84 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b04599b9bb919439ecbd15e543f7d835.pdf 68feff30029593c5406bfa5770138db4 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo duties, to evaluate its effectiveness, discover weak points in its operation and propose measures to eliminate the appearance of weakness. In other words, the internal audit activity is organized by the management of the business entity or other business entities to assist in the evaluation of the operation as a whole or to individual segments. In terms of business and management functions in enterprises, internal audit can be monitored as part of steering control, where business functions are subject to examination in order to perform more efficiently, thus ensuring the functioning of an information subsystem which however, the guide provides information for making appropriate business decisions. According to the definition of the Committee of audit practice (Auditing Practice Committee-APC) Internal audit is an element of internal control sistem set by management of the business entity, banks or other institutions for examination, evaluation and reporting function of accounting and other controls in operation. Internal audit is introduced in order to improve the decisions of managers or to satisfy statutory requirements. Institute of Internal Audit in the UK, apart from this definition, the internal template defines as an independent activity in the corporate assessment of the operation, established as a service office of the corporation. It is a control function that works by evaluating the adequacy and effectiveness of other controls and supervision. From these definitions can freely conclude that the primary task of Internal Audit, through sight and evaluation to assess the activities of the business entity, to provide adequate assistance to owners and management of the business entity in order to more effectively engage them to perform undertaken professional activities. For this goal to be achieved, the internal audit of users of this type of service offers numerous analyzes, suggestions, recommendations, advice and information directly related to activities subject to internal audit. Do Private Savings Offset Public Savings in Turkey? Muhittin Kaplan1, Hüseyin Kalyoncu, Hasan Göcen1 1Meliksah University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kayseri, Turkey 2Meliksah University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of International Trade and Business, Kayseri, Turkey Email: mkaplan@meliksah.edu.tr, ,hkalyoncu@meliksah.edu.tr,hgocen@meliksah.edu.tr Abstract The issue of whether public savings offset private savings, and visa vice, has important implications for the effectiveness of fiscal policy. This study examines long-run relationship between public and private savings rates using annual Turkish data for the period 1975-2005. The result of Engle-Granger cointegration test has shown that there is no long-run relationship between private and public savings ratios. However,once endogenously determined structural break is allowed, the test results confirm the existence of the cointegration relationship between private and public savings. Econometric estimation of the offset coefficients using both FMOLS and DOLS yields values of between -0.11 and -0.82. The results also indicate that the potency of fiscal policy significantly reduced with the liberalization of financial markets. 230 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Keywords: Savings, Offset coefficient, Ricardian Equivalence, DOLS, FMOLS. JEL Classificiation: E6, H6, E21. 1. INTRODUCTION The relationship between private and public savings has been central issue in both the theoretical and the empirical literature. The importance of the subject stems from the fact that the effectiveness of fiscal policy is closely related to the responsiveness of private saving to changes in fiscal stance. The relationship between lower public deficits and national savings, however, remains controversial both theoretically and empirically. Theoretically, while Keynes (1936) assumes no relationship between private and public savings, Friedman (1957) and Modigliani (1946) develop models showing full substitution between private and public savings.Barro (1974) also introduced the notion of perfect substitutability between private and public savings, which is called RicardianEquivalence Proposition (REP). Although there area number of opposing views in the theoretical literature, ultimately, it is an empirical issue to determine the extent to which private savings offset public savings. In the empirical literature, the relationship between private and public savings is investigated for different countries using different econometric methodologies. However, there is no consensus over the size offset coefficient (for a survey see Seater, 1993, Holmes 2006 and Ricciuti 2007). Studies on advanced economies have shown that about half of the change in public savings is offset by an opposite change in private saving (Masson et. al. (1998); Hemming et. al. (2002); Holmes (2006); Mandal and Payne (2007); Seater and Mariano (1985); Leiderman and Razin (1988); Makin and Narayan (2009); De Castro andFernandez (2009)). Although empirical studies are limited in number, offset coefficients were found to be higher for developing countries than for developed countries (Loayza et. al. (2000); Lopez et. al. (2000); De Mello et. al.(2004); Edwards (1996); Masson et. al. 1998; Bulir and Swiston (2009)). This study provides evidence on the validity of the REP by applying powerful econometric techniques of DOLS and FMOLS to time series data a developing country, Turkey. This paper is organized as follows. Section II sets out the econometric methodology and the data employed in this study. Section III presents the results. Section IV concludes. 2. Methodology and Data Empirical studies on testing the REP estimate the following model: (1) where refers to private sector savings as a proportion of GDP, is public sector savings as a ratio to GDP; is the long-run public-private offset (substitution) coefficient is the intercept term and represents usual error term. takes value between 0 (no offset) and 1 (full offset). If , then a decrease in public sector savings is fully offset by an increase in private sector savings. 231 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The data employed in our empirical analysis is an annual private and public sector as a percentage of GDP obtained from State Planning Organization (SPO) publications for the years 1975 and 2005. Before estimating the long-run offset function given in equation (1), we first need to investigate the time series properties of the private and public sector saving ratios. Results obtained from unit root tests which are performed to determine whether savings variables have a unit root are presented in Table 1a (ADF, DF-GSL, PP, KPSS and ERS unit root tests) and Table 1b (Ng-Perron). Examination of the Tables show that the null hypothesis of unit root could not be rejected for both private and public sector savings ratios. Table 1a. Unit Root Test Results PSR GSR Constant Constant and Trend Constant Constant and Trend ADF -1.432876 -1.133958 -1.473065 -2.322051 DF-GLS -1.367547 -1.595668 -1.384922 -1.798766 PP -1.454917 -1.253357 -1.479741 -1.480789 KPSS 0.538798 0.110454 9.029962 0.380299 ERS 8.002194 13.83224 8.084297 12.96383 Note: ADF, DF-GSL, PP, KPSS and ERS stand for Augmented Dickey-Fuller (1979), Phillips Perron (1988), Elliot, Rothenberg, and Stock (1996), Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt and Shin (1992), Elliot, Rothenberg, and Stock point optimal (ERS, 1996) unit root tests. Table 1b. Ng-Perron Unit Root test Results MZa MZt MSB MPT PSR -3.24375 -1.25975 0.38836 7.53622 GSR -3.23349 -1.27022 0.39283 7.57531 Asymptotic critical values*: 1% -13.8000 -2.58000 0.17400 1.78000 5% -8.10000 -1.98000 0.23300 3.17000 10% -5.70000 -1.62000 0.27500 4.45000 Note: The number of lags used in Ng-Perron (2001) unit root test is determined by Schwarz Information Criteria (SIC) and turned out to be zero for all specifications. Having established that private and public savings ratios are I(1) variables, we need to test for cointegration between private and public savings to avoid spurious regression.To determine whether there is long-run relationship among these variables, the Engle-Granger (1987) methodology is employed. Testing for cointegration within this methodology involves 232 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo extracting the residuals from equation (1) and testing for unit root in residuals. The EngleGranger bivariate cointegration equation and the ADF tests applied to residuals are reported in Table 2. The optimal lag determined by using Schwarz and Akaike information criteria turned out to be zero. The cointegration test statistic is -2.086 with a probability value of 0.251 implying non-rejection of the null of unit root in residuals. Hence, there appears to there is no long-run relationship between private and public sectors savings ratios. Table 2. Engle- Granger Cointegration Test Dependent Variable PSR ADF test statistics (probability): Constant GSR 20.157 -1.009 (0.531)* (0.101)* -2.086 (0.251) Test Critical values: 1% level -3.671 5% level -2.964 10% level -2.621 Note: The values in parenthesis are standard errors. * indicate significant at 1% level. However, the residual based cointegration tests have a low power in the presence of a structural break (Gregory and Hansen, 1996). For this reason, we applied Gregory-Hansen cointegration procedure to test whether there is long-run relationship among private and public savings. Specifically, Gregory and Hansen (1996) provide the following three structural break alternatives given by equations (2a-2c): (2a) (2b) (2c) where D represents a dummy variable equal to 0 if is less than or equal to unknown timing of change , otherwise it is equal to one; is time trend; other variables are defined as before. The first cointegration regression (2a) is allowed to have a level break, the second model includes level shift and time trend and third model includes regime shift variable. Given that the structural break point is unknown, Gregory-Hansen procedure involves computing the cointegration test statistics for each possible break and taking the minimum 233 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo test statistics (ADF test) across all possible break points. That is, the break point is unknown and determined by finding the minimum value for the ADF statistic. The Akaike Information criterion (AIC) is used to determine the number of lags of the change in the residual used in computing the ADF statistic and turned out to be zero for all three models. The results of the Gregory-Hansen Cointegrationprocedure for all specifications indicate that the null of no cointegration is rejected with an endogenous break year of 1989. The ADF statistics for equations (2a-2c) are -5.082, -5.34836 and -5.15361 respectively and they are statistically significant at 5 percent level. 3. Empirical Results Having found evidence of cointegration and having established that private and public saving are I(1), the equations (2a-2c) are estimated using the Dynamic OLS (DOLS) proposed by Stock and Watson (1993) and the FMOLS proposed by Phillips and Hansen (1990). The results obtained from FMOLS and DOLS estimators are presented in Tables 3a-3c. Examination of the Tables indicates that while the FMOLS coefficients of offset (betas) ranges between -0.82 and -0.46, the DOLS coefficients of betas ranges from -0.74 to -0.11 yielding a partial offset.For models (2a) and (2b), coefficient on government savings is statistically significant at 1% level. However, the offset coefficient is insignificant in the model (2c). The long-run offset coefficient estimated by FMOLS (DOLS) is -0.458 (-0.11) but they are both statistically insignificant. However, there was statistically significant (at 5% level) change in the slope coefficient, , after 1989 for DOLS estimates. Thus allowing for the slope change in the regime shift specification in the DOLS case, the long-run coefficient is -0.72 ( . The structural break dummy, D, is significant across alternative estimates implying the presence of structural break in the data. Taken together, the results show that a structural break did occur in the long-run relationship between private and public saving in 1989. Table 3a. FMOLS and DOLS Estimates for Level Shift Model, 1975-2005 Constant GSR D FMOLS DOLS 16.129 15.734 (1.002)* (0.682)* -0.709 -0.741 (0.129)* (0.0967)* 5.112 5.377 (1.268)* (0.891)* Note: *, **, *** indicate significance at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively. The values in parenthesis are standard errors. 234 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Table 3b. FMOLS and DOLS Estimates for Level Shift with trend Model, 1975-2005 Constant GSR D TREND FMOLS DOLS 18.263 13.892 (1.310)* (1.393)* -0.819 -0.577 (0.124)* (0.148)* 7.320 4.693 (1.503)* (1.049)* -0.193 0.137 (0.084)** (0.088) Note: See the note in Table 3a. Table 3c. FMOLS and DOLS Estimated for Regime Shift Model, 1975-2005 Constant GSR D DGSR FMOLS DOLS 14.571 11.685 (2.977)* (2.263)* -0.458 -0.109 (0.462) (0.349) 6.627 9.355 (3.032)** (2.318)* -0.268 -0.613 (0.483) (0.322)** Note: See the note in Table 3a. 4. Concluding Comments This study examines the long-run relationship between private and public sector saving ratios using FMOLS and DOLS methodologies. Empirical findings of this study can be summarized as follows. First, there is no long-run relationship between private and public savings unless 235 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo endogenous structural break in the cointegration relationship is allowed in Turkish case. Secondly, the extent of offset coefficients ranges from -0.82 to -0.11 supporting weak form of Ricardian equivalence. Statistically significant change in the slope coefficient in DOLS case also shows that the substitution (offset) between private and public savings are stronger after 1989. This point is particularly worth mentioning because financial repression in Turkish economy was fully removed at this date. Thirdly, the results of the paper suggest that the effectiveness of fiscal policy implementations by the government has decreased significantly after achieving financial liberalization in 1989.The statistically significant and relatively large coefficient ( ) on regime shift variable can be taken as an evidence for this argument. REFERENCES Makin, A. J. and P. K.Narayan (2009), “How Potent is FiscalPolicy in Australia?”,Australian Conference of Economicsts, 1-24. Barro, R. (1974),“Are government bonds net wealth?”,Journal of Political Economy, 81, 1095-1117. Bulir, A. and A. Swiston (2009),“Emerging Market CountriesDon’tbelieve in fiscalstimuli: Should web lame Ricardo?”, Czech Journal of Economicsand Finance, 59: 153-164. De Castro, F. and J. L. Fernandez (2009), “Therelationshipbetweenpublicandprivatesaving in Spain: DoesRicardianEquivalenceHold”, Banco De EspanaWorkingPaper Seriesno: 0923. De Mello, L. And P. M. Kongsrud, and R. Price (2004), “Savingbehaviourandtheeffectiveness of fiscalpolicy”, EconomicsDepartmentWorkingPaper, no. 397. Dickey, D. A. and W. A. Fuller (1979), “Distribution of theestimatorsforautoregressive time serieswith a unitroot”, Journal of theAmerican Statistical Association, 74:427-431. Edwards, S. (1996), “Why are Latin American’s savings so low? An international comparative analysis”, Journal of Development Economics, 51:5-44. Elliot, G. and T. J. Rothenberg and J. H. Stock (1996), “Efficient tests for an autoregressive unit root”, Econometrica, 64: 813-836. Engle, R. F. and C. W. J. Granger (1987), “Co-integration and Error Correction: Representation, estimating and testing”, Econometrica, 55: 251-276. Friedman, M. (1957), A Theory of the consumption function, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. Gregory, A. W. and B. E. Hansen (1996), “Residual based tests of cointegration in models with regime shifts”, Journal of Econometrics, 70: 99-126. Hemming, R. and M. Kell and S. Mahfouz (2002),“The effectiveness of fiscal policy in stimulating economic activity”, IMF Working Paper, WP/02/208, IMF. Holmes, M. J. (2006), “To what extent are public savings offset by private savings in the OECD”, Journal of Economics and Finance, 30:285-296. Keynes, J. M. (1936),“The general theory of employment, interest and money”, Macmillan, Houndsmills, UK. 236 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Kwiatkowski, D. P. C. B. Phillips, P. SchmidtandY. Shin (1992), “Testingthenullhypothesis of stationaryagainstthealternative of a unitroot”, Journal of Econometrics, 54:159-178. Leiderman, L.,and A. Razin (1988), “TestingRicardianneutralitywith intertemporalstochastic model”, Journal of Money, CreditandBanking, 20:1-21. an Loayza, N. and K. Schmidt-Hebbel, and L. Serven (2000), “What drives private saving across the World?”, Review of Economics and Statistics, 82:165-181. Lopez, J. H. and K. Schmidt-Hebbel, and L. Serven (2000), “How effective is fiscal policy in raising National saving?”,Review of Economics and Statistics, 82:226-238. Mandal, A. and J. E. Payne (2007), “The long-run relationship between private and public savings: an empirical note”, Journal of Economics and Finance, 31: 99-103. Masson, P. and T. Bayoumi and H. Samici (1998),“International evidence on the determinants of private saving”, World Bank Economic Review, 12:483-501. Modigliani, F. (1946),“Life cycle, individual thrift and the wealth of nations”, American Economic Review, 76, 297-313. Ng, S. and P. Perron (2001), “Lag length selection and the construction of unit root tests with good size and power”, Econometrica, 69(9):1519-1554. Phillips, P. C. B. and E. E. Hansen (1990), “Statistical inference in instrumental variable regression with I(1) processes”, Review of Economic Studies, 57, 99-125. Phillips P. C. B. and P. Perron (1988), “Testing for a unit root in time series regression”, Biometrica, 75:335-346. Ricciutti, R. (2003),“Assessing Ricardian Equivalence”, Journal of Economic Surveys, 17:5578. Seater, J. (1993), “Ricardian Equivalence”, Journal of Economic Literature, 31, 142-90. Seater, J.,and R. S. Mariano (1985), “New tests of the cycleandtaxdiscountinghypotheses”, Journal of MonetaryEconomics, 15: 195-215. life Stock, J. H. and M. W. Watson (1993),“A simple estimator of cointegrating vectors in higher order integrated systems”, Econometrica, 6: 783-820. 237 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1299 Title A name given to the resource Do Private Savings Offset Public Savings in Turkey? Author Author Muhittin, Kaplan Abstract A summary of the resource. The issue of whether public savings offset private savings, and visa vice, has important implications for the effectiveness of fiscal policy. This study examines long-run relationship between public and private savings rates using annual Turkish data for the period 1975-2005. The result of Engle-Granger cointegration test has shown that there is no long-run relationship between private and public savings ratios. However,once endogenously determined structural break is allowed, the test results confirm the existence of the cointegration relationship between private and public savings. Econometric estimation of the offset coefficients using both FMOLS and DOLS yields values of between -0.11 and -0.82. The results also indicate that the potency of fiscal policy significantly reduced with the liberalization of financial markets.Keywords: Savings, Offset coefficient, Ricardian Equivalence, DOLS, FMOLS. JEL Classificiation: E6, H6, E21 Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/18e3b47ae3d84bb5cb5643b0020a06c0.pdf 590b65c732f9a8d17dcb0e6bafe1528e Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3251 Title A name given to the resource Do Size and Origin Matter? Evidence from the Banking Market of Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author MEMIĆ, Deni MEMIĆ, Nedim PAŠIĆ, Sanela Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper supports research activities related to the performances of banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Observing diversified, decentralized and inhomogeneous banking market of Bosnia and Herzegovina arises questions such as whether large banks are better than small banks or whether foreign owned banks are better than locally owned banks. The main purpose of this study is to compare banks of different size and ownership origin in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The dataset includes 162 bank-years data and 24 financial ratios. The results show that small banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina have significantly higher net interest margin and are better capitalized than large banks. Large banks, however earn almost double interest revenue per employee compared to small banks. Foreign banks are significantly larger compared to local banks. It is also possible to discriminate between banks of different size and origin based on their financial performance. Keywords: Bosnia and Herzegovina, banking, profitability, efficiency, size and origin Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed DOI Digital object identifier doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECOSS16616 Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 1986 – 8502, HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/74cca6b6c7c7834fe07d36df712b9d5c.pdf c7ab76c9550f1535eefeacf8cc154bd5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Do we need a specific grammar for non-canonical expressions? A description and analysis of definitions of some NC constituents José M. Oro Cabanas Departmento de inglés y alemán. Universidade de Santiago de Compostela e-mail: josemanuel.oro@usc.es Abstract: Needless to say that from a linguistic point of view a clear and cut distinction between canonical and non-canonical expressions is to be made for language explanations but especially for translation analyses, due to the fact that a good number of realizations belonging to the Gray Areas (GA) of language may arise from recurrent combinations of specific types of combined lexical items. The resultant lack of interaction between L1 propositions and L2 representations, identical or not, is often explainable and clarified by the Error Analysis (EA) method. Data collected and analysed here for this presentation have been chosen at hazard from different sources. Key words: error analysis, canonical expressions, non-canonical expressions, collocations, idiomatic expressions, identity, equivalence, adequacy, diversity, linguistic, socio-cultural, world referents, linking, cohesion. Introduction As the title of this theoretical and analytical proposal indicates, it is our intention to clarify some controversial aspects of linguistic behaviour within the field of the gray areas of language, to give light both to understand theoretical proposals and to contribute and correct practical deviations in his type of language realisations. This study is based upon a corpus of present day English. We have analysed the general and more specific behaviour of idiomatic expressions, considering either their semantic or formal different linguistic nature. All data have been taken at random, from the Sunday Times and Internet sources. Some oral productions which I have heard at some time or other while in England, have been included but they are not representative, since not all data included in the corpus have not been recorded. It is our intention to provide linguistic explanations of Non-canonical Phrases and illustrations of their formal, functional and semantic behaviour. State of the art For the purpose of this study we need to clarify what do we understand by canonical and non-canonical expressions. In English, for example, lame is a simple word or a simple lexical unit of adjectival nature which begins with a different sound than fame or with a different second sound than lane but which rhymes with them and it means someone having a deformed leg and duck contains the same final consonantal sound as pack and as park, but they differ on their vowel phonemes and their initial consonantal segments, and means a type of swimming bird lamed in one leg, but when we say that Bill Clinton behaved as a LAME DUCK in his affair with M. L., it seems a bit difficult for natives and especially for non-native to predict the meaning of the whole out of the meaning of the parts, as what it means is [ineffectual person, one who has no power to bring about change]. This kind of knowledge of the vocabulary belongs to the study of the mental lexicon, an area which has, over the years gradually emerged from obscurity to occupy a central stage in the study of language. The expressions of all levels which show some kind of formal or semantic atypical deviation might be considered non-canonical. This items can be organized in groups forming new lexical items by extension and movement far from canonicity at least from a semantic point of view. In English grammars, these expressions are often referred to, among other labels, as: idiomatic expressions and figures of speech. They are usually the very last result of linguistic involution with cognition and they represent the most advanced linguistic representations elaborated by mental processes, resulting in realisations of the type a), and resulting from processes such as those in b) 2 a) Idioms, collocations, figures of speech (metaphors, etc.) Some are far from formal canonical representations and others, though formally canonical, are far from the basic meaning of the words composing the resulting lexical unit. 700 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo b) and also the misuse of the language, expansion, movement & enlargement of basic meanings, the tendency to economise, etc. They include a great variety of linguistic realisations, showing both typical and atypical behavior as far as word order and meaning are concerned, such as: idioms, proverbs, sayings, collocations, inner terms, etc. Some scholars distinguish between canonical expressions or free combinations, and non-canonical expressions (including in the latter are collocations or in Chomsky's terminology loose associations between words and also those items characterised by showing some sort of either formal or/and semantic idiomacity). Besides, terminology varies according to the different linguistic levels under which language was/ is and will be analysed. Thus, canonical expressions refer to regularity of behaviour and non-canonical expressions to irregularity and in most situations to idiomacity. Besides there is a formal view and a semantic view of language which is to intervene in their analysis. It is a general idea that description of language and linguistics is a technical activity consisting in a system for choosing, realising and signalling meanings as result of linguistic behavior, through formal realisations, following either canonical patterns or belonging to the gray areas of language. Due to several aspects that will be analysed all along this paper, a rule-based description of the facts is very difficult as cause-time effects change the language. The evolution and reactions of the individuals conforming the society itself have a lot to do with it as well. As is well-known, the English language, as well as many other languages, varies in space (USA, Australian, African and other Englishes of the world). Besides, variation in situation has to be taken into account as different rolls change linguistic realisations in the home, office, police station, park, etc. given rise to hurried, unhurried and formal spoken realizations and also to written counterparts in certain situations. Lexical variation [Morphological, Syntactical and Semantic variation], according to style or even location seems to be normal though sometimes unnatural. In this sense you can buy a condom, French letter - prophylactic rubber - sheath - condom - Durex in Britain and other English spoken places but you might buy a frenchie1 using colloquial Australian English, a hypochoristic form from French which makes the word condom be considered of the nature of a pet name. This way of showing pejorative connotations denote an irregular behaviour, very often capricious of the community to express situations through language data and this type of actuation is what is provided by concrete manifestations of language as far as arbitrariness and unsystematic procedures are concerned. Besides, all this deserves a specific treatment that would make a theory of lexicon meeting levels of adequacy more and more complex. Thus, we will be immersed within the concept of appropriateness rather than correctness considering that languages vary in time, space and situation, analysing inherent properties in English and specific difficulties which arise during the process of translation to other languages. Research shows, on the one hand, that language expressions which follow canonical patterns, morphologic general patterns to form the items which composed them, cover a wide variety of meanings within the same pattern through common syntactic processes such us substitution, addition, deletion, elision, combination andtransformation. NonCanonical expressions, on the other hand, do usually show a much more restricted behaviour from a lexical point of view. In the tradition, NCs are conditioned by their idiomatic nature and they are treated as irregular items. In some cases they cannot be altered; in other cases their meaning cannot be deduced adding together the meaning of the items that compose that piece of language. Non-canonicity moves from word-level to phrase and clause level; some of the latter labels have to be treated as proper lexical items, at least from a semantic point of view. They often show formal irregularities of specific performances which block the general behaviour of similar canonical patterns. A great many of them do not usually affect the use of normal language (written and spoken); they are most often used for literary purposes and they are often included under the general term: figures of speech. 1 Frenchie (plural Frenchies) 1.Alternative spelling of Frenchy. 2. (Dated) (Australian) a condom, abbreviated form of French letter. Retrieved from "http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Frenchie" 3 And the question is, are these expressions so abundant and complex in the English language to deserve a specific treatment at least for advanced native and non-native students of English? Do we really need specific grammar books, essays or a thorough research on opaque idiomatic expressions? Should grammars be categorised as canonical and non-canonical, assigning the former for elementary levels and the latter for advanced students? In the last decade some scholars have intended to grammaticalise differently the spoken medium from the written medium; others have suggested the need of specific grammars for different standard representations. In general, we can say that non-canonical expressions are structure dependent on fixed canonical patterns from a formal point of view and that the same canonical structure can be subject to various formal modifications and to semantic expansion. Canonical expressions, however, are used as units of form and meaning showing certain limitations at some or all lexical levels, Method of the Study 701 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The central core of research for this descriptive study is the morphological, syntactic and semantic blocking of general principles applied to canonical expressions in English, or as it might be called in traditional references focusing on grammar behaviour, especially in relation to 'the breaking off the rules‘ concerning a good number of realisations and the specific behavior of non-canonical lexical items. The fact that languages can be considered of unlimited linguistic production leads us to distinguish noncanonical expressions from regular expressions. A regular expression is a pattern that describes a set of strings. In concrete manifestations of language regular expressions are constructed in a similar way to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine smaller expressions. For example, a sentence is said to be canonical if it follows the normal patterns that a language follows; thus, it might consist of a predicate (the essential constituent), and the sometimes optional ones, the subject and complement. At the level of phrase that constituent which contains or is not restricted to include the normal constituents the various types of phrases do accept. At the level of word, those realisations following the conventional rules of formation. Lexical items at any of the levels above, which do not follow formal or semantic conventional parameters, are considered to belong to the gray areas of language and to be non-canonical from either a formal or a semantic point of view. Though they can be considered to be of irregular nature, they do not belong to the field of irregularities already incorporated into the language. From the point of view of teaching, this field in general, has not been exhaustively analysed since it has been maintained as something that has to be learnt by heart. This is probably true, due to the fact that attention has been paid to form, and to internal meaning deciphering, but not to internal grammatical understanding. It is our purpose to provide new ways of focusing the treatment of these structures in combination. To prepare this study the following steps have been followed: -to-date data in Mass Media (written and oral data) and other sources, such as recording spontaneous oral data, lectures, and TV material. linguistic levels and some of the main ways of focusing them. order to have information about the number of occurrences. g them into general or specific principles State of the art Until now, formal canonical expressions, with the exception of a great number of atypical semantic deviations, would depend on grammar centrality as interpreted during the classical and Chomsky‘s earlier period. Ross (1967), for example, proposed several syntactic constraints on the operation of grammatical rules. Constraints 4 on canonical expressions have been stated either in purely syntactic terms, which reflect organising principles apparently unique to grammar that are assumed to be universal or applying in semantic concepts, especially those concerned with meaning interpretation. Within the GAs of language, constituents that form lexical modules proper in their own right, at least from a semantic scope, do often range from a transparent or semi-transparent interpretability to the totally opaque one. Especially the latter, are formed by units which very often present problems for internal interpretation, due to the fact that they are normally fixed expressions, which are not frequently used, that refer to very specific and concrete actuation of a community or of individuals in a community. Canonical expressions are regular expressions. A regular expression is a pattern that describes a set of strings. Regular expressions are constructed analogously to arithmetic expressions, by using various operators to combine smaller expressions. These expressions –from a lower to a higher rank- follow general formation, realisation and functional patterns, either alone or in combination. In general, they do not present problems neither for the native users at any linguistic level nor for foreigners understanding of most constructions during the learning process. They normally range from basic and transparent communicative messages to semi-transparent interpretable realisations. They constitute essential basic communicative constructions for all or most communities, as shown in table 1 SUBJECT Verb Indirect Object Direct Object ENGLISH I BROUGHT YOU [FOR YOU ------THIS MATERIAL SPANISH 702 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ESTE MATERIAL (YO) TRAJE [OS ]PARA VOSOTROS--GALICIAN (EU) TROUXENVOS ESTE MATERIAL RUMANIAN TI-AM ADUS TI-¿ ACEST MATERIAL Table 1: Sentence pattern IV The corpus of data Put at its simplest, the data, object of this study, were the result of an exhaustive and contrastive reading as well as of the analysis of different textual sources. Examples for this study were culled from daily press mass media and oral sources chosen at hazard, at an initial stage, ing should distinguish specific principles from general ones or rules, rences, which could reject this hypothesis. The corpora in GA are being annotated at various levels and in two mediums to enhance their value in linguistic research. At the written level, reportage‘s from Internet: The Sunday Times and other Internet sources, prose and poetry literary texts and students' essays have been analysed. Annotations include the following types of noncanonical pieces of language inserted in canonical texts and they are tagged for word class: o Idioms (I): (Transparent (T); Opaque (O), Extended from or in relation to a Canonical referent (ECR) o Clishés (CL) o Non-canonical expressions proper or inner terms (NC) o Collocations (CO) At the spoken level, casual conversations, Academic lectures and some TV programmes have been and will be taken into account for this purpose, of which only a few samples have been recorded for this purpose; Some instances have been recorded but the majority of them were transcripted directly. The tagset is largely based on the way Quirk et al (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language has presented canonical realisations, and previous works on statistical data, as well as those of Cofer (1975), Oro (1987, 1988,1989) and Biber et all (1999) The Longman Grammar of English.5 The main intention is to propose a suitable method to study the gray areas of language and through this contribute to interpret some of the inherent features of this type of expressions. The unscripted data to be analysed thoroughly in order to select scripted data were selected at random in order to avoid subjectivity and conditioning. Put at its simplest it is our purpose to propose a clear idea in the sense Pierce2 1878: 286 has put it, of the behavior of some of these units of language which might behave as lexical items proper from a semantic point of view, from a formal point of view or both. Table nº 1 labels the sources used for the selection of one of the types of items of our corpus of data and shows the number of occurrences of one of the four types of lexical items, idioms, compiled and studied for this purpose. Those showing an opaque semantic nature have been distinguished from those with a semi-transparent nature (see tables 3, 4 & 5). The connection between the frequency of the different types of non-canonical expressions presented in spoken and/or in the written medium reflects their difference in use as well as their complexity and their importance for instructional or informative purposes. IDIOMS Spoken Texts (70) Dialogues (20) Private (10) face-to-face conversations 6 Public (10) classroom lessons broadcast discussions 10 4 703 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Monologues (50) Unscripted (20) spontaneous commentaries demonstrations 15 5 Scripted (30) Broadcast film broadcast talks non-broadcast speeches 7 11 12 Written Texts (430) Non-printed (45) Non-professional writing (45) student essays student examination scripts internet mail 15 10 20 Printed (100) Non-Academic writing Reportages The Sunday Times & internet sources (239) CRYING OF A LOT PRAIRIE SKETCHES Idioms at clause level (73) (RP) Daily press ( RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 26 47 0 0 Idioms at word level (6) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 3 3 0 0 Idioms at phrase level (24) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 24 0 0 704 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 0 Verbs and particles (86) (RP) Daily press (RI) Internet (INS) Daily press (INS) Internet 66 14 0 16 Creative writing --20Idioms at clause level Idioms at word level Idioms at phrase level 10 0 10 Table 2: sample of the corpuses studied for unit one 2 A clear idea is defined as one which is so apprehended that it will be recognized wherever it is met with, and so that no other will be mistaken for it. If it fails of this clearness, it is said to be obscure. 6 Sampling selected at hazard The corpus contains samples of speech (SD) and writing (S.T. /CDI) by both males and females, and it includes a wide range of age groups. The following behave, belonging to our spoken corpus of data, very much in the same way, at least from a semantic point of view. Some of them, for example number 7 below, no doubt, do block the general morphological rules of language behavior, as far as the formation of verbs is concern. 1. You put all your generative knowledge before the horses, etc. (SD) 2. Many kids who run away from unhappy homes discover they‘ve jumped out of the frying pan and into the fire. (S. T.) 3. a) You know, he is at it again but he really wants you know just to sit down (SD) b) Like they just talk about how they both feel a) Out of the frying pan into the deep freeze this time 4. Teaching at the local college is his bread and butter. 5. Unemployment and taxes are the bread and butter issues of this campaign. [CDI] 6. At the moment, she says, all Saints are flavour of the week (S.T. teen. 8-9:11) 7. You can chomsky-adjoin the sentence now. In spite of being grammatically peripheral and somewhat or completely idiomatic, they form part of language and they make us believe that some of them will probably have their own place in grammars in a near future. Table III, below, includes examples of non-canonical expressions or inner terms from a formal point of view. They include expressions which might be considered by some as atypical expressions or even errors from a grammatical point of view. In general, they are specific realizations which block realizations considered to be canonical. Thus, considering these realizations, a common question arises: is a new grammar needed for spoken and/or informal writing? The number of occurrences, as shown in table 1, and examples used in this paper will prove that there is a tendency to use utterances which do not follow the common patterns grammars of English tend to teach us: *I seen him, etc. Spoken language Sources Examples (The Devil‘s own) 8 Sheila, pass the vegetables, please. -Yes. May I serve you? 9 Because they say the word peace, you know, but end of the day all they want is surrender. 10 -D´you wanna know what´s the single biggest problem trying to raise money 705 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in this country? 11 -How much time? -Six, eight weeks. Written language Poetry (Prarie Sketches: 64) 12My Sara is as rare as Indian Pearl! Internet & Non academic writing 13Don't have the cable hook-up yet? http://www.lfmn.com/r/sr.asp?u=100374762&v=4911&s=73&url=1&p=13&c=6 033 14A new ABCNEWS poll finds patients‘ rights and Social Security outranking taxes and gun control. 15What's going on at the OTA http://www.hcu.ox.ac.uk/ota/public/index.shtml (Saturday , 11th. September, 1999) 16What's up? 17What's up with 9/9/99? 18What about my cup of tea? 19 I seen him (student‘s essays, grammar sampling, etc.) [Reportages, Daily press] 20 the number of five to seven-year-olds in large classes, (...) (S.T. 26th December) 21 The Roslin researchers say that overall their results show that (...) (S.T. 26th Dec.) 22 (...) but it is a fraud on a consumers. (S.T. 26th December) 23 Villa continued to create the better opportunities, and (...)(Sport,p.1).(S.T.8Nov.1998) Table3: examples & sources The examples in table 3 show salient deviations from normal linguistic patterns and as Quirk and Startvik (1966), among others, would indicate, they do not form part of a ‗linguistic core‘, as for they would block general linguistic patterns of structures and vocabulary applied to use. 7 Findings and Discussion In this part of the study, questions concerning whether the grammaticality, acceptability and potentiality in use of some of the expressions included can, of course, be formulated and discussed. A good number of expressions of various ranks (word, phrase, sentence) of idiomatic nature or showing formal irregularities have been found and incorporated to our data corpus.. Among the former the following types will be briefly analysed here: - Idiomatic and figurative expressions in general, that is expressions the meaning of which cannot be deduced adding together the separate items which make up that piece of language. Their formal behavior is fixed. Thus, some accept optional modifiers and others do not. They do not accept determiners variability, Plurals take O article. Numeratives are nominalized. The syntactic order cannot be altered. In sum, they cannot be modified by any of the syntactic processes which modify canonical expressions. They include: Proverbs, proverbial expressions, anti-poverbs or preverbs3, Phrasal verbs4 [Phrasal: look after; prepositional: look up; and phrasal-prepositional: look forward to]. Non-canonical expressions proper or inner terms which follow formal canonical patterns or not, such as: (minor sentences : just a minute, ) (what about‘s types) (if only‘s) etc. (NC) expressions include expressions5 of what about's type, as in What about the financial assistance?; expressions like if only (...), as in If only we haven't lost our way; here one needs a type of tense control, but one is free to fill the gaps very freely; For example, Spanish and Galician languages would follow different patterns to represent the identical lexical meaning, a canonical expression in the former and a subjunctive mode in the latter; or even expressions like 'The more (....) the more', whereas, certainly you expects a comparative form as the second constituent as in: The more you ask the less you get or Better for women better for men (S.T. Title of the article: Teen girls urged to admire Role Model Spice) - Collocations: [sequences of words or terms that co-occur more often than would be expected by chance: so as to, by accident, strong tea, heavy drinker, black shoes, etc] The collocational process is a general linguistic process in language behaviour that can be split into: The associational process which ranges from loose to tight lexical units and derives into proper collocations or idiomatic phrases, normally set phrases or compounding. In most occasions they constitute the first step for the compounding resultant state (well known rd 706 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ard-inlaw; bull‘s eye), which is the result of combining two or more words to form a single unit. Clishés; expressions whose basic and conceptual meaning has been lost. They are used as connectors in conversation and their use should be avoided in the written medium, especially in formal language in favour of proper linguistic connectors. These are ready-made expressions but not necessarily idiomatic. From a formal point of view they are usually built up with canonical constituents; However, some are non-canonical expressions in the sense that they block the general principles of grammar, as in A little knowledge is a dangerous thing [kowdlege for learning] or in The Devil can quote Sripture for his purpose [quote for cite] though it can be argued that quote is common in AE, where they don't say cite). Due to semantic variation by extension and movement of meaning a normal canonical expression, or a minor sentence can very easily become clichés when they lose their conceptual meaning and they are applied for a different purpose as in ‗Can I help you?‘ or ‗Good morning!‘. In general, a cliché is a metaphor characterised by its overuse. 3 According to Mieder 1985:119; also in Mieder 1993:24, proverbs, i.e. unchangeable sentences and proverbial expressions, i. e. sentences which permit alterations to fit their grammar [sentences of the folk which contains wisdom, truth, morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorised forms, handed down from generation to generation]; antiproverbs or preverbs [the transformation of a stereotype word sequence – as e. g. a proverb, a quotation or an idiom for humorous effect. To have full effect, an anti-proverb must be based on a known proverb 4 According to Tom McArthur: (...) the term ‗phrasal verb‘ was first used by Loagan Pearsall Smith in ―Words and Idioms‖ (1925), in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested the term to him] 5 Here there can also be included expressions which block the general syntactic principles in relation to canonical expressions, as in: "Historians will look back on this project as most important thing we did (S.T. Chronicle Future, p.12), (...) but it is a fraud on a consumers. (S.T. 26TH DECEMBER) 8 Table 4 shows a good number of items which can be categorised under any of the labels indicated above. Some are considered opaque6 as the meaning cannot be deduced out of their separate parts and others are considered as semitransparent7 as they can be deduced adding together the parts. This is important for both native and non-native speakers. However, non-native speakers would have more problems for contextualisation. Native speakers, in general, do have some sort of probabilistic relationship which might help them to deduce the meaning of both types, opaque and semitransparent, after considering them in detail. TYPE OF ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS TRANSLATION INTO TYPE EXPRESSION MEANING SPANISH GALICIAN IDIOMS Kick the bucket To pass away To die Estirar la pata, palmar Estirar la pata, palmar To be sent to Coventry To be excluded from society Take after To take care, to care Cuidar Coidar COLLOCATIONS Lame duck Inconclusive Patoso Patoso CLISHES Can I help you? High!, Hello! Good morning ¿Qué desea? ¿Qué quere? INNER TERMS What about you? And you? what do you ---- of this, about it? Y tö, que? E tì, qué? Table4 Table 5, below, includes idiomatic units consisting of two or more lexical or grammatical units, which behave formally and/or semantically differently. For example, whereas prepositional verbs, consisting of a verb + a 707 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo preposition which cannot be separated in ‗construtctio‘, as in he is looking after the dog and they need to take a direct object, phrasal intransitive verbs can be separated as in he turned it down. It also includes different types of idiomatic expressions which range from collocations to compounding and in spite of being formed by more than one lexical constituent. The translation into Spanish shows, as well as many other languages, that attending to the basic or conceptual meanings of their collocates might lead to funny realisations in the other language. In spite of this, some are integrated into other languages, especially those used for commercial purposes. There are many cases of calques from English into Spanish but also of loan translations as illustrated with the word for word translation of ‗hotdog‘ into Spanish. Very specific cases which block all the general formal patterns of word-formation are the English resultant noun ‗bull‘s eye‘ unique compound made up 6 Opaque realisations: - can't be deduced adding together the meaning of the parts, [put away/put something where it belongs] - can't be deduced linguistically, as the meaning goes beyond its conceptual meaning. Some can't be deduced through socio-cultural understanding [battling windmills]; They probably have to be learnt as separate lexical units, by heart and the meaning goes back to diachronic meaning, at least that of one of the parts that compose the whole. 7 Transparent realisations: the meaning can be deduced from the separate parts that constitute these pieces of language, [take care/ care] - from an already fixed idiomatic expression by extension [her children had flown the nest/ Flow from one place to another] - from the expansion of a canonical term (...) towers above (One computer manufacturer towers above (=is bigger and more successful than) all the rest). [I usually + adv/prep] from socio-cultural undefined interrelations (nest egg) 9 from a Saxon genitive or the Spanish blended one puenting (bungee jumping), i.e. describing the action, adding the English –ing form to the Spanish noun Puente(bridge). NON- CANONICAL EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH [OF (O) OR (ST) INFORMATION] IDIOMS PHRASAL VERBS LEXICAL ITEMS MEANING O To put away to give up to account for to look into to pass away to take after To put something where it belongs To stop To explain To examine To die To care ST To take care To care SAYINGS O [kick the bucket *kick the enormous bucket] Teaching at the local college is his bread and butter. Bright and breezy Stand head and shoulders over Straight from the horse‘s mouth Flying by the seat of your pants A blind alley (INL) A close shave/call (INL) A red letter day (INL) Pull someone‘s leg To die Basic needs of life To be happy and confident. Clearly superior to someone or something. 708 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Straight from the source, right from the origin. (To do something without planning, (SD)/ Decide a course of action as you go along. -A situation or method that you have tried and discovered to be of no use. (CDI), -(A situation where something unpleasant or dangerous nearly happened. (CDI), -(A day that is very important or very special. (CDI). [informal: to tell someone something that is not true as a way of joking with them] ST Run up a bill and run up a big bill. With friends like these (who needs enemies), To put people on a pedestal‘ To put in prison Still in the darck Be in the blank To be in the red Accumulating a debt friends behave like your worst enemy To admire Imprison Still unsure about it (be operating at a profit) In debt Table 5 (CO)8, a problematic linguistic term is interpreted as a lexicalization of two or more lexical and/or grammatical items put together producing one single unit of meaning. The concept of (CO), which plays an important role in British linguistics where it originated, seems to be vague and neutral in dealing with word classes and to which element acts as to modifier or head. This term, however, is one of the key concepts of functional 8 Even though the invention of the term collocation as applied in linguistics was attributed to Firth and extended by Halliday, the process itself has worried many scholars as mentioned above since classical times. Mellville, A. 1946. Spoken English. An Idiomatic Grammar for foreign students. Edimburg: Oliver and Boyd, (originally designed as a manual of English Grammar for Dutch students), includes a good number of examples with collocates: 1) I have never seen him so out of temper (angry); 2) The violinist is out of the tune (discordant, not in harmony) In fact he concentrates on collocates of various kinds, combined with prepositions, compound conjunctions and verb combinations. Neither must one forget the non-canonicity of certain verbs in English, commonly known as irregulars. 10 grammar proposed by Firth9 and developed by Halliday. Probably we could, even say that it has its origins in wordassociation of the syntactic type in spite of the word-class, due to the fact that they are paradigmatically linked by this process. According to Firth, it seems to be the case that we know a word by the company it keeps and he considers collocation to this 'relationship between words', to be part of its meaning (see also, Palmer 1976: 94ff, Carter 1987: 36 ff. And 48 ff.) In sum, the idea of (CO) is extremely far reaching, and furthermore, the users must realise that some language is deliberately eccentric and creative in that kind of way. Not all languages ( as can be seen in the Spanish translation, in the table below) would use the same formal correlates to represent these semantic lexical units. NON- CANONICAL EXPRESSIONS IN ENGLISH [OF (O) OR (ST) INFORMATION] COLLOCATIONS COLLOCATIONS LEXICAL ITEMS MEANING O Lame duck (patoso *pato cojo) Clever bunny A person or thing that is not able to function properly What a clever boy! ST 709 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fill in the gaps (cubrir los huecos) Solve a problem (solucionar un problema) Cure a decease (curar una enfermedad So as to ( de manera que, para) rough draft (borrador) Fill in the blanks Find a solution, resolve Restore to health, make well. In order to, in order that, so that A plan or sketch COMPOUNDS O Hotdog [perrito caliente] Greenhouse [invernadero] Bull‘s eye [ojo de buey] Frunkfurter sausage in a bun A house where vegetables grow Small circular window or opening ST Dog days (dias de perros) A blind date ( Una cita a ciegas) A blind spot (Un punto ciego) A red-letter day (un dìa especial, memorable) A blind alley (Un callejñn sin salida) Very hot days in summer Date between two people who have never met Area in the retina of the eye which cannot see. A special day A route that leads nowhere, a dead end Table 6 Conclusions and Recommendations On the basis of this empirical research, we can conclude that only some of these expressions are to be considered lexical items proper. The majority of them follow normal formal canonical patterns and meaning may rouse raging from the transparent or semitransparent of the constituents to the totally opaque, or they keep on going with the conceptual meaning. Opaque expressions are more formally restricted than semitransparent ones. Whereas he former would not accept transformation on some way or other the latter can be transformed to widen or reduce the intended meaning. Results show that the collocational process is a general Linguistic process in Language behaviour that can be split into: the associational process and the resultant new lexical units: proper collocations or idiomatic phrases, normally set phrases, but other processes of language are as well involved in. In general this process can be understood as the previous step for compounding, i.e., the movement from syntagmatic relations of language to a paradigmatic state or function. Everyday non-canonical and idiomatic phrases are an integral part of the English language that are used and heard constantly. Some of them are very common phrases widely and frequently used, well understood and generally agreed upon meaning. However, very often, the widely understood meaning of the phrase seems to have nothing to do with the words that compose the phrase and they keep forming a big area of realisations in both oral and written mediums. Given that language is in constant development, they need to be revised constantly in order to incorporate new realisations, but care must be taken, as some only enjoy a certain period of time. Now and thanks to development of technology this task, in spite of its complexity is easy to hold. In general one can assume that those expressions are to be treated independently both for theoretical analysis and for tuition purposes. 710 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Aarts, B. (1997) English Syntax and Argumentation. Newcastle: Modern Linguistic Series Anderson, J. M. (1977) ‗On the formal description of inflection‘. Papers from the thirteenth Regional meeting of the Chicago linguistic society, 15-44. ____________ (1985) Case Grammar and the Lexicon. Ulster: University of Ulster. Anderson, S. R. (1980), ―On the development of morphology from syntax‖, en Historical morphology, pp. 51-69. Aronoff, M. (1976) Word Formation in Generative Grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press Beaugrande, R. and W. Dressler (1981) Introduction to text linguistics. London: Longman. Benson, Morton, Evelyn Benson & Robert Ilson (1986). Lexicographic Description of English; Amsterdam. Bartsch, S. (2004) Structural and Functional Properties of Collocations in English: A Corpus Study of Lexical and Pragmatic Constraints on Lexical Co-Occurrence,. Gunter Narr Verlag. Benson, M. (1989) ‗The Structure of the Collocational Dictionary‘. International Journal of Lexicography, Vol. 2 N1 1: 1-13. Bever, T. G. (1970) ‗The cognitive basis for linguistic structures‘, in Cognition and the Development of Language, pp 279-362, J. R. Hayes (ed.), New York: Wiley, Biber, D. et all. (1999) The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman Bresnan, Joan. 1988. The Mental representations of Grammatical Relations. Cambridge: The Mit Press. Brown, G. (1884) 'Grammar of English Grammars'. Philological Museum, Vol. I. Chafe, W. and D. Tannen. (1987) ‗The relation between written and spoken language‘, Annual Review of Anthropology, 16: 383-407. Cofer, Thomas M. (1975) ‗Performance Constraints on Relative Pronoun Deletion‘, Linguistics 157, 13-32. The Hague: Mouton. Coopans, P. & M. Everaert (1988)The Simplex Structure of Complex Idioms: The Morphological Status of laten. In: Everaert, M., A. Evers, M.A.C. Huybregts, M. Trommelen (red.) Morphology & Modularity. In Honour of Henk Schultink, Dordrecht: Foris Publications, 75-104. Crystal, D. /1971) Linguistics. London: Penguin. _________ 1986. Who cares about English usage? London: Penguin. Dressler, W. (1985) ‗On the predictiveness of natural morphology‘. 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(1982; 1990; 1993) International Proverb Scholarship: An Annotated Bibliography, with supplements. New York: Garland Publishing. Oro Cabanas, J. M. (2008) Some Keynotes on Language, Linguistics and Grammar. Lugo: Unicopia. _______________ (2007. Teorìa lingùìstica y gramatical. Fundamentos claves para su aprendizaje. Lugo: Unicopia. 711 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ________________(2002a.) Current Trends in Linguistics. An English Morphology based Study. Lugo: Unicopia. ________________(2002b.) ‗On the Gray Areas of Language‘, incl. in The teaching of English as a Foreign Language: A European Perspective, pp. 31-63. ________________ (2002c.) ‗A Practical Approach to the Study of Non-canonical Expressions in English‘, incl. in The teaching of English as a Foreign Language: A European Perspective, pp.323-367 Palmer H.E. (1938) A Grammar of English Words. Longmans, Green Peirce, Charles S. (1878) !How to Make Our Ideas Clear!. Popular Science. Monthly 12 (January 1878), 286-302. Quirk, R. (1957) ‗Relative Clauses in Educated Spoken English‘, English Studies 38, 97-109. Quirk, R. y J. Starvik. (1966) Investigating linguistic acceptability. The Hague: Mouton. 12 Statistics (all included) Pages: 11 Words: 5656 Paragraphs: 441 Lines: 924 712 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 105 Title A name given to the resource Do we need a specific grammar for non-canonical expressions? A description and analysis of definitions of some NC constituents Author Author Oro Cabanas, José M. Abstract A summary of the resource. Needless to say that from a linguistic point of view a clear and cut distinction between canonical and non-canonical expressions is to be made for language explanations but especially for translation analyses, due to the fact that a good number of realizations belonging to the Gray Areas (GA) of language may arise from recurrent combinations of specific types of combined lexical items. The resultant lack of interaction between L1 propositions and L2 representations, identical or not, is often explainable and clarified by the Error Analysis (EA) method. Data collected and analysed here for this presentation have been chosen at hazard from different sources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d104cbc29c248fecc7717c125abcba73.pdf 210ee050ce8b70d77e0931479a4b68ca PDF Text Text BİLDİRİ ÖZETLERİ - UTEK 2014 terms of language and style regarding these works which have important information of Turkish language and the history. It will be generally evaluated in this study through language and style in the ghazavatnamahs which are written in 15th and 16th centuries. It will be tried to explain how these works stand out and what similarities and differences they have.) DOBRUCA TATAR TÜRKÇESİNDE HAYVAN ADLARIYLA KURULMUŞ ATASÖZLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME Sinan UYĞUR Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi, Artvin /Türkiye Anahtar Kelimeler: Dobruca Tatar Türkleri, Dobruca Tatar Türkçesi, Atasözleri. ÖZET Asya’nın ortalarından gelip Dobruca’yı yurt tutan Tatar Türkleri, beraberlerinde kültürlerini ve kültürlerinin yansıması dillerini de bu coğrafyaya getirmiş ve kültürlerini ve dillerini burada geliştirip yaşatmaya devam etmişlerdir. Tatar Türklerinin sözlüklerindeki her bir kelime onların geçmişini aydınlatacak bir fener hükmünde olduğu gibi, onların çeşitli mevzularda anlamı güçlendirmek, ifadeyi canlandırmak için kullandıkları deyimler ve özellikle de atasözleri milletin geçirmiş olduğu safahatı gözler önüne sermede yararlanılacak öncelikli kaynaklardan biridir. Bunlardan hayvan isimleri ile kurulmuş atasözleri ise mazide milletin hayvanlar ile olan münasebetini, milletin yaşantısını bunanla birlikte müşahede becerisini yansıtması bakımından önemlidir. Daha da önemlisi bunların Tatar Türklerinin çeşitli kavramlara karşılık bulmada soyutlama becerilerinin ne denli olduğunu ortaya koymasıdır. Bu bildiride Dobruca Tatar Türklerinin atasözleri taranarak elde edilen hayvan isimleriyle kurulmuş atasözleri ve hayvan isimleri çeşitli açılardan değerlendirilecektir. 49 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2715 Title A name given to the resource DOBRUCA TATAR TÜRKÇESİNDE HAYVAN ADLARIYLA KURULMUŞ ATASÖZLERİ ÜZERİNE BİR DEĞERLENDİRME Author Author UYĞUR, Sinan Abstract A summary of the resource. Asya’nın ortalarından gelip Dobruca’yı yurt tutan Tatar Türkleri, beraberlerinde kültürlerini ve kültürlerinin yansıması dillerini de bu coğrafyaya getirmiş ve kültürlerini ve dillerini burada geliştirip yaşatmaya devam etmişlerdir. Tatar Türklerinin sözlüklerindeki her bir kelime onların geçmişini aydınlatacak bir fener hükmünde olduğu gibi, onların çeşitli mevzularda anlamı güçlendirmek, ifadeyi canlandırmak için kullandıkları deyimler ve özellikle de atasözleri milletin geçirmiş olduğu safahatı gözler önüne sermede yararlanılacak öncelikli kaynaklardan biridir. Bunlardan hayvan isimleri ile kurulmuş atasözleri ise mazide milletin hayvanlar ile olan münasebetini, milletin yaşantısını bunanla birlikte müşahede becerisini yansıtması bakımından önemlidir. Daha da önemlisi bunların Tatar Türklerinin çeşitli kavramlara karşılık bulmada soyutlama becerilerinin ne denli olduğunu ortaya koymasıdır. Bu bildiride Dobruca Tatar Türklerinin atasözleri taranarak elde edilen hayvan isimleriyle kurulmuş atasözleri ve hayvan isimleri çeşitli açılardan değerlendirilecektir. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-23 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-582X P Philology. Linguistics,PA Classical philology,PI Oriental languages and literatures,PN Literature (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0d4e6cc0864479e1c3a4931d6a975a11.pdf 860d50573eb6d1f84672e5d4da6d1f7c Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource IT Senior Design Projects Description An account of the resource The IT Senior Design Projects (SDPs) category showcases innovative and practical final-year capstone projects developed by undergraduate and graduate students in the field of Information Technology. These projects represent the culmination of students' academic and technical expertise, demonstrating their ability to solve real-world problems through software and hardware solutions. Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource DOCTOR APPOINTMENT BOOKING SYSTEM Author Author Amna Mutap Abstract A summary of the resource. Access to timely and organized medical care is often hindered by inefficient appointment booking systems, resulting in scheduling conflicts, long wait times, and administrative burden. This project addresses these challenges by developing DocBook, a web-based doctor appointment booking system designed to improve healthcare accessibility and streamline the scheduling process for patients, doctors, and administrators. The system was implemented using a modular, role-based structure that enables patients to search for doctors, view profiles, book or cancel appointments, and make payments online. Doctors can manage their schedules and track appointments, while administrators are provided with tools to oversee users and system activity. Methods included designing user-centered interfaces, applying secure authentication mechanisms, and testing the system through automated end-to-end simulations. Keywords Keywords. healthcare access, appointment scheduling, patient experience, medical administration, online booking system management system sdp software engineering https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4774a8c93fc53e6c55df5e4f6168a701.pdf ea573fb7ece1fb659bd1103ffed77e52 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Does (De)regulation Matter in Financial Crises? Examining the Obama Administration's New Bank Plan Talat ULUSSEVER Dr.,Department of Finance and Economics King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals Dhahran, Saudi Arabia talat@kfupm.edu.sa Recai AKYEL Dr., Office of the President The Turkish Court of Accounts Ankara, Turkey recaiakyel@hotmail.com Yusuf TEKĠN Dr., Faculty of Security Sciences The Police Academy Ankara, Turkey ytekin@pa.edu.tr Abstract: The fact that financial crises have happened with regular intervals and probably will happen in the future in much the same way has attracted great attention on the dynamics of crises from scholars as well as policy makers, and causes and remedies have been intensively discussed in the literature. Some have argued that deregulation of financial markets have significantly contributed to the recent crises, and thus they very much favor for sound regulation on financial markets, especially on big investment banks. Conversely, the other view strongly disfavors the aforementioned vision, and supports the liberal idea that the state should not intervene the market with any tool including the regulation. The objective of this study is to analyze the dynamics of the recent crises, investigate their causes, and discuss whether the states can be held responsible against them in the sense of (de)regulating the markets and ensuring the stability of the system. As a case study, the Obama administration's new bank plan is examined to shed lights on the current discussion. Key words: Financial crisis, (de)regulation, Obama's new bank plan Introduction The recent financial crisis has been widely acknowledged as the most serious one since the Great Depression and thus world financial system, and particularly the world banking system, has been affected as bad as any since the stock market crashes of 1929. Accordingly, banking systems in many countries have suffered from an impaired ability to play their vital role in credit extension to the real economy. Despite the fact that the world political and financial systems, particularly US system, have been tilted in favor of business deregulation and against new rules, the recent global financial crisis that has negatively affected almost whole society has somehow changed the thoughts. Now, governments all over the world, especially the US government, have been forced to intervene in the highflying financial industry to avert an economy-wide crash, which will typically result in an expansion of the government's role in financial markets. Obviously, if not directly entering the market, the government's role in financial markets means more regulations. In other words, the new popular motto is regulation in deregulation out. Needless to say that new regulations should not ignore important concepts like efficiency and effectiveness. 101 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo It is a well-known fact that financial markets, especially banks, are subject to more developed regulatory mechanisms than other sectors of the economy in order to safeguard the public's savings, bring stability to the financial system, and prevent abuse of financial service customers. In fact, banks lie at the heart of the world's financial system and have indispensable functions in business life. In addition, banks play crucial role in the economic life of the nations. The economic performance of the nations, thus, is strongly related to the soundness of their banking systems. Although banks create no new wealth, their borrowing, lending, and related activities facilitate the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of wealth. Consequently, banks are considered as one of the building blocks of the nations' economic development. No need to mention that the size, variety and characteristics of financial transactions may produce awfully harmful effects on the entire economic system, which justify the more developed regulatory and supervisory regime of the banks and financial institutions, with the explicit objective of ensuring the soundness and stability of the system. There are countless examples of how weak or incomplete regulatory mechanism of banks and financial institutions has created dramatic financial, economic, and social problems. However, regulation is still an unpleasant word on many people's eye, especially on managers and stockholders, who often see the rules imposed upon them by the governments as costly, burdensome, and unreasonably damaging to innovation and efficiency. This state of mind with help of some popular concepts of economics and finance, like freedom, efficiency, international competition and economies of scale, gained momentum in 1980's, and the rules of the game in financial arena rather changed in 1990's; more and more financial service regulations were set aside or weakened, and free market place, not government dictation, was relied upon to shape and restrain what financial firms could do. A well-known example is the 1999 Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act, also known as Financial Services Modernization Act. This act removed the regulatory walls of the Glass-Steagall Act, which is an important legislation from the Great Depression era that imposed a number of regulations on financial institutions like separating banking from security trading, underwriting and insurance industry. The objective of this study is to analyze the dynamics of the recent crises, investigate their causes, and discuss whether the states can be held responsible against them in the sense of (de)regulating the markets and ensuring the stability of the system. The remaining part of the paper is as follows: The section 2 briefly discusses the causes and characteristics of the recent crisis. In the third section, bailout debate is presented. The forth section investigates the regulation-deregulation discussion. The Obama's bank plan is scrutinized in the fifth section. Finally, the final section provides concluding remarks. The Recent Financial Crisis: Causes and Characteristics The financial crisis began in early 2006 when the sub-prime mortgage market in the U.S. began to show an increasing rate of mortgage defaults. In late 2006, these defaults led to a decline in US housing prices after nearly a decade of remarkably high growth. By late 2007, the prime mortgage markets were showing higher than normal default rates. Collateralized Mortgage Obligations (CMOs), a type of collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), allowed these problems to spread from the mortgage market to other sectors of the economy, having especially widespread effects on financial markets as a whole. CMOs were mortgage-backed securities issued by investment banks and other financial institutions, which since they were not part of the commercial banking system, were allowed to operate unregulated by the federal government. As the value of mortgages fell owing to increasing default rates, the value of these securities fell as well. The risk significantly increased in the early 2000s as sub-prime loans became the primary mortgage used in securitization. As the housing bubble deflated, many portfolios of these securities fell below book value. Since the big investment banks and large hedge funds were allowed to borrow excessively on the huge margin described in the previous paragraph, the drop in value due to mark to market accounting forced the investment banks to write down the value of the security or portfolio as a defensive measure against even greater losses. The rapid drop in value of securitized assets also forced margin calls as some hedge funds, for example, did not have sufficient additional collateral to protect against the margin call. Creditors who lent money to investment banks required certain margin and capital ratios and refused to extend additional credit to funds or investment banks as the value of their assets dwindled. This is what happened to Bear Stearns, which had to be taken over by JP Morgan with the assistance of the government and to Lehman Brothers, which was forced into bankruptcy. It is also what forced Merrill Lynch to merge with Bank of America and Goldman Sachs and Citigroup to cease to exist as Investment Banks. The credit crisis dramatically collapsed the market cap values of many of the key players in the mortgage industry (whether they made risky loans or not) and in the investment banking community which had successfully securitized all forms of credit for so long. As the table 1 illustrates, investors in these stocks lost over $1 trillion of 102 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo market cap value (these stocks dropped 92% from their mid 2000 value) as a result of the mortgage securitization process based on securitizing risky loans and allowing excessive leverage to acquire such assets. Mortgage Companies Mid 2000s Company Price Fannie Mae Freddie Mac $80 $50 Washington Mutual $45 Mar-09 Shares (mil.) 1000 1400 Mkt Cap Price (mil.) $80,000 $0.40 $70,000 $0.17 Mkt (mil.) $400 $238 1700 $76,500 $0.05 $85 $30,160 $6.00 $3,480 Acquired by Bank of America $1,750 - $55 Bankruptcy Countrywide $52 580 Financial New Century Financial Corp. Investment Banks Mid 2000s Goldman Sachs $240 460 Group Bear Stearns $133 135 Companies Citigroup $52 5450 Merrill Lynch $92 2000 Lehman Brothers $60 689 Other Financial Mid 2000s Institutions Bank of America $52 5000 American $72 2500 International Group Combined Mkt Cap of Above Financial Institutions Cap Notes Government conservatorship Government conservatorship Bankruptcy banking ops sold to J P Morgan Chase Mar-09 $110,400 $100 $46,000 No longer an investment bank $17,955 $2.00 $270 Acquired by J P Morgan Chase $283,400 $184,000 $41,340 $2.00 $6.00 $0.04 $10,900 $12,000 $28 No longer an investment bank Acquired by Bank of America Bankruptcy Mar-09 $260,000 $6.00 $30,000 Received $45B in bailout funds $180,000 $0.35 $875 Received $180 bln in bailout funds $104,331 $1.2 Trillion in Mkt Cap Lost $1,335,505 - Table 1: The Market Capitals of Major Companies Before and After 2008 Crisis Source: http://www.wikinvest.com The problem was augmented by the Credit Default Swap (CDS). CDSs were nominally insurance contracts on CMOs, but they became a tangled web, which dragged the financial system down as sellers of CDSs bought matching CDSs to protect themselves against default risk until nearly all the players in the investment banking market were linked together by these liabilities. Thus, these CMOs and CDSs became the infamous ―toxic assets‖. The defaults in the mortgage markets caused a collapse in the value of the corresponding CMOs, which created a cascade of additional problems as the multitude of CDSs were executed, dragging down the balance sheets of the major players in investment banking. This led to the freezing of private credit markets. Finally, the collapse in value of CMOs lead to a significant problem: since no one was trading CMOs, it was no longer clear what they were worth. The fact that the financial system is based on trust, the evaporation of trust meant that no private financial institution was willing to lend its scarce cash to any other since the former couldn‘t trust that the latter was correctly revealing the extent of its CMO holdings, and neither could be sure what those holdings were worth. These liquidity problems turned to insolvency in September of 2008, when private lending froze completely in a number of important credit markets, such as commercial paper. As a result, non-financial businesses were unable to get access to the financing they required to function normally, leading to problems in the real economy. The real economy began to exhibit problems related to the financial crisis as early as March 2006, when investment expenditure on residential structures began to decline. In early 2008, this decline spread to investment in business equipment and consumer spending on durable goods. It wasn‘t until the summer of 2008 that consumer spending broadly and GDP began falling, signs of a recession. In December 2008, the National Bureau of Economic Research, official arbiter of business cycles dated the formal beginning of the recession as December 2007. While 103 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the public had been concerned about recession for much of the year, it wasn‘t until the fall that the economy began to decline at more than a 6% annual rate. Congress responded by passing the TARP plan to assist failing financial institutions. This plan was meant to decrease the severity of the recession by treating its cause: the financial crisis. The financial crisis and recession in the U.S. spread globally through both financial and trade linkages. Seeing housing prices in the U.S. rising, foreign banks sought opportunities to invest in the U.S. housing market, such as through CMOs issued by investment banks. When the mortgages backing these securities began to fall in value, the value of the securities themselves began to fall. Seeing their asset prices falling, investors attempted to liquidate their holdings beginning in August of 2007. These assets became frozen because of a lack of buyers in the market. As credit became scarce and in response to a lack of confidence in U.S. financial institutions, international banks began to raise the interest rate at which they lent money to one another, known as the LIBOR. Additionally, the economic slowdown in the U.S. led to declining U.S. imports from its major trading partners, the European Union, Mexico and China. When export sales languished, foreign GDPs fell too, spreading the recession worldwide. Despite recent claims that the US is no longer the locomotive of the world economy, the current crisis shows those claims to be false. To summarize the origins of the recent financial crisis step by step 28;  Banks and thrift institutions make mortgages, loans with a piece of real estate as collateral. Mortgages can be sold on a secondary market.  Corporations such as Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae were set up in the 1930s to create a secondary market in mortgages. They would buy mortgages from the banks, then package multiple mortgages and sell them to other lenders, these packages are called, ―mortgage backed securities.‖  The root of the current financial crisis were ―mortgage backed securities.‖ Bundles of ―mortgage backed securities‖ were known as Collateralized debt obligations were also placed on the market  Along with low interest rates and rising house prices, banks and other lenders began making loans to riskier borrowers and requiring less equity from borrowers. The ―risk‖ of these loans could be diversified by bundling many loans in the ―mortgage backed securities  When housing prices began falling the summer of 2007, lenders worried about the credit worthiness of the loans in the bundles they held.  As people began worrying about the credibility of the mortgage backed securities, the price of those bonds fell and interest rates rose. Individuals and institutions who held these bonds thought it was easy to liquidate, but found that they could do so at a loss. Further selling only depressed the price more.  Investment banks including banks and mortgage lenders were more involved in the creation of the ―mortgage crisis securities.‖ Many investment banks retained some interest in these assets because they were also involved in debt servicing.  In the summer of 2007, the investment banks were under pressure, and their attempts to obtain liquidity by selling assets made the crisis worse.  A new kind of financial instrument, the Credit Default Swap, played a major role in the crisis in 2008. This new instrument is an insurance policy against bond default. Just like ―mortgage backed securities‖, the assets being traded were not uniform, nor was the prices of these assets was visible to all the traders.  When investment banks and insurance companies such as AIG had large positions in Credit Default Swap, came under pressure, and the bond prices started falling. Some Credit Default Swaps required the insurer to make partial compensation to the policy owners.  The uncertainty over the net position and liabilities of the investment banks brought several of them down. The buyers had the incentives to understand the risk of the underlying assets, but was caught up in the bubble mentality, others saw large profits and wanted to get in on the action Bailout Discussions In consequence of the 2008 financial crisis, several giant financial firms failed and, as expected, they claimed the government bailout. Even though there was a strong public opposition to the failed firms' bailout call, the US government bailed them out with little exception. 28 http://www.sourcewatch.org 104 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo As a result, taxpayers have had to foot a huge bill to save the nation's debt-ridden banks because the government and pro-bailout people claimed that if those failed financial institutions were not saved, then the economy could collapse. They, furthermore, have argued that if there are losses to be covered and it is a matter of saving the financial system from collapse, then taxpayers do have to pay and always have done. They implicitly send message to the taxpayers by saying that if you want the financial system to collapse, you do not bailout anybody. If the system collapses, everybody will suffer and the economy will face a serious depression, which definitely creates more catastrophes then the bailout. Nearly two year has passed since Congress and former President Bush gave the Treasury Department the authority to distribute hundreds of billions of taxpayer dollars to failed banks, automakers, and AIG. Treasury gave money to more than 700 companies, but a handful of firms received Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) money in especially massive amounts. On the other hand, Congress neither specified how the money must be spent, nor dictated how the money must be used by aided institutions (e.g., not to pay CEO bonuses), nor imposed any system of checks and balances. As some people predict, banks may be using the bailout money to advance their own selfinterest (they are, after all, for profit entities) rather than to thaw the credit freeze since there is no any system of checks and balances as mentioned above. Under what conditions would multi-billion-dollar bailouts of private businesses be acceptable? What are the criteria that would be used for deciding when it is prudent to use public money to save private business? It is possible to ask more questions like those. They are obviously terrific questions with no obvious common answers. Different group of people can answer the above questions, however they possibly cannot satisfy others. Even the other people can claim that the answers and/or justifications are biased and cannot help the economy at all especially in the long term. While researchers, academics as well as practitioners were still discussing the recent financial crisis and bailout issues, the big banks in the US announced that they made large profits and handed out huge bonuses only a year after one of the biggest banking crises and bailouts in the history. Thus, thousands of top traders and bankers on Wall Street were awarded huge bonuses and pay packages, even as their employers were battered by the financial crisis. 105 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo CORP. Y E WHAT HAPPENED A R COST Bear Stearns 2 0 0 8 JP Morgan Chase and the federal government bailed out Bear Stearns when the financial giant neared collapse. JP Morgan purchased Bear Stearns for $236 million; the Federal Reserve provided a $30 billion credit line to ensure the sale could move forward. $30 billion Fannie Mae / Freddie Mac 2 0 0 8 On Sep. 7, 2008, Fannie and Freddie were essentially nationalized: placed under the conservatorship of the Federal Housing Finance Agency. Under the terms of the rescue, the Treasury has invested billions to cover the companies' losses. Initially, Treasury Secretary Hank Paulson put a ceiling of $100 billion for investments in each company. In February, Tim Geithner raised it to $200 billion. The money was authorized by the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008. $400 billion (A.I.G.) On four separate occasions, the government has offered aid to AIG to keep it from 2 collapsing, rising from an initial $85 billion credit line from the Federal Reserve to a 0 combined $180 billion effort between the Treasury ($70 billion) and Fed ($110 0 billion). ($40 billion of the Treasury‘s commitment is also included in the TARP 8 total.) Auto Industry In late September 2008, Congress approved a more than $630 billion spending bill, 2 which included a measure for $25 billion in loans to the auto industry. These low0 $25 interest loans are intended to aid the industry in its push to build more fuel-efficient, 0 billion environmentally-friendly vehicles. The Detroit 3 -- General Motors, Ford and Chrysler 8 -- will be the primary beneficiaries. Troubled Asset Relief Program 2 0 0 8 Citigrou p Citigroup received a $25 billion investment through the TARP in October and another 2 $20 billion in November. (That $45 billion is also included in the TARP total.) 0 $280 Additional aid has come in the form of government guarantees to limit losses from a 0 billion $301 billion pool of toxic assets. In addition to the Treasury's $5 billion commitment, 8 the FDIC has committed $10 billion and the Federal Reserve up to about $220 billion. Bank of America 2 0 0 9 In October 2008, Congress passed the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, which authorized the Treasury Department to spend $700 billion to combat the financial crisis. Treasury has been doling out the money via an alphabet soup of different programs. Here‘s our running tally of companies getting TARP funds. Bank of America has received $45 billion through the TARP, which includes $10 billion originally meant for Merrill Lynch. (That $45 billion is also included in the TARP total.) In addition, the government has made guarantees to limit losses from a $118 billion pool of troubled assets. In addition to the Treasury's $7.5 billion commitment, the FDIC has committed $2.5 billion and the Federal Reserve up to $87.2 billion. Table 2: The major bailouts in 2008 and 2009 http://www.propublica.org/special/government-bailouts 106 $180 billion $700 billion $142.2 billion �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo This has unavoidably attracted much criticism given how instrumental the banks were in causing the crisis. It is obviously immoral and insincere: If they win, they walk away with the profits; if they lose, the taxpayer picks up the tab. Consequently, this picture beyond doubt created widespread public anger against Wall Street bankers. A report29, released by Andrew M. Cuomo, the New York attorney general, provides a little more details about the bailouts. The report confirms that nine of the financial firms that were among the largest recipients of federal bailout money paid about 5,000 of their traders and bankers bonuses of more than $1 million apiece for 2008. For instance, bonuses of more than $1 million went to 953 traders and bankers at Goldman Sachs, while Morgan Stanley awarded seven-figure bonuses to 428 employees. Even though they are weaker banks, Citigroup and Bank of America distributed million-dollar bonuses to hundreds of their workers. Thus, many people raised their voice by saying, "risk is being socialized, yet profits are privatized." That means the rich elite makes money at the expense of the taxpayers. That is completely unfair and not what it should be. It is morally revolting that the architects of the crisis had huge bonuses only a year after being bailed out by the taxpayer. With large profits made by the banking industry allowing the payment of the massive bonuses, it not just created widespread public anger as mentioned above, but also justified the argument that the new regulation for the banking industry is must. Thus, it has become obviously necessary to regulate the banking industry in such a way that excessive risk taking becomes not possible. Deregulation in Financial Market Financial regulation is a form of supervision, which subjects financial institutions to certain requirements, restrictions and guidelines, and aims to maintain the integrity of the financial system. As Warren Buffet noted, ‗Credit Default Swaps are the financial weapons of mass destruction‘ (The Economist, September 2008). However, shadow banking and credit default swaps (CDSs), allowing betting instruments, remained unregulated. The lack of regulation of credit default swaps and the shadow-banking sector caused the financial system to grow larger, even more insolvent, and even more unstable. As noted, CDSs were initially used to transfer the risk on a bond onto someone else, but the deliberate lack of oversight meant traders could use these insurance-type contracts to place bets on bonds they did not own; eventually this led to the selling of the insurance contracts themselves when demand became high.. The CDS market grew enormously, but the lack of regulation allowed the gambling on insurance contracts to spiral out of control, until it consisted of more ‗bet money‘ than actual bonds. The market eventually came to encompass $60 trillion of bets on bonds, while only $5 trillion worth of bond money was circulating. This meant certain companies were promising billions of dollars in the form of protection that they did not have. American Insurance Group (AIG), for instance, owed over $400 billion worth of CDSs that it could not produce, necessitating its bailout by the US government. In addition, the non-regulation of CDSs and shadow banks allowed CDS deals to be made in private, generating in turn a lack of transparency extending to the finances of anyone vested in the market and obscuring the stability of transactions and of finances in general (Stiglitz, 2009). When the crisis hit and the extent of the opacity became apparent, confidence plummeted and credit froze, and because of the market‘s interconnectedness, the failure of one bank meant the demise of them all. The taxpayer would ultimately pay for these mistakes through the government bailout of the fallen institutions. Had hedge funds and investment banks been required to hold proper reserves to back the CDSs with liquid assets, the financial crisis would likely not have reached the level it did. Such regulatory measures would have prevented companies from taking the significant risks that have characterized finance in the 1990s and early twentyfirst century, and the CDS market would not have been likely to ‗balloon‘ as it did in the first place (Blumberg 2008). The non-regulation of CDSs and America‘s shadow banking sector during the decade leading up to the global crisis was therefore an occurrence that could have been avoided. US policymakers and regulators had ample warning that unregulated CDSs and bank-like institutions would undermine the system‘s credibility, and cause a global financial calamity. Obama's Bank Plan In response to the distress and turmoil created by the financial firms and banks, the Obama administration proposed a two-part plan regulation, suggesting the comprehensive changes to the financial sector regulation. 29 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/31/business/31pay.html 107 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo President Obama first proposed a new tax or fee on the 50 largest U.S. financial institutions related to the costs of the government bailout of the financial industry. The idea is to discourage excessive risk-taking, to re-balance a tilted playing field and to generate needed revenue. The fee is expected to raise $90 billion over the next 10 years, and $117 billion over about 12 years. Although the tax would be imposed on 50 largest banks, insurance companies and large broker-dealers, roughly 60% of the revenue is expected to come from the 10 largest financial firms. If approved by lawmakers, the fee would go into effect June 30, 2010 and last at least 10 years. It would amount to 0.15% of total assets minus high-quality capital, such as common stock, and disclosed and retained earnings. Yet even if Congress goes along with this fee proposal, it will practically not be enough. Because the executives who run these institutions are likely to force shareholders to bear the burden of the tax, while they just keep on much as before. In fact, shareholders have already suffered as the executives undertook mergers, paid out bonuses and took other actions that have diminished shareholder value. Moreover, a new tax would probably give the bankers one more excuse not to restart lending. Mr. Obama made a second and more direct proposal by adapting the ideas of Paul Volcker, the former Fed chairman, on 22nd of January, 2010. This regulation restricts banks from making investments that are not intended to benefit customers, which is known as proprietary trading. Mr. Obama's new proposal put new limits mainly on the size and activities of the largest banks by intending to toughen existing limits on the size of financial firms and force them to choose between the protection of the government's safety net and the often-lucrative business of trading for their own accounts or owning hedge funds or private-equity funds. Mr. Obama highlighted this point by saying, "Never again will the American taxpayer be held hostage by a bank that is too big to fail." The second proposal focused on two points. The first concerns restrictions on the scope of activities. In the case of having insured deposits, and hence accessing to emergency funds from the central bank, the banks would not be allowed to own or invest in private equity or hedge funds nor would they be able to engage in ―proprietary‖ trading though they could continue to offer investment banking for clients, such as underwriting securities, making markets and advising on mergers. The second focuses on size. Banks already face a 10% cap on national market share of deposits. This would be updated to include other liabilities, namely wholesale funding. The aim is to limit concentration, which has increased greatly over the past 20 years, accelerating during the crisis as healthy banks bought sick ones. The four largest banks now hold more than half of the industry‘s assets. This second proposal is easily considered as, at least, seeking to return the "spirit of Glass-Steagall Act" and will for sure impede the growth of the largest banks and bar them from making what Mr. Obama called "reckless" investments. Citibank's merge with Travelers Group in 1998 had been seen as a violation of the Bank Holding Company Act (BHCA), and Citibank had thus been given two-year forbearance. Following the GLB act, however, not Citigroup/Traveler Group merger just became legal but several new mergers also took place. This is an undeniable fact that the repeal of important portions of the Glass-Steagall Act made banks seek high returns by investing money from checking and savings accounts into "creative" and "innovative" financial instruments such as collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), mortgage-backed securities (MBSs) and credit default swaps (CDSs). These risky investments have been blamed to be caused to the collapse of the financial markets in 2008 and the resulting global financial crisis. The original idea of freeing up the banks or justification of the GLB act was to allow the US banks to compete at the national and international scale especially with European banks. However, many US banks engaged in very aggressive and riskier investments seeking higher returns following the GLB act. These aggressive behaviors were amplified as banking companies grew more complicated, drawing funding from more sources and investing in a wider range of activities. Increasingly, some investments were made to profit the firms' employees and shareholders, which are unrelated to the needs of customers. Those banks had been making increasingly massive profits until the bubble burst in 2008. Although the impetus for the climb in profitability primarily came from the investment banking activities, the key area of growth was in securities with especially mortgage assets. Furthermore, the banks‘ activities had been increasingly funded from the wholesale market by lending between banks on narrow margins and not the traditional depositor base in the commercial part of the banks‘ business. The problem was not truly recognized before 2008. When the bubble burst, it became not just obvious how risky these activities had been but the enormous scale of securitization combined with high leverage also almost led to a collapse of the whole financial system. In fact, being derivative products there were many third parties that had significant exposure to asset-backed securities 108 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (ABS). Consequently, the investment activities of those banks, aggressively seeking higher profits and market share regardless of the risk, pervaded the whole economy. Another bill, known as the Commodity Futures Modernization (CFM) Act, had been passed just a year after the GLB Act. I do not think it is false that those two acts together undoubtedly contributed to the 2008 crisis. The (CFM) act unleashed the derivatives market and paved the way for banks to become more aggressive about investing in mortgages. This is basically how it ended up with the largest banks filled with toxic assets, off-balance sheet commitments, and in-house hedge funds among other "investments." Concluding Remarks As it is known, commercial banks function as intermediary between depositor and borrower and provide the loans and services to households and companies that are the life-blood of business activity and job creation. Investment banks, by contrast, have often engaged in activities that are more intensive use of complex instruments subject to high-risk volatility, and invested bank capital in hedge funds and private equity firms, which are in high return-high risk category. Nobody has problem with hedge funds and other speculative clubs, so long as they are not risking taxpayer money, whether directly like Fannie and Freddie or indirectly by threatening to bring down the system. The recent financial crisis has provided a clear lesson against allowing excess leverage and risk-taking through financial innovations that do not correspond to corporate and retail customers‘ banking needs. In retrospect, one can trace the origins of the crisis to a shift over time away from the ‗credit culture‘ of commercial banking towards an ‗equity culture‘ focused on generating profits for shareholders and management by exploiting new financial innovations and leveraging them while taking advantage of regulatory and tax loopholes. Therefore, as proposed in Mr. Obama's plan, separating these from mainstream activities like deposit-taking and lending, as well as some investment banking activities that correspond to customer needs, such as underwriting, market-making, broking and some derivatives services, could definitely bring important benefits for commercial banking. The separation could notably decrease contagion and counterparty risks, and help sustainable growth by focusing management attention on the core needs of bank clients without major distractions and disruptions. As Acharya (2009) claims, the goal of bank regulation is to restrain systemic risk rather than the individual risk of institutions. Accordingly, imposing a fee especially on the largest financial institutions, both for their expected losses when individual institution's failure and for expected losses when whole market's failure in the case of the financial system as a whole becomes undercapitalized, minimizes the systemic risk, thus suggest a solution, possibly good and efficient solution. As a consequence, even though it may have some possible flaws, given this framework for regulating systemic risk, Mr. Obama's proposal of imposing a fee against systemic risk of institutions is not just fair on the eye of public but also makes true economic sense. Moreover, again even though there are some concerns, separating commercial banking and other forms of financial intermediation from proprietary trading definitely limit systemic risk without affecting financial sector‘s ability to function its core activities. Obviously, one can easily count several points that need to be fixed and raise some concerns with Mr. Obama‘s new bank plan. On balance, however, both, a fee against systemic risk and scope restrictions, deserve a serious consideration and seem to be right steps in the right direction. The plan will help creating a sound and more reliable financial system and separating core commercial banking from some higher-risk activities in financial conglomerates and placing a moratorium on further consolidation could help to avoid the new financial crises by resolving some major risks inherent to the current financial system. References Acharya, Viral. (2009). A Theory of Systemic Risk and Design of Prudential Bank Regulation. Journal of Financial Stability, 5(3), 224-255. Blumberg, A. (2008). Another Frightening Show About the Economy. This American Life Episode Transcript, Program 365. Stiglitz, J. (2009). Capitalist Fools. Vanity Faire. January, 2009. Online available at http://www.vanityfair.com/magazine/2009/01/stiglitz200901. The Economist, September 2008 109 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo http://www.wikinvest.com http://www.propublica.org/special/government-bailouts http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/31/business/31pay.html 110 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 191 Title A name given to the resource Does (De)regulation Matter in Financial Crises? Examining the Obama Administration's New Bank Plan Author Author ULUSSEVER, Tala AKYEL, Recai TEKİN, Yusuf Abstract A summary of the resource. The fact that financial crises have happened with regular intervals and probably will happen in the future in much the same way has attracted great attention on the dynamics of crises from scholars as well as policy makers, and causes and remedies have been intensively discussed in the literature. Some have argued that deregulation of financial markets have significantly contributed to the recent crises, and thus they very much favor for sound regulation on financial markets, especially on big investment banks. Conversely, the other view strongly disfavors the aforementioned vision, and supports the liberal idea that the state should not intervene the market with any tool including the regulation. The objective of this study is to analyze the dynamics of the recent crises, investigate their causes, and discuss whether the states can be held responsible against them in the sense of (de)regulating the markets and ensuring the stability of the system. As a case study, the Obama administration's new bank plan is examined to shed lights on the current discussion. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 783 Title A name given to the resource Does Language Influence Thought: Challenges for Intercultural Learning Environments Author Author Jeftic , Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. The most important moment in child’s intellectual development is when speech and cognition begin to interact. The emergence of private speech, which would later become internalised, enables children to separate themselves from the immediate context, and to talk and reason about things that are not in front of them. Hence language and thought become separate, but interdependent entities. The aim of this paper is to explore the way in which language influences thought as well as to provide important implications for intercultural learning environments with regard to Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, functional fixedness and word order people use in everyday speech. For Chomsky, there is no relation between language and thought, since the child is born with the foundation of universal grammar or language acquisition device. Contrary, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf propose the idea that the form of our language influences the way in which we think. In this paper the overview of anthropological and psychological studies of Safir-Whorf hypothesis is used in order to analyse the impact different languages can leave on thought, actions and behaviour. Also the connection between different word order used by different languages is analysed with regard to its impact on behaviour. This paper seeks to explore impact object-final languages (English) and verb-final languages (Turkish) can leave on behavioural pattern agent-patient-act. It is concluded that a weaker version of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is supported by both literature review and case study approach. Also, language can affect ways in which students in intercultural environment learn memorize and reason; therefore it represents new challenge for educational practice. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2268314b6791eba122583d110eb58898.pdf 96f1653d31022a64527ce5255b406518 PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Does predefined ERP implementation methodology work for public companies in transitioning country? Adnan Kraljić, Denis Delismajlović, Tarik Kraljić Information Technology Department,International Burch University Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mails: akraljic@ibu.edu.ba, tkraljic@ibu.edu.ba, ddelismajlovic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract The main objective of this paper is to answer a question “Does predefined ERP implementation methodology work for state owned companies in transitioning countries?” The focus will be on state owned companies from Bosnia and Herzegovina, as it is typical transitioning company. Paper will treat selected issues which could trouble ERP implementation trough predefined ERP implementation methodology for SAP ERP. This paper presents observations/remarks based on experience of authors in SAP ERP implementation projects in public sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Author’s goal is to provide useful insight into predefined ERP implementation methodology (in theory) and issues that arise in real life ERP projects. Also, it should provide structural knowledge for all stakeholders involved in the process of ERP implementation in public sector. Keywords: enterprise resource planning (ERP), implementation, state owned company, post socialist transitioning country, ASAP methodology 1.Challenge known as ERP implementation Enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is a business management system which comprises integrated sets of comprehensive software, which can be used, when successfully implemented, to manage and integrate all the business functions within an organization. These sets usually include a set of mature business applications and tools for financial and cost accounting, sales and distribution, materials management, human resource, production planning and computer integrated manufacturing, supply chain, and customer information.[1] References 1 Sheu, C., Yen, H.R., and Krumwiede D.W.: The effect of national differences on multinational ERP implementation: an exploratory study. TQM & Business Excellence, Vol.14, Issue 6, August, pp.641657. (2003) 130 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo So, the main feature of ERP is computer-based integration of the whole organization into one system and database. It provides higher efficiency and real time reporting. Data entered in one module of the system are immediately accessible for other organization’s functions. Figure 1. presents typical functional ERP architecture. Figure 1. Typical ERP system architecture People often contemplate ERP as software provided out of box. We consider ERP more as a concept. Target of any ERP implementation in organization is to provide benefits for all stakeholders by improving business operations and decision making process. It is important to state that ERP’s benefits are a direct result of effective preparation and implementation, and appropriate use of system. This seems obvious, but nine out of 10 companies don’t get it right the first time around. [2] Story about ERP implementation ERP implementation is set of activates, normally leading to the fully operating system. It mixes business, technical and clerks’ sides which should work harmonized during the implementation. Every employee in the company is involved in ERP implementation process; either they are technical support in company (IT department) or end users of information system. Obviously it is not easy to manage all of these project members. There are many examples of ERP implementation failures. The world of IT and business consulting is full of stories of ERP projects gone wrong. Companies such as Whirlpool, Hershey Foods, and Allied Waste Industries have had exposed 2 ( September 1998 issue of Midrange ERP “There Is No Magic in ERP Software: It’s in Preparation of the Process and People,” p. 8]). 131 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo court cases against ERP software vendors (such as SAP A.G. and Oracle) because of their unsuccessful implementations. It is interesting that according to a statement cited in an ITWorld.com article, Waste Management claims SAP deceived it by creating "fake software environments" for product demonstrations. The project went bad almost immediately after a sales agreement was signed in October of 2005. Though SAP promised a pilot version of the system would be up and running by Dec. 15, 2006, "it is not even close to being completed today." [3] Another famous story about SAP implementation failure is Shane Co. The family-owned jewelry retailer that sought bankruptcy told a U.S. judge the company’s decline was triggered partly by delays and cost overruns for a $36 million SAP AG inventory-management system. SAP, the world’s biggest maker of business-management software, took almost three years to install and implement the system instead of one year, while costs “ballooned” to $36 million from a projected maximum of $10 million, Shane said in papers filed in U.S. Bankruptcy Court in Denver. [4] In general an implementation is seen as successful if it is completed within budget and time frame; addressing all implementation deliverables measured by ROI, KPIs etc. Lots of variables are involved in ERP implementation such as; personnel (business side, technical side, support side, users), implementation partner (for example local integration software PeopleSoft, JD Edwards, Salesforce.com etc.), and implementation strategy. [5] With a number of issues that arise together, in a few months or year for implementation, it is important to address critical factors that shape an implementation. Also, as we mentioned, it is important not to underestimate the nature of public institution and all bureaucracy you have to cope with during the implementation. 2. No one is immune - country specific issues of public sector There is no industry or business activity that is not influenced by B&H’s social environment. Complex picture of transitioning post conflict country will be described in next few paragraphs. The stress will be on state owned companies. 3 Whos to blame for failed ERP project that prompted lawsuit, http://www.itbusinessedge.com/cm/blogs/all/whos-to-blame-for-failed-erp-project-that-promptedsap-lawsuit/?cs=11588 4 Shane Says SAP Costs Helped Cause Jeweler’s Decline, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=awweg53wmmJw&refer=germany 5 Bhagwani, A.: Critical Success Factors In Implementing SAP ERP Software, An EMGT Field Project report submitted to the Engineering Management Program and the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Kansas, (2009) 132 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo In Bosnia and Herzegovina there are some big state owned companies that implemented an ERP or are in the process of implementation. According to SAP User Community in B&H SAP ERP is the main ERP vendor for big public companies. It could be useful information so we will name those companies: EPBiH, BH Telecom, JP EPHZ HB, HT Mostar and Clinical center University of Sarajevo. One of the issues of public sector in B&H is very complex stakeholder structure due to political system as a result of post conflict circumstances. (Dayton and Paris political agreement resulted in four different levels of government – 14 governments, 180 ministers; 1 prime minister per 300 000 people, one the most complex and expensive governmental body in the world). According to the 2005 CMI report, this bloated public sector accounts for 54% of the annual GDP - more than in any other European country. [6] Another issue is widely spread corruption as one of the common characteristics of post socialist developing country. After war in B&H and privatization, which was conducted doubtfully, hundreds of state owned companies finished in bankruptcy. However, still few state owned companies, mainly utility and telecom companies, are the backbone of country’s economy. Unfortunately, public sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very complex and due to the last surveys one of the most corrupted in Europe, especially in its employment policy. As mentioned previously 54% of GDP is consisted of public sector what implies the importance of this sector and long term consequences if fraud is part of it. Same report states that corruption pattern in B&H is characterized by (a) high level of public concern with corruption, (b) low level of public trust in the governments, (c) state capture and conflict of interest, (d) public administration inefficiencies reflected in widespread bribery in public offices, (e) distorted business environment and (f) a significant burden on poor households, exacerbating poverty and inequality. Public tenders (defined by public procurement law) could provide opportunity for corruption if they are done with a lack of transparency. [7] Also process of choosing the bid winner is complex with not strict definition of vendor selection criteria. According to the World Bank report, in the most cases in B&H, tender policy is based on price, which weights for more than 70% of possible points which vendor could earn in selection procedure. This leads to artificially low price offered. It ensures wining the bid, but do not ensure the quality of service. 3.How ERP vendors want to help implementations As mentioned in previous chapter, ERP software vendor is one to blame when expected results do not occur after ERP implementation. ERP vendors believe that tracking of tested implementation methodology is a prerequisite for successful ERP implementation. All implementation methodologies e.g. Oracle Application Implementation Methodology (AIM), Accelerated SAP (ASAP) etc suggest at least five 6 Corruption and Anti-Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H); www.u4.no/helpdesk/helpdesk/query.cfm?id=221 7 Bosnia and Herzegovina Diagnostic Surveys of Corruption, World Bank; http://www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorrupt/Bosnianticorruption.pdf 133 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo phases of ERP implementation: Define; Design; Build; Transition; and Go Live & Support. [8] To avoid uncomfortable project situations ERP vendors developed predefined ERP implementation methodologies. One of the most famous is delivered by the biggest ERP vendor - SAP. It is ASAP methodology (ASAP – Accelerated SAP). In next few paragraphs we will describe ASAP methodology in details. Accelerated SAP (ASAP) is SAP’s standard implementation methodology. It is consisted of 6 phases, and those are: Project preparation, Blueprint, Realization, Final preparation, Go-Live Support and Run. It is serial relationship, so predecessor phase has to be completed in order to move on next phase. In figure 2. those phases are shown. This roadmap is a step-by-step guide that incorporates experience from many years of implementing R/3. Along with that, Accelerated SAP contains a multitude of tools, accelerators and useful information to assist all team members in implementing R/3. Quality checks are incorporated at the end of each phase to easily monitor deliverables and critical success factors. ASAP is delivered as a PC-based package, so that – if required – an implementation project can begin prior to having an R/3 System installed. [9] We will give more details regarding each phase. 3.1.Project Preparation Goal of this phase is to plan our project and lay the foundations for successful implementation. It is at this stage that we make the strategic decisions crucial to your project: define your project goals and objectives, clarify the scope of your implementation, define your project schedule, budget plan, and implementation sequence, establish the project organization and relevant committees and assign resources 3.2.Business Blueprint During this phase we create a blueprint using the Question & Answer database (Q&Adb), which documents your enterprise’s requirements and establishes how your business processes and organizational structure are to be represented in the SAP System. We also refine the original project goals and objectives and revise the overall project schedule in this phase. 3.3.Realization In this phase, we configure the requirements contained in the Business Blueprint. Baseline 8 Nazir, M. M.: ERP Implementation in Oil Refineries, Daily Business Recorder, Karachi (2005) 9 Miller, S.: Asap Implementation at the Speed of Business: Implementation at the Speed of Business, Computing Mcgraw-Hill (1998) 134 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo configuration (major scope) is followed by final configuration (remaining scope), which can consist of up to four cycles. Other key focal areas of this phase are conducting integration tests and drawing up end user documentation. 3.4.Final Preparation After project realization phase, we complete our preparations, including testing, end user training, system management, and cutover activities. We also need to resolve all open. At this stage we need to ensure that all the prerequisites for your system to go live have been fulfilled. 3.5. Go Live & Support In this phase we move from a pre-production environment to the live system. The most important elements include setting up production support, monitoring system transactions. [8] 3.6.Run Optimizing overall system performance and obtaining permanent business process optimization. Phase objectives shown in Figure 3. . Figure 3. Phase objectives 135 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo ERP implementation in transitioning country in state owned companies –It is shown in table 1. Expected objectives for each ASAP phase and constraints that occurs in practice Phase Excepted objectives Constraints in practice regarding the phase objects Project Preparation Defined your project goals and objectives Unskilled project managers Clarified the scope of your implementation Corruption in tendering procedure (inadequate tendering procedure) Defined your project schedule, budget plan, Poorly written tendering documentation and implementation sequence Leak of project management knowledge (no clear goals and objectives) Established the project organization and Poorly prepared project work break structure relevant committees and assign resources Employee does not care about resource spending - state money. Budget and project schedule planned with no serious approach Blueprint Created blueprints using the Question & Too much / little time spent on blueprint preparation due to lack of project Answer database (Q&Adb) management knowledge, and requirements set by political not business persons / reasons Mapped business processes Overview of all business process No localize ASAP documentation for smaller countries (example Bosnian language) Leak of business process mapping skills Leak of professional business environment in state owned companies, which support this extremely important phase Managers and supervisors mostly not centers of competence Realization 136 Configured the requirements contained in Leak of project management the Business Blueprint Leak of change management (Change management not consider as important) conducted unit tests Responsibility issue - “there is someone else who will do it” �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Go – Live Support Run Conducted integration tests Integration test not taken seriously from end users Prepared end users documentation Very slow internal knowledge and information transfer - several managers has to sign document to be approved . Moved from a pre-production environment Help desk not established by the company to the live system Defined communication channels not respected Includes setting up production support, Often, poor management decision made under huge pressureof Go Live phase monitoring system transactions Employees working habits- mistakes are there to be hidden Optimizing overall system performance No optimization and improvements Permanent business process optimization Lack of understanding that the ERP system is “live” system After project is finished all ERP story ends. Problems with tendering procedure for support No competent support in country as Bosnia and Herzegovina - low spending on consultant education 137 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo 4. Most threatening constraints in practice regarding ASAP methodology In next few paragraphs we will discuss the most prominent constraints from the list above. Inadequate tendering procedure for state owned company - The Public Procurement Law adopted in 2004 generally complies with the main principles of the EU public procurement system. [10] However, in practice, procurement process for public companies still provides significant space for fraud. One of the most questionable aspects of public tendering law is determining price as the most important factor in bidding. So winning the bid is based significantly, if not exclusively on price. This leads to artificially decreased price by some bidders. Other companies are in the risk to become uncompetitive if the price is set according to the real market price for the project scope. This provide space for risky system integrators who are not skilled to provide ASAP methodology and cannot provide skilled SAP consultants who can implement ASAP methodology in SAP ERP implementation. No localization for ASAP documentation for smaller countries (example Bosnian language) – ASAP methodology provides dozen of documents well written in English language. It is profound help for consultants and substantially accelerates the process of implementation. Unfortunately, this documentation is not translated on local languages of small, transitioning B&H market. Time consuming decision making flow process (from bottom to top) – Decision process in big, public companies can be very slow. It clearly does not support name of SAP standard methodology – Accelerated SAP. One of the reasons could be very complex and complicated organization structure. Specific for some public companies is lack of modern information infrastructure, like e-mails. Working habits of management and employees – Probably someone would ask what communism has with ASAP. However, as former communist country, Bosnia and Herzegovina has kept some of the practices from that period (especially in state owned companies). These habits could include: no real authority of the management, work is not valuated by achievement but personal relations; there is no incentive by employees to make some effort and improve work environment. Also, salary is determinate by salary coefficients for each working position. Coefficient is provided by legislation. Public companies are short of qualified employees. Most of employees are with lack of knowledge and practice in business domain they are hired for. The reason for this could be 138 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo corruption in employment process (some public companies advocate publicly that they prefer daughters and sons of their current employees in hiring process. Leak of professional business environment in state owned companies – ASAP methodology requires business educated professionals who can follow ASAP predefined tasks. Very often employees in state owned companies do not have appropriate skills that can support ASAP activities. Even if the project managers deliver tasks to their employee the feedback is missing or is delivered in very poor manner. Leak of change management (Change management not consider as important) - Change management is a process which aim is to make easier implementation, as well as transition during ERP project. Since ERP project is usually very complex, change management can play significant role to improve employees to understand why the project has been implemented and to make organizational changes and BPR easier. These activities can be summed into 3 basic ones: education of employees, communication among stakeholders and involvement in project process. Lack of change management can affect quality of project implementation, and make results smaller. 5. CONCLUSION As it is stated in abstract the main objective of this paper is to answer a question “Does predefined ERP implementation methodology work for state owned companies in transitioning countries?” We tried to answer on this question with experience gained with several projects in state owned companies done in Bosnia and Herzegovina. We will call it “hands on” experience. As we are working as SAP consultants, we chose SAP Accelerated methodology as referent methodology for our paper. We found it relevant as it is provided by the biggest ERP vendor – SAP A.G. In general ASAP methodology is well developed with hundreds of well-structured documents which support all ERP implementation activities. Unfortunately, in practice, this ERP implementation methodology hardly works for state owned. As experienced SAP consultants we have impression that ASAP methodology is constructed for private companies with professional business environment. At the end we will state the most remarkable constrains we found during ASAP methodology implementation: Inadequate tendering procedure for state owned company No localization for ASAP documentation for smaller countries (example Bosnian language) Time consuming decision making flow process Working habits of management and employees 139 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Leak of professional business environment in state owned companies Leak of change management (Change management not consider as important) We hope that this paper will be useful in further ERP implementations and ERP research. A Cross – Sectional Analysis of Environmetal Sustainability Practices Toksari Murat1, Uçan Okyay2 1Nigde University, Department of Business, 2Nigde University, Department of Economics, E-mails: mtoksari@nigde.edu.tr, okyayu@hotmail.com Abstract In 1970s and 1980s the concept of sustainability developed as a process of protection for the elements that social, economic and eceological systems need. During the Environment and Development Summit held in 1992, decisions were made about the works to protect and improve the environmental sustainability with the help of objective policies. By revealing sustainability specifically focuses on the social, economic and ecological target, Brountland report states that meeting Socia-Economic needs is limited to the carrying capacity of ecosystem. Environmental sustainability is divided into three categories. They are resource management, energy management and product sustainability. While, solid waste and water conservation compose the resource managament, energy managament includes energy conservation, renewable energy, GHG emission reduction, energy sufficient. Finally, product sustainability involves product transportation, supply chain audit, product stewardship and Life Cycle Program. In this context, environmental sustainability index and environmental performance index were prepared by the universities of Yale and Colombia. With environmental sustainability index, it is intented to reach perfection in the current and future environmental qualities of the countries. This index, is a tool when aiming to be qualified and is an important mechanism for testing the environmental performance. As for environmental performance index, it has been developed by using result-oriented indicators. 140 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1162 Title A name given to the resource Does predefined ERP implementation methodology work for public companies in transitioning country? Author Author Adnan , Kraljić Abstract A summary of the resource. The main objective of this paper is to answer a question “Does predefined ERP implementation methodology work for state owned companies in transitioning countries?” The focus will be on state owned companies from Bosnia and Herzegovina, as it is typical transitioning company. Paper will treat selected issues which could trouble ERP implementation trough predefined ERP implementation methodology for SAP ERP. This paper presents observations/remarks based on experience of authors in SAP ERP implementation projects in public sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Author’s goal is to provide useful insight into predefined ERP implementation methodology (in theory) and issues that arise in real life ERP projects. Also, it should provide structural knowledge for all stakeholders involved in the process of ERP implementation in public sector. Keywords: enterprise resource planning (ERP), implementation, state owned company, post socialist transitioning country, ASAP methodology Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0b42f50d4606d96204d92abd3096ed9a.pdf 9ec058599384c6403735d9307c30b1ec PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Gültekin YILDIZ Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Yasemin ÖZDEMĐR Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Özlem BALABAN Sakarya University-Business Administration Department Abstract: HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Keywords: HRM, HRM in manufacturing sector, HRM in service sector Introduction Human resource management (HRM) discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labor. And also sector (Kaufman, 2007) and market type (Beer et al., 1984) are effective on HR departments structure and HR practices based on functions. There are many HRM models in America and Europe which are descriptive for determining the HRM understanding of an organisation or a country. These models are maps factors that affect the HRM structure in a general manner or and HR functions in a more specific view. The Model of Brewster and Bournois underlines 86 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo the importance of sectors effect on HRM practices (Brewster and Bournois, 1991; from Pinnington ve Edwards, 2000: 19). The importance of human in the organizations and the features of the jobs/works are different in different sectors. In manufacturing sector automation and information technologies are used more than service sector. But in service sector the production and consuming are simultaneous, the intensity of labor is high so a structure that is consisted of a face-to-face relationship between the personnel and customers. A production focused management style is dominant in manufacturing sector and in service sector, a customer focused management style is dominat (Gök, 2006). Because of these main differences of sector features and management styles, in two sectors different HRM practices are expected. The Background of HRM Practices in Turkey In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a parallel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). In addition HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances like sector (Andersen, 2000). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. Objective of the Research This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices. Because in the literature it is mentioned that sector is one of the important factors that affect the HRM practices. And also if our hypothesis is true, this can give an opinion to the organisations for realizing their HRM decisions according to sectoral circumstances. Research Methodology According to the objective of this study, the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. General Findings The datas are gained from 62 manufacturing organisations and 63 service sector organisations, totally 125 organisations. In this section, the findings of our research will be indicated. Initially the frequencies about our sample’s features like sector and personnel number will be given in Table 1. Table 1: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Sector) Manufacturing Service Sector N % Sector N Textile 12 19,4 Tourism 29 Construction 13 21,0 Banking 18 Iron and steal 8 12,9 Insurance 12 Automotive 17 27,4 Other 4 Food 11 17,7 Information technologies 1 1,6 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 46,03 28,57 19,04 6,3 100 87 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo According to literature organisational size is an important factor that affect the HR structure so frequencies about this is like in Table 2. Table 2: The Frequencies about Sample’s Features (Personnel Number) Manufacturing Service Personnel number N % Personnel number N 1-49 26 41,9 1-49 16 50-99 8 12,9 50-99 4 100-250 5 8,1 100-250 16 More than 250 23 37,1 More than 250 27 TOTAL 62 100 TOTAL 63 % 25,4 6,3 25,4 42,9 100 The personnel number frequencies show that there is similarity and balance in our sample in both sectors. Findings about HR Practices In this part the findings of our research about HR practices will be given in two parts; for manufacturing and for service sector, then will be compared generally. As it is indicated in the previous researches the name of the department related with human resources is called human resources. The distribution of frequencies on the name of the department is in Table 3. Table 3: Distribution of Frequencies on the Name of the Department Manufacturing Service Department name N % Department name N Personnel 16 25,8 Personnel 8 Administrative and financial 6 9,7 Administrative and 6 works financial works Accounting and financing 3 4,8 Human resources Other (Personnel and administrative works, personnel and human resources) TOTAL 32 3 51,6 4,8 Accounting financing Human resources Other 62 100 TOTAL and % 12,7 9,5 4 6,3 40 5 63,5 7,9 63 100 There is similarity in the name of the department related with human resources and in both sectors human resource department is used mostly with great rate. In manufacturing sector, human resources managers/directors (N= 15, 24, 2%) and human resource and financial works managers (N= 14, 22, 6%) are at the position for the responsibility of HR function. And the 93% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and from business administration (N= 31, 50, 0%). And in service sector, human resources manager/director are at the position for the responsibility of HR function with 28, 6%. And the 93, 7% of the people who is responsible of HR department are graduated from university and 47, 5% of them from business administration. There is also a similarity in the graduation of the people who is responsible of HR department. *From this point it is necessary to indicate that the person who filled the questionnaires could select more than one choice. So the most selected choices are mentioned here and the totals can be more than 100% for each question. As it is mentioned in the theoretical background, there are many internal and external factors that affect HR practices. Here are the findings about these factors; • In manufacturing sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like total quality management (N=44, 70, 9%) and features of the employees (N=36, 58, 0%). • And in service sector, the most important internal factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like features of the employees (N=47, 74, 6%), strategic management (N= 42, 66, 6%) and the top managers’ management style (N=38, 60, 3%). The ranking of the internal factors that affect the HR practices is different. Features of the employees are the only common factor mentioned above. 88 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • In manufacturing sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 46, 74, 1%) and competition density (N= 42, 67, 7%). And in service sector, the most important external factors that affect the structure of HR function are indicated like labour structure (N= 54, 85, 5%), competition density (N= 49, 77, 7%) and technology (N=39, 61, 9%). The external factors that affect the HR practices and their ranking of is the same. The findings about HR functions in manufacturing sector can be indicated as below; The necessity of ISO/TSE standards (N= 24; 38, 7 %) and HR/personnel selection (N= 24; 38, 7 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=29; 46, 7 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=55; 88, 7%). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are overtime working (N= 32; 51, 6%) and external employee/HR supply application (N= 31; 50%). Previous applications (N=34; 54, 8%) and personal advices (N= 29; 46, 7%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 31; 50 %) and probation (N= 26; 41, 9%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring previous and latter performances (N= 39; 62, 9%) and previous and latter tests (N=29; 46, 7%). Job evaluation is used for employee selection according to job (N= 30; 48, 3%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=29; 46, 7%). The most important factor that affect the wage level is effective performance appraisal (N= 44; 70, 9%) and the other market wages level (N= 22; 35, 4%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 34; 54, 8%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N= 24; 38, 7%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 42; 67, 7%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 30; 48, 3%), bonus (N= 30; 48, 3 %), cafeteria services and year permission money (N= 27; 43, 5%) are the most common used social aids and services. Performance lowness (N= 42; 67, 7%) and disciplinary (N=40; 64, 5%) are the most common layoff reasons. The findings about HR functions in service sector can be indicated as below; Constituting job descriptions (N= 31; 49, 2 %) and job requirements (N= 31; 49, 2 %), job evaluation (N= 27; 42, 9 %) are the most important aims of the job analysis. HR planning time is especially between 6 months and 1 year (N=30; 47, 6 %). Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method (N=56; 88, 9%). The other ones are interview of one person (N= 34; 54, 0 %) and references (N= 33; 52, 4 %). The most common used employee/ HR supply methods are external employee/HR supply application (N= 37; 58, 7%) and internal movements like promotion and transfer (N= 28; 44, 4%). Previous applications (N=38; 60, 3%) and personnel advices (N= 31; 49, 2%) are especially used as the type of external personnel supply resources. Organisations use conferences (N= 36; 57, 1 %) and probation (N= 21; 33, 3%) as training methods most commonly. The training result are evaluated by measuring the usage level of what is learned (N=32; 50, 8%) and pervious latter performances (N= 31; 49, 2%). Job evaluation is used for internal movements like promotion and transfer (N=28; 44, 4%), equal wage principle (N=27; 42, 9%) and also determining education necessity (N= 26; 41, 3). The most important factor that affect the wage level is performance appraisal (N= 37; 58, 7 %) and also market wages level is the effective factor (N= 31; 49, 2%). Incentive wage system based on personal performance is the most common used wage system (N= 28; 44, 4%). Main wage plus premium/bonus is also being used frequently (N=23; 36, 5%). The wage increase is mostly affected by inflation rate adding performance results (N= 38; 60, 3%). The other important factor that affect the wage increase is average market raise (N= 21; 33, 3%). Salaried day off expect legal requirements for death, accident, marriage, etc. (N= 32; 50, 8%), bonus (N= 25; 39, 7%) and clothing aid (N=22; 34, 9%) are the most common used social aids and services. Disciplinary (N= 46; 73, 0%) and performance lowness (N= 37; 58, 7%) are the most common layoff reasons. As a result we can generally say that; The aims of job analysis in two sectors are different. HR planning time is between 6 months - 1 year and is same in two sectors. Using application form for HR selection is the most common used method in two sectors. 89 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo • The employee/ HR supply methods are different in two sectors but the type of external personnel supply resources is the same. • The training methods and the training evaluation methods are the same. • The areas of job evaluation usage in two sectors are different. • The factors that affect the wage level are the same. • The wage systems and the factors that affect the wage increase are the same. • The social aids and services are also the same. • The most common layoff reasons are same in two sectors. The general evaluation of the findings shows that there more similar aspects in HR practices than differences. Conclusion Most of the HR functions and especially HR requirement and selection, training and development, wage management, performance appraisal are nearly used in all organisations and in all sectors. HR functions are affected by organisation culture, structure, organizational size and sector. So it is thought that there is a difference between the HR practices of the organisations in manufacturing and service sector. This study’s findings shows that generally there are similarities in HR functions like HR planning time, HR selection methods, HR supply resources, training methods and evaluation methods, wage management, social aids and layoff reasons. But it must be said that although the methods used in these HR functions are similar, the ranking and the factors that affect the HR practices are different. Also the aims of job analysis, HR supply methods and the areas of job evaluation usage are different. As a result sector makes a difference in some HR practices. But this result can’t be generalized. So many other researches that have bigger samples is required to make general decisions and find the reasons of the differences in HR practices. References Andersen, A. (2000) “2001’e Dogru Insan Kaynakları Arastırması”, Sabah Yayıncılık, Istanbul. Aycan, Z. (2001) “Human Resource Management in Turkey-Current Issues and Future Challenges”, International Journal Of Manpower, Vol. 22 No. 3, pp. 252-60. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Mills, D.Q. and Walton, R.E. (1984), Managing Human Assets, Free Press, New York. Bingöl, D. (2006) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Arıkan Yayınları, 6. Baskı, Đstanbul. Brewster, C. ve Bournois, F. (1991) “Human Resource Management: A European Perspective”, Personnel Review, Vol. 20, No. 6, pp. 4-13. Ercek, Mehmet (2006) “HRMization in Turkey: Expanding the Rhetoric-Reality Debate in Space and Time”, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 648-672. Gok, Sibel (2006) 21. Yüzyılda Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Beta Basım Dağıtım, Istanbul. Kaynak, Tugrul, Z. Adal and et al., (2000) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Istanbul Universitesi Isletme Fakultesi Isletme Iktisadı Enstitusu Arastırma ve Yardım Vakfı Yayını, No: 7, Istanbul. Kaufman, Bruce E. (2007) “The Development of HRM in Historical and International Perspective”, in The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, edit: Boxall, Peter, John Purcell ve Patrick Wright, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 19-47. Lundy, O. (1994), “From Personnel Management to Strategic Human Resource Management”, The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 687-720. Pinnington, A. ve T. Edwards (2000) Introduction to Human Resource Management, Oxford University Press, New York. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Uyargil, C. and Ozcelik, O. (2001), “Some Characteristics of the Turkish HR Managers/Professionals and a Comparative Study with Three European Countries (United Kingdom, Germany and Spain)”, Paper Presented At Global HRM Conference, June 19th-22, Barcelona. 90 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 149 Title A name given to the resource Does Sector Make a Difference in HRM Practices? Turkish Companies in Marmara Region Author Author YILDIZ, Gültekin BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan ÖZDEMİR, Yasemin BALABAN, Özlem Abstract A summary of the resource. HRM discipline, occurring in 1920’s in the USA, has been predominant in the USA and the European countries and there has been evolving phases throughout the 20th century (Storey, 1989). It has been observed that the activities, objectives, dimensions, and importance of the human resource function have changed dramatically since the 1970s (Lundy, 1994). This is a result of social, political, economical, legal and technological developments and the changes of work life, organisational features, labour. HRM functions and practices are also affected by many other factors like national and organisational circumstances (Andersen, 2000), sector, market type (Beer et al., 1984). In Turkey, there is similar development. The Turkish HRM literature has a paralel rhetoric especially to USA and Europe but the reality HR practices are not at the level that is told in the literature (Ercek, 2006). The reality is different as a result of internal and external factors effect to organisational structure and so to HRM functions. These factors are organisational features, interpersonal relations, job’s features and personal characteristics are the internal factors and external labour, external resources, rivals and regulators are the external factors (Kaynak et al., 2000; Bingol, 2006; Sabuncuoglu, 2000), the current situation of the market in which the company operates (Uyargil and Ozcelik, 2001). Also in Turkey organisational structure (Ercek, 2006) and the number of employees (Çakmak et al., 2007) in other words organisational size affect the HR practices and causes differentiation. Organisational size is also one of the factors that determine the efficiency of HR practices (Aycan, 2001; Ozcelik and Aydinli, 2006; Tanova and Nadiri, 2005). The circumstances of the HR practices in Turkey must be investigated more (Ercek, 2006). This paper starts from this point and will investigate if sector is an important factor that affect HRM practices. This paper critically explores if sector makes a difference in HRM practices and according to this aim the research will be based on questionnaires conducted within companies of manufacturing and service sectors who have HR departments in Marmara Region of Turkey. The data gained from the questionnaires are analyzed statistically using SPSS 17.00. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e89bf8afb73c76c557305158b477cd0d.pdf bc4c405ffa86bba92824bba1b869495f PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Does Turkey’s Stance on Iran’s Nuclear Development Program Reflect an Axis-shift in Turkish Foreign Policy? Nguyen Mai Lan Thanh Fatih University, İstanbul, Turkey lan.thanh@fatih.edu.tr The world is being nourished with tremendous development in technology, which causes the greatest destruction of civilization from the intrinsic civilization itself. It is believed that nuclear weapons states hold a handful of nuclear arsenals, strong enough to eradicate completely life on earth. With the experience of the devastating atomic bombs marking the end of the Second World War, it is not difficult to say that the whole world is shaking when there is any state attempting to develop nuclear armaments. In the case of Iran recently, different approaches and resolutions have been discussed. Consequently, several of them have been implemented, in order to prevent the Islamic Republic from pursuing nuclear arsenal, despite Tehran’s discourses on her intention to have her own nuclear program for peaceful and civilian purposes. Turkey, as an active regional player, reflects her position on the issue via the state’s foreign policy. That Turkey has been hesitating at complying with the West’s sanctions on Iran poses not only questions but also confusion among the international community. “Does Turkey’s stance on Iran’s nuclear development program reflect an axis-shift in Turkish Foreign Policy?” This paper seeks to answer that question, by analyzing the context that endorses the Iranian nuclear program in pursuance of nuclear technology, and by focusing on the discourses offered by the Iranian and Turkish representatives to the international community concerning the ambiguities of the Iranian nuclear development program. In contrast to much in the literature which perceived Turkey as a moderator, this paper argues that Turkey is more like a facilitator, besides proposing mediation grounds like the previous Baghdad and Moscow sponsored mediations between the US/EU and Iran. From this perspective, Turkey’s stance seems clear in supporting the idea that instead of imposing sanctions, the West must think of other effective ways to resolve the nuclear energy. In other words, Ankara believes that diplomatic talks and negotiations shall be continued and attributed to Iranian nuclear debacle. Overall, this paper concludes that Turkey’s decision of no sanctions on Iran does not indicate that Turkish foreign policy is anti-Western. Rather, it 227 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo illustrates Turkey’s growing independence as a regional power and flexibility in decision-making process with regard to her own interests, such as gaining image in the Middle East with the new foreign policy doctrine, less independence on Russian energy imports by Iran’s alternative, and prioritizing domestic solutions, while not upsetting the West’s mutual interests. In addition, this study will contribute to the existing literature on the part of the explanation of Iranian diplomacy with regard to the religious understanding of “taqiyya” (deception) and “qitman” (concealing). Keywords: Nuclear Program, Iran, Middle East, NPT, Turkish Foreign Policy, Western Orientation, Axis-Shift. 228 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7c32713b0f343142ebf5b4234085065b.docx dbd5d69bddf9cde31f6edc0198a98321 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/65ffc469745846c6c79b8f57c72fa5da.pdf d98c783280d225f7b74e46a5e8c4bdb7 PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Does Turkey’s Stance on Iran’s Nuclear Program Reflect an Axis-Shift in Turkish Foreign Policy? Mai Lan Thanh Nguyen Fatih University, Istanbul, Turkey lan.thanh@fatih.edu.tr Abstract Iran‟s nuclear development program has been one of the hot topics in the agenda of a vast number of states‟ foreign policies. The Islamic Republic has declared her intention toward this nuclear plant as for peaceful purposes in compliance with the international treaty. However, the state‟s sovereignty seems to be degraded when the West has disregarded Iran‟s discourses. Turkey with her history of being an ally with the West, especially the U.S, and constant attempt to be a member of Western organizations, NATO during the Cold War, and the EU since its establishment, has demonstrated the country‟s friends and foes. However, her reluctance to comply with Western sanctions on Iran recently poses a question among the international community whether Turkish Foreign Policy towards nuclear-aspiring Iran changes its Western orientation. This paper endeavors to explain Turkish interests in shaping Turkey‟s position regarding Iranian nuclear program. It is believed that Turkey has attempted to play neutrally her role in mediating the dispute between the West and Iran, with Turkish Foreign Policy served both sides as long as it would not hamper Turkish national interests and priority concerns. In contrast to much in the literature which perceived Turkey as a moderator, this paper argues that Turkey is more like a facilitator, besides proposing mediation grounds like the previous Baghdad and Moscow sponsored mediations between the US, EU and Iran. Overall, Turkey‟s decision of no sanctions on Iran does not indicate that Turkish foreign policy is anti-Western. Rather, it illustrates Turkey‟s growing independence as a regional power and flexibility in decision-making process with regard to her own interests, such as gaining image in the Middle East with the new foreign policy doctrine, less independence on Russian energy imports by Iran‟s alternative, and prioritizing domestic solutions, while not upsetting the West‟s mutual interests. The paper also focuses on the discourses offered by the Iranian and Turkish representatives to the international community concerning the ambiguities of the Iranian nuclear development program. In addition, this study will also contribute to the literature addendum on the part of the explanation of Iranian diplomacy with regard to the religious understanding of “taqiyya” (deception) and “qitman” (concealing). Keywords: Nuclear program, Iran, Middle East, NPT, Turkish foreign policy, axisshift, Iranian diplomacy, sanctions, taqiyya, qitman. Introduction The world is being nourished with tremendous development in technology, which causes the greatest destruction of civilization from the intrinsic civilization itself. It is believed that nuclear weapon states hold a handful of nuclear arsenals, strong enough to eradicate completely life on earth. With the experience of the devastating atomic bombs marking the end of the Second World War, it is not difficult to say that the whole world is shaking when there is any state attempting to develop nuclear armaments. 1 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo In the case of Iran recently, different approaches and resolutions have been discussed. Consequently, several of them have been implemented, in order to prevent the Islamic Republic from pursuing nuclear arsenal, despite Tehran‟s discourses on her intention to have her own nuclear program for peaceful and civilian purposes. Turkey, as an active regional player, reflects her position on the issue via the state‟s foreign policy. That Turkey has been hesitating at complying with the West‟s sanctions on Iran poses not only questions but also confusion among the international community. “Does Turkey‟s stance on Iran‟s nuclear development program reflect an axis-shift in Turkish Foreign Policy?” This paper seeks to answer that question, by analyzing the context that endorses the Iranian nuclear program in pursuance of nuclear technology, and by focusing on the discourses offered by the Iranian and Turkish representatives to the international community concerning the ambiguities of the Iranian nuclear development program. In contrast to much in the literature, which perceived Turkey as a moderator, this paper argues that Turkey is more like a facilitator. The structure of the paper is as follows. Part two analyzes Iran‟s problem and Iranian diplomacy. Part three introduces Turkey‟s position. Then, part four evaluates if the policy is diverting from Western-oriented tradition in Turkey. Consequently, part five explains such stance. Finally, part six concludes the paper. Iran’s problem and Understanding Iranian diplomacy Iran‟s recent history especially during the 19th and 20th centuries is one of foreign domination. Today, apparently, it is the U.S that the Islamic Republic finds itself constantly confronted with. Militarily speaking, Iran‟s capability is considered an inferior to other regional opponents, namely, Israel and perhaps, Turkey. What the world is observing now, as a result, is an Iran that longs for exercising leadership of the Muslim world (Villelabeitia, 2012), a membership to the exclusive “nuclear club”, and balancing Israel‟s nuclear weapons. (Waltz, 2012) In fact, nuclear development program is not something new in Iran. Since the 1957 there have been several attempts. Prominently in the 1979 Revolution with the U.S support, the state has already obtained the skills via “Atoms for Peace” program under the instruction and provision by the U.S. What an attracted attention of the international community, Turkey included, is that the IAEA since 2005, kept reporting its inability to access to Iranian nuclear plants in full scale.1 The West has, interestingly, immediately responded with deterrence and sanctions, etc. despite Iranian discourses on her so-claimed genuine intention. Since Iran is an Islamic Republic, a religious perspective might certainly help understand Iranian diplomacy. After the revolution, the regime‟s leader, Grand Ayatollah Khomeini, announced a fatwa forbidding nuclear weapon development program in his country. Some scholars employed this fatwa as a means to judge Iran‟s nuclear plant today that it is not peaceful as the government declared. Iranian diplomacy, nowadays, along with this fatwa,exposed to the world the two concepts of religious understanding of “taqiyya” and “qitman”.2 Taqiyya, meaning deception or disinformation, is a term generally used by Shiite Muslims, who believe that they may lie and pretend to hide their religious identity under perceiving 1 For the latest news on key findings by the ISIS analysis of IAEA report regarding Iranian nuclear potentials, please see the appendix. 2 The terms were first mentioned in Todayszaman newspaper by Dr. Bulent Kenes, a scholarly figure regarding Iranian politics and issues. 2 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo threats. As an integral part of Muslim military strategy, taqiyya is also employed to trick or deceive enemies.3 Another synonymous term is “qitman” meaning concealing. It refers to a cautious reservation and dissimulation of genuine intentions. As such, the two terms have been used as means of defense and concealment by Shiites against unbelievers. Iranian diplomacy, thus, can be understood with the skillful use of the two terms.4 Needless to say, however, without foreign assistance, nuclearization of Iran seems vague due to her poor industrial and technological base. Believing so, the Obama administration insists on imposing economic sanctions on the country. One of the explanations for such a reaction is that the U.S is not ready for Iranian nuclear weapon existence. (Parasiliti, 2009) Iran is perceived as playing the Israel game. Although Iran is aspiring to have a nuclear ambiguous status like Israel, she will stay in the NPT for legitimate cover. History has proved that no one can stop nor attack once one goes nuclear, considering the cases of Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, and India. Iran is different from Iraq. Israel conducted surgical strikes in the mid-1980s and took out the Iraqi nuclear facility. Iran has over 20 and all are on different locations. A surgical operation is more or less impossible. Iran is aspiring to acquire nuclear technology and continues to play the game excellently. She has her own mediation as well as delaying strategy. Moreover, Iran did receive civilian nuclear technology and materials in the Atoms for Peace program by the U.S so they knew what to do. Since there is not a lot of difference between civilian and military technology- only weaponization procedures- Iran knew the roadmap, which in turn makes it harder for other actors to response. On August 30, 2012, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon contended Iran‟s right to nuclear development program. He proclaimed and showed expectations toward fruitful talks between the Islamic Republic and the P5+1. In addition, the 120 Non-Aligned Movement states also openly supported Iran‟s right to development nuclear power for civilian purposes after their meeting together in Tehran. In response, the Foreign Minister of Iran, Ali Akbar Salehi asserted a strong statement about the intention of the Islamic Republic. “I would like to re-emphasize that we do not see any glory, pride or power in the nuclear weapons, quite the opposite based on the religious decree issued by our supreme leader, the production, possession, use or threat of use of nuclear weapons, are illegitimate, futile, harmful, dangerous and prohibited as a great sin.” (PressTV, 2012) Moreover, Ebrahim Nekou, an Iranian lawmaker said that the Islamic Republic favors resolving its nuclear standoff through negotiations, “The Islamic Republic of Iran still insists on resolving the [nuclear energy] issue through diplomatic ways and is ready for negotiations.” However, instead of recognizing Iran's right, the United States and other Western countries are imposing pressure and sanctions, such policies have controversially debated to lead to ineffective diplomatic progress between Iran and the P5+1. Iran's 3 The definition of the concept can be founf in Esposito, J. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. 4 It is believed that Mahmoud Abbas in his interview with the EU on Palestine issue, Arafat and Oslo dispute, and some other Middle Eastern leaders have at least once employed such means. Since this paper only introduces the terms to the literature, there is no deliberate analysis, because its main focus is Turkish foreign policy. One can find the art and legitimacy of the use of taqiyya and qitman during the prophethood as well as in one of the hadiths: “he who keeps secrets shall soon attain his objectives.” 3 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo nuclear pursuit, as a result, has become the state‟s securitized issue with regard to the challenges and threats to the national identity. Turkey’s position Turkey is believed to have played a neutral role in this Iran‟s nuclear energy issue. Although Turkey complies with U.N. decisions, Taner Yildiz, Energy and Natural Resources Minister of Turkey, said, Turkey did not abide by unilateral sanctions imposed by other countries. (Farznews, 2012) Until 28th April 2013, according to CNS news, Turkey is still preserving her trade relations with Iran. The volume of gasoline as well as other petroleum products sold to Iran keeps sustaining and increasing despite U.S sanctions. (CNS News, 2013) Turkey, on the other hand, being preoccupied with domestic concerns, has not really regarded Iranian nuclear program as an immediate threat in comparison with other priority concerns. Besides, Turkey is already covered by the US and the NATO allies; therefore, nontraditional security for Turkey is not a posed challenge. (Kibaroglu, 2011) Turkey has other priorities, such as the issue of internal security and does not want a nuclear arms race. (Ustun 2010, 19) There are a lot of separatist movements by the Kurds; and the issue of Kurdistan in Northern Iraq is also aggravating this. Therefore, Turkey will neither initiate any steps nor will she support further sanctions on Iran. Since Turkey is a legitimate and internationally well-balanced actor, she would firmly express her position and Turkish Foreign Policy on Iran neutrally in the region while she is preoccupied with domestic security policy. Since, it would be illogical to think that Turkey would step into an unsecured and dangerous zone while she has already been trying to avoid one at home. “No one has the right to use force against a country whose nuclear capabilities are used for peaceful purposes,” said Prime Minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdogan after his talk with Iranian Vice President Mohammad-Reza Rahimi. “Anyone who has common sense opposes the use of nuclear power as a weapon, but at the same time, nuclear activity for peaceful purposes should not be opposed.” (The Times of Israel, 2012) This statement of the Prime Minister has clearly defined Turkey‟s position in the international community regarding nuclear energy program in Iran. That is, Turkey officially recognizes the right of Iran to pursue nuclear energy program. However, those nuclear plants should be accessible for the IAEA. In this way, the international community, and so to say, Turkey and the West would be able to increase their confidence in this peaceful development plan. The U.S and the EU have come up with several solutions regarding Iranian nuclear development program. Even though threats of use of force were also employed, things do not show positive results. Consequently, several sanctions have been imposed on Iran‟s economy, especially on the country‟s oil and financial sectors, believing that the outcome would affect the Central Bank of Iran to carry on any business. From financial sectors angle, as a result of sanctions, the U.S and the EU together expected a drop in foreign investors and customers of Iranian crude oil. However, it seems that all those efforts created a counter-effect. That is, Tehran is feeling threatened and weak confronting the superpowers; therefore, together with her own citizens suffering now from the economic sanctions, Iran developed even a stronger will to have her own means of protection. A nuclear weapon Iran is a very likely outcome if the West has no better alternative solutions, as several critics discussed. 4 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Turkey, as a consequence, reserved her foreign policy‟s view at this point. Turkey as a regional moderator is only to propose mediation grounds like the previous Baghdad and Moscow sponsored mediations between the US/EU and Iran, which makes Turkey “feel” more into the game. From this perspective, Turkey‟s stance seems clear in supporting the idea that instead of imposing sanctions, the US and the West must think of other effectiveways to resolve the nuclear development issue in Iran. In other words, Ankara believes that diplomatic talks and negotiations shall be continued and attributed to Iranian nuclear debacle. It is increasingly observed that soft power has been the main logic and nature of Turkish foreign policy under the current AKP government since 2002. Turkey has conducted diplomatic talks especially in the melting pot of the conflicting Middle Eastern zone. The first apparent attempt of Turkey as being a mediator in the region has been seen through the tri-partite Joint Declaration by Iran, Brazil and Turkey in 2010.5 Giving such a decision, Turkey believed that economic cooperation and diplomatic talks would bring positive outcome to the solution of Iran‟s nuclear issue. Turkey does not want a nuclear-armed Iran, neither but does she would like to close the access to nuclear energy technology in her country. (Kibaroglu, 2009)Lesser (2004) argued that Turkey could act more radically to prepare for a nuclear Iran as well as consider her potential to go nuclear. He further explained in his paper if Turkey can live with a nuclear Iran. “Could the emergence of a nuclear Iran be accommodated comfortably in the Turkish security scene? Or would it spell a fundamental and negative transformation of the strategic environment? The answer to this question should inform the Turkish calculus as the international community grapples with the challenge of a near-nuclear Iran.” (Lesser, 2009) If Iran fails to pursue her nuclear energy development due to the opposition of the West, then other states would certainly be concerned on their future likeliness of self-enrichment and reprocessing nuclear technology and peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Ankara, consequently, is precautious that the rights given to non-nuclear NPT states will no longer be guaranteed.6 Hence, a proper strategy and foreign policy should be devised carefully. A deliberate strategy to deal with Iran’s nuclear ambition will have to address both the supply and demand sides of the nuclear equation, (Bahgat, 2006) Pressuring foreign governments and companies to stop cooperation with Tehran is not enough. Iran’s security concerns need to be addressed since it would definitely affect the balance of power in the region. Improving the security environment in the Persian Gulf and the broad Middle East would substantially reduce Tehran’s incentives to pursue nuclear capability. As Kemp (2003) asserted, there is a need for “multilateral and multi-tiered efforts that would involve carrots as well as threatened sticks.” Turkish decision of no sanctions: An act of anti-Western orientation? Turkey since the birth of the republic has been perceived, especially by the Middle Eastern states, as a puppet of the West, that she only listens and acts according to the West‟s will. Moreover, Turkish secularism has been one of the factors that disintegrate Turkey from the region, in which majority of population are Muslims. After the refusal to the U.S to employ 5 See Tehran Declaration, www.fas.org/nuke/guide/iran/joint-decl.pdf Further discussion about the agreement see Fitzpatrick, M. (2011). Containing the Iranian nuclear crisis: The useful precedent of a fuel swap.Perceptions, 6 (2), 27-42. 6 Official from the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs (name withheld due to conference format and Chatham house rules), Ankara Workshop on Nuclear Proliferation, Ankara, Turkey, June 2011. 5 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo her territory during Iraq invasion in 2003, however, now, Turkey again denies implementing her traditional Western allies on imposing sanctions on Iran; this confused both the East and West. Whether this act of Turkey an anti-Western orientation or not is an intriguing question to investigate. Shortly, there is not enough evidence to confirm that Turkish Foreign Policy towards nuclear-aspiring Iran has changed its Western orientation. On the contrary, Turkey and the internal priorities as well as a neutral status serve both the West and Iran. This is internationally observed through her compliance to the NPT obligations by Iran and no use of force by the West. In his paper, Sinan Ulgen defenses Turkish foreign policy regarding Iran with the notion of the new activist approach requiring more thorough analysis to understand, not simply a change or shift in axis as recently Turkey has been “accused of.” (Ulgen, 2010) Similarly, Gurzel argues that since 2002, under the AKP government, Turkish foreign policy has rotating her role toward Iran‟s nuclear development program. Turkey is believed to have been an observer only, then recently a facilitator and a mediator. That is to say, Turkey‟s own national interests concerning future possibility of nuclear development plant have shaped its stance. (Gurzel, 2012) Similarly, Kanat (2010) argued that changes in Turkish foreign policy are not aimedto deWesternize Turkey; instead they are attempts to create an autonomous, self-regulating, and self-confident foreign policy agenda while normalizing the previous crisis-driven policymaking in Turkey’s foreign relations. As a result, Turkey will not take blindly the sanctions of the West, more specifically, the U.S. Surprisingly, the U.S would not be upset about this. Apparently, Washington has two allies in the region, Israel and Turkey. However, Israel is neither a mediator nor a trustworthy partner or friend with any state in the Middle East. Without Turkey, the U.S could not dominate its rule in the Middle East. Especially after the Arab spring and the global economic crisis, the power of the U.S did not only decline inside but outside the country as well, apart from the Middle East, where Turkey is doing the mediation role. Moreover, the tension between Turkey and Israel has left an important imprint on the relationship between Turkey and Iran. (Bacik, 2012) Certainly, Turkey is playing this role not for the favor of the U.S but indirectly for the regional and international politics. Hence, Turkish foreign policy has not diverted its direction from the West while still exposing good relation with the Islamic Republic. Ankara continuous economic relations with Tehran have proved to be effective regarding Turkey‟s interests. For Ankara, changing Turkey‟s pro-Western orientations is not of main focus. Instead, ability and capability to act on its own are main concerns of the state. According to the Prime Minister, “Turkey cannot designate its foreign policy in line with someone else‟s directives but on its own”.7 How to explain Turkey’s stance? It is important to understand Turkey‟s stance towards Iranian nuclear program because indeed, Turkey‟s relations with Iran are important not only for domestic but also for regional and international politics of Turkey. (Aras, 2001) As a matter of fact, it is believed 7 World Bulletin. (2009, December 23). Turkey‟s PM in Syria defends “independent” foreign policy. http://www.worldbulletin.net/index.php?aType=haberArchive&ArticleID=51712. 6 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo that Turkish foreign policy towards Iran with increasing attentions from the international audiences today is a result of Turkey‟s soft power which has been exposed intensively especially under the AKP government. Turkey is, by nature, geopolitically important. Turkish Foreign Policy reflects the nation‟s interests in both the East and the West. Regarding the Iranian nuclear issue, Turkey serves both the West and Iran. Ankara does not risk any foreign policy decisions to dampen her relations with both the Western countries and Iran. (Kibaroglu and Caglar, 2008) Apart from Turkey‟s long history of being alliance with the U.S, Turkey, as a candidate of the EU, is expected to pursue a policy in line with that of the EU‟s Iran policy, apart from sanctions. (Alcaro, 2012) First of all, from economic perspective, the EU is Turkey's largest trading partner and Turkey is at top seven among importers of EU products and top five in exporting states.8 Meanwhile, Turkey's main exporting markets are the EU, Iraq, Russia, USA, United Arab Emirates and Iran.9 On the other hand, Turkey imports also largely from the EU, Russia, China, USA, Iran and South Korea.10 Turkish Foreign Policies, hence, on Iran is not only determined by Iran‟s aspiration to possess nuclear energy but also on that Iranian and Turkish diplomatic relations have improved significantly as a result of rising economic relationship and security cooperation (Ulgen, 2012). Secondly, Turkey is known as being a large energy importer. One of the motives for Turkey to continue importing energy from Iran despite the sanctions placed by the Western countries is believed to be Turkish effort in reducing dependence on Russian energy import. The figure below shows that Turkish crude oil import from Iran has increased dramatically and exceeded that from Russia. In 2009, Turkey had to rely her oil consumption demand on Russia for 40% and on Iran for 26%. The figures reversely changed in 2011 with Russian oil imported as 12% and that of Iran as 51%. This means that Iran is increasingly an alternative main oil supplier for Turkish growing market. Table 1. Crude Oil Imports – 2009/2011 Source: Babali, T. (2012). The role of energy in Turkey‟s Relations with Russia and Iran.The Economic Policy Research Foundation of Turkey, March 29. Turkey wants to be a regional power? Another argument to explain Turkey‟s position regarding Iran is Turkish‟s “zero problems with neighbors” foreign policy and “strategic depth” doctrine by Foreign Minister Ahmet 8 European Commission Statistics Ibid. 10 Ibid. 9 7 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Davutoglu. Turkey, to some extent, fits the definition of regional power. With the objective of “strategic depth”, Turkey considers herself and is considered as an important player in several regions due to her geopolitics, namely, the Middle East, the Balkans, the Caucasus, and the Mediterranean. To begin, Turkey has strong partners in the Middle East, and close friends in the West, among others, the United States. In this regard, Israel and Iran might be considered as regional powers; nevertheless, neither of the two possesses such status as Turkey. More broadly speaking, none of the Arab countries has the same position and plays the same rules that Turkey is playing. Turkey is seen as a bridge between the East and the West and she is well aware of this fact. Turkish policy till 2002 was perceived as passive one towards the Arab world in regard that the regime in Turkey was heavily Western oriented, and distant itself from the Arab or Islamic world as part of the legacy of Ataturk. Turkey was completely directed by her government towards the West and Israel was the only friend in the Arab world back then. The fact that AKP came into power in 2002 made a remarkable turning point for Turkey with especially its prominent foreign policy “zero problem with neighbor countries.” Practically, the new government enhanced Turkish position in the Middle East. As a consequence, economic cooperation and trade relations have been established and the ties among Turkey with the Arab countries have never been that strong before. Some critics may undermine that the policy might not help achieve zero problems, however, it helps Turkey improve her economic cooperation and political rule, neither did Turkey lose her legitimacy of being the combination of East and West, as well as the mediator of them as a bridge between cultures. In this respect, energy, among others, is one of Turkey‟s strategic cards to play a role of a regional power. The securitization of energy has been reflected mostly in Turkish foreign policy. That is, it attempts to reduce Turkey‟s heavy dependence on imported energy resources. To illustrate, Iran is among those suppliers that Turkey conceived in her diversification strategy for alternative energy resources. As a result, Turkey‟s energy strategy is aimed at both domestic demand and contributing to energy security issue in Europe. Turkey, in this sense, is ambitious to become a pivotal energy bridge between not only East and West, but also between North and South. Is Iran a competitor? Regarding developments in the Middle East in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia are aspired to assume the power vacuum as being a regional leader. (Guzansky et al., 2012) As a result of the Arab uprising, each state seems to be more cautious in formulating and implementing foreign polices to maintain the peace at home as well as not to lose credit in the region among other strong players. A vast amount of literature has been discussing the quest of Iran for nuclear technology and infrastructure. If Hashemi Rafsanjani and Muhammad Khatami once wished to use nuclear weapons as a means of deterrence, the present president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and the Revolutionary Guards consider them as a critical tool to proclaim Iran's regional power. Regional ambitions of Iran are not something new. Historically, Iran was an empire until the 19th century. If one refers to the legacy of Ottoman Empire to address Turkey in her ambition for the leading chair, it is the Persian Empire nostalgia that can be said for 8 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo today‟s Iran to reemerge. The direct and indirect interference of the Great Powers in Iranian affairs in the 19th and 20th centuries were also main escalators for Iran to become a regional power. (Ayman, 2012) From Turkish side, it is believed that Turkey has been constantly mirroring Western values to the region on the ground that she is a secular state. This fact somehow upset the Muslims in the Middle East. Yet, at the same time, it may also be understood that the attempt of Turkey to democratize the country simultaneously reflect Islamic civilization could not be found elsewhere. The United States, especially, has denoted Turkey as the role model for the Middle Eastern countries. Moreover, Turkish Foreign Minister Davutoglu kept emphasizing a “just” and “inclusive” global order. In his view, “Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire that has responsibilities toward neighboring regions should be among the countries that will lay the foundations of this order.”11 However, neither Turkey nor Iran could be successful in assuming the regional leader‟s position yet. “So far neither Turkey nor Iran seems to be able to acquire a preponderance of power in the Middle East that succeeded in building institutions to regulate regional affairs. It does not seem that anything like that could also happen in the near future because of major powers opposed interests, the mutual balancing acts of Turkey and Iran and the complicated but not harmonious interests of regional states that motivate them to align with external powers as well as with Turkey and Iran. But their stakes are in great danger and both states’ actions have the power to change the course of developments whereas the risks of becoming enemies would risk their existential interests.” (Ayman, 2012) Nuclear or military capability used to be regarded as a means to measure power. Recently, nevertheless, the world seems to be more content with a peaceful use of soft power. In this regard, Turkey has been one of the states that have arisen as such. (Ulgen, 2011) This may lead to a Europeanization of Turkish Foreign policy, as the EU has long been notorious for soft power employment in solving disputes and conflicts. More specifically, when one looks at the foreign policy domain, one observes that the AKP government has given Davutoglu the steering wheel to handle Turkish foreign policy. (Sozen, 2010) Except for a few incidents, such as Hamas leader Khalad Mashal‟s visit to Turkey (Zaman, 2006) the prime minister‟s denunciation of Israel‟s policies towards Palestinians (Today‟s zaman, 2010), and the invitation of the Sudanese prime minister to Turkey (Turkish Daily news, 2010), Davutoglu‟s policies have not significantly irritated the Turkish foreign policy establishment. Although the foreign minister has been criticized by some for driving Turkey away from George W. Bush‟s actions, the EU‟s not-sofriendly policies towards Turkey in a way justified his attempt to bring Turkey closer to countries in the region. Conclusion 11 Today’s Zaman. (2009, May 4). New FM Davutoglu to Build Order-Instituting Role for Turkey. 9 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo It is believed that hard power means waging war or attacking Iran coercively is very costly affair while the world is now under an economic fragile zone. By contrast, soft power as economic sanctions and diplomacy has been employed so far to counteract to Iranian nuclear program. It is realized that economic sanctions applied by the U.S and the European Union have indirectly led to Iran‟s recent crisis. However, this method only suffered the civilians inside the country, but did not discourage Iran‟s ambition to go nuclear. Diplomatic negotiations, hence, are more desired. Turkey is, therefore, in favor of this way of resolving the problem. In short, Turkey‟s decision of no sanctions on Iran does not indicate that Turkish foreign policy is anti-Western. Rather, it illustrates Turkey‟s growing independence as a regional power and flexibility in decision-making process with regard to her own interests, such as gaining image in the Middle East with the new foreign policy doctrine, less independence on Russian energy imports in place of Iranian one, and prioritizing domestic solutions, while not upsetting the West‟s mutual interests. Turkey‟s stance on Iran reflects her neutral stance and mediating effort. Although it is a fact that Turkey does not apply unilaterally sanctions by the U.S on Iran, it does not mean that Turkey has deviated from the West. Instead, Turkey is actively playing her mediating role in resolving the conflict as a bridge between East and West, while preserving her own internal security and multilateral interests. References Alcaro, R. (2012). A tale of wasted opportunities: the EU, Turkey and Iran's nuclear issue. IAI Global Turkey in Europe Commentaries. Aras, B. (2001). Turkish foreign policy towards Iran: Ideology and foreign policy in flux. Journal of Third World Studies,18(1), 105-124. Ayman, S. G. (2012). Regional aspirations and limits of power-Turkish-Iranian relations in the New Middle East. Etudes Helleniques, 1. Bacik, G. (2012). Will Turkey change its position on Iran? Today’s zaman. September 30, http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-293834-will-turkey-change-its-positionon-iran.html. Bahgat, G. (2006). Nuclear proliferation: The Islamic Republic of Iran. Iranian Studies, 39(3), 307-327. CNS News. (28 April 2013). Turkey, Ignoring U.S. Sanctions on Iran, Will Continue Sending Iran Gasoline. Retrieved April 28, 2013 from http://www.defenddemocracy.org/media-hit/turkey-ignoring-us-sanctions-on-iranwill-continue-sending-iran-gasoline/#sthash.mEwO5Slv.dpuf Cunningham, F. (2012, September 1). Ban in disgraceful show of US puppetry. presstv.ir. Retrieved on April 28, 2013 from http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2012/08/30/259034/ban-kimoon-in-disgraceful-showof-us-puppetry/ 10 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Esposito, J. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. Farsnews. (2012). Turkey Underlines Opposition to Unilateral Sanctions against Iran. Retrieved April 26, 2013 from http://english.farsnews.com/newstext.php?nn=9107123048 Fitzpatrick, M. (2011). Containing the Iranian nuclear crisis: The useful precedent of a fuel swap. Perceptions, 6 (2), 27-42. Gurzel, A. (2012). Turkey‟s Role in Defusing the Iranian Nuclear Issue. The Washington Quarterly, Summer. Guzansky, Y., Asculai, E. & Lindenstrauss, G. (2012). Civilian Nuclear Programs in the Middle East: Nuclear Spring or Nuclear Autumn? Strategic Assessment ,15 (1), 95-111. Kanat, K. B. (2010). AK Party‟s Foreign Policy: Is Turkey Turning Away from the West? Insight Turkey, 12(1), 205-225. Kemp, G. (2003). How to Stop the Iranian Bomb. National Interest, 72, 48–58. Kenes, B. (2012). Is Iran's nuclear program peaceful? Today’s zaman. July 5, http://www.todayszaman.com/columnist-285661-is-irans-nuclear-programpeaceful.html. Kibaroglu, M., & Caglar, B. (2008). “Implications of a nuclear Iran for Turkey.”Middle East Policy, 15(4), 59-80. Kibaroglu, M. (2011). Turkey, NATO & and Nuclear Sharing: Prospects after NATO's Lisbon Summit. Nuclear Policy Paper, No. 5, 1-11. Kibaroglu, M. (2009). Turkish perspectives on Iran‟s nuclearization. Eurasiacritic, April, 48-54. Lesser, I. O. (2004). Turkey, Iran and nuclear risks.” Turkish Policy Quarterly, Summer. Lesser, I. O. (2009). Can Turkey Live with a Nuclear Iran? GMF’s On Turkey, March 2, 14. Parasiliti, A. (2009). Iran: Diplomacy and Deterrence. Survival: Global Politics and Strategy. 51(5), 5-13, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396330903309824. Sozen, A. (2010). A Paradigm Shift in Turkish Foreign Policy: Transition and Challenges. Turkish Studies, 11(1), 103-123. Today’s Zaman. (2009, May 4). New FM Davutoglu to Build Order-Instituting Role for Turkey. 11 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Today’s Zaman. (2010) Erdogan Angered by Israel‟s Gaza Campaign, http://www.todayszaman.com/tzweb/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=162602. Turkish Daily News. (2008, January 28). An understandable Logic behind the Visit.http://www.hurriyetdai- lynews.com/h.php?news=un-understandable-logicbehind-the-visit-2008-01-28. Ulgen, S. (2010). A Place in the Sun or Fifteen Minutes of Fame? Understanding Turkey‟s New Foreign Policy. The Carnegie Papers,1. Ulgen, S. (2011). The Security Dimension of Turkey's Nuclear Program: Nuclear Diplomacy and Nonproliferation Policies, in "The Turkish Model for that Transition to Nuclear Power." Ekonomi ve Dis Politika Arastirma Merkezi(EDAM), December 9. Ulgen, S. (2012). “Turkey and the Bomb.” The Carnegie Papers, 6. Ustun, K. (2010). Turkey‟s Iran Policy: Between Diplomacy and Sanctions. Insight Turkey, 12(3), 19-26. Villelabeitia, I. (2012). Iran makes a threat to Arab nations. COGwriter, January 19. Waltz, K. (2012). Why Iran should get the bomb. Foreign Affairs, 91(4), Jul/Aug, 2-5. World Bulletin. (2009, December 23). Turkey‟s PM in Syria defends “independent” foreign policy. Retrieved April 26, 2013 from http://www.worldbulletin.net/index.php?aType=haberArchive&ArticleID=51712. Zaman. (2006, February 21). Hamas Visit: Good Diplomacy by Ankara, http:// www.todayszaman.com/tz-web/yazarDetay.do?haberno=30119. Zion, I.B. (2012, March 28). Erdogan, in Tehran, says „No one has the right to attack Iran.‟ The Times of Israel. Retrieved April 28, 2013 from http://www.timesofisrael.com/erdogan-denounces-attacks-on-iran/ Appendix The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) released on February 21, 2013 its latest report on the implementation of NPT safeguards in Iran and the status of Iran‟s compliance with Security Council resolutions. Key Findings: 1) Number of installed centrifuges at Natanz Fuel Enrichment Plant (FEP) increases substantially; 2) IR-1 centrifuge installation is occurring at a faster than expected rate at Natanz FEP; 3) New IR-2m advanced centrifuges are being installed at Natanz, although when they will start enriching or how well they will operate remains unknown; 4) Number of cascades producing near 20 percent low enriched uranium (LEU) is constant; 5) Iran has less than enough 20 percent low enriched uranium hexafluoride for one nuclear weapon, if further enriched to weapon-grade; 6) Almost all of the cascades at Fordow are now vacuum tested and likely ready for enrichment; 7) Iran resumes converting near 20 percent LEU hexafluoride to oxide form; 12 �International Conference on Economic and Social Studies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo 8) Iran will use the Tehran Research Reactor (TRR) to test IR-40 Arak reactor fuel; continued construction of the IR-40 reactor is in violation of UNSC resolutions; and, 9) No progress on "structured approach" to resolve outstanding questions about military dimensions and no access to Parchin, which Iran continues to sanitize. 13 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1599 Title A name given to the resource Does Turkey’s Stance on Iran’s Nuclear Development Program Reflect an Axis-shift in Turkish Foreign Policy? Author Author MAI LAN THANH, NGUYEN Abstract A summary of the resource. The world is being nourished with tremendous development in technology, which causes the greatest destruction of civilization from the intrinsic civilization itself. It is believed that nuclear weapons states hold a handful of nuclear arsenals, strong enough to eradicate completely life on earth. With the experience of the devastating atomic bombs marking the end of the Second World War, it is not difficult to say that the whole world is shaking when there is any state attempting to develop nuclear armaments. In the case of Iran recently, different approaches and resolutions have been discussed. Consequently, several of them have been implemented, in order to prevent the Islamic Republic from pursuing nuclear arsenal, despite Tehran’s discourses on her intention to have her own nuclear program for peaceful and civilian purposes. Turkey, as an active regional player, reflects her position on the issue via the state’s foreign policy. That Turkey has been hesitating at complying with the West’s sanctions on Iran poses not only questions but also confusion among the international community. “Does Turkey’s stance on Iran’s nuclear development program reflect an axis-shift in Turkish Foreign Policy?” This paper seeks to answer that question, by analyzing the context that endorses the Iranian nuclear program in pursuance of nuclear technology, and by focusing on the discourses offered by the Iranian and Turkish representatives to the international community concerning the ambiguities of the Iranian nuclear development program. In contrast to much in the literature which perceived Turkey as a moderator, this paper argues that Turkey is more like a facilitator, besides proposing mediation grounds like the previous Baghdad and Moscow sponsored mediations between the US/EU and Iran. From this perspective, Turkey’s stance seems clear in supporting the idea that instead of imposing sanctions, the West must think of other effective ways to resolve the nuclear energy. In other words, Ankara believes that diplomatic talks and negotiations shall be continued and attributed to Iranian nuclear debacle. Overall, this paper concludes that Turkey’s decision of no sanctions on Iran does not indicate that Turkish foreign policy is anti-Western. Rather, it illustrates Turkey’s growing independence as a regional power and flexibility in decision-making process with regard to her own interests, such as gaining image in the Middle East with the new foreign policy doctrine, less independence on Russian energy imports by Iran’s alternative, and prioritizing domestic solutions, while not upsetting the West’s mutual interests. In addition, this study will contribute to the existing literature on the part of the explanation of Iranian diplomacy with regard to the religious understanding of “taqiyya” (deception) and “qitman” (concealing). Keywords: Nuclear Program, Iran, Middle East, NPT, Turkish Foreign Policy, Western Orientation, Axis-Shift. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3