85 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3701b29e6a1c18e8fac7dd6a8ce05461.pdf 841840f66e129317321f9b05e144a361 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills Ali GÖKSU Res. Assist., Bitlis Eren University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, English Language and Literature Department, BĠTLĠS, TURKEY agoksu@beu.edu.tr Melih KARAKUZU Assist. Prof. Dr., Atatùrk University, Faculty of Education, English Language Teaching Department, ERZURUM, TURKEY karakuzu@atauni.edu.tr Gencer ELKILIÇ Assist. Prof. Dr., Kafkas University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, English Language and Literature Department, KARS, TURKEY gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Ali DĠNÇER Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, English Language Teaching Department, ERZĠNCAN, TURKEY adincer@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre -test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in Turkey. Key Words: language teaching, reading, KET, ELP, CEFR 1. Introduction Throughout history, people have learned and spoken foreign languages. When there was no advanced technology, reading and reading comprehension played a major part in the learning process (Lee, 2004). Today, foreign language learners use reading as a way of learning new vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and cultural diversities. In addition, reading has been still cared as an important method of learning a foreign language in non-English speaking countries throughout the foreign language learning process. European Language Portfolio (ELP) has been created recently by the Council of Europe for a better learning and teaching process. The European Language Portfolio is an instrument that facilitates recording, planning, and validation of lifelong language learning both within and beyond English language teaching (Vosicki, n.d.). 67 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The ELP is a tool for recording our language and intercultural experiences at school and across a lifetime of learning in our daily life. It is also a document to illustrate our language competences as well as our knowledge and experiences of other cultures through sample of work (Ministry of Education & Council of Europe, 2003). The ELP consists of three parts. These are language passport, language biography, and dossier. (1) Language passport provides an overview of the individual‘s proficiency in different languages at a given point in time. (2) Language biography facilitates the learner‘s involvement in planning, reflecting upon and assessing his or her learning process and progress. (3) Dossier offers the learner the opportunity to select materials to document and illustrate achievements or experiences recorded in the Language Biography or Passport (Council of Europe, 2000; p.3). The European Language Portfolio (ELP) is also connected with the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) as a pedagogical language learning and reporting instrument. The CEFR is a comprehensive descriptive scheme offering a tool for reflecting on what is involved not only in language use, but also in language learning and teaching. It provides a common basis and a common language for the elaboration of syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, textbooks, teacher training programmes, and for relating language examinations to one another. It also defines foreign language proficiency at three main levels (basic user, independent user, proficient user) in relation to five skills (listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production, writing) (Martyniuk, 2005). For Cambridge ESOL Examinations which is a department of Cambridge University, CEFR offers a valuable frame of reference for our work and for our stakeholder community. The quality of the relationship between the CEFR and Cambridge ESOL exams is perhaps best judged by the extent to which together they enable language learning to flourish, encourage achievements to be recognized and so enrich the lives of individuals and communities (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4). KET (Key English Test), one of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations, is a certificate that shows a person can use everyday written and spoken English at a pre-intermediate level. These examinations are recognized by thousands of employers throughout the world. KET is also at Level A2 of the CEFR an internationally recognized framework (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/). 2. Methodology This study is quantitative in nature, which aims to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements of Turkish speakers of English studying with the ELP in reading skills. 2.1. Participants of the Study This study was conducted on 45 students who were in the 9th grade in a private high school in Erzurum, Turkey. Ages of students ranged about 14. Since there were both male and female students in the study group, gender factor was taken into consideration. The study was implemented nearly a term from the beginning of October to the end of December in the 2009-2010 academic year. A questionnaire consisting of language proficiency levels A2, B1 and B2 from the self-assessment grids in CEFR was conducted on 45 students, and according to given responses, level classes were arranged as A2, B1 or B2. The study group was the level A2 so that we would study with only a level class at school. 2.2. Instruments Data were collected from the students at the beginning and at the end of the fall term (between October and 2009-December 2009). In order to find out the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills; questionnaires, self assessment checklists and KET were main data instruments of the study. 2.2.1. Questionnaire Council of Europe (2001; p.25) expressed that self-assessment grid in the CEFR has shown major categories of language use at each of the six levels. It is also intended to help learners to profile their main language skills, and decide at which level they might look at a checklist of more detailed descriptors in four basic skills in order to self-assess their level of proficiency. In this study, questionnaire consisted of language proficiency levels such as A2, B1 and B2 from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR. The questionnaire provided us determine the study group which we studied together during the implementation. At the beginning of the term, the questionnaire was conducted on 45 students, and then classes were arranged as the levels A2, B1 or B2 according to the given answers. 68 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2.2.2 Self Assessment Checklist Checklist is a common instrument used in ELP. Little (2006) states that checklists are important advance for self-assessment in language learning, as they make it possible for learners assess themselves using the same objective scales that in principle may underpin the test and examination they are required to take. In addition, the presence of such checklists as a key element in the ELP adds a significant new dimension to portfolio based language learning and assessment. At the beginning and at the end of the study, self-assessment checklist consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖ statements of only reading part of the level A2 in the CEFR was conducted on study group as pre and post tests to cross-check the level A2 again. Self-assessment checklist having the sort of five-likert scale had choices such as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3) Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1) Never. In this way, the study group was crossedcheck more detailed in their own reading skills again. Besides, it was observed whether there was a significant difference between them. 2.2.3. Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL Exams CEFR plays a key role in language and education policy within Europe and the wider world – perhaps in ways not originally envisaged by its authors. Within Europe it is believed to serve policy goals of fostering linguistic diversity, transparency of qualifications, mobility of labour, and lifelong language learning. Beyond Europe it is being adopted to help define language proficiency levels with resulting implications for local pedagogy and assessment (Taylor & Jones, 2006; p.4). Today, Cambridge ESOL Examinations are also aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: published by the Council of Europe. This internationally recognized framework describes language ability in a scale of levels which ranges from A1 for beginners to C2 for those who have mastered a language. (ESOL Examinations, n.d., retrieved from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/). KET (Key English Test) from the Cambridge ESOL Examinations has been applied around the world by British Council. The equivalences between British Council courses and the Council of Europe levels are shown in Table 1 (Manasseh, 2004; p.3). Table 1. British Council courses for learners and Council of Europe levels British Council Level Council of Europe Level Beginner A1 Starters 6–8 Elementary A1 Movers, Flyers 6- 10 Pre Intermediate A2 Intermediate 1 B1 Intermediate 2 B1 PET (Preliminary English Test) 11- 16 Pre advanced B2 FCE (First Certificate in English) 14 – 18 Advanced 1 C1 Advanced CAE C1 Very Advanced C2 Very Advanced 2 C2 Cambridge exams KET (Key English Test) Age ranges 10 – 16 10- 16 14 – 18 CAE (Certificate in Advanced English) 14 – 18 14 – 18 CPE (Certificate of Proficiency in English) 14 – 18 69 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this study, KET was used as a standardized test from Cambridge ESOL exams. As seen in Table 1. Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams and A2 from the Council of Europe levels are at the same language level. The questions in the KET were prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). The reading proficiency part of KET, which consisted of fifty questions each of which had two points, was applied to the study group as pre and post tests both at the beginning and at the end of the study. During the implementation of the study, readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also done. After the results of both pre and post tests were compared and t-test analysis of KET scores was computed, it was observed whether there was a significant difference between them. 2.3. Data Collection and Analysis Procedures In this study, instruments of data collecting were questionnaire from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR, self-assessment checklists in the CEFR as pre and post tests, and KET from Cambridge ESOL exams as pre and post tests. The study started at the beginning of October 2009 and ended in last week of December. KET was analyzed by using SPSS 15, while questionnaires and self-assessment checklist were analyzed quantitatively. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Results of the Questionnaire At the beginning of the study, the questionnaire consisting of statements of four basic skills (reading, listening, speaking and writing) of A2, B1 and B2 levels from the self-assessment grids in the CEFR was conducted on 45 students in order to determine the study group. According to obtained results of questionnaire, classes were arranged as levels A2, B1 or B2. According to the ELP, the level B2 class consists of successful students, while level A2 consists of less successful students. Levels of Students 11 20 A2 B1 14 B2 Figure 1. Levels of the Students According to the results of the questionnaire shown in Figure 1, there were 20 students for the level A2, 14 students for level B1 and 11 students for level B2. We decided to study with the level A2 as a level class at school. Because number of the students in a class at school has consisted of 20-25 students, and there were not enough students at levels B1 or B2 to study with only a level class. As a result, questionnaire indicated that the level of the study group was A2. 3.3. Results of Self-Assessment Checklists After the level of the study group determined as A2, at the beginning and at the end of the study, pre and post self-assessment checklists consisting of sample ―Can-Do‖ statements of reading part of the level A2 in the CEFR was conducted on the study group. These ―Can Do‖ statements used pre and post self-assessment checklists have included more detailed than reading part of A2 used in questionnaire. Both self-assessment checklists having the sort of five- point likert scale had choices such as (5) Always, (4) Frequently, (3) Occasionally, (2) Rarely, (1)Never. With the help of both self-assessment checklists, it was aimed not only to 70 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo frequently rarely occasionally never frequently rarely occasionally cross-check level A2 again, but also to find out whether students had any changes in their reading skills at level A2. Figure 2. The Results of Pre-Post Self-assessment Checklists As shown in Figure 2. there was an important increase from pre-test to post test. According to the results pre and post self-assessment checklists, pre and post tests confirmed again that the level of the students was A2. In addition, when both of the self-assessment checklists were compared, it could be observed that there was a significant difference between them. For example, 57.5% of the students said Always in the post selfassessment checklist, whereas 46% of students said Always in pre self-assessment checklist. Besides, the students said 40% for Frequently and 2.5% for Occasionally in the post test, while the students said 34.5% for Frequently, 16.8% for Occasionally and 2.8% for Rarely in the pre test. Therefore, we can conclude that the percentage of the post self-assessment checklist has increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Furthermore, students have seen themselves stronger for their reading skills at the end of the study (term). In addition, one can observe easily that almost all students (57.5% for Always and 40% for Frequently) in the study group studying with ELP felt better and were more successful in their own reading skills. 3.3. Results of Key English Tests (KET) In this study, questions in KET consisted of only reading proficiency part of KET, and they were prepared beforehand using in the ―Key English Test‖ of the Cambridge ESOL Examinations (2006). It included fifty questions each of which had two points. KET as a standardized test was applied to the study group as pre 71 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and post tests both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Furthermore, students also studied with materials supporting KET during the study. After the data analyzed according to the descriptive statistics, the frequencies for the KET were found. When the results of pre and post tests were compared, it was observed that there was a significant difference between pre and post tests. Table 2. Paired-Samples T-Test Results for the Pre-Test and Post-Test Scores M 64.80 86.30 Pre-test Post-test N 20 20 SD 12.50 8.36 T 11.50 df p 19 .00 A paired-samples t-test was conducted to evaluate the impact of the intervention on students` scores. There was a statistically significant increase from pre-test (M = 64.80, SD = 12.50) to post-test (M = 86.30, SD= 8.36), t (19) = 11.50, p<.05. Table 3. Difference between Pre-test and Post-test Scores according to Gender Gender Mann-Whitney U N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks female male 11 9 9.09 12.22 100.00 110.00 34.000 p .23 A Mann-Whitney U Test was run to explore if there was a significant gender difference between pretest and post-test scores. As seen from the Table 3, there is no statistically significant difference between females and males (U = 34,000, p>.05). It was observed that there was a significant difference between the results of pre and post tests applied to the study group. Furthermore, according to the results of pre and post tests, KET had not only an important role in improving learners` reading skills, but also positive effects on achievements of students studying with the ELP in reading skills. 4. Conclusion and Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills in a private high school in Erzurum, Turkey. The questionnaire determined language levels of students. The results of the questionnaire showed the level of the study group as A2 at the beginning of the study. With the help of the questionnaire, students could learn English better as a foreign language in their own levels. Because, according to the ELP, everybody in the class had the same level, and their teacher also taught them according to their levels. Therefore, the ELP can be a significant tool to improve the reading skills of learners. Pre and post self-assessment checklists having sort of five-point likert scale were conducted on the study group at the beginning and at the end of the study in order to cross check in detail the study group in reading skills. The results of both of the tests indicated again that the level of the study group was A2. Besides, when the percentages of the pre and post self-assessment checklists were compared, it was observed that the percentage of the post self-assessment checklist increased more according to the percentage of the pre-selfassessment checklist. Students studying with the ELP also saw stronger themselves in their reading skills at the end of the study. The Key English Test (KET) conducted as pre and post tests at the beginning and at the end of the study showed us whether the KET contributed to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. The findings analyzed with statistical program for the pre and post KET indicated that there was a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test scores. According to analysis of t-test, there was a statistically significant increase from pre-test to post test. Furhermore, no significant difference was found out according to gender. In addition, it was observed that students studying with the ELP were more successful in KET when the frequencies of pre and post tests were compared. According to all findings obtained from the instruments, KET had an important role and contribution in improving learners` reading skills. Besides, the ELP also provided that all learners in study group studied KET in their own levels. Thus, ELP was both a useful and helpful tool for learners in foreign language learning process. Moreover, all these findings also indicated that KET had a positive effect not only to improve reading skills of students studying with the ELP, but also to increase achievement levels of the students in reading skills. Consequently, KET contributes positively foreign language learners to improve their reading skills. 72 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Cambridge Key English Test 4. (2006). Examinations Papers from University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, Cambridge University Press. Council of Europe. (2000). European Language Portfolio (ELP): Principles and Guidelines, Document DGIV/EDU/LANG. Strasbourg, Council of Europe. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press Lee, C.H. (2004, January). Reading-Developing Reading Skills. Retrieved October 08, 2011 (Available from http://elc.woosong.ac.kr/english/html/databank/data2_list.html?board=board_lecturepds_english&state= download&uid=19). Little, D. (2006). The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Content, purpose, origin, reception and impact, Language Teaching, 39, 167–190. Manasseh, A. (2004). Using the Common European Framework to develop English courses for teenagers at the British Council Milan. Paper presented at the De-Mystifying the European Language Portfolio, British Council Brussels, Belgium. Martyniuk, W. (2005, May). Relating Language Examinations to the Council of Europe`s Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). Paper presented at the ALTE Berlin Conference, Berlin, Germany. Ministry of Education & Council of Europe, (2003). Avrupa Dil Portfolyosu 15-18 YaĢ. Retrieved March 23, 2011, from http://adp.meb.gov.tr/15-18.php Taylor, L. & Jones, N. (2006). Cambridge ESOL exams and the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR). University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations: Research Notes, 24(1), 2-5. University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations (n.d.). Retrieved January 28, 2011, from http://www.cambridgeesol.org/exams/general-english/ket.html Vosicki, B. F. (n.d). Piloting the European Language Portfolio in the Higher Education Sector: An ELC/CEL transnational Project. University of Lausanne: CH. Retrieved December 29, 2010, from http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/elc/bulletin/6/en/forster.html 73 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 14 Title A name given to the resource The contribution of KET to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills Author Author GÖKSU, Ali KARAKUZU, Melih ELKILIÇ, Gencer Dinçer, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. European Language Portfolio (ELP) recently created by the Council of Europe not only has an important role in language education policy within Europe and the expanding world, but also helps partners to describe the levels of proficiency req uired by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of qualifications. Cambridge ESOL exams are aligned to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) published by the Council of Europe. This study aims to investigate the contribution of Key English Test (KET) from Cambridge ESOL exams to achievements of learners studying with the ELP in reading skills. Firstly, twenty students were selected as the study group according to the results of questionnaire which contains items of levels A2, B1 and B2 in the CEFR. And then, self-assessment checklist in CEFR was conducted as pre-test and post-test to cross-check the study group both at the beginning and at the end of the fall term. Readings with materials prepared for the levels in CEFR were implemented to the study group, and extra activities supporting KET were also applied during the study. Besides, KET as a standardized test was also conducted as pre-test and posttest both at the beginning and at the end of the study. Then obtained scores were analyzed by using SPSS 15. T-test analysis of KET scores was computed, and no significant difference was found out according to the gender. The results indicated that ELP and KET were effective to improve reading skills of foreign language learners in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b90f6f607a54ff0199ad02591ec59c84.pdf e4088b239661c333ffd684f40c47a48c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Redefining Teaching Approach for Learning Communicative English. Dr. Somali Gupta Professor of English Govt. V.Y.T.PG Autonomous College Durg. Chhattisgarh,India somaligupta@gmail.com Introduction Speaking is more than merely talking. It involves thinking, imagination, sensitiveness in listening and understanding. The communication process is completed only when the speaker gets a response by word, look, gesture, or even silence. This enables the speaker to judge the attitude of the listener and the degree of success or failure of the communication. The entire body is used in speaking. It uses the audible code – the sounds used by the speaker, and the visible code – the movements or gestures of the face, arms and other parts of the body that are used for emphasis. The primary function of the speech is to influence others. Generally, language learning proceeds, from hearing and speaking to reading and writing. But in the case of second/ foreign language acquisition, this order is often violated. In India, especially with regard to English, learners begin with writing and reading and come to speech only towards the end of their learning. Very little curriculum time is given to teaching oral skills. It is therefore not unusual to find a large number of English users, who are fairly proficient in reading and writing , but cannot speak well. The confusion in the order of learning also seems responsible to a certain extent for errors in the performance of second language users. This paper is based on the project that I had done in order to understand and develop an approach that would help the L2 learners acquire English language competence. (Students from the tribal or backward areas of Chhattisgarh(India) are usually intimidated by the thought of learning English which according to them is the language of the elite.) This project was based on qualitative analysis and was sponsored by the UGC. Theories used for Classroom Approach and Curriculum Designing 1) Humanistic Teaching Approach for EFL. This approach is based on Daniel Goleman‘s (1995) research on Emotional Intelligence (EQ); why it can matter more than IQ. Recently it has been noted that students who don‘t fair well in their examinations, also fair badly socially. There are also cases of very intelligent students who become social ‗outcasts‘. This is what Goleman terms as emotional illiteracy. The cost of this type of illiteracy is very high – could be paid with lives (pp 265-274). Besides teaching language, the Affective Teaching Approach also includes (in Goleman‘s term) ‗Schooling the Emotions‘. Goleman states ―the healthiest way to teach children is by motivating them from inside rather than by threat or promise or reward. We should use kids‘ positive states to draw them into learning in the domains where they can develop competencies‖ (pp 106-107). The chapter ‗Managing with heart‘ proves that emotional intelligence is cost-effective for any type of business including language education. There are many benefits for teacher as managers if they have the basic skills of emotional competence. Redefining Humanistic Approach The humanistic approaches were first introduced in the late sixties and early seventies. This requires an orientation towards ‗holistic‘ education, which aims to promote growth in intrapersonal awareness and interpersonal sharing as well as intellectual development (Legutke & Thomas, 1991:36). This can be interpreted as teaching with affection, developing a leaner‘s inner personality and selfconfidence, interpersonal skills, as well as his intellectual skills, all at once. One of the most cited early works on humanism is Moskowitz (1978) book, Caring and Sharing in the Foreign language Classroom. Her two major emphases are related to this paper: Firstly, ―humanistic education takes into consideration that learning is affected by how students feel about themselves‖ (p. 12). It ―is concerned with educating the whole person - intellectual and the emotional dimensions‖ (p. 1136 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 11). Secondly each individual is unique and to be ‗self-actualising‘ is to function to one‘s fullest capacity. Quoting Stevick‘s (1975) work, Legutke & Thomas (1991) note the four forms of alienation that are possibly responsible for failure in modern language teaching; 1)the alienation of learners from the material, 2)from themselves 3)from the class and 4)from the teacher. This alienation is also the educational starting point of postponements of humanistic approach and the hidden agenda of many resource books offering communicative tasks (p.36). the topic of hidden agenda will be further explored in the section of this paper on Exploring Affective Teaching Approach. With heavy schedules in set curricula for schools, most teachers are reluctant to undertake heavier burdens by including emotional literacy as another subject to be taught. This is not necessary so. According to Goleman, the idea is to blend lessons on feelings and relationship with other subjects. ―Emotional lessons can emerge naturally into these subjects and infiltrate into the very fabric of school life. In fact these lessons should essentially be ―an invisible emotional and social competence course‖ (p. 312). This approach equates incidental learning in grammar. This incidental learning is achieved with appropriate selection of teaching materials (for example reading passages for teaching emotional and social skills) and (re)training of teachers to discipline students who misbehave (explaining their mistake instead of reprimanding). Affective Environment for Effective Teaching (Role of Teachers) The success of any EFL program depends on many factors. These include the sound curricular, the different methodology or approaches, the management and the environment. However, a review of recent literature indicates insufficient discussion on environment as one of the crucial factors for effective learning of ESL to take place. Nunan (1995) agrees that ―the context and environment of learning as well as the management of language classrooms, are relatively under-presented in the literature on language teaching methodology‖ (p.7). For the purpose of this paper environment is defined as the conducive, holistic atmosphere incorporating all the variables under the three categories of physical, mental and spiritual environment involved during the language learning process. After receiving a few studies, Cray and Currie (1996), include one characteristic that teachers should have which is rather similar to the environment factor discussed in this paper. Besides having knowledge in pedagogical content, instructional practice, critical thinking skills and problem solving abilities, a language teacher should also possess the ability to handle nonpedagogical factors including social and personal complexities. Studies have shown that in the 1990‘s the role of teachers of English as a second or foreign language has developed from merely as teachers‘ into autonomous experts with the knowledge, experience and intuitions to make informed decisions about what should happen in their classrooms. Since then it has been realized that ‗language classrooms are complex settings, composed of both pedagogical elements, and that teachers must be prepared to deal with their uniqueness‘ (pg. 113). To do that, teachers need to be well equipped with knowledge of the factors involved in order to be able to create the conducive, affective environment for effective language learning. One such environment is within a learner-centered curriculum. Nunan (1988) believes that a curriculum that specifies planning equals teaching rquals learning is naive. Research suggests that the equation is much more complex than this (pg.1) due to the obvious mismatch between the traditional curriculum and the demands of the classroom, Nunan embarks on researching a learner-centered curriculum. In this curriculum, while one major aim or sets of aims will relate to the development of learining skills. Such aims may include the following:  To provide learners with efficient learning strategies.  To assist learners identify their own preferred ways of learning  To develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum  To encourage learners to set their own objectives  To encourage learners to adopt realistic goals and time frames  To develop learners‘ skills in self-evaluation. Teachers who try to achieve some if not all of the above aims are on their way to setting the conducive environment for their students to learn the language. Some teachers assume that in a learner-centered classroom, teachers may loose their authority. This assumption is unfounded as pointed out by Widdowson (1987): The increase in learner-centered activity and collaborative work in the classroom does not mean that the teacher becomes less authoritative. He or she to continue the enabling conditions for learning, has still to monitor and guide process (p. 87) 1137 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo It is clear that a learner-centered curriculum paves the way for Affective Teaching. This is not easy, as there is an official curriculum with a set of learning objectives that teachers need to adhere to. But Nunan (1988) points out that this can be solved by looking at techniques and procedures for negotiation and procedures. He quotes Brindly (1984) saying it does not mean ―teachers should give leaners everything that they want- evidence from teachers suggests that some sort of compromise is usually possible, but only after there has been discussion concerning what both parties believe and want (p 6). Exploring Affective Teaching Approach Confluent Education, a pedagogic vehicle for humanistic thinking, is not a new education movement (Brown (1971), Rivers (1983). However, Legutke & Thomas‘ (1991) model for this type of education will be the starting point in this section. This model illustrates the overlapping of the cognitive and the affective domains of the learners. Therefore, teachers should maximize on both the learners‘ IQ and EQ. With their intelligence, the learners should be provided with awareness of not only language education but also other types of education so as to activate their ability to respond and inculcate responsibility (in their learning), thus moduling a well-rounded person, intellectually and emotionally. Based on patterns in Confluent Education and Goleman‘s theory of ‗ Schooling the Emotions‘, a model for affective teaching approach incorporating the hidden curriculum was created. Teachers can get the learners to be spontaneous in their learning and to be intrinsically motivated by making the learners understand what they are learning and what they are learning it for. As the focus has now shifted to the learners, understanding the factors affecting language learning is crucial. These factors under the two catagories are presented in Figure 2. The line separates the intrinsic from the extrinsic factors. A lot of research has been done on how these factors affect language learning. Wenden (1987) cites a few studies to show the importance of affective factors, the influence of social factors (EQ), and the importance of cognitive abilities (IQ) in the language learning process. Carrel, prince & Astika (1996) also cite recent studies that show the success of second language education caused by affective, motivational, personality and demographic factors. Lightbrown & Spada (1999) believe that learners have certain characteristics, which lead to more or less successful language learning. By understanding the characteristics of a ‗good language learner‘, teachers are able to help the learners deal with their weaknesses. Research on factors affecting language learning can be done using specific measurements, tests, surveys, questionnaire or observations. The present study explores the Affective Teaching approach using questionnaires and observations, plus as analysis of the students‘ profile, and the study also takes into consideration almost all the factors affecting language learning included in figure 2. Task Based Curricular Design Language instructors and curriculum designers have two broad catagories of syllabuses available to choose from. The first, the synthetic syllabus, segments the target language into discrete linguistic items, such as points of grammar, lexical items, or functions. Users of this type of syllabus assume that learners will be capable of re-synthesizing these discrete pieces of language into coherent whole which can then be effectively utilized in communicative situations (White, 1988). The second type, the analytical syllabus, is a non-interventionist, experimental approach which aims to immerse learners in real-life communication. It provides learners with samples of the target language which are organised in terms of the purposes for which people use language. In this case, the assumption is that the learners‘ analytic abilities will be equal to the task of coming to accurate conclusions about grammatical and lexical usage, since relatively little may be explicitly explained about the formal aspects of the language. Analytical syllabuses generally represent the educational value system espoused by progressivism, which stresses the growth and self-realization of the individual (White, 1988). This is a problem-posing type of education which emphasizes dialog between learners and teachers and between the learners themselves. The purpose of the dialogue is to stimulate new ideas, opinions, and perceptions rather than simply exchange them or regurgitate what others have said. White (1988) lists the most salient characteristics of analytic syllabus as follows: (a) they are primarily concerned with how materials are learned (processes oriented); (b) some degree of negotiation between learners and teachers occurs; (c) the content is fundamentally defined as what the subject means to the learner and what the leaner brings to the subject in terms of knowledge and interest; (d) assessment is partially decided based on the learners‘ own criteria of success, and; (e) the instructional situation is far more co-operative than in more traditional, teacher-fronted classrooms. 1138 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This last point has been referred to as maximizing learning opportunities (Kumaravadivelu, 1994) and is an essential aspect of what has been termed a learner-centered curriculum. Classroom discourse should be a cooperative venture in which discourse is created through the joint efforts of both the learners and instructor. One type of analytic syllabus is the task-based syllabus (Crookes & Long, 1992). In addition to the above characteristics of analytic syllabuses, task-based syllabuses are largely derived from what is known about second language acquisition (SLA). For instance, SLA research supports a focus on form which uses pedagogic tasks to draw learners‘ attention to particular aspects of the language code which is naturally embedded in the tasks (Long & Robinson, 1988). The inclusion of some type of instruction on the formal aspects of the target language can be found in most recent formulations of task-based language instruction (e.g, Skehan, 1988; Willis, 1996). Tasks also provide input to learners and opportunities for meaningful language acquisition (Swain, 1995). Opportunities for production may force students to pay close attention to form and to the relationship between form and meaning. It is assumed that this combination of contextualized, meaningful input and output will engage learners‘ general cognitive processing capacities through which they will process and reshape the input. In other words, tasks will likely create a rich linguistic environment capable of activating the learners‘ intuitive heuristics (Kumaravadivelu, 1994), which are natural cognitive processes used both consciously and unconsciously for developing the somewhat separate rules systems that underlie language comprehension and production. In addition, form-function relationships, which are a critical aspect of SLA (MacWhinney, 1997), should be more readily perceived by the learners because of the highly contextualised and communicative nature of the tasks provided by a task-based syllabus. The Project: Student-Generated Action Research In this section I would like to briefly describe an extended task-based project which was implemented The project, which I have called student-generated action research, required the entire twelve week semester to complete. However, as a part of the same course the learners were also engaged in other activities that were a part of direct approach to teaching speaking. In this approach, learners are explicitly instructed in some of the specific microskills, strategies and processes which are involved in conversation. These include phrases and strategies for turn-taking, interrupting, expressing agreement or disagreement, summarizing what another person has said and checking whether you have been understood. The knowledge of these ‗formulaic frameworks‘ (Widdowson, 1989, pg. 135) form an essential part of communicative competence of native speakers of a language and act as usual linguistic knowledge which the learners can make use of as they use of as they move through the project. In brief, the project requires the learners to work in groups of two to four persons and to choose a topic which they are interested in finding out more about. The general objectives of the project are to:  Provide learners the opportunity to use English for authentic purposes for an extended period of time.  Provide intrinsically motivating activities which take advantage of the learners‘ desire to improve their listening and speaking proficiency.  Allow learners to take responsibility for their own English education by giving them the primary responsibility for topic structure and present data which they collect.  Reinforce learners‘ ability to form grammatically and pragmatically collect questions;  Enhance the learner‘s presentation skills.  Demonstrate to students that the use of English can further enhance their own education and development, and;  Provide opportunities for learners to work closely together with a partner or in a small group for an extended period. The following is a more detailed look at how the project unfolds throughout the course of a semester. Fundamental Problems with Tasks Skehan (1988) lists five major problems which exist where task-based language teaching is concerned. First, although early empirical indications strongly support the use of task as an effective way to conceptualize language teaching, the amount of research is still insufficient. More worrisome is the fact that o task based program has been implemented and subjected to rigorous evaluation. Until this has been accomplished and any positive results replicated, the use of task-based courses will be open to doubts and criticisms. Moreover, assessing task-difficulty and sequencing tasks is problematic. Our understanding of many potential factors influencing task difficulty is quite limited; thus, teachers 1139 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo must generally fall back on their intuitions about how well their particular learners can deal with specific tasks. Third, little is known about task ‗finiteness‘. For instance, if examined carefully, a task such as the creation of a questionnaire is composed of a large number of ‗microtasks‘ which must be successfully accomplished in order to complete the larger task. There is probably no clearer explanation of this than in the work of Anderson and his colleagues in the area of production rules (e.g., Anderson, 1993; Anderson & Lebiere, 1988). They have shown how one relatively ―simple‖ task, such as an addition problem, can only be complete if a large number of more basic production rules are known and accurately applied. When the task is the communicative use of language, the situation is far more complex. Skehan (1988) claims that task-based language teaching may be too structured and preplanned and so slow down the rate of acquisition. However, this did not appear to be a problem with the learners in this program. Only further research on task-based teaching will provide answers to this question. Frame work: In the first stage of the survey 60 students were chosen who had to fill up a personal data questionnaire dealing with there Background, Education, Hobbies, Friends, Influences in life, Dreams and Vision.A work shop was the held in which the students shared the same data amongst the group This workshop also helped me to understand how these students tend to avoid learning the language while wanting to learn the language too because of the belief that it is an elitist language. In the second stage a Motivation Workshop was organized for the students in which they were also required to understand their own personal needs. A lecture on Neuro- linguistic programming to understand blocks, was also delivered. Often another group of students were involved in the workshop to draw a comparative analysis and a result. While the first primary group of students came from the backward classes or the rural areas the second group of students belonged to the urban area or from a reasonably affluent background, whose parents were also educated. In another workshop, the students were allowed to interact with the students of other colleges which led to a strong database of the variety of problems that the students had that came in the way of their communication skills (communication not only in English but also in Hindi.) This was followed by another workshop on ‗Attitudes‘. The next stage of the project involved the development of the four basic skills (Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking) in the students that are imperative in language learning. Simultaneously grammar and phonetics were also taught. The students were also made aware of the various theories in language learning. In the activities that involved the development of Speaking Skills the Passive vocabulary of the students was also revived. Other activities like group discussions, role- playing, dramatics, debates were used as alternative methods to teach the skills. Error analysis involved a major part of the process as it helped to develop a clearer understanding of the mistakes that were being committed by the students and also by the teachers in playing their roles. Fluency and accuracy remained the focus of the tasks. A workshop on Body Language (Non verbal communication) was also organized. Role of the teacher in the classroom was also studied. Reasons for negative participation in the given classrooms were also studied. Motivation Motivation is the power which makes a learner struggle to achieve his goal. Human capabilities depend on the extent of motivation. The effect of motivation and its variables upon performance, are manifold. The manner and extent of these affects change in accordance with the task and situation. That is, difference in motivation may account for difference in performance of a learner. ―Motivation‖ is derived from the Latin word ‗movere‘ which means ‗to move‘ and it has been seen as a process which activates and directs behaviour (Young 1961). For Bigge (1971), motivation is when a person develops a state of tension resulting from an unsatisfied need. Most psychologists and applied linguists (Corder, 1973; Gardner 1979 and Gardner & Lambert, 1972) agree that motivation plays a very important role in language learning. Gardner (1979: 198) would expect motivation ―to play a direct role in the formal training situation because it would serve to keep the student in the programme, influence his perception of the training situation, and serve as the basis for many reinforcements which might be obtained in the classroom.‖ Thus the survey of literature on motivation leads us to conclude that definitions are mainly based on three main components in a learning situation. These are : ‗goals‘ of the learner towards learning, ‗needs‘ of the learner and ‗drive‘ of the learners towards a language. 1140 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Motivation is individual. That is, every learner has his/her own motives and means to learn in accordance with their ability and goals. There are four types of motivation which can be relevant to language learning. They are ‗integrate vs. instructional‘ motivation and ‗extrinsic vs. instinct‘ motivation. Gardner and Lambert can be considered the pioneers of language learning motivation studies. In their earliest studies (1959) two distinctive types of motivation, namely integrative and instrumental were classified. Integrative Motivation: Integrative motivation is a willingness to become a member of another ethno-linguistic group. In other words, it refers to learning the language the target community in order to be integrated into the culture of that community. Instrumental Motivation: Instrumental motivation is the result of external need. They define instrumental motivation as a desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages through the knowledge of a second or foreign language. Learners who are instrumentally motivated hope to derive benefits from knowing the other language such as getting a better job or position. However, one can argue that the relative importance of an integrative- instrumental dichotomy will largely depend on the context in which a language is learned. An instrumental motivation can be effective, in particular, in situations where the target language is used as an international means of communication. Research in the tribal areas of Chhattisgarh indicated that the learners from these regions learn English for its utilitarian value. It needs to be pointed out that positive orientation does not take the form of integrative motivation. In these regions English language is only contacted indirectly through the textbooks. Therefore, the situation is unlikely to initiate any desire for group integration. In order to adapt the learning process to appeal to the learners, we usually tend to rely on two main types of motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation consists f three components such viz. stimuli, response and reward. The source of this type of motivation comes from outside the learner, who mostly performs a certain task in order to get a reward,(e.g. pass the test), or to avoid punishment (e.g. failure). Unlike extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation is related to the learner‘s initiative to do a task (e.g. understanding something) for its own sake. However, the social context in which the language is learned determines the attitude of the learners‘ social status in a second or foreign language. In relation to the first language, economic, political and social factors are likely to influence motivation to learn a second or foreign language. When the socio-linguistic status of a group, is lower than that of a target language group, instrumental motivation is likely to be a pre- requisite for economic advancement. We can therefore say that individual learner factors are influenced by the social context and these have to be borne in mind while interpreting learners‘ behaviour. Since motivation is individual, the teacher, for example, needs to try to understand what kind of motivation his/her learners are intrinsically motivated by. The teacher is expected to find ways or techniques which address the intrinsic motivation. Further, each learner has his/her own way of handling tasks or learning process. Therefore, the teacher has to understand the student‘s ability, and his way of dealing with learning tasks. To conclude, the teacher can sometimes be the only source of motivation, essentially in those situations where the learner‘s experience largely depends on their teacher. In other cases, ambition also acts as a prime motivation. Methodology Group Work Group work has been found especially conductive in the development of oral skills. Research has given us the 2/3 formula which shows that in a 40 minute class with a strength of 40 students per class a learner gets less than a minute to participate in the speaking activity. Group work provides a framework whereby a learner can have the maximum participation. In a teacheroriented class, the amount of language practice each learner gets, is much less than in a class where the learners work in groups. 1141 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Group work gives an opportunity to learners to speak in small groups, at times with their friends and this reduces the hesitation and embarrassment which a shy learner may feel. Besides helping learners to get rid of their inhibitions, it also builds up a sense of closeness, owing to the physical proximity and the tight structure of the groups. Learners feel more motivated, have a sense of belonging, which spurs them on a particular direction. It helps in establishing a sense of personal rapport. Communication is better when the physical distance between individuals is reduced. Visuals and other materials used in the classrooms are then easy to share within the group. Students are also able to interact as a group with other groups. This helps in building healthy rivalry. The time limit or inter-group competition spurs each group to move ahead. It provides an opportunity for peer teaching. Students are more likely to learn from each other than from the teacher. Mistakes get corrected in a healthy cooperative atmosphere. Important features of interaction skills such as turn-taking, adjusting to one‘s speech to what the other person knows and wants to hear also gets practiced. Group work allows the teacher to move out of the constraints of the role and act as a manager, facilitator and guide. As teachers of second language, our main concern is not to impart knowledge and information to the children about the language, but to develop their ability to use their language for a variety of communicative purposes. In order to achieve this end we must  Appreciate the specific needs of our learners.  Plan suitable oral activities in English based on the needs of the students  Monitor and modify these activities to ensure that these activities are effective.  Understand the various roles that a teacher can play (manager/facilitator/ guide) to enhance the student‘s oral skills. Group Discussion: Group discussion was practiced with the dual purpose. 1) To enable the students to freely participate and exchange views.2) Practice it as an alternative methodology for classroom teaching. Group discussion was held both before and after reading texts. It was also held after the topic was declared a day before. It was found that the students were more participative if the discussion was held after the reading of the texts or if the topic was declared a day before. It gave the less confident learners support in terms of content. The teacher‘s role became that of an observer, manager and a facilitator. Correction of grammar and other remedial measures were taken later and the discussion was allowed a free flow. Sometimes the dominating students were facilitated to allow the slow learners to participate. The discussions were rounded off by summarizing the group‘s ideas through reporting or other methods like drawing posters etc. Feedback was given to each student on his/her participation by the teacher. An oral activity which is well planned, organized, executed efficiently, timed correctly with a feedback and a follow up session, gives the learners a sense of achievement. The other activities which met with a lot of enthusiasm from the students were Class Debate and Role Playing. Learning to Speak In the case of learning to speak one‘s mother tongue the child‘s experiences provide the basis from which meaning and therefore language develops. At the same time what other people around the child say to the child also plays an important part in stimulating the child‘s actions and setting value on them. The child‘s language is extended by the parent‘s responses to her statements and questions. Adults tend to use words so freely and easily that they teach them to the child at almost every opportunity. They encourage the child to say the word aloud, correcting her when she says the word incorrectly or applies it to the wrong object, and rewarding her when she uses the word or symbol correctly. During recent years a body of evidence has grown which seems to indicate that the way in which the child learns to use language is dependent upon early experiences in the home. Differences in the way children use language, thus stem from the experiences in the social environment in their homes. Although the ability to imitate sounds plays a tremendous part in the child‘s ability to acquire vocabulary and structure and for her utterances, learning to use language is clearly much more complex than being able to imitate sounds. Imitation is not enough to explain how a child gains meaning and gains the adult‘s way of using language. Most adult‘s seem to help the child intuitively as they talk, sometimes simplifying what they say to accommodate the child‘s immaturity, and sometimes speaking as they would do to an adult or older child. Often they take what the child has said and repeat a corrected version, which sometimes the child will repeat immediately. In this way it seems the child gains the experience she 1142 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo needs for distinguishing the more ambiguous aspects of structure in talk. The young child goes through two phases in learning to speak. The first stage is the Passive Stage in which the child comes to understand much of what is said to her but makes little use of the language herself; the second stage is an Active Stage in which the child begins to use words and word groups. Mother tongue acquisition Linguists have observed how children acquire their mother tongue so that the insight gained could be used in teaching of the second language. They found three important facts which gave a new trend to language teaching. First: Children start comprehending the language much before they start speaking it. Second: Children start begin by repeating individual words and then short sentences, but this was a mere mechanical reproduction. Third: Children form a grammar of their own which explains how they graduate from mere repetition to construction of yet unheard sentences of their own. The fact emerged that there was to be a gestation period between learning and passive(listening, understanding and reading) and active skills(speaking and writing). But students, most of the time are expected to learn all the skills simultaneously. This becomes difficult for the slow learners. Use of mother tongue in the classroom There has been an ongoing debate about whether the learners or the teachers should be allowed to mix or switch codes for teaching and learning English (L-2). Those who are of the opinion that other tongue has no place in an English classroom are advocates of the Direct Method. According to this theory, a constant exposure to the target language enables the learners to pick it up in due course, just as a child picks up the mother tongue. The use of mother tongue by the teacher minimizes this exposure, depriving the learner of a total submersion in the target language. It is also argued that if the learner is denied the option to speak in the mother tongue, the compulsion to communicate will act as a motivation to use English. It is also claimed that this compulsion and constant exposure will act as a spur to help the learners think in English which is the ultimate test in language proficiency. Failure of the Direct Method The students who were chosen for this workshop were from the backward classes and rural areas and hence their medium of instruction was Hindi. English was not their language of communication. The direct method is based on the presumption of a maximum exposure to the target language, it must be understood that these students get only 2 hours of exposure at the college since there is no English in the home environment. Keeping in mind the fact that most of these students have minimal exposure to the language outside the classroom and some of whose motivation to learn it does not go beyond passing the examinations, what seems to be the requirement of the day is a time saving method which puts the students at ease and also instills some confidence in them. This confidence will, in turn act as a motivation for further learning. It was found that judicious use of the mother tongue both by the students and the teachers, proved to be fruitful. Since dependence on mother tongue seemed to be inevitable a methodology to use it to an advantage was developed. It was observed that teachers who are firm believers of keeping the mother tongue out of the classroom seem to generate a sense of awe amongst the students who are very weak in English. They were seen as unapproachable and the prospect of learning English from them appeared daunting. Today the knowledge of English has acquired a status symbol in India and those who cannot speak it suffer from a sense of inferiority. Under such circumstances when the teacher does not hesitate to mix codes or to switch them when required, the students get a sense of security and start feeling comfortable. The mother tongue becomes the common ground and the English and the English teacher stops being intimidating. This goes a long way in bridging the gap between the teacher and the taught. Purpose , Design and Activities of a Bilingual Classroom As discussed earlier the students of Chhattisgarh have a definite mindset in learning English. Their primary aim to learn the language was as follows:      Talking with others. Giving information to others. Telling others how you feel. Persuading others. Dealing through words in special situations. 1143 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo     Telling things that interest others such as stories, shared experiences. Making formal or impromptu speeches. Getting ideas across, out loud. Classroom Design: The classroom was designed to provide opportunities for oral expression to the second language (L-2) learners so as to enable them to:  Increase their vocabulary and ability to use the language.  Be articulate when speaking, i.e. speaking coherently and in complete sentences.  Become fluent in expressing their feelings and opinions.  Improve listening skills.  Listen to different points of view and value the opinion of others.  Develop confidence in the use of the language.  Learn the social skills needed for group interaction.  Enhance their ability to communicate with a variety of audiences.  Reinforce grammatical structures, intonation, and pronunciation, through actual usage. Domains It is customary to divide human activity into several domains. All these domains when put together, account for most of the things that an average human being does or is expected to do. The students were keen to learn English as a second language to be able to use it all the following domains.  Family  Neighbourhood  School  Trade and Commerce  Government and administration.  Work-place  Atmosphere of the Classroom The possibilities for using spoken language in the classroom is immense. There are opportunities for spontaneous, unplanned discussions, verbal sharing recitation. Often informal talk between students is very constructive if it can be given a focus. What is important is that a student should feel completely relaxed. Hence the classroom atmosphere should be completely nonthreatening. Individual differences in students were respected. It was seen that they should not be compared to each other. As a practice shy students were not forced to speak in front of the whole class but were gradually made to practice ‗speaking‘ in small groups and then move on to large groups.                    Activities in the Classroom The following activities were designed and practiced in the classroom. Games emphasizing the use of different parts of speech. Spotting the odd words from a group of words. Using synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, suffixes and prefixes. Learning to figure out the meanings of words from context. Making friends with new words. Becoming aware of idiomatic expressions. Using literature to clear diction and introduce new words and phrases. Sentence building games.(Each student adds on a word till the sentence is complete) Build stories. Picture Reading. Create images with words. Problem solving and working on puzzles so that they discuss with each other. Teaching each other. Finding information about each other based on a format. Giving and following directions. Improvisations and role-plays based on some clues and stimulus. Question and answer sessions based on a text. Show and Tell. Identifying Passive Vocabulary. 1144 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Improving Articulation and areas that need focus were then put to greater practice. Approaches Used in Classroom Teaching Humanistic Approach & Task based approach 1. Humanistic Approach: History and Theory The Humanistic approach tends to see language learning as a process which engages the whole person and not just the intellect. It takes into account the emotional and spiritual needs of an individual too. The philosophy behind such an approach can be briefly described as follows: The ideal world should consist of ‗ autonomous, creative and emotionally secure people‘(Brumfit 1982) and education should and can assist in the creation of such a world. Stevick classifies the important characteristics of humanism. Feelings: Include both personal, emotional and esthetic appreciation. This aspect of humanism tends to reject whatever makes people feel bad, or whatever destroys or forbids esthetic enjoyment. Social Relations: This side of humanism encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever tends to reduce them. Intellect : Includes knowledge, reason, and understanding. This aspect fights against whatever interferes with the free exercises of mind, and is suspicious of anything that cannot be tested intellectually. Self Actualisation: This is quest for full realization of one‘s own deepest true qualities. This aspect believes that since conformity leads to enslavement, the pursuit of uniqueness brings about liberation. In the humanistic approach the following principles are considered important: a) the development of human values b) growth of self-awareness and in the understanding of others c) sensitivity to human feelings and emotions d) active student involvement in learning and in the way learning takes place. The two methods that reflect the philosophy of the humanistic approach in the fullest measure are:   The Silent Way. Community Language Learning. The Silent Way: This methodology was evolved by Caleb Gattegno in 1960 which was based on the tenet, ‗teaching must be subordinate to learning.‘ In the Silent Way, the teacher is almost silent: the learners do all the talking. The Pedagogic Principles      The teacher builds on what the learners already know. S/he follows the ‗known to unknown‘ principle. Language is learnt through the basic building blocks of sounds, as sound is a common characteristics of all languages. The teacher‘s silence encourages peer interaction and group co-operation. Language learning is done best in a non-threatening atmosphere. The teacher is a silent ‗engineer‘ in the class, and so the learners do not feel threatened. Learner errors are dealt through self-monitoring and peer-correction. No disapproval is indicated by the teacher. 1145 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Community Language Learning: Community language learning was developed by Charles Curran. He developed a counselinglearning approach, that is, the teacher was more a ‗counsellor‘ than a figure of authority and a judge of right and wrong. Curran discovered that adults often feel threatened in new learning situations: one. because they are coming into contact with something unfamiliar; and two, because they are afraid of appearing foolish. To counter this, the teacher must become a counselor; a person who not only knows the target language , but one who also understands the struggle learners face while learning something new. By understanding, he can help them to overcome their fears and work more positively towards learning a new language. CLL takes place in groups ( large or small). These groups form the community. This method lays emphasis on the learner‘s personal feelings while learning a foreign language.       The Pedagogic Principles: The most important principle the CLL is based on is the principle of security. A learner learns when s/he feels secure. To achieve this: The teacher-counselor, who is the knower remains outside the circle of learners. The teacher- counselor does not approve or disapprove of a learner‘s performance. The teacher –counselor uses the mother tongue learners to explain or translate, as they feel more secure when they understand everything. A community feeling is fostered so that trust is built up and the threat of a new learning situation is reduced. The other important principles are: The learning initiative must be with the learners for effective learning. Language is for communication. So, much of the materials for learning is authentic: what the learners say and record. The focus gradually shifts froth aspects of grammar and phonetics to actual sharing of ideas, beliefs, opinions, wants and desires. Task Based Approach 1. The Structural –Oral –Situational Approach This approach was used as an alternative to the direct method of teaching English in the classroom. 1.i) History In 1939, the University of Michigan established the first English Language institute in the USA. The primary aim of the Institute was to train teachers of English to teach English as a foreign language or as a second language. Charles Fries who was the director of the institute, was trained in structural linguistics and he applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. According to Fries , grammar or the structure was the starting point of teaching language. The structure of the language was identified with its basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The language was taught by intensive oral drilling of the basic sentence patterns. Systematic attention was paid to pronunciation. Teaching techniques concentrated on repetition of a pattern a number of times so that the learner became perfect in the use of pattern. Systematic courses and materials were developed based on important patterns to teach English as a second language. While the structural approach developed by linguists at and other universities was gaining ground, the applied linguists and methodologists of Britain were developing the oral approach to teaching English as a second language. The two traditions developed independently. Two prominent linguists in this movement were Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby. They developed a more scientific foundation for the oral approach than was seen in the direct method, and by 1950s the oral approach was accepted British approach to English language teaching. Situational Approach (Hornby) suggests that any language item, whether it be a structure or a word, should not be presented in isolation. It has to be introduced and practiced in a context, situationally. 1146 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Theory & Background The S-O-S approach is the presentation and practice of carefully selected and graded grammatical structures of English in effective meaningful situations, initially through speech and later through reading and writing. Language is viewed as structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence types. Structures of teaching items are selected and graded by language teaching experts and methodologists. For the purpose of grading structures the following criteria are taken into account:  Whether the items are frequently used by the users of the language.  Whether the items are useful for the purposes of learning the language.  Whether the items can be easily taught and learnt.  Which items can be grouped together for the purpose of teaching. Similarly, the vocabulary items are also selected and graded. The S-O-S approach is based on the following principles:  Language is primarily speech.  A language is a set of habits.  By using situations the use of the mother tongue can be avoided. The characteristics of the S-O-S approach can be summarized as follows:  Speech is the basis of language teaching- new language items and vocabulary items are presented orally before they are presented in the written form.  The language items which are commonly used by native speakers in their day to day language are selected for teaching.  The items are also graded according to their usefulness, frequency and teachability.  The language items thus selected are presented and practiced in meaningful situations.  Vocabulary items are selected with reference to the General Service List.  Reading and Writing are based on items which have already been introduced and practiced orally. Methodology & Practice: Drills: Call- word Technique- Substitution: In this drill the teacher writes a pattern on the blackboard. Learners are asked to read it a few times and once they have mastered the pattern, the teacher calls words to be substituted in the right places in the sentence. For example: The book is on the table. Teacher: Floor Learner: The book is on the floor. Teacher: Bench. Learner: The book is on the bench. Incremental Drills: In this drill learners are asked to add a word/words to a sentences given by the teacher. The teacher supplies the word/words to be added. It is as given: Teacher: I saw him. Learner: I saw him. Teacher: Yesterday. Learner: I saw him yesterday. Teacher: at ten Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten. Teacher: in the morning Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. 1147 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Backward Chaining Technique: This technique is useful when someone is not able to repeat long a sentence. In this drill words or phrases from the end of a sentence are taken and repeated. The movement is from the end to the beginning. For example: Teacher: in the morning Learner: in the morning. Teacher: at ten in the morning Learner: at ten in the morning. Teacher: yesterday Learner: yesterday at ten in the morning. Teacher: saw him Learner: saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. Teacher: I Learner: I saw him yesterday at ten in the morning. Completion In this the students were given a part of a sentence and asked to complete the sentence by adding a meaningful part or clause. 1. He worked so hard ………………………..(first class). 2. If you drive fast ………………………(accident). 3. Unless you know the skill…………………. (well). 4. If he had known my address………………(not miss). Transformation In this technique the learners were required to change a statement into a question, an affirmative statement into a negative statement, active into passive sentence. 1. This is a table. (statement) Is this a table? (question) 2. We shall play a game. (affirmative) We shall not play a game. (negative) 3. I drew this picture. (active) This picture was drawn by me. (passive) 1148 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Combining sentences or parts of a sentence In this technique, two sentences are given and learners are asked to combine them. Teaching Listening There are two major reasons for teaching listening. The first is called Listening for Perception .In this the learner is given practice in identifying the different sounds, sound combinations, stress and intonation patterns of the English language. The second is called Listening for Comprehension. In this the learner is given practice in developing listening for understanding by using listening materials and conducting listening activities which take into account the real life needs of the learner. Listening for perception: Listening for perception is practiced more at the primary level where learners are being introduces to the language. The focus of the listening activity is aural perception. Comprehension is of secondary importance. The listening exercises do not use visuals so that the learners concentrate on the sound of words or intonation patterns. The learner has to rely on his/her ear to repeat these sounds. The methodology involves repetition of short, discrete items. The teacher demonstrates the sounds which she wishes to teach while learners are encouraged to imitate and identify them using drill and choral repetition. Listening for comprehension: In this, the listening material is based on a particular context and the learner is given practice in specific areas of listening which are related to his/her needs. The learner is most often expected to make short, quick responses as a part of the listening exercises. Learners usually find these activities challenging, as effective listening activities have an element of game playing or problem solving built into them. Listening Tasks The listening tasks are effective if the learners have a well designed, interesting and carefully graded activity to complete. Some of the tasks are to express agreement or disagreement, take notes, make a picture or a diagram according to the instructions or answer questions. Listening tasks can be of two types a. Extensive listening b. Intensive listening. Extensive Listening: During Extensive listening the learner listens to an interesting story , radio programme or anecdote. The listening material may be lengthy. The learner listens for pleasure and is not expected to complete a worksheet or task. Extensive listening may take place anywhere. Intensive Listening: During intensive Listening the learner listens very carefully. E.g. while listening to directions. Such listening material is short and has a special a special worksheet designed on it. There is some amount of challenge so that the learner feels motivated to complete the task. It is through the completion of this task that the learner gets practice in specific listening skills. The Three Phases of a Listening Class. There are three phases of a listening class. But a great deal of planning goes in before that. The size of the class, the arrangement of the furniture, availability of the cassettes and recorder have to be taken care in advance. The Pre-Listening Phase: In this phase the teacher sets up the activity which gives the learner a purpose for listening. A quick look at the listening exercise helps the learner to understand the context and what s/he to listen 1149 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo for. Clarification of doubts is done by the teacher. The pre–listening activity is a very short phase. At times the learner may be asked to predict what they will hear. The While – Listening Phase: During this phase the learner completes the task based on listening material. S/he concentrates on the listening activity rather than worry about grammar or reading. The learners are encouraged to gather as much information as they can from the passage while listening. If they fill the information later it becomes a memory task and not a listening one. The focus of the task is on the message of the listening task. The Post – Listening Phase: This activity occurs after the learners have completed their listening activity. The information or completed chart which has been filled during the While –listening phase can now be used for integrating with other skills. E.g. exchange of information to fill missing information Listening activities practiced in the classroom. Dictation. Listening and following a route. Listening to a sports commentary. Listening to instructions and marking a ground plan. Evaluation      Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis This chapter deals with the role of errors in language learning. A workshop was organized to Understand why learners of a second language make mistakes Become familiar with different views about the nature and causes of second language (L-2) learner‘s mistakes Get an insight into the role contrastive analysis in error prediction Appreciate the radically different approach to such mistakes that error analysis proposes, and Understand the notion of inter-language. Theory: All learners make mistakes. As someone has said: ― You can‘t learn without goofing.‖ One fumbles, goofs and makes mistakes but if one perseveres with his/her learning efforts under proper guidance, one is able to overcome or correct his mistakes. When this happens you are said to have learnt something. Learning a language also involves making mistakes or errors. This is true even when one is learning one‘s mother tongue(L-1). The child as it grows up, goes through a long process of making mistakes and correcting them till he/she reaches a stage when we can say that s/he has learnt his/her mother tongue. That being so it is not surprising that those learning a second language often make mistakes. However, the errors committed by the learners of a second language present a rather more complex and interesting case because these L-2 learners have already learnt another language, i.e. their mother tongue. Linguists and language teachers have always been interested in finding out why L2 learners make mistakes. Teachers are primarily concerned in correcting such mistakes and making sure that their pupils do not repeat or persist with such mistakes. But it is easy to correct or remedy something if we know the cause or reason behind it. Contrastive analysis and error analysis present two different views about such mistakes and provide radically different explanations for them. Why do language learners make mistakes? Around the 1950‘s behaviourst psychology was in vogue and had tremendous impact on the linguistic thinking of that time(popularly referred to as structural linguistics). According to this thinking, language was thought of as a system consisting of subsystems i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax and symentics.Learning a language ws considered a matter of forming habits, that is the system of language could be learnt by habit formation, through imitation, constant practice and reinforcement by way of appreciation or approval by parents and teachers. Imitation practice and reinforcement finally led to a stage at which the language habits became fixed of automatic. 1150 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Imitation-----Practice -------Reinforcement. This way of thinking has very interesting implications for second language learning. The L-2 learner is, by implication, one who has already learned a set of habits relating to the system of her/his L-1. Now, when this learner starts learning a second language L-2 s/he has to learn a fresh set of habits pertaining to the system of the second language. The structuralist- behaviourist belief was that since a new system had to be learned (L-2), the system that had already been learned(L-1) , would interfere and create difficulties. I other words since each language represents a unique system, there are bound to be differences between the systems of L-1 & L-2. For the structuralist , therefore, those features of the system of L-2 which were different or dissimilar to the features of the system of L-1 were responsible for the learner‘s errors or mistakes. This phenomenon was often referred to as the ‗interference‘ or ‗transfer‘ which means that the second language learners tend to carry over certain features of their L-1 into the second language they are engaged in learning. When there is similarity between the features of the two languages there is no learning problem, but when there is a mis-match or dissimilarity, errors arise. The second view about second language learner‘s mistakes is based on the fundamental tenets of cognitive psychology and the transformational –generative or the post structural thinking in linguistics. This view consider language a thinking process rather than a set of habits. It follows therefore that language learning ( mother tongue or second language) can best be seen as a process of problemsolving in which the learner, faced with the data(language) tries to make sense of that data. The learner forms hypotheses about the language system that s/he is learning. S/he generalizes on the basis of these hypotheses and forms rules.Some generalizations may turn out right , and others wrong. But these errors do not represent a failure to learn a new set of habits or to modify an earlier set of habits. Rather, they represent the creativity of the learner and give us valuable clues to the way his mind in working. Code-Mixing During the oral practices it was observed that the students and much used to code mixing. Code mixing is a generous smattering of the lexicon of one language while talking in another.For example, ―Mera personal opinion yeh hai ki kyon ki humein matri bhasha nehi aati hum English words use karte hain.‖ Or it could be the mixing of two codes or two languages while speaking. For example, ―She is maroing gup.‖ In these sentences English verb inflection –ing is added to a Hindi verb. Code-Switching Code- Switching refers to the practice of alternating between two languages, that is, uttering some sentences in one language then switching over to another. Mother tongue Interference Mother tongue interference happens when there is literal translation of the mother tongue into English. While code-mixing and code switching are not considered aberrations because they are used by those who have a working knowledge of the two languages they mix, mother tongue interference falls in the area of errors. This phenomena occurs when the users superimpose the mother tongue on to the second language. Observations : (Code-Mixing , Code- Switching and Mother Tongue Interference) It is usually noted that code mixing and code switching is usually practiced by are bilinguals or multilinguals i.e. they are proficient in the two languages they mix. In the given classroom it was observed that code mixing was practiced by those students who were proficient in their mother tongue Hindi (L-1) and not in English (L-2). The code mixing was done in order to express with fluency. Code- Switching was seen to be practiced by only those students who were proficient in both the languages. Mother Tongue Interference was visible in both the learners in the initial stage and the in students who were reasonably proficient users of the second language. CONCLUSION Result of the workshop The tasks given to the students during the workshop and as a follow-up included speaking on current topics, any incident of the past, any past experience and translations. The results led to the following hypothesis 1151 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo         Language learning implies making assumptions about the structure of the language-its phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics. Based on these assumptions the learners formulated hypotheses about the structure of English. Each time the students spoke they were testing out their hypotheses. The incorrect hypotheses gave clues about the assumptions they were making about the structure of English. This (errors) helped the teacher to gear her teaching to correct the wrong assumptions and enable the students to move closer to the structure and system of English language. It was also found that the errors were also due to the failure of the students to learn a new set of habits. It was feared that the errors if allowed to continue, will become set habits. Most of the errors were caused by interference whereby features of L-1 were carried over or transferred into the L-2 by the learner. Positive reinforcements gave better results. Conclusion Language learning is a very dynamic phenomenon. Success and the lack of it in this exercise can be influenced in many ways and by many factors, motivation and attitude being two of them. Many people have learnt second /foreign languages successfully, in-spite of all kinds of deficiencies, because they had a very positive attitude and they were highly motivated to learn the language. In the absence of the right attitude and the right motivation, even the best of everything else cannot ensure success. Amongst the students who participated in the workshops it was found that attitude and motivation were of the positive kind in the case of first language acquisition, whereas it was not always so in the case of second language acquisition. It was found that the students were guided by both instrumental and integrative motivation. One always seemed to be leading to the other. All the classroom work was done in three stages :pre task- the students were briefed about the task/ teaching that was to follow. task-the students participated in the task by themselves or attended the class. post task(feedback) the students shared their experience of the task with other members. The socio-cultural background was taken into account while designing the tasks, and also in the classrooms. All the three approaches- s-o-s, direct and humanistic had an impact on the students. The students from the tribal areas responded to the sos (drills). The students from the urban areas responded better to the humanistic approach. They eventually were comfortable in a non-threatening environment once they had enough practice through the drilling method. To be able to communicate in English the students from backward areas needed constant motivation, drilling practice guided by the teacher and oral practice in a non threatening atmosphere facilitated by the teacher in the role of a facilitator. References Baugh Albert C. A History of English Language, Routledge London 2000 Brown , G and G.Yule, 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bryne, Donn. Teaching Oral English.Longman Group.UK limited 1991. Bygate, Martin, 1987. Speaking.Oxford: Oxford University Press Carrel,PL., M.S.Prince and G.G. Astika, 1996, Personality Types and Language Learning in an EFL Context, Language Learning Volume 46: Carter , R(ed) The Spoken Language Routledge 1982. Chomsky, N. 1959. Review of B.F. Skinner, Verbal Behaviour, 1957. Language 35, 1959 Clark, H.1977 Psychology and Language. An Introducion to Psycholinguistics. New York1988 Corder, S. 1975. Error Analysis, Interlanguage and Second Language Acquisition.Language teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts 8. Cray, E. & P. Currie 1996 Linking Adult Learners with the Education of L2 Teachers, TESOL Quarterly Vol.30:1 1152 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Crookes, G.,& Long, M.(1992).Three Approaches to Task Based Syllabus Design.TESOL Quarterly, 26,27-56 Cross and Carney, Teaching English in High Schools, Macmillian , New York 1996 Goleman , D. 1995, Emotional Intelligence, Bantam Books : New York Johansson , S.1975. The Uses of Error Analysis and Contrastive Analysis. English Language Teaching. Jones , K (1984.) Simulations in English Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Kippal,F, (1984 )Keep Talking: Communicative Fluency Activities for Language Teaching. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Kudchedkar, S (ed) Readings in English Language Teaching in India. Kumaravadivelu, B.(1994) The Postmethod Condition: Emerging Strategies for Second/ Foreign Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27-48 Long, M., & Robinson,P(1998). Focus on Form: Theory Research and Practice. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. Legutke, M. & H. Thomas (1991), Process and Experience in the Language Classroom, Longman Inc., New York. Lightbrown, P. & Spada, N. (1999), Critical Thinking, May field Publishing Company: California Mac Whinney, B. (1997) Second Language acquisition and the Competition Model.Tutorials in Bilingualism(pp113-114)Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Morgan, Edith L and Dr. James M Jasper.(1985) Developing Speaking Skills. Good Apple Inc. Moskowitz, G. (1978.) Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Class: A Sourcebook on Humanistic Techniques. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Nunan, D. (1988) The Learner Centered Curriculum, Cambridge University Press; Cambridge Nunan, D, (1989). Designing Talks for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge :Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D,( 1995) Language Teaching Methodology, Phonex ELT: Hertfordshire Pattison , P.(1987 )Developing Communication Skills. Cambridge.Cambridge University Press. Raman Meenakshi,(ed.)(1998) English Language Teaching Atlantic, Publishers and distributors, New Delhi. Rivers , W.(1983) Communicating Naturally in a Foreign Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rost Michael,(1994) Introducing Listening. Penguin English Applied Linguistics, ed. Roland Carter , Penguin Rost Michael ,(1990) Listening in Language Learning, London Longman. Skehan,P.(1998) A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford University Press: Oxford Stevik, E.W.(1991), Humanism in Language Teaching, Oxford University Press: Oxford, Swain M.(1995) Three functions of Output in Second Language Learning, Principle and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1983. Underwood, M,(1989) Teaching Listening: Longman London Wenden, A. & J. Rubin, (1987), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, Prentice Hall Int: UK White R.(1988). The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management, Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell. Widdowson, H. 1987,The Roles of Teacher and Learner, ELT Journal, Vol.4 Williams Mary Young(1987) Let‘em Talk. Dale Seymour Publications. 1153 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 593 Title A name given to the resource Redefining Teaching Approach for Learning Communicative English Author Author Gupta, Somali Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e2eea074032077040a75d0e2caa4a334.pdf b1af7c3e1138a99ce4f4efdc8b2928b8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Role of Drama in Language Teaching Gulnar Guliyeva Language Teaching Coordinating Unit Qafqaz University, Azerbaijan gquliyeva@qu.edu.az gulquliyeva@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of drama for transformative and emancipatory learning. Key Words: Drama, language, learning, teaching Introduction Drama is a creative form of learning. Involving students in cooperative, process-oriented and at the same time peace-related drama activities, is therefore one of the most challenging tasks for the language teachers. As drama methods have not often been included in teacher training so far, it is of great importance that in-service training institutions offer workshops or even a real training course on the use of drama techniques in language teaching. In contrast with European countries in Azerbaijan drama as a teaching method is unknown. There were different attempts to develop this methodology, but unfortunately were left unfinished. Having personally experienced the effects of drama activities in language teaching, we came to the conclusion that it not only motivates students and helps to speed up the learning process, but also improves their relationships with each other and the atmosphere of the class. Integrating drama as a teaching method in language teaching, means bringing real life as well as fantasy situations and characters into the classroom. It requires enthusiasm and a willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26 students from all the faculties of our university was to their own benefit. This paper presents the results of an investigation during the rehearsals into the value of using drama in a university classroom. Drawing on Di Pietro (1987) and Via (1976) on the advantages of using drama in language learning, from Mezirow (1990) and Schôn (1991) on the importance of reflection for promoting meaningful learning, and from Donato and McCormick (1994) and Lukinsky (1990) on the effectiveness of portfolios as a tool to promote reflection, the paper presents the use of drama in not only language teaching, but also in different areas of teaching-learning process. Drama in education Theatre is an important part of many people‘s lives, bringing the gifts of entertainment and story sharing to people around the world. Theatre has different forms in different cultures for example, Turkish shadow puppets, Chinese opera, Greek tragedy and comedy, traditional African storytelling and drumming, and fully staged shows and performances. No matter the style of theatre, performances have the potential to create magical and unforgettable moments for their audiences. The term ‗drama in education‘ refers to using theatre for a purpose beyond entertaining an audience. This purpose is generally to change the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors or perhaps all them of audience members. There has always been a bridge between education and entertainment. From the earliest time, theatre has been used to spread news, share history, or educate people about events outside of their communities. Recently, the use of drama and theatre arts for educational purpose has undergone a remarkable resurgence. In particular, in social education provided a focus for countless dramatic presentations. Television drama, radio plays, mass media campaigns, comic books, and other imaginative offerings have been used around the world to convey information and influence behavior. Audience members 521 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo often relate to characters on stage or in the radio or television drama are motivated to participate in interactive opportunities. There is a growing body of evidence on the utility of theatre in education in western countries. In fact in Europe many books have been written on drama and its role in education process such as ―Stage by Stage: A Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom‖ by Burke and O‘Sullivan, ―Words Into Worlds: Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama‖ by O‘Nail and Kao, ―Thinking it Through: Developing Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama Activities‖ by Thompson and Evans and it was largely used not only in formal education, but also in informal education. As John O. Stevens in his ―Awareness‖ points out ―…anything you can do to increase communication in your class will reduce your need to impose order by authority, and reduce the students‘ need to rebel against that authority‖. It is seen as a powerful tool in language teaching. The theatre can strengthen the emotional and psychological appeal of messages and provide a believable and interesting way to explore key points of language. Drama allows audience and participants to receive information in an entertaining and exciting way. At its best, drama captures students‘ attention; even not active students bored by lessons are animated by live drama. It engages students focusing their attention and actively involving them in an experience. Active involvement means teacher achieved 50 % of lesson‘s objectives. If used effectively, drama allows influencing students‘ not only intellectual or cognitive skills, but also emotions and self-confidence in ways that traditional instruction cannot. The more the senses are involved the more effectively and actively you learn, and the improvements you make will be lasting. Whereas we teachers have long been familiar with games and small drama activities in our classrooms to encourage students‘ participation and active learning process, the drama as a teaching method was not largely studied and was ignored in traditional teaching process of foreign languages. The more ―open‖ and the less ―controlled‖ communication is, the more fluent, natural and spontaneous and the more authentic it will be. This of course means that the traditional boring (teacher) questions and (pupil) answers are no longer the core of a lesson. Process drama is concerned with the development of a wider context for exploration – a dramatic world created by the teacher and students working together within the experience. It can also fruitfully be applied in areas like cultural studies, literature or the usual range of topics from generation gap to bullying and gender issues. Method of study The one-year course we have started was to process drama methods in the teaching of English as a Foreign Language. As we mentioned above it required enthusiasm and a willingness ―to take risks‖ on the part of the students and the teacher. A risk that was gladly taken by almost 26 students from all the faculties of our university was to their own and their students‘ benefit. They were from different faculties and from different age groups. We altogether successfully staged our play and reached our purposes. Our main aims and objectives were: • To promote the use of drama as a teaching method in foreign language teaching • To integrate drama into the foreign language lesson • To attract less sociable and asocial students to work together • To improve communicative skills through drama • To integrate drama into the teaching of cultural studies, literature, etc. • To promote the use of drama in communication skills, personality training, social learning, reflective skills, observation skills, aesthetic understanding, creativity, tolerance and acceptance, self confidence. Therefore the main ideas and some results of the training course are now presented in this lecture. We want to speak to you of our experiences with people who are students of another language. We should tell you that English is our second language and to teach the language to students of second language is very difficult. In our profession it is important to teach language with native speaker, because students of a second language in England, America and any other English speaking countries have the opportunity to hear English spoken every day. The daily necessity of speaking English gives them practical reasons for wanting to speak it well. They must find the ways to communicate in English in the workplace, to do their shopping, and to socialize with English speakers, so it is not necessary to motivate them to speak it. While we had native speakers in our university it was much better, but after all as being the teacher of second language we decided to search for ways. When leaving the classroom the question how much we have achieved our aims are always in our minds. We thought that we must find any other methodology to be successful and this method was drama. First of all we began with small group, about 17 students and began to work on ―King Lear‖ by W. Shakespeare. We used simple version of the play not to bore students. Act by act we saw the improvement of the students, both in 522 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo their language skills and self confidence to speak in front of the people. Some of them which couldn‘t even answer the questions in front of the class now could freely speak to audience. The students who are studying English as a foreign language are of course different. Because some students do not need to speak English in their daily lives, their motivation to learn it is more theoretical. Some of them know that knowledge of English, because it is becoming a global language, may help them in their chosen professions when they finish university. This kind of students have good listening comprehension and are very good with grammar, but their motivation in studying English is mostly to make good marks on their exams. If we ask them to speak, only a few in each class is eager to do so. It is sure that after some time from exam, what they have learned vanish from their minds. There are some reasons of this kind of behavior. One of the reasons is lacking self confidence, shy and having no practical experiences. They are shy about their accents, and afraid of making mistakes in public. So we, teachers of English as a foreign language, face with two problems. The first problem is how to get students to actually speak English and not just memorize grammar rules to make good marks on exams. The second is to help them speak more clearly by slightly reducing their accents if clarity seems to be a problem. So drama method is where both of these can be solved together. This method of teaching students to speak a foreign language was of course Drama. Using drama in the classroom is valuable. It develops students reading comprehension, vocabulary building, and most important, in using language to negotiate in real situations. The method is simple enough. The teacher should choose a piece of dramatic literature in English or any other language. We chose ―Pride and Prejudice‖. The novel itself is long and for many students in the classroom it is boring to read. So we made the script of the novel in a little bit simplified and shortened form. It is better that the play has many characters as ―Pride and Prejudice‖; almost every student could participate, so as to give as many students as possible the chance to take part. Make photocopy of the script for each student. Next, the teacher should make a list of important vocabulary in the play, and give the students the assignment of looking up these words in the dictionary. A vocabulary test may be appropriate afterwards. Next students are assigned to read the script and to come to class with a list of the characters and a written description of each character. Students should also be asked to suggest a student who should play the part of each character, and to specify which character they themselves would like to play. They must follow following instructions: 1. Read and comprehend the text. 2. Use a dictionary to learn the words that they do not understand. Before memorizing the text they should comprehend their character and understand each word of its speech. They can even express it in their own language for the first time for better comprehension. When they read their parts in class, or better still when they learn to speak their parts from memory, the teacher can listen and make notes to help them correct their pronunciation later, remembering that clarity is what is important at this stage. Finally, when the students act their parts and invest the dialogue with feeling, they will remember the words and phrases far better than they would if only preparing for an exam, and will be able to use these phrases as tools in real life situations. The word ―Drama‖ is Greek word which means ‗to do‘ or ‗to act‘, that is to say to take action. The duty of actors in a theatrical production is to take the actions that the characters take in the story. Acting is a form of communication, and communication is the transmission of information from sender to receiver, who for our purposes now is actor and audience. When we study a dramatic text so that we may learn how to perform the text, we must ask questions and make decisions. The playwright does not give us all this information, so in reading the dramatic text an actor must invent or create some of it, while staying faithful to what is written in the text of course. The actor must ask himself several questions: who am I? What are my relations with other characters? Why they hate me? Why they love me? and etc. An actor must, first and foremost, communicate to an audience by transmitting information about what a character is doing in the story. If the actor understands why the character is doing what he does, this will enable him to empathize with the character and to feel what the character feels in the story, and this information will also be communicated to make the performance more believable, but this information about feelings and motivation. When students are assigned to play the parts of the characters in a play, they should be asked to decide why their characters are saying each line of dialogue, i.e. what they want at that moment, and what their characters are doing by saying those words. They should describe their actions in terms of verbs. Not only will the students vocabulary of verbs increase, but also each entire phrase will come to life as the student speaks it as an action, and will more effectively enter the student‘s memory for later use in other situations and will be visual experience for other students. 523 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Finally we want to note that being Student Based Learning, Drama is successful method in teaching language, literature and culture. It is much more effective learning tool than simply listening to a lecture. It seems to us that students playing the roles of other characters in other cultures will not only learn language more effectively, but will also learn why we want to communicate with each other. References Akimov. H. : Театральное наследие. Баку, 1987 Almond, Mark: Teaching English with Drama. How to use drama and plays when teaching – for the professional English language teacher. London: Modern English Publishing 2005. Andersen, Marianne Miami: Theatersport und Improtheater. Planegg: Buschfunk Verlag 1996. Anderson, Jason: Teamwork. Interactive tasks to get students talking. Addlestone: Delta 2004. Atkins, Greg: improv! A handbook for the actor. Portsmouth: Heinemann 1994. Bacová, Daniela & Phillips, Tim (eds): As If… Drama-based lesson plans for English language teaching. Bratislava: The British Council 1999. Berlin C., Hornbeck K.: Theatre-Based Techniques for Youth Peer Education Training Manual. Y-PEER, 2010 Benathan, Joss: Developing Drama Skills 11 – 14. Oxford: Heinemann Educational 2000. Bernardi, Philip: Improvisation Starters. A collection of 900 improvisation situations for the theater. Cincinnati, Ohio: Betterway Books 1992. Berry, Kathleen S.: Acting against the Grain. The Dramatic Arts and Cultural Studies. New York and London: RoutledgeFalmer 2000. Blank, Carla & Roberts, Jody: Live on Stage. Performing Arts for Middle School. Teacher resource book. Palo Alto, Ca.: Dale Seymour 1997. Boal, Augusto: Games for Actors and Non-Actors. London and New York: Routledge 1992. Boal, Augusto: The Rainbow of Desire. The Boal method of theatre and therapy. London and New York: Routledge 1994. Bolton, Gavin M.: Acting in Classroom Drama. A critical analysis. Portland, Maine: Calendar Islands Publishers 1999. Burke, A. and O‘Sullivan, J.: Stage by Stage: A Handbook for Using Drama in the Second Language Classroom Kao, Shin-Mei & O‘Neill, Cecily: Words into Worlds. Learning a second language through process drama. Stamford, CT: Ablesh Publishing 1998. McCaslin, Nellie: Creative Drama in the Classroom. Studio City, Ca.: Players Press 1990. O‘Neill, Cecily: Drama Worlds. A framework for process drama. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann 1995. O'Neill, C. and Kao, Sh.: ―Words Into Worlds: Learning a Second Language Through Process Drama ― Thompson, G. and Evans, H. : ―Thinking it Through: Developing Thinking and Language Skills Through Drama Activities‖ 524 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 79 Title A name given to the resource The Role of Drama in Language Teaching Author Author Guliyeva, Gulnar Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of drama activities in education, especially in language teaching within the Drama Club of English Language and Literature Department of Qafqaz University. It is a case study of the use of drama in a language class, describing the course structure and classroom procedures. The study was carried out in the second semester of the 2008-2009 academic years during the rehearsals of performance ―Pride and Prejudice‖. It includes personal experiences of group of students from different departments and different age groups and language teachers which have successfully performed and achieved their aims and evaluated the results, presenting setbacks and possible solutions for teaching language to foreign learners. Finally, it encourages the use of drama for transformative and emancipatory learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0bbada79e018a523d08b14d84019c844.pdf 167fd802ad02d6190525d073009c7d45 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖ Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖ Ma. Rregjina Gokaj Depatment of Foreign Languages, Faculty of Education Lecturer of British Language and Literature University ―Aleksandër Moisiu‖ Durrës, Albania gokajrregji@yahoo.it Abstract: Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living, communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled. Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These and other issues will be browsed within this paper. Keywords: gender oppressions, ―problem plays‖, transformation of the individual, woman‘s role. Introduction ―Pygmalion‖ is one of the most famous plays of Bernard Shaw, the disciple of Henrik Ibsen, whose famous play ―A Doll‘s House‖ is also taken into consideration. Both playwrights have much in common as their plays are considered problem plays, and their characters and situations can be discussed from different points of view. Ibsen‘s masterpiece A Dolls‘ House published in 1879 in Italy is a realist play which reflects real life problems of unexceptional people. Although Pygmalion treats the problem of the reformation of the English speech, seems it does not have much in common with A Doll‘s House which treats the female role within a cage-house. But another point of view which permeates both plays is the transformation of the individual. This individual is the female character who lives under the power of the patriarchy or under the oppressions of social divisions. The two main characters of these plays, Nora of A Doll‘s House and Eliza of Pygmalion, have their peculiarities and similarities. The way the plays evolve are quite different from one another, the ways these women are transformed are also different, the target of the transformation is quite personal and self-centered from their men (one appears to be Nora‘s husband; the other is Eliza‘s professor), the inspiring goal of Nora and Eliza‘s transformation is their self-respect and their self-esteem; but anyway the attitudes and the behaviors of these two women are of much interest because they are not given the deserved place in family (Nora) or in society (Eliza). Nora is the kingpin of Ibsen‘s A Doll‘s House treated like a doll by her husband who lures her with flatters. All she does during her marriage is taking care of the family and her children. She is a very devoted wife, mother and household. Is that enough? Is she satisfied? She seems to be quite happy at the beginning and responds with great affection to her husband‘s teasing. Her husband, Torvald, sees her detached from the society and treats her as a precious thing in his life, but he does not estimate her. 1047 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo He calls her ―a silly girl‖ regarding her as a plaything. He thinks that Nora‘s capacities and duties lay only in the devotion to her husband and her children; while she discovers, as the play evolves, that she can go beyond mere wifehood bonds because she possesses capacities, intelligence, ambition and courage to go ahead in her self-realization. Nora‘s courage is seen in the loan she takes out secretly in order to preserve Torvald‘s health. She has lied to her husband by telling him to be her father‘s money and thus committing a forgery upon her father‘s signature in the contract. Her determination to pay off the debt by working and saving money in secret shows her ambition and her sacrifice for Torvald‘s health. Eliza is the main female character in Shaw‘s Pygmalion written in 1912 and produced in 1913. The story is about this lower-class flower girl who is trained by a priggish professor, Henry Higgins how to become a duchess and to speak pure English according to the rules of the phonetics scientist. As the play is browsed to us, Eliza stays for 6 months at Higgins‘ house to learn the good manners of a duchess. Meanwhile, Pickering, Higgins‘ friend, unknowingly has influenced on her self-respect and dignity so that Eliza can not just parrot the speech of a duchess. As Eliza is shown to other people, such as Higgins‘ mother or her friends, even at the ball, her speech and manners are those of a real duchess, but that is not enough. Higgins at last comes to understand that it is to be considered not only the way she pronounces, but what she pronounces. Thus, we do not have anymore a poor little flower girl who knows nothing else but selling flowers in the streets of London for two pence, but with a confident, well concerned grown up woman who aspires new ambitions for her life now on. In the final act of the play she makes a very remarkable observation that "the difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she's treated" (SparkNotes Editors, n.d.)328 which transmits the very essence of her inner state through her transformation. The utilization of Nora and Eliza As the title itself suggests, A Doll‘s House, Nora is presented as a mere doll for her husband within the walls of her house. She is treated like a useful object, because everything Torvald needs is a wife, children and a family to be gazed at. His social position requires such an appearance no matter how it is inside. He is a man with some reputation in the town so he needs to present a well-devoted wife to her husband and children. Torvald holds that Nora needs not to think about anything, she can not take any responsibilities over the family. All she has to do is take care of the children and be a satisfactory toy for her husband. Being regarded as a doll makes her feel empty and unimportant inside, with no feelings or thoughts. In poor words Torvald thinks he is married to an object-wife underestimating Nora as a human being. It‘s more or less the same with Eliza with the big difference that Higgins is not her husband, but happens to be a phonetics scientist that she met by accident under the portico of St Paul's church in Covent Garden. When this prudish professor finds out that Eliza‘s way of speaking might be of special interest in his field, he decides to have her as a useful object for academic research. The superiority that upper class in the Victorian England takes ground upon lower ones proves the deepness of social strata divisions. The important thing is that this does not show the superiority in values or virtues between people, but superiority due only to social belongings. Higgins treats Eliza as plasticine in his hands, and it seems he is a little boy shaping it in different forms until he finds the perfect shape for his toy. In this sense, the finding of Pygmalion as a title is appropriate and meaningful, although Higgins‘ ―Galatea‖ is quite different and unpredicted from the source one. Galatea, being a statue, came to life from the love of her creater; while Eliza, being a flower girl from the slums of the city, was introduced to nobility from the ambition of Higgins to prove his scientific theories. Thus their relationship is based on reciprocal interests, but one taking advantage upon the other. One peculiarity of the plays of Shaw, turning everything topsy-turvy, is seen here among Higgins and Eliza, where she is being exploited which leads to her rebellion and to an open end. The idea of possession and materialization Both Nora and Eliza come to light in the play from their former continuous oppressions by male characters, a husband and a high class professor. Torvald did not think of Nora being a woman, but she was regarded only as a wife and a mother. Nobody noticed Eliza until that rainy evening under the portico of Saint Paul‘s church in Convent Garden. 328 SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/ 1048 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nora as a doll is owned by a model husband, father and citizen.329(Shaw, 1864) All the play is situated in only one room which shows the limited space Nora is disposed to, the cage she has been keyed in, the entrapment she finds herself; all those stressing the realistic aspect of the play. According to Torvald, social duties are divided into man affairs and woman devotions. He thinks he possesses a wife, not that he is married to her. Coming to know this Nora takes ambitious decisions for her life; she wants to find and develop her personality so she leaves home and refuses to meet her children again until she thinks she has the right dignity for doing it. Her rebellion seems to be a pure moral act. Her wrath brings to us the civil protest against the patriarchy and the prejudices of the society with sharp masculine thoughts. The wife in the family has no space to think freely, to cooperate in actions, to take decisions for her or for the family. Nora‘s rebellion was a surprise for the time it happened, because woman emancipation does not concern only wife-husband relationship, or mother-child links, but primarily determines the dimensions of her personality. (Papagjoni, 2004)330 Torvald is astonished to hear Nora talking about other concerns which seems impossible to him. This makes him think that Nora is insane, mad, ungrateful, childish, blind and incompetent. Her self-esteem is too low because of her husband who has treated her like a doll for eight years of marriage, and now suddenly like an unimportant thing at his house. All he is concerned to, is to save his reputation in the society, like many a moralist to keep up the appearances with the cost of having a double standard. All this is unacceptable for Nora, so she is going on her way trying to become a human being: Nora: What do you consider my holiest duties? Helmer: Do I need to tell you that? Your duties to your husband and to your children. Nora: I have other duties equally sacred. Helmer: Impossible! What duties do you mean? Nora: My duties toward myself. Helmer: Before all else you are a wife and a mother. Nora: That I no longer believe. I believe that before all else I am a human being, just as much as you are - or at least that I should try to become one. (A Doll‘s House, Act 3). (Goldman, 1914)331 What about Eliza? She is treated no better than Nora but she reacts differently. Eliza is more independent than Nora and has got self-esteem since the very beginning of the play. She believes in herself and her capacities ever since she accepts to being taught in becoming a duchess. Shaw‘s theory of the life‘s force which drives man to procreation is what all species aim at for their continuation. Thus the dominant agent of this impulse is the woman endowed with a subtle energy, will-power and sensitivity which goes beyond the intellect. (Ansaldo, Giuli, Zanichelli; 2006)332 Both Eliza and Higgins are gifted with intelligence and strong will-power, but only Eliza shows great sensitivity. Due to this sensitivity, a sharp conflict between them occurs and shows the traditional role of women‘s dependence on men. Considering this, Eliza goes through another form of gender discrimination, not within a family by one‘s husband but by social divisions into noble class and poor. Social roles in the Victorian era were viewed as natural and largely fixed: there was perceived to be something inherently, fundamentally unique about a noble versus an unskilled laborer and vice versa. (Napierkowski, 1998)333 As it will be considered later, Liza's ability to fool society about her "real" identity raises questions about appearances. She goes beyond the conventional notions of the society by disregarding them because she feels she can not fit to them. First she was an unimportant flower girl who tried to make a living, but no one traced her existence. Suddenly she became of interest to someone, not as a human being but as a species who utters words in a deplorable way. This man belongs to the noble class and thinks has the right to use Eliza for his research once she has agreed to be taught to speak like a lady in a flower shop. 2 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) pp.84-87 Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004 ( my translation) 331 Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by the SunSITE Manager) 332 Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006 pp. 220-227 330 333 "Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes 1049 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The social class divisions are present throughout the play: in the descriptions of poor lodgings of Eliza (end of Act I), Higgins‘ luxurious house (beginning of Act II), Mrs. Higgins‘ comfortable drawing room (beginning of Act III), contrasts in their outer appearance, differences in way of behaving and speaking. All these differences influence Higgins character and behavior, making him act like a selfish, spoiled child, careless about other people‘s feelings,(Kadija, 2001)334 and feeling disdainful over them. He does not care about Eliza‘s feelings or thoughts; he pretends superiority over her insulting her many times by saying ‗squashed cabbage leaf‘, ‗draggle-tailed‘ or ‗guttersnipe‘ etc. During her stay at Higgins‘ house she complains of having become a slave, she has been treated like an object all the time, like Higgins‘ property. She has worked so hard in learning Higgins‘ lessons meaning that she has the right stamina for doing thing right. So well she learns to behave like a lady that no one can recognize her even at the ambassador‘s party. At this point, acting like a duchess but not being a real one, treated like an object but being a woman, she is disappointed to feel herself a useless person. Higgins attitude towards her does not change even after his successful experiment. When he asks her to fetch his slippers for him, in a moment of rebellion she throws them away to his face showing that she belongs to nobody and decides to go away to make a life on her own. Higgins unwillingness to let her go means the recognition of her as a functional housemaid, thus she is once more materialized by him not only for his scientific purposes. The symbol of money Money is a symbol used in both plays to denote different attitudes towards it. Both Nora and Eliza have strange relationships with money throughout the plays. Nora does not run the family economically because she is not capable of it according to her husband, Torvald. On the other hand, Eliza is quite independent earning and spending her own money as a flower girl. When Nora‘s husband becomes ill they have to find a considerable amount of money to pay for their trip to Italy for his recover. Considering the importance of the case, Nora takes the risk to get a loan and making a forgery by signing the contract in the name of her father. This is only the beginning of a huge sacrifice for her, because she has to pay it in secret without Torvald‘s knowledge. How can she pay it? She does secret jobs and puts money apart to pay the loan on time. Here is another sacrifice of hers showing Nora‘s great attempt to put things right by herself. Torvald could never admit her wife‘s forgery even for such a sublime reason like his recovery from illness. This is a sign of love, compassion and respect from her, but this can be a very harmful stigma for Torvald‘s reputation. He does not want to lose the status, so he does not estimate her act but blames Nora for her wrongdoing. The shallowness of the society they live in is nothing more but to keep up the appearances in other people‘s eyes. That is why he pretends to be generous by permitting Nora stay home. As a sign of his forgiveness he happily exclaims: "There is something indescribably sweet and soothing to a man in having forgiven his wife - honestly forgiven her, from the bottom of his heart" (A Doll‘s House Act 3). Nora does not care about his generosity any more but decides to leave him then and there by going out into the real world to find out its reality for herself and to gain some position not fundamentally false, refusing to see her children again until she is fit to be in charge of them. (Shaw, 1964)335 Considering her decision, Nora is not concerned about the money and the belongings of her husband, so she leaves everything, any joy and luxury she had at her house in order to find her lost dignity. On the other side, money is something worth fighting for according to Eliza. Most of the characters in the play are concerned a great deal about money. The difference between social classes is mainly based on money and property. These people seem to depend on money in order to fulfill their needs. This causes Eliza to want to change her appearance and speech336 (Laweag, 2007) in order to have a better life than before. She is very pragmatic and 334 Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001, pp.68-82 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang, Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) p. 87 336 www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion 335 1050 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo level-headed so she admits to collaborate for the experiment since she has nothing to lose, but gains over poverty and social class discrimination. First, it is to be noticed the courage of Eliza asking for speech lessons at Higgins laboratory offering him a considerable sum regarding her incomes. This means that she is really a sassy flower girl from the slums, but she inspires to leave the place one day or at least tries to do so at all costs without losing her moral integrity. When she at last becomes a duchess according to the speech and clothes appearance, she claims to have some money to start the flower business. These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights, defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world. These are some of the features of these two women described by the notable playwrights, defendants of their rights. Both protagonists, Nora of Ibsen and Eliza of Shaw are pure examples of the new area of changes that was arriving for women all around the world. References Ansaldo, M., Giuli, G., Zanichelli, M. G. Golden Pages-A Short History and Anthology of Literature in English, Petrini Editore, Torino, 2006 Goldman, E., The Social Significance of the Modern Drama, Boston: Richard G. Badger, 1914; The Gorham Press, Boston, U.S.A. (Document maintained at: http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Drama/doll.html by the SunSITE Manager) Kadija, R., Modernism and Postmodernism in English Literature, AlbDesign, Tirane, 2001 Papagjoni, J., Dialog me Teatrin Boteror, ―Shkenca‖, Tirane, 2004 Shaw, B. The Quintessence of Ibsenism, Hill and Wang Inc., London, 1964 (sixth edition) www. http://secretibenglish.blogspot.com, 17 April, 2007, Symbolism in ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖ SparkNotes Editors. (n.d.). SparkNote on Pygmalion. Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/pygmalion/ "Pygmalion: Themes." Drama for Students. Ed. Marie Rose Napierkowski. Vol. 1. Detroit: Gale, 1998. eNotes.com. January 2006. 10 April 2011. http://www.enotes.com/pygmalion/themes 1051 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 577 Title A name given to the resource Parallels and Contrasts between Shaw‘s ―Pygmalion‖ Ibsen‘s ―A Doll’s House‖ Author Author Gokaj, Rregjina Abstract A summary of the resource. Literary works are wide opened for discussions and points of view. Since its beginnings literature offered to its reader new ideas and thoughts; it affected society in many manners: way of living, communication, thinking and re-thinking. Modern Period brought about many radical changes in economy, politics, sociology, technology and sciences etc. which were reflected in literature as well. Writers expanded their way of thinking and writing by giving social characters whose private behavior was greatly affected by an atmosphere of moral perplexity in their works. Modern Literature considered the man as constituting simply a part of the natural world. This birth of Modernism was reflected even in drama which is the focus of this paper. Two important dramatists who paved the path to Modern Drama will be synthesized and contrasted focusing in two of their most famous plays. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen and his declared following British one, George Bernard Shaw will be considered through their famous respective plays ―A Doll‘s House‖ and ―Pygmalion‖. Their dramas came to the public in a very appropriate climate where other playwrights around Europe witnessed a remarkable resurgence and brought a relatively new spirit and a new life to the almost moribund theatre of the nineteenth century. Shaw‘s Pygmalion and Ibsen‘s A Doll's House illustrate the kind of drama in which both writers excelled. Both plays, also called ‗problem plays‘, deal with the common theme of transformation of individuals focused in the two protagonists, Nora and Eliza. Both come alive from their inanimate existence to life, Eliza from the oppressions of her class and Nora from her life under patriarchy. These and other issues will be browsed within this paper. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46ece3bbe2fbe29c8617f38bfa75e92c.pdf ad82a8b22715fa615fca8799db3d82f0 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Albanians thinking ―Greek‖. Language acquisition within acculturation process for second-generation Albanians in Greece Themistokles Gogas Epirus Institute of Technology themistokles.gogas@education.lu Abstract:The last years in Greece second generation immigrants who study at Greek schools use Greek language fluently and in many cases they speak Greek in such a proficiency that are not recognizable as non-Greeks. Primarily this means that these individuals master the mechanism of parole. Moreover, these persons meet the demands of education, which signifies the mastering of langue. In a secondary level of approach the question arising is whether the structural elements of langue i.e. the archetypes corresponding to abstract notions are similar to those of the greek native speakers. Considering that young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ meaning of a word, the research is focused on the examination of the way young immigrants acquire the meanings of words. More specifically, which way young immigrants perceive abstract meanings? In their own linguistic frame or through dominant language? In other words, I shall approach the production of langue in its base, i.e. in the level of the abstract notions. 1. Introductory note The story goes back to 1946. In his Clear Thinking, Jepson argued: If you translate the English word into the Russian word demokratichesky, you are, linguistically speaking, translating with perfect accuracy, but you are not, in fact, conveying meaning any more than you would be conveying meaning by using the word 'large' to describe a large inkpot or a large railway station. To us who have been trained in the Liberal tradition of some three hundred years, democracy implies the fundamentals of personal liberty.[…] But to the Russians, all these things which seem to us so precious and so essential are no more than outmoded bourgeois inhibitions. To them 'democracy' implies the classless state in which the means of production are owned in common. Despite the obvious Cold-War logic of this statement, one has to admit the apparent: the social, political, economic or cultural context within which a word acquires its meaning. Susan Gal (1987) worked on this field and examined bilingual minorities. Her approach is focused on abstract notions on domination or subordination within their historical and politico-economic context. On a similar work, Maxwell (2004) examines the ‗Magyarization‘ in Hungarian, German and Slovak languages under the Whorfian hypothesis. He concludes to the importance of political realm in the formation of the word‘s meaning. A study of Moschonas (2004) on Greek language reveals the ideological trends in a metalinguistic discourse. He also concludes to the significance of political domain in the formation of language. 2. Theoretical frame The conceptual construction of an individual about the world is based upon his/her language. Hence, young persons acquire the meanings of the words of their ‗mother tongue‘ thanks to their living experience within the limits of their linguistic (and national) community. Focal point of this paper is the different way the world is perceived by users of different languages, for as Wardhaugh (1992: 220) states: ―you perceive only what your language allows you, or predisposes you to perceive. Your language controls your ‗world-view‘. Speakers of different languages will, therefore, have different views‖. However, this principle cannot apply to the same extend in cases of immigrant communities. The young members of an immigrant community are exposed to both: the linguistic environment of their mother tongue, as well as to that of the dominant language. Which language is the decisive, i.e. that who will facilitate a specific individual to form his/her worldview? Starting from the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (LRH) given by Whorf (1956) language, thought and culture are interconnected. Stubbs (1997: 372) argued that ―[m]uch of the puzzle posed by Whorf and others remains unresolved: it is particularly difficult to escape the circularity of arguments where language is both cause and evidence‖. This peculiarity enables only approaches dealing with the socio-cultural dimensions of language (Risager, 2006), or the mechanism that creates stereotypes or assumptions (Johnson, 1972). Also, it is important to be noted here the criticism on LRH, along with hints on racism of such 1190 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo statements (Stubbs, 1997: 361). ―If Aristotle had spoken Nootka (an American Indian language) then we would have different logic‖. This statement is just an argument in the deployment of Stubbs‘ (op.cit.: 359) criticism on Whorfian hypothesis, and it is followed by a counter-argument: bilinguals speak different languages but they do not perceive the world differently. Bilingualism raises the issue of cultural dominance over language. In particular, in case of immigrant communities the acculturation process plays an important role in the perception of language. The term acculturation refers to the process of cultural contact as well as the outcome of this contact (Redfield, Linton & Herskovits, 1936: 149; Berry & Sam, 1997: 293-294; Padilla & Perez, 2003; Baldwin, Longhurst, McCracken, Ogborn, & Smith, 2004: 45). Acculturation has been studied extensively mostly in the West, since the long period of de-colonisation led researchers to investigate the adaptation of the indigenous people to the dominant culture (Hallowell, 1945; Cheung-Blunden & Juang, 2008). Additionally, western societies after the end of the ‘period of nationalism’ experienced a massive flow of immigrants, a phenomenon which ignited several researches. At this period (1990 and forth) the interesting of the research has been focused on the changes occurred in the immigrants’ culture and the process to be adapted to the culture of the local (dominant) (Beiser, 2000). Berry (2003: 19) spots the major problems of acculturation on the definition of the term itself. Also, the measurement process and the consequences it may cause on the formation of policy. He argues that major problems of acculturation are: whether acculturation influences all groups who are in contact (irrespective of their social or political status) and ii) if acculturation is an individual procedure or it takes place within larger groups. 3. The research In Greece at present lives a considerable number of immigrants. To a certain extent the second generation of them has been fully integrated into Greek schools. In most cases teachers are not in position to understand whether a pupil is immigrant or not. This is due to the perfect use of Greek language they posses (oral and written). Examining these cases, my initial question deals with the levels of Greek language they posses: definitely vocabulary, grammar and syntax are equivalent to mother tongue. The question is whether they ‗think Greek or not‘. This means not merely the composition of thoughts in the ‗Greek way‘, but additionally the structure of the abstract notions not in their mother tongue, but according to the Greek patterns. Counter to what Woolard (1985) argues, I made the hypothesis that the cultural hegemony of the dominant language remains unchallenged if (and only if) hegemony applies on the social corpus through education. 3.1. Methodology The research was based on Hoffstaetter‘s (1957) work. In this, Hofstaetter measured the psychological equivalence of abstract words on Americans and Germans. He concluded that an abstract word is perceived different by both groups. Consequently, the perception of the world has to be different. Hence, there is a gap between the psychological and the lexical correspondence when switching from one language to the other. In his research, Hofstaetter developed a tool in order to measure the impact of each word upon Americans and Germans. The individuals were given the word loneliness and asked to describe it according to a chart. In the present research, I implemented Hoffstaetter‘s method, asking the subjects to describe the word loneliness. Population of the research are the Albanian immigrants of Greece, for they possess certain attributes facilitating sampling: they are the most numerous minority group; they are scattered all over Greece; most of them live in Greece since early 90s and are well accustomed to researches; and they pay specific attention to the education of their children. The research has been conducted during the academic year 2009-2010 and took place at the same time in Greece and Albania with the assistance of students of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages. 3.1.1. Sample The sample has been chosen through random selection. Thus subject‘s groups were: Control Group 1 (CG1): Native adult Greeks, who were born in Greece, studied in Greek schools and have never been exposed to foreign linguistic environment. Control Group 2 (CG2): Native adult Albanians, who were born in Albania, studied in Albanian schools and have never been exposed to foreign linguistic environment. Experimental Group (EG): Young persons of Albanian origin who were born in Greece, completed their compulsory education in Greek schools and study at present at Greek tertiary education institutions. The student-assistants distributed a large amount of questionnaires, while CG1 responded properly on 134 questionnaires, CG2 on 98 and EG on 87. Specific attention has been paid for the exclusion of those subjects who derive from mixed marriages or those who come from the Greek Minority of South Albania. 1191 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.1.2. Tool Research tool has been selected the bipolar set of opposite qualities as given by Hofstaetter. This is based on a set of 24 bipolar attributes a word may possess. The pairs of antithetic qualities were placed on the two edges of a 10-scale chart. Below is given an example of two pairs of antithetic qualities (black-white and small-big). 1 2 Black 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 White The subject has to ‗tick‘ the position on which s/he believed the quality matches the notion. Thus in the antithetic pair ―black-white‖ ticking 1 means the subject believes that ‗loneliness‘ is totally black, 5 means is grayish, while 10 means that loneliness is totally white. The results were categorized and summed up on the chart for each one of the 3 groups. Purpose of the research was to sketch the way the word in question is perceived. It was taken for granted that adult Greeks and Albanians would provide the average ‗national sketch‘, while the results of the experimental group had to give the answer to which ‗national sketch‘ resembles the sketch of the young Albanian students. The results have been elaborated statistically: normalization of the sample, extraction of average and implementation of Pearson correlation for each pair of groups (CG1-EG; CG2-EG and CG1-EG). 3.2. Findings The answers given by the subjects were normalized, due to the different size of the sample. In Table 1 below are given the average scores for each antithetic pair for each group before the normalization (BN) and after (AN). Studying the results taken out of the antithetical pairs, one may see that for both people (i.e. for CG1 and CG2) loneliness is something big, strong, ill, sad, deep, bad, cold, abrasive, wild and old ―thing‖. Small Weak Ill Lucid Coward Empty Sad Shallow Good Quiet Fresh Nice Tense Angular Energetic Cold Abrasive Benign Near Liberal Tall Humid Unstable Young Table 1: Average scores per pair of groups before and after normalization CG1 CG2 EG BN AN BN AN BN AN 96.5 0,72015 73 0,7449 60.6 0,69655 Big 96.5 0,75373 68.2 0,69592 65.9 0,75747 Strong 46.6 0,34776 34.9 0,35612 30.7 0,35287 Healthy 95.8 0,71493 62.7 0,6398 57.2 0,65747 Blurry 52.9 0,39478 72.8 0,74286 36.3 0,41724 Daring 50.8 0,3791 50.1 0,51122 33.9 0,38966 Full 36.5 0,27293 34.8 0,3551 34.5 0,39655 Cheerful 94 0,70149 71.3 0,72755 61.1 0,7023 Deep 105.5 0,78731 77.6 0,79184 69.8 0,8023 Bad 58 0,43284 66.8 0,68163 35.2 0,4046 Loud 86.3 0,64403 70.6 0,72041 66 0,75862 Moldy 101.1 0,75448 72.4 0,73878 68 0,78161 Ugly 67.2 0,50149 41.1 0,41939 46.3 0,53281 Calm 71.2 0,53134 41.6 0,42449 47 0,54023 Round 93.6 0,69851 40.4 0,41224 48.7 0,55977 Passive 35.1 0,26194 40.5 0,41327 29.8 0,34253 Warm 41.2 0,30746 36.8 0,37551 33.5 0,38506 Gentle 100.9 0,75299 70.8 0,72245 61.2 0,70345 Ferocious 81 0,60448 53.7 0,54796 63.1 0,72529 Distant 74.3 0,55448 72 0,73459 52 0,5977 conservative 77.2 0,57612 67.3 0,68673 49.2 0,56552 Short 81.8 0,61045 64.4 0,65714 48.1 0,55287 Drought 55.8 0,41642 65.9 0,67245 32.4 0,37241 Stable 99.7 0,74403 66.6 0,67959 64.3 0,73908 Old 1192 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Unsurprisingly the EG the description matches the case. The difference is spotted on a series of attributes for which CG1 and CG2 present significant differences. Thus, Greeks believe that loneliness is coward, empty, energetic, distant and unstable, while Albanians think of something brave, full, pathetic, near and stable. Surprisingly the young Albanian students think of loneliness the greek way! Prima faciae Albanian student experience loneliness in a ‗greek way‘. Applying Pearson correlation, the results are as on Table 2. Obviously on pairs 5, 6, 10, 19, 20 and 23 CG1-EG appear similarities. On the contrary CG1-CG2 and CG2-EG present significant difference. To a lesser extend on pairs 4, 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22 CG1-EG exist similarities, while CG2-EG present difference or are antithetical. There is only one pair (No 11) on which CG2-EG present higher significance than CG1-EG, but this cannot alter the overall picture Table 2. Pearson correlation values for each pair of groups No CG1-CG2 CG2- EG CG1- EG 1 Small 0,89 0,94 0,83 Big 2 Weak 0,79 0,85 0,73 Strong 3 Ill 0,85 0,78 0,84 Healthy 4 Lucid 0,51 0,47 0,79 Blurr 5 6 Coward Empty -0,41 -0,18 -0,13 -0,25 0,74 0,88 Daring Full 7 Sad 0,86 0,79 0,92 Cheerful 8 Shallow 0,93 0,86 0,89 Deep 9 Good 0,91 0,93 0,97 Bad 10 Quiet -0,04 -0,36 0,78 Loud 11 Fresh 0,47 0,92 0,31 Moldy 12 Nice 0,94 0,98 0,96 Ugly 13 Tense 0,26 0,17 0,45 Calm 14 Angular 0,31 -0,06 0,59 Round 15 Energetic -0,53 -0,34 -0,05 Passive 16 17 Cold Abrasive 0,87 0,94 0,81 0,80 0,93 0,74 Warm Gentle 18 Benign 0,93 0,91 0,95 Ferocious 19 Near -0,01 0,09 0,08 Distant 20 Liberal -0,12 -0,20 0,61 Conservative 21 Tall 0,03 -0,21 0,54 Short 22 Humid 0,44 -0,33 0,36 Drought 23 Unstable -0,48 -0,47 0,77 Stable 24 Young 0,79 0,78 0,85 Old 4. Conclusions The word ‗loneliness‘ is not merely a conventional symbol, but it possess a particular psychological ‗gravity‘. The perception of this particular word takes place through a gradual socializing process within a specific cultural and linguistic community. Thus, young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ vision of loneliness to the extend that young Albanians get the vision of their own socio-cultural group. In tha case under investigation, young Albanians born and bread in Greece are exposed to a dual socio-cultural environment: the maternal and the ‗dominant‘. The particularity of the case has to do with the subjects of the experimental group, who sompleted primary and secondary education in Greek schools and continue their studies in Greek tertiary academic institutions. Dittmar‘s (1976, p. 238) position describes the dialectic process within which linguistic and social behavior exist. In that sense, there is a continuous interaction, while material conditions are crucial factor for the formation of both behavioral aspects. The school is a major domain where social behavior is imposed in a 1193 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo hegemonic way. Hence, the linguistic patterns are dictated, dominating the subject and formatting his/her linguistic boundaries. The research aimed to reveal the particular power of the education through the process of acculturation in the formation of one‘s linguistic perception. Indeed, education socializes individuals according to the norms of the dominant socio-political, cultural and linguistic group. For Bourdieu (1976: 194) ―Culture is not merely a common code or even a catalogue of answers to recurring problems; it is a common set of previously assimilated master patterns from which, by an ‗art of invention‘ similar to that involved in the writing of music, an infinite number of individual patterns directly applicable to specific situations are generated‖. Education participates in this process turning the cultural patterns of the individual in order to conform with the dominant. As it seems in the present research the power of education is not limited on cognitive, behavioral or ideological matters, but it goes deeper, to the level of the construction of abstract notions. Remembering Anderson‘s (1991) Imagined Communities, Latin, in late-medieval period was a language spoken by just a few. He assumes that even fewer would have used Latin in their dreams. The final question of the present is: the youngsters of the Experimental Group in which language do they dream? References Anderson, B. (1991). Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso. Beiser, M. (2000). Strangers at the gate, Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Berry, J.W. & Sam, D.L. (1997). Acculturation and Adaptation. In J.W. Berry, M.H. Segall & C. Kagitcibasi (eds.) Handbook of cross-cultural psychology, Vol. 3, (pp. 291-326). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Berry, J.W. (2003). Conceptual approaches to acculturation. In G. Marin, P. Balls- Organista & K. M. Chung, & (eds) Acculturation: Advances in Theory, Measurement and Applied Research, (pp. 17-37). Washington: American Psychological Association. Bourdieu, P. (1976). Systems of education and systems of thought. In R. Dale, G. Esland & M. MacDonald (eds.) Schooling and Capitalism (pp. 192-200). London: RKP. Cheung-Blunden, V.L. & Juang, L. (2008). Expanding acculturation theory: Are acculturation models and the adaptiveness of acculturation strategies generalizable in a colonial context?. International Journal of Behavioral Development 32(1): 21-33. Dittmar, N. (1976). Sociolinguistics: A Critical Survey of Theory and Application, London: Arnold. Gal, S. (1987). Codeswitching and Consciousness in the European periphery. American Ethnologist, 14(4): 637-653. Hallowell, A.I., (1945). Sociopsychological Aspects of acculturation. In R. Lindon (ed.) The science of man in the world crisis (310-332). New York: Columbia University Press. Hofstaetter, P.R. (1957). Gruppendynamik, Hamburg: Rowohlt. Jepson, R.W. (1946). Clear Thinking, London: Longmans Green. Johnson, W. (1972). The communication process and general semantic principles. In W. Shramm (ed.) Mass Communication, (pp. 301-345). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 1194 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Maxwell, A. (2004). Magyarization, language planning, and Whorf: The word uhor as a case study in linguistic relativism. Multilingua 23: 319-337. Moschonas, S.A. (2004). Relativism in Language Ideology: On Greece‘s Latest Language Issue. Journal of Modern Greek Studies 22(2): 173-206. Padilla, A. & Perez, W. (2003). Acculturation, Social identity, and Social Cognition: A New Perspective. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 25(1), pp. 35-55. Redfield, R., Linton, R. & Herskovits, M. (1936). Memorandum on the study of acculturation. American Anthropologis, 38, pp. 149-152. Risager, K. (2006). Language and Culture: Global Flows and Local Complexity, Clevendon: Multilingual Matters LTD. Stubbs, M. (1997). Language and the Mediation of Experience: Linguistic representation and Cognitive Orientation. In F. Koulmas (ed.) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics (pp. 359-373). Oxford: Blackwell. Tabouret – Keller, A. (1998). Language and Identity. In Fl. Coulmas (ed.) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics (pp. 315-326). Oxford: Blackwell. Wardhaugh, R. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd ed, Oxford: Blackwell. Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, thought and reality, Essays by B.L. Whorf. In J.B. Caroll (ed.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Woolard, K. (1985). Language Variations and Cultural Hegemony: Toward Integration of Sociolinguistic and Social theory. American Ethnologist 12(4): 738-748. 1195 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 666 Title A name given to the resource Albanians thinking ―Greek‖. Language acquisition within acculturation process for second-generation Albanians in Greece Author Author Gogas, Themistokles Abstract A summary of the resource. The last years in Greece second generation immigrants who study at Greek schools use Greek language fluently and in many cases they speak Greek in such a proficiency that are not recognizable as non-Greeks. Primarily this means that these individuals master the mechanism of parole. Moreover, these persons meet the demands of education, which signifies the mastering of langue. In a secondary level of approach the question arising is whether the structural elements of langue i.e. the archetypes corresponding to abstract notions are similar to those of the greek native speakers. Considering that young Greeks acquire the ‗greek‘ meaning of a word, the research is focused on the examination of the way young immigrants acquire the meanings of words. More specifically, which way young immigrants perceive abstract meanings? In their own linguistic frame or through dominant language? In other words, I shall approach the production of langue in its base, i.e. in the level of the abstract notions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/850e878a272504af086ba73cbeff3dcd.pdf 242b20c941db7557d0ff93ddb147472b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Bela Gligorova Nova Internatiponal Schools, Macedonia Bela.gligorova@nova.edu.mk Abstract: As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Key words: contact zone, cultural ventriloquism, non-places, heterotopias, quiet cosmopolitan, transnational denizenship, pedagogies of the home Introduction: Constructing a cultural identity is as easy as mastering the nuances of a foreign language while travelling to the country of its origin on an eight-hour flight. Indeed, there are gifted individuals among us who are able to carry out such a feat in less than eight hours. (Fortunately or not, they are few in number.) However, for most of us, nowadays, the process of constructing our cultural ‗selves‘ is the journey of a lifetime, as we struggle to position ourselves within a cultural space that is no longer (re)presented as monolithically uniform. We constantly enter battles with our cultural heritage (who we were before we were ‗we‘ or ‗I‘) and our cultural responses (who ‗we‘ or ‗I‘ are now that we contribute to the ‗living out‘ of the said cultural legacy), since for the most part these two notions are at odds with each other. In other words, we might be born into a certain cultural group which, in turn, due to various social, political, and or religious circumstances may have distinctly reshaped and restructured its beliefs and customs, so that it strikes the outsider as non-existent in the first place. Therefore, when such individuals decide to reaffirm their cultural identity against the background of strong ties to the indigenous culture they were born into and the greater social milieu they had assimilated to (as a result of education, religious conversion, power accessibility, etc.) the outcome may prove disheartening, both to the individuals in question, and to the larger social and familial environments. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). Cultural historian Mary Louise Pratt was the one who originally coined the term ‗contact zone‘ (which seems to have become over the years inextricably tied to the proliferation and understanding of auto/ethnographic narratives), herself searching for a descriptively dynamic way to approach the study of social and personal relations amidst the intersecting frontiers of spaces marked by colonial encounters. In her work on the relationship between travel writing and colonized historical discourse, titled Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, Pratt defines the contact zone as ―the space of colonial encounters, the space in which peoples geographically and historically separated come into contact with each other and establish ongoing relations, usually involving conditions of coercion, radical inequality and intractable conflict.‖ (Pratt, 1992, 6) By choosing a denominator (‗contact‘) that is closer to linguistics than traditional historical analysis, Pratt hopes to bring into perspective the relational side to subject formation within the terrain of the colonized frontiers, therefore allowing for the production and distribution of auto/ethnographic ‗expressions‘ that are ‗heterogeneous‘ in structure, idiom and reception. While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with any sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, border-crossing, or bo(a)rdering, so to speak, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students at international schools are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un- 239 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘ in pursuit of global human agency?). Some recent scholarship might go as far as to suggest that international schools are not unlike what French scholar Michel Foucault deemed ‗heterotopias‘, or, non-hegemonically arranged spaces which operate under the condition of ‗otherness‘. (Foucault 1986) As such, their function is to join together, on the one hand, utopian perspectives, and on the other, real spaces, intellectual or physical, which in turn, stand as sites of cultural otherness, linked yet produced in opposition to cultural hegemonies. Hence, cemeteries, gardens, movies, brothels, boarding schools. And even if the daily life of individuals in one such space is controlled, according to Foucault, by the bell and not the whistle, in truth, local students at international schools in the Balkans seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘ (Augé, 1995), a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. And with that, dangerously removed from any prospect of living an integrated cultural life. In lieu of a biographical note When I graduated from the Department of English at the Faculty of Philology within the framework of the State University in Skopje, almost a decade ago, I was certain of two things: a.) I wanted to teach literary texts (no grammar, no tenses) and b.) I wished to work solely within the medium of English. With this in mind, I applied for a position at then one of a few international high schools in Macedonia, Nova High School. Having successfully completed Professor Ekaterina Babamova‘s graduation course in ELT Methodology, I felt up to the challenge: I believed I had acquired the necessary tools that would guide me on this new path. I had also, prior to enrolling at the Faculty of Philology, graduated from a US high school, on US soil, thus the added confidence. Perhaps even cockiness. In October of 2000, I was assigned two classes, nominally called English 9 Regular and English 12. The former comprised of students (sans three) who had recently graduated from state primary schools in Macedonia, whereas the latter consisted of fifteen students who were a part of the very first class of students the said high school had enrolled in September of 1997, when the school opened its doors for the first time. Oddly enough, or so it seemed, the latter group was the more culturally diverse one, not just in terms of the ethnicity pool but also in terms of citizenship. During that very same academic year, both classes allowed me to witness a few key insights about cultural instruction in English, as well as English cultural instruction. Although the 9th graders, for instance, had nearly polished syntax, their communal insights were tied to a Macedonian context; if we were going to make any progress with a Renaissance play or a contemporary American short story, I had to engage with them at a ‗local level‘. Which in turn, would ask for a comparativist method, and a good deal of popular culture immersion. Whereas, with the 12th graders, whose English grammar skills were picked up, peace-meal by peace-meal, from native speakers who taught at this school or at various other international schools abroad that these students had attended prior to transferring, the communal insights were so varied and versatile, that there seemed to be no common denominator. These ‗third culture kids‘, or better, these ‗hybrid cosmopolitans‘ could relate to everything and nothing; it all seemed too easy, or perhaps too vast. Since then, the school‘s student population, in particular the one relating to the high school division, has quadrupled; numbers aside, what has struck me, and those who have taught/teach, especially within the Language Arts Department, is the overwhelming change local students (Macedonians, Albanians, Turks, Roma) who matriculate at Nova International Schools bring with them, through distinct epistemologies and pedagogies, which allows them to stay connected locally while thinking and writing and being internationally. Again, this staggering change, which could and should be examined thoroughly through apt statistical data, based on entrance exams‘ results and interview notes, has allowed me to conceptualize, as well as further explore, the following research questions: 1. By attempting a delocalized ‗territory of culture‘ through their respective missions and objectives, do international schools in the Balkans contribute to a (re)creation of a ‗pseudo nation-state scenario‘? 2. Even so, could their products (students) legitimately question the unspoken acceptance and affirmation of culturally determined roles, imposed on Balkan individuality by various mechanisms of compliance (governmental decisions, communal practices, tradition and gossip)? 3. Yet, when all is said and done, who is to implement a newly designed cultural mythos: individuals or institutions? On that note, in September 2005, upon return from graduate school, I started a project with a group of 25 entering 9th graders (freshmen), tentatively embedded within the context of our English 9 Honors class, yet entirely for extra credit. Throughout the 4 years I spent with this group, which indeed changed in size and circumstance, guiding them towards a successful completion of an Advanced Placement (AP) English Literature and Composition class, this ‗pet project‘ of mine, became our focal point of discussion, immersion and selfassessment; in turn, giving birth to student-initiated projects, such as the one I will discuss later on in the text. 240 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ‗Journal Keeping‘ Project: a ‗quilted‘ way towards a reciprocal cultural methodology The histories and lives of international students, in particular local kids from multicultural milieus attending/attempting an international education setting, are not (well) represented in the local cultural policies. Since said students have optioned out, for various reasons, to attend private schools (often deemed elitist and viewed by the public as ‗the breeding grounds for snobs‘), their presence within a non-state education facility for the duration of four years, resembles, to a point, a prolonged banishment from all matters relevant to an integrated communal life. In other words, the local community does not feel responsible for their ‗cultural upkeep‘ as they no longer exist as its young offspring. To take it a step further, according to French thinker and scholar Michel Foucault, what we are facing in this case is another example of the intricate relationship(s) existing between the production of various systems of knowledge (i.e., discourses) and the production of power within a social framework. That is to say, each society exerts different rules and regulations that would ‗lawfully‘ police and discipline ‗undesired‘ discourses, thus maintaining its hold on power. Those who are considered a viable threat to the dominant discourse and its tight grip on social structures may be dismissed as ‗mad‘, ‗non-conforming‘, to say the least. Classifying non-conforming individuals as mad eases the ‗burden‘ of ‗dealing with them‘; they could be almost surgically removed from the cultural unconscious, leaving a space which is momentarily filled up by subjects that have been instructed to conform to the norms and ideals of the dominant discourse. (However, even in a ‗well-rounded‘ oppressive social framework there is a push by the marginalized ‗mad subjects‘ to re-claim/re-map this space which has been taken away from them.) To make matters worse, once these students enter the ‗hallowed halls‘ of international schools, they expect an unconditional welcome and a chance to participate and engage, fully, within a more or less, imagined international community that would not shun their choice of being there. The expectations are great, perhaps even illusionary, hence the disappointment, when it comes, hits hard. Just because a community is more versed in politically correct discourse does not mean that it is unequivocally open and forthcoming and giving, or for that matter, ready to welcome anyone unconditionally. While students at international schools in the Balkans are indeed taken care of, namely, looked upon as individuals and not mere numbers, many international schools, due to the very nature of their missions and objectives, and endowments, focus the bulk of their resources on a sad but palpable fact, which can be best summed up as ‗teaching students to be quiet cosmopolitans‘, which in turn amounts to the creation of a subculture that ironically de-personalizes education while attempting to guide and foster intellect. This dangerous practice, whether we wish to admit to it or not, does double-harm: for one, it requires of students to see themselves as empty vessels, stripped off cultural-familial, raced, or gendered knowledge of their past (Thus, in the case of local students, there is a ‗twice removed‘ emptying which takes place) (Delgado Bernal, 2002, 2006). Consequently, it convinces students that only a positivist type of knowledge (white, male, Western) can help them succeed and thus enroll, with a scholarship, at a prestigious university abroad, which is still the principal reason why most local students (and their families) make a leap of faith and apply to international schools in the first place. While I did/do understand the reality of conformity and acculturation, I wanted to find a way, through differentiated instruction, which could allow me to bequeath my students with a means that would in turn help them understand the complexities of their two communities: the home-base and the school environment; one primarily oral, the other unquestioningly written. In a sense, I see now that I was attempting a kind of auto/ethnographic self-recovery: i.e., more than a textual representation of auto-ethno-biographical modes of contact for and in multi-vocal settings. According to ethnographer Deborah E. Reed Danahay, the editor of the first (and to this day, only) anthological work that examines this hybrid form of life-writing ethnography, titled Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social, ‗autoethnography‘ is a boundary-crossing practice and product, simultaneously acting out the method behind the concept; as a method and a text, the act of auto/ethnographic representing fuses ―both a postmodern ethnography, in which the realist conventions and objective observer position of standard ethnography have been called into question, and a postmodern autobiography, in which the notion of the coherent, individual self has been similarly called into question.‖ (Reed Danahay, 1997, 2) As a result, whether or not the astute literary critic or social historian decide, respectfully, to stake their claim either with the autobiographic or the ethnographic side of the hybrid-form, ‗auto/ethnography‘ thwarts conventional story-telling practices (of the ‗realist school‘) by trespassing cultural and social boundaries, thus exerting its presence in ―form of a self-narrative that places the self in a social context.‖ (9) Enter: ‗journal keeping‘. Cultural historian Pierre Nora examined the relationship that exists between historical investment and individual memory, offering a reading of ‗historical truths‘ and ‗remembered events‘ through lieux de mémoire, that is, ‗sites of memory‘ which ―originate with the sense that there is no spontaneous memory, that we must deliberately create archives, maintain anniversaries, organize celebrations, pronounce eulogies, and notarize bills 241 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo because such activities no longer occur naturally.‖ (Nora, 1989, 12) Within contemporary social practices, such ‗sites of memory‘ appear to be a necessity, a final defense against misrepresentation and unilateral polemics in epistemologies and pedagogies. As children of history and memory, lieux de mémoire, according to Nora, are unlike any previously encountered type of history, ancient or modern, since contrary to historical objects, they are without a referent in reality. However, Nora is quick to point out that this unique trait does not leave the ‗sites of memory‘ without a referent all-together; lieux de mémoire are their own referents. Namely, they constitute a double act: they are ―a site of excess closed upon itself, concentrated in its own name, but also forever open to the full range of its possible significations.‖ (24) Bearing this in mind, I wanted to attempt a sort of historical recovery filtered through the tools of feminist scholarship, hoping to show my students an example of one such ‗site of memory‘; and with that, a way out of the slums of ‗quiet cosmopolitanism‘ and into (perhaps) the alertness of ‗transnational cultural denizenship‘ (Buff, 2001). Initially conceived as an attempt to showcase the value of written discourse, while drawing on the abundance of orally transmitted knowledge my students had grown up with, I introduced the students to the storytelling method of what Lomas and Joysmith (2005) term as ‗testimonio‘: an ethnographic genre/strategy which allows the voiceless political subject – the local student – the necessary agency to account for the connections that exist between lived experience and social (education) context.31 Namely, for a semester, my 9th grade class, each Friday, worked on a reflection piece. At first, most preferred to work on their own, while with time, groups started to form. The goal in mind: to think of a way in which their own varied experiences connect them to the particular reading of the week, may it be a poem, a short story, a play or a chapter/chapters of a novel. Thus, to use the allotted class time, and write down, in the English of their choice, the said reflection. Each student had decided to ‗safe keep‘ his or her own reflection pieces in a folder, or a file, or even a notepad. There was no word limit. No passing or failing grade, and no requirement deadline for a submission. Only a hopefulness, that with time, each student may choose to share his or her own piece with someone else. At the end of the semester, I had also hoped that each student would choose a piece to place on the class‘ cork board, so that we could all part-take in a kind of ‗testimonial‘, a quilt-making record of our unhindered critical journey through a series of English texts, i.e., texts written in the English language. A few things occurred: the contact zone which this side-project carved out presented itself as the most rewarding and equally the most challenging one I had ever dwelled into. Namely, the project took on a life of its own, branching out in ways I had not anticipated or even hoped for. Freed from the burden of testing and grading, or excessive monitoring, the quality of writing students presented had created a sense of reciprocity, both in their distinctive relationship to each other, as peers and neighbours, and in their relationship to writing, speaking, listening and thinking in English, now the formative medium of their life in international education. Students started keeping personal blogs, they wrote Facebook notes, msn-ed their thoughts, frustrations, reflections, dilemmas. When the academic semester came to an end, they asked if we could continue with our ‗Friday project‘, even if it was not possible to dedicate each Friday to its unfolding. We could meet after school, on Saturdays, during breaks, they suggested. And we did. For the next four academic years, as they matriculated through the Nova Language Arts curriculum, these 25 local students (and in time 10 more ‗transfers‘), wrote about the various points of intersectionality experienced by a Balkan native when facing the trials and tribulations of education in an international school context. In turn, this empowering practice, unburdened by the weights of grades and arbitration, propelled their written discourse in ways that no class-bound, test-teaching instruction could. In a sense, their ‗testimonio‘ storytelling practice, allowed them to conceptualize the validity of lived knowledge (a Roma girl from Tetovo) as a key strategy in the process of any scholarly enquiry (racial formation in contemporary social practices). For a class, (and a grade), over the years, they did produce nuanced and thoughtfully researched papers on an array of topics, from the seemingly mundane enquiry into popular culture‘s archetypes (think: The Simpsons), all the way to high-brow assertions on the relationship between the modern novel and masculinity discourses (think: Joyce). Not to mention, the college-application essays, and the strength of their argumentation, as individuals. For themselves, and their own contact zone, which seemed to expand with time, they initiated auxiliary projects that expanded the ‗territory of culture‘ realm of the school, such as the MIR Celebrating Literacy Project, The on-line Student-Reviewed Fanzine (The Discourse Detectives), The Reading Group Fellowship. All these projects incorporate a reciprocal cultural methodology, thus allowing all participants to bear witness to their own 31 Here, I‘d like to thank the work of a colleague, Dr. Judith Flores Carmona, formerly of The University of Utah, and now with Hampshire College, for encouraging me to make such an inter-cultural connection, one that I otherwise would not have made, had I been teaching at a state school, or at a local university. Her own work in the Adelante Oral Histories Project (AOHP) gave me the impetus and the strength to draw on the teachings of hooks, Friere, Anzaldua, as well as Elizabeta Sheleva, and see the many common themes which exist between the pedagogy of the oppressed and the reciprocal methodology in international education. 242 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo becoming of both subjects and objects of their own enquiry. And all have a longer shelf life than an academic semester. However, with all said and done, I am still concerned about the following long-term effects, namely as limitations and/or impetuses for further research: 1. While inspirational education does propel change, when exacted through the medium of a colonizing language and culture, could it affect real change within the leakage of the pipeline of local identity formation? 2. If so, by advocating for a ‗pedagogy of the home‘ (Delgado Bernal, 2001, 2002), aren‘t we, (locally-affiliated) teachers and educators in international education, reverting to an epistemology that in turn would dispossess our students from that very home we had set out to promote, and turn them into vulnerable observers (Behar, 1996), that is, reflexive insiders/outsiders bound by the within (Hill Collins, 1990, 1991)? In Lieu of a Conclusion Without the intention or the pretext of further colonization, of pedagogies or epistemologies, I do believe that culturally reciprocal methodology is the only viable means, present out there for us, to create dialogue amidst students from various and varied cultural and social milieus, yet co-habiting the same education space. What I am still debating over, however, is (the extent of) the role English language instruction should play in the creation of such an educational mythos References Augé, M. (1995). Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity. Brooklyn and London: Verso Books. Behar, R. (1996). The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks Your Heart. Massachusetts: Beacon Press. Buff, R. (2001). Immigration and the Poltical Economy of Home: Carribean Brooklyn and American Indian Minneapolis, 1945-1992. Los Angeles and London: University of California Press. Delgado Bernal, D., Elenes, C.A., Godinez, F.E., Villenas, S. (Eds.) (2006). Chicana/Latina Education in Everyday Life: Feminista Perspectives on Pedagogy and Epistemology. New York: State University of New York (SUNY) Press. Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical Race Theory, LatCrit Theory, and Critical Raced-Gendered Epistemologies: Recognizing Students of Color as Holders and Creators of Knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 8(1), 105-126. Delgado Bernal, D. (2001). Learning and Living Pedagogies of the Home: The Mestiza Consciousness of Chicana Students. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 14(5), 623-639. Foucault, M. (1995). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Second Vintage Books Edition. Foucault, M. (1986). Of Other Spaces. Trans. By Jay Miskowiec. Diacritics. 16 (1), 22-27. Hill Collins, P. (1990). Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Boston: Unwin Hyman. hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom. New York: Routledge. Joysmith, C., Lomas, C. (Eds.) (2005). One Wound for Another/Una Herida por Otra: Testimonios de Latin@s in the US Through Cyberspace (11 de Septiembre 2001 – 11 Marzo 2002). Mexico, D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. Nora, P. (1989). Between Memory and History: Les Lieux de Mémoire. Representations, 26(Spring), 7-24. Reed-Danahay, D.E. (Ed.) (1997). Auto/Ethnography: Rewriting the Self and the Social. Oxford: Berg. 117. 243 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 36 Title A name given to the resource Pedagogies of the Home and International Schools: New Models for (Inter) Cultural Education? Author Author Gligorova, Bela Abstract A summary of the resource. As an educator at an international school located in a pre-dominantly Balkan cultural milieu, I see myself crossing several contact zones (sometimes more than one, simultaneously). While there is a dangerous sense of enjoyment that comes with this sort of ‗cultural ventriloquism‘, on the behalf of said practitioner, I cannot but help and wonder about its long-term effects. Exacted through the medium of the English language, students are encouraged to live out in what seems like a cultural safe-haven: as they are continuously reminded of dominant social paradigms (gender, race and ethnicity, sexuality, religion, to name a few) and their operational value within ‗an imagined international community‘, the cultural identity of their discourse becomes foreign, un-Balkan, yet also un-English (perhaps a quiet cosmopolitan? a delocalized ‗other‘?). They seem to remain dwellers of a cushioned ‗non-place‘, a cultural contact zone within a larger contact area, for the duration of their studies, and even beyond. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92cc31b7cdbfa5f09951d30d6276b155.pdf 3691579f0f79871c7dfdcec87f791f89 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Infringements, syntactic transgressions and disturbances: for a linguistic analysis based on a frequential study of communicative will in Vittorio Sereni's poetry. Luca Gatti Università degli Studi di Parma, Italia luca.gatti3@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The frequency's applied linguistics to the study of corpora - already found in classical tradition - can offer itself as an ancillary tool to stylistic interpretation and con-tent production of a literary author. The proposed contribution intends to "escape" from literary critics: the frequency study of certain language particles applied to a digitized corpus allows to dig deep in the non-grammaticality of Vittorio Sereni, a twentieth-cen-tury's major Italian poet, discovering how an "other reading" could open up meanings that were broken by a "grammatically correct" reading: in other words, from the signifier to the signified. A systematic study of displacements may open new ways of interpreta-tions of defined poetic corpora. Relying on the modern concept of the textual uncon-scious, we discovered in phenomena such as agglutination, adverbial accumulation or syntactic displacements an evidence of painful entropy, not otherwise expressible. Sum-ma of these "unintentional poetics" is the astonishing little poem Un posto di vacanza. The proposed analysis' model is exportable to any other author, in the same way, with the same aims and results. Key Words: applied linguistics, particles' dislocation, textual inconscious, communicati-ve will, frequential study of corpora. Introduction The following study has essentially a psycho-linguistic and communicative approach: it aims to be a new rea-ding to a deeper and more aware access to Sereni's poetics. Like virgilian tibicines, in Sereni it is possible to notice "speaking spies" in language subtending an inner silence. The forcing of language is more justifiable if it is seen as a weaker possession: when a poet goes beyond the straight rules it marks a signal. We will try to fathom the inner forces that led to those "outgrowth" of language, but without escaping from the text-matter understanding and his communica-tive will. (Plat. Crat. 387b; Saussure 1922; Titone 1973: 5-18, 1988; Cigada-Rigotti 2000: 15-6). Inside the problematic relationship between syntax, semantics and logic, we will try - wherever possible - to assess how a change in syntax can alter the range of meanings and vice versa (Chomsky 1955: 36, 2002; Alinei: 1974 202-3, Pennisi-Perconti 2006: 124). Without claiming any ultimate solution, we will attempt to explore the text with a sort of carotaggio linguistico ("language drill", Vedovelli 1999), also to emphasize the ancillary function of linguistics and its possible contribution to the mare magnum of literary criticism. To return ab ovo, the existence of Sereni's trasgressions is clearly peculiar as well as the aesthetic pleasure of poetry is only preliminary in nature, while the real enjoyment is the tensions' liberation in mind (Musatti 1970: 199-200): a discrepancy is similar to a lapsus, or a failure to act, or a deviation, in a "scraped hypotext" (which bears but makes patent the forcing) that is not a field of words alone, but must give an account of facts (Barbieri 2007 40, Musatti 1970: 80, Astori 2009: 195). Methodological note The analysis is based on the study of Sereni's complete poetic works as a linguistic corpus: in this regard it has been carried out a preliminary scan of the digitized works (Frontiera, Diario d'Algeria, Strumenti umani, Stella variabi-le) to obtain a complex of texts amenable to frequency's studies, position's research within the verse, iuncturae, etc. Theoretical hypothesis 765 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In Sereni's poetry, in general, the displacement of some parts of the speech from the standard position would seem to show a distorted grammar, most often because the syntactic movement must come to a dead-end and could not go beyond, to compel a further recovery. The additions to the final position, almost in the form of particles' re-opening, can lead to a violence that might affect the passage's meaning in semantic area: the loss due to rules' infringments must be recovered elsewhere. We will give a short essay of the most important observed phenomena, beginning with the ana-lysis of certain particles (adverbs, etc.) and their position (and movement) within the sentence. Vittorio Sereni's short biography Sereni was born in Luino, near the swiss border, in 1913. His family moved to Brescia in 1924 and to Milano in 1932. He graduated in Italian literature in 1936, with a thesis threating Guido Gozzano. In 1941 composed Frontiera. Called to arms, became a prisoner in Algerian and Moroccan camps. From this experience he took inspiration for a later book of poetry, Diario d'Algeria, published in 1947. In 1952 he joined the Pirelli company and has been Mondadory's literary director from 1958 until his dead, occurred in 1983. In 1965 he published Gli strumenti umani; his last collection entitled Stella variabile appeared in 1981. Sereni also traslated into Italian many works of - among others - Pierre Corneille, Paul Valéry, William Carlos Williams, and René Char. Particles' analisys Più ("more") In Sereni's poetic work there are 142 occurrences of più. We found some criteria for classification, established in five basic positions within the verse: initial (I), post-initial (PI), central (C), pre-final (PF) and final (F). The fi-nal scheme (8 I; 21 PI; 62 C; 33 PF; 15 F), put into a mathematical system, leads to an end-shifted Gaussian curve. Un posto di vacanza acts as center of attraction to the violence inflicted upon the syntax. In "Vittoriovoyeur"'s narrative climax ("surviving voyeur", Un posto di vacanza V 22-23) the displaced particle più underlines a forced closure. Here is the passage (see also Matthew 4,9): "Tutto questo," dice la donna, "ti darò se prosternandoti mi adorerai". Ma l'uomo, ímpari al sogno e alla sopraffazione si disanima presto, non li solleva una musica pi÷. Un posto di vacanza III 11-12. The last fragment of hendecasyllable in a generative-transformational approach (Chomsky 1988; CigadaRi-gotti 2004: 277) emerges thus formed: [F non [SA li [SV solleva t_li [SN una musica]]] pi÷] In SVO languages the stylistic zero degree should be una musica non li solleva più ("a music does not lift them anymore"), where the distance between più and non (logically related) is justified by the lack of the alienating co-pula subject-più; or possibly, with the subject located at the bottom, non li solleva più una musica. We can see how a shift of particles from the standard position (attached to the verbal predicate) may affect grammaticality: the syntactic movement must stop and cannot go further, forcing a re-opening. An addition of the final displaced particle brings to a violence that might even, in extreme cases, affect the meaning, both in logics and semantics. Noteworthy is the presence of the tied-pronoun li ("them") in the sentence, which does not logically agree: it could refer to l'uomo ("the man"), but we would have a discrepancy in numbers. In fact it refers to i due che vanno lungo il fiume azzurri e bianchi ("The two who go along the river, blue and white", ibid. 1). It manifests itself as a logic ellissi: we may postulate (to keep pro-noun's signifiance) that deep subjects in Sereni can cross borders, as eternal ghostly presences. We will broaden its scope to the context. The movement is not stopped to the period, but continues in another strongly ungrammatical sentence, where the reversal of the standard sequence verb-participle is a strong evidence of syntactic entropy: E quasi niuna di queste cose stata fosse, torna lei quello che stata era: un'ombra del sangue e della mente e verso la marina 766 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in picciola ora si dileguarono. Un posto di vacanza III 12-17. The inconsistency in logics and semantics in a text is often a sign of uneasely approach to some author's men-tal contents (Barbieri 2007: 77). On the other hand, we note how the parts in italics (the author himself confirmed Boc-caccio's ownership, Sereni 1973: 33) appear to act as a protective shield to a potentially painful content (the sea theme, Un posto di vacanza I 15-6). Two author's sides are in internal conflict: facts and worthtelling. It is thus possible to no-tice a discrepancy in language (the "irriducibility" of the arcaisms niuna, "none", and picciola, "little") and the conse-quencial stressed syntactic developement (torna lei quello che stato era, "comes back she what been had"). The pro-blem reaches a deep complexity, as Sereni himself warns us that "can be a good simulator" (as "banks' imploring", Un posto di vacanza IV 28-29). Già ("yet", "already") E gli altri allora - mi legge nel pensiero quegli altri carponi fuori da Stalingrado mummie di già soldati dentro quel sole di sciagura fermo sui loro anni aquilonari... dopo tanti anni non è la stessa cosa? Nel vero anno zero 12-17. In this text già is deeply-grammaticalized as an adjective which strictly precedes the noun, like a temporal at-tribute. The particle, placed in genitive, loses grammaticalization (as in a magnetic field) and points to the other sub-stantive from which could receive any sense (mummie, "mummies"). It seems that Sereni perceives già as an annexion parcel to deeper meaning of soldati ("soldiers"), an adjectival past participle ([as]soldare, "engage"). The arisen link marks the elliptical nature of the verse (see also La speranza 26) and has some affinity with the highly viable type "ex - ..." (at least, Ouaknin 2004). Già is sometimes marked by a distinct temporal alogics: C'erano tutti, o quasi, i volti della mia vita compresi quelli degli andati via e altri che già erano in vista lí, a due passi dal confine non ancora nei paraggi della morte. La speranza 25-29. The christian già e non ancora ("yet and not already") is not logically contraddicted (as we are in a-logics): it is the scandal of our existence in this world and not in the other yet. The sea theme (see also Lavori in corso III 3-8) is a key (Un posto di vacanza I 1-8) to the inner and inconscious Sereni's poetics as an ever-unfinished work (see Lavori in corso). e vinto il naturale spavento ecco anche me dalla parte del mare fare con lui tutt'uno senza zavorra o schermo di parole, fendere il poco di oro che rimane sulle piccole isole postume al giorno tra le scogliere in ombra già: ancora un poco, ed è daccapo il nero. Un posto di vacanza II 62-69. The emotional and narrative turning poing is underlined by a strongly marked già: the poet is leaving behind the river-sea limbo (nel punto, per l'esattezza, dove un fiume entra nel mare, "in the point, to be exact, where a river goes into the sea, ibid. I 11) to indulge in an other-nature, leaving the "words" for "things" (chissà che di lí traguardan-do non si allacci nome a cosa, "who knows that thence goaling name would not tie to thing", ibid. I 22); the disconti-nuation is abrupt and forced, the closure is a "syntactic slap", the inversion acts on the standard perceived position: sig-nifier and signified are both damaged. In fact, as the poet states, ancora un poco, ed è daccapo il nero ("a few more, and the dark over again"). 767 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo There are other similar cases, linked by deep movements. Here is a significant one: Mi hai tolto l'aculeo, non il suo fuoco - sospiro abbandonandomi a lei in sogno con lei precipitando già. La malattia dell'olmo 29-31. La malattia dell'olmo is a central poetry of the memory-life system: it contains, inter alia, the verse that gives a title to the collection (guidami tu, stella variabile, finché puoi..., "lead me, variable star, till you can..." v. 11), a prayer that reveals the difficult relationship between life and artistic inspiration. Memory is a "never satisfied" (ibid. 25) "an-noying thorn" (ibid. 23). In her last drop we find a double reference (a lei, "to her", con lei, "with her", ibid. 30-31) in a climax bringing to an unfinishining and everlasting ictus. The hendecasyllable rythm is abruptly broken by the mono-syllabic clause, which leaves us with the evidence of an other-nature. The reversal affects the verb, a verb of unfinished aspect (precipitando, "crashing") that reveals his nominal kernel. The last two verses are supported by a structural rein-forcement of the speech by a figure of repetition (a lei, con lei), which helps to reduce the unpredictability and stabilize the experience built up through the words (Barbier 2007: 65). The syntactic structure of the sentence does not allow too many variations in particles "wandering". In Giovanna e i Beatles the diffraction effect is pushed into a strong a-grammaticality (like the famous ibis redibis non morieris in bello): Passato col loro il suo momento già? Giovanna e i Beatles 9. The verse is a clear separation between two parts: the first one recalls a listening of The Beatles (ibid. 7-8), the second one spreads out a peculiar concept, distinctive in Sereni, of musica diabolus in memoria (Un posto di vacanza II 21-23, A Vittorio Sereni 7, Sereni 1981). The climax is achieved by a syntactic inversion in the two final lines (Giovan-na e i Beatles 16-17), with the subject at the bottom interspersed with extraneous elements. The sentence lacks of a main verb, as well as già seems to substitute itself to the verb to be ("passed with theris his moment yet?"). The position of già within the verse in Frontiera, Diario d'Algeria and Gli strumenti umani (5 I, 6 PI, 13 C, 9 PF, 1 F) will be gravitationally attracted to the end in Stella variabile (2 I, 2 PI, 3 C, 0 PF, 7 F). Now we can truly un-derstand this particle's deep nature in Sereni's last collection: 4 of 5 reversals even go to coincide with già's final solu-tion. In some areas the general perception of grammaticality is clear and solid, in other ones there is "evidence of obscurity": where we find the diffraction phenomenon (Brambilla Ageno 1984: 112-3) with varied and inconclusive solutions there is always an inner difficulty. The last closure In Sereni we find a never ending search for a last closure: Pensare cosa può essere - voi che fate lamenti dal cuore delle città sulle città senza cuore cosa può essere un uomo in un paese, sotto il pennino dello scriba una pagina frusciante e dopo dentro una polvere di archivi nulla nessuno in nessun luogo mai. Intervista a un suicida 56-64. The game of chiastic tautology (now a negative sense of bitter absence) will be resumed in Un posto di vacan-za I 1-2, always correlated with inner turmoil. It is possible to see a repetition-formed climax (cosa può essere, "what can be", Intervista a un suicida 60), spaced in a chiastic structure that iterates the trend almost 768 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bombastic, declamory, suddendly chocked: e dopo ("and then", ibid. 62) is a verse made up mostly of silences. These devices are the prelude to the four-fold iteration of vacuum's theme in the final line: it is the ontological impossibility of things and man, both in space and time ("nothing nobody nowhere never"). Both forms of iteration an storage require a serial structure and rhythm that enforce in order to alleviate the de-stabilizing force of its contents (Barbieri 2007: 66): in Sereni the structural bank of language is always a shape of defen-se in particularly sensitive issues. Mai la pagina bianca o meno per sé sola invoglia tanto meno qui tra fiume e mare. Nel punto, per l'esattezza, dove un fiume entra nel mare. Un posto di vacanza I 9-11. Once again the accumulation of "negative agents" is accompanied by a syntactic entropy ("never the blank page or less for itself alone invites / neverless here between river and sea") bringing to the possibly most tragic verse of the little poem, if the "thing" is now collpased into the sea, (ibid. 8), in a more-leveled day of high tide (ibid. 1). Lì ("there") The famous Adriano's verses (Hohl 1971) are a faraway echo for a particular Sereni's locution (Conte 1974: 46): Amò, semmai servissero al disegno, quei transitanti un attimo come persone vive e intanto sull'omissione il mancamento il vuoto che si pose tra i dileguati e la sogguardante la farfugliante animula lí crebbe il mare, si smerigliò il cristallo. Un posto di vacanza IV 9-15. The comprension is strongly compromised, as well as the discontinuity point acts on border of an enjambment. The particle lí is put at the bottom but next verse-related ("among the disappeared and the glancing the / gibbering soul-ly there / grew the sea, the crystal ground"). The monosyllabic clause-solution is once again the clue for a sudden down-fall: as we surrender to sea, we lose our nature and we stop being river. The displaced and strongly marked particle lí comes again: C'erano tutti, o quasi, i volti della mia vita compresi quelli degli andati via e altri che già erano in vista lí, a due passi dal confine non ancora nei paraggi della morte. La speranza 25-29. The poetry talks about the unbearable burden of memory, which, going beyond, imprints herself to everything, even to the not-belonged: nebolous faces begin to speak as dead presences, or as "almost gone away" ones. The particle lí is on the edge, on the limit between life and death, just postponed to the enjambment, underlining the closeness to the irreversible step ("and others that were facing yet / there, a stone's throw from the border / not yet in death's neightbor-hood"). Sereni's translations Another contribute to this research may come from a study of Sereni's translations (Sereni 1981). His introduc-tive words have for us a psychological and exegetical value: Tradurre non è mai stato per me un esercizio. Qualche volta una fatica, pi÷ spes-so un piacere. Dell'esercizio ha avuto sempre qualche effetto benefico a cose fat-te, dico in senso prevalentemente psicologico. È un lavoro rasserenante, esenta dallo sgomento della famigerata pagina bianca, che in tali circostanze si apre in-vece come un invito, magari sottilmente provocante: il pi÷ è fatto da un altro, può essere affrontato anche a freddo ben sapendo che 769 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in breve il calore verrà. Un nume che ci osservava dall'alto diventa via via un ospite silenzioso ma disponibi-le e incoraggiante. Premessa VIII It is thus possible resuming with the introduction's statement: the pleasure the poet is talking about ("I always had some benefits after the fact, I mean in a mainly psychological sense") reminds us the freudian description of ars poetica's genetic processes (Musatti 1970: 199). Not by chance we find the white page's reference (Barberi 2007: 108, Sogno 6), in the iterated Fortini's verse: Sereni esile mito filo di fedeltà non sempre giovinezza è verità ......... Strappalo quel foglio bianco che tieni in mano. Un posto di vacanza I 12-14. By Sereni's words: Esiste poi, o almeno è esistito per me, un momento ulteriore nel quale non si tra-duce pi÷, semplicemente, un testo, bensí si traduce l'eco, la ripercussione che quel testo ha avuto in noi. [...] C'è di pi÷. Tra le traduzioni in cui mi sono impe-gnato molte se non tutte hanno corrisposto a precisi momenti della mia esistenza, li hanno accompagnati come può farlo un motivo musicale, abbastanza perchè il mio ricordo ne porti il tono, l'accento e il colore. E non è strano che tale aspetto risulti pi÷ durevole rispetto alla memoria di quanto si è scritto in proprio perchè la coscienza di quanto si è scritto in proprio è pi÷ rapidamente estinta dall'attesa di scrivere altro e dalla tensione che questo comporta. Premessa IX. The "own-writings' expectations and the tension carried by‖ remind us a primary lyric for the study of Sere-ni's production, which could be even a poetic declaration: Se ne scrivono ancora. Si pensa a essi mentendo ai trepidi occhi che ti fanno gli auguri l'ultima sera dell'anno. Se ne scrivono solo in negativo dentro un nero di anni come pagando un fastidioso debito che era vecchio di anni. No, non è pi÷ felice l'esercizio. Ridono alcuni: tu scrivevi per l'Arte. Nemmeno io volevo questo che volevo ben altro. Si fanno versi per scrollare un peso e passare al seguente. Ma c'è sempre qualche peso di troppo, non c'è mai alcun verso che basti se domani tu stesso te ne scordi. I versi. We should note in v. 11 the relative construct with an ellipses of subject, which may wrongly be linked to the object: the structure is redundant and muddled ("nether did I want this that I did want something else"). The discontinui-ty point is put, once again, in defence of potentially painful contents. In a René Char's translation the bottom-shift trend is clearly established, Qui l'entendit jamais se plaindre? Qualcuno l'ha sentita lamentarsi mai? Yvonne 1. 770 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo demostrating how Sereni's ludus of dispacement acts deeply even in translation's scope. Conclusions It seems that grammatical subversions could be considered a key to reach the ego of the poet, an access which is overwhelmed by the transition and suddenly closed, even among existential rubble. Clause dissolving: an oratian parallelism? quae prius multum facilis mouebat cardines. Audis minus et minus iam: ―Me tuo longas pereunte noctes, Lydia, dormis?‖ Odi I, 25, 5-8. Lidia is aging: in fact fewer and fewer fellows are disturbing her by knocking a door which once upon a time revolved easily on its hinges. We early arrive to a moment of maximum tension, driven by an ambigous plot: audis mi-nus et minus iam. They are the sentimental lover's words, who's complaining about his sadness in front of the closed house (Pasquali 1920: 445). This iam clause-posed is an unicum in Oratius's odes: it marks a point in flowing of words, as a shot change. From the hidden introspection, torn by iuvenes protervi (ibid. 2), to a bitter future, regrets, an dryness left by a living youth. Iam deeply merges già and più significations: from iam nunc to the resolutive and eternal più in negative sentence (Castiglioni 1996), like the famous nec iam poterat bellum differri (Liv. Hist. II, 30). Sereni's clauses may have a deep reference to the eternal and inner silence of ictus, a stylistic effect even present in Dante's giants (In-ferno XXXI 142-145, Chiavacci-Leonardi 1991). Anyway, Oratius's consonance is not limited to the bottom-related displacement: it is a way to tell a story, or better, to avoid it, especially choking any sea-reference (Un posto di vacanza I 31, 37-9, II 11-2; Pantarei 1967: 51-2; Barbieri 2007: 132-3). We may find some analogies between Un posto di vacanza and Oratius's (I,9) construction. Vides ut alta stet candidum Soracte nec iam sustineant onus silvae laborantes geluque flumina constiterint acuto? Dissolve frigus ligna super foco large reponens atque benignius deprome quadrimum Sabina, o Thaliarche, merum diota. ibid. 1-8. The inside-outside juxtapposition is a clear shutdown to inner contents. Oratius's psychological clause is thus present when going further is not possible anymore and it is necessary to talk about something else. The correlations keep on 9-16, where the glance skips from divinity to the inner and forthcoming (carpe diem in I, 11, 8). The poet does not name himself senex (yet in canieties... morosa, ibid. 16-7) and focuses his friend's youth, called puer (ibid. 15): in-stead of expressing directly a painful concet, a protective "verbal pillow" decreases the negative impact of that idea, event, or memory (Barbieri 2007 66). The climax is thus never achieved, as it is deviated to a small object, like a pointless appea-rance (pignusque dereptum lacertis, ibid. 22). In Sereni's little poem, the ludus of psychological enclosurers opening other issues appears in maximum ten-sion's moments, as the poet would seem to "tell the story": Chissà che di lí traguardando non si allacci nome a cosa ... (la poesia sul posto di vacanza). Un posto di vacanza I 22-23. But the closure is peremptory (non scriverò questa storia, ―I will not write this story‖, ibid. 27), and an other-talking is only left (ma uno di sinistra / di autentica sinistra (mi sorprendevo a domandarmi) / come ci sta come ci vive al mare?, ―but a left-winged / a truly left-winged (I caught myself wondering) / how does he feel on the seaside?‖, ibid. 34-36), even distorting story's time (anno: il '51. Tempo del mondo: la Corea, "year: '51. World's 771 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo time: Korea‖, ibid. 38; qua sopra c'era la linea, l'estrema linea della Gotica, ―here was the line, the extreme Gothic line‖, ibid. 49). Accompanying a disruptive moment (Un posto di vacanza III 12) and his ungrammatical consequence (ibid. 13-8), the psychological clause arises: è il teatro di sempre, è la guerra di sempre ("it is the ever-theatre, it is the ever-war", ibid. 19). Through 'displacements' and 'scraped hypotext' Sereni's displacements seem to be an ―other pulsation's clue‖, in the difficult but necessary balance between ego and what you want tell about yourself. As we all are good story-tellers (Bariberi 2007: 13), Sereni, besides being a "good simulator‖, ―will not tell this story‖: in this impossibility, always sublimely touched till the breaking up, seems to be the first unhinging engine, which acts stronger as stronger the unconscious and mystifying will is. This wants to prove how behind a morphosyntactic structure much more can be hidden: where a normative reading would be silent, the awareness carried by the disrupted sentence let us foresee beyond the erasures a clear and unequivocal communica-tive will. The displacements are thus the superficial morphology of deep processes. To conclude will be proposed, without any further comment, a Sereni's autobiographical note to Un posto di vacanza (Isella 2000: 782-3), as our last proof of "textual unconsciousness", (which bears but makes patent the forcing) that is not a field of words alone, but gives an account of facts. Chissà poi se all'indeterminatezza temporale delle parti successive non sia da ripor-tare l'appunto che una lettura sociologica, anzi, ecologica, potrebbe muovere a questi versi: la quasi totale ignoranza in essi dello stato di inquinamento di acque e coste, non risarcita dalla tardiva e forse troppo poco perspicua resipiscenza del penultimo rigo di pag. 25. Mi toccherebbe in tal caso, senza tuttavia illudermi di trovare grazia per questo, obiettare l'atemporalità del lontano movente o, se pi÷ piace, dell'origine emotiva: cioè del primo incontro con un oggetto a noi esterno, luogo o figura che sia, e della velleità competitiva (―la sfida‖) che ne risulta e che avrà poi una sua sto-ria, in qualche modo condizionata sempre da quando lo sguardo aveva creduto di co-gliere quella prima volta magari, nel caso specifico, del tutto a monte di ogni pre-occupazione ecologica. Che è quanto accade, non di rado, persino nei rapporti con le persone. References Alinei, M. (1974), La struttura del lessico, Bologna: Il Mulino. Astori, D. (2009), rec. to Barbieri 2007, in Poetiche 1 (2009), 195-201. 772 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Astori, D. (2010), ―Tradurre l'ineffabile‖, in M. Biasiolo, Olga Gogala di Leesthal, Bologna: CLUEB, 151-66. Baldini, M. (1990), Il linguaggio dei mistici, Brescia: Queriniana. Barbieri, G.L. (2007), Tra testo e inconscio. Milano: FrancoAngeli 2007. Bellinelli, E. (1967), Vent'anni del Premio letterario "Libera Stampa". Lugano: Pantarei. Brambilla-Ageno, F. (1984), L'edizione critica nei testi volgari, Padova: Antenore. Branca, V. (1992), Decameron, Torino: Einaudi. Castiglioni, L. & Mariotti, S. (1996), Vocabolario della lingua latina, Torino: Loescher. Chiavacci-Leonardi, A.M. (1991), La commedia, Milano: Mondadori. Chomsky, N. (1955), ―Logical syntax and semantics‖, in Language, XXXI 1 36-45. Chomsky, N. (1988), Language and problems of knowledge, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chomsky, N. (2002), Syntactic Structures, Berlin-New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Cigada, S. & Rigotti, E. (2004), La Comunicazione verbale, Milano: Apogeo. Conte, G.B. (1974), Memoria dei poeti e sistema letterario, Torino: Einaudi. Hohl, E. (1971), Scriptores historiae augustae, Leipzig: Teubener. Isella, D. (2000), Sereni. Poesie, Milano: Mondadori. Liggio, F. (2007), La ―preghiera‖. Azione espressiva di residuo atavico nella specie umana, Foggia: Bastogi. Moroni, G. (1995), Appunti di ritmica e metrica: in margine a una trascurata teoria musicale del ritmo poetico, Bolo-gna: CLUEB. Musatti, C.L. (1970), Freud. Con antologia freudiana, Torino: Boringhieri. Ouaknin, M.A. & Rotnemer, D. (2004), Cosí giovane e già ebreo, Casale Monferrato: Piemme. Pasquali, G. (1920), Orazio Lirico, Firenze: Le Monnier. Pennisi, A. & Perconti, P. (2006), Le scienze cognitive del linguaggio, Bologna: Il Mulino. Rabearivelo J. J (2006)., Presque songes, Saint-Maur-des-Fossés: Sépia. Reale, G. (1991), Platone. Tutti gli scritti, Milano: Rusconi. Saussure, F. (1992), Cours de linguistique générale, Paris: Payot. Sereni, V. (1973), Un posto di vacanza, Milano: All'insegna del pesce d'oro. Sereni V. (1981), Il musicante di Saint-Merry, Torino: Einaudi. Titone, R. (1973), ―A Psycholinguistic Definition of 'the Glossodynamic Model' ‖ in R.I.L.A V 1 5-18. Titone, R. (1988), Il linguaggio nella interazione didattica Roma: Bulzoni. Vedovelli, M. (1999), Indagini sociolinguistiche nella scuola e nella società italiana in evoluzione Milano: FrancoAn-geli. 773 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 113 Title A name given to the resource Infringements, syntactic transgressions and disturbances: for a linguistic analysis based on a frequential study of communicative will in Vittorio Sereni's poetry. Author Author Gatti, Luca Abstract A summary of the resource. The frequency's applied linguistics to the study of corpora - already found in classical tradition - can offer itself as an ancillary tool to stylistic interpretation and con-tent production of a literary author. The proposed contribution intends to "escape" from literary critics: the frequency study of certain language particles applied to a digitized corpus allows to dig deep in the non-grammaticality of Vittorio Sereni, a twentieth-cen-tury's major Italian poet, discovering how an "other reading" could open up meanings that were broken by a "grammatically correct" reading: in other words, from the signifier to the signified. A systematic study of displacements may open new ways of interpreta-tions of defined poetic corpora. Relying on the modern concept of the textual uncon-scious, we discovered in phenomena such as agglutination, adverbial accumulation or syntactic displacements an evidence of painful entropy, not otherwise expressible. Sum-ma of these "unintentional poetics" is the astonishing little poem Un posto di vacanza. The proposed analysis' model is exportable to any other author, in the same way, with the same aims and results. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fbd14867484520c2bdd5dcd4ec34199f.pdf 923d12ba95726934c074ed2727e8a55f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The role of language in the process of social integration: from the ancient Cena Trimalchionis to the contemporary world. Maria Elena Galaverna Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy mariaelena.galaverna@studenti.unipr.it Abstract: The Ancient World melting pot is not so different from the globalized contemporary society, in which various people and languages are constantly meeting each others. In particular, language still plays a leading part in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. This fact provides us a prominent opportunity to compare these two backgrounds, noticing how the hic et nunc could help explaining the past, which, in turn, could improve our analysis of the present. The proposed contribution intends to apply some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon, in order to investigate its sociolinguistics implications. This system can frame a further understanding of the passage, which gives back the possibility to outline some evergreen rules about the relationship between the governing and the emerging class. As the Cena shows, freedmen, who accorded a high prestige to Latin, aimed to imitate it; yet, they were at the same time also bound to their mother tongue. Their linguistic choices reveal both their wishes and their limits. According to this view, a good use of language, with the consequent sense of being member of a group, granted – and still grants nowadays – a privilege path towards emancipation to foreigners and lower classes. This presentation aims to give some examples on the different levels of communication. Key words: immigration‘s sociolinguistics aspects, actuality of ancient culture, social redemption and integration, cultural identity formation, linguistic prestige and loyalty. Introduction A parallel reading of an ancient text with the contemporary society, although they are very far from each other, however, could offer many consonances on a linguistic level: the background changes, but the dynamics of a linguistic phenomenon remain unchanged. This type of reading helps to understand the present as well as the Ancient World, offering new guidelines to interpret the text. This working hypothesis is the starting point of the following contribution, which aims to study the role of language in the process of social integration, applying some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon. This is a sort of experimental first realistic representation – as Auerbach (1956) 33 notes – because the characters, who do not coincide neither with the author nor with the mock narrator, are talking about what they see and think and they do that using their slang. The Cena expresses a new subjectivity because Petronius describes a sort of objective popular everyday environment through the subjective process. Therefore, it presents sociolinguistic cues to investigate. Language patterns applied Communicative Competence Every freedmen‘s word and action will be considered as a communicative act. The assessment of each one will be coherently based on the model of Communicative Competence theorized by Freddi259and provided below. 259 The reproduced graph is sourced from Freddi (1999), but this model of communication had already been studied by the same author (Freddi 1979; 1994). 797 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ling = linguistic competence SocioLing = sociolinguistic competence ParaLing = paralinguistic competence ExtraLing = extralinguistic competence Communicative competence includes four integrated skills: linguistic, sociolinguistic, paralinguistic and extralinguistic. First of all, speakers must recognize and produce grammatically correct sentences and therefore master all the three levels of language (phonology, morphology and syntax, lexicon). Secondly, sociolinguistic competence concerns diatopic, diastratic, diaphasic and diachronic language varieties, because speakers must also use appropriate codes for the socio-cultural context. Finally, they must control the prosodic elements (fluency, speech rate, pitch, stress, use of pauses), which are not strictly relevant to the linguistic level but essential to the communication, and non-verbal codes, which are used along with language or as a replacement for it. The latter ones include kinesics (body motion, gesture and facial expressions), proxemics (distance or space), artifacts (clothing, jewels, cosmetic aids) and sensory skills. A good communication needs also two higher-level competences: the semiotic-cultural one, whereby the communicative act is effective and consistent with the cultural scene in which it takes place, and the textual one, because we communicate through texts, which are extended linguistic sequences with a specific purpose and a coherent internal structure. At last, there is an important subordinate competence, the metalinguistic one, whose object is the thinking on the language. Interlanguage According to the literary and epigraphic sources, the Roman Empire involved various people and languages and its social fabric was very complex. Despite the hierarchical structure, there was a real upward social mobility both in Rome and the provinces, as Alfôldy (1987) 206-207 shows. This opportunity of emancipation led foreigners and lower classes to imitate upper classes education and modes of speech: Latin was the language of the State and of the governing class and it became the most prestigious one260. However, the natural loyalty of the emerging class to their native language – most of all Greek – and their lack of liberal education produced an imperfect linguistic and cultural acquisition. The Cena, which probably took place in a provincial town in Campania261, offers a meaningful picture of this attitude staging some upstarts, whose names reveal a humble foreign origin262, opposed to the educated guests. The same situation characterizes the globalized contemporary world, in which speakers always need to find appropriate language forms and features to their purposes. Alongside conditions of bilingualism and diglossia, they often settle the mixture of languages taking on a new code: they leave the less influential language varieties in the context in which they live, using the one in which they recognize a cultural superiority263. They start a second language learning (L2), because of its favourite role in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. Yet, they still remain bound to their first language (L1), the mother‘s one, and this implies many interferences. For these reasons, freedmen‘s language in Petronius‘ Satyricon reveals the same features of an interlanguage, which is a language developed by a speaker, who already has its own natural language, when he starts to learn a second language. The schema reported here is taken from Freddi (1994) 76. 260 About the spread of Latin in the Empire and its consequent learning as L2 see Banfi (1991) 84. 261 The exact place is controversial, but it is certainly a Graeca urbs – as it is defined in the text (81,3) – in southern Italy, probably in Campania. See Petersmann (2000) 84-86. 262 As Priuli (1975) 25 explains, all other freedmen have a non-Latin and typical of lower condition name, excepted Fortunata, Scintilla, Primigenius and Proculus, which are anyway Latin names of humble origin. 263 The relationship between language and power is well-defined by Heller (1995) 159. 798 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo L1 L2 Interlanguage It is a personal grammar, because it depends on the assumptions that the speaker has made about the operation of the L2; it is temporary, because he aims to achieve a full acquisition of the L2; finally, it is dynamic, because it is constantly modified on the line L1,L2. Chomsky‘s generative grammar, which provides, below the superficial differences, a universal grammar as a mental and biological equipment, allows us to identify universal mental processes in language learning. This implies that the elements of a second language learning are almost identical, regardless of the language. Most errors are due to the interference mechanism: second language learners compare it with their mother tongue and this fact can both help and damage the learning process distorting the marks of the L2. Most of them are morphosyntactic, but they can also concern the phonology and the lexicon. Others can be related to physiological and psycho-emotional factors, which are the subject of psycholinguistics. In general, the awareness of these errors can be an incentive to improve or cause a fall-back of speech on more familiar codes becoming a source of shame. Analogy, which appeals to well-known forms, is one of the main features of the interlanguage, since speakers are supported from a regular basis (Astori 2007-2008 118). In contrast, hypercorrectness is very common, because they try to use elegant forms, even when not required, to demonstrate their control over the language. Yet, code-switching, borrowing, calque and neologism are frequent. It is a very concrete language and often controls the micro-language, but not the conventional expressions. Simplification is usual, as evidenced by the frequent use of modal verbs and the decomposition of a word into its primitive constituents. Analysis of freedmen‘s acts In the Cena Trimalchionis, the master of the house, Trimalchio, and the other freedmen clash with the narrator Encolpius and the other educated characters. It becomes a show – with discussions, performances, dances, music, enormous dishes and unexpected twists – in which freedmen flaunt their wealth, their social redemption and their integration into the upper-classes of society. Their purpose involves every aspect of communication, but it always reveals its limits: they are parvenu and the scholastici laugh at them because of their imperfect use of the rules. Examples of their attempts will be shown according to the different levels of Communicative Competence.264 Linguistic level [58,7] «Athana tibi irata sit, curabo, et <ei> qui te primus ―deuro de‖fecit. Non didici geometrias, critica et alogas menias, sed lapidarias litteras scio, partes centum dico ad aes, ad pondus, ad nummum. [8] Ad summam, si quid vis, ego et tu sponsiunculam: exi, defero lamnam. Iam scies patrem tuum mercedes perdidisse, quamvis et rhetoricam scis. Ecce ―qui de nobis longe venio, late venio? Solve me‖. [9] Dicam tibi, qui de nobis currit et de loco non movetur; qui de nobis crescit et minor fit. Curris, stupes, satagis, tamquam mus in matella […]».265 The libertus Hermeros is talking, in an outburst of rage against Ascyltos and Giton, who are laughing at him and his colleagues. This is an advantaged communication context in order to analyze freedmen‘s language, because in those moments they lose the control and make many errors, which follow the interlanguage pattern outlined. In this case, according to the classification of Boyce (1991) 46-54, we can see phonological peculiarities, like the doric form Athana, typical of the south Italian speech, and one syncopated form, lamnam, which is widely used in colloquial popular language. From a morphosyntactic point of view, there are several irregularities. Indeed, instead of quis nostrum, he uses qui de nobis thrice: here the partitive genitive is replaced by a prepositional construction, according to the simplification of syntax of the cases, and the interrogative pronoun quis is confused with qui. Yet, according to the same tendency, there is the simpler use of indicative (currit, movetur, crescit, fit) in indirect questions, where the literary language employs the subjunctive, and the present defero is employed in place 264 The critical edition used is edited by Mùller (1995 4), the translation by Michael Heseltine (1913). 265 [«I will bring down the wrath of Athena on you and the man who first made a minion of you. No, I never learned geometry, and criticism, and suchlike nonsense. But I know my tall letters, and I can do any sum into pounds, shillings and pence. In fact, if you like, you and I will have a little bet. Come on, I put down the metal. Now I will show you that your father wasted the fees, even though you are a scholar in rhetoric. Look here: ―what part of us am I? I come far, I come wide. Now find me‖. I can tel l you what part of us runs and does not move from its place; what grows out of us and grows smaller. Ah! You run about and look scared and hustled, like a mouse in a pot»]. 799 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of the future. About the lexicon, there are a diminutive, sponsiacula, which is common in vulgar speech, and a code  arrived in that Greek city when he was a young slave and he served there forty years, as he tells us; Greek has obviously an heavy influence on his speech. Finally, the form geometrias used in the plural form could represent an incorrect use of a word he has learned, whose specific meaning remains unknown to him. In fact, ―he contrasts his business education and practical literacy with the liberal education of the scholastici‖ (Boyce 1991 91), in order to affirm again he is proud of his gained status. Sociolinguistic level It is very difficult to choose a passage in order to demonstrate the sociolinguistic valence of freedmen‘s words, because every character has different origins, status and ambitions, which are unavoidably revealed by his language, which changes according to the context. The following example, a part of the consideration about the present time of the poor old clothes dealer, Echion, is indicative of the will to speak classical Latin, but also of the unsatisfactory result. [45,5] «Et Titus noster magnum animum habet et est caldicerebrius: aut hoc aut illud, erit quid utique. Nam illi domesticus sum, non est mixcix. [6] Ferrum optimum daturus est, sine fuga, carnarium in medio, ut amphitheater videat. Et habet unde: relictum est illi sestertium trecenties, decessit illius pater. Male! Ut quadringenta impendat, non sentiet patrimonium illius, et sempiterno nominabitur. [7] Iam Manios aliquot habet et mulierem essedariam et dispensatorem Glyconis, qui deprehensus est, cum dominam suam delectaretur. Videbis populi rixam inter zelotypos et amasiunculos. [8] Glyco autem, sestertiarius homo, dispensatorem ad bestias dedit. Hoc est se ipsum traducere. Quid servus peccavit, qui coactus est facere? Magis illa matella digna fuit quam taurus iactaret. Sed qui asinum non potest, stratum caedit. [9] Quid autem Glyco putabat Hermogenis filicem umquam bonum exitum facturam? Ille milvo volanti poterat ungues resecare; colubra restem non parit. Glyco, Glyco dedit suas; itaque quamdiu vixerit, habebit stigmam, nec illam nisi Orcus delebit. [10] Sed sibi quisque peccat. Sed subolfacio, quia nobis epulum daturus est Mammea, binos denarios mihi et meis. Quod si hoc fecerit, eripiet Norbano totum favorem. Scias oportet plenis velis hunc vinciturum. [11] Et revera, quid ille nobis boni fecit? Dedit gladiatores sestertiarios iam decrepitos, quos si sufflasses cecidissent; iam meliores bestiarios vidi. Occidit de lucerna equites, putares eos gallos gallinaceos; alter burdubasta, alter loripes, tertiarius mortuus pro mortuo, qui habe<ba>t nervia praecisa […]».266 As Boyce (1991) 82 notes, ―he is an opportunist and frustrated social climber: while he does not hesitate to attack the wealthy and famous such as Glyco and Norbanus in the most rabid and venomous fashion once they have been disgraced and their fortunes have declined, he displays a cloying obsequiousness and even affects to be on intimate terms with those who are currently in power, such as Titus and Mammea‖. Therefore, he wants to hide his lower-class origin and, with regard to language, he uses hyperurbanisms, like neuter in place of masculine (nervia) and deponent in place of active (delectaretur). However, as his political judgment is based only on popular materialistic opinions about gladiatorial combats, banquets and money (Ciaffi 1955 139), from a linguistic point of view, ―in an attempt to compensate for the popular tendencies in his speech, he commits solecisms of the opposite sort‖ (Boyce 1991 83). Moreover, despite the effort, his language is characterized by a high number of vulgarisms (Boyce 1991 4654), which reveal once again his origin and upbringing, marking his exclusion from the upper circles: the 266 [«And our good Titus has a big imagination and is hot-blooded: it will be one thing or another, something real anyway. I know him very well, and he is all against half-measures. He will give you the finest blades, no running away, butchery done in the middle, where the whole audience can see it. And he has the wherewithal; he came into thirty million when his father came to grief. If he spends four hundred thousand, his estate will never feel it, and his name will live for ever. He has already col lected some clowns, and a woman to fight from a chariot, and Glyco‘s steward, who was caught amusing Glyco‘s wife. You will see the crowd quarrel, jealous husbands against gallants. A twopenny-halfpenny fellow like Glyco goes throwing his steward to the beasts. He only gives himself away. It is not the slave‘s fault; he had to do as he was told. That filthy wife of his rather deserved to be tossed by the bull. But a man who cannot beat his donkey, beats the saddle. How did Glyco suppose that a sprig of Hermogene‘s sowing would ever come to a good end? He was one for paring the claws of a kite on the wing, and you do not gather figs from thistles. Glyco? Why, Glyco has given away his own flesh and blood. He will be branded as long as he lives, and nothing but death will wipe it out. But a man must have his faults. My nose prophesies a good meal from Mammaea, twopence each for me and mine. If he does, he will put Norbanus quite in the shade. You know he will beat him hands down. After all, what has Norbanus ever done for us? He produced some decayed twopenny-halfpenny gladiators, who would have fallen flat if you breathed on them; I have seen better ruffians turned in to fight the wild beasts, He shed the blood of some mounted infantry tha t might have come off a lamp; dunghill cocks you would have called them: one a spavined mule, the other bandy-legged, and the holder of the bye, just one corpse instead of another, and hamstrung»]. 800 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo pronunciation with o of the diphthong au (plodo); the morphological change of gender of stigma, treated as a first declension feminine noun, and of amphiteater, whose transformation from a neuter noun to the masculine does not surprise, if we advert to the universal language principles; vinciturum (from vinco) for victurum, which could be confused with the past participle of vivo, according to the tendency to simplify irregularities using analogical formations; quos si sufflasses, where the intransitive verb is used with the accusative; many syntactic errors, similar to those seen before in Hermeros language (occidit de lucerna equites; subolofacio, quia nobis epulum daturus est; eripiat; vixerit); neologisms, like the compounds burdubasta and loripes, and a borrowing, zelotypos <   (Cavalca 2001 181-182). Finally, he frequently uses proverbial expressions (qui asinum non potest, stratum caedit; ille milvo volanti poterat ungues resecare; colubra restem non parit) and some insults, like Glyco‘s wife as a filix and a matella, which represents an emotional outburst which is typical of the Lateinische Umgangssprache (Hofmann 19852 220). Paralinguistic level Few information come from the work about paralinguistic elements, because this is a written text and therefore fluency, speech rate, pitch, stress and use of pauses cannot be directly investigated, as in reverse it can be done with the spoken language. However, there are some narrator‘s remarks and some speeches which would seem to provide such an opportunity. For example, the following joke is very useful: [41,7] Ad quem sonum conversus Trimalchio «Dionyse» inquit «liber esto». Puer detraxit pilleum apro capitique suo imposuit. [8] Tum Trimalchio rursus adiecit: «non negabitis me» inquit «habere Liberum patrem. Laudavimus dictum [Trimalchionis] et circumeuntem puerum sane perbasiamus ».267 In this passage, the ambiguity of non negabitis me habere Liberum patrem can be understood only by assuming an intonation, which would highlight the word Liberum with appropriate pauses. In fact, it is both the adjective of patrem, with reference to Trimalchio as ingenuus, and the appellative of the Italic Dionysus Pater, whose figure is drawn from the action: the freedman has just freed his slave, Dionysus, who was miming the different epithets of the god (Bromius, Lyaeus, Euhius) (Gaide 1993 251-253). Extralinguistic level Also the non-verbal communication is governed by a sort of ―grammar of acts‖, which should be observed. The following example concerns the use of clothes: [32,2] Pallio enim coccineo adrasum excluserat caput circaque oneratas veste cervices laticlaviam immiserat mappam fimbriis hinc atque illinc pendentibus. [3] Habebat etiam in minimo digito sinistrae manus anulum grandem subauratum, extremo vero articulo digiti sequentis minorem, ut mihi videbatur, totum aureum, sed plane ferreis veluti stellis ferruminatum. [4] Et ne has tantum ostenderet divitias, dextrum nudavit lacertum armilla aurea cultum et eboreo circulo lamina splendente conexo. 268 Thus Trimalchio introduces himself to his guests, when he is entering for the first time in his triclinium: he wears gaudy clothes and some jewels, exhibited to show his wealth. Indeed, all the freedmen believe that richness is the main way to be admitted to the upper classes. Trimalchio reveals he knows the rules to use those objects: instead of the golden ring on the ring finger of his left hand, which he could not use, because it was distinctive of the knights, he wears surrogates with the same value. He finds gimmicks to mask his diversity, like the enormous gilt ring on the little finger, the precious bracelet and the little ring against the evil eye on the ring finger. Semiotic-cultural level [71,12] «[…]‖C. Pompeius Trimalchio Maecenatianus hic requiescit‖ […]».269 267 [Trimalchio turned round at the noise and said, «Dionysus, rise and be free». The boy took the cap of freedom off the boar, and put it on his head. Then Trimalchio went on: «I am sure you will agree that the god of liberation is my father». We applauded Trimalchio‘s phrase, and kissed the boy heartily as he went round]. 268 [His head was shaven and peered out of a scarlet cloack, and over the heavy clothes on his neck he had put on a napkin with a broad strip and fringes hanging from it all round. On the little finger of his left hand he had an enormous gilt ring, and on the top joint of the next finger a smaller ring which appeared to me to be entirely gold, but was really set all round with iron cut out in little stars. Not content with this display of wealth, he bared his right arm, where a golden bracelet shone, and an ivory bangle clasped with a plate of bright metal]. 269 [―Here lieth Caius Pompeius Trimalchio, freedman of Maecenas‖]. 801 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this part, Trimalchio is giving the instructions for his testament, tomb and epigraph, and he is using a rather high-flown language, because of the importance of these things in Roman society, according to Magnani (19972) 138. The sentence provided above is the actual inscriptio, which should have been engraved on his tomb and it aims to be perfectly appropriate to the socio-cultural background. He takes on the tria nomina, which from Caesar‘s age identified the Romans free citizens, but he adds a second famous cognomen to increase the feeling of nobility and greatness, betraying the expectations. Also the entire inscription meets the same goals: it is traditionally included in an architectural structure with a figurative element, it remembers Trimalchio‘s office of sevir in absentia and his Roman values of pietas, fortitudo and fidelitas. At the end, it presents the address to the viator, so that the dead will live in his memory. Textual level A text must respect the seven standards of textuality to be correct. According to De Beaugrande – Dessler (1984), those are cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. If one or more of them fail, the communication can be compromised. This happens several times during the Cena, as the following example shows. [59,3] […] Mox silentio facto «scitis» inquit «quam fabulam agant? Diomedes et Ganymedes duo fratres fuerunt. [4] Horum soror erat Helena. Agamemnon illam rapuit et Dianae cervam subiecit. Ita nunc Homeros dicit quemadmodum inter se pugnent Troiani et Tarentini. [5] Vicit scilicet et Iphigeniam, filiam suam, Achilli dedit uxorem. Ob eam rem Aiax insanit et statim argumentum explicabit». 270 Trimalchio‘s speech is clearly cohesive, coherent, informative and it has a situational relevance, because he is translating the lines of Homeristae Graecis. His intent is also proper, because he wants to compare the mythic Ajax with the chef Ajax, who soon after will slice a boiled calf. But it fail in acceptability and intertextuality, because the recipients have a more correct cultural heritage and they will find incomprehensible deformations of the mythical tradition. Metalinguistic level There are two moments in which the freedmen make some remarks about their language, opposed to the Latin of the educated characters, and in both of them they feel the same sense of inferiority. However, the reactions are different: [46,1] «Videris mihi, Agamemnon, dicere: ―quid iste argutat molestus?‖. Quia tu, qui potes loquere, non loquis. Non es nostrae fasciae, et ideo pauperorum verba derides. Scimus te prae litteras fatuum esse […]».271 Against the rhetorician Agamemnon, Echion admits to speak incorrectly (as the active form of loquor and argutor, the change of pauperorum from the third to the second declension and prae with accusative show), but this perception lead him to attempt a classical Latin learning. Later, indeed, his aggression is attenuated and his tongue tries again to imitate them, qui possunt loqueri, to be part of their group. Niceros, on the contrary, refuses to stand against the educated characters and tells them a popular folktale, with a lower-class Latin: [61,4] «[…] Itaque hilaria mera sint, etsi timeo istos scholasticos, ne me [de]rideant. Viderint: narrabo tamen; quid enim mihi aufert qui ridet? Satius est rideri quam derideri».272 Conclusions 270 [Soon there was silence, and then he said, «you know the story they are doing? Diomede and Ganymede were two brothers. Helen was their sister. Agamemnon carried her off and took in Diana by sacrificing a deer to her instead. So Homer is now telling the tale of the war between Troy and Parentium. Of course he won and married his daughter Iphigenia to Achilles. That drove Ajax mad, and he will show you the story in a minute»]. 271 [«Now, Agamemnon, you look as if you were saying, ―what is this bore chattering for?‖. Only because you have the gift of tongues and do not speak. You do not come off our shelf, and so you make fun of the way we poor men talk. We know you are mad with much learning»]. 272 [«Well, it shall be pure fun then, though I am afraid your clever friends will laugh at me. Still, let them; I will tell my story; what harm does a man‘s laugh do me? Being laughed at is more satisfactory than being sneered at»]. 802 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This work is intended as a further example of the fruitful dialogue between classicism and the present. In fact, according to the modern sociolinguistic and cognitive studies, we can analyze the language shift of the Ancient together with the contemporary World in the process of social integration. The former studies 273 prove that the mechanisms are the same over time, the latter that they are universal, regardless of the language. As the analysis of the text shows, on one hand the language of the freedmen can be interpreted as an interlanguage which tends to the upper-class Latin but contains a lot of errors due to the interference mechanism and to the creativity of the speakers. On the other hand, their attempt to integrate themselves shows evergreen rules: outcast people try to imitate every kind of feature of the governing class in order to emancipate themselves, but they end up exaggerating or damaging them. Their communicative acts often mark the difference and reveal what they want to hide. However, their perceptions, their aims and their motivations can improve the outcome. According to this view, a good use of language still plays a decisive role. 273 See Giacalone Ramat (2000) 60 in her consideration about William Labov‘s statement ―use the present to explain the past‖. 803 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Adams, J.N. (2003), Bilingualism and the latin language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Alfôldy G. (1987), Storia sociale dell‘antica Roma, Bologna: il Mulino. Astori, D. (2007-2008), Sulle antinomie di ‗incipit‘… ovvero, del potere dell‘analogia, in La torre di Babele. Rivista di letteratura e linguistica 5, Parma: MUP Editore, 115-120. Auerbach, E. (1956), Mimesis. Il realismo nella letteratura occidentale, Torino: Einaudi, 30-57. Banfi, E. (1991), Alloglotti in Roma imperiale: per una definizione della storia linguistica del latino come L2, in F. Aspesi – M. Negri (a cura di), Studia linguistica amico et magistro oblata. Scritti di amici e allievi dedicati alla memoria di Enzo Evangelisti, Milano: Edizioni Unicopli, 1991, 79-105. Boyce, B. (1991), The Language of the freedmen in Petronius‘ Cena Trimalchionis, Leiden - New York – Kôln: E. J. Brill. Cavalca, M. G. (2001), I grecismi nel Satyricon di Petronio, Bologna: Pàtron Editore. Ciaffi, V. (1955), Intermezzo nella Cena petroniana (41,10-46,8), in Rivista di Filologia classica 33, 113-145. De Beaugrande, R.A. – Dressler, W.U. (1984), Introduzione alla linguistica testuale, Bologna: il Mulino. Freddi, G. (1979), Didattica delle lingue moderne, Bergamo: Minerva Italica. Freddi, G. (1994), Glottodidattica. Fondamenti, metodi e tecniche,Torino: UTET. Freddi, G. (1999), Psicolinguistica, sociolinguistica, glottodidattica. La formazione di base dell‘insegnate di lingue e di lettere, Torino: UTET. Gaide, F. (1993), L‘ambiguïté linguistique dans la Cena Trimalchionis: de la grammaire antique a l‘intuition du sens pragmatique?, in Revue de philologie, de littérature et d‘histoire anciennes 67, 251-256. Giacalone Ramat, A. (2000), Mutamento linguistico e fattori sociali: riflessioni tra presente e passato, in P. Cipriano – R. D‘Avino – P. Di Giovine (a cura di), Sociolinguistica e linguistica storica, Atti del convegno della società italiana di Glottologia, Roma: Il Calamo, 45-78. Heller, M. (1995), Code-switching and the politics of language, in L. Milroy – P. Muysken, One speaker, two languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 158-174. Heseltine, M. (1913), Petronius, with an English translation by Michael Heseltine, Loeb Classical Library, London: Heinemann. Hofmann, J.B. (19852), La lingua d‘uso latina, introduzione, traduzione italiana e note a cura di L. Ricottili, Bologna: Pàtron Editore. Magnani, L. (19972), Paura della morte, angoscia della vita di gente comune in Petronio, in N. Criniti (a cura di), Gli affanni del vivere e del morire. Schiavi, soldati, donne, bambini nella Roma imperiale, Brescia: Grafo, 131-149. Mùller, K. (19954), Petronii Arbitri Satyricon reliquiae, edited by K. Mùller, Stuttgart-Leipzig: Teubner. Petersmann, H. (2000), La latinizzazione dell‘Italia meridionale e il Satyricon di Petronio, in J. Herman – A. Marinetti (a cura di), La presistoria dell‘italiano, Atti della tavola rotonda di linguistica storica (Università Ca‘ Foscari di Venezia 11-13 giugno 1998), Tùbingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 81-92. Priuli, S. (1975), Ascyltus. Note di onomastica petroniana, Collection Latomus 140, Bruxelles: Latomus. 804 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 117 Title A name given to the resource The role of language in the process of social integration: from the ancient Cena Trimalchionis to the contemporary world. Author Author Galaverna, Maria Elena Abstract A summary of the resource. The Ancient World melting pot is not so different from the globalized contemporary society, in which various people and languages are constantly meeting each others. In particular, language still plays a leading part in the process of social redemption, integration and cultural identity formation. This fact provides us a prominent opportunity to compare these two backgrounds, noticing how the hic et nunc could help explaining the past, which, in turn, could improve our analysis of the present. The proposed contribution intends to apply some of the most known linguistic models on a Latin literary text, the famous Cena Trimalchionis in Petronius‘ Satyricon, in order to investigate its sociolinguistics implications. This system can frame a further understanding of the passage, which gives back the possibility to outline some evergreen rules about the relationship between the governing and the emerging class. As the Cena shows, freedmen, who accorded a high prestige to Latin, aimed to imitate it; yet, they were at the same time also bound to their mother tongue. Their linguistic choices reveal both their wishes and their limits. According to this view, a good use of language, with the consequent sense of being member of a group, granted – and still grants nowadays – a privilege path towards emancipation to foreigners and lower classes. This presentation aims to give some examples on the different levels of communication. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/28ab52fc0371300d970be239dea6c7bc.pdf 3a78b76c8deab17f9eb860d878b519dc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Ph.D Etrabe GUL QAFQAZ UNĠVERSĠTY PEDAGOGY FACULTY DEPARTMENT OF ENGLĠSH LANGUAGE AND LĠTERATURE etrabegulus@hotmail.com Azerbaijan / Baki The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Key Words: Rasul Rza, innovator, Azerbaijani literature, blank verse, elements of poetry One of the outstanding poets of the 20th century - Rasul Rza(1910-1981) infused a fresh spirit into the modern Azerbaijani poetry thus winning the repute as an innovative poet. The poet began publishing his works from 1927. His first poems were published in newspapers and magazines (―The Young Worker‖, ―Hujum‖, ―Revolution and Culture‖, etc.). In the late 1920s-1930s he wrote about the International struggle against fascism and colonialism. In the early 30s of the 20th century he wrote the anti-fascist poems ―The Women‖, ―Chinar‖, ―Germany‖, ―Madrid‖, etc. He got responsive on the Soviet-Germany war of 1941- 45 years by the books of poems and stories: ―Immortal Heroes‖, ―Rage and Love‖. From the 50s philosophic grounds prevailed in Rasul Rza‘s creative palette. Rasul Rza who is distinguished for his distinctive poetic realm, peculiar way of expression in the enrichment of our modern poetry, thus bringing a new breath to this poetry, stands in the most successful line of the world poetry owing to his blank verses. It should also be noted that the trend of ―blank verse‖ which triggered a number of constructive debates appeared through the program of updating the national poetry, raising it to the level of modern culture of literary thought. ―In the second half of the 1920s the blank verse found its reflection mostly in Mikayil Rafili‘s works. M.Rafili associated the blank verse with the confirmation of a new idea, a new individual, and characterized it as quite a new poetic form harmonizing with time‖ (10, 106-107). Rasul Rza‘s wide-ranging realm of poetry has an impact of lyrics with a plot. The great poet‘s poems perfect both for their content and from the literary point of view as well as his poems which seem relatively ordinary can arouse very gentle feelings in their readers. For, being a personality 451 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo with gentle, tender feelings by nature, R. Rza liked traveling to far away countries. He had been to the countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, and put down what he had seen. Thus appeared his various, interesting poems related to France, Algeria, Iraq. From this point of view, his poem ―The White Elephant‖ is interesting and characteristic. The first lines of the poem do not draw attention, but reading further one experiences a painful feeling in the heart. The tears of wistfulness shed from the eyes of a rare white elephant imprisoned in a cage shake the hearts. The poet, who describes the agonies of a caged life and imprisonment in the example of an elephant, also expresses in simple words, but very gently, at the same time philosophically the advantages of a day‘s freedom over the life behind iron bars for a hundred years. This literary piece of the poet was translated into English by Margaret Wettlin. A brief extract can give you an idea of the poem: I first saw him one hot noon in Ragoon alone white elephant in an iron cage of many colors and close-set bars. His eyes were black stars in a milky sky. He might have been any age. He looked at me as if suddenly he would begin to cry… Elephants are long lived, they say. Poor white elephant Why should you live to old age in this many – coloured, close-barred cage? Poor white elephant! Poor white elephant! (7, 46) In this small piece of his poetry Rasul Rza rings a march of uprising against those who suppress freedom and try to keep it within iron cages in the example of the rare elephant that once used to live a free life, but now is imprisoned. What is the sense of living such a long life in the cage? - he says. Rasul Rza, whose poems were published in Canada several times, has earned the love of the Anglophones, and his poems have been estimated as the most valuable example of modern world poetry. It is obvious from the articles related to those poems published in 1965 that the readers in Canada and the USA loved them judging from the way Dyson Carter, the editor-in-chief of the journal ―Northern neighbours‖, not very fond of poetry in general, described Rasul Rza‘s poetry as the outcome of a sincere and pleasant impression. As noted by the researcher N.Akhundov, ―the press of the Western hemisphere estimates R.Rza‘s poems as a new discovery, a strong literary and aesthetic means expressing artfully the feelings and emotions of modern people on an international scale‖ (6, 75). Rasul Rza‘s works were translated in Albania, Cuba, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and tens of other foreign countries, and the journal ―Tulu‖ printed by the Information Agency in the city of Karachi presented the translation of some of his poems as well as some information about his literary heritage. All this is the reflection of an extreme love to this great man of literature with rich and multi-colored literary creativity not only within our country but also beyond its boundaries. While one reason for such a strong interest in R.Rza‘s poetry is connected with the deep humanism of his creative activity, the other important reason is in his search of a system of forms and new characters reflecting the development of modern world more realistically and righteously (3, 220). For Rasul Rza‘s poetry is the achievement of the man of art who completely meets the standards of modern period, serves the enrichment of people‘s mode of thinking, and creates a new school. The Canadian people received Rasul Rza‘s poems with great love and excitement. This feeling and excitement is obvious even from the letter sent to our poet. According to the Canadian journal ―Northern Neighbours‖ published in English, Rasul Rza‘s poetry leans against the outstanding man of art with deep philosophic thinking who creates a literary chronicle and poetic map of life‖ (2, 47). It would be considered no exaggeration, if we call the Earth, the humanity as the main subject of R.Rza‘s poetry. The humanity‘s joy, sorrow, challenges, wishes, and beliefs make the poet think deeply. Freedom – the humanity‘s belief of light, love of life, last hope – is the exclamation mark of R.Rza‘s poetry. As a poet perceiving, realizing the essence of life developments profoundly and capable of transforming the important political events of the period into the materials of poetry courageously, R.Rza has reflected all this in his Oriental poetic series more vividly. According to Arif Abdullazadeh, who analyses and estimates R.Rza‘s creative activity stage by stage, ―Great universal senses and patriotic feelings put together in a small poem acquire great importance in R.Rza‘s creative activity. In this very sense , he enjoys quite an independent position in the Azerbaijani poetry‖ (3, 117). Rasul Rza‘s poetic realm with a very wide circle of themes is always concerned, is always alarmed. 452 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Rasul Rza‘s poetry is a rich and profound poetic sample with its own structural peculiarities, form and shape, alongside with its completeness of content and idea, progressive philosophic spirit, artistic expression and poeticism of thought‖ (1, 195). Rasul Rza was an extremely sensitive and touchy poet. In his lines he succeeded to create the picture once created by the most famous artists. Hence the poetic power of Rasul Rza who created his magnificent works in the form of blank verse and developed in this form of poetry, (one can dare say) who was able to express in an artistic and polished way what no other poet managed to say in our contemporary poetry, who succeeded to see and describe in a heavenly inspiration things unimaginable and hard to be noticed. Many of our poets have tried this form of poetry; however Rasul Rza‘s peak remains unattained yet. It is not a mere coincidence that the outstanding critic A.Nazim considered the blank verse as a literary phenomenon possessing the potentials of expressing the content of the period, when summarizing its peculiarities, ideational direction, aesthetic sources and providing its true definition (4, 6-7). As R.Rza‘s creative activity is targeted at realizing the world with its entirety and grasping it with its rich colors and shades, the roots of his poetry are nourished by the wonders of the world. Above all, it is a human being that makes him think. It is the love to man that throws light upon every line of his poetry. Hence the main purpose of his creative activity. According to the poet, who wishes for everyone to have their soul‘s eye in his poem ―The Third Eye‖, having a pair of eyes is a means for people to see very ordinary things. The real eye is the soul‘s eye. The absence of the soul‘s eye means ―deprivation from everything, being blind in soul, losing emotions and thoughts, losing the existence‖ (9, 133). Great man of art Rasul Rza is a philosophic poet, a powerful poet, who always makes one think, sometimes hides his idea in covert senses artistically and induces his reader to read him repeatedly in order to understand him. When speaking about the philosophic nature in Rasul Rza‘s creative activity, one remembers the series ―The Colours‖. Since Rasul Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖ is the peak of intellectual poetry in the Azerbaijani literature. He shows not only the poetic image of colours but also their social and political colour. The colours created by Rasul Rza in his poetry are absolutely impossible on canvas. No matter how talented the artist may be, he can‘t manage it. Every line in ―The Colours‖ carries some poetic function. It would be very appropriate to consider an extract from the poem: White, black, yellow, green, red, All of them are connected in some experiment. One of them reminds us of our longing, One of our trouble, another of our wish. Each of them hides some meaning, Each of them has some reason for its colour… . Or another extract from the poem ―Turquoise‖: The pain of love left in memories. The charm of the sea. The light of the lamp with a green lampshade that falls into a blue wall. The longing of a poor girl's fingers. Jafar Jabbarli's Baku. Only two eyes in the entire world. It is not enough to estimate these poetic series of the 1960s simply as a modern poem, there is a process of realizing life in them. There is a mode of approaching life philosophically here. As noted also by many researchers, ―The Colours‖ has a function of penetrating from the surface of the things, events into their inside, uncovering the invisible features of those things and events through their visible features known to us. Owing to R.Rza‘s series ―The Colours‖, the innovatory inclinations in the contemporary Azerbaijani poetry got ever stronger. Among the poems R. Rza wrote until 1980 there are many pieces which continue ―The Colours‖. His poem ―Time‖ is one of them. Time is the moment when youth symbolizing the ardent passion stands face to face with the depressed and weary old age in the paths of life. What artistic and incomparable words does the poet use when describing the early periods and the last moments of life! R.Rza‘s poetry is the poetry that has brought ―a substantial and perfect form, fine, attractive puns (cinas), original, unparalleled rhymes, rhythms, harmony‖ (5, 79) to our contemporary poetry. In the 1960s the modern poetry made just an impression of an experiment in the panorama of the Azerbaijani poetry, and thus resistance against it was natural. The reading public was not ready to accept such kind of poems yet; however, to cease that process and to prevent it were beyond one‘s power. The first 453 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Azerbaijani modernists themselves were not concerned with the results of this process. They were trying either to escape the tight cage of the traditional poetry as much as possible or create innovations within the traditional poetry. To review the path made by the modernist poem in the Azerbaijani poetry, we can say that in the Azerbaijani literary environment modern poems had a secondary place compared to traditional poems. Firstly, the foundations of the traditional poetry were very strong, from the point of view of wide audience it had earned a firm support; secondly, the defenders of the traditional poetry were eager to prove its advantage over the modernist poetry by all means, and most of the time managed it. Despite some obstacles, modernist poems turned into one of the stylistic trends of our poetry; and certainly, the supporters of the traditional poetry could not prevent this trend, and the Azerbaijani poetry could not be isolated from the world poetry. One can proudly say that the name of the Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza is on the same list with such universal poets as W.Witman, E.Verkhara, V.Nezval, N.Hikmat, P.Neruda who are creators of blank verse in the world literature. REFERENCES Abdullazadeh A. ―Uncommon individuality of a poet‖. Baki , Azerneshr, 1990. Abdullazadeh Arif. ―60s years as a turning point of Rasul Rza`s creativity‖, Azerneshr, 1990 Akhundov N., Azerbaijan Soviet Literature Abroad ―Yazichi‖, 1987. Ali Nazim . ‖We drink the Sun- turn into the Sun‖, Marif ve medeniyet. Baki, 1929. Efendiyev Asif. Poem and tradition (Responsibility of wisdom). Baki, Genjlik, 1976. Northern neighbours – Canada, 1967. Rasul Rza. On a Sguare in Algiers. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets), Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Rasul Rza. White elephant. Translated by Margaret Wettlin. Friendly hands (poems by Azerbaijani poets). Azerbaijan State publishing house, Baki, 1964. Seyidov Yusif. ―Poems with spirit‖. Literary criticism and language. Yazichi, 1986. Zeynalli A., Salmanov Sh.,‖Literature in modern period‖. Poetry, History of Azerbaijani Literature: 2 vol., Baki: Azerb.SSR AS., Neshriyat, 1967. 454 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 67 Title A name given to the resource RASUL RZA- INNOVATOR POET OF THE 20th CENTURY AZERBAIJANI LITERATURE Author Author GUL, Etrabe Abstract A summary of the resource. The prominent Azerbaijani poet Rasul Rza (real name Rasul Ibrahim oglu Rzayev, 1910–1981 ), who wrote his epics and poems in free measure played particular role in development of poetic conscience of Azerbaijani literature. In modern Azerbaijani poetry, with his different poetical thinking, special expression skills Rasul Rza engaged a special place as he brought a new breath to an Azerbaijani literature with his innovation. His poetry carried inspirational, motivational as well as thought provoking features. In today's globalized world poets often borrow styles, techniques and forms from diverse cultures and languages. It is undeniable that some forms of poetry are specific to particular cultures and genres, responding to the characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. In this regard the poetry of the venerable poet R.Rza was distinguished with philosophical lyricism, the vividness of the ideas and the emotions and original poetic characters. His philosophical poems from series of 'Rengler'('Colours"), lyrical epic poems 'Fuzuli' and "Gizilgul olmayaydi(If only there were not a rose)" are considered to be the best patterns of Azerbaijani poetry. Notwithstanding the new reference entailed adversities among writers, poets and readers towards him. Rasul Rza went through all hindrance and critiques, and as a deduction of his poetic experience he surmounted the difficulties and featured literary innovator school to the national literature. It must be noted that, the beginning of the 20th century, the period of massive revolutions as well as a cultural revolution, endowed with Azerbaijani literature a new form and meaning. Rasul Rza resorted to blank verse, when everybody got used to listen and recite samples of the traditional poetry. But the overturn of all casts regarding to traditional poetry was a veritable heroism done by the innovator poet, i.e. the choice of words and figures, pay attention to elements of poetic diction special to blank verse poetry demanded competence, skill, audacity and etc. Based on all aforementioned dignities, it can be concluded that the evaluation of the creativity of Rasul Rza is of paramount importance to the national heritage of Azerbaijani -Turkic people. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/60a46e6665cad8f1c63ed02e0b3a41cc.pdf 979b5f3a9f4e1c141823306d244c905a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ĠSLAMĠYET‘ĠN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠME ANALĠTĠK YAKLAġIMLARI VE ÇALIġMALARI GülĢen GAZEL Genç Yazarlar ve Sanatçılar Derneği,TURKEY gulsen.gazel@hotmail.com ÖZET: Eğitim, insanlığın var oluĢundan bu yana en bùyùk tekâmùl vasıtası olması yônùyle kadın erkek tùm fertlerin ortak yùrùtmesi gereken sosyal, kùltùrel ve bireysel sùreçlerin tùmùdùr. Eğitimin, tekâmùl sebebi olması her ferdin eĢit seviyede ona ihtiyaç duyduğunu gôstermektedir. Ne var ki dinlerin gônderildiği tarihsel sùreçte bu kavramın gereklerinden tùm insanlık faydalandırılırken dinsel hukukun uygulanmadığı dônemlerde kadınlar saf dıĢı bırakılmıĢtır. Eski ve orta çağda kadınlar eğitim ve ôğretim hakkından mahrum edilmiĢ, eğitim konusunda erkekler aktif rol ùstlenmiĢtir. Bu durum Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢine kadar da bôyle devam etmiĢtir. Ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle kadınlar birçok konuda olduğu gibi eğitim ve ôğretim konusunda da ôzgùrlùğe kavuĢmuĢtur. Eğitim ve ôğretim alma serbestîsinin yanı sıra verme hakkı da Ġslami kurallara dâhil edilmiĢtir. Bu nedenle Ġslam devrinde birçok eğitimci kadın yetiĢmiĢ, gerektiğinde erkeklere de eğitim ve ôğretim vermiĢlerdir. Dolayısıyla o dônemden bu yana geçirilen tarihsel sùreçte Ġslam kadınları geri kalmıĢlıkla itham edilmiĢ olsalar da gerçek bunun tam tersidir. Bu nedenle ôncelikle, ―Ġslam Öncesi Dônemde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ ardından, ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ son olarak da ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadınların Yùrùttùğù Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ irdelenerek bu gerçek kanıtlanabilir. Kadınlar sahabe dôneminden sonraki zamanlarda da aktif eğitim faaliyetlerini sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. ANAHTAR KELĠMELER:Ġslamiyet, eğitim, kadın sahabeler, hadis, sùnnet, A –ĠSLAM ÖNCESĠ DÖNEMDE KADIN VE EĞĠTĠM Dante ―Havva dilin kurucusuydu‖ der. Ona gôre kadın ile dil arasında can alıcı bir bağ vardır: Eva (Havva) sôzcùğù yaĢam anlamına gelir; fakat Havva her Ģeyden ônce insanoğlunun talihsizliğinin bir simgesidir. Ortaçağ teologları Âdem‘in Havva‘nın sôzleri karĢısında zayıflık gôsterdiğine, Eyyub‘dan daha zayıf olduğuna inanırlardı. Ondan sonra kadınlara sessiz kalmaları emredildi. (Fethi, 1992: Cilt II s. 407) Bu nedenle eski dônemler ve orta çağlarda, Yunan, Romen ve diğer milletlerde kadın, eĢya veya hayvan gibi mùtalaa edildi; herhangi bir yolla mùlkiyet hakkına da sahip değillerdi. Mirastan asla payları olmadığı gibi, eğitim ve ôğretimden de nasipleri yoktu. (Hasan, 1987: 1/238) Eski Hintlerde erkek hâkim bir eğitim anlayıĢı yaygındı. Eğitimdeki bu ayrımcılık ve zahitlik anlayıĢı, bilgi ve kurtuluĢ yolunun sadece erkeklerin tekelinde olduğu fikrini yerleĢtirdi. Eski Hintlerde kadının hiç değeri yoktu. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/83) Araplara gelince: Kadınların erkek merkezli cahiliye toplumu içinde ikinci derecede bir yere sahip olduklarını sôylemek yanlıĢ olmaz. Bunda bùyùk çoğunluğu itibariyle gôçebe bir hayat sùrmenin de rolù vardır. Çôl Ģartları içinde sık sık yer değiĢtirmek zorunda kalan, zaman zaman diğer kabilelere baskın yapma ve ganimet elde etme mecburiyetinde bulunan gôçebe kabilelerin yaĢantısında muharip sınıftan olmayan ve daha ziyade tùketici olarak gôrùlen kadının ikinci derecede bir role sahip olması ĢaĢırtıcı değildir. Bu konum bazen kadınların hayatını bile ônemsiz hale getirmiĢtir. Kız çocuklarının ailenin ve kabilenin imkânlarını tùketmesinin ônùne geçmek ya da kabileler arasındaki baskınlarda yabancıların eline geçmesinin vereceği utançtan kurtulmak için nadiren de olsa kendi ailesi tarafından ôldùrùlmesi de bunun bir kanıtını teĢkil eder. (Ġsam, 1987: 24/86) Bu veriler eski dônemlerde kadınların sosyal hayattan alabildiğine uzak tutulduğunu, eğitim alma ve vermelerinin de ônùne geçildiğini gôstermektedir. Bu noktada kutsal dinlerden Yahudilikte ve Hıristiyanlıkta da durum farklı değildir. Bir farkla ki Yahudilerin, kadınları radikal uygulamalara tabi tuttuğunu; fakat Hıristiyanlıkta bu uygulamaların biraz daha esnetilmiĢ olduğunu gôrùyoruz. Bunun nedeni Hıristiyan dùnyasının Azize Meryem‘e verdiği değerden kaynaklanmaktadır. Onlara gôre anne çocuğun ilk ôğretmeni sayılır. Ancak buna rağmen Hıristiyanlıkta da kadınlara eğitim konusunda yeteri kadar alan bırakılmamıĢtır . B – ĠSLAM‘IN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADIN VE EĞĠTĠM Ġslam ôncesi dônemde Arabistan‘da kadınların toplum hayatının her alanından dıĢlandığı gerçeği herkesçe bilinmektedir. Bu gidiĢata ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle karĢı duruĢ sergilenebilmiĢtir. ĠĢte eski cahiliye anlayıĢına karĢı giriĢilen bu aydınlanma hareketine kadınların da katılması olağan bir durumdur. Üstelik bu 1395 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo konuda kadınların aktif rol ùstlendiğini, toplumu kuĢatan cahilce dùĢùncelerin ônùne eğitim anlayıĢının getirilmesinde bùyùk gayretler sarf ettiklerini gôrùyoruz. (Hamidullah, 2003: 1/168) Bunu aslında kadınlar açısından eğitim noktasında bir var olma sùreci veya bir kimlik arayıĢı olarak da algılayabiliriz; çùnkù cahiliye dôneminde mahrum kalınan ilim ve marifet ufkunun ônlerine açılması ancak Hz. Muhammed‘in (a.s.m.) peygamberliğinden sonra olmuĢtur. Cahiliye dôneminde sosyal, siyasi, ailevi, bireysel ve benzeri birçok alanda son derece kısıtlanan, ôzellikle eğitim konusunda bùyùk mahrumiyetlere mahkøm edilen kadınlar, Ġslam Peygamberi‘nin rehberliğinde en az erkekler kadar eğitim ve ôğretimden faydalanmıĢlardır. Üstelik çoğu zaman erkeklerin bile rahatlıkla soramayacağı soruları Peygamber‘e sormuĢ, kimseye açamayacakları sıkıntılarını onunla paylaĢmıĢlardır. Aynı zamanda pek çok sosyal etkinliğe katılmıĢ, toplu ibadet yerlerindeki yerlerini almıĢlardır. Toplum hayatının imar edilmesinde kabiliyetlerine uygun hizmetleri gônùl rızasıyla kabul etmiĢ, Ġslam‘ın kendilerine biçtiği gôrevleri bùyùk bir titizlikle yerine getirmiĢlerdir. Ayrıca Peygamber‘den ôğrendikleri bilgileri doğrudan ailelerine aktarmıĢ, çoğu zaman da Peygamber‘le sık gôrùĢemeyen Mùslùman erkeklere bu bilgileri ulaĢtırmaya gayret etmiĢlerdir. Özellikle Efendimizin muhterem hanımları bu çeĢit eğitim çalıĢmalarında en ônde yer almıĢlardır. Mùslùmanlık dùnyası Ġslam Peygamberi‘nin aile hayatındaki sùnnetlerinin neredeyse tamamını onlar vasıtasıyla ôğrenmiĢtir.(Havva, 2008: 4/325) Bir de Allah Resølù‘ne sıkıntılarını açmak isteyen kadınların zorlandıkları noktalarda onlar devreye girmiĢ, çoğu zaman da mesele Efendimize ulaĢmadan onlar tarafından çôzùme kavuĢturulmuĢtur. Dolayısıyla kadınların Efendimize sordukları sorulardan, Efendimizin hanımlara hitaben irad ettiği sôzlerden, yine Efendimizin hanımlarının uygulamalarından, sahabe efendilerimizin kadınlarla ilgili Efendimize yônelttiği bir kısım meselelerden ve Efendimizin kadınlarla ilgili umuma yônelttiği sôzlerinden oluĢan mefhumlar, Ġslam dininin en bùyùk kaynaklarından olan hadislerin bùyùk bir bôlùmùnù oluĢturmaktadır. Bu noktada Ġslam devri kadınları sadece kendi dônemleriyle alakalı bir eğitim faaliyeti yùrùtmemiĢ aynı zamanda yazılı kaynakların oluĢmasında da etkin rol oynamıĢlardır. Nitekim hadis literatùrùnde imandan ilme, temizlikten namaza, oruçtan, zekâta, sosyal hayattan Ģahsi hayata, hukuktan tıbba, ahlaktan edebe ihtiyaç duyulan her konuda kadınların eğitim çabaları neticesinde topluma kazandırılan paha biçilemez bir baĢvuru kaynağı mevcuttur. Onlar vasıtasıyla Ġslami literatùre kazandırılan bu bilgiler gùnùmùz Ģartlarında da gùncelliğini korumakta, birçok mesele bu bilgiler sayesinde çôzùme kavuĢmaktadır. B-1 ĠSLAM‘IN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠM ÇALIġMALARI Ġslam devrinde kadın eğitimi ve kadınların eğitimciliği bizzat Peygamber tarafından onanmıĢ, bu konudaki baĢarılarından dolayı da kadınların aktif eğitim yaĢamının içinde yer almaları sağlanmıĢtır. Bu hususta hadis rivayeti, fıkıh, fetva, tarih, neseb, Ģiir rivayeti, tıp ve yıldız bilimlerinde Ģôhret bulan Mùslùman kadınlardan bahsedilebilir. Bunun en gùzel ôrneklerini yine Peygamber Efendimizin ailesinde gôrmek mùmkùndùr. Evini bir eğitim yuvası haline getiren Hazreti Peygamber, eĢlerini, ôğrenmenin yanı sıra ôğretmeye de yônlendirmiĢtir. EĢlerinin arasından Hz. Hatice gibi Ġslam devrinin ilk dônemlerine damgasını vuran bir bùyùk ùstadın yanında, yaĢamının son dônemlerinde etkin rol oynayan AiĢe gibi bùyùk bir cihan âlimi ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Hz. AiĢe eğitim konusunda en aktif aktôrlerden biridir. Hatta Resøløllah (a.s.m) onun hakkında ―Dininizin yarısını bu Hùmeyra‘dan ôğreniniz‖ buyurmuĢtur. (Hasan, 1987: 1/239) Aynı zamanda o, Peygamber‘den en fazla hadis rivayet eden hanım sahabi olup, fıkıh, edebiyat, tarih ve tıp alanındaki eĢsiz bilgileriyle Mùslùmanlara bir ilim hazinesinin kapısını açmıĢtır. Peygamber eĢleri arasında Hazreti Ümmù Seleme, Hazreti Hafsa ve Hazreti Ümmù Habibe gibi bùyùk Ġslam âlimleri de yer almaktadır. Aynı zamanda sahabe kadınlardan da Lùbabe Binti Haris, Ümmù ġerik, Ümmù Sùleym gibileri yine o devrin bùyùk kadın eğitimcileri arasında bulunmaktadır. Ġslam dôneminde eğitim alanında gayret gôsteren kadınların çalıĢmalarını kısaca Ģu Ģekilde ôzetleyebiliriz: Hazreti Hatice: Peygamberimizin, Ġslam‘ın ilk dônemlerinde evli olduğu ve o dônemdeki çalıĢmalarıyla bilinen eĢidir. Ġslam ile gelen tùm yeni bilgileri bizzat kaynağı olan Peygamber‘den ôğrenip çevresindeki kadınlara ve gôrùĢtùğù erkeklere ôğretmiĢtir. Onun sayesinde dinin gereklerini ôğrenen ve uygulamaya baĢlayan kiĢilerin sayısı hiç de az değildir. (Gazel, 2009, Gùl Kokulu Annelerimiz: 25) Hazreti AiĢe: Efendimizin Hz. Hatice‘nin vefatından sonra evlendiği en genç eĢidir. Ġslam Peygamberi‘yle evlendikten sonra ilim ôğrenme ve ôğretme konusunda bùyùk bir titizlikle hareket etmiĢ, Peygamber‘in eğitim çabalarına en bùyùk katkıyı sağlamıĢtır. Çoğu zaman Peygamber‘le birebir gôrùĢemeyen sahabe kadınların ôğrenmek istedikleri konularda onlara o yardımcı olmuĢtur. Aynı zamanda Peygamber‘in aile hayatı ile ilgili 1396 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sùnnetlerini diğer insanlara o ôğretmiĢtir. Sahabe kadınlar arasında en fazla hadis rivayet eden odur. Hz. AiĢe geniĢ bir fıkıh, edebiyat, tarih ve tıp bilgisine sahip olup hayatta olduğu sùrece bu bilgilerini insanlarla paylaĢmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 54-55) Sahabeler onun hakkında Ģôyle sôylemiĢlerdir: ―Resøløllah‘ın (a.s.m) ashabı olan bizler, hadisler konusunda anlamadığımız kısımlar olduğunda, hemen Hazreti ÂiĢe‘ye sorardık, o bize bu hususta mutlaka bir bilgi sunar, anlamadığımız yerleri açıklardı.‖ [ Tirmizi, Menakıb (3877)] Abdullah ve Urve bin Zùbeyr gibi dahiler onun eğitimi altında yetiĢmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 62) Hz. Hafsa: Ġlmî konularda Efendimizle bazen karĢılıklı sohbetler bile yapabilen değerli hanımıdır. Peygamberimizden altmıĢtan fazla hadis rivayet etmiĢtir. Rıdvan biatı hakkında Efendimizle arasında geçen Ģu karĢılıklı konuĢma çok dikkat çekicidir. Birkaç sahabiyle otururlarken Peygamberimiz: ―Rıdvan biatına katılan hiç kimse inĢaallah cehenneme girmeyecektir‖ buyurmuĢ, bunu duyan Hz. Hafsa da: ―Hayır, ey Allah‘ın Resølù‖ deyip Ģu ayeti okumuĢtur: ―Sizden cehenneme uğramayacak yoktur. Bu, Rabbinin, yapmayı ùzerine aldığı kesinleĢmiĢ hùkùmdùr.‖ (Meryem 20/71) Bunun ùzerine Efendimiz: ―Ama Allah Ģôyle de buyurmaktadır: ‗Sonra biz, Allah‘a karĢı gelmekten sakınmıĢ olanları kurtarır, zalimleri de orada diz ùstù çôkmùĢ olarak bırakırız.‘‖ (Meryem 20/72) [Mùslim, Fedailu‘s-Sahabe 163, (2496)] Bu konuĢma Hazreti Hafsa‘nın, Kuran‘ı ne kadar iyi bildiğini gôstermektedir. Nitekim Peygamber, bùtùn ilimlere vakıfken eĢinin kendisiyle bôyle ilmî bir tartıĢmaya girmesini yadırgamamıĢ ve onun ikna olmasını sağlamıĢtır. Hz. Hafsa o dônemde okuma yazma bilen ender hanımlardan biridir. Devrinin kadınlarına kıyasla gayet bilgili ve kùltùrlù olup Kur‘an hafızı olduğu da sôylenir. Yùksek ilmi ve derin tecrùbeleriyle pek çok konuda sahabe kadınlara ve baĢta kardeĢi Abdullah olmak ùzere çevresindeki erkeklere ve ôzellikle halifeliği dôneminde babası Hz. Ömer‘e yol gôstermiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 78-79) Hz. Ümmü Seleme: Resøløllah‘a sorular soran, soru ve sorunu olan kadınların eğitimleriyle ilgilenen ve Peygamberden çok sayıda hadis rivayet eden kadınlardan biri de Ümmù Seleme‘dir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 85) HabeĢistan hicretinde de yer aldığından farklı kùltùrlerin bilgisine de sahip olup oralarda ôğrendiği faydalı bilgileri kendi memleketindeki insanlarla paylaĢmıĢtır. Ümmù Seleme, gayet bilgili ve olgun bir kadın olup eğitimci bir insanın niteliklerini haizdir. Umre seferine çıktıklarında Efendimize gôsterdiği yôn verici davranıĢı bunun en gùzel ôrneklerindendir. Nitekim mùĢriklerle yapılan Ģartları ağır antlaĢmadan dolayı ùmitsizliğe kapılan Mùslùmanlar Peygamber‘in ihramdan çıkmalarını emretmesine rağmen bunu yapmayınca Efendimiz Ümmù Seleme‘nin çadırına girip durumu ona anlatıp ùzùntùsùnù beyan edince, Ümmù Seleme: ―Ey Allah‘ın Resølù! Sôylediklerinizi insanların yapmasını istiyorsanız, ashabdan hiç kimseyle konuĢmadan, kalkıp devenizi kesin, berberi çağırıp tıraĢınızı olun‖ demiĢtir. Bunun ùzerine sôylendiği Ģekilde devesini kesip, tıraĢını olan Peygamber‘i gôren ashabı da vakit geçirmeden kurbanlarını kesip tıraĢlarını olup ihramdan çıkmıĢlardır. (Buhari, ġùrut, 15; Hac, 106, Muhsar, 3, Megazi, 35) Ümmù Seleme, Hz. AiĢe‘den sonra en fazla hadis rivayet eden hanım sahabidir. Fıkıh ve edebiyat alanında da derin bilgilere sahiptir. O dônemdeki eğitim çalıĢmalarında aktif rol ùstlenmiĢ, sonraki zamanlarda ùmmetin en meĢhur âlimleri arasında gôsterilmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 101-103) Zeynep binti CahĢ: Son derece bilgili, dindar ve takvalı bir kadın olup hayır yapmayı da seven ve nikâhını bizzat Cenab-ı Hakk‘ın kıyıp nikâhı Kuran‘da zikredilen tek Peygamber hanımıdır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 119) Yùksek ilmi, engin cômertliği ve eĢsiz Ġslamî yaĢantısıyla herkese ôrnek olmuĢ Peygamberimizden de çok sayıda hadis rivayet etmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 118) Ümmü Habibe: Hz. Ümmù Habibe, bilgisi, kùltùrù ve olgunluğu ile dônemin kadın eğitimcileri arasında yer almaktadır. Efendimizden çok sayıda hadis rivayet etmiĢ, HabeĢistan hicretinde gôrùp ôğrendiği Ģeyleri ôzellikte ev dekoru ve dizaynı gibi bilgileri çevresindeki insanlara da aktarmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 145-146) Hz. Meymune: Efendimizin en son evlendiği eĢi olup, ôğrendiği bilgileri çevresine yayma çabalarıyla Peygamber‘in takdirini kazanmıĢtır. Peygamber‘in evinde geçirdiği zamanları eriĢilmez bir fırsat bilip ilim ôğrenme ve ôğretme konusunda bùyùk çabalar sarf etmiĢtir. Hz. Meymune ilme ve ibadetlere çok ônem veren faziletli bir kadındır. Peygamber‘in vefatından sonra birçok hadis rivayet etmenin yanında çevresindeki insanlara yol gôstermeye devam etmiĢtir. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 170-171) Ümmül Fadl: Asıl adı Lùbabe binti Haris olan bu kadın kız kardeĢi Meymune‘den dolayı Peygamber‘in baldızıdır. O dônemde kadınların faaliyet gôsterdiği eğitim çalıĢmalarına bizzat iĢtirak etmenin yanında Ġslam tarihinin yetiĢtirdiği en bùyùk âlimlerden biri olup kendisinden sonrakiler tarafından ―ilim denizi‖ anlamına gelen ―bahr‖ lakabıyla tanınan Abdullah bin Abbas‘ın ise annesidir. (Ġbni Kesir, 1995: 8/470) 1397 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dinin vecibelerini ilk olarak arkadaĢı Hatice‘den ôğrenmiĢ, ondan sonra da eğitim çalıĢmalarında uzunca bir sùre aktif yer almıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, Sahabi Annelerimiz: 66) Esma binti Umeys: Hazreti Esma Ġslam devrinde yaĢayan son derece olgun, bilgili ve kùltùrlù bir hanımdır. HabeĢistan‘da geçirdiği zamanlar hayatına çok Ģey katmıĢ, ona birçok konuda deneyim kazandırmıĢtır. Bu deneyimlerden biri kadınların cenazesinin tabutta taĢınması konusundadır. O zamanda cenazeler bir ôrtùye sarılır, ôylece taĢınırdı. Bildiklerini ilk olarak Peygamber‘in kızı Fatıma‘ya ôğretmiĢ, Fatıma‘nın cenazesinin tekfin ve teĢyiiyle de bizzat kendisi ilgilenmiĢtir. (Zehebi, 1994: 5/62) Hazreti Esma hadis alanında da birikimli bir kadındır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 86) Ümmü ġerik: Ümmù ġerik iman edince kendini tamamen Allah‘ın dinini yaymaya adayan eğitim gônùllùsù bir kadındır. O zamanın katlanılması zor Ģartlarına ve mùĢriklerin dayanılmaz baskılarına rağmen imanını sapasağlam koruduğu gibi tanıdığı tùm kadınlara da yeni din Ġslam‘ı anlatmıĢtır. Yorulmak bilmeyen gayretler içine girmiĢ, Mekkelilerle bildiklerini paylaĢmak için bùyùk çaba sarf etmiĢtir. Öyle ki Mekke‘de kapı kapı gezmiĢ, karĢılaĢtığı herkesi din hususunda eğitmeye çalıĢmıĢtır. Fakat bir sùre sonra mùĢrikler tarafından yakalanıp hapsedilmiĢ ardından da Mekke‘den sùrgùn edilmiĢtir. (El-Isfahani, 2000: 2/164) Ancak kendi kavmine gôtùrmeleri için verildiği kervanda meydana gelen olağanùstù olaylar neticesinde kervanda bulunanlar da onun vesilesiyle Mùslùman olmuĢtur. Bu sebeple Ümmù ġerik Ġslam devrinde bir kavmin inanmasına sebep olan kadın diye bilinirdi. Hadis ve fıkıh alanında son derece birikimliydi. (Cevzi, 2006: 386) Ümmü Süleym: Asıl adı Rumeysa olan Ümmù Sùleym Ġslam‘ın Medine‘de duyulduğu ilk zamanlarda inanıp ômrùnùn sonuna kadar insanlara yeni dini anlatmak için çalıĢan Medineli kadınlardandır. Sosyal hayattaki aktif varlığı kendisinden sonrakilere yôn verecek ôlçùde yoğundu. SavaĢlarda, kutlamalarda, ilim meclislerinde kısacası Peygamber‘in olduğu her yerde o da yer alıyor, Ġslam‘ı bizzat kaynağından ôğrenip uyguluyor ve ôğretiyordu. Hayatı Allah Resølù‘nùn en yakınında geçmiĢ, onun hayatını ve sùnnetlerini yine kendisinden ôğrenmiĢtir. O dônemde giriĢilen eğitim çalıĢmalarına bùyùk katkı sağlamıĢtır. Hatta bu konuda Peygamber‘in ôvgùsùnù de kazanmıĢtır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 116-117) Onun hayatında en ilgi çekici olay ikinci eĢi Ebu Talha ile evlenirken Mùslùman olmasını Ģart koĢup kocasının inanmasına vesile olmasıdır. (Gazel, 2009, a.g.e: 120) Ümmù Sùleym‘in yaĢamının her evresini eğitim sùreci olarak tanımlayabiliriz. Ġslam‘ın bùyùk hadis âlimlerinden Enes bin Malik‘in annesi olması bu konudaki yerini belirlemek açısından yeterlidir. Çok sayıda hadis de rivayet etmiĢtir. D – SONRAKĠ DÖNEMLERDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠM ÇALIġMALARI Ġslam dùnyasında çok erken dônemlerden itibaren Ģair, mutasavvıf ve âlim kadınların yetiĢtiği ve sonraki dônemlerde de bu alanlarda pek çok kadının hizmet verdiği bilinmektedir. Ġbni Sad‘ın sahabenin hayatına dair et Tabakatùl Kùbra‘sı ile Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani‘nin aynı mahiyetteki el-Ġsabe‘sinin son cildi, Ġbni Abdùlber en-Nemeri‘nin el-Ġsti‘ab fi Ma‘rifeti‘l-Ashab adlı dôrt bôlùmden ibaret eserinin son iki bôlùmù kadın sahabilere ayrılmıĢtır. Aynı zamanda Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani‘nin Tehzibetù‘l-Tehzib ve ed-Dùrerù‘l-Kamine adlı eserlerinde hadis ravisi ve ilim adamları arasında sahabe hanımlar haricinde pek çok kadın incelenir. Bu eserler, kadınların Ġslam kùltùr tarihinde kùçùmsenmeyecek bir yere sahip olduklarını gôstermektedir. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/92) SONUÇ Kadınlar, Ġslamiyet‘in ilk devrinde eğitim alanında aktif rol aldıkları gibi sonraki zamanlarda da bu faaliyetleri sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. Emeviler dôneminde bu çalıĢmalar biraz gerilese de kadınların sosyal yaĢama etkileri tamamen silinmemiĢtir. Aksine ilim ve kùltùr hayatında oldukça ônemli yer iĢgal etmiĢlerdir. Ġslam dùnyasında eğitimin gayrı resmi bir yapı içinde sùrdùrùlmesi ve okula değil hocaya bağlanmasının esas olması, kadınların yakın çevrelerindeki ilim adamlarından eğitim almalarını kolaylaĢtırmıĢtır. Ġlim sahibi kadınların ônemli bir kısmının ulema aileleri içinde yetiĢmesi bunun gôstergesidir. Bu arada kadınların ôzellikle hadis ilmine yôneldiği bir gerçektir. Bùyùk hadisçi Taceddin es-Sùbki‘nin hadis dinleyip ôğrendiği ùstadlar arasında on dokuz kadının adı geçmektedir. Suyuti otuz ùç, Ġbni Hacer el-Askalani elli ùç, Ġbni Asakir seksen kadından hadis ôğrenmiĢtir. (Ġsam, 2001: 24/92) 1398 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES CANAN, Prof. Dr. Ġbrahim (1988). Kütüb-i Sitte Muhtasarı, Ankara: Akçağ Yayınları. CEVZĠ, Ġbnu‘l (2006). Sıfatu‘s-Saffe, Ġstanbul: Kahraman Yayınları. EL-ISFAHANĠ, Ebu Nuaym (2000). Sahabeden Günümüze Allah Dostları, Ġstanbul: ġule Yayınları. FETHĠ, Çev: Ahmet (1992). Kadınların Tarihi Ortaçağın Sessizliği, Ġstanbul: Tùrkiye ĠĢ Bankası Kùltùr Yayınları. GAZEL, GùlĢen (2009). Gül Kokulu Annelerimiz Peygamberimizin Hanımları, Ġstanbul: Gùndônùmù Yayınları. GAZEL, GùlĢen (2009). Ġmana AdanmıĢ Yürekler Sahabi Annelerimiz, Ġstanbul: Gùndônùmù Yayınları. HAMĠDULLAH, Prof Dr. Muhammed (2003). Ġslam Peygamberi, (çev: Prof Dr. Salih Tuğ), Ġstanbul: Ġrfan Yayımcılık. HASAN, Prof Dr. Hasan Ġbrahim (1987). Ġslam Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Kayıhan Yayınları. HAVVA, Said (2008). Hadislerle Ġslam Tarihi, Ġstanbul: Hikmet NeĢriyat. ĠBNĠ Kesir (1995). El-Bidaye ven-Nihaye, (çev: Mehmet Keskin), Ġstanbul: Çağrı Yayınları. ĠSAM (2001). Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Ġslam Ansiklopedisi, Ankara ZEHEBĠ, Ġmam (1994). Tarihu‘l Ġslam, (çev: Muzaffer Can), Ġstanbul: CantaĢ Yayınları 1399 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 693 Title A name given to the resource ĠSLAMĠYET‘ĠN ĠLK DÖNEMĠNDE KADINLARIN EĞĠTĠME ANALĠTĠK YAKLAġIMLARI VE ÇALIġMALARI Author Author GAZEL, Gülşen Abstract A summary of the resource. Eğitim, insanlığın var oluĢundan bu yana en bùyùk tekâmùl vasıtası olması yônùyle kadın erkek tùm fertlerin ortak yùrùtmesi gereken sosyal, kùltùrel ve bireysel sùreçlerin tùmùdùr. Eğitimin, tekâmùl sebebi olması her ferdin eĢit seviyede ona ihtiyaç duyduğunu gôstermektedir. Ne var ki dinlerin gônderildiği tarihsel sùreçte bu kavramın gereklerinden tùm insanlık faydalandırılırken dinsel hukukun uygulanmadığı dônemlerde kadınlar saf dıĢı bırakılmıĢtır. Eski ve orta çağda kadınlar eğitim ve ôğretim hakkından mahrum edilmiĢ, eğitim konusunda erkekler aktif rol ùstlenmiĢtir. Bu durum Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢine kadar da bôyle devam etmiĢtir. Ancak Ġslamiyet‘in geliĢiyle kadınlar birçok konuda olduğu gibi eğitim ve ôğretim konusunda da ôzgùrlùğe kavuĢmuĢtur. Eğitim ve ôğretim alma serbestîsinin yanı sıra verme hakkı da Ġslami kurallara dâhil edilmiĢtir. Bu nedenle Ġslam devrinde birçok eğitimci kadın yetiĢmiĢ, gerektiğinde erkeklere de eğitim ve ôğretim vermiĢlerdir. Dolayısıyla o dônemden bu yana geçirilen tarihsel sùreçte Ġslam kadınları geri kalmıĢlıkla itham edilmiĢ olsalar da gerçek bunun tam tersidir. Bu nedenle ôncelikle, ―Ġslam Öncesi Dônemde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ ardından, ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadın ve Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ son olarak da ―Ġslam‘ın Ġlk Dôneminde Kadınların Yùrùttùğù Eğitim ÇalıĢmaları‖ irdelenerek bu gerçek kanıtlanabilir. Kadınlar sahabe dôneminden sonraki zamanlarda da aktif eğitim faaliyetlerini sùrdùrmùĢlerdir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics