children and adults, the stages of this process, some problems while acquiring and learning English as a second language by Azerbaijani learners are studied in the paper. People can acquire a second or foreign language under many different circumstances. We may have learned a second language when we began elementary school, secondary school or even university. Moving to a new country usually means acquiring a new language which we call a second language. Also people live in different communities, environments or families in which more than one language is spoken and may acquire two or even more languages at the same time. No doubt that, foreign language acquisition has its historical background and aspects. Current theories of foreign or second language acquisition are based on years of research in a wide variety of fields, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and psycholinguistics. The article concerns one of the most important issues concerning foreign or second language acquisition in both children and adults. Key words: Second language acquisition (SLA), bilingualism, critical period hypothesis, age, cognition We can sometimes wonder how it is possible for a child to acquire two or even more languages at the same time. There are many questions, such as: doesn‘t the child confuse the two languages; how does he learn the grammatical structure of these languages; does bilingual language development take longer than monolingual development; how does acquiring two languages affect to the child‘s cognitive development; and also how does it affect to other areas beyond language? What is the role of environment and community in acquiring or learning a foreign language? There is no doubt that there are some distinctions between children‘s and adults‘ acquiring the second language. At least, young children should build their mother language structure first. Here is the most basic problem in understanding how children learn a language: The input to language acquisition consists of sounds and situations; the output is a grammar specifying, for that language, the order and arrangement of abstract entities like nouns, verbs, subjects, phrase structures. Somehow the child must discover these entities to learn the language. Language acquisition is the study of the processes through which learners acquire language. By itself, language acquisition refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants‘ acquisition of their native language, whereas second language acquisition deals with acquisition of additional languages in both children and adults. The important issue is that whether the biological factor includes capacities specific to language acquisition, which is described as universal grammar. About fifty years, linguists Noam Chomsky and after him Eric Lenneberg have argued for the hypothesis that children have innate, language-specific abilities that make language learning possible and easier and also control the process. 199 But other researchers, including Elizabeth Bates, Catherine Snow, Brian MacWhinney, and Michael Tomasello, have hypothesized that language learning results from general cognitive abilities and the interaction between learners and the community and environment surrounding them.Noam Chomsky originally theorized that children were born with a hard-wired language 199 Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books 611 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo acquisition device (LAD) in their brains.200 He later expanded this idea into Universal Grammar; a set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are common to all human languages. According to N. Chomsky, the presence of Universal Grammar in the brains of children allow them to deduce the structure of their native languages from ―mere exposure‖. But according to nativism, much of the nativist position is based on the early age at which children show competency in their native grammars, as well as the ways in which they do (and do not) make errors. Some research suggests that infants are born able to distinguish between phonemes in minimal pairs, distinguishing between bit and pit, shop and chop or meat and meet for example.201 Another source of support for this viewpoint is that young children (under the age of three) do not speak in fully formed sentences, instead saying things like 'want cookie' or 'my coat.' However, they do not say things like 'want my' or 'I cookie,' statements that would break the syntactic structure of the phrase, a component of universal grammar. Children also seem remarkably immune from error correction by adults which nativists say would not be the case if children were learning from their parents.202 The term second language acquisition, or L2 acquisition, generally refers to the acquisition of a second language by someone (child or adult) who has already acquired a first language. Bilingual language acquisition refers to the simultaneous acquisition of two languages beginning in infancy, especially before the age of three years. In contrast to the bilinguals, many people are acquainted with a second language after they have achieved native competence in a first language. If we have had the experience of trying to master a second language as an adult, no doubt we found it to be a challenge quite unlike our first language experience. Unlike L1 acquisition, which is uniformly successful across children and languages, adults vary considerably in their ability to acquire an L2 completely. Some people are very talented language learners. Others are hopeless. Most people fall somewhere in the middle. Success may depend on a range of factors, including age, talent, motivation, and whether you are in the country where the language is spoken or sitting in a classroom five evenings a week with no further contact with native speakers. For all these reasons, many people, including many linguists who study L2 acquisition, believe that second language acquisition is something different from first language acquisition. This hypothesis is referred to as the fundamental difference hypothesis of L2 acquisition. Like L1ers, L2ers construct grammars. These grammars reflect their competence in the L2 at each stage and so their language at any particular point, though not native like, is rule-governed and not haphazard. The intermediate grammars that L2ers create on their way to the target have been called interlanguage grammars.203 Let‘s see word order in the interlanguage grammars of Turkic (Azerbaijani, Turkish, and Kirghiz) speakers acquiring English as a second language. The word order of the Turkic languages is Subject-Object-Verb. But in these languages word order may change the place and keep the original meaning the same. However, while transforming the elements of the syntactic structure of the Azerbaijani language into English word order significantly changes, and in the Azerbaijani language as well as in other Turkic languages, auxiliary verb does not exist in the sentence. 1. Arif qapını dôydù. ―Arif door knocked‖ (Arif knocked the door). 2. Arif indi məktub yazır. ―Arif now letter is writing‖ (Arif is writing a letter now). The research shows that Azerbaijani speakers acquire English word order in pieces. During the first stage they use English words but the S-O-V word order of their native language, as follows: Stage 1: My mum a new dress has bought. (My mum has bought a new dress) ―Anam təzə paltar alıb.‖ At the second stage, they acquired SStage 2: Otaq yoldaĢım kredit kartla ôdəməkdə mənə kômək etdi (My) roommate by a credit card to pay me helped. ―My roommate helped me (to) pay by a credit card.‖ At the third stage they acquire the negative forms in the sentence. Stage 3: Mən bu barədə heç kimə heç nə sôyləməyəcəm I about this issue nobody nothing will tell ―I won‘t tell anything to anyone about this issue.‖ At the fourth stage while acquiring possessive pronoun and subject pronoun they encounter with some problems in confusing them as in the following examples: Stage 4: Onun evi Ģəhərin kənarındadır. Onun Ģəhərin kənarında evi vardır. His house is in the suburbs. He has a house in the suburbs. 200 Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books Yang, Charles (2006). The Infinite Gift: How Children Learn and Unlearn All the Languages of the World. New York: Scribner 202 Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: Harper Collins. 201 203 Fromkin V, Rodman R, Hyams N. 2003. An Introduction to Language, 379-390 612 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo These stages differ from those of children acquiring English as a first language. For example, English children know from the start that language has S-V-O word order. However, like first language learners, second language learners attempt to uncover the grammar of the target language. Although English is included to the group of inflected languages, it has the elements of agglutinative languages quite much. In the English language adjective-noun agreement does not formed as in other inflected languages like Russian, which means from this point of view English does not differ from Azerbaijani and other Turkic languages: а ниже щоусе – ниже щоусес - гяшянэ ев – гяшянэ евляр; an expensive car- expensive cars – bahalı maĢın – bahalı maĢınlar; an interesting book – interesting books – maraqlı kitab – maraqlı kitablar However in Russian which is also belonged to inflected languages the adjective declines with the noun: красивый дом – красивые дома; дорогая машина – дорогие машины; интересная книга – интересные книги. These similar characteristics help the Azerbaijani learners to acquire English as a foreign language faster. Many L2 acquisition researchers reject the idea that L2 acquisition is fundamentally different from L1 acquisition. They point to different studies to show that interlanguage grammars do not generally violate principles of UG, which makes the process seem more similar to L1 acquisition. Second language acquisition (SLA), like first language acquisition, also proceeds in broadly systematic stages. The first stage is called Pre-production (Silent/Receptive) stage. The learners of the target language may have up to 500 words in their receptive vocabulary but they are not yet speaking. Some students will, however, repeat every thing you say. They are not really producing language but are parroting. They can understand and duplicate gestures and movements to show comprehension. Total Physical Response methods will work well with them. The second stage is Early Production. The student understands the main idea of what is communicated, but may not understand every word. He or she will begin to respond in small word groupings and answer yes/no and cognitively undemanding questions that require the repetition of no more than one word (i.e. would you like to drink coffee or tea? ―tea‖). This stage may last up to six months and students will develop a receptive and active vocabulary of about 1000 words. During this stage, students can usually speak in one- or two-word phrases. The third stage is Speech Emergence. Students have developed a vocabulary of about 3,000 words and can communicate with simple phrases and sentences. During this stage there is a shift of emphasis from reception to production. The student begins using simple sentences, improving pronunciation and intonation, and demonstrating and expanding vocabulary. He or she engages in relatively familiar language and tasks (developing initial reading skills, decoding and literal comprehension, writing for personal purposes - reading and writing for operational purposes - writing answers to lower level questions). Those around the learner should encourage any attempt to speak in the second language (L2), and be careful not to discourage or make fun of attempts made. Again, if the speaker is understandable there is no need to correct them on pronunciation. The fourth stage is Intermediate Fluency. At this level the student is developing academic vocabulary, and little information other than teacher and textbook is provided. English language learners at the intermediate fluency stage have a vocabulary of about 6000 active words. He or she is beginning to think in the new language instead of translating from the native language. They begin to use longer sentences and more elaborate speech patterns though they may continue to make errors in the use of new vocabulary and complex grammatical structures. At this stage the student understands academic presentations accompanied by visuals and demonstrations, participates in hands-on science activities, makes models, maps charts, graphs, solves computational and word math problems assisted by manipulatives and illustrations, participates in academic discussions, can make brief oral presentations, can use higher order comprehension skills, understands written texts through discussions, illustrations and visuals, writes simple science reports and answers higher level questions. The fifth stage is Advanced Fluency which takes students from 4-10 years to achieve cognitive academic language proficiency in a second language. Student at this stage will be near-native in their ability to perform in content area learning. Most ELLs at this stage have been exited from ESL and other support programs. At the beginning of this stage, however, they will need continued support from classroom teachers especially in content areas such as history/social studies and in writing. the student understands most (but not all) academic presentations without visuals or demonstrations, makes formal oral presentations, uses higher level reading comprehension skills including inferential and critical reading, reads for information, writes compositions, essays and research projects, solves math word problems without illustrations, and writes answers to higher level questions - can take standardized achievement tests successfully. This is the time to provide some grammar instruction and to present new information and language, including extensive vocabulary development. 613 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A great deal of the research on non simultaneous second language acquisition, in both children and adults, has focused on the interfering effects of the first and second languages. For the most part, research confirms that the linguistic and cognitive processes of second language learning in young children are in general similar to first language processes. Dulay and Burt found, for example, that 86 percent of more than 500 errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English reflected normal developmental characteristics – that is, expected intralingual strategies, not interference errors from the first language.204 Hansen-Bede examined such linguistic structures as possession, gender, word order, verb forms, questions, and negation in an English-speaking threeyear-old child who learned Urdu upon moving Pakistan. In spite of some marked linguistic contrasts between English and Urdu, the child‘s acquisition did not appear to show first language interference and, except for negation, showed similar strategies and rules for both the first and the second language.205 Some researches (Hudson, G. 2000; Douglas Brown, H. 2000) show that children acquire the second language quicker than adults do. On the other hand it is quite contrary, it is about cognitive differences: Language learning adults are obviously different from children by already having knowledge of a language: ability to talk about the language and how it works. Adults use this knowledge to try to figure things out. Finally, adults have expectations about learning. They also have metalinguistic knowledge: conscious, analytic, knowledge of their use of language, and also formal knowledge of the terminology of grammar. This gives them the means to learn in conscious and analytic ways seemingly quite different from those of children. Adults are also able to monitor their speech – comparing their utterances with their conscious knowledge, and correcting accordingly. But the learning style of children is more intuitive and we can say, it is more natural. The different learning styles of adults and children have been distinguished as ‗learning‘ and ‗acquisition‘. The conscious and analytic approach of adults has been termed language learning, and the unconscious and spontaneous approach of children language acquisition. There are some reasons for the superiority of child language acquisition. Almost all children fully succeed in learning their first language, whereas many adults fail to learn well the second languages which they study. Children acquire their first language completely fluently and without accent, whereas most adult learners continue to make errors. Adults typically have to work hard at second language learning, whereas children seem to acquire their first language almost effortlessly. It is necessary to note that there is also a biological difference acquiring language between children and adults. It concerns with critical period for language learning. It is a period during which something must be acquired or learned, for after that time the neurophysiological basis for that learning might be lost or weakened. The critical period hypothesis of brain plasticity and learning capacity has been called into question. Other factors may account for differences in adult and child language learning. Children‘s apparently effortless and rapid language acquisition may be explained by the fact that the environment is set up to engage them in frequent and optimal learning opportunities. By contrast, adults seem to have an initial advantage in their learning of vocabulary and syntax, but may never achieve native-like pronunciation. A more modern view of the Critical Period Hypothesis is represented by the University of Maryland, instructor Robert DeKeyser. He argues that although it is true that there is a critical period, this does not mean that adults cannot learn a second language perfectly, at least on the syntactic level. At the present time, the evidence from second language acquisition research has not provided unequivocal evidence for the critical period hypothesis. There is not a simple answer to the question of age and second language – it depends on how we measure second language proficiency. The best researchers can say is that young children generally learn L2 better than older children and adults, at least in the long run. Knowledge of children‘s learning of their first language provides essential insights to an understanding of the second language acquisition. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to interference from their first language. In conclusion, I would like to say that children are luckier than adults in acquiring the second language (curiosity, ambition etc). Moreover, the advantage that younger learners display in some studies may be due to biological changes (or critical period hypothesis), environmental factors, motivation, cognitive changes, or some combination of factors. Clearly, we have much more to learn about how the capacity for language acquisition changes over the life span. While Azerbaijani language is in the group of Turkic languages and is an agglutinative language, and English is inflected and in Germanic language group, due to some similarities in both language structures, the learners of these languages acquire some features of both languages easier. 204 Dulay, Heidi C. and Burt, Marina K. 1974a. Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136 205 Hansen-Bede, Lynn. 1975. A child‘s creation of a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6: 103-126 614 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: 1. Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on Language. New York: Pantheon Books 2. Douglas Brown, H. 2000. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Fourth edition 3. Dulay, Heidi C. and Burt, Marina K. 1974a. Errors and strategies in child second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 8: 129-136 4. Fromkin V, Rodman R, Hyams N. 2003. An Introduction to Language, 379-390 5. Hansen-Bede, Lynn. 1975. A child‘s creation of a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 6: 103-126 6. Hudson, G. 2000. Essential Introductory Linguistics. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, UK 7. Jordens, P. 1988. ―The Acquisition of Word Order in L2 Dutch and German‖ 8. Pinker, Steven (1994). The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: Harper Collins. 9. Yang, Charles (2006). The Infinite Gift: How Children Learn and Unlearn All the Languages of the World. New York: Scribner 615 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 91 Title A name given to the resource The Process of Foreign Language Acquisition in Azerbaijani Learners of Different Ages Author Author Eminli, Heydar Abstract A summary of the resource. The research paper is dedicated to the process of foreign/second language acquisition in children and adults. The problem of foreign or second language acquisition is not only the research area of applied linguistics, but also psychology, psycholinguistics, TEFL. The process of acquiring foreign language by children and adults, the stages of this process, some problems while acquiring and learning English as a second language by Azerbaijani learners are studied in the paper. People can acquire a second or foreign language under many different circumstances. We may have learned a second language when we began elementary school, secondary school or even university. Moving to a new country usually means acquiring a new language which we call a second language. Also people live in different communities, environments or families in which more than one language is spoken and may acquire two or even more languages at the same time. No doubt that, foreign language acquisition has its historical background and aspects. Current theories of foreign or second language acquisition are based on years of research in a wide variety of fields, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and psycholinguistics. The article concerns one of the most important issues concerning foreign or second language acquisition in both children and adults. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/11f444a2bbe4625c0ab354c356389e89.pdf bed609e416bd3a504130215a4d16245d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Maria Eleftheriou Department of Writing Studies American University of Sharjah meleftheriou@aus.edu Abstract: This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Key Words: Tutorial interaction, NNS tutorials, Middle Eastern students, Peer tutoring Introduction In recent years, educators have become increasingly aware of the importance of developing writing centers in educational institutions. In North America, most high schools, colleges, and universities today provide writing centers to help students improve their writing skills. Writing centers offer free, individualized writing assistance from trained consultants or trained peer tutors. During writing center tutorials, students and peer tutors work together on various aspects of writing, including thesis development, organization, outlining, paragraphing, sentencestructure, wording, vocabulary, and mechanics. Most writing centers strive to teach students to recognize and correct their own errors with the goal of making them more confident, self-sufficient writers (North, 1984). Writing centers in North America have typically eschewed a directive approach to instruction, preferring a non-directive, collaborative approach. With non-directive strategies, learners take an active role in the tutorial. Tutors are encouraged to promote a sense of responsibility in the student for their writing: ―Make sure that writers take ownership,‖ ―Trust the writers‘ ideas of the text,‖ ―Ask them their plans for revision,‖ and ―Keep hands off and let writers make corrections‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). With directive tutorial strategies, the responsibility for the tutorial is placed in the tutor‘s hands. The strategies used with this approach include ―mak[ing] corrections on the page‖ and ―tell[ing] writers what to do‖ (Gillespie & Lerner, 2006, p. 45). The directive approach to instruction has been supplanted by the non-directive approach, and many tutors attempt to honor non-direction in their interactions with their writing center tutees (Blau & Hall, 2002; Brooks, 1991; Carino, 2003; Jones, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). There is a compelling amount of evidence, however, that even though tutors seek to maintain a non-directive role with their writing center tutees, in actual practice, the peer relationship reflects a more complicated dynamic. Grimm (1996) identifies the ―loss of innocence‖ among researchers and practitioners regarding the dynamic and influence of the tutor-tutee relationship in day-to-day writing center work, while Shamoon and Burns (1995) critique the notion of ―pure tutoring‖ in writing center pedagogy. Some researchers have observed that the notion of the tutor-tutee relationship that envisions an egalitarian balance and does not allow for an authoritarian aspect in the interaction is 790 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo untenable. Over the last 15 years there has been a growing movement to challenge the orthodoxy of the non-directive peer tutoring perspective and to identify and consider the real-life conduct of the peer interaction to determine its impact on the effectiveness of instruction (Clark & Healy, 1996; Grimm, 1996; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004; Weigle & Nelson, 2004). Non-Native Speaking Students in the Writing Center The questioning of the peer relationship and the effectiveness of a strictly non-directive approach to tutoring have emerged out of the growing research focus on the learning of non-native speaking (NNS) students who come to English-language writing centers (Harris & Silva, 1993; Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). Some studies indicate that NNS students may benefit from a more directive approach in their tutoring interactions (Blau & Hall, 2002; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). A study was conducted to examine the tutor-tutee relationship in an English-language writing center in the Middle East, serving students for whom English may be a second or third language. There is relatively little research on English language learning on writing center work with this population. Context of the Study The Middle East University (MEU), a pseudonym for a university located in the United Arab Emirates, receives hundreds of foreign students annually. According to the 2009 Institutional Research University Board, the student body consists of 20% Emirati students, 42% students from the rest of the Arab world including Jordan, Palestine, Egypt, and Syria and the remainder are from countries including Iran, India, and Pakistan. The university curriculum is modelled on the curriculum of American universities; it has received American accreditation, and the language of instruction is entirely in English. Approximately half the MEU students have been educated in schools where the language of instruction has not been English. Most of the students in this group have been educated in Arabic school systems. The remaining students have been educated in a number of school systems, including Urdu, Hindi, Persian, and Afghani. English is the second or third language and occasionally the fourth for many of the students. This situation is characteristic of many American, British, or Australian universities in the United Arab Emirates. All students at the university are required to take 15 credits of communications courses as part of their major programs. The challenges these students face while writing in English is a serious concern for faculty members and students. As part of an effort to address writing issues, the university established a Writing Center with a peer tutoring program in the 2004/2005 academic year. Students are strongly encouraged by their instructors to visit the MEU Writing Center where they will receive individualized instruction. Following the American writing center model, both in the use of the term peer tutoring and in the organization of the Writing Center, MEU offers one-on-one tutoring sessions by appointment or on a drop-in basis to all students throughout the university. Instructors teaching writing-intensive courses or courses with a writing component often encourage or even require their students to visit the Writing Center for supplemental help. Students can also self-refer. During the tutoring sessions, tutees and tutors work on global concerns such as improving content, organization, and tone and/or local concerns such as clarifying confusing or improperly constructed sentences, correction punctuation, grammar, and mechanics. The Nature of the Research Problem In the peer tutoring program which was implemented in 2004/2005, tutors were trained to use a nondirective, collaborative approach to tutoring. They were encouraged to promote an egalitarian relationship by establishing rapport with their tutees at the beginning of the session, sitting ―side-by side‖ with their tutees to mitigate the nature of the authoritarian tutor-tutee relationship. They were advised to encourage the tutee to be an active participant in the tutorial discussion by asking the tutee to read aloud, placing the assignment in front of the tutee, and giving the tutee control of the pen or pencil or keyboard if working at the computer. Tutors were advised to use non-directive strategies, such as asking questions about the tutees‘ goals and assignments, negotiating an agenda, outlining/mapping with the tutees, asking tutees to explain and clarify their ideas orally, asking tutees to write independently, and asking questions to develop critical self-awareness. The tutors were trained to facilitate this process by responding as readers, and by practicing the use of silence and wait time. Although tutors tried to implement the recommended strategies, it soon became increasingly clear that this approach was not always effective. Tutors expressed frustration about trying to elicit knowledge tutees did not have; they suggested the tutors were deliberately withholding information, or that they were not sufficiently knowledgeable about writing. Tutors were then advised to modify their approach and to use a directive approach when they thought the non-directive approach was not effective. Tutors were advised to use the directive approach when they felt they had no other recourse. They were cautioned against simply fixing errors and told to provide the tutee with strategies for correction. Informal 791 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo observation indicated the emergence of problems relating to the tutors‘ attempts to implement this advice. A study was designed to determine the ways in which tutees and tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials when tutors who have been trained to use directive approaches are now trying to decide when and if they are appropriate. It takes into account the particular circumstances of a Middle Eastern university where the students come from ethically, culturally, and linguistically diverse backgrounds to study in an English medium university. Unlike tutors in the US who are usually native speakers (NS) of English, the tutors at MEU are native speakers of languages such as Arabic, Hindi, Urdu, and English. Most writing center scholarship and research has been conducted with NS tutees, NNS tutees, and NS tutors in North America. Research Questions Many writing center researchers emphasize the importance of improving assessment practices and maintaining a willingness to question accepted notions of writing center pedagogy across the range of NS and NNS populations (Thonus, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study sought to understand and evaluate the effectiveness of the interactive process of the writing center tutorial by exploring tutor and tutee perceptions of the tutorials. Discerning patterns that recur during the sessions could lead to a deeper awareness of the perceptions of the tutors and the tutees, which will help the writing center director to improve the training of tutors and maximize the benefits of the Writing Center. The following research questions were addressed within the given NNS context: 1. 2. 3. 4. How do tutees perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? How do tutors perceive the effectiveness of writing center tutorials? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutees find most effective? Which type of tutoring approach (e.g. non-directive vs. directive) do tutors find most effective? Methodology Fifteen writing Center tutorials at the MEU Writing Center were videotaped and analyzed, and stimulated recall was conducted with the tutees and tutors within 24 hours after the tutorials. The stimulated recall was taperecorded and transcribed. Interviews were conducted with all participants within 72 hours of the stimulated recall and were also transcribed. Data for the study came from videotapes of the tutorials, stimulated recall and interviews. By coding the transcribed stimulated recall sessions and interviews with the tutors and tutees, the researcher was able to gain a clearer understanding of the following: tutors‘ and tutees‘ expectations of writing tutorials in general, their perceptions of the tutorials‘ effectiveness overall, and an understanding of which types of strategies (non-directive vs. directive) they felt were most effective. Results The findings revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments. They reported that their tutors addressed their concerns and that they had acquired transferable skills. Tutees appreciated and responded well to tutors who were able to explain concepts with clarity, accuracy and precision, but they were unsatisfied with tutors who dominated the session and with those who did not provide explanations for changes or corrections. They appreciated the authority of knowledgeable tutors, but they valued an egalitarian peer tutoring relationship. Tutors also claimed that the tutorials were effective. They reported that the sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that they believed that the tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical about their own performances. Some tutors admitted that their knowledge and understanding of certain writing concepts was insufficient; some felt they had dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees generally preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. Though many of the findings of this study are similar to findings with NNS students in North American contexts, there are some differences. NNS tutees at all levels of proficiency in this study enjoyed the peer-like aspects of the relationship with their tutors. They appreciated having a sense of control over their tutorials and did not like their tutors to dominate tutorials. Like NNS tutees in North American contexts, the tutees in this context claimed that they preferred a directive approach for lower order concerns when they did not have sufficient knowledge to respond to their tutors‘ non-directive approaches. Although there has been a greater emphasis in recent literature on the role of more directive strategies in writing center instruction (Bringhurst, 2006; Harris & Silva, 1993; Shamoon & Burns, 1995; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005), this study indicates that writing center practitioners should not abandon constructivist practices of collaboration and non-directive strategies; rather, they should use these strategies when it is appropriate to do so. The current evidence suggests that a combination of non-directive and directive practices may provide a solution to addressing the variety of learning needs exhibited by NNS writers in particular (Blau & Hall, 2002; 792 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Carino, 2003; Harris & Silva, 1993; Henning, 2001; Shamoon & Burns, 2001; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams & Severino, 2004). This study confirms that the non-directive/directive binary alternatives are too simplistic to be helpful in practice because individuals with varying abilities and experiences need tutoring approaches that can be adapted to their requirements at different times. It emphasizes the importance of flexibility, of the judicious use of both directive and non-directive strategies. This exploratory study reveals that strategies deemed successful with NS and NNS students in North American contexts may not be effective in Middle Eastern contexts. It raises questions about several well-established strategies in writing center tutorials. The strategy of silence, for instance, was generally not well received by tutees. Reading aloud, a strategy commonly used by many tutors, was also not well-received by several tutees. Determining the reasons for the tutees‘ negative assessment of these strategies warrants further research. Another finding is the tutees‘ preference for a peer tutoring, egalitarian relationship that enabled the generation of ideas through collaborative interaction and the strengths and limitations of this approach. The difference between the students in this study and those in the North American context may be explained by their experiences living in and adapting to two or more cultures and languages. The findings of this study reveal the distinctive nature of this cohort and the implications this has for future research. Implications of the Study Although tutors and tutees claimed that the tutorial sessions were generally effective, the study shows that both groups were aware of aspects of the sessions that require alteration and improvement. Emphasize the Importance of Pre-Tutorial Discussion Tutees responded positively to tutors who spent time at the beginning of the tutorial asking questions about their assignments, their concerns and negotiating an agenda for the session. This aspect of tutorials could be emphasized during training, and tutors reminded of its importance throughout their employment at the Writing Center. This information gathering is particularly important for NNS tutees who may not be sufficiently fluent in English to understand the requirements of the assignments or to explain their own intentions about the assignment. Decisions about whether or not the tutee will read the text aloud or at what points during the reading the tutor will provide feedback could be made during this section of the tutorial. This initial dialogue also gives the tutorial direction and establishes rapport between tutor and tutee. The study revealed that the tutoring relationship can be affected by many NNS students‘ unfamiliarity with the type of discussion that is typically used in the writing center. According to Bruce (2009), ―the concept of shared responsibility for writing is alien‖ to NNS students (p. 34). This study confirmed her observation and affirmed the desirability of encouraging tutors to explain the writing center approach to first time clients at the beginning of the session and to implement it with sensitivity. Avoid Appropriation Although tutees preferred a directive approach while addressing lower order concerns, they were resistant to this approach if it bordered on appropriation. Several tutees reported that their tutors occasionally assumed too much control of their papers. This situation can be ameliorated if tutors have had adequate training so that they are aware of the need to involve their tutee in each stage of the discussion and to explain suggested changes. If the directive approach is used with sound judgment, it can provide the tutees with the conventions of discourse that are expected in academic institutions giving them more control over their writing. When tutors were rushed and felt they did not have the time to explain adequately the reasons for their suggestions, the possibility of appropriation was heightened. In this situation, the tutee could be given a handout that specifically addresses the issues, directed to a relevant online site, or asked to make another appointment at the writing center at which time the specific problem could be addressed. Tutors who have been trained to value the non-directive approach and to use directive approaches only when required find it difficult to know when to intervene with a directive approach, and how to determine the extent and the effect of their interventions. They lack the experience and the expertise to confidently negotiate this indeterminate area; moreover, they have acknowledged this difficulty and asked for guidance. Although tutors have misgivings about using the directive approach because of their training, some of them realize that it has proven to be effective on several occasions. If congenial learning situations were created where tutors could reflect on the teaching styles they are developing, perhaps they could change or modify them, if necessary. Activities such as role playing, stimulated recall or close vertical transcriptions, for instance, could help them to identify their characteristic teaching patterns and the resources they require in order be more confident and effective. Provide in-Service Grammar Training 793 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This study indicates that tutors‘ knowledge of grammar and related issues such as parts of speech, sentence structure and punctuation is insufficient. Grammar training throughout tutor training and with continuous professional development may be offered to tutors throughout their employment. In his article, ―English for those who think they already know it,‖ Rafoth (2009) says that successful tutoring sessions start with appropriate tutor resources and training, and argues that a familiarity with the framework of the English language ―brings about more interesting and helpful interactions with the students we tutor‖ (p. 120). Tutors are not always able to explain the errors in the tutees‘ assignments. Brooks (1991) claims that ―fixing flawed papers is easy; showing the students how to fix their own papers is complex and difficult‖ (p. 224). Tutors who are able to identify the errors in grammar themselves and to access resources through handbooks and reliable online grammar sites, including interactive grammar sites may be better able to engage in a discussion with tutees about their papers. An understanding of grammar is one of the interrelated activities involved in writing, and once the basic grammatical elements are acquired, it would be useful to tutors to know how to access further details when they are required. In some instances NNS tutees may be more familiar with grammatical terminology than their tutors; therefore, knowledge of English grammar is a valuable tool for tutors, both to instruct their tutees, and to maintain their credibility as authorities on English writing. In addition to knowing how to access resources that explain rules of grammar, tutors could be offered workshops that focus on specific elements of grammar. Furthermore, reading student texts and discussing how to approach grammatical errors in the context of the assignment may help tutors feel more confident when addressing grammatical errors during tutorial sessions. Although tutors prepare a short grammar presentation during their peer tutoring course, this aspect of tutorials has not been emphasized during in-service training. The findings of this study reveal that a more detailed understanding of grammatical rules is necessary because the tutees requested information the tutors could not provide. If tutors have a more comprehensive understanding of lexical and syntactical aspects of grammar, they will be in a stronger position to help their tutees to achieve greater coherence, cohesion, clarity, and precision. Knowledge of grammar will enhance the students‘ ability to organize knowledge, to generate ideas and insights, and to develop persuasive arguments. Knowledge of grammar can form an important part of the recursive process of writing. Provide Tutors with Information in Contrastive Rhetoric Informal observation and the results of this study reveal that tutors do not engage their tutees in discussion about contrastive rhetoric. Raising learners‘ awareness of some of the basic differences between English and Arabic may help Arabic NS students, particularly low proficiency students, who did not attend English language high school. For example, the inclusion of a pronoun is required in relative clauses; in English, it is omitted. This tendency may result in errors such as ―Where is the book which I gave it to you last week?‖ A tutor who notices that her tutee is including a pronoun in relative clauses would be expected to explain the difference. An understanding of contrastive rhetoric and an awareness of exemplary instances can form part of the tutors‘ arsenal, but tutors should not be constrained by the rhetoric of this approach because it can lead to prescriptivism. Many researchers caution against being prescriptive (Harris & Silva, 1993): an alternative to being prescriptive is to point out to writers the choices that are available to them, including the choices native speakers of English tend to make. Although tutors should be aware of characteristic instances of contrastive rhetoric, they should not pigeonhole Arabic NS students, for instance, by assuming they will make similar errors in their writing. In addition to providing tutors with readings in contrastive rhetoric, tutors could be provided with examples of students‘ writing and the opportunity to discuss characteristic errors made by Arabic, Persian, Urdu NS students, for instance. Adopt a Flexible Approach to Tutoring This study shows that more flexible tutoring models that accommodate the experiences of our tutors and tutees and their particular strengths and weaknesses may be of value. Much of the writing center scholarship discussing NNS writers recommends more flexible tutoring models than those used with NS writers (Blau & Hall, 2002; Thonus, 2001, 2002, 2004; Williams, 2005; Williams & Severino, 2004). The results of this Middle Eastern study support a similar recommendation. Pedagogical models designed to accommodate NNS students in North American contexts provide valuable insights about the relation between writing and learning. Middle Eastern writing center studies can build on this body of research and develop approaches that are flexible in ways that take into account the particularities of our clientele. It is up to writing center directors, however, to be aware of writing center pedagogy as it evolves in response to research; tutors should be able to assume that advice from directors is based on such research. If this level of confidence is established, tutors may be less inclined to regard established writing center models as prescriptive and more inclined to be flexible and to take into account the disparate needs of the tutees. The study revealed, for instance, that the reading aloud strategy occasionally distracted the tutees‘ attention rather than focusing it. Future tutors will be trained to take this into account and to recognize that this change in strategy derives not from personal preference but from research. It cannot automatically be assumed that the strategy of reading aloud or other strategies will work with all tutees in all situations. 794 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Promote an Egalitarian Tutorial Relationship The peer aspect of tutorials was deemed effective by both tutors and tutees. Tutees want access to authoritative, reliable knowledge in a friendly, egalitarian atmosphere. They claimed that they liked their tutors to involve them in the discussions as much as possible. Tutors have been trained not to control and dominate the conversation, but both sets of data revealed that many had a tendency to do so. In order to make tutors aware of this tendency and of the importance of involving the tutee in the session in meaningful ways, it is necessary to draw attention to that weakness in their tutorials. It is important to promote an atmosphere of collegial collaboration so that tutors will be self-critical and willing to accept helpful suggestions. Involving tutors in self-observation so they can be aware of conversational elements such as interruptions, turn length, timed pauses, back-channels, and overlaps may help tutors notice patterns and detrimental practices in their tutoring. This study used stimulated recall activities following a recorded tutorial session. The enlightened self-criticism that was generated suggests that this method can promote an egalitarian tutorial relationship by providing a context whereby the tutors can see and hear themselves in action. Conclusion Writing center directors should be receptive to emerging research in order to continue to evolve standards of best practice. Insights derived from research and scholarship indicate the need for additional, clear-sighted research that takes into account the actual working conditions of writing centers in different countries. The tutors who are expected to be knowledgeable, flexible and sensitive to individual needs are often students themselves. They are students from a variety of disciplines who have excellent academic records and an interest in writing and tutoring. It is unreasonable, however, to assume that their education encompasses the breadth of knowledge that is required to meet the needs of individual students in the Writing Center. It is the responsibility of the writing center specialists or directors to be familiar with traditional and contemporary writing center theories and to be part of the ongoing discourse about writing in order to recognize the viability of particular strategies and the possibility of adapting them, in this case, to the requirements of a Middle Eastern university writing center. References Blau, S., Hall, J., Davis, J., & Gravitz, L. (2001). Tutoring ESL students: A different kind of session. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 25(10), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new/ Bringhurst, D. (2006). Identifying our ethical responsibility: A criterion-based approach. In C. Murphy & B. Stay (Eds.), The writing center director‘s resource book (pp. 165-178). Englewood, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Brooks, J. (1991). Minimalist tutoring: Making the student do all the work. The Writing Lab Newsletter, 15(6), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.writinglabnewsletter.org/new Bruce , S. (2009). Breaking ice and setting goals. In: S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.), (pp. 33-41). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Heinemann. Carino, P. (2003). Power and authority in peer tutoring. In M.A. Pemberton & J. Kinkead (Eds.), The center will hold: Critical perspectives on writing center scholarship (pp.96-113). Logan, UT: Utah Tate UP. Clark, I. L., & Healy, D. (1996). Are writing centers ethical? Writing Program Administration, 20(1-2), 32-38. Retrieved from http://eng1020.pbworks.com/f/Clark_Healy.pdf Gillespie, P., & Lerner, N. (2000). The Allyn and Bacon guide to peer tutoring. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Grimm, N. (1996). The regulatory role of the writing center: Coming to terms with a loss of innocence. The Writing Center Journal, 17, 5-29. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ 795 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Harris, M. (1997). Cultural conflicts in the writing center: Expectations and assumptions of ESL students. In C. Severino, J. C. Guerra, & J. E. Butler (Eds.), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 220-235). New York: MLA. Harris, M., & Silva, T. (1993). Tutoring ESL students: Communication, 44, 525-537. doi:10.2307/358388 Issues and options. College Composition and Henning, T. (2001, March). Theoretical models of tutor talk: How practical are they? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, Denver, CO. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED451569) Jones, C. (2001). The relationship between writing centers and improvement in writing ability: An assessment of the literature. Education, 122(1), 3-20. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3673/is_1_122/ai_n28879462/ North, S. (1984). The idea of a writing center. College English, 46, 433-446. doi:10.2307/377047 Rafoth, B. (2009). English for those who (think they) already know it. In S. Bruce & B. Rafoth (Eds.), ESL writers: A guide for writing center tutors (2nd ed.; pp. 116–131). Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers. Shamoon, L., & Burns, D. (1995). A critique of pure tutoring. Writing Center Journal, 15, 134-151. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2001). Triangulation in the writing center: Tutor, tutee, and instructor perceptions of the tutor‘s role. Writing Center Journal, 22, 59-81. Retrieved from http://www.english.udel.edu/wcj/ Thonus, T. (2004). What are the differences? Tutor interactions with first- and second-language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 227-242. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.012 Weigle, S. C., & Nelson, G. L. (2004). Novice tutors and their ESL tutees: Three case studies of tutor roles and perceptions of tutorial success. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(3), 203– 225. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.011 Williams, J. (2005). Writing center interaction: Institutional discourse and the role of peer tutors. In B. H. K. Bardovi-Harlig (Ed.), Institutional talk and interlanguage pragmatics research (pp. 37-65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Williams, J., & Severino, C. (2004). The writing center and second language writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 165-172. doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.010 796 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 116 Title A name given to the resource Western pedagogical models of writing center tutorials: Can they be effective in the Middle East? Author Author Eleftheriou, Maria Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper presents the findings of a study of writing center tutorial practices in a Middle Eastern university where the language of instruction is English. Data from stimulated recall activities, written observations, and interviews were analyzed to assess the effectiveness of writing center tutorials in a Middle-Eastern Writing Center. The data revealed that tutees noticed an improvement in their assignments, believed that their concerns had been addressed, and that they had acquired transferable skills. Most tutees assessed their tutors positively, valuing tutors who inspired confidence and were able to explain concepts clearly. Although tutees appreciated knowledgeable tutors, they valued egalitarian peer-tutoring relationships. Tutors reported that tutorial sessions improved their tutees‘ assignments and that tutees had acquired transferable skills. Nevertheless, tutors were critical of their own performance. Some tutors admitted to lacking the knowledge necessary to explain certain writing concepts, including grammatical concepts; some felt they dominated the tutorials, and others felt their approach was too directive. The data revealed that both tutors and tutees preferred the directive approach for lower order concerns and a non-directive approach for higher order concerns. This study shows that diverse tutoring models that accommodate the background and experiences of Middle Eastern students, and their particular strengths and weaknesses, should be considered. It recommends tutorial training that emphasizes flexibility and recognizes the distinctive nature of each tutorial situation and the opportunity it presents to address the needs and expectations of individual students. These findings could signal a direction for the development of writing center pedagogy that focuses on the linguistically and culturally diverse students in the Middle East. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/895ebcd3f9780a2f0de7905bf07f23e2.pdf b023235e1f4b889131dafa9617dff2e2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Awareness of Referential Devices in Text and Reading Comprehension Adel Ebrahimpourtaher Islamic Azad University-Ilkhchi Branch apourtaher@yahoo.com Abstract: Hassan‘s (1976) classification of these devices as personal, comparative, and demonstrative on the reading ability of the present study explored the role of learners‘ awareness of referential devices in texts based on Halliday and learners. To support this, 30 male students aged between 13 and 20 were selected out of 180 students studying English at Iran Language Institute.All the subjects were elementary 3 students and were chosen considering their final reading scores they got in elementary 2 to make the sample almost homogeneous. They were randomly divided into two groups of 15 subjects. Through a 20-session term,10 passages were taught to both experimental and control groups through a similar methodology for teaching reading at this Institute. The only difference was that we made our experimental group practice finding referents. We helped them through oral questions, group work, and also taught them specific strategies taken from TOEFL FLASH SERIES .The subjects in the control group only received the method common in the Institute. We gave them a post-test on the last session. This was a multiple-choice reading test including two short passages each followed by 5 questions. A t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of the groups. The results confirmed the hypothesis and showed a significant improvement on the reading ability of subjects in the experimental group. In the end, some pedagogical implications were made. Key Words: Reference-Cohesion-Referential Devices. Introduction Reading is discoursally viewed as an interactive process of communication between readers and writers through the text (classroom lectures on discourse analysis).A text has textual features which collectively constitute its ‗texture‘ and distinguish it from non-text. ‘Cohesion‘ of which referential devices are sub-types helps bring about a semantic continuity and is very important to deal with in reading process. Cohesion Cohesion has been defined in a number of ways. Halliday and Hassan (1976) hold the view that the primary determinant of whether a set of sentences do or do not constitute a text depends on cohesive relationships within and between sentences .They consider a text as a unified whole which is easily recognized from one which is not. In spoken and written discourses, individual clauses and utterances are semantically linked by grammatical connections (McCarthy, 1991). Malmkjar (2004, 543) defines cohesion as ―the way in which linguistic items are meaningfully connected to each other sequentially on the basis of grammatical rules.‖ Widdowson defines it in terms of the distinction that is made between the illocutionary act and the proposition. In his view (P.52), propositions, when linked together, form a "text" whereas illocutionary acts, when related to each other, create different kinds of "discourse." According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), cohesion and register enable us to create a text. Register is concerned with what a text means. It is defined by Halliday and Hasan as the "set of semantic configuration that is typically associated with a particular class of context of situation, and defines the substance of the text." Cohesion, as contrasted with register, is not concerned with what a text means. Rather, it refers to a set of meaning relations that exist within the text. These relations are not of the kind that links the components of a sentence and they differ from sentential structure. The discovery of these meaning relations is crucial to its interpretation. For instance, in the following text: Mary bought a new pencil. She put it in her drawer. The interpretation of the elements she and it is dependent on the lexical items Mary and Pencil. So, cohesion is in the semantic relation that is setup between these elements. According to Halliday and Hasan, the function of cohesion is to relate one part of a text to another part of the same text. Consequently, it lends continuity to the text. By providing this kind of text continuity, cohesion enables the reader or listener to supply all the components of the picture to its interpretation. Halliday and Hasan hold that cohesion in its normal form, is the presupposition of something that has gone before in the discourse, whether in the immediately preceding sentence or not. This form of presupposition is referred to as anaphoric. The presupposing item may point forward to something following it. This type of presupposition is called 12 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cataphoric. On the other hand, exophoric and endophoric presuppositions refer to an item of information outside and inside the text, respectively. They recognize five sub-types of cohesive in English and in the lexicogrammatical system of the language. They are reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion. Reference, substitution, and ellipsis are grammatical; lexical cohesion is lexical; conjunction stands on the border line between the two categories. In other words, it is mainly grammatical but sometimes involves lexical selection. Constructionalists view language comprehension as an interactive process between the text and the person using the text. They assume that meaning does not exist in the text but becomes available to the reader as a result of his own contribution. Language users employ text in comprehension as a set of guidelines to the active (re)creation of meaning. Jonz (1987) in his explanation of the advantage(s) of adopting a constructionist point of view says: ... one is able to speculate on the structure of language knowledge and on the various stages in the acquisition of such structures as well as their application to the cognitive tasks involved in comprehending. From the above statement, it follows that constructionists emphasize the role of background knowledge as a feature of a text; and the cognitive tasks involved in the comprehension process. Reference One of the most considerable cohesive devices is reference. Different types of reference have been mentioned by theorists of which we choose to refer to that of Halliday and Hassan(1976).They identify three sub-types of referential devises: personal, demonstrative, and comparative. Personal reference: They serve to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other points in the text. Example: "Mary did not have to change the method. She could have chosen to teach as others did". Demonstrative reference: It is expressed through determiners and adverbs. These devices represent items ranging from a single word, a phrase, and even to a whole paragraph. Example: "Recognizing that the country had to change, the president stated some political reforms and developed some promotions. This did not happen". Comparative reference: It serves to compare items within a text In terms of identity and similarity. These are expressive adjectives and adverbs. Example: "I don‘t like these gloves. Actually, I‘d like the other gloves". Method Participants The subjects in this study were 30 male EFL learners. They were elementary 3 students and had studied almost four terms at the Iran Language Institute at the time this study was performed. They aged between 13 and 20. The subjects were selected from among 180 students in elementary 3 in spring 2010 on the basis of the scores they got in their elementary 2 reading section. Procedure During a term including 20 sessions, ten passages were taught to both groups through almost a fixed method written in advance by the research team of the Institute. The subjects in the experimental group were also trained to practice finding referents to referential devices through group work as well as putting forward appropriate oral questions. Some strategies were also taken from TOEFL Flash from the unit named ―Reference‖ and taught to them. However, the subjects in the control group only received the method of the Institute. In the last session, two short passages each followed by five multiple-choice tests were given. They were told that they would not be scored for the test to remove anxiety and motivate them for the final. A t-test was taken to compare the scores of two groups. Results To see if there is any improvement in the performance of our experimental group, a t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of subjects in both groups. The following table shows the results: Paired t-test for comparing the scores of control and experimental groups Groups N X SD Experimental 15 8.4 1.121 Control 15 7.13 .915 T-value .001 Table-1 13 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As it is seen on the table above, a t-value of .001 is statistically very significant at the .05 level of significance to reject the stated null hypothesis. So, we can support our hypothesis that preparing students with strategies to guess the referents of referential devices and making them aware of these linking devices can improve their reading ability. Pedagogical implications Some pedagogical implications of this study can be drawn for both EFL reading and translation equivalence. As it was mentioned before, cohesion is a semantic relation and functions to pair and chain items across sentences that are related. It brings about semantic continuity in a text. It can be claimed that comprehension of a text partly depends on recovering the cohesive elements, so the reader needs to attend to them. These cohesive elements should be attended to in an EFL reading class. Translation is defined as establishing equivalence in textual material between source and target language. Newmark(in Fleet and Threadgold, 1987) states that the topic of cohesion is the most useful area of discourse analysis applicable to translation. Lotfipour-Saedi (1991) offers a discoursal framework for the characterization of translation equivalence. He states that equivalence is established in terms of eight dimensions': vocabulary, structure, texture, sentence meaning verses utterance meaning, language varieties, presuppositions, cognitive effect, and aesthetic effect. Thus, in establishing translation equivalence between the source and target language, these dimensions should be met by the translator. Of these only the third one ‗texture‘ is related to our study. References Halliday, M.A.K.and R.Hassan (1976).Cohesion in English. London. Longman. Jonz, J. (1987). "Textual Cohesion and Second Language Comprehension" in Language Learning. Vol. 37, 30. Lotfipour-Saedi, k (1991).Analyzing Literary Discourse: Implications for Literary Translation. In proceedings of Tabriz University Conference on Translation. Lotfipour-Saedi, k (1992) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis Presented at the second conference on theoretical Applied Linguistics, Tehran, Allameh Tabatabai Uuniversity. Malmkjar, k (2004).The Linguistic Encyclopedia. London: Routledge. McCarthy (1991).Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newmark, P (1987).The Use of Systemic Linguistics in Translation Analysis and Criticism. 14 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 5 Title A name given to the resource Awareness of Referential Devices in Text and Reading Comprehension Author Author Ebrahimpourtaher, Adel Abstract A summary of the resource. Hassan‘s (1976) classification of these devices as personal, comparative, and demonstrative on the reading ability of the present study explored the role of learners‘ awareness of referential devices in texts based on Halliday and learners. To support this, 30 male students aged between 13 and 20 were selected out of 180 students studying English at Iran Language Institute.All the subjects were elementary 3 students and were chosen considering their final reading scores they got in elementary 2 to make the sample almost homogeneous. They were randomly divided into two groups of 15 subjects. Through a 20-session term,10 passages were taught to both experimental and control groups through a similar methodology for teaching reading at this Institute. The only difference was that we made our experimental group practice finding referents. We helped them through oral questions, group work, and also taught them specific strategies taken from TOEFL FLASH SERIES .The subjects in the control group only received the method common in the Institute. We gave them a post-test on the last session. This was a multiple-choice reading test including two short passages each followed by 5 questions. A t-test was taken to compare the mean scores of the groups. The results confirmed the hypothesis and showed a significant improvement on the reading ability of subjects in the experimental group. In the end, some pedagogical implications were made. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9a1c961ef832f6c327239148208e117f.pdf 374ad04437a1d3610c150cc97ef8709c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well as Some Linguistic Components Assist.Prof.Dr.Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Research Assist.GülĢen ERĠġEN Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey gulsenerisen@hotmail.com Assist.Prof.Dr.Ahmet KAYINTU Bingôl University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Bingôl, Turkey akayintu@hotmail.com Intructor Harun KARACA Kafkas University Faculty of Science and Letters, Kars, Turkey hkaraca@hotmail.com Abstract: Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study, previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail. Key Words: Literature, grammatical Structure, linguistic, morphology, phonology, tenses, syntax INTRODUCTION There has been a debate on different approaches for FL teaching throughout the history of language teaching. These different approaches have not been the same as a result of change in theories and methods used in FL teaching especially for the objectives of language teaching (Celce & Murcia, 2001). Furthermore, language teachers have been forced to develop and use new and different methods in the process of language teaching to be effective in laguage teaching.. Literature is, undoubtly, one of the main resources used as an effective means of language teaching. Particularly, literature was regarded as the most important part of foreign or second language teaching during the period of Grammar Translation Method. The purpose of this method was to enable language learners to read the classical texts successfully through the method of translation (Hall, 2005). This method helped language learners to learn the target language through translation of sentences from target language into the learners‘ first language and from the first language of learners into the target language. Students had a chance to practice on grammatical rules and vocabulary. Language teachers expected from their students to read and translate literary texts because these texts were assumed to represent ―models of good writing and illustrations of the grammatical rules of the language (Duff & Maley, 1990:3). On the other hand, with the emergence of other methods and approaches such as Audio-Lingual Method, Silent Way, Desuggestopedia and the Communicative Approach, literature lost its prestige. For example communicative approach focused on the language activities and effective communication. Hall explained the communicative method as ―learners negotiating meaning for themselves, learning by doing things with language in authentic contexts‖ (2005: 51). During communicative period, effective communication was important but literature was ignored and it lost its function in the field of language learning and teaching. But there was a problem about the function of Communicative approach. The main aim was to get and convey the correct message but not to be careful about the correct grammar or pronunciation. In the early 1980s, the attitude toward the use of literature in language teaching seemed more encouraging. Some language scholars and researchers such as Duff and Maley (1991), Collie and Slater (1987), Gower and Pearson (1986), Hill (1986), Brumfit and Carter (1986), Carter and Long (1991) and Lazar (1993) 490 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo explored that literature was neglected as a language learning material. Gilroy and Parkinson (1997), point out that literature as a language learning material ―never went away and has always been a large part of EFL for many learners‖ (p. 213). In addition, many language scholars stress that the language of everyday communication is significant in Communicative approach and the language of literature has no real linguistic difference. Zyngier (1994) as a language scholar also thought that ―language of literary texts was not much different from the language of everyday communication‖ (p.3). Carter and Nash (1990) also claimed that communicative language and literary language have no real difference. Problem In order to motivate learners, EFL/ESL teachers are always in a challange in the process of teaching English. Gozales (1998) points out that the important factors such as the lack of motivation of students, lack of effectiveness in the teaching resources and methodology, limited time and large classes are the main reasons of failure in language teaching. In this sense, literature is accepted as one of the most effective resource in FL teaching. Most language teachers prefer literary texts as effective materials while some language teachers hesitate to use literary texts in their classroom (Johnson,1999). For example Lazar (1990) states that not only the language teachers are reluctant to use literary texts in their language classrooms, but students are hesitant as well. The use of literature in the process of EFL/ESL teaching requires background language of the issues presented in these literary texts, so most of the language teachers remain sceptical and lack interest in using literature in their English lessons. Purpose of the Study This paper aims to show the effective role of literature as a resource supporting the grammatical structure and liguistic components of English language. Furthermore, this paper aims at emphasizing the place of literature as a means of teaching the different aspects of grammatical structures and certain linguistic categories such as prepositions, tenses, and morphological, phonological, syntaxical structures of English. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Literature is regarded as a means of reflecting the different aspect of people‘s life. It is undoubtly certain that many linguistics, critics, and authors have been in conflict over what literature is. John McRae (1994) defines the literature in a different way by distinguishing ‗the capital L‘ and ‗small l‘. Literature with a capital L represents the classical texts e.g. Marlow, Shakespeare, Dickens… and literature with a small l represents the products of popular fiction e.g. ballads, fables, elegies, lyrics… Basnett and Grundy (1993) explain that literary texts are cultural documents and reflect different aspects of society and provide deeper understanding of a country or countries. On the other hand, we cannot seperate literature from art. Hoggart (1964) stresses that ―it can never be aesthetically ‗pure‘ or abstractly comtemplative. There can be no such thing as ‗abstract literature‘ as there is such as thing as abstract painting. By its nature –because its medium, language, is used by almost everybody in all sorts of everyday situations; and because it tries both to say and to be – literature is an art which invites impurities‖ (p.34). According to Collie and Slater (1987:3-6), in the language classes literature provides valuable authentic material, developes personal involvement and help contribute the readers‘ both cultural and language enrichment. Reasons of Using Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching There are many good reasons for using literary texts and extracts as materials in foreign language teaching. According to McKay (1982) and Widdowson (1984), literature is used to develop linguistic knowledge both on usage and use level. Similarly, Povey states that ―literature will extend linguistic knowledge by giving evidence of extensive and subtle vocabulary usage, and complex and exact syntax (1972: 187). Parkinson and Thomas (2000) also state that literature provide learners to see a model of good writing. Literary texts and extracts also offer learners to practice language skills- in addition to exemplifying grammatical structures and presenting a new vocabulary. Most of the present-day literary texts assume that literature can provide a basis for extending language usage. They mainly focus on the grammatical points that are salient in the text (Fassler and Lay, 1979). Another reason of using literature is about its motivating affect on learners. Collie and Slater (1987) stress the function of literature as an exhibition of real life language. And so, the real life situations, language and relations of people are motivating factors for the learners. Furthermore, literature helps learners to understand the different cultures and develop tolerance and awareness of difference. Marshall (1979: 333), in using literature with Puerto Rican students, found that as she worked to help students overcome the difficulties of the text, her own appreciation of the text was clarified and 491 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo her respect for the students‘ own cultural framework enhanced. Marshall‘s experience verifies that literature promotes a greater tolerance for cultural differences for both teacher and the student. Another reason of using literature is that it helps learners to use their imagination and lead them to develop their own creativity. The learners try to find out what happens as events and share different or similar emotion through literary text. Literature forms interaction between learner and literary text. Rich literary texts can convey multiple meaning, and cause discussions and reflection of different feelings and opinions. This can be useful for the learners in the process of language learning. The Use of Literary Texts and Extracts in Foreign Language Teaching Regarding of the crucial part of literature in maintaining the interest of the students, teachers exploit literary texts in a large number of ways in the classroom. Using the extracts from short stories novels, dramas and poems helps maintain the interest of the students in the process of language learning. Pulverness (2003) advises language teachers to maximise the use of literature in the classroom. For him, firstly, language teachers should introduce the theme of the text, and then necessary vocabulary items and use prediction tasks to arouse the curiosity of the students. Secondly, language teacher should minimize the text so as not to disturb the students‘ reading. Thirdly, language teacher should draw attention to grammar and linguistic structures used by the author. Finally, s/he should encourage students to find creative views and invite them to modify, extend or add to a text. Therefore, it is essential that language teachers bring the literature into language classroom especially for teaching structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target language, using their own imagination and developing the own creativity of the students. Using short stories Using short story as a material will be a useful technique for language teachers not only to provide various rules of grammar, syntax and phonology but also to improve the students‘ creativity. As all known, short story as a genre is always simple and short. Therefore, It will not distress the students and lead to understand the theme easier. According to Arıoğul (2001), short story used as amaterial in ESL\ EFL cirriculum offers these benefits: (a) provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal exploration supported with prior knowledge for advanced level readers, (b) promotes critical thinking skills, (c) makes the students‘ reading task easier due to being simple and short when compared with other literary genres, (d) facilities teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community…(pp 11-18). Furthermore, short story makes contribution to the development of cognitive analytical abilities by bringing the whole self to bear on a compressed account of a situation in a single place and moment (Sage, 1987: 43). A teacher can follow up these activities while using short stories in his\her lesson :  want students to predict what will happen next, or what happened just before.  want students to select familiar structures of grammar, morphology, syntax.  ask students to choose unknown words and to try to guess the meaning of them before looking at dictionary.  want them to write a background character description of one of the characters.  ask students to imagine they are in the same story as a character and ask whether they have different reaction against the events in the story. In brief, using short story give a chance to raise the students‘ awareness towards the target language and culture, and become familiar with different structures of grammar, morphology, phonology and syntax of the target language. Using poems The advantages of including poetry in teaching a foreign language can be beneficial for the students to see different uses of language in relation to vocabulary, syntax, morphology and grammar structures (Lazar, 1993:15). The activities about the use of poetry as a material in ESL\EFL cirriculum have been developed and tested by many experienced language teachers in their classrooms around the world (Bassnett&Grundy, McRae&Boardman, McRae&Pantaleoni, Maley&Moulding, Lazar, Maley&Duff, Collie&Slater, and Gower). Arnold (1999) stated that using poetry give a chance to exercise freely students‘ imaginative and cognitive ability, while working with texts creatively, subjectively, and collaborately, is very invaluable to enable them to improve their overall language and discourse competence. A teacher can follow up these activities while using poems in his\her lesson : 492 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     ask students to check their pronunciation while they are reading the poem loudly to each other and then to do the same thing for the whole class reading in chorus. ask students to rewrite the poem using the same structures but not in the same meaning. ask students to predict the possible story behind the poem. give an opportunity to discuss on issues the poem. These ideas can be beneficial for students to be familiar with different structures of grammar, vocabulary and they can undoubtly be useful for their pronunciation. Moreover, students have a chance to exercise freely their imaginative ability and to discover their iner world. Along with the above mentioned benefits, poetry comprises so many cultural elements-allusions, vocabulary, idioms, tone that are not easy to translate into another language ( Sage, 1987: 12-13). Using plays As well known, ESL\ EFL learning becomes internalized as a direct relation of the learners to the real situations and specific purpose of communication for the learners. Through the use of drama in foreign language teaching, students learn about the daily expressions of the target language and have the chance to use both receptive and productive skills. Lenore (1993) explains that using drama in ESL\ EFL classrooms (a) promotes language development, (b) develops both critical thinking and listening skills, (c) stimulates the imagination, (d) reinforces positive self concept, (e) fosters self respect and group cooperation. A teacher can follow up these activities while using dramas in his\her lesson :  ask students to prepare a play extemporarily in company with their friends.  ask students to read out the dialogue but to give the characters special accents. It will be useful for them to acquire different aspects of pronunciation.  ask them to read out dialogues loud and listen other friends‘ dialogues.  ask them to write a new version of the play using the daily expressions used frequently. In sum, the use of plays is a very beneficial technique in today‘s ESL\ EFL classrooms. As it is a colourful language learning technique, it is also a motivating factor for the learners to promote their comprehension of grammar structures in context and verbal or nonverbal aspects of the target language. Using extracts from novels The use of extracts from novels in ESL\ EFL classrooms is a beneficial resource for language teaching. Novel as a literary genre not only reflects the daily lives of characters but it also provides to evaluate the events in different points of view. Helton et al., (1998: 1-5) stressed that the extracts used in ESL\ EFL classrooms have an important educational role as it (a) develops oral and written language skills, (b) helps students get information, identify problems and events, (c) motivates them to learn different structures of the target language without getting bored. Through the use of extracts from novels, students build vocabulary and develop their reading skills. Like other literary genres, novel is a very effective way of acquiring grammar structures, and morphological, phonological and syntactical aspects of the target language. Criteria for choosing literary texts and extracts in foreign language teaching Choosing an appropriate text to be used in ESL\ EFL classrooms should be carefully considered. Because the success in using literature in the classroom depends on the works selected for the lesson. First of all, language teachers should not forget that the aim is not to teach literature but to teach language and they must be aware of the difficulties of choosing the appropriate literary texts or extracts for students. Lazar (1993: 56) listed some criteria according to the type of course and students, and other text-related factors as follows: Type of course  level of students  students‘reasons for learning English  kinds of English required  length\ intensity of course Type of students  age  intellectual maturity 493 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo      emotional understanding interests and hobbies cultural background linguistic proficiency literary background Other text-related factors  availability\ length of text  exploitability  fit with syllabus To know about the cultural and literary background of the learners will help teacher to pay attention to the needs and abilities of the learner group. In addition, knowing the linguistic proficiency of the learners and an appropriate choice of text will provide the students with examples of many features of the written language, the structure of sentences, different usages of structures and the different ways of connecting ideas. Similarly, the use of imagination particularly while discussing literature ―enables the leamers to shift their attention beyond the more mechanical aspects of the foreign language system‖ (Collie & Slater, 1987: 5). Apart from its motivating affect, using literary texts and extracts can gain learners the awareness of different cultures. About this function, Lazar states (1993) that ―although students may find it easier to respond personally to a text from within their own culture, there is a strong arguement for saying that exposing students to literature from other cultures is an enriching and exciting way of increasing their awareness of different values, beliefs, social structures, and so on‖ (p. 63). This situation is substantial to motivate students, but language teachers should not select culturally dense texts so as not to prevent learners from understanding the essential meaning. CONCLUSION There is a known fact that literature used as a source for teaching ESL\ EFL in classroom has been in the key position. In this context, the teacher has an important role in the process of teaching English. First of all, while choosing the appropriate text for the students, the teacher should consider not only the appreciation of the student but s\he also think about her/his own appreciation. Likewise, Povey (1979) states that ―literary text is one that the teacher himself or herself enjoys‖ (p. 164). Secondly, the students‘ age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs, language proficiency, cultural and literary background should be taken into account so as not to bore them using inappropriate materials. At the same time, for many students literature has a duty of motivating them to learn English. If the literary work has simple language and short in length, this will facilitate the comprehension of the literary text and be a crucial factor for motivation of the students towards learning English. Furthermore, literature provide students to look at the situations and events from a different aspect. Custodio and Sutton (1998: 20) stated that ―literature can open horizons of possibility, allowing students to question, interpret, connect and explore‖. Apart from these benefits, ―the use of literature helps students, acquire a native-like competence in English, express their ideas in English well, learn the features of modern English, learn how the English linguistic system is used for communication, see how idiomatic expressions are used, speak clearly, precisely, and concisely, and become more proficient in English, as well as become creative, critical and analytical learners‖ (Obediat,1997: 32). There is no doubt that there are many good reasons for language teachers to use literature in ESL\ EFL classrooms. But the selection of appropriate texts and extracts is, of course, very difficult. As long as to be careful about some factors such as age, intellectual maturity, emotional understanding, motivation, needs, language proficiency, cultural and literary background of the students, teaching a foreign language won‘t be so complicated, contrarily it will be enjoyable and advantageous. 494 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Arıoğul, S. (2001). ―The Teaching of Reading Through Short Stories in Advanced Classes‖. Unpublished M.A Thesis. Ankara: Hacettepe University. Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Brumfit, C.J., & Carter, R.A. (1986). Literature and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Carter, R. & Long, M. (1991). Teaching Literature. Harlow: Longman. Carter, R. A. & Nash, W. (1990). Seeing through language: a guide for styles of English writing, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. Collie, J. & Slater,S. (1987). Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Custodio, B. & Sutton, M.. (1998). ―Literature-Based ESL for Secondary School Students‖ in TESOL Journal. Vol 7, No.5, p.p: 19-23. Duff, A. & Maley, A. (1990). Literature. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Fassler, D. & Lay, N. (1979). Encounters with a new world. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. Gilroy, M. & Parkinson, B. (1997). Teaching literature in a foreign language. Language Teaching, 29(4), 213225. Gonzalez, D. (1998). A whole language project: Using story grammars in the EFL high schoolclassroom. English Teaching Forum, 36,1, pp.14–15. Gower, R., & Pearson, M. (1986). Reading Literature. London: Longman. Hall, G. (2005). Literature in Language Education. New York: Palgrave. Helton, C.A, Asamani, J. & Thomas, E.D. (1998). ―A ‗Novel‘ Approach to the Teaching of Reading‖. Tennessee State: Tennessee State University, p.p: 1-5, Available Internet Address: http: // www.nade.net / documents / SCP98 / SCP98.19.pdf. Hill, J. (1986). Using Literature in Language Teaching. London: Macmillan. Hoggart, R. (1957). The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments. London: Chatto andWindus. Johnson, K.E. (1999). Understanding language teaching: Reasoning in action. New York: Heinle & Heinle. Lazar, G. (1990). ―Using novels in the language-learning classroom.‖ ELT 44/3: 204-214. Lazar, G. (1993). Literature and Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lenore, K.L. (1993). The Creative Classroom A Guide for Using Creative Drama in Classroom. U.S.A.: Elsevier, Inc. Maley, A. & Moulding, S. (1985). Poem into Poem. Cambridge UP. Marshall, M. (1979). "Love and death in Eden: Teaching English literature to ESL students." TESOL Quarterly, 13, 331-337. McKay, S. (1982). Literature in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 16, 529-536. McRae, J. & Boardman, R. (1984). Reading between the Lines Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres. McRae, J. & Pantaleoni, L. (1994). Words on the Page, A Course in English Literature. Italy: Nuova Edizione, La Nuova Italia & Oxford University Press. Obediat, M. (1997). ―Language vs. Literature in English Departments in the Arab World‖ in English Teaching Forum. Parkinson, B. &Thomas, H.R. (2000). Teaching Literature in a Second Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Povey, J. (1972). "Literature in TESL programs: the language and the culture." In Allen, H. & R.Campbell (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: McGraw Hill,.187-193). Povey, J. (1979). "The teaching of literature in advanced ESL classes." In M. Celce-Murcia & L.McIntosh (Eds.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 162-186. Pulverness, A. (2003). ‗Literature' in English Teaching Professional, October, Issue 29, Modern English Publishing. Sage, H. (1987). Incorporating Literature in ESL Instruction. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. Widdowson, H. (1984). Explorations in Applied Linguistics 2. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zyngier, S. (1994). At the crossroads of language and literature: literary awareness, stylistics and the acquisition of literary skills in an EFLit context. Thesis (PhD in Applied Linguistics) – School of English, University of Birmingham, Birmingham. 495 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 74 Title A name given to the resource The Use of Literature in Teaching English Grammatical Structures as well as Some Linguistic Components Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer ERISEN, Gülşen KAYINTU, Ahmet KARACA, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Literature is one of the most important resources supporting the grammatical structure of English as a Foreign Language/as a Second Language ( EFL/ESL) learners as well as the linguistic components of English language, and thus literature help students improve their English and at the same time reach communicative competence. Therefore, the aim of this study is to show how literature can be used effectively for students to improve their English and how it can support the grammatical structure of EFL/ ESL learners as well as linguistic components of English language. Throughout the study, previous research and its relationship with present study has been given in detail. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0a2ba27bbdc8d9d9edd59da318e44f2e.pdf 71bd7a69f64d3a5a918be234cf00b43f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC SKETCHES Hüseyin EFE English Language Teaching, Artvin Çoruh University, Turkey huseyin_efe@hotmail.com Hakan DEMĠRÖZ English Language and Literature, Faculty of Letters, Cumhuriyet University, Turkey hakandemiroz@gmail.com Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĠR English Language and Literature, Lecturer, Erzincan University, Turkey ancient---mariner@hotmail.com Abstract: Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Key Words: situational learning, spoken language, language teaching, authentic sketches 1. Introduction Language teaching takes place in many settings. There are many factors influencing learning. Malamah – Thomas (1987) describes setting in terms of three levels in an education system:  The country  The school  The classroom After determining basic elements of setting, there occurs another question:  What is the relationship between ‗the role of English in the country‘ and ‗teaching in English at school‘? Whether English is spoken in the community outside the class or alternatively never heard is closely related to main problems of Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). Also the role of English in the school and its place in the curriculum is important (McDonough and Shaw, 1998). 399 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2. Conditions for Foreign Language Teaching (FLT) FLT has a complex structure and it involves many conditions likewise all other educational activities. An ideal grouping of these conditions can be as follows:  Proximity to spoken language  Equality of four skills  Internal and external interferences of learner  Teaching/learning materials An effective teaching is possible only when these conditions have optimal values on teaching atmosphere. The first condition – proximity to spoken language – should be as the first step for a communicative language teaching approach. Because there are many studies proving that learning is achieved by obtaining comprehensible input from original or at least authentic settings (Piske and Scholten, 2009). 3. Situated Learning Situated learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger, learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. As an instructional strategy, situated cognition has been seen as a means for relating subject matter to the needs and concerns of learners (Shor, 1987). A situated learning experience has four major premises guiding the development of classroom activities (Anderson, Reder, and Simon 1996; Wilson 1993): (1) learning is grounded in the actions of everyday situations; (2) knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to similar situations; (3) learning is the result of a social process encompassing ways of thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and interacting in addition to declarative and procedural knowledge; and (4) learning is not separated from the world of action but exists in robust, complex, social environments made up of actors, actions, and situations. The key components of situated learning model are:  Stories  Reflection  Cognitive apprenticeship  Collaboration  Coaching  Multiple practice  Articulation of learning skills  Technology (McLellan, 1996). As an overall assessment, situated learning model can provide a valuable tool for enhancing the design and implementation of teaching/learning experiences. The efficiency of the SL model should be considered in accordance with the innovative ideas of FLT to be able to provide a good example of its application in the field. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. Situated learning is a useful model for those who are seeking a communication atmosphere to make language teaching more effective by means of communicative purposes as this learning model emphasizes the importance of real settings of knowledge. 4. Communicative Language Teaching When the subject is ‗to teach a language to communicate‘ then Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) appears to be as the inevitable and probably most appropriate approach. CLT is based on communicative competence which is described as the knowledge needed to be able to communicate effectively (Thornbury, 2006). 400 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo CLT aims broadly to apply the theoretical perspective of Communicative Approach (CA) by making communicative competence as the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language and communication (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). In a CLT design, language functions are emphasized rather than forms and grammatical patterns of a language. All four language skills are studied to have a meaningful competence of language. Besides, CLT is generally associated with notional – functional syllabuses (Larsen – Freeman, 2008). 5. Authentic Materials 5. 1. The Description of Authentic Materials Authentic materials are those educational materials which can be used to teach authentic and natural knowledge, competences and abilities. Those materials do not need to be developed or prepared for the purpose of educational. While explaining authentic materials which are used in FLT, Widdowson (1990) emphasizes that those materials are designed to reflect the spoken language to learners. 5. 2. Some Advantages of Authentic Materials      Learners have the chance of hearing original dialogues of spoken language. Learners learn about the cultural patterns of target language. Learners learn about the change in the language. Learners learn about the daily news of that society speaking the language. Authentic materials are easy to be prepared and used in educational settings. 5. 3. Sketches as Authentic Materials Authentic materials are divided into three groups as - written materials - visual materials - audio – visual materials Sketches are the examples of written materials. Some simplified play pieces also can be used as good sources of spoken language. In a sketch dialogue, an authentic language atmosphere can be created and through this context many language patterns can be reflected. While using sketches as authentic written material to spoken language, the key points are the same as they are in all other authentic materials:  simplification  revision for cultural issues  appropriateness to the context. 6. Methods and Procedures 6. 1. Introduction The aim of this study is to review SL in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. 6. 2. Process Before starting the study, both groups were given a language proficiency test including reading comprehension and vocabulary questions as pre – test and the same test were given at the end of the study as post – test. The results of both tests were evaluated by means of answers and their percentage in whole (right – wrong - null). 401 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Basic material of the study is a sketch book which is published on line in a web site for the purpose of teaching spoken English to the speakers of other languages. Sketches were given to experimental group (14 male, 10 female; 24 students in total) beforehand the courses. During the courses, vocabulary was given to the students so that they were encouraged to use dictionary and find out the meanings of the vocabulary. Students were not obliged to act out the roles as they were freshmen and it would be embarrassing for them to act out in front of their classmates. The sketches were read by them as role – plays and during the activities they were modeled to give the meaning of the context through the intonation. Control group of the study (12 male, 11 female; 23 students in sum) were given plain texts with different topics including nearly the same vocabulary and contexts. Likewise the experimental group, those students were also encouraged to look up the vocabulary and answer reading comprehension questions. 7. Analysis and Findings 7. 1. The results of pre – test Before the reading activities that lasted 8 weeks, both groups were given a language proficiency test including vocabulary and reading comprehension questions as well as idioms. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 100 correct answers: W: 120 % 40 N: 20 Percentage of C: 50 correct answers: W: 160 % 20 N: 30 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 70 % 5 N: 158 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 87 correct answers: W: 108 % 38 N: 35 Percentage of C: 51 correct answers: W: 119 % 22 N: 60 Percentage of C: 12 correct answers: W: 92 % 5 N: 126 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers As it can be seen from the table, there was no significant difference by means of proficiency levels of the two groups and they are homogenous. 7. 1. The results of pre – test After 8 weeks of research conveyed with both experimental group and control group, above mentioned proficiency test was given again to determine the difference between the two groups. The results are as follows: Grammar questions (10 Q) Vocabulary questions (10 Q) Idioms (10 Q) questions Experimental Group (N: 240) Percentage of C: 95 correct answers: W: 90 % 38 N: 55 Percentage of C: 64 correct answers: W: 130 % 27 N: 46 Percentage of C: 31 correct answers: W: 81 % 13 N: 128 Control group (N: 230) Percentage of C: 97 correct answers: W: 114 % 39 N: 29 Percentage of C: 57 correct answers: W: 120 % 24 N: 53 Percentage of C: 17 correct answers: W: 103 % 7 N: 10 N : Number of questions in total C : Correct answers W : Wrong answers N : Null answers 7. 3. Overall Assessment and Students Opinions It is obvious that authentic sketches work as suitable tools of conveying spoken language patterns. During the study, the students were interviewed for the efficiency and appreciation of the process. After 8 weeks 402 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of study, the majority of the students in the experimental group expressed their appreciation for the course design provided them many language patterns and also they found those sketches very useful to learn about the cultural elements of target language. Student A: (Experimental group) ―It is interesting that I learn easily while reading and my vocabulary becomes more and more stable. When I try to remember a word for example ‗flattered‘ I manage it by remembering the sketch ‗The ticket inspector‘. It helped me try to speak.‖ Student B: (Experimental group) ―I started to feel that I am learning English and I learnt many new words.‖ Student C: (Experimental group) ―Now I know how to joke in English because I learnt an idiom while reading ‗The passport office.‖ Student D: (Control group) ―I learn the vocabulary of the text but when I have a new one generally I missed the old passages‘. I think reading is a good activity but it is very complex.‖ Student E: (Control group) ―The passages have long sentences so it is boring for me.‖ 8. Conclusion FLT is a quite challenging activity especially for those trying to teach the language in a country where the language itself is neither used nor spoken in the community for everyday needs. In a setting where comprehensible input is restricted to teaching/learning activities, it is essential to use authentic materials to develop productive skills. Authentic materials are among the main elements of a SL practice. They build up an artificial language environment and this leads an effective learning/acquisition of the language. Language learner/student needs to speak and listen to be able to master his/her productive skills. Spoken language is difficult to be reflected by using plain texts. In this study, the difficult task of teaching spoken language, expressions, idioms and vocabulary which are used vividly in daily speaking settings have been achieved by the use of authentic sketches in a SL atmosphere. As a result the students could beat their fears of learning language and they learnt many idioms, vocabulary and daily practical expressions. When the scores of both groups are compared it is obvious that this kind of teaching practices may be very effective with many advantages. 403 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H.A. (1996). Situated learning and education, Educational Researcher, 25(4), pp. 5-11. Larsen – Freeman, D. (2008). Techniques and principles in language teaching. London: Oxford University Press. McDonough, J. & Shaw, C. (1998). Materials and methods in ELT. Oxford: U.K. Blackwell Publishers. McLellan, H. (1996). Situated learning perspectives. Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey: USA Piske, T. & Young – Scholten, M. (2009) Input matters in SLA. London: U.K. Multilingual Matters/Channel and View Publication. Shomossi, N. & Ketabi, S. (2007). A critical look at the concept of authenticity. E – Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 4(1) pp: 149 –155. (http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg/v4n12007/shomoossi.pdf - last access 12.04.2011) Shor, I. (1987) Critical teaching and everyday life. USA: University of Chicago Press Chicago: Thornbury, S. (2006). An A – Z of ELT. London: U.K. Macmillan Books for Teachers. Widdowson, H. G. (1990) Aspects of language teaching. Oxford: U.K. Oxford University Press. Wilson, A. (1993). The promise of situated cognition. USA : Jossey-Bass San Francisco http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-3/adult-education.html (last access: 14.04.2011) Appendix A : A Sample Sketch: The ticket inspector Scene : A compartment on a train Characters: A passenger on a train, a ticket inspector,a steward and a waiter The passenger is sitting in a compartment on a train. He is reading a newspaper. The steward opens the door. 404 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Steward: Coffee! Passenger: No. thanks. (The passenger closes the door, and continues reading. The waiter opens the door.) Waiter: Seats for dinner! Passenger: No, thanks. (The passenger closes the door again, and continues reading. The ticket inspector opens the door.) Inspector: Tickets! Passenger: No, thanks. Inspector: Pardon? Passenger: I don't want a ticket, thank you. Inspector: I'm not selling tickets, sir. Passenger: No? Inspector: No, I want to see your ticket. Passenger: Oh, I haven't got a ticket. Inspector: You haven't got a ticket? Passenger: No. I never buy a ticket. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: Well, they are very expensive, you know. Inspector: Sir, you're traveling on a train. When people travel on a train, they always buy a ticket. Passenger: Err… Inspector: And this is a first-class compartment. Passenger: Yes, it is very nice, isn't it? Inspector: No, sir. I mean: This is a first-class compartment. When people travel in a first-class compartment, they always buy a first-class ticket. (They look at each other for a moment.) Passenger: No, they don't. Inspector: What? Passenger: A lot of people don't buy tickets. The Queen doesn't buy a ticket, does she' Eh? Eh? Inspector: No, sir, but she's a famous person. Passenger: And what about you? Where's yours? Inspector: Mine? Passenger: Yes, yours. Your ticket. Have you got a ticket? Inspector: Me, sir? Passenger: Yes, you. Inspector: No, I haven't got a ticket. Passenger: Ooh, are you a famous person? Inspector: (Flattered) Famous? Well, not very (Back to normal) Sir, I am a ticket inspector. I inspect tickets. Are you going to show me your ticket? Passenger: No, I haven't got a ticket. 405 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Inspector see. (The ticket inspector puts his hand into his pocket.) Passenger: 'What are you going to do? Inspector: I'm going to write your name in my book. Passenger: Oh Inspector: What is your name, sir? Passenger: Mickey Mouse, (The inspector begins to write.) Inspector: Mickey Passenger: Mouse. M-O-U-S-E. (The inspector stops writing.) Inspector: Your name, sir? Passenger: Karl Marx? William Shakespeare? Charles Dickens? Inspector: I see, sir. Well, if you're not going to tell me your name, please leave the train, Passenger: Pardon? Inspector: Leave the train. Passenger: I can't. Inspector: You can't what? Passenger: I can't leave the train. Inspector: Why not? Passenger: It's moving, Inspector: Not now, sir. At the next station. Passenger: Oh. Inspector: It's in the book, sir. When you travel by train, you buy a ticket, and if you don't buy a ticket, you Passenger-Inspector: leave the train. Inspector: Here we are, sir. We're coming to a station. Please leave the train now. Passenger: Now? Inspector: Yes, sir. I'm sorry, but Passenger: Oh, that's OK. Inspector: it's in the book, and what did you say? Passenger: I said: That's OK.' Inspector: OK? Passenger: Yes, this is my station. Goodbye. (The passenger leaves the train.) 406 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 59 Title A name given to the resource A SITUATED LEARNING PRACTICE FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING CLASSES: TEACHING SPOKEN ENGLISH WITH AUTHENTIC Author Author EFE, Hüseyin DEMİRÖZ, Hakan AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. Situated Learning is a term first proposed by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger as a model of learning in a community of practice. According to Lave and Wenger learning should not be viewed as simply the transmission of abstract and decontextualised knowledge from one individual to another, but a social process whereby knowledge is co-constructed; they suggest that such learning is situated in a specific context and embedded within a particular social and physical environment. Foreign language teaching is proved to be most effective and optimal only when it is performed in a setting of real communication and performance. The exposure to spoken language and cultural elements of foreign language is the best way of teaching the language itself rather than grammatical patterns and rules of the language. In this study, we aim to review ‗situational learning approach‘ in context with its role and efficiency of teaching spoken language. An experimental study was conducted on the university students in the prep classes at the School of Tourism in Erzincan University. 12 male and 11 female students in the control group and 14 male and 10 female students in the experimental group took part in the research. The language levels of the students were determined by a language proficiency test which is used as pre-test of the study. Language proficiency test composed of mainly dialogues including spoken language patterns. After 8 weeks of lectures with authentic sketches which were used as reading materials in experimental group and classical reading materials in control group, the students were given the same language proficiency test as post-test. When pre and post-test results were evaluated, we found that there was a significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the subjects on behalf of the students in the experimental group. In view of the findings obtained from the study, we can conclude that spoken language can be achieved by authentic sketches which are designed to serve as a situated learning setting. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics