82 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4fca2c17a0ef98630250c3989a50fe06.pdf a9b794907008026b8915c374783c406b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Presence of Andragogical Principles in English Language Teaching Practice Ervin KovaĦeviĤ English Language and Literature Program International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ekovacevic@ius.edu.ba Abstract: The contemporary market demand implies that the institutions training English teachers need to equip them with the knowledge of teaching approaches and techniques to be used in compulsory and non – compulsory educational settings with the learner profiles ranging from preschool students to retirees. Malcolm S. Knowles in his The Adult Learner (2005; 1973), while contrasting the pedagogical and andragogical educational models, concludes: the pedagogical model excludes the andragogical assumptions; the andragogical model includes the pedagogical assumptions; and, an ideological andragogue should be able to use or apply the model whose assumptions are more realistic in a given situation. One of the implications is that the effective foreign language teachers are supposed to master both the models if they are to teach adult learners. The second one is that the teaching styles will oscillate on the continuum between highly teacher-centered and highly learnercentered one due to the teachers‘ abilities and willingness to draw from both the andragogical and pedagogical educational models. The assumptions have been tested through a survey revealing that the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards the teacher-centered pole, thus the pedagogical model. Key Words: Teaching Styles, Andragogy, Pedagogy. Introduction Since all adult learners are at different points on the different continua, due to all the physiological, psychosocial and other distinguishing variables among them, a group of adult learners is never completely homogenous (Knowles, 1990; Long, 1990; Merriam and Caffarella, 1999; Quinnan, 1997; Rogers, 1996; Wlodkowski, 1999). Hypothetically, the degree in heterogeneity of a group of adult learners might be decreased by placing the learners of the similar needs, goals, or characteristics together, but it can never be zero as there are no totally same adult learner profiles to be put together in the same group. Thus, a separate approach to every individual learner and every group of adult learners in both compulsory and non-compulsory educational settings might be needed if any teaching process is to be marked as maximally effective. This approach is based on the andragogical educational model which accounts for the necessity of including the uniqueness of every learner profile into the teaching – learning exchange context and answering it through both the andragogical and pedagogical educational perspectives which are to be implemented according to the learner profiles taught (Knowles, 1990). While the andragogical perspective constantly tends to the inclusion of the learner‘s individual features into every aspect of the teaching-learning exchange process (planning, delivery and assessment), the pedagogical model does not necessarily do so. If a group of adults is to be taught, andragogically speaking, maximizing teaching effect requires a deliberate and constant attempt to seek for a perfect overlapping match of at least three factors: learners‘ features, which make each adult learner so unique, teacher‘s intended outcomes, prescribed to teachers by their teaching domain and their personal educational philosophy, and teaching-learning exchange context, where a teacher is expected to fulfill his/her professional roles (Heimlich and Norland, 2002; Rogers, 1996). In order to maximize the overlapping match, the fields of adult education and foreign language teaching recognize and prescribe a number of teachers‘ roles, yet it is the context of an educational event and the teachers‘ beliefs about education based on their life philosophy and background by which the teachers interpret various educational contexts and engage in different roles through which they display a teaching style and create a certain atmosphere where the teaching-learning exchange occurs (Brown, 2001; Conti, 2004; Pratt, 2002; Rogers, 1996; Zinn, 2004). Eventually, a maximally effective teaching style relies on fully correct interpretation of any teaching – learning exchange context, which is followed by a proper set of consequent responses that include both teaching decisions and behaviors, and a constantly ongoing interrelatedness between the two in order to keep learners‘ features, teacher‘s intended outcomes and teaching-learning exchange context perfectly overlapping. To ensure that the overlapping is maximized, therefore, the maximally effective teaching style has to constantly oscillate between 433 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the poles of extremely teacher-centered and extremely learner-centered one, as it is trying to answer the varying needs of the learner profiles and the uniqueness of the context where the teaching-learning exchange is occurring. If the starting point in designing a teaching – learning exchange experience, delivering and pacing the instruction, assessing the outcomes, and making any proceeding educational decisions are learners‘ temporary physiological and psychosocial characteristics, including their already possessed and currently gained knowledge or experience, their goals and expectations, and their learning pace or momentum, then the teaching style in charge is the highly learner – centered one, and it is driven by personal educational philosophy of the highly andragogical nature. Eventually, if the learner is capable and willing to be in charge of the teaching – learning exchange experience, an andragogue will agree and respond accordingly. If the learner is entering a new field, the andragogue will shape the educational process as much as he/she has to while trying to include the learners‘ personal traits as much as possible. An opposite teaching style, one that disregards the uniqueness of adult learner profile and operates under the ‗one size for all‘ approach, is defined as highly – teacher centered one and is run by highly pedagogical philosophy. The pedagogue will exclude the andragogical perspective and use his/her own educational reasoning in making any educational decisions. Any oscillations fall in between. The aim of this study is to place the teaching styles English language teachers display while teaching adults in non-compulsory language schools onto the continuum between highly pedagogical and highly andragogical poles, thus attempt to point out the qualities a contemporary English teacher might have to be extra equipped with in order to answer the current demands of the language learning market. Method of the Study After the literature review, which heavily focused on the literature produced in the fields of Philosophy of Education, Adult Education, and English Language Teaching, the survey specifically designed to place teaching styles on the continuum between teacher-centered and learner-centered poles (Conti, 2004) was carried out with seventy (70) English teachers teaching adults in the non – compulsory language schools. The results were compared and contrasted to the andragogical principles derived from the literature under the scope providing both quantitative and qualitative features grounded in the overall interpretation and conclusions (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007). Sampling Seventy (70) English Teachers of different language schools (Istanbul) were asked to respond to fiftytwo questions; eight of the questions related to their personal profiles, and forty-four questions were taken from a survey designed by Conti (2004). Thirty four (34) of the respondents were of male and thirty six (36) of female gender; fifty nine (59) of the respondents had a teaching degree and eleven (11) of them did not; thirty four (34) of the respondents were between twenty and twenty nine years old, twenty five (25) of them were between thirty and thirty nine years old, eight (8) of the respondents were in the forties, and three (3) of them in the fifties; five (5) of the respondents had been teaching adults for less than a year, thirty eight (38) of them had been teaching adults for between one and five years, fourteen (14) of them had been teaching adults for between six and 10 years, and thirteen (13) of the respondents had been teaching adults for more than ten years; fifty eight (58) of them were of Turkish and twelve (12) of them were of other nationalities (British, American, Australian, Indian) (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007). Data Analysis Processes The data was primarily analyzed according to the formulas suggested by the survey designer (Conti, 2004), which interpreted the results within the categories defining any teaching style; Learner-Centered Activities, Personalizing Instruction, Relating to Experience, Assessing Student Needs,Climate Building, Participation in the Learning Process, and Flexibility for Personal Development. However, there have been eight (8) other questions included to help in diagnosing the teaching profiles whose teaching styles have been placed on the continua between teacher-centered and learner-centered poles across all the categories. All the results were compared and contrasted to the principles derived from the referred literature revealing both matching and mismatching points. Yet, the analysis presented in this article has tried to broaden the previously arrived conclusions (KovaĦeviĤ, 2007) by adding two new dimensions: the arrived results have been projected onto the continuum between pedagogical and andragogical teaching style poles; and, there has been an attempt to outline the implications for the contemporary English teacher training programs. 434 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion The majority of the English Teachers questioned expressed tendency or favourism towards encouragment of dialogue and interaction among the students. Calling upon literature used in this research, this fact might be evaluated as one of the matching points between literature on adult education and the practice. Learning a foregin language requires setting the different contexts for using the learned language as a mean in communication. By encouraging the learners to communicate among themselves a real – life context is provided. In addition to this, the majority of respondents expressed that they arrange the classroom in the way to facilitate the communication among the learners, and that they tolerate errors by which they encourage risk – taking and secure learners‘ self – esteem. Either if the learners are just stimulated to communicate with each other, despite of the language used, there are numerous positive consequences; the cohesiveness of the group is strengthened, thus the atmosphere is less threatening and more supportive, for example, or, the experiences and different perspectives are shared, therefore, the context for experiential or unintended learning is provided (Burden, 1995). Even through the tolerance of those short chats or dialogues that are not excatly related to the topic learned at a certain moment during the class, the teachers foster friendly atmosphere where learning is enjoyed and fun. The majority expressed that they also encourage competition; the competition might be considered perhaps motivating as it is usually driven by inner needs to win, however, if it results into some hurt feelings and thus being threatened and feeling insecure in the learning environment, the idea of encouraging it might be reconsidered. In other words, if it is percieved as fun, each of the learner should be having fun, and not only those with characteristics which help ‗winning‘. However, not all the teachers think that learning should be fun. The majority of the respondents prefers well – disciplined classroom. Of course, it might be claimed that both disciplined and fun class could be possible. Some brainstorming would lead to an assumption that goal – oriented learners could actually have fun (or perhaps feel excitment) while being surrounded by an environment where the process of learning – teaching exchange is well emphasized and all the unrelated acts or factors are evaluted as threatening thus desired to be kept out of the process. This assumption views goal – oriented learners as blind to everything else but their goals. If the majority of the questioned teachers favors well – disciplined classes, perhaps it might be logical to expect the same majority to favor quiet desk – work and disciplinary actions. A scene of the first one is an excellent example of a silent working class where ‗everything is under control and in progress‘. The last sentence does have a negative connotation about the quiet desk – work, however, many of the contemporary English language teaching adult course books often ask learner to read an article or fill in the gaps with a suitable word (Cunningham, Moor and Carr, 2005; Dubicka and O‘Keefe, 2004; Redston, 2005; Richards, Hull and Proctor, 2005;) and this requires quiet desk – work, or does it not? Perhaps the silence could be broken by some music playing while the students are doing their work or by an occasional comment or chat that could make others laugh, because laughing and music might provide a happy teaching climate, which is needed if the continuity of a group is aimed or desired. In the same light, the concept of a disciplinary action could be examined. The necessity of disciplinary actions might perhaps be clarified in a compulsory adult educational context, however, it is difficult to clarify it in a non – compulsory setting as, firstly, the learners are there mostly on their free will, and secondly, they are adults, thus are responsible for their actions and are not types of students that could and should be disciplined. Even, if the majority of the respondents expressed that they apply disciplinary actions when they are needed, the researcher assumes that what they meant could be some of the maneuvers that classroom management requires when there is a certain problem or conflict to be solved. The biggest gaps between the literature on adult education and the practice of the majority of the questioned language teachers teaching adults English at language schools are found in the facts that they prefer determining the objectives for the learners at the beginning of a program and prefer sticking to them, use the same materials with different students, assign the same tasks to all the learners, practice lecturing, and that they apply formal testing and rely on it. ‗One size for all‘ approach is based on the idea that two or more adult learners might be taught the same way at the same time, and this is what founds the base of the teacher – centered approach in the teaching practice, or vice versa; the teacher centered approach is an approach expressed in ‗one size for all‘. While defining the concept of ‗adult‘ Long (1990) illustrates the perspective: 435 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo For example, a research report may state the mean income level of a particular population segment as being $15,333. In reality it is possible that no individual actually has such an income. The mean fails to communicate either the modal, or most frequent income, or the income range in the population. For example, given a sample of six individuals whose incomes are as follows: $25,000, $24,000, $21,000, $10,000, $6,000, $6,000. The total income of the six individuals is $92,00. The range is from $6,000 to $25,000. The mean is $15,333 and the modal income is $6,000. This reveals how the $15,333 mean income is rather low when compared with the three highest incomes and is equally high compared with the three lowest incomes. Although even the adult learners might be highly dependent on their educators at certain stages while progressing in a certain domain, this fact does not imply that all of them should be treated or approached the same way; rather , all of their individual profiles should be examined and matched with certain teaching strategies, styles, techniques, tasks and materials. Yet, the majority of the respondents is, it seems so, ignorant of the profile differences by offering them all ‗the same‘. Their ignorance is so big that they even expressed that they prefer not to spend a certain amount of effort in order to find what each learner wants and needs to know, and that they prefer not to allow older students more time to complete assignments when they need it. The majority of the English language teachers questioned is not following the andragogical principal of desired stimulated independency as they prefer not to support a collaborative mode and practice behaviors that provide the learners with the opportunities to initiate actions and encourage them to be responsible for their own learning, not to let the adult learners participate in deciding what topics are to be covered during the lessons, not to let the adult learners take part in developing criteria for evaluating their performance. In this way, adult educators are ignorant towards the learners‘ self – concepts, their experiences, in other words the learners‘ already going on personal lives which actually get the learners into an educational setting, and motivate them to learn. Can the learners be expected to remain a part of the educational setting where their experience is not integrated into the learning progress and where they might be learning something that they believe would not help them perform their life – tasks? On the other hand, the majority of the teachers questioned states that they apply different teaching methods with learners of different learning styles, take into account their students previous experiences and encourage relating of the new ones to the already existing, and have students identify their own problems to be solved. Compared to the so far presented indications of the survey this might sound contradictory. An answer to the contradiction might be found in the assumptions that the teachers questioned respect the learners‘ personalities and provide them opportunities to express them (but not always as the majority stated that they prefer to avoid giving students opportunity to express value judgments), and that they know or think that all the learners are different. However, they might be limiting all the differences in the learners‘ profiles by distinguishing only their learning styles. To sum up, the majority of the questioned teachers has been found as teacher – centered oriented. Would inviting them to adopt a learner – centered approach be too enthusiastic? According to Daley (2003), changing an approach requires changes in the way the teachers think. This research does not ask the majority to switch to the opposite approach, yet asks them to always: create a climate of respect, encourage active participation, build on experience, employ collaborative inquiry, provide the contexts for immediately applying the taught/learned, and empower the learners. These are, according to Lawer (2003), the six principles ―grounded in the literature and practice of adult education‖. So, the teachers are not invited to change the way they think, but to change the way they teach. Conclusions and Recommendations If they are to be summarized, then the following conclusions are to be underlined. To start with, the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards teacher – centered pole. Therefore, it might be assumed that the teachers are practicing the teaching styles which are mainly grounded into the pedagogical educational philosophy. Consequently, the first implication for the contemporary English teacher training programs is to make sure that the novice teachers are equipped with the andragogical principles apart from the pedagogical ones. The majority of the teachers have a teacher – centered approach when it comes to providing aids for learner – centered activities, personalizing of instruction, assessing students‘ needs, providing them participation in the learning process, and stimulating their personal growth. Restated, the majority of the respondents tend to 436 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo rely on the educational perspective which might be more appropriate with the non-adult or young learners, thus pedagogical one. Eventually, the second implication for the English teacher training programs is to make sure that their program outcomes account for the ability of the novice teachers to oscillate between the andragogical and pedagogical educational models according to the target group being taught. When it comes to relating the taught to the already existing experience of learners, the results showed that half of the teachers are learner – centered oriented. This conclusion is found to be parallel to the desired andragogical reasoning, thus the implication is that this aspect of teacher training practice is to be reinforced. One of the teachers‘ profiles does not necessarily always tend to one of the teaching poles in all the aspects of learning – teaching exchange to the same extent; the teacher‘s tendency to one of the poles vary according to the actions or the aspects in question. So, the teachers oscillate between the highly andragogical and highly pedagogical based styles. Yet, the implication would be to aim at sculpting the novice teachers who would be able to oscillate deliberately and to the extents that the teaching – learning exchange contexts require. The teachers mostly apply what the English Language Methodology prescribes; however, the majority of them do not provide the circumstances for the collaborative mode prescribed by the principles of andragogy. One may argue that adult learners attending the language schools might just want to be taught, thus they might not ask for collaboration during the course. Yet, neglecting their needs, experience, or inner drives for being self – directing, creates a conflict within them. Therefore, the English teacher training programs are to make sure that the novice teachers are familiar with the drawbacks of the misapplied educational models. Besides, the research revealed that the high percentage of teachers questioned applies teaching styles tending towards teacher – centered pole, a certain percentage of the teachers is either strongly or extremely teacher – centered oriented, a certain percentage tends towards learner – centered pole, and no teachers are strongly or extremely learner – centered oriented. Rephrased, this means that either the teaching style grounded into the andragogical perspective is impossible to be applied with the learner profiles of the teachers under the scope, or that the teachers do not know how to implement one. More pessimistic conclusion would be that the pedagogical educational model is prevailing as the result of the number of English teacher training programs which are fostering pedagogical educational philosophy and disregarding the andragogical one. Then, the last implication for the English teacher training programs would be to make sure that their novice teachers are exposed to both the models to the equal extents and trained to implement the both according to the educational context they are teaching in; it has to be ensured that they do not teach through the educational philosophy that they favor but through one that is more effective. The results presented here could be compared to the results got from the teachers teaching adults either different contents in similar settings, or the same content in different settings. Another topic that could be considered would be the educational philosophies of the English teachers teaching adults either at language schools, in order to get more explanatory facts for the results and conclusions reached here, or across some other educational settings so that the educational philosophies of the English teachers teaching adults could be better understood. The further step could be investigating the English teachers‘ life philosophies, thus diagnosing the personal values that could be determinants in the professional preferences between andragogical and pedagogical educational reasoning. 437 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, D. H. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, San Francisco: Longman. Burden, P. R. (1995). Classroom Management and Discipline, New York: Longman. Conti, G. J. (2004). Identifying Your Teaching Style, Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company.75-91. Cunningham, S. and Moor, P. and Carr, J. C. (2005). Cutting Edge, Harlow Essex: Longman. Daley, B. J. (2003). A Case for Learner - Centered Teaching and Learning, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). New Perspectives on Designing and Implementing Professional Development of Teachers of Adults, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 98, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 23-30. Dubicka, I. and O‘Keefe, M. (2004). English for International Tourism, Harlow Essex: Longman. Galbraith, M. W. (2004). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company. Heimlich, J. E. and Norland, E. (2002). Teaching Style: Where Are We Now?, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). Contemporary Viewpoints on Teaching Adults Effectively, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 93, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 17-25. KovaĦeviĤ, E. (2007). Elements of Teaching – Learning Modes As Reflected in Teaching Adults English: A Turkish Case. Istanbul: Istanbul University. Knowles, M. (1990). The Adult Learner A Neglected Species, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company. Lawler, P. A. (2003). Teachers as Adult Learners: A New Perspective, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). New Perspectives on Designing and Implementing Professional Development of Teachers of Adults, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 98, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 15-22. Long, H. (1990). Understanding Adult Learners, Galbraith, M. W (Ed.) Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 28-35. Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in Adulthood, San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. Pratt, D. D. (2002). Good Teaching: One Size Fits All?, Ross-Gordon, J. M. (Ed.). Contemporary Viewpoints on Teaching Adults Effectively, New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 93, San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 5-15. Quinnan, T. W. (1997). Adult Students ―At – Risk‖, Westport: Bergin and Garvey. Redston, C. and Cunnigham, G. (2005). Face 2 Face, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. and Hull, J. and Proctor, S. (2005). Interchange, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rogers, A. (1996). Teaching Adults, Buckingham: Open University Press. Wlodkowski, R. J. (1999). Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn, San Francisco: Jossey – Bass. Zinn, L. M. (2004). Exploring Your Philosophical Orientation, Galbraith, M. W. (Ed.). Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction, Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 39-74. 438 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 64 Title A name given to the resource Presence of Andragogical Principles in English Language Teaching Practice Author Author Kovačević, Ervin Abstract A summary of the resource. The contemporary market demand implies that the institutions training English teachers need to equip them with the knowledge of teaching approaches and techniques to be used in compulsory and non – compulsory educational settings with the learner profiles ranging from preschool students to retirees. Malcolm S. Knowles in his The Adult Learner (2005; 1973), while contrasting the pedagogical and andragogical educational models, concludes: the pedagogical model excludes the andragogical assumptions; the andragogical model includes the pedagogical assumptions; and, an ideological andragogue should be able to use or apply the model whose assumptions are more realistic in a given situation. One of the implications is that the effective foreign language teachers are supposed to master both the models if they are to teach adult learners. The second one is that the teaching styles will oscillate on the continuum between highly teacher-centered and highly learnercentered one due to the teachers‘ abilities and willingness to draw from both the andragogical and pedagogical educational models. The assumptions have been tested through a survey revealing that the teaching styles of the majority of the English teachers of the language schools tend towards the teacher-centered pole, thus the pedagogical model. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/27fd63b041b9d0f89c468c97cb71f645.pdf c11191e23813a0468ee1010f9a2304fd PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Creation of an Online ESP Course in Web 2.0 Environment Darko KovaĦeviĤ Education and Teacher Training Agency, University of East Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina dax1978@gmail.com Abstract: The Internet of today offers almost unlimited options and tools for the creation of various online teaching materials that can be used for all the needs of an ESP course, both as main and as extracurricular (additional) materials. After a brief introduction bringing some important facts about Web 2.0 and its use related to e-learning, the central part of this paper will be dedicated to the creation of an online course in English for Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) used as an extracurricular resource for the students of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. The course will be described through the tools and services necessary for its creation as well as through its organizational concepts and practical usage. Such a description will be briefly preceded by the presentation of some general facts about the English language, lessons, tuition and curriculum at the Faculty. In the conclusion of the paper, some general conclusions and expected practical results will be mentioned. Key Words: ESP, online course, Web 2.0, tuition, e-learning Introduction: Specifities of ESP Tuition at Faculties English for Special Purposes (ESP) is taught at many faculties today in form of courses that expand the courses in general English by dealing with the specific features of vocabulary, grammar and terminology of certain field of science, technology, art etc. In such a way it enables the student – future expert in certain field – to use the language actively for all kinds of professional purposes. To be able to follow the tuition without problems, an ESP student has to be able to deal with the most important concepts of the English language, but also to have some general and professional knowledge to help him deal with the materials in foreign language. Standard, classroom ESP tuition is mostly based on various books. In present time, there are really innumerous books and other resources for all the aspects and levels of ESP starting from those issued by famous education centers and publishing houses such to those prepared by different known or anonymous teachers, which can be found on various web pages on the Internet. All these resources are very useful, they are, actually, the basis of English language teaching all over the world, but they still have some limitations, mostly in terms of interactivity and being absolutely up-to-date. Namely, although the books and other written materials are still the main source of information and knowledge in contemporary education, in terms of language learning they are still limited to a one-way communication, in which, on one side, the writer or creator presents the theoretical part of some unit and then gives the assignments related to it, while the reader- a student, standing on the other side, tries to adopt the given theoretical knowledge and to improve it by doing and solving the assignments. The role of the teacher in the classroom is to improve this communication and to make it vivid, but it usually takes just a limited amount of time which is simply not enough. At the same time, something which is written down on a piece of paper is not easy to be changed or updated, and these changes are updates are something which is necessary in this time of enormous number of information which is transferred throughout the world every day, especially when dealing with such a lively matter as English language is. One of the possible things that can be done to improve the interactivity in ESP learning is the creation of online courses dealing with specific matters. 329 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo University Students, English Language and the Internet The overall situation in higher education during the last two decades imposes the active Internet usage on all faculty levels (students, administration, teachers and non-academic stuff) as one of the main features for a constant progress, development and standing in line with the competitive institutions. On the other side, from the perspective of an ordinary young man – student, a general decrease of Internet costs and, at the same time, increase in connection speeds, together with various possible ways of connecting (ADSL, Wireless, Cable) make the usage of the Internet available to almost everyone. In such an environment, a great number of students use the Internet actively, both for academic and studying purposes and for fun, entertainment and communication. Taking into account that, besides all the efforts in localization, the official language of the Internet is English language, it becomes obvious that at least a part of time which the students spend on the Internet can be effectively used for their language improvement. Web 2.0 technologies and user-generated content can be of great help in that. Web 2.0 and User-Generated Internet Content In recent years, the Internet has constantly been developing in many different ways, and that development goes far beyond its original role of a worldwide service for information exchange. Together with the appearance of fast broadband connections, the Internet has turned into a complete interactive, multidisciplinary and multimedia system – a kind of virtual reality with an almost indefinite number of possibilities and opportunities offered to each user. Throughout such evolution, the relation between the Internet and its users changed from the one-way distribution of information (―Packaged Goods Media‖) to a two-way interactive process (―Conversational Media‖), what came with the appearance of Web 2.0 technology. Web 2.0 is a term describing the trend in the use of World Wide Web technology and web design which aims to enhance creativity, information sharing, and, most notably, collaboration among users. Although such a term suggests a new version of the World Wide Web, it does not refer to an update to any technical specifications, but to changes in the ways software developers and end-users use the Web. Among various consequences irrelevant to this work, the concepts of Web 2.0 led to the development and evolution of User-generated content (UGC) on the Internet. The term UGC entered mainstream usage during 2005, after a radical arising in web publishing and new media production circles. It reflects the expansion of media production through new technologies that are accessible and affordable to the general public. These include video streaming, blogging, podcasting, wikis, social networking sites, discussion boards (forums), news sites, trip planners, experience and photo sharing sites, online word processors, online desktop environments etc. In addition to these technologies, UGC may also involve a combination of open source, free software and flexible licensing or related agreements to further diminish the barriers to collaboration, skill-building and discovery. The three basic characteristics of UGC are: 1. Publication requirement: While UGC could be made by a user and never published online or elsewhere, the focus here is on the work that is published in some context, be it on a publicly accessible website or on a page on a social networking site only accessible to a select group of people (e.g. fellow university students). This is a useful way to exclude email, two-way instant messages and the like. 2. Creative effort: This implies that a certain amount of creative effort was put into creating the work or adapting existing works to construct a new one; i.e. users must add their own value to the work. The creative effort behind UGC often also has a collaborative element to it, as is the case with websites which users can edit collaboratively. For example, merely copying a portion of a television show and posting it to an online video website (an activity frequently seen on the UGC sites) would not be considered UGC. If a user uploads his/her photographs, however, expresses his/her thoughts in a blog, or creates a new music video, this could be considered UGC. Yet the minimum amount of creative effort is hard to define and depends on the context. 3. Creation outside of professional routines and practices: User generated content is generally created outside of professional routines and practices. It often does not have an institutional or a commercial market context. In extreme cases, UGC may be produced by non-professionals without the expectation of profit or remuneration. Motivating factors include: interactive connecting with people or target groups, achieving a certain level of fame, notoriety, or prestige, and the desire to express oneself. 330 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo It is often possible for an UGC to be partially or totally monitored by website administrators to avoid offensive content or language, copyright infringement issues, or simply to determine if the posted content is relevant to the general theme of a site. Use of Web 2.0 and UGC in English Language Teaching and Acquisition Because of its availability and also because of global popularization of some services that came with the appearance of Web 2.0 technologies, some UGCs, such as blogs, wikis, podcasts and social networking sites have become very popular, especially among the senior secondary school pupils and the university students. Being extremely easy to use, and giving many opportunities to young people (personal presentations, presentation of personal attitudes and gained knowledge, publication and availability of various audio and video material, meeting friends and new people in various ways, file and information interchange, etc.), User-generated internet contents have been taking a large amount of time which students spend on the Internet. Observing the Internet as a global network where a page is just a few clicks away from every other, and taking into consideration the popularization of an organized Internet usage in education, through e-learning, distance learning and various CMS tools, the teachers‘ active participation in particular UGCs and the guided directing of students to the same UGCs (in this case, of course, using exclusively English language as the means of communication), together with the proper control of their activities there would surely lead to the creation of an interactive, all time up-to-date language learning system, in all components possible for a particular UGC. One of the ways for making such a system is to create an online course which would integrate and organize various UGC within a single website. At the faculties that have the possibility and resources to involve distance learning or e-learning as a regular part of their curricula, such courses can be used as an integral part of tuition, while at others they can be used as an extracurricular, additional tool for knowledge improvement and widening, exercising and practicing. This paper with discuss the necessary steps, knowledge and tools for the creation of one such course, a course in English for ICT, which is taught at the second semester of the first year of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. Steps Before and During the Course Creation There are many things that must be kept in mind during the creation of an online course. At first, there is the defining of the purpose, scope and organization of the course. Then, there is a degree of computer literacy in teachers and students, an in accordance with that, the selection of adequate tools for online course creating. Together with that selection, it is necessary to discuss the important issues of payment and licensing both for the tools and the contents created in them, and also the matter of data storage and hosting space. Only after taking into account everything that has been mentioned, the practical creation of course can start. In the practical case of the named course, the purpose has already been mentioned – an online contribution to the lessons at one-semester English for ICT classroom course. The course itself is based on the selection of texts from Cambridge ―Professional English in Use – ICT‖ book and lasts for 15 weeks (30 lessons) and covering 27 units from the book. Because of the copyright, the materials from the book units (lessons, exercises) must not be directly used in the online course, but, thanks to the fact that the units cover some general issues of ICT (living with computers, types of computer system, hardware components, software types, networking, the Internet, security, mobile phones etc.), new materials of the same type, with the same topics, features and vocabulary can be easily created or found on various free resources on the Internet. In such a way, the online course would also consist of 27 units, where every unit from the book would be covered with one or more relevant texts, and a lot of interactive materials connected to it, that enable memorizing, practicing, and renewing of knowledge. Besides such a following of the ―main‖, classroom course, the course would also enable relative independence of units to enable the users to work at their own speed if necessary, and that is to be done by creating a common glossary of terms for the entire website, accessible from every page. In terms of computer literacy, computer science and computers are so present in everyday life of today that almost every person is capable of performing at least basic tasks on a computer, so that it neither teachers nor students should have a problem in dealing with the course, especially if abundant documentation and tutorials that come with most of the programs are taken into account. Still, if there is a need, some additional advice may be asked from the IT department of the faculty, and the students may also ask to be introduced to the course by their teachers. The next question that naturally appears deals with which tools and applications should be used. 331 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo There are numerous tools and management systems on the Internet of today that enable the realization of language courses, with different features, ways of payment and licensing, data storage and hosting space, degree of complexity, and the amount of interactivity that they offer. All of them can be classified in three groups: CMS or LMS (Classroom/Learning Management System), applications for creating interactive contents in Flash or standard HTML format to be published on the web, and the Internet services for website creation and hosting. CMS/LMS is a tool for creating complete online virtual classroom environment in form of an interactive website. Its installation and setup often require some computer knowledge, while the usage is intuitive, logical and easy. On the other side, various applications for creating interactive contents in Adobe Flash of HTML format (tests, lessons, exercises, quizzes etc,) work on the WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) principle, and are mostly easy for use, requiring only essential computer knowledge and no knowledge in programming and design. Finally, the Internet of today offers various options for both online design and hosting of web pages, which also work on WYSIWYG principle and are intuitive and logical for average user. They can be used both for creation of teaching materials and in combination with interactive web-ready contents created in other programs. After the observation and testing of many programs from all three categories, together with taking into account the objective needs of an ESP course, some general conclusions are made. Although there are various free LMS/CMS solutions on the web, their installation, setup and use, together with hosting and registration issues, would be too complicated for a relatively simple one-semester course to follow ―regular‖ tuition, and because of that they have not been taken into account. The decision is made to make the course by combining some of two other types of resources – online services for website creation and hosting and Flash interactive contents authoring tools. Among many offered options, two have been selected: Weebly, as a full online service for website creation and hosting, and iSpring Presenter, as an excellent Flash contents authoring tool, and. Some facts about the named will be given in the text that follows. Tools for the Course Creation Weebly Weebly is an online service that, after an easy and quick registration, enables the creation and hosting of a web page with the address in the form username.weebly.com. It enables the teacher-administrator to create pages and menus within the site and also to insert various external elements (HTML code, text, images, video, animations, Flash applications, forums, surveys etc.) and publish them on the web, thus offering both multimedia and interactivity. Everything can be done very easily and intuitively, often by simple text typing and dragging and dropping of page elements. In the case of an English in ICT course, it can offer a course base in form of a website which is, at the same time, an information exchange system (containing lessons, presentations, discussions results) and the tool for embedding, grouping and organisation of interactive Flash materials created in some other programs (quizzes, tests, exercises). In that way, it solves most of the technical problems in terms of course administration and hosting. The service also allows the creation of Assignment Forms with the options for uploading the assignments, and students‘ blogs. What makes it is an excellent tool for getting various types of feedback from students. iSpring Presenter iSpring Presenter is a PowerPoint add-in which, basically, enables the conversion of PowerPoint presentations into Adobe Flash (.swf) or self-executive (.exe) format (thus enabling them to be published for different media and reproduced on every computer, regardless its software), and also, what is more important, it gives various additional features in terms of interactivity, besides those that already exist in PowerPoint (adding quizzes and Flash animations). Such presentations can also be embedded into websites, with their interactivity fully preserved. After the installation, the program is fully integrated in PowerPoint and is placed in the ribbon of PowerPoint as a separate tab. By clicking on it, the user can see all the general options it offers, grouped in the sections: Publish, Presentation, Narration, Insert and About. Some of the options (e.g. those in the sections Presentation and Narration) as more or less the same as those contained in PowerPoint, although they offer some more advanced options and adjustments. Within the 332 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo section Narration, such options are Record/Import Audio/Video, and Sync, which enables the synchronization of narrations with animation effects. On the other side, Presentation offers the overview of presentation (exploration and editing of its structure) within Presentation Explorer, the management of the presentation links and references within Links and the customization of presenters within Presenters. However, the sections Insert and Publish come with the options that widely expand the features of PowerPoint. The section Insert enables the insertion of Flash objects, YouTube videos and quizzes into the slides of a presentation. Each of the categories can be broadly used both in classes and in learning at home. The insertion of Flash objects enables the user to insert the already prepared Flash (.swf) files in the presentation, with their functionality completely preserved. On the other side, for inserting YouTube videos, it is necessary to have the link of the video, which is then pasted or typed in the Insert You Tube Video window. However, the most important and the most appropriate feature for creating interactive materials to be embedded within an ESP course is the possibility of making and inserting Quizzes. When the option Quiz in the section Insert is selected, the QuizMaker window opens, allowing the user to make various types of questions within a quiz. Those types of questions are: True/False, Multiple Choice, Multiple Response, Type In, Matching, Sequence, Numeric, Fill in the Blank , Multiple Choice Text and Word Bank. All of these question types can be freely combined within a quiz. Each of the quizzes created can be given a unique title, helping it to be distinguished from the others. The QuizMaker also deals with other relevant options and settings for test making, such as feedback (via e-mail), visual appearance, awarded points, number of attempts, passing score, etc. It also offers the preview of a quiz being created in every moment. The insertion of images, audio and video is also enabled. In such a way, the quizzes can be created both as parts of presentations, coming together with other presentation elements containing the text, images, charts, tables, or as standalone test units to be published on a website or sent to students by e-mail. They enable the user to type in the answers, or select and arrange them with mouse actions, and to get the points and scores for the achieved results upon finishing. The review of correct answers is also enabled. The created quizzes have to be published through some of the publishing options offered in the section Publish of iSpring Presenter. The simplest option is Quick Publish, which is used for publishing the presentation in Flash format using the default settings offered by the program. The other option, Publish, offers four different options for publishing presentations to Flash: Web, CD, iSpring Online and LMS. As their titles suggest, each of the options prepares the presentation for publishing to different media, with some options shared and some other which are specific for the intended media. Basically, and depending on the purpose, the presentations can be exported as Flash, .exe, HTML or compressed (.zip) files. Many other publishing options can also be adjusted in detail, such as the player design, playback and navigation, compression, Flash animation properties and protection. Conclusion: Practical Course Creation As it has already been mentioned, a website created and hosted at Weebly will be a basis of the English in ICT accompanying online course. Its home page should contain the relevant information and RSS feed for the news and updated information, while the menu bar should lead to Lessons and Exercises, organized in accordance with the titles of the units from the mentioned coursebook, and further linked to each other, and also to Glossary. It should also lead to students‘ Discussion Board (forum), necessary for getting the feedback, and to a page dedicated to embedded audio and video materials relevant to the course. While the lessons should appear as ordinary web pages operating in hyper textual environment, to have adequate Exercises, that would provide both interactivity and feedback, it is necessary to embed various quizzes created in iSpring Presenter to webpages. Depending on the purpose and the needs of particular lessons, the quizzes can be of different types and contain various indirect test units. Together with exercises for each lessons, some general tests should be prepared on the basis of grouping particular Lessons in accordance with their contents. All the mentioned enables a successful creation of an online ESP course that will stand as a supportive and additional teaching material to a classroom course, and, at the same time, give the students options to learn, exercise and improve their knowledge outside the classroom and regular tuition time. 333 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Esteras S. R. & Fabre E. M. (2007). Professional English in Use ICT. Cambridge: University Press. Harmer, J. (2007). How to Teach English. Harlow: Longman. Harmer, J. (2008).The Practice of English Language Teaching, Harlow: Longman. http://www.ispringsolutions.com/kb/docs/presenter/5.0/ (April 7, 2011) http://www.weebly.com (April 7, 2011) KovaĦeviĤ, D. (2010). iSpring Presenter as a Tool for the Improvement of Multimedia Presentations in English Language Teaching, 15. Kongres JISA DICG, Herceg Novi McNamara, T. (2000). Language Testing, Oxford: University Press. ŃestiĤ. L. (2002), Gramatika tehniĦkog engleskog sa rjeĦnikom, Zenica: Minex. 334 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 49 Title A name given to the resource Creation of an Online ESP Course in Web 2.0 Environment Author Author Kovačević, Darko Abstract A summary of the resource. The Internet of today offers almost unlimited options and tools for the creation of various online teaching materials that can be used for all the needs of an ESP course, both as main and as extracurricular (additional) materials. After a brief introduction bringing some important facts about Web 2.0 and its use related to e-learning, the central part of this paper will be dedicated to the creation of an online course in English for Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) used as an extracurricular resource for the students of the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in East Sarajevo. The course will be described through the tools and services necessary for its creation as well as through its organizational concepts and practical usage. Such a description will be briefly preceded by the presentation of some general facts about the English language, lessons, tuition and curriculum at the Faculty. In the conclusion of the paper, some general conclusions and expected practical results will be mentioned. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cbeec4b8ea17e0898b005672f73c48a.pdf a627aa751b43174a3651419132a27cc9 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A Postmodern Study of Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook in the Light of Jean-Francois Lyotard ‘s Ideas Shahram Kiaei Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Qom Branch, Qom, Iran shahramkiaei@yahoo.com Ensiyehsadat Azizi Department of English Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch , Arak , Iran enc1382@yahoo.com Fatemeh Azizmohammadi Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Arak Branch , Arak , Iran Mina_meena_meena@yahoo.com Abstract: It has become a virtual commonplace of contemporary criticism that postmodern thought challenges the Enlightenment view of human reason, especially its assumption of a stable, autonomous subject capable of directing the forces of history. For this reason some theorists see postmodernism as pivoting on a reformulation of anti-Enlightenment thought that surfaced during the nineteenth-century and which remained active throughout the modernist period. From this perspective, literary modernism's ambivalent stance toward the integrity of the subject is in part the legacy of Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud-precisely those nineteenth-century thinkers who situate much of the postmodern project. Regarding all the previous criticisms, this study clearly assumes that postmodernism employs quite different critical methodologies from those of modernism. Nevertheless, as Jean-Francois Lyotard suggests, evidence of this postmodern emphasis is latent in modernism itself, most particularly in those highly experimental or transgressive works that challenge traditional notions of referential language, rational order, or the autonomous subject. This study, particularly, examines Doris Lessing‘s major work for which she was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007, The Golden Notebook (1962), in which postmodern elements especially Lyotard‘s exists. Ultimately, the paper hails this most influential novel as a postmodern masterpiece. Key Words: Enlightenment, Postmodernism, Fragmentation, Chaos In the first two-thirds of The Golden Notebook, the theme of the crack up or breakdown is elaborated in the novels representation of national and global politics. Soviet-inspired Communism, European colonialism and emperialism , Britain society, and national liberation struggles in the Third World are disintegrating, collapsing, crumbling, and fragmenting, under the pressures both internal and external. The last third of the novel relocates the crack-up in the person,[..],of Anna herself. -Louise Yelin, From the Margins of Empire: Christina Stead, Doris Lessing, Nadline Gordimer Introduction The Enlightenment was a Europe-wide phenomenon, in philosophy, literature, language, art, religion, and political theory, which lasted from around 1680 until the end of the 18 thcentury. Conventionally, the Enlightenment has been called the ―age of reason‖. For the Enlightenment thinker, truth was available and human reason was the tool by which this knowledge had been achieved and by further application of human reason, one day the whole truth would be available to the human mind. Traditional theory desires for a unitary and totalizing truth. During this time philosophers believed in the world‘s own story. It is what Jean-Francois 1389 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lyotard , one of the leading proponents of postmodernism, denies when he urges a rejection of Enlightenment ―metanarratives‖ in favor of arguing that ―there is no such thing as the world‘s own story, and the only accounts that we can give of the world are local human aiccounts. There are only varied and conflicting human stories about the world‖. The credibility of grand narratives has collapsed for Lyotard . Based on the theory by Lyotard (1984): In contemporary society and culture-postindustrial society, postmodern culture-the question of the legitimation of knowledge is formulated in different terms. The grand narrative has lost its credibility, regardless of what mode of unification it uses, regardless of whether it is a speculative narrative or a narrative of emancipation (p.37). Postmodern philosophers say that the idea of the world‘s own story, the unified picture of reality is an illusion. Most postmodernism‘s core characteristics are: ―a skepticism or rejection of grand narratives to explain reality; no objective reality, but many subjective interpretations; no ―one correct‖ concept of ultimate reality; no ―one correct‖ interpretation of a text (Bressler, 2007). Moreover, postmodernist thought rejects universals, the whole truth, unitary and totalization. This is the fragmentation of truth. Postmodernist art, architecture and literature emphasize the lack of any unifying form or method in art. Postmodernist art revels in the fragmentation of artistic standards (Luntley, 1995). Hence, the postmodern literature world is the representation of chaos and fragmentation. In postmodern novels, chaos, fragmentation, and breakdown are in both their contents and structures. Lyotard , too sees society as fragmented. The postmodern novelists would appreciate the readers to explore fragmented society and human beings. Postmodern novelists reject any conventional story-telling and emphasize that there are no pre-established ways for writing. The process of story-telling is different for postmodern novelists. They are interested in discovering new ways for writing. A liberating way of story-telling is clear for postmodern novelists. Lyotard (1984) expresses that: A postmodern artist or writer is in the position of a philosopher: the text he writes, the work he produces are not in principle governed by pre-established rules ,and they cannot be judged according to a determining judgment ,by applying familiar categories to the text or to the work. Those rules and categories are what the work of art itself is looking for. The artist and the writer then are working without rules in order to formulate the rules of what will have been done (p.81). One of the outstanding examples of postmodern novels which most contain the above-mentioned is Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook .In this novel, Lessing avoids being committed to conventional storytelling ,and tends to regard unconventional and new ways for story-telling. This essay discusses Anna‘s skepticism about the Communist Party, as illustrated primarily in the Red Notebook. Doris Lessing, the Noble Prize winner in literature 2007, the greatest English novelist of the postwar period, born in Persia (now Iran) to British parents in 1919. She has written a lot of plays, short stories and novels. The Grass is singing, which appeared in 1950, is her first novel. As she has told her interviewers, it is not her first attempt at the novel; she has destroyed the manuscripts of two earlier works. During the 50s and 60s, The Grass is singing was followed by the five volumes of her Children of Violence series: Martha Quest (1952); A Proper Marriage (1954); A Ripple from the Storm (1958); Landlocked (1956), and The Four-Gated City (1969). Also, she has written several other novels and a series of short stories. To Room Nineteen (1978) and Through the Tunnel (1990) are her best-known short stories. One of her plays is Play with a Tiger: a play in three acts. The main focus of the present essay, as mentioned before, is on Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook, which will be closely analyzed in the following paragraphs. Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook The Golden Notebook (1962) opens with a ―Free Women‖ section: Free Women is a conventional short novel that is divided into five sections and separated by stages of the four Notebooks; Black ,Red, Yellow and Blue ,and The Golden Notebook appears near the book‘s end. In these notebooks Anna keeps writing of events in her life. The Black Notebook is a record of various aspects of Anna‘s bestselling first novel, Frontiers of war; The Red one is about her experiences and dissatisfying with the British Communist Party; The Yellow one is about her romantic novel called The Shadow of the Third; in this notebook she writes about Ella which is the mirror of her life; and the Blue one is Anna‘s diary of her life. The Golden Notebook and the Interrogation of the Communist Party The Golden Notebook is one of the best-loved and most influential of Lessing‘s novels that invites her readers to discover postmodern fragmented society. When Anna Wulf , the writer and the protagonist, in the beginning of the novel says ―everything is cracking up‖, it implies that the hope of referring to unity has almost disappeared and chaos has an opportunity to emerge. Also, Lessing mentions in the preface of The Golden Notebook; ―its theme is breakdown and fragmentation‖. Chaos and fragmentation are in agreement with the novel. Anna expresses that writing four notebooks instead of one notebook is just because of chaos 1. She senses incoherent in both her life and personality. Given different colors for notebooks shows her fragmented personality in the society. Anna‘s life in the fragmented society requires her to express that: 1390 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The novel has become a function of the fragmented society, the fragmented consciousness. Human beings are so divided, are becoming more and more divided, and more subdivided in themselves, reflecting the world, that they reach out desperately, not knowing they do it, for information about other groups inside their own country, let alone about groups in other countries (GN, p.79). What happens to readers as they read the novel is different from each other. The postmodern writer insists on expression without content, which means that the writer puts up a scenario which the reader is free to interpret in whatever way he/she likes to: there is no correct interpretation (Barkholt & Jepsen, 2010). The postmodern celebration of interrogation grand narrative appears in the Red Notebook. When Anna writes about communism in this notebook, it is to inform her opposition to communism and interrogate it. As Jackson (2009) says: Anna writes of having become disillusioned with the communism into her Red Notebook. Lessing‘s novel is overtly about the splitting or disunification . The compartmentalization of experience into different notebooks is one of the most straightforward manifestations of this theme. All manner of historical forces, especially the Cold War, are the causes for this splitting. Lessing, like Anna, writes about Communism (she was a member of the Communist Party in both South Africa and Britain). Paul Schlueter (2003) notes that: In common with many other British and American intellectuals in the1930s and early 1940s, Doris Lessing became a Communist as a result of sincere optimistic desires to see the world improved and to have the injustices of a supposedly inhuman competitive system of values eliminated .To a great extent, her decision to become a Communist appears now as naive many other youthful enthusiasms or commitments. She has said, for instance, when I became a communist, emotionally if not organizationally, in 1942, my picture of socialism as developed in the Soviet Union was, to say the least, inaccurate. [...] (p.36). Through writing about the Communist Party Anna feels depressed. The rejection of being a communist is related to Lessing, too. Doris Lessing herself, in an interview with Hermione Lee mentions that ―she has just stopped being a communist and being on the extreme Left‖. 2It becomes clear that Lessing was not really satisfied with joining the Communist Party. She has said that she decided to leave the party a good time before I finally left it. I didn‘t leave it when I decided to, because there was a general exodus, much publicized, from the British Party then, and the journalists were waiting for yet another renegade to publish his, her complaints against the C.P. [Communist Party]. To quote another old communist: ―I find it nauseating when people who have been in the Party ten, twenty years, stagger out shouting and screaming as if they‘ve been raped against their will.‖ I left it because the gap between my own attitudes and those of the party widened all the time. There was no particular event or moment. The 20th Congress [in February, 1956, at which Khrushchev denounced Stalin] shocked me, not because of the ―revelations‖ but because I thought the ―revelations‖ were long overdue, pitifully and feebly Put forth, and no one really tried to explain or understand what had happened (schlueter, 2003, p.37). In the Red Notebook, Anna explains she hates joining anything, which seems to her incompatible. In lieu of being satisfied with joining the Communist Party, always she is thinking about leaving the Party. According to Marx3, ―the aim of a Communist society is to procure genuine freedom, genuine individuality and humanity, genuine democracy‖ (Habib, 2008, p.534). But, affirmative political beliefs of becoming a communist in Central Africa play virtually no part here for Anna. She attacks Communism at the beginning of talking with Molly about joining the Party: Last week, Molly came up at midnight to say that the Party members had been circulated with a form, asking for their history as members, and there was a section asking them to detail their 'doubts and confusions.' Molly said she had begun to write this, expecting to write a few sentences, had found herself writing' a whole thesis-dozens of bloody pages.' She seemed upset with herself. 'What is it I want-a confessional? Anyway, since I've written it, I'm going to send it in. 'I told her she was mad. I said: 'Supposing the British Communist Party ever gets into power, that document will be in the files, and if they want evidence to hang you, they've got it-thousands of times over.' She gave me her small, almost sours mile-the smile she uses when I say things like this. Molly is not an innocent communist. She said: 'You're very cynical.' I said: 'You know it's the truth. Or could be .' She said: 'If you think in that way, why are you talking of joining the Party?' I said: 'Why do you stay in it, when you think in that way too?' [...].'It's all very odd, Anna, isn't it?' And in the morning she said: 'I took your advice, I tore it up. (GN, pp.163-164). 1391 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this part, Anna criticizes the very possibility of real freedom and democracy in the Communist Party. She expresses that the Communist Party is too dishonest upon the individual. Although the Communist Party invites their members in the society to express their ideas and doubts freely, but it is not the truth. In fact, they are dishonest toward people. In spite of thinking about leaving the Party, Anna is still in it. So, it is her ambivalent aspect about the Communist Party. Anna says: ―I write very little in this notebook. Why? I see everything I write is critical of the Party. Yet I am still in it. Molly too‖(GN,p.168). But through reading the Red Notebook, we understand regardless of her ambivalence, most of the time she calls the Communist Party into question. ―I see that I wrote yesterday, I would leave the Party. I wonder when, and on what issue‖ (GN, p.170). Immediately, she describes her meeting with John . 4 Had dinner with John. We meet rarely-always on the verge of political disagreement. At the end of the dinner, he said: 'The reason why we don't leave the Party is that we can't bear to say good-bye to our ideals for a better world. 'Trite enough. And interesting because it implies he believes, and that I must, only the Communist Party can better the world. Yet we neither of us believe any such thing(GN,p.170). It indicates that the Communist Party cannot make the world better. Also, we do well keep in mind that fragmentation and split spread in the Communist Party. Anna confesses that the reason to join the Communist Party is a need for wholeness, but fragmentation and split emerge in the Communist Party. I came home thinking that somewhere at the back of my mind when I joined the Party was need for wholeness, for an end to the split, divided, unsatisfactory way we all live. Yet joining the Party intensified the split-not the business of belonging to an organisation whose every tenet, on paper, anyway, contradicts the ideas of the society we live in; but something much deeper than that. Or at any rate , more difficult to understand (GN, p.171). Her ambivalence appears not only in the Red Notebook, but also in her speaking with Mrs.Marks5 that is written in the Blue Notebook by Anna. -'Why are you a communist?' -'At least they believe in something.' -'Why do you say they, when you are a member of the Communist Party?' -'If I could say we, really meaning it, I wouldn't be here, would I?' -'So you don't care, really, about your comrades?' (GN, p.237). The ambivalence does not happen just for Anna, it is for each member of the Mashopi group.―The representation of Anna‘s life in the Communist Party exemplifies rupture, division, and doubleness. Like Anna, each member experiences an ambivalence that undermines her or his politics‖ (Yelin , 1998, p.79). Schlueter (2003) notes that: Although Anna indicates at various times her reasons for leaving the party—its jargon, its dishonesty, its pettiness, and so on—she does specify in one passage in more detail her exact reasons for both becoming a Communist and for leaving the party. Jack, another party member, comments that society today is complex and technical that no one person can effectively understand it all. Anna answers him: ―Alienation .Being split. It‘s the moral side, so to speak, of the communist message. And suddenly you shrug your shoulders and say because the mechanical basis of our lives is getting complicated, we must be content to not even try to understand things as a whole?‖[...] He says: ―Not being split, it‘s not a question of imaginatively understanding everything that goes on. Or trying to. It means doing one‘s work as well as possible, and being a good person.‖ I say: ―That‘s treachery.‖ ―To what?‖ ―To humanism .‖ He thinks and says: ―The idea of humanism will change like everything else.‖ I say: ―Then it will become something else. But humanism stands for the whole person, the whole individual, striving to become as conscious and responsible as possible about everything in the universe. But now you sit there, quite calmly, and as a humanist you say that due to the complexity of scientific achievement the human being must never expect to be whole, he must always be fragmented.‖ [pp. 307–8] Her sense of this fragmentation is such as to demand of her a more coherent, a more unifying life than has been possible through dedication to communism. [...] (pp.39 - 40). The failure of totalizing grand narratives of communism also emerges in the newspaper cuttings and letters from all kinds of people that Anna describes them in the Red Notebook. [At this point the red notebook was stuffed full of newspaper cuttings to do with the Twentieth Congress of the Russian Communist Party, letters from all kinds of people about politics, agendas for 1392 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo political meetings, etc. This mass of paper had been fastened together by rubber bands and clipped to the page. Then Anna's handwriting began again:] 11th August, 1956 Not for the first time in my life I realize I have spent weeks and months in frenzied political activity and have achieved absolutely nothing. More, that I might have foreseen it would achieve nothing. The Twentieth Congress has doubled and trebled the numbers of people, both in and out of the Party, who want a 'new‘ communist party. Last night I was at a meeting which went on till nearly morning. Towards the end a man who had not spoken before, a socialist from Austria, made a short humorous speech, something like this: 'My dear Comrades. I have been listening to you, amazed at the wells of faith in human beings! What you are saying amounts to this: that you know the leadership of the British C. P. Consists of men and women totally corrupted by years of work in the Stalinist atmosphere. You know they will do anything to maintain their position. You know, because you have given a hundred examples of it here this evening that they suppress resolutions, rig ballots, pack meetings, lie and twist. There is no way of getting them out of office by democratic means partly because they are unscrupulous, and partly because half of the Party members are too innocent to believe their leaders are capable of such trickery. [...] (GN, p.435). In the fourth Red Notebook we face Olga6‘s opinions about the Communist Party. She clasped his hand, and said: 'I will make you a promise. I promise you that when our Party Historians have re-written the history of our Communist Party in accordance with the revisions made necessary by the distortions imposed during the era of Comrade Stalin, I promise you that I will read it' (GN,p.515). It indicates that the history of the Communist Party cannot become universalized. Even the Party historians should re-write its history and revise it. It reminds us that history can never be completed. Conclusion Postmodern novelists, like Lessing are interested in interpretations and pave the way for the plurality of possible interpretations. The freedom of the postmodern writers is like the freedom of the readers. The Golden Notebook, then, is a novel informing fragments which encourages the readers to grow discouraged with grand narratives; the Communist Party. The most important matter that Anna, the main character, expresses over and over again in her notebooks, specifically in the Red Notebook is the fragmentation and chaos. Also, the acceleration of fragmentation is all over her life. The Critical moment in her dream is the fragmentation. It shows that Anna cannot escape from fragmentation and chaos, even in her dream: I had a dream for my last appointment. [...].I opened the box and forced them to look. But instead of a beautiful thing, which I thought would be there, there was a mass of fragments, but bits and pieces from everywhere, all over the world—I recognized a lump of red earth, that I knew came from Africa, and then a bit of metal that came off a gun from Indo-China, and then everything was horrible, bits of flesh from people killed in the Korean War and a communist party badge off someone who died in a Soviet prison. This, looking at the mass of ugly fragments, was so painful that I couldn‘t look, and I shut the box (GN, pp.252- 253). She frequently mediates on the difficulty of the Communist Party and regards it inadequate. The red Notebook is a record of a period of history; the Communist Party, but maybe the end of the Communist Party. Most of the characters in the novel, especially Anna realize that they may be at the end of history. They interrogate grand narratives-universal and totalizing stories that give direction to the historical process and legitimize statements of truth. Judith KeganGardiner's valuable essay on Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook perfectly describes little of internal communist maneuvering in the novel. In an attempt to leave the Communist Party, she often calls it into question. Gardiner (2007) says that most of the communists in the novel are deceived. Communism in The Golden Notebook thus becomes a set of false beliefs. The readers are motivated to discover whether Anna is interested in communism or not. 1393 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Endnotes: 1-When Tommy asks her the reason of writing four notebooks, Anna says: ―I‘ve told you, Chaos‖(GN,p.272) . 2-Lee, H.(2009). A Conversation With Doris Lessing. (p.23). Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.informaworld.Com/smpp/title~content=t716100725 3- The tradition of Marxist thought has provided the most powerful critique of capitalist Institutions and ethics ever conducted. Its founder, Karl Heinrich Marx (1818-1883),was a German Political, economic, and philosophical theorist and revolutionist (Habib , 2008,p.527). 4-John: He is a Comrade. 5-Mrs.Marxs:'Mother Sugar', is Anna‘s psychiatrist. 6- Olga: She is a Comrade. References Barkholt, G.V.&Jepsen, J.D.(2010).Postmodernism. A Short History of Literature in Englisha Handbook (p.79). (1st ed). Systime Publishing Ltd. Bressler, Ch.(2007). Modernity and Postmodernism: Structuralism and Deconstruction. Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice (p.101). (4th ed). Pearson Prentice Hall . Bloom ,H.(2003). The Golden Notebook . Schlueter, P. Bloom‘s Modern Critical Views: Doris Lessing (pp.27-60). Chelsea House Publisher .Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http :library.nu/ Habib , M.A.R. (2008). Marxism. A History of Literary Criticism and Theory (pp. 527- 534) . (1st ed). Blackwell Publishing. Jackson, T.E.(2009).― Why a story at all‖ The Writing of The Golden Notebook. The Technology of the Novel Writing and Narrative in British Fiction. (pp.148-149).The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. Lee, H.(2009).A Conversation With Doris Lessing. (p.23). Retrieved February 10, 2011, from http://www.informaworld.Com/smpp/title~content=t716100725 Lessing, D. (1972). The Golden Notebook. Great Britain. Luntley, M.(1995).Introduction . Reason, Truth, and Self (the Postmodern Reconditioned), (pp.10-15).(1st ed). Routledge. Lyotard , J.F. (1984). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Volume 10. Manchester University Press. Shaffer ,B.W. (2007) . Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook. Gardiner, J.K. A Companion to the British and Irish Novel 1945-2000. (p.380). (1st ed). Blackwell Publishing. Yeline, L.(1998). Integrated with British Life and its Roots, Communism: In and out of the Party . From the Margins of Empire: Christina Stead, Doris Lessing, Nadine Gordimer. (pp.79-87). (1st ed) . Cornell University . 1394 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 692 Title A name given to the resource A Postmodern Study of Doris Lessing‘s The Golden Notebook in the Light of Jean-Francois Lyotard ‘s Ideas Author Author Kiaei, Shahram Azizi, Ensiyehsadat Azizmohammadi, Fatemeh Abstract A summary of the resource. It has become a virtual commonplace of contemporary criticism that postmodern thought challenges the Enlightenment view of human reason, especially its assumption of a stable, autonomous subject capable of directing the forces of history. For this reason some theorists see postmodernism as pivoting on a reformulation of anti-Enlightenment thought that surfaced during the nineteenth-century and which remained active throughout the modernist period. From this perspective, literary modernism's ambivalent stance toward the integrity of the subject is in part the legacy of Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud-- precisely those nineteenth-century thinkers who situate much of the postmodern project. Regarding all the previous criticisms, this study clearly assumes that postmodernism employs quite different critical methodologies from those of modernism. Nevertheless, as Jean-Francois Lyotard suggests, evidence of this postmodern emphasis is latent in modernism itself, most particularly in those highly experimental or transgressive works that challenge traditional notions of referential language, rational order, or the autonomous subject. This study, particularly, examines Doris Lessing‘s major work for which she was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 2007, The Golden Notebook (1962), in which postmodern elements especially Lyotard‘s exists. Ultimately, the paper hails this most influential novel as a postmodern masterpiece. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4d2b06c9e7a20227df2b793f3499053b.pdf fee7b9f7b84d4cbabd083621ba0d563b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo PRE-SUFI NOVELS: DORIS LESSING‘S NATURAL INCLINATION FOR SUFI THOUGHT Shahram Kiaei, PhD Faculty Member, Department of English, Islamic Azad University, Qom Branch, Qom, Iran shahramkiaei@yahoo.com ABSTRACT:This paper discusses the impact of certain sufistic ideas on one of Doris Lessing‘s celebrated novels: The Memoirs of a Survivor. This novel is the example that shall be analyzed as Lessing's markedly Sufistic novel in order to show the characteristics of Lessing's works which scholars recognize as undeniably influenced by Sufism. The discussion in this novel is important in order to examine the differences on the craftsmanship of the novel even before Lessing incorporated officially to Sufism in her succeeding novels right after she has known about Sufism. This paper also argues Lessing‘s expected inclination to Sufism, or her visions before she finally realized how Sufism has influenced her art and her holistic evolution. Key Words: Sufism, Holistic, Mysticism, Sufistic INTRODUCTION LESSING‘S VISION Lessing offered us her views on Communism, feminism, mysticism, human relationships, politics, and life in general, and she took us to outer space when the earth proved too small for her visions. Drabble (1972: 52) describes her as a writer who ―changes tense, tone, place, … skips decades, moves from the past to the future, documents, speculates, describes, with relentless urgency‖. She appears to remain enigmatic and diverse, perhaps because she prefers ambiguity to the traditional labels with which we like to classify our writers. Yet her work is of a piece, when evaluated from a Sufi point of view, and not so radically different over the years. This orientation of Sufism is easily compatible with the already clear preoccupations and patterns in Doris Lessing‘s previous fiction: her interest in breaking through the conventional ways of thinking and being, the urge to understand and extend the parameters of consciousness, the mystical intimations expressed in her characters, the desire to overcome the dialectical antithesis of perceived experience in favor of a synthesizing vision of wholeness. In fact, even works written before Lessing began to explore Sufi ideas reveal her natural inclination for Sufi thought and demonstrate ways in which she was already working through processes of self-study and development. Lessing expresses this inclination in a letter to Roberta Rubenstein: ―When I read The Sufis I found that it answered many questions that I had learned-I feel too belatedlyto ask of life. Though that book was only the beginning of a different approach‖ (Rubenstein The Novelistic Vision 1979: 121). The very core of Lessing's insights has been the same-that is, the need for perpetual evolution on all levels: individual, national, worldwide, and universal, and this concern in evolution has been as much biological as it is spiritual. Fahim (1994: 136) has remarked on the progress of Lessing's style in the body of her work. For instance she writes, While The Grass is Singing and The Golden Notebook dramatize the need for personal equilibrium and The Memoirs of a Survivor enlarges on the theme of personal and collective equilibrium, Canopus in Argos: Archives comprehends and complements the earlier works. Fahim (ibid 137) explains the search for equilibrium in the space-fiction series as the dynamic force and the drive of the action in the individual novels. Sprague and Tiger (1986: 13) recognize a change from The Children of Violence series and African novels to Briefing for a Descent into Hell, The Summer before the Dark, and The Memoirs of a Survivor. In the latter three works, they see hints of the upcoming galactic voyages of the Canopus series, which they call ―a kind of secular triptych‖. Draine (1983: 167) recognizes Lessing's tendency to commit to the role of prophet who will move the reader to a desirable state of consciousness. She also recognizes allegory and teaching stories in Lessing's fiction and addresses Lessing's tendency to preach ―whenever she feels the burden of evil to be just too heavy to be borne in silence‖. Later, Lessing preaches also because she wants to educate us about the Sufis. 1112 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sufi thought has confirmed Lessing's insights and validated what she had suspected all along: the possibility of individual and world amelioration. Variations of this belief in evolution are echoed in all of Lessing's works under one guise or another, as the following two passages from novels written twenty years apart demonstrate: Doeg, the protagonist in The Making of The Representative for Planet 8 (1982: 49), a product of Lessing's so-called space-fiction era in the early 1980s, says, ―Do not sleep in all day in your dark rooms, but rouse yourselves, work, do anything-no, bear the burden of your consciousness, your knowledge, do not lose it in sleep‖ . These words recall Saul Green's words to Anna Wulf in The Golden Notebook (1962: 618): ―We will use all our energies, all our talents, into pushing that boulder another inch up the mountain. . . and that is why we are not useless after all‖. Both of these passages signal a positive outlook. As Fahim (1994: 76) notes, Lessing alters the myth of Sisyphus in her retelling of it. The rock described by Saul Green does not roll back all the way but ends a few inches higher than where it started, every time. In other words, there is progress and evolution in Lessing's vision of the world, which does not align with Camus's heroism of the absurd. THE MEMOIRS OF A SURVIVOR The Memoirs of a survivor is a dystopian novel by Doris Lessing in which a woman is struggling to survive in a violent post-apocalyptic world. Traumatized by both the war she's lived through and the regular atrocities that each day brings, she retreats from reality into a bizarre Victorian dream world within herself. However, when she takes in a teenage girl called Emily, she is drawn back into the harsh reality of her crumbling city and its feral street gangs. Desperate for some kind of salvation, she becomes convinced that her fantasy world of the past holds may hold the key to a better future. Doris Lessing described The Memoirs of a Survivor as ‗an attempt at autobiography‘, but the book – set in a frightening near-future world amidst the collapse of civilization – has the magical quality of a fable or allegory. From her window, the narrator watches a city where everyone has to fight for survival, and where men, women and even children are brutalized by necessity. She also watches over Emily, a girl entrusted to her while a child by a stranger who vanishes. Emily herself is guarded too by Hugo – an animal half-dog and half-cat – a creature who dominates this tale. ANALYSIS OF THE MEMOIRS OF A SURVIVOR Reading The Memoirs of a Survivor in light of Sufism allows on the one hand a useful additional way of reading some of the events in Lessing's other book called; The Golden Notebook and on the other hand provides a necessary way of reading some of the events in The Memoirs of a Survivor. Sufism accounts for the difference in Lessing's vision between these two novels. In various interviews, Lessing has maintained that her seeming change of vision from utopian politics to spirituality or mysticism is not really so radical and that both areas deal with a psychological understanding of people, groups, and social developments. Furthermore, Lessing claims in a 1982 letter to Mona Knapp that ―I became interested in the Sufi way of thought because I was already thinking like that, before I had heard of Sufis or Sufism‖. This is in fact the case when one evaluates The Memoirs of a Survivor which reflects the many aspects of the protagonist‘s life from the Sufi point of view. In The Novelistic Vision of Doris Lessing: Breaking Through the Forms of Consciousness Rubenstein (1979: 122) raises the point that the quest for the self implicit in Lessing‘s pre-Sufi novels is not altered but deepened in the context of Sufi thought. It is noteworthy to say that even though The Golden Notebook was written without Lessing's prior knowledge of Sufism; it anticipates her turn to Sufism, while later novels, such as The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974), build upon that turn. Following her immersion in Sufi study in the early 1960s, Lessing became more didactic in her novels in which analogies to Sufi experience were more overtly suggested and more clearly applicable. The narrator in The Memoirs of a Survivor-a novel written twelve years later was taken much further in the protagonist's self discovery comparing Lessing‘s other novels including The Golden Notebook, which suggests that perhaps Lessing later knew and did not only intuit that there was a further place to which one could go. Lessing was able to carry the narrator of The Memoirs of a Survivor into new worlds which she created and which she later explored at greater length in her space fiction. The space behind the wall in The Memoirs of a Survivor, for instance, is clearly a metaphor for the narrator's inner life, which, like the infinite rooms behind the wall, daily unfolds into a rich tapestry of experience and self-discovery. It is also noteworthy that Lessing introduces the carpet imagery in The Memoirs of a Survivor, the weaving of carpets being one of many basic teaching tools in Sufism: the narrator sees a roomful of people gathered around a faded carpet, colors and patterns of which emerge brightly in patches as individuals find their particular piece in the carpet and place it on the faded material that is, as they fulfill their destiny. This carpet episode is further analyzed by Fahim 1113 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (1994: 108) as well as the four-walled garden and the iron egg as mandala symbols that activate the process of contemplation by inducing certain mental states which encourage the achievement of equilibrium between the levels of perception. Like a Sufi tale, The Memoirs of a Survivor is written to be read on different levels. As one peels the layers, one moves deeper along a spectrum from the political and rhetorical readings at one end, to the psychological and spiritual at the other. It is further suggested by Fahim (1994: 87) that in reading of The Memoirs of a Survivor, rational, psychological, and spiritual modes of consciousness are fully integrated to bring the different strata of the novel together. Given Lessing's Sufi knowledge, it is justifiable to suggest a mystical reading of The Memoirs of a Survivor without dismissing other readings. This has been the intent of Sufi teaching tales, as well: to offer many lessons to many audiences at many levels. In turn, my thesis, aims to provoke further discussion on all sides, not to foreclose it. Sufism makes a noticeable difference in Lessing's vision as Lessing moves from her previously written novels to The Memoirs of a Survivor. There seems to be a continuation from these to The Memoirs of a Survivor. The Narrator of The Memoirs of a Survivor breaks through the walls of reality almost in the opening pages of the novel. Lessing, here, as a writer influenced by Sufism, sees that it is only in the fullest development and balancing of all available faculties that human beings can free themselves from mere predetermined repetition and so evade catastrophe. This evolution of consciousness is a precious ability which foresees the future course of human evolution. Emily and her guardian are aware of chaos, too, as it unfolds daily around them; but for them, Lessing can draw on the Sufi Path to self development and transformation. In The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 81), political and economic calamities prompt people to band together in tribes and move out of the cities, while those who remain behind resort to stealing, killing, growing their own food, and building air filters to survive. During this time Emily is left with the narrator who records the events and mood of the times: ―Inside it was all chaos: the feeling one is taken over by, at the times in one's life when everything is in change, movement, destruction-or reconstruction‖. In light of Sufism, this guardian, who remains unnamed in the novel, could represent the mature Emily. Emily and the narrator of the novel are the same, otherwise how could the narrator, who is certainly not omniscient, view scenes of Emily‘s past. I argue that when the narrator and Emily are read as one and the same character, they create a whole, a state of integration and wholeness to which Sufis aspire. The guardian shares Emily's identity, especially during the times when she pays frequent mysterious visits to a space through and beyond the faded designs of the old wallpaper, where she is confronted with rooms in shambles. In the Sufi context, this imaginary space serves as a metaphor for Emily's inner life and childhood, and the guardian is the adult part of Emily who has committed herself to working on reconciling her inner and outer worlds, or her essence and personality, as well as her past and present. My interpretation here is that Emily's childhood scenes are necessary steps for learning about her past. She is aware that the past influences the present, as in the connection between baby Emily's frigid white nursery and teenager Emily's present sense of deprivation and isolation. These episodes show that Lessing believes in ultimate salvation which comes to the individuals who can achieve wholeness within themselves, again a state which is in accordance with Sufi thoughts. At the heart of Sufi thought is the necessity for individual and cosmic evolution and the idea that men and women do not know themselves, nor their potentials. This corresponds comfortably to Lessing's natural inclinations, so that Idries Shah's representation of Sufism reinforces Lessing's own belief in an evolution of a more whole society. As a result, Lessing readily incorporates Sufi perceptions of human beings in her very involved and lengthy novels. Sufis see human beings as incomplete and expect them to transcend their merely human state of incompletion through ―work‖ in the Sufi Way. This is not only the situation humanity and its potential in most of Lessing's novels, but is also intentionally emphasized in the lives of her characters. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing‘s vision encompasses the discomfort her protagonist feels when faced with social and ideological corruption and fragmentation, her own and that of the rest of the world. When The Memoirs of a Survivor is considered against the backdrop of Sufism; it will lend itself to an additional reading: spiritual destitution. This despair is echoed in The Memoirs of a Survivor, which reminds DuPlessis (1979: 4) of an abstract Four-Gated City because in this novel Lessing repeats similar arguments regarding the end of the world and spiritual transformation. As a mystic, Lessing means us to take the reality of her narrator‘s time-travel literally. Lessing here is inventing a new world behind the walls which can be interpreted as if Lessing is giving hope to her readers in creating this world. She actually wants to transform our view of reality but interprets that transformation only as an intellectual exercise in stretching one‘s perceptions. The interpretation of the two realms, the inner and the outer, on either side of the wall can illustrate how the two worlds nourish each other in the narrator‘s life. Lessing actually is pointing out Sufi theories of literature to explain the 1114 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo two irreconcilable universes in the world of The Memoirs of a Survivor, the realistic and the fantastic. In the light of Sufism, teenager Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 34) feels ―a hunger, a need; a pure thing, which makes her face lose its hard brightness; her eyes their defensiveness. She is a passion of longing‖. Here, the Sufi context offers not only an additional reading but provides the crucial key to understanding The Memoirs of a Survivor. Lessing does not define what Emily longs for, but the novel as a whole invites an allegorical reading. Through ―working‖ on herself and fighting her battles, Emily has the chance to transform herself and thereby satisfy her longing. Walker (1989: 95) calls The Memoirs of a Survivor ―an allegory of psychological integration‖ but also more literally a story of two ―human beings painstakingly forming a social bond‖. Walker (ibid 114) argues that The Memoirs of a Survivor is allegorical in the way Spencer‘s Faerie Queene is allegorical; a single image in the novel often signals both social and psychological meaning. As its dust jacket describes it, The Memoirs of a Survivor is ―an attempt at autobiography,‖ which claims Lessing confirms in Under My Skin (1994). Here Lessing offers revelations on The Memoirs of a Survivor‘s autobiographical dimension. Greene (1995: 149) adds, ―That Lessing's mother and grandmother were both named Emily suggests why autobiography is a relevant term‖. Lessing had only recently encountered Sufism when she wrote The Memoirs of a Survivor and the narrator's trips behind the wall can be read easily as Lessing's own allegorical quests for her ―self.‖ (Greene 1995: 149) When evaluated in light of Sufism, the world behind the wall in The Memoirs of a Survivor emerges as the only real world, while the reality of daily life on the pavement pales in contrast. The classical Persian Sufi poet Omar Khayyam (d.1132) describes the human being as a lantern of imaginings inside a lamp: one's petty and mundane experiences are the lantern of imaginings trapped within the brightness of the only real world (Shah The Way of the Sufi 1968: 60). If read in light of the Sufi tradition, The Memoirs of a Survivor becomes a satisfying novel, one that offers more than a mere futuristic ghost story as Melvin Madoocks (1975: 79) calls the novel. To a great extent, Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor lives during a time of ―death and destruction‖ which seems stronger than life. She lives under the pressures of the dead and dying Western civilization, fighting in her own ways to escape death. In direct correlation with Sufi thinking that we are incomplete and need years of hard work to complete ourselves, the guardian, during her earlier visits behind the wall, finds discord and turmoil, as any would-be seeker does at the outset of his or her ―work.‖ ―To make the rooms inhabitable, what work needed to be done!‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 14) she tells us. The guardian adds, I stood there marking fallen plaster, the corner of a ceiling stained with damp, dirty, or damaged walls. . . The exiled inhabitant: for surely she could not live, never could have lived, in that chill empty shell full of dirty and stale air? (ibid) From a Sufi perspective, the rightful inhabitant exiled from this place would be Emily's perfected self who may not return until Emily is properly prepared to receive her. However, for the time being, the incomplete Emily hides behind a cold, impervious, hard, and enamelled presence (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 16). Throughout the course of the novel her guardian tries to get past or around Emily's defenses, and the closest she gets to the Emily who is in hiding is when she walks through the old wallpaper into Emily's inner world. However, the two worlds on either side of the wall still remain disconnected, ―one life excluding the other‖ (ibid 25). The guardian recognizes this impasse that is so sharply pronounced in Emily and comments on the prison in which we all live and the difficulty we have in allowing anyone to come close to us (ibid 31). This idea later led to the title Lessing chose for her book of essays, Prisons We Choose to Live Inside (1987). As the novel progresses, more and more of the influence of the world behind the wall remains with the guardian when she returns to the external world. These memories help the guardian to protect Emily during the present disharmony. In fact, the trips behind the wall become such an obsession and an obligation that she experiences a sense of fear and of lowered vitality whenever she is about to cross over again, for what she finds there is chaos and turmoil as if savages and soldiers had been there (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 40). She finds chairs and sofas slashed with their stuffing spewing out, curtains ripped off, and feathers and blood everywhere. She works hard to clean and reorder, scrubs; the walls with buckets of hot water, and airs out the rooms with the sun and wind. However, she tells us, ―Whenever I re-entered the rooms after a spell away in my real life, all had to be done again. It was like what one reads of a poltergeist's tricks‖ (ibid 64). In the light of Sufism, the apparent result of being out of touch with one's inner self is a spiritual sterility, which Emily describes as a drying up of the well. This dried up state leaves behind a mere machine that is efficiently in control, but lifeless. Emily suffers from an experience of longing for meaning. Only in her case, this longing is more deliberately fashioned by Lessing, given the Sufi 1115 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo context that can now accommodate such thirst and that can enrich Lessing's vision. Emily has felt deprived of fertile surroundings since she was a baby, and she still knows very little about the world behind the wall. Before she can grow out of her stifled existence, it is necessary for her to know this world thoroughly. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing has set up less than ideal surroundings to provide her protagonist with the friction against which she must work. Emily retains her glass wall almost to the end of her stay with her guardian and only rarely allows parts of herself to show through. The Sufi hopes to reach the essence within and to help it grow into maturity. One's inner world needs to keep up with, or catch up with, one's external development in everyday life. Of course, a mind that could possibly begin to think creatively about its own improvement is one which is uncluttered. In order to reach one's essence, one is expected to undo the ―useless superstition, habits, convention, irrelevant assumptions, and expectations‖ which one has been fed, so that the mind can see what is really there (Courtland 2002: 86). ―To follow Sufism is to die gradually to oneself and to become oneSelf, to be born anew and to become aware of what one has always been from eternity (azal) without one's having realized it until the necessary transformation has come about‖ (Nasr 1973: 17). On this subject the thirteenth-century Persian Sufi poet, Sa‘d ud Din Mahmud Shabistari, writes in The Secret Garden: Go sweep out the chamber of your heart. Make it ready to be the dwelling place of the Beloved. When you depart out. He will enter it. In you, void of yourself, will He display His beauties. (Friedlander 1975: 23) The process of voiding oneself is an essential step toward acquiring real self-knowledge. But of course, this nothingness brings with it hopelessness and despair. This train of thought is evident in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 66) when the guardian frantically scrubs and cleans out the area behind the wall, trying to make it inhabitable for ―the other‖ Emily. She also does her best in the apartment in her ―real‖ life in order to accommodate Emily's growing life; or, in the Sufi context, the grown up Emily's personality accommodates the essence of Emily that is still in embryo. It is important to note also that Emily's room in her guardian's apartment is no larger than a closet space and that she shares even this space with her closest friend, the cat/dog-like beast, Hugo. This narrow space is symbolic of the underdeveloped state of Emily's essence. She remains stifled literally as well as figuratively until that time when her inner and outer worlds join in harmony. Meanwhile, the process of purification continues behind the wall. The guardian describes how she scrubs and paints the walls until the sheets of dust have been replaced by clean and clear whiteness like ―new snow or fine china‖ (ibid). In the Sufi context, the choice of concentrating on the hurdles in life, or deliberately engaging in conscious labor and intentional suffering, is essential for real transformation to take place. Just as the guardian literally works in the grimy areas of that other world, self-work in the Sufi Way is carried out in the problem areas of Emily's psyche. It is also essential to recognize the difference that emerges in Emily‘s experience between ordinary and intentional suffering. In Sufism ordinary suffering is an indulgence in one's negative emotions, whereas intentional suffering always produces a new person. Ordinary suffering is self-pity grown out of self-importance, vanity, sloth, fear, jealousy, or greed; and the Sufi aspires to convert such suffering into a conscious act. Intentional suffering is impressively and deliberately demonstrated in The Memoirs of a Survivor. Each of the guardian's journeys behind the wall into young Emily's disturbing world is an example of intentional suffering. At the end of these journeys, the guardian's and Emily's lives are changed. Every journey contributes to balancing the aspects of Emily's character within a unified person and to bringing her closer to completion and (psychological and spiritual) rebirth. Often the guardian witnesses Emily trying futilely to bring order into her life behind the wall. A poignant image depicts Emily trying to amass fallen leaves into heaps. But as she sweeps and makes piles, the leaves fly about in the wind. Emily/the guardian works faster and faster, trying to empty a whole house full of leaves to no successful end, while ―The world was being submerged in dead leaves, smothered in them‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 137). Emily continues her frantic and desperate fight against nature - in this case, her own nature. And while going through this process of self purification, she appears discouraged and maddened with the seeming futility of her task: ―Her stare, fixed, wide, horrified. . . She saw only the fragments of the walls that could not shelter her, nor keep out the sibilant drift‖ (ibid 137), and she vanishes among the rustling leaves and decaying world. Moreover, in the Sufi tradition, only conscious efforts without expectation of rewards lead one to true liberation. The guardian in The Memoirs of a Survivor learns that unless one makes an effort, 1116 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo one gains nothing real. This message is inherent in this novel and is shown overtly by Lessing throughout the course of the novel. The Sufi idea that a conscious reactivation of memory can play an important part in the individual‘s quest for self-development has also had a noticeable influence on this novel. The Narrator stipulates that during her ‗‗visits‘‘ behind the wall she is brought into contact with ‗‗personal‘‘ scenes involving family situations. Although such incidents primarily concern Emily‘s childhood experiences, the emotions which are aroused are stated to be universal, and they prompt the Narrator into commenting that she is ‗‗conscious of memories assaulting me, claiming, insinuating‘‘ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 38). Moreover, in The Memoirs of a Survivor (1974: 148), as Emily develops further, her guardian begins to remember more and more of the world behind the wall. This symbolically implies that Emily is becoming more and more successful in her selfremembering and that her essence is becoming increasingly empowered to assert itself over her personality. At first, this self-remembering manifests itself in the form of the guardian's ability to hear a child crying faintly in the distance, miserable, lost, and weighed down with incomprehension. Yet, whenever the guardian asks anyone else about hearing this sound she discovers that it is only she who hears it. Emily cannot hear the cries. Sometimes the sobbing is almost inaudible and the guardian has to strain her ears to hear it. At other times, she ―twists and turns inwardly not to hear that miserable sound‖ (ibid). This attempt not to hear the crying is the natural human response to one's own pain. The fact that Emily's guardian can hear the crying even when she is on the ordinary side of the wall signals the break Emily has made through her personality to her essence or the breakthrough the adult Emily has made to the young Emily. Rumi-the Persian Sufi poet says; Sema-our prayer-is an awakening. But he who awakens in a dungeon of course does not wish to wake up. However, he who has fallen asleep in the rose gardens … If he wakes up, his joy increases, and perhaps he is spared from fearful dreams (Divane-e Shams-e Tabrizi: 1984 my translation from Persian). In Emily's case, her inner world that used to be in shambles, worn out, pained, dark, mossy, smelly, tortured, and stifled, begins to be lifted out of Rumi's dungeons into the rose gardens. At least Emily is now awake enough to hear herself cry, her glimpses of truth stretching into periods of consciousness. Emily takes pains to get to know herself and to arrive at that new person in herself who is capable of growing. Lessing‘s previous protagonists like Anna of The Golden Notebook does not go any further in her self-searching, perhaps because these novels were written during the time Lessing had been newly exposed to Sufism and this could be the reason why Anna lacks the further development which Emily experiences in The Memoirs of a Survivor, written twelve years later. This can be viewed as a kind of cumulative evolution in Lessing‘s fiction. The Martha Quest-the character of Children of Violence-who emerges after The Golden Notebook carries not only the seeds of completeness but also evolution. This is rightly so, considering Lessing‘s deepened and enhanced perception of the human psyche since her introduction to Sufi thought. Anna of The Golden Notebook only experiences a temporary madness and depression from which she is restored to a healthier and more whole person, while Emily undergoes a permanent transformation. Emily's experiences can be read as a self-work manual which illustrates how one can transform one's self. As Emily awakens, there is new life behind the wall, a few rotting planks lying about on earth that was putting out shoots of green … clean earth and insects that were vigorously at their work of re-creation … The smell of growth came up strong from the stuffy old room (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 101). The work Emily's guardian has to do is not completed yet; but after this breakthrough, her task becomes easier and more rewarding. She now has new creation and not the moss and the shambles with which to contend. Greene (1995: 59) recognizes the same theme in Landlocked, in which ―creation of the new requires the destruction of the old.‖ She also sees that this new creation ―is based on intuitive rather than logical faculties, the first step toward which is a radical disorientation‖ (ibid). This is similar to the disorientation that Emily experiences in The Memoirs of a Survivor until she gains some strength and balance. Lessing points out that the guardian's journeys and activities behind the wall were never really her choice, but her duty. The narrator/guardian remarks, Very strong was the feeling that I did as I was bid and as I must. I was being taken, was being led, was being shown, was held always in the hollow of a great hand which 1117 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo enclosed my life (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 101). This is reminiscent of the greater evolutionary cause of the Sufis. If an individual's personal growth can help to raise the level of the whole of humanity even a very slight degree, this is considered a success. Emily's guardian feels ―too much beetle or earthworm to understand‖ (ibid) the greater purpose behind her own actions, but she still feels compelled to walk into that ―other‖ world in order to explore and unearth the ―real‖ Emily. In this role, she is, according to Greene (1995: 26), a female Christ figure or cosmic mother, as are other saviors in Lessing's oeuvre, such as Al-Ith in Shikasta or Martha Quest of The Children of Violence. Greene (ibid) sees these protagonists as Christian, rather than Sufi seekers and saviors. In Sufism, the color black denotes wisdom and leadership. Romance and glory are not qualities sought after by Sufis. Rather, rebirth or real transformation is possible only after hard work and a strong presence of being that results from self-remembering. After the disaster in the unnamed city in The Memoirs of a Survivor, the guardian is able to share her vision with Emily, Emily's lover Gerald, and her pet Hugo, feeling confident that the world behind the wall is now strong enough to withstand intrusion from outside. And together, they witness the following vision as it unfolds: ―a bright green lawn under thunderous and glaring clouds, and on the lawn a giant black egg of pockmarked iron but polished and glossy (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 216). Lessing could have chosen a real egg, or a crystal egg far the occasion of Emily's rebirth; however, an iron egg by nature is difficult to break open, and this in itself provides the symbolic meaning of the difficulty of one's task in the Sufi Way. In a Sufi light, the dissolving of the walls marks Emily‘s death and rebirth; it is only when the walls of the old rooms are demolished that Emily can move on to become her new, enlightened self. As Emily and her entourage stand looking at the iron egg, it breaks open ―by the force of their being there‖ (The Memoirs of a Survivor 1974: 216), revealing the apparition for whom the guardian had been waiting throughout the navel. Following this Being is Emily, but the new, transmuted Emily and her beast Hugo, followed by Gerald and the savage children of the ordinary world. When all of Emily‘s family crosses into that new order, ―the last walls dissolve‖ (ibid 217). As a point of comparison, a classical Sufi account of renewal and rebirth, as it was experienced by Rumi-the Persian Sufi Poetseven hundred years ago, is related by Ira Shems Friedlander below: Like the Prophet before him, the angels descended to earth, cut open his breast, and removed the thin shell that remained over his heart. They removed the last bit of ego that remained within him and filled his heart with Love. Then they made his breast as it was before. As this was happening, Mawlana Rumi was in his garden lost in deep meditation, in a state of disassociation from his body, experiencing the highest initiation he would know until his 'wedding day' … He was now ready to reenter the world. (Friedlander 1975: 55) The ―wedding day‖ refers to death, which is celebrated as a union with God, the Beloved, and marks one's rebirth. Aspiring Sufis must remember at all times that their purpose is to rise on the vertical ladder of enlightenment and share the fate of the legendary phoenix, the beautiful, graceful white bird that is reborn out of its own ashes after burning itself on a fire kindled with a-hundred trees. With its final breath the phoenix sings a most beautiful song from the depths of its soul, sounding a plaintive cry as it dies to its old self (ibid 153). In Gerald's efforts to build a new family structure, Gayle Greene (1995: 150) recognizes the necessity for destruction that can make new creation possible: Human beings produced by the prison of the family are incapable of making a free society, and the ruined garden of Gerald's commune represents the impossibility of making anything new from existing social conditions: you can't get there from here. It is required of all humans and beasts to beast the phoenix, the emblem of immortality, between each of its deaths and rebirths. Similarly, students of Sufism are asked to work hard to preserve themselves, something that can be possible only through a lifetime of harmonious development, which involves the induced growth of the essence to an equal proportion with the personality. In support of self-preservation and transformation, which in turn contribute to the preservation and evolution of the human race, Lessing has remarked in an interview, ―Maybe out of destruction will be born some new creature. I don't mean physically. What interests me more than anything is how our minds are changing, how our ways of perceiving reality are changing‖ (Raskin 1982: 66). Lessing, like the Sufis, expects that humanity will continue to participate in cosmic evolution. Beyond this, Sufis make no provisions; nor do they argue about whether every individual has the potential to share the lot of the phoenix. Gurdjieff (1975), for instance, speaks of the acorns that do not all become oak trees. Most serve as fertilizer while very few take root and develop into an oak. Sufi context allows Emily to have an added new horizon comparing Lessing‘s previous protagonists. As for Lessing's vision, Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor is clearly delivered into a 1118 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo new sphere in which the limitations upon her can be lifted. Emily's search for herself is presented to us as a spiritual quest, similar in many ways to the Sufi Way. In The Memoirs of a Survivor, Lessing is able to develop this idea further, because she is able to reinforce her perceptions with Sufi truths. As a student of Sufism, Lessing not only paints this world in new colors and strokes, but she would like us to believe in the mimetic dimension of the other world, as well. For example, the breakthrough to the other world at the end of The Memoirs of a Survivor is not only metaphorical. The guardian and Emily are finally able to join forces in earnest, share the same vision, purpose, and future because of the guardian's preceding Sufi ―work‖ behind the wall to make their union possible. No matter what the external circumstances, they are now one whole individual, who is able to withstand the challenges of daily life even at a time of war and destruction. Such a character is not only important in her thematic and synthetic dimensions but is equally important in her mimetic dimension. She is not a freak in the novel to be read only for the ideas she represents, but a plausible human being who is seeking something more than ordinary life. Any supernatural phenomena in Lessing's later novels really belong to the same world that we experience daily. However, as Lessing points out, only the socalled mad ones in her novels know and believe this to be true. CONCLUSION Two things become very clear from my analysis of The Memoirs of a Survivor, written after Lessing's exposure to Sufism: one, that Lessing was naturally inclined to promote ―work‖ on oneself; and two, that the Sufi tradition has offered her a very welcome pathway to explore beyond the limitations of psychology, psychiatry, politics, Communism, Jungianism, or any other ―ism‖ to which she had appealed prior to her study of Sufism. More specifically, The Memoirs of a Survivor is totally built upon Lessing‘s turn to Sufism. Throughout the novel Lessing explicates the protagonist‘s selfdiscovery, draws her on the Sufi Path how to transform and develop her self. She actually wants to transform our perception of reality by giving us an intellectual exercise to stretch our insight. In the light of Sufism Lessing‘s vision is enriched and she could accommodate the thirst and longing for a meaning in life which Emily in The Memoirs of a Survivor is suffering from. Furthermore, Lessing, through this novel, reminds us that ordinary suffering does not make a transformed person but what makes a new person is nothing but intentional suffering. These characteristics are impressively illustrated in The Memoirs of a Survivor when the guardian journeys behind the wall into young Emily‘s disturbing world. The significance of colors and the idea of rebirth and transformation are also remarkably demonstrated by Lessing in this novel of which black color denotes wisdom and leadership. Finally, Lessing invites us to understand that those who withstand the challenges of ordinary life, no matter internal or external, are thematically, synthetically and mimetically important to her. 1119 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Courtland, Lewis. (2002). ‗‘A visit to Idries Shah.‘‘ Lewin: Longman. Drabble, Margaret. 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(1987). ‗‘Omar Khayyam.‘‘ New Statesman 74 (Dec): 847. 1121 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lessing, Doris. (1987). Prisons we choose to live inside. New York: Harper. Lessing, Doris. (1987). The wind blows away our words. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1988). The fifth child. New York: Knopf. Lessing, Doris. (1964). ‗‘An elephant in the dark.‘‘ Spectator 213: 373. Lessing, Doris. (1972). ‘‘The temptation of Jack Orkney.‘‘ The temptation of Jack Orkney: collected stories. Vol. 2. London: Cape. Lessing, Doris. (1973). Preface to the golden notebook (June 1971), The golden notebook, London: Granada Publishing, Panther Books. Lessing, Doris. (1973). The summer before the dark. New York: Vintage. Lessing, Doris. (1975). ‗‘A revolution.‘‘ New York Times 22 Aug. 31. Lessing, Doris. (1992). African laughter: four visits to Zimbabwe. New York: Harper. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. 1973. Sufi essays. Albany: State U of New York P. Raskin, Jonah. (1974). ' Doris Lessing at stony brook: an interview', in a small personal voice, Paul Schlueter (ed), New York: Alfred A. knopf. Rumi, Mowlana Jalaluddin. (1898). Selected poems from the Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. London: Cambridge UP. Sprague, Claire & Virginia Tiger. (eds). (1986). Critical essays on Doris Lessing. Boston: Hall. Sprague, Claire. (1982). ―Naming in marriages: another view. ―Doris Lessing Newsletter 7 (1): 13. Sprague, Claire. (1983). Double talk in the golden notebook. ―Papers On Language And Literature 17 (Spring): 181-97. Sprague, Claire. (1987). Rereading Doris Lessing: narrative patterns of doubling and repetition. Chapel Hill; U of North Carolina P. Walker, Jeanne Murray. (1989). ―Memory and culture within the individual: the breakdown of social exchange in memoirs of a survivor. New York: Kaplan 1122 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 590 Title A name given to the resource PRE-SUFI NOVELS: DORIS LESSING‘S NATURAL INCLINATION FOR SUFI THOUGHT Author Author Kiaei, Shahram Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper discusses the impact of certain sufistic ideas on one of Doris Lessing‘s celebrated novels: The Memoirs of a Survivor. This novel is the example that shall be analyzed as Lessing's markedly Sufistic novel in order to show the characteristics of Lessing's works which scholars recognize as undeniably influenced by Sufism. The discussion in this novel is important in order to examine the differences on the craftsmanship of the novel even before Lessing incorporated officially to Sufism in her succeeding novels right after she has known about Sufism. This paper also argues Lessing‘s expected inclination to Sufism, or her visions before she finally realized how Sufism has influenced her art and her holistic evolution. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/db305982d8c2003a4d4b1067a4a72118.pdf 7ce7ba67dd8460483302f0c3638aefec PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Significance of Teaching Semiotic Pedagogy Aida Kasieva School of Translation and Interpretation Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University, Kyrgyz Republic aida_kasieva@yahoo.com Abstract: Charles Sanders Peirce, the father of American semiotics and pragmatism, insisted that educational institutions be places for learning and not merely instruction. If Peirce‘s argument is accepted, then it is necessary to redefine the role of teachers, students, and subject matters in relation to learning semiotics, with its cultural emphasis on codes, signs, and social interaction. Semiotics is especially appropriate for rethinking the learning and teaching progress. In particular, semiotics is a central part of the emerging global discipline which studies human communication as one of the Human Science disciplines using logic based research methods of semiotics and phenomenology to investigate social and cultural interactions. Thus, the present article is focused on the three areas of Semiotics as defined by Charles Morris when he participated in the Unified Science Project at the University of Chicago: 1. Semantics; 2. Syntax; 3. Pragmatics. In the same spirit, my article involves pedagogical activities for providing effective syllabus designs, teaching strategies, and classroom activities that show relevance for contemporary pedagogical studies in Communication and Cross-cultural studies. Pedagogy based on the semiotic work of Peirce, and exemplified by his definition of the university as a ―community of interpretation‖, forces a reconsideration of the roles which learners, teachers, and subject matter play within educational endeavors. This reconsideration may be called a ―semiotic pedagogy‖ of communication and culture. Key Words: semantics, pragmatics, syntax, symbol, icon, index, signifier, signified Introduction The study of semiotics is an interdisciplinary program encompassing such branches of science like Linguistics, Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology, Theory of Literature, Aesthetics, History, Communication and etc. It is the study of signs derived from the speculations on signification and language of the American pragmatist philosopher C.S. Peirce and the Swiss linguistic theorist Ferdinand de Sausurre. Also known as semiology, semiotics is concerned with the phenomena of signs in all their abundance and variety: letters, images, literary texts, acoustic signals, road signs, verbal signs, gestures, icons, symbols, allegories, corporate logos, indices, hieroglyphs, drawings, natural signs, celestial signs, musical notations, mathematical signs-in short, signifying objects and artifacts of virtually every size, shape, color, and substance. Semiotics includes the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. In a simplified meaning it can be interpreted how the word or any object can be accepted by a person, its effect on the reader, listener or foreigner. Moreover, Semiotics broadens the experience range of sign systems and sign relations, which will increase mutual understanding between students from different countries and cultures. As concisely summarized by I.A. Richards ―Communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience.‖ Given this context, the present paper is devoted to actualizing study of semiotic theory and pedagogy of American semioticians, which is extremely important to the development of educational system at any its level. This can be achieved by means of enormous resources of semioticians that offer us a truly unique opportunity to expand students‘ cross-cultural knowledge. Charles Sanders Peirce, the father of American semiotics and pragmatism, insisted that educational institutions be places for learning and not merely instruction. If Peirce‘s argument is accepted, then it is necessary to redefine the role of teachers, students, and subject matters in relation to learning semiotics, with its cultural emphasis on codes, signs, and social interaction. Semiotics is especially appropriate for rethinking the learning and teaching progress in linguistics, translation theory, communication and media, etc. In particular, semiotics is a central part of the emerging global discipline which studies human communication as one of the Human Science disciplines using logic based research methods of semiotics and phenomenology to investigate social and cultural interactions. Thus, the present paper is focused on the three areas of Semiotics as defined by Charles Morris when he participated in the Unified Science Project at the University of Chicago: 1. Semantics; 2. Syntax; 3. Pragmatics. 51 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Starting from its origin as a science, semiotics has been one of the most hotly disputed issues due to its connection, application, and belonging to different other sciences. In the same spirit, the scope of the present paper mostly covers basic theoretical information, knowledge, concepts, pedagogical activities, teaching strategies, and classroom activities relevant for contemporary pedagogical studies in teaching Semiotics as well as theoretical sources of outstanding semioticians on how the subject is interpreted from the points of view of different scholars. The role of scholars, their contribution into the development of Semiotics along with other sciences is vital to our understanding of the world. In order to have a clear idea of semiotics, it is necessary to systematize all the known models of communication and create an effective syllabus that would enable the development of students‘ critical thinking abilities. The reason why this paper is established within the frameworks of linguistics is that semiotics generalizes the definition of a sign to encompass signs in any medium or sensory modality and thus broadens the range of sign systems and sign relations. In order to extend the definition of semiotics applicable to language in amounts to its widest analogical or metaphorical sense and closer to some of the humanities as well, it is necessary to conduct classes including most important and significant materials in semiotics such as the works of Charles W. Morris, Thomas Sebeok, Jurgen Ruesch, Chris Morris, Nim Chimpsky, Bob Hodge, Richard L.Lanigan, Umberto Eco and others. The study of semiotics through practical classes is of great value both for teachers and students as it offers number of advantages that would broaden students‘ thinking abilities from the point that the bases of semiotics are applicable not only in studying linguistics, literature and translatology, but every other respective science as well. Since signs exist everywhere and in every field regardless whether it concerns some definite science or everyday life, they should be revealed the proper way by means of applying semiotic analysis. By means of this very activity students acquire necessary skills to understand, decode the signs they face in their life, which is of a great importance for everyone. The process of analyzing should be reached by reviewing all three abovementioned stages: semantic analysis, syntactic analysis and pragmatic analysis. In order to realize the process of semiosis, first of all, it is necessary to overview general basic definitions that are frequently used in semiotics. Indeed, semiotics is a vast field, however in this paper we just try to give necessary information about the most frequently used concepts and terminology concerning semiotics. According to Pierce ―We make meanings through our creation and interpretation of 'signs', 'we think only in signs' (Peirce 1931-58, 2.302). Signs take the form of words, images, sounds, acts or objects, but such things have no meaning and become signs only when we accord them with meaning. 'Nothing is a sign unless it is interpreted as a sign', declares Peirce (Peirce 1931-58, 2.172). Anything can be a sign as long as someone interprets it as 'signifying' something - referring to or standing for something other than itself. We interpret things as signs largely unconsciously by relating them to familiar systems of conventions. It is this meaningful use of signs which is at the heart of the concerns of semiotics. There are two dominant models of what constitutes a sign that were suggested by the linguist Ferdinand de Saussure and the philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce: Saussure offered a two-part model of the sign. He defined a sign as being composed of: a 'signifier' (signifiant) - the form which the sign takes; and the 'signified' (signifiй) - the concept it represents. The sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified (Saussure 1983, 67; Saussure 1974, 67). The relationship between the signifier and the signified is referred to as 'signification'. A sign must have both a signifier and a signified. You cannot have a totally meaningless signifier or a completely formless signified (Saussure 1983, 101; Saussure 1974, 102-103). A sign is a recognizable combination of a signifier with a particular signified. The same signifier could stand for a different signified and thus be a different sign. A linguistic sign is not a link between a thing and a name, but between a concept and a sound pattern. The sound pattern is not actually a sound; for a sound is something physical. A sound pattern is the hearer's psychological impression of a sound, as given to him by the evidence of his senses. This sound pattern may be called a 'material' element only in that it is the representation of our sensory impressions. The sound pattern may thus be distinguished from the other element associated with it in a linguistic sign. This other element is generally of a more abstract kind: the concept. (Saussure 1983, 66; Saussure 1974, 66) 52 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo As for the signified, most commentators who adopt Saussure's model still treat this as a mental construct, although they often note that it may nevertheless refer indirectly to things in the world. Saussure's signified is not to be identified directly with a referent but is a concept in the mind - not a thing but the notion of a thing. Some people may wonder why Saussure's model of the sign refers only to a concept and not to a thing. An observation from the philosopher Susanne Langer (who was not referring to Saussure's theories) may be useful here. Like most contemporary commentators, Langer uses the term 'symbol' to refer to the linguistic sign (a term which Saussure himself avoided): 'Symbols are not proxy for their objects but are vehicles for the conception of objects... In talking about things we have conceptions of them, not the things themselves; and it is the conceptions, not the things, that symbols directly mean. Behaviour towards conceptions is what words normally evoke; this is the typical process of thinking'. She adds that 'If I say "Napoleon", you do not bow to the conqueror of Europe as though I had introduced him, but merely think of him' (Langer 1951, 61). Louis Hjelmslev used the terms 'expression' and 'content' to refer to the signifier and signified respectively (Hjelmslev 1961, 47ff). The distinction between signifier and signified has sometimes been equated to the familiar dualism of 'form and content'. Within such a framework the signifier is seen as the form of the sign and the signified as the content. However, the metaphor of form as a 'container' is problematic, tending to support the equation of content with meaning, implying that meaning can be 'extracted' without an active process of interpretation and that form is not in itself meaningful (Chandler 1995 104-6). At around the same time as Saussure was formulating his model of the sign, of 'semiology' and of a structuralist methodology, across the Atlantic independent work was also in progress as the pragmatist philosopher and logician Charles Sanders Peirce formulated his own model of the sign, of 'semiotic' and of the taxonomies of signs. In contrast to Saussure's model of the sign in the form of a 'self-contained dyad', Peirce offered a triadic model: The Representamen: the form which the sign takes (not necessarily material); An Interpretant: not an interpreter but rather the sense made of the sign; An Object: to which the sign refers. 'A sign is something which stands to somebody for something in some respect or capacity. It addresses somebody, that is, creates in the mind of that person an equivalent sign, or perhaps a more developed sign. That sign which it creates I call the interpretant of the first sign. The sign stands for something, its object. It stands for that object, not in all respects, but in reference to a sort of idea, which I have sometimes called the ground of the representamen' (Peirce 1931-58, 2.228). The interaction between the representamen, the object and the interpretant is referred to by Peirce as 'semiosis' (ibid., 5.484). Within Peirce's model of the sign, the traffic light sign for 'stop' would consist of: a red light facing traffic at an intersection (the representamen); vehicles halting (the object) and the idea that a red light indicates that vehicles must stop (the interpretant). Variants of Peirce's triad are often presented as 'the semiotic triangle' (as if there were only one version). Here is a version which is quite often encountered and which changes only the unfamiliar Peircean terms (Nцth 1990, 89): Sign vehicle: the form of the sign; Sense: the sense made of the sign; Referent: what the sign 'stands for'. Daniel Chandler has continued to employ the Saussurean terms signifier and signified, even though Peirce referred to the relation between the 'sign' (sic) and the object, since the Peircean distinctions are most commonly employed within a broadly Saussurean framework. Such incorporation tends to emphasize the referential potential of the signified within the Saussurean model. Here then are the three modes together with some brief definitions and some illustrative examples: 53 �Symbol/symbolic: a mode in which the signifier does not resemble the signified but which is 1st International Conference on Foreign- Language Teaching must and Applied fundamentally arbitrary or purely conventional so that the relationship be learnt: Linguistics e.g. language in general (plus specific languages, alphabetical May 5-7letters, 2011punctuation Sarajevo marks, words, phrases and sentences), numbers, Morse code, traffic lights, national flags; Icon/iconic: a mode in which the signifier is perceived as resembling or imitating the signified (recognizably looking, sounding, feeling, tasting or smelling like it) - being similar in possessing some of its qualities: e.g. a portrait, a cartoon, a scale-model, onomatopoeia, metaphors, 'realistic' sounds in 'programme music', sound effects in radio drama, a dubbed film soundtrack, imitative gestures; Index/indexical: a mode in which the signifier is not arbitrary but is directly connected in some way (physically or causally) to the signified - this link can be observed or inferred: e.g. 'natural signs' (smoke, thunder, footprints, echoes, non-synthetic odours and flavours), medical symptoms (pain, a rash, pulserate), measuring instruments (weathercock, thermometer, clock, spirit-level), 'signals' (a knock on a door, a phone ringing), pointers (a pointing 'index' finger, a directional signpost), recordings (a photograph, a film, video or television shot, an audio-recorded voice), personal 'trademarks' (handwriting, catchphrase) and indexical words ('that', 'this', 'here', 'there'). Peirce and Saussure used the term 'symbol' differently from each other. Whilst nowadays most theorists would refer to language as a symbolic sign system, Saussure avoided referring to linguistic signs as 'symbols', since the ordinary everyday use of this term refers to examples such as a pair of scales (signifying justice), and he insisted that such signs are 'never wholly arbitrary. Turning to icons, Peirce declared that an iconic sign represents its object 'mainly by its similarity' (Peirce 1931-58, 2.276). A sign is an icon 'insofar as it is like that thing and used as a sign of it' (ibid., 2.247). Just because a signifier resembles that which it depicts does not necessarily make it purely iconic. The philosopher Susanne Langer argues that 'the picture is essentially a symbol, not a duplicate, of what it represents' (Langer 1951, 67). Pictures resemble what they represent only in some respects. What we tend to recognize in an image are analogous relations of parts to a whole (ibid., 67-70). Indexicality is perhaps the most unfamiliar concept. Peirce offers various criteria for what constitutes an index. An index 'indicates' something: for example, 'a sundial or clock indicates the time of day' (Peirce 1931-58, 2.285). He refers to a 'genuine relation' between the 'sign' and the object which does not depend purely on 'the interpreting mind' (ibid., 2.92, 298). The object is 'necessarily existent' (ibid., 2.310). The index is connected to its object 'as a matter of fact' (ibid., 4.447). There is 'a real connection' (ibid., 5.75). Film and television use all three forms: icon (sound and image), symbol (speech and writing), and index (as the effect of what is filmed); at first sight iconic signs seem the dominant form, but some filmic signs are fairly arbitrary, such as 'dissolves' which signify that a scene from someone's memory is to follow. Hawkes notes, following Jakobson, that the three modes 'co-exist in the form of a hierarchy in which one of them will inevitably have dominance over the other two', with dominance determined by context (Hawkes 1977, 129). Whether a sign is symbolic, iconic or indexical depends primarily on the way in which the sign is used, so textbook examples chosen to illustrate the various modes can be misleading. The same signifier may be used iconically in one context and symbolically in another: a photograph of a woman may stand for some broad category such as 'women' or may more specifically represent only the particular woman who is depicted. Signs cannot be classified in terms of the three modes without reference to the purposes of their users within particular contexts. A sign may consequently be treated as symbolic by one person, as iconic by another and as indexical by a third. As Kent Grayson puts it, 'When we speak of an icon, an index or a symbol, we are not referring to objective qualities of the sign itself, but to a viewer's experience of the sign' (Grayson 1998, 35). Signs may also shift in mode over time. As Jonathan Culler notes, 'In one sense a Rolls-Royce is an index of wealth in that one must be wealthy in order to purchase one, but it has been made a conventional sign of wealth by social usage' (Culler 1975, 17). From a semiotic point-of-view, such questions could only be answered by considering in each case whether the different forms signified something of any consequence to the relevant sign-users in the context of the specific signifying practice being studied. Thus, the discipline described is aimed at developing students‘ thinking abilities as semiotics is an interdisciplinary subject and is anticipated to provide developing interpretation skills of students, includes general concepts on semiotics. 54 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Thus, teaching semiotics would provide and acquaint students with general theoretical knowledge in semiotics along with its abovementioned three aspects (semantics, syntax and pragmatics), along with wide sources from different fields of science. As a new discipline in Kyrgyzstan, semiotics is now being included into the programs of just few universities in Bishkek whilst universities located in other regions of the Kyrgyz Republic still have no idea about Semiotics as a science. And even those ones that have this subject are mostly focused on just one of its branches called ―Semantics‖. 1. Despite the fact that Kyrgyz–Turkish Manas University is considered to be one of the youngest universities with its 15 years‘ existence, the administrators and faculty included the course in semiotics into its program. The urgency is caused with the fact that KTU ―Manas‖ is an international university with more than 20 nationalities, where students must aware of mastering semiotics not only to survive in a foreign country, but also be aware of the cultural aspects in order to communicate with each other and understand codes that are hidden in foreign words and study foreign languages, to conduct comparative analyses of different linguistic phenomena whether it is a word, a text, a picture, a symbol for further experiencing them. As a conclusion for the present paper, I would like to cite the words of one of American semioticians, Richard L. Lanigan, who in his book "On the Goals of Semiotics [Survey]", compiled by Thomas A. Sebeok, Semiotica, 61, nos. 3-4, p. 381, 1986 said: "Semiotics is rapidly becoming the lingua franca of the scholarly world. The primary goals of the semiotic discipline should be (1) to extend the current analysis and discussion of sign theory into new subject matters, especially in the human sciences, and (2) to continue educating our colleagues about semiotic research as the conjunction of animal, human, and machine realities. In every discipline, we need to acknowledge and illustrate the in situ discovery of sign production. This is not another facile call for more interdisciplinary work. Rather, it is a phenomenological challenge to the scholars of each discipline to reexamine their philosophical and theoretical grounding as communicated. It is a mutual demand: to the arts to be systemic as well as intuitive in presentation, and, to the sciences to be creative as well as empirical in abstraction… Semiotics as the human art and science of communicology can, and should, be a vigorous alternative to the conceptual comforts of traditional art and science. An achievable goal for semiotics is to effectively communicate what it describes, how it defines, and why it interprets." Reference 1. 1988. Richard L. Lanigan, Phenomenology of Communication: Merleau-Ponty‘s Thematics in Communicology and Semiology (Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press; ISBN: 0-8207-0199-8), 288 pp. Korean trans. DuWon Lee and Kee-soon Park, Seoul, Korea: Naman Publishing House, 1997; ISBN: 89-3003554-X. [First research report book in English to use the disciplinary designation Communicology.] 2006. Richard L. Lanigan, ―The Human Science of Communicology (Semiotic Phenomenology)‖ in Semiotics Beyond Limits (Proceedings of the 1st Romanian Association of Semiotic Studies), (Bacau, Romania: SlanicMoldova), pp. 779-783. 2008. Richard L. Lanigan, ―Communicology: Towards a New Science of Semiotic Phenomenology‖, Cultura: International Journal of Philosophy of Culture and Axiology [Rumania], vol. 8, pages 212-216, 218 2010. Richard L. Lanigan, "The Verbal and Nonverbal Codes of Communicology: The Foundation of Interpersonal Agency and Efficacy" in Communicology: The New Science of Embodied Discourse, ed. Deborah Eicher-Catt and Isaac E. Catt (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickson University Press), pp. 102-128. 2010. Richard L. Lanigan, "Slugging: The Nonce Sign in an Urban Communicology of Transportation" in Unfolding the Semiotic Web in Urban Discourse, ed. Diana Teters and Zdzisław Wąsik (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Internationalaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2010), pp. in press. 55 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 11 Title A name given to the resource Significance of Teaching Semiotic Pedagogy Author Author Kasieva, Aida Abstract A summary of the resource. Charles Sanders Peirce, the father of American semiotics and pragmatism, insisted that educational institutions be places for learning and not merely instruction. If Peirce‘s argument is accepted, then it is necessary to redefine the role of teachers, students, and subject matters in relation to learning semiotics, with its cultural emphasis on codes, signs, and social interaction. Semiotics is especially appropriate for rethinking the learning and teaching progress. In particular, semiotics is a central part of the emerging global discipline which studies human communication as one of the Human Science disciplines using logic based research methods of semiotics and phenomenology to investigate social and cultural interactions. Thus, the present article is focused on the three areas of Semiotics as defined by Charles Morris when he participated in the Unified Science Project at the University of Chicago: 1. Semantics; 2. Syntax; 3. Pragmatics. In the same spirit, my article involves pedagogical activities for providing effective syllabus designs, teaching strategies, and classroom activities that show relevance for contemporary pedagogical studies in Communication and Cross-cultural studies. Pedagogy based on the semiotic work of Peirce, and exemplified by his definition of the university as a ―community of interpretation‖, forces a reconsideration of the roles which learners, teachers, and subject matter play within educational endeavors. This reconsideration may be called a ―semiotic pedagogy‖ of communication and culture. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6100a1446b6949fc8f51047e18080785.pdf 3ccbadedeb3865e2cb159aed0b58eca1 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teachers' Professional Development Tools: Importance and Usage Galip Kartal, Harun ġimĢek Department of ELT Selçuk University, Turkey galipkartal@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Current technological developments have led to an easier access to information leading to sociological changes worldwide. This brought about changes in all professions, especially in teaching as one of the roles of the teachers is to prepare their students to the world of future. This fact highlights the importance of foreign language teaching and personal and professional development of teachers. In order to enable professional development, professional development tools are crucial. Richards and Farrell (2009) suggest 11 professional development activities & tools for language teachers. These are: workshops, self- monitoring, teacher support groups, teacher journal, peer observation, teaching portfolios, analyzing critical incidents, case analysis, peer coaching, team teaching, and action research. In the present study, the level of importance attached to the above mentioned tools and the frequency of their usage by the lecturers teaching at the Foreign Languages High-school at Selçuk University is determined. Key Words: Professional Development, Teacher Training, Teacher Development. Introduction Foreign language teaching has been always an important matter in a globalizing community. Language teachers, hence, are to be open to new opportunities in teaching, learning, searching, exploration, and development. Besides, they also should be energetic to find solutions to encountered problems in classrooms. Furthermore, language teaching has become more learner centered and this necessitates an emphasis on guiding and helping students. Teachers need to improve themselves mentally, emotionally and professionally both in order to overcome challenges and in order to stay continue their interest in their jobs. In order to meet current demands, teachers‘ professional development enables them to keep up dated and learn new skills and techniques in his/her area. Fullan (1991, p. 326) defines professional development for teachers as ―the sum total of formal and informal learning experiences throughout one's career from preservice teacher education to retirement‖. Teacher development may also be defined as ―any attempt of the teachers to improve themselves and their teaching practices‖ (ġimĢek, 2009, p. 11). It is also systematic analysis of a teacher‘s own practice. (Villegas-Reimers, 2003, p. 19). The chief aim of teacher development is enhancing teachers‘ ability to teach more efficiently, increase their interest in lifelong learning and improving their skills. Effective professional development involves teachers both as learners and teachers (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1996). Successful teacher development helps to increase awareness via allowing teachers to observe their own development both professionally and personally. Pursuing new knowledge, taking advantage of technologies, and awareness of development are crucial to reach self-satisfaction, a condition required to make a teacher satisfactory. As Billings (1997) argues, professional development of teachers can be thought as: ―a deliberate and continuous process involving the identification and discussion of present and anticipated needs of individual staff for furthering their job satisfaction and career prospects and of the institution for supporting its academic work and plans, and the implementation of programs of staff activities designed for the harmonious satisfaction of needs.‖ (p. 4) There is a relationship between personal and professional development of teachers. (Calderhead and Shorrock 1997, p. 15). According to Earley and Bubb (2007): ―Managers and leaders of continuing professional development need to ensure that personal development is not marginalized as it is crucial to teacher effectiveness and school success. Research makes a compelling case for personal development a key component of teacher development.‖ (p. 43). Hence, teacher development can be thought as a part or form of personal development. 479 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher training and teacher development are not same. Teacher training is usually determined by experts and is often available in standard training formats; on the other hand, teacher development is about examining different dimensions of a teacher‘s practice (Richards &Farrell, 2009, p. 4). As a result, teacher training is standardized but teacher development has different dimensions and can be self-initiated. Teacher training is compulsory, competency based, short term, temporary, and done with experts; teacher development is ―voluntary, holistic, long term, ongoing, continental, and done with peers.‖( Woodward, 1991, p. 147 in ġimĢek, 2009, p.43) Professional Development Tools of Language Teachers Richards and Farrell (2009) state eleven procedures/tools that can be used to facilitate professional development of teachers. These are: workshops, self-monitoring, and teacher support groups, keeping a journal, peer observation, teaching portfolios, analyzing critical incidents, case analysis, peer coaching, team teaching, and action research. If we are to provide short information for each: Workshops A workshop is ―an assisted form of learning in which the leader provides a structure for enquiry and which enables workshop members to learn through doing.‖ (Price, 2010, p. 35) Some benefits of workshops: (Richards and Farrell, 2009, p. 23)      Providing input from experts Offering teachers practical classroom applications Raising teacher motivation Developing collegiality Supporting innovations Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring is a self-management procedure and a systematical observation of an individual on his or her own behaviors, actions, reactions. (Ganz, 2008). Self-monitoring enables a teacher to observe his/her own success and behavior. Teacher Support Groups Teacher support groups should not only be thought as gathering together and discussing problems. (Richards and Farrell, 2009) define a teacher support group as: ― two or more teachers collaborating to achieve either their individual or shared goals or both on the assumption that working with a group is usually more effective then working on one‘s own.‖ Keeping a Teaching Journal By keeping a teaching journal, one can easily record a lot of information that can be easily retained for future reference. It provides personal growth and helps teachers to keep a record of classroom events . Peer-observation ―Peer – observation is an effective way of sharing skills and spreading examples of good practice across the teaching profession.‖ (Leaman, 2006, p. 146). Teaching Portfolios A portfolio is a collection of teachers‘ works and ideas providing clues about the performance and improvement of a teacher throughout a professional development endeavor. ―A professional portfolio is 480 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo an evolving collection of carefully selected or composed professional thoughts, goals, and experiences that are threaded with reflection and self-assessment. It represents who you are, what you do, why you do it, where you have been, where you are, where you want to go, and how you plan on getting there.‖ (Evans, 1995, p. 11). In a study made by Koçoğlu (1985) with 5 senior students, the results showed that the process of preparing a portfolio provided a useful approach to enhancing professional development. Analyzing Critical Incidents Richards and Farrell (2009) believe that critical incidents can reveal some of the underlying principles, beliefs, and assumptions that shape classroom practices. Case Analysis Case analysis is an analytical thinking technique. Cases can be used as a material in teaching-learning environment and for outgoing teachers case analysis might be very useful. ―We study cases not so much to find the right answer, but to train ourselves in systematic analysis so we will be effective decision makers in the business world. Successful case preparation depends on multiple readings of the case and multiple points of view.‖ (Robinson, 2008) Peer Coaching Rhodes et al. define coaching as ―a peer-networking interaction (working together) which draws upon collaboration and mutual trust. It is usually a short-term relationship which can be used to help embed change, raise performance, raise impact and assist in skill development.‖(2004, p. 25). Peer coaching may help to share ideas with other teachers, solve classroom-related problems in schools. Team Teaching ―Team teaching is a process in which two or more teachers share the responsibility for teaching a class. The teachers share responsibility for planning the class or course, for teaching it, and for any follow-up work associated with the class such as evaluation and assessment.‖ (Richards and Farrell, 2009, p. 159) Action Research According to Craig action research is ―a common methodology employed for improving conditions and practice in classrooms and in other practitioner-based environments such as administrative, leadership, social, and community settings.‖ (2009, p.2). Zuberr-Skerritt, (1992) informs that ―action research is based on fundamental concepts of active learning, adult learning and holistic, dialectical thinking, and on the principles of experiential and to advance knowledge.‖ (2004, p. 88). Methodology This research was carried out to find out the importance and usage of professional development activities and tools suggested by Richards and Farrell (2009). This study aims to find answers to the following research questions: 1. Does the level of importance given by teachers to professional development tools vary according to gender, age, and work experience? 2. Is there a difference between the levels of importance attached by teachers to the above mentioned professional development tools and the frequency of their usage? The participants of this study are 60 Turkish EFL lecturers (30 female and 26 male) working at Foreign Languages Teaching High School at Selçuk University. Out of the 60 participants, four didn‘t mention their gender. 481 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Data Analysis The data have been gathered through a questionnaire about professional development tools. The professional development tools mentioned were: workshops, self-monitoring, and teacher support groups, keeping a teaching journal, peer observation, teaching portfolios, analyzing critical incidents, case analysis, peer coaching, team teaching, and action research. In order to indicate the importance attached by the lecturers to these professional development tools, they were asked to select out of the following: 1- absolutely not important, 2- Unimportant, 3- undetermined, 4- important, and 5- very important. The second part asked to choose one of the options related to the usage of these tools by the lecturers. They chose one out of the following: 1- never, 2occasionaly, 3-sometimes, 4- usually, 5- always, in order to determine how frequency of their employment by these lecturers. Data gathered from the professional development tools questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18.0 with reference to the research questions. The mean values and the standard deviations were calculated to see the differences between English teacher‘s thoughts and usage of professional development tools suggested by Richards and Farrell (2009). Findings and Discussions 1. Does the level of importance given by teachers to professional development tools vary according to gender, age, and work experience? Table 1- Importance level of professional development tools according to gender Gender N Male Female 26 30 X S 42,96 6,37 -,67 41,23 12,32 t P ,51 As it can be seen in table 1, the importance level of professional development tools doesn‘t vary according to gender. In other words, both male and female teachers find teachers‘ professional development tools important. Table 2- Professional development tools usage scores of teachers according to gender Gender Male Female N 26 30 X S t 37,96 8,47 ,29 38,23 5,60 P ,77 The table above indicates that there is no significant difference between female and male teachers‘ usage scores of professional development tools. Table 3- Teachers‘ views about importance of professional development tools and teachers‘ usage scores of professional development tools 482 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sum of Squares important Between Groups Within Groups Total usage Between Groups Within Groups Total df Mean Square 383,188 5 76,638 5178,996 5562,183 104,009 2693,391 2797,400 54 59 5 54 59 95,907 F 20,802 49,878 P ,799 ,555 ,417 ,835 According to Anova test results, there is no statistically difference (> 0,05) between average of age groups of the lecturers (20-25, 26-30, 31-35, 36-40, 41 and above) in terms of importance level and usage frequency of teachers‘ professional development tools. Teachers at different age groups give close importance to teachers‘ professional tools. Table 4- Importance level and usage scores acoording to work experience Sum of Squares important Between Groups 1086,918 4475,265 5562,183 48,017 2749,383 2797,400 Within Groups Total usage Between Groups Within Groups Total df Mean Square 4 55 59 4 55 59 F P 271,730 81,368 3,339 ,016 12,004 49,989 ,240 ,914 Anova test results indicate that the usage score of tools doesn‘t vary according to seniority in profession. But, multiple comparison analysis showed that teachers who have been working between 1 and 5 years find professional development tools more important than the teachers who have been working more than 20 years. Unimportant Absolutely Not Important SelfMonitoring Teacher Support Groups Keeping Teacher %18 %% 0 %% 0 %% 0 %%2 %% 0 %%3 Important Workshops Very Important PD Tools Undetermine d 2. Is there a difference between the level of importance given by teachers to professional development tools and frequency of conducting these tools? %% 27 %% 40 %% 27 %%5 0 %%4 8 %%5 5 %% 18 %%3 7 %40 %10 %18 %%0 %%0 483 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Occasionall y %% 37 %% 23 %% 37 %%42 %%0 %% 22 %%40 %% 10 %%1 8 %%1 0 %%5 %%0 %% 33 %% 22 %% 22 %%37 %% 12 %% 7 %% 23 %%5 %%0 %% 30 %% 37 %% 20 %% 30 %%35 PD Tools Workshops %%8 %%0 SelfMonitoring Teacher Support Groups Keeping Teacher Journal Peer Observation Teaching Portfolios Analyzing Critical Incidents Case Analysis Peer Coaching Team Teaching Action Research %%7 %%0 %%7 %%0 %%2 7 %%0 %%0 %%50 %%48 %%62 %%50 Never Sometimes Conclusions and Recommendations Table 5 above indicates that teachers find professional development tools very important for a successful teacher development, but they do not employ them accordingly. Workshops, for instance, are important according to %77 of teachers, but about 50 percent almost never conduct them. According to %88 teachers self monitoring is important but %20 never did self monitoring. For the majority of teachers, teacher support groups are important, but only %7 of them conduct it. %73 of teachers think keeping a teacher journal is important, but only %7 of them are keeping teacher journals. Although %73 of teachers find peer observation important, %49 almost never experienced it. For %78 of teachers, teacher portfolios are important, but just %10 of teachers keep a teacher Usually Peer %% %%5 %23 %% %%3 Observation 23 0 0 Teaching %% %%5 %20 %% %%0 Portfolios 20 8 0 Analyzing %% %%5 %18 %% %%0 Critical 30 2 0 Incidents Case %% %%3 %18 %% %%0 Analysis 40 7 0 Peer %% %%4 %33 %% %%0 Coaching 22 0 0 Team %% %%4 %18 %% %%2 Teaching 32 8 0 Action %% %%4 %22 %% %%2 Research 30 7 0 portfolio regularly. %82 of teachers find analyzing critical incidents important, but just %5 of them analyzes critical incidents. According to %77 of teachers case analysis is important, but just %5 of them conduct it. %62 of teachers find peer coaching important, but only %10 of them act accordingly. %80 of teachers think team teaching is important, but only %17 of teachers conducted it more than a few times. %77 of teachers think action research is beneficial for a successful professional development but about % 13 them never did an action research and about %80 of them almost didn‘t do it. The outcomes of the present study might indicate an unawareness of what these tools are and how they are going to be employed. Many of the lecturers at the Foreign Languages High School in Konya register in graduate studies if they seek professional development or attend conferences. However, self initiated teacher development sessions and activities do not rank high in their agenda. Table 5- The importance level and usage frequency of professional development tools. Always Journal %% 8 %% 20 %% 7 %% 27 %% 10 %% 18 %% 13 Both as a person and as a teacher lecturers %%1 %%0 %%42 have aims. While trying to reach those aims they come 0 across some challenges. In order to cope with existing %%1 %%0 %%42 and new challenges teachers need to develop 7 professionally. As professional development is not %%7 %%0 %%48 compulsory, teachers should develop some positive attitudes towards professional development. In a research conducted by AteĢkan (2008), science teachers‘ perceptions about online teacher professional development program were investigated. The results showed that teachers were not satisfied with previous professional development programs because of the problems about content, process and organization as conducted by the Turkish Ministry of Education. For successful teacher development there are some tools suggested by Richards and Farrell (2009). These are: workshops, self monitoring, teacher support groups, keeping a teaching journal, peer observation, teacher portfolios, analyzing critical incidents, case analysis, peer coaching, team teaching, and action research. This research showed us that lecturers at Foreign Language High School at Selçuk University find every tool important. According to them the most important tools is self-monitoring. But they do not employ these tools enough for their professional development. 484 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The professional development tools mentioned in this study might be easier used via the internet. For example, keeping an online teaching journal or online teacher support groups can be more functional as internet allows mass access. Moreover, due to time concerns, gathering together and holding a workshop, for instance, is not very easy. Hence teachers may participate in online workshops or analyze critical instances together within a forum. A teacher can keep online teaching journal and teaching portfolios. In short, internet can be used in a variety of ways in order to conduct professional development activities easily. 485 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References AteĢkan, A. (2008). Online Professional Development Program For Science Teachers: A Case Study. Unpublished PhD Dissertation Billings, D.E. (1977). The Nature and scope of staff development in institutions of higher education‘, in L. Bell and C.Day, Managing the Professional Development of Teachers Calderhead, J., & Shorrock, S.B.(1997). Understanding Teacher Education, London: The Falmer Press Craig, D.V. (2009). Action Research Essentials. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Darling-Hammond, L.,& McLaughlin M.W. (1996). Policies That Support Professional Development in an Era of Reform. In M.W. McLaughlin and I. Oberman (Eds.), Teacher Learning: New Policies, New Practices. 202218, New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Earley, P., & Bubb, S.(2007). Leading and Managing Continuing Professional Development: Developng People, London: Paul Chapman Publishing. Fullan, M., & Steigelbauer, S. (l991). The new meaning of educational change (2nd Ed.), New York: Teachers College Press. Ganz, J. (2008). Self-monitoring across age and ability levels: Teaching students to implement their own positive behavioral interventions. Preventing School Failure, 53(1), 39–48. Koçoğlu, Z.B. (2006). The Role of Portfolios in EFL Student Teachers‘ Professional Development: A Case Study. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation Leaman, L. (2006). The Naked Teacher: how to survive your first five years in teaching. London: Continuum International Publishing Group Price, B. (2010). Disseminating best practice through workshops. Nursing Standard. 24(28), 35-41 Rhodes, C., Stokes, M., Hampton, G.(2004). A Practical Guide to Mentoring, Coaching and Peer-Networking, London: Routledge Falmer Richards, J., & Farrell, T.(2009). Professional Development for Language Teachers, New York: Cambridge University Press Robinson, D. (2008). Notes on Case Analysis. http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/robinson/Case%20Analysis.pdf Retrieved April 15, 2011, from: ġimĢek, H. (2009). A teacher Development Program for Young Learners of English: An Action Research, Konya: ME-SA Publications Villegas-Reimars,E.(2003) Teacher Professional Development. An International Review of Literature. Paris: IEEP printshop Zuber- Skerritt, O.(1992). Action research in Higher Education, London: Kogan Page 486 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 72 Title A name given to the resource Teachers' Professional Development Tools: Importance and Usage Author Author Kartal, Galip SimĢek, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Current technological developments have led to an easier access to information leading to sociological changes worldwide. This brought about changes in all professions, especially in teaching as one of the roles of the teachers is to prepare their students to the world of future. This fact highlights the importance of foreign language teaching and personal and professional development of teachers. In order to enable professional development, professional development tools are crucial. Richards and Farrell (2009) suggest 11 professional development activities & tools for language teachers. These are: workshops, self- monitoring, teacher support groups, teacher journal, peer observation, teaching portfolios, analyzing critical incidents, case analysis, peer coaching, team teaching, and action research. In the present study, the level of importance attached to the above mentioned tools and the frequency of their usage by the lecturers teaching at the Foreign Languages High-school at Selçuk University is determined. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2dd0e1324efcdf5f8b1361b840c3a3bb.pdf 6f5022d594a255cb5a786e4754eb2fc3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo French Foreign Language Teacher Candidates‘ Evaluation of the Computer Assisted Language Teaching Course Erdogan Kartal French Language Teaching Department Faculty of Education Uludag University, Bursa/TURKEY ekartal@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of the present study is to determine the foreign language teacher candidates‘ evaluation relating to the elective Computer Assisted Language Teaching course which was conducted for four semesters between the academic years of 2007-2010 at Uludag University. The study group consists of 40 teacher candidates enrolled at Uludag University Faculty of Education, French Language Teaching Department. A questionnaire composed of one open-ended question was administered to the teacher candidates who had taken the course. At the end of the course, the candidates were asked to evaluate their experiences of the course, classroom practices, gains and teacher-student interaction. Therefore, a blank sheet of paper was distributed so that the candidates could write their answers in detail. The candidates‘ answers were decoded and interpreted by means of content analysis, a qualitative analysis method. Findings of the research revealed that the course was learner centered, the candidates had gained wide knowledge in both technical and educational points of language teaching, they were able to critically evaluate the language teaching websites, and finally, they had concerns relating to course assessment. Key Words: French language teaching, teacher candidates, computer assisted language teaching, course evaluation. Introduction In today‘s modern societies, the formal teaching process is one of the most important processes in the raising of the individual. The institution called school embeds programs designed for individuals of the same age group and same level. Teachers have a vital role in the implementation of these programs in organized educational processes. Therefore, in order to preserve the importance of the teacher‘s role, teacher training programs need to be continuously evaluated so that problems arising within the system can be traced and overcome effectively. The most important aims of teacher training programs is to define how to prepare quality teachers, explore how to train the teacher candidates in this direction, and to evaluate their achievement of these aims. As known, program development is a dynamic and continuous process. BaĢtùrk (2009), states that the effectiveness of teacher training programs can be reached by overcoming the problems and deficiencies of the program. Technology, especially in the last quarter of the century has become an indispensible component of educational settings (BiriĢçi, ve Karal, 2010). The computer is the primary type of technology used in an educational setting. Today, it can be clearly seen that in every level of education, from pre-school to higher education, the process of teaching is supported with information and communication technologies. One of the most widely spreading areas of this support is language learning/teaching. An investigation of the related literature in our country, shows that there are studies based on the teacher candidates‘ evaluations of courses conducted in the various programs of Faculties of Education (Gùven, 2006; Çoklar & ġahin, 2008; Öztùrk & Darıca, 2003; Acer, 2011; Arıkan, Ünver & Saraç-Sùzer, 2007). However, it was observed that there was no research based on the evaluation of the Computer Assisted Language Teaching (CALT) course. The present study aims to determine the teacher candidates‘ evaluation of the CALT course. At the end of the semester, the teacher candidates‘ were asked for a pedagogically-oriented evaluation of the CALT course that they had taken. The findings revealed by this aim, will assist CALT instructors in teacher training programs to evaluate the current program and reorganize their course material by developing the course context for future semesters. 1338 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 685 Title A name given to the resource French Foreign Language Teacher Candidates‘ Evaluation of the Computer Assisted Language Teaching Course Author Author Kartal, Erdogan Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the present study is to determine the foreign language teacher candidates‘ evaluation relating to the elective Computer Assisted Language Teaching course which was conducted for four semesters between the academic years of 2007-2010 at Uludag University. The study group consists of 40 teacher candidates enrolled at Uludag University Faculty of Education, French Language Teaching Department. A questionnaire composed of one open-ended question was administered to the teacher candidates who had taken the course. At the end of the course, the candidates were asked to evaluate their experiences of the course, classroom practices, gains and teacher-student interaction. Therefore, a blank sheet of paper was distributed so that the candidates could write their answers in detail. The candidates‘ answers were decoded and interpreted by means of content analysis, a qualitative analysis method. Findings of the research revealed that the course was learner centered, the candidates had gained wide knowledge in both technical and educational points of language teaching, they were able to critically evaluate the language teaching websites, and finally, they had concerns relating to course assessment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fbab0508a401d875baa4413b1688f5d6.pdf 50e61e39bdacf9fde239825c8ebb8af0 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo To write a textbook for teaching a ―little‖ languages Zenaida KaravdiĤ Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina zenaidameco@yahoo.com Abstract: In this time of domination of English in all fields, including linguistics, methodology of preparing textbooks for learning and teaching the foreign languages is also under its influence. This article shows how some achievements in this field can be well used, but also how it‘s necessary to pay attention to differences, whether structural, sociolinguistic, or purely pragmatic when writing a textbook for teaching the "little" languages such as Bosnian. Apart from some theoretical assumptions, this article offers some very practical advice that can be applied to writing books of other languages. Key words: textbook, Bosnian language, methodology of writing textbook, textbook evaluation Introduction It is ironical that those teachers who rely most heavily on the textbooks are the ones least qualified to interpret its intentions or evaluate its content and method. (Williams, 1983; in: Ansary and Babaii 2002) Even if I am, as the author of the textbook ―Bosanski jezik kao strani jezik‖, maybe last who should analyze it, I‘ll undertake this job because the writing such a book is not like writing any other textbook for the foreign language. So, I will attempt not to discover its good and bad sides, but to explain what the special was in it, such as: political reasons, methodical needs, user requirements, methodological difficulties and practical use. Why do we need the textbook for learning/teaching Bosnian as a foreign language? The answer is simple: because we didn‘t have it. Indeed, there is one: PelesiĤ-MuminoviĤ, F., Bosanski jezik za strance, but this book is more for individual learning of Bosnian. Beside, even if it is wrote in two languages parallel, which could be considered as an advantage, it used the old grammar-translation approach and it shouldn‘t be useful in the classroom (it was my personal experience). And why is so important to have the textbook for Bosnian? Couldn‘t we use one of Croatian, or Serbian, or former Serbo-Croatian? are the questions people often ask me. Now, the answer is not so simple. First of all, the strangers who came in Bosnia and Herzegovina mostly don‘t know anything about history of Bosnian language. It seems them so naturally to associate the name of the language with the name of the country and they don‘t know what should be a problem. The truth is that, even Bosnian exists for at least thousand years, and in big part of this time its name was Bosnian, in last hundred years this name was forbidden. And while the names Serbian and Croatian existed and developed at least in the common name ―SerboCroatian‖, the name ―Bosnian‖ was moved and almost forgotten. The same was with the particularities of this language – while those of Serbian and Croatian was raised from the dialect to the standard language, in the same time the particularities of the Bosnian was characterized more and more as a dialect.348 Nowadays, when the name ―Bosnian‖ is in use again, we have a big problem: there is no book which analyzes the specificity of the Bosnian language, nor literature, history… In last fifteen years the scientists of this three ―national discipline‖ make an effort to compensate that gap of hundred years, but some key books still didn‘t see the light. One of those books is the textbook for Bosnian as a foreign language too. Secondly, as I already sad, the Bosnian, even so similar to Serbian and Croatian, still isn‘t the same. There are some particularities which separate Bosnian from those two languages. Maybe one stranger couldn‘t understand why these few things are so important, but in this place the sociolinguistics reasons take effect. Namely, after relatively recent war (1992-95) in which three army was created – one Bosniaque‘s, second Serbian‘s and third Croatian‘s, the society was mostly – weather we would like to admit it or not – separate in those three categories. And how can it be recognized who belongs to which category? Mainly through his/her language – exactly those little differences between Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian. And even we‘re trying to delete those fine borders between the three nations which constitute the majority of people in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it is still possible to happen that someone at least look at you weird if you say ―kava‖ instead of 348 More about the history of standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian language see in: Robin 2005. 1301 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―kafa‖ or vice versa. And that should be the problem for some stranger who don‘t know (and maybe even shouldn‘t know) about this social situation. And thirdly, as a country trying to be a part of European Union, Bosnia and Herzegovina should reach its level, this is, be considerate to many things in politics, economics, business, but also the culture, education, science… In this sense, like all ―big countries‖, Bosnia and Herzegovina should enhance the education of Bosnian language and Bosnian culture to the Bosnian foreign language learners. All around the world there are Bosnian people which children are forgetting the mother tongue. Somewhere it is organized the classes of Bosnian in primary school, some universities also introduce Bosnian, from one semester courses (for example in Wuerzburg, Germany) to three or four years study (in Izmir, Turkey). And Bosnia and Herzegovina, as the country, has a little or nothing with that. It means that about Bosnian language and culture can teach anyone who knows Bosnian, and sometimes even Serbian or Croatian. The country should take care of representing its language(s) in the world, and one of the ways is by creating the textbooks for learning/teaching Bosnian language, based on real Bosnian language and Bosnian culture.349 And, of course, the textbooks of Bosnian can be used also to represent Bosnia and Herzegovina in the world, to make it closer, more familiar to other countries and to minimize all of bad predictions which exist about it. What the textbook for teaching/learning foreign language should be? From the viewpoint of methodologists, the textbook presents a list (set of) rules (guidelines, recommendations and prohibitions) to work on school material (Арутюнов, 1990: 15, in: NeneziĤ 2009); textbook is a comprehensive and methodical system that is realized in certain material and has a concrete goal for a certain period and certain the composition of students (Пассов, 1989; in: NeneziĤ, 2009). The theory of textbook is still the young discipline which didn‘t develop yet its apparatus and methodology, but as its goals, it describes: a) obtain the authors to analyze and systematize the books from before and make one unique and optimal model for all the textbooks concerning one discipline b) reach the model and structure equality of the textbooks of the different disciplines c) establish one non-contradictory assertive criterion for the textbook valorization (NeneziĤ, 2009). Even if we still don‘t have the unique measures, we cannot say that we don‘t have many (sometimes contradictory) directions and recommendations about what should be the textbook for teaching/learning the foreign language. 1. Communicative method instead of the grammar-translation approach. Actually and pretty globally acceptable method for teaching any languages today is communicative method. Ideal textbook will be the one which wouldn‘t have the grammar at all, and it could teach its costumer to speak liquidly and similar as much as it is possible to the native speakers (for example: Millard, 2000, Tomlinson, 2008; in: Kurtz 2009). To reach that, the textbook should have: 2. multiply-answer-chose questions (Chastain, 1987, Walz, 1989; both in: Millard, 2000), 3. text resemble natural speech (Millard 2000, Rùhlemann 2009), 4. sentences linked to each other through a common meaningful theme (Hadley Omaggio, 1993, Walz, 1989; both in Millard, 2000), 5. grammar items associated with the others which are used together frequently (Millard, 2000). Beside that, all are agree that the textbooks must offer: 6. information about the target language culture (Santos, 2002), implying that: 7. book is completely written in the target language (and classes should be also completely in that language: Strzalka, 1998). Based on these principles, we have many evaluation checklists for the textbooks (for example: Miekley, 2005) and they mostly respect this rules. Learning third language It is important to notify that all of these rules are based on learning of English as a foreign language (for example: Miekley, 2005). Question is: Should those rules be used in writing the textbook for some other language? First of all, we must take care about the fact that learning some language beside English often means learning third or fourth language. And that means the learners, even if they ―might not know English well, they do know enough to make mistakes influenced by previously learned languages‖ (Gunske, 2007: 22). Some scientists 349 This is the problem with much other languages, even such „big― as Chinese is; see in: Hai-lin and Xiao-ling, 2010. 1302 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo propose interesting ways to begin teaching taking into account the above findings (Gunske, 2007: 22), but the problem with textbook is still pending. Additionally, the learners don‘t like the textbooks only on foreign language (and it is not only my personal experience: Strzalka, 1998). Accustomed on the learning based on grammar-translation approach, they mostly don‘t understand that the different languages follow different patterns (Santos 2002), and even if they do, it is hard for them to realize that difference, especially when their mother tongue belongs to the other group of languages. Actually, the teacher is the one who should explain it, but how the textbook can help him/her? It seems that the textbook which use English or another learners-familiar language for explaining will be better than the textbook completely written in the target language. If so, than the textbook I cited in the beginning (written half in Bosnian and half in English) should be perfect, and we wouldn‘t need one more book. But things are not so simple and using just target language is not the only problem in composing the textbook for third or fourth language. What the textbook for Bosnian language should be? As I already sad, the complete process of learning some language as a foreign is under hard influence of this one for English. Writers, trying to be modern as much as they can, often copy the methods and structure of the English textbooks. On the one side, they are right because the English is language with the most develop methods for teaching and learning, and none serious scientist should ignore those achievements. On the other side, in this consideration they should be reasonable and critical, this is, they should respect the differences between English and the target language. For example, the textbooks for teaching / learning English usually starts with present simple, sometimes with the present continuous tense in the same lesson (Acklam and Crace, 2006, Oxenden and Latham-Koenig, 2009, Kay and Jones, 2003). It means that students learn two new suffixes, and two different ways to make some tense. In Bosnian it would mean that the students should learn eighteen suffixes, three possible stem which couldn‘t be recognized just by regarding the infinitive form, not to speak about some sub-classes of verbs with their particularities, and all of that just to learn the present tense in regular verbs. The same things are with possessive adjectives: since the learners of English should learn six new words for the beginning, the learners of Bosnian should learn 29 forms just for the singular.350 Obviously, the differences between English and Bosnian are so big that they can‘t be overcome so easy. But it should be mentioned one more facts: since the students already accept some order in teaching / learning (one more influence of English!), they expect the same in every new language, which make them prepared for accepting of certain information, and the textbooks should take the advantage of it. Just, it must be chosen the best way for it, because when the learners see this bunch of suffixes, they will be concerned and scared of Bosnian, so we would do nothing. So, if the Bosnian textbook want to respect the rule from easy to hard, the order of grammar units must be totally different than in English textbook, and the learners expecting can be kept by announcing soon teaching of things they are waiting them to appear in every next page. But which principle should be applied in the ordering of the grammar units? It should be the frequency of use in the common speech, even if it implies just partly explanation of some of them.351 In the explanation of the rules of Bosnian, definitely it must be back at the one rule several times. Beside it, under prediction of English or their mother tongue, the learners /students make often the same and repeated mistakes, such as in gender or in cases. One textbook can‘t predict the mistakes caused by mother tongue, but can the one‘s caused by knowing English and it can pay attention on them by giving more exercises (Gunske 2007: 22). So, we see that the knowing English can even help to learn the Bosnian in above mentioned ways. But, there is one big difference: since it is so flective, it seems impossible to teach someone to speak Bosnian liquidly and correct without the grammar. The proof for that are many strangers who are in Bosnia and Herzegovina for more than ten years, but out of school system, and they still make many mistakes in their speech, especially if they are from the countries which languages don‘t have the gender or inflection. ―Mitigating circumstance‖ is the fact that the syntax, particularly the word order in Bosnian is much easier than in English (since it is almost free) so, when (somehow) learn the morphology, the students / learners can be considered as they know the Bosnian 350 Here it could be listed much differences, and the one is, for example, insisting on syntaxis, what can be accomplished in English, as the analytic language, but not in Bosnian, as the extremely flective: „To understand the essential concepts of syntactic it is necessary to know morphology, because it can be said that the syntax is actually functional (applied) morphology. Syntaxic level inevitabily demand the involving of the semanthic level, because the syntaxic units are complex language signs, which can't be analyzed by one side. Also, the relationship between syntax and stylistics is very complex, so it is important that teachers can refer the students how to functionally associate the level of grammatically with expressive values of certain syntactic structures.― (Петровачки, 2010: 443-444) 351 The textbooks of other, not so „small― languages have the same problem: Wagner. 1303 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo language.352 It means also that the full attention mast be paid to the organization, explanation and practice of grammar in an effort to make it easy and understandable as more as it is possible. Of course that in this place we can and we should use the rule for the English textbooks to associate grammar items with the others which are used together frequently. And there are more, practical things which should be considered if we want the Bosnian to be accepted and liked. They concern the learners which are mostly adult persons, even if they are students. Some of those things (recognized in the others' experience too: Strzalka, 1998) are the next: The adult learners and students love text, so the textbook should offer it, because the new vocabulary items seem to be better remembered if they are introduced in a context of a longer text (Strzalka, 1998) which, in some way, ―keep the meanings of the words‖ and if learner / student forget the meaning, he or she is still remembering where it words is saw first time, so he / she can quickly find it and remember its meaning. And this fact proof the demand for the textbook for teaching / learning English that the sentences should be linked to each other through a common meaningful theme. The adult learners and students don‘t like to play a role because of their natural shyness or just discomfort. A solution to this problem may simply be giving the more inhibited learners more detailed briefing about their role, thus limiting the freedom of choice which seems to be troublesome for some adult learners (Strzalka, 1998). And this correspond with the demand of the multiply-answer-chose questions for the textbooks for English. The adult learners and students don‘t like the homework (Strzalka, 1998). They wish to learn and be learned only at the classes, because they other occupations are often totally different and they can connect them to learning Bosnian. However, the rules of the faculty or department sometimes strictly demand it, and it has the methodological reasons. Solution can be not to give the explicit homework exercises in the textbook, but structure it in the way that every exercise can be the homework too. The adult learners and students don‘t like the exercises which don‘t demand the understanding of meanings. Doing these kinds of mechanical exercises, learners do not see how this rather passive activity could possibly improve their overall performance in the foreign language and they easily get disinterested (Strzalka, 1998). But ―mechanical‖ repeating is one of the way of the ―unconscious‖ learning of language so these exercises shouldn‘t be omitted, but they should be positioned after the harder exercises so they can be used as a ―relax‖. Moreover, there is one more thing which the textbook for Bosnian must consider and this one for English mustn‘t, and it is costumers who are the heritage speakers. All around the world there are the children or grandchildren of the Bosnian people who emigrate before about hundred years. Those children are often very interested for learning Bosnian, which they know a little bit, but not enough to communicate with people who today live in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The reason is that the language, in strange surround, slowly disappear, but also, and more interesting, that those speakers keep the condition of language before hundred years, and the language in Bosnia today is changed. Also, the emigrants were often from the rural background and they speech is more dialectal, beside it is old. If it wants to be multi-functional and satisfy the expectations, one textbook for learning / teaching Bosnian should take into account these facts and try to show the dialects too, but of course, to insist on the standard language. This corresponds with demand to natural speech in the textbooks for English (and students especially love the non-standard collocations so it can be used to relax some harder lesson). Also, those ―half-native‖ speakers often don‘t know anything, or know a little about the country where their ancients are from. They might have some old picture which their grand parents gave them, and it would be very important to introduce them in recent culture and civilization, beside the fact that it is necessary for all the textbooks for foreign languages (Kramer, 2004: 14). Conclusion After all, we can see that in writing the textbook for learning / teaching the ―small‖ languages such as Bosnian, we can use some rules for this kind of textbooks at all, like offering multiply-answer-chose questions, text resemble natural speech, sentences linked to each other through a common meaningful theme, grammar items associated with the others which are used together frequently and information about the target language culture, but some others, like only communicative method and writing completely in the target language, can‘t. Beside that, the textbook for ―small‖ languages should consider that: 352 There is one more reason for putting more grammar in textbook for Bosnian language: often, the customers are the students who study some other language, accustomed on the grammar explanations and they ask for it. The others don't ask, and to harmonize those two opposite demands, the textbook should offer enough of both, and the teacher can choose whether use it or not. 1304 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - - learners often already know the English ore some other language (except their mother tongue, of course) what cause always the same mistakes and different expectations (or, to better say, the same expectations) of the textbook learners often already know the Bosnian, but old and dialectal learners are mostly adults and have some typical demands every language ask specific units order depending of its structure And I would like to conclude with a quotation from Allwright (1981: 9; in Ansary and Babaii 2002): There is a limit to what teaching materials can be expected to do for us. The whole business of the management of language learning is far too complex to be satisfactorily catered for by a pre-packaged set of decisions embodied in teaching materials. This means however perfect a textbook is, it is just a simple tool in the hands of teachers. We should not, therefore, expect to work miracles with it. What is more important than a textbook is what we, as teachers, can do with it. 1305 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Acklam, R. & Crace, A. (2006). Total English. Student's book. Harlow: Longman. Ansary, H. & Babaii, E. (2002). Universal Characteristics of EFL/ESL Textbooks: A Step Towards Systematic Textbook Evaluation. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 2, http://iteslj.org/ Allwright, R. L. (1981). What do we want teaching materials for? ELT Journal, 36 (1) Арутюнов, А. Р. (1990). Теория и практика создания учебника русского языка для иностранцев. Москва, стр. 15. Chastain, K. (1987). Examining the role of grammar explanation, drills, and exercises in the development of communication skills. Hispania, 70, pp. 160-166. Gunske, M. (2007). Learning more than English as a foreign language: Are textbook designs fit for OLE classrooms? Second Language Acquisition – Theory and Pedagogy: Proceedings of the 6th Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference. May, 12 - 13, 2007. Sendai, Japan: Tohoku Bunka Gakuen University, pp. 21-41. Hadley Omaggio, A.C. (1993). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Hai-lin, D. & Xiao-ling, W. (2010), A Comparative Study on the Foreign Language Education Policies of China and Other Countries, Canadian Social Science, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 168-172. Kay, S. & Jones, V. (2003). Inside Out. Student's Book. Elementary. Oxford: Macmillan. Kramer, Ch. E. (2004). Accommodating Dialect Speakers in the Classroom: Sociolinguistic Aspects of Textbook Writing. Canadian Slavonic Papers; May-Jun 2004, Vol. 46, Issue 1/2, pp. 59-72. Kurtz, J. (2009). The Role of the Textbook in the EFL Classroom (1), http://juergenkurtz.wordpress.com/2009/01/19/the-role-of-the-textbook-in-the-efl-classroom-1/ posted January 19, 2009 Miekley, J. (2005). ESL Textbook Evaluation Checklist. The Reading Matrix, Vol. 5, No. 2. Millard, D. J. (2000). Form-Focused Instruction in Communicative Language Teaching: Implications for Grammar Textbooks. TESL Canada Journau / Revue TESL Du Canada, Vol. 18, No.1, pp. 47-57. NeneziĤ, J. (2009). Teorija udņbenika i njeno znaĦenje za konstruisanje visokońkolskog udņbenika stranog (ruskog) jezika. Riječ, nova serija, br. 1, NikńiĤ, str. 81-91. Okey, R. (2005). Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian? Language and Nationality in the Lands of Former Yugoslavia. East European Quarterly, XXXVIII, No. 4 Oxenden, C. & Latham-Koenig, Ch. & Seligson, P. (2009). New English File. Pre-intermediate Student's book. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Пассов, Е. И. (1989). Oсновы коммуникативной методики обучения иноязычному общению. Москва Петрпвачки, Љ. (2010). Пpoцecи caзнaвaоa cинтaкcичкиx пojмoвa. Годишњак Филозофског факултета у Новом Саду / Annual Review of the Faculty of Philosophy, Коига XXXV, Hoви Caд, 443-454. Rühlemann, Ch. (2009). Discourse presentation in EFL textbooks: a BNC-based study, Language & Computers, Vol. 69, Issue 1, pp. 415-435. Santos, D. (2002). Learning English as a foreign language in Brazilian elementary schools: Textbooks and their lessons about the world and about learning. Paradigm Journal of the Textbook Colloquium, Vol. 2 (5). Strzalka, A. (1998). Seven Things Adult Learners Dislike. English Teaching Forum, Vol. 36, No 2, p. 39. Tomlinson, B. (ed.) (2008). English Language Learning Materials. A Critical Review. London: Continuum Wagner, J. Grammar Acquisition and Pedagogy, http://www.ielanguages.com/documents/papers/SLA%20Grammar%20Acquisition%20and%20Pedagogy.pdf (12. 04. 2011) Walz, J. (1989). Context and contextualized language practice in foreign language teaching. Modern Language Journal, 73, 160-168. 1306 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 680 Title A name given to the resource To write a textbook for teaching a ―little‖ languages Author Author Karavdic, Zenaida Abstract A summary of the resource. In this time of domination of English in all fields, including linguistics, methodology of preparing textbooks for learning and teaching the foreign languages is also under its influence. This article shows how some achievements in this field can be well used, but also how it‘s necessary to pay attention to differences, whether structural, sociolinguistic, or purely pragmatic when writing a textbook for teaching the "little" languages such as Bosnian. Apart from some theoretical assumptions, this article offers some very practical advice that can be applied to writing books of other languages. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/210170dd944458979f437a3fae6d562e.pdf a1fbbf4517c3161ac1bcc6287356e071 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bilingual Education: The Road to Multilingualism STUDYING A DIALECT OF MALAY LANGUAGE FAMILY – THE BATAK LANGUAGE , THROUGH FIELDWORK IN INDONESIA: LESSONS FOR FUTURE STUDY IN THE AREA. Associate Professor Dr Kamsiah Abdullah National Istitute of Education Nanyang Thecnological University Singapore kamsiah.abdullah@nie.edu.sg Abstract: All research is field work but field work undertaken to study a dialect of a community ‗foreign‗ to researchers, in an unfamiliar part of the world is a particularly daunting but enriching experience. So much about the language and culture of the people speaking the language, the dynamics of language and culture, the way language changes through contact with the outside world, can be learned through field study in the area. This paper will present a preliminary study on a dialect of Malay language family, that is, the Batak language, spoken by the Batak communities in the island of Sumatera Indonesia in 2010. The study was undertaken as part of a module on Methods and Approaches in Malay Linguistics taught at the National Institute of Education, Singapore (NIE). The first part of the paper will describe the aims and preparation process undertaken before the field trip. This will be followed by explanation on the actual study conducted in the field and its findings in relation to the objective of the research. Lastly, the limitations, accomplishment and implication in doing fieldwork research will be discussed. The issue of research ethics will be highlighted whenever appropriate. Scope of the field work Field work in linguistics can be defined as any type of linguistic data gathering where the linguist uses information from a pool of speakers interacting with each other or the researcher in their normal natural environment. Field study as one of the approaches in Linguistics was taught as a module called Methods and Approaches in Malay Linguistics taught at the National Institute of Education, Singapore (NIE). As part of the module students were encouraged to embark on a research on any one of the Malay Language families or dialects currently spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia. The Malays and Malay Dialect Groups or Ethnic groups prided themselves in being the indigenous or the original people of Singapore situated at the centre of a large geographical region comprising thousands of islands, big and small. A large number of the ancestors of the Malay peoples made Singapore their homes during the nineteenth and twentieth century. To engage in field research on an upstream environment involving speakers of a language which is not usually known in present day Singapore - a huge international, modern cosmopolitan hub, is a particularly daunting experience. In many cases urbanites tend to avoid doing research in remote indigenous areas because of unfamiliarity with the environment, the culture and tradition and above all the different languages and dialects involved. The area covered under this field work is actually related to a larger study on Languages and dialects of the Malays who are the indigenous people of Singapore. The term Malays in Singapore are normally classified under the ethnic group ―Malay‖ but they belong to a number of linguistic groups within the Malayan sub-family, that is, the Riau-Johor Malay sub-group, the Bugis, the Javanese, the Boyanese, the Minangkabaus, the Banjaris and the Bataks. Malay is an Austronesian Language Family (also known as Malayo-Polinesia) which branched into three primary subfamilies : Hesperanesia, Micronesia and Melanesia. These language families are dispersed throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The Malay language spoken by Singapore Malays which encompass many dialects and languages of the Austronesian language family comes under the Hesperanesian language branch. Hesperanesia is usually referred to as ‗Nusantara‘ in Malay, (where ‗ nusa‘ means islands and ‗antara‘ means inbetween, amongst or inter). It is one of the primary branches of the Autronesian language Family. Under the Nusantara Family can be classified, the language families of Malayic Hesion which is the fore-runner of the Malayan Subfamily. These include Achinese, Madurese and Lampungs. Javanese and Boyanese are not a subfamily of Malayic-Hesion but comes under an earlier proto language, the Java-Sumatra- Hesion. Bugis language spoken by Bugis people is a branch of South Sulawesi languages. The Minangkabaus speak a language under the Malayan subfamily called Minangkabau which also includes Malay and Kerinci in Sumatera. The Banjaris comes 724 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo from Kalimantan a large island of Indonesia and speak Banjar which is closer to Malayan and Ibanic languages The Bataks speaks a number of Batak languages which mainly spoken in Sumatera. 235 The Study on Batak Language The Study on Batak Language is small part of a baseline major study whose general aim is to track the origin of Malay language families and to understand its different branches and language families and dialect now spreading over a large area of maritime South East Asia also known as Nusantara (the Malay archipelago). For this particular part of the initial phase of study, the starting point is to focus on the smallest minority Malay group in Singapore. Thus the focus is on the Batak Language and its people whose origin is in Sumatera, Indonesia. The Batak community is not entirely unknown to Singaporean Malays, as there was a prominent village called ―Kampung Batak or Batak Village‖ up to the 1950‘s, before redevelopment of Singapore villages into urban residential estates took place. Some well-known and popular figures in Singapore also feature Batak names or marga or clan names like Siregar, Samosir, Nasution and others. The Batak People The choice of the Batak language was a result of careful consideration regarding the interest of the students, proximity of the native land of the Bataks to Singapore and the historical links of the Batak people residing in Singapore and their homeland. The Bataks, the smallest minority Malay group in Singapore had been coming to Singapore before the 20th century. Until 1978, there were less than 350 Bataks in Singapore. (1)236 The Bataks are mainly Christians, unlike other Malays who are wholly Muslims. There were also Bataks who were originally Muslims like the Mandailings and some who took Malay wives and converted to Islam. They mostly came for economic, educational and social reasons and unlike other Malay communities who attended Malay Language or Muslim schools, they received Western education which was seen as a passport to getting a white-collar jobs. The Batak Homeland Sumatra, one of 13, 000 islands that make up the country of Indonesia is where the homeland of the Batak people. Most of the Bataks live in the Northern Central part of Sumatra who collectively comprise around four million people, making them one of the largest ethnic groups in that country which hosts over three hundred distinct ethnolinguistic minorities. There are six distinct Batak tribes in this area: Angkola/Sipirok, Karo, Mandailing, Pakpak / Dairi, Simalungun and Toba. Although these six groups have many things in common, there are differences in their languages, histories and traditions. It is said that the term Batak was first used by Malay settlers to describe any non-Muslim in this part of Sumatra. (In fact a Batak, upon conversion to Islam, was no longer considered a Batak by the Malay, but ethnically Malay.) The Mandailings are Muslims, the Batak Karos are either Muslims or Christians and the rest and majority are Christians due to their conversion to Christianity during the colonial era. An important characteristic of the social structure of the Bataks whether Muslims, Christians or animist is their special kinship organization of family groups into marga (s) or clans. In their tradition adat or custom, which is still practiced widely until now, is their obligation to their marga . Marga determines their everyday conduct, their economic pursuits and marriages. Among them, it is taboo to marry within one‘s own marga even though there is no blood relations among the potential marriage partner. One well-known talent of the Bataks pertains to their music and singing abilities. In former times, songs were sung to tell stories, folk history, legends and also for the calling of spirit. In those days singers were believed to have special mystical powers. 235 236 Retrieved from Wikipedia – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malayic_languages . http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malays_in_Singapore#The_Batak 725 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Aims of the Field Study The field study aims to obtain primary data on the Batak language from the native speakers of the language in their homeland. This brought us to the land of the Bataks in the island of Sumatra, Indonesia whose regional or provincial capital is Medan . It is not the aim of the study to produce a full description of the language, but only to understand its relationship to Malay language. Thus the methodology employed Lexicostatistics and Glotochronology methods to ascertain the position of the Batak languages in relation to Malay, such the length of period when the two language separated from Malay and other Austronesian languages. Lexicostatistics and Glotochronology Glotochronology is an approach in historical linguistics that estimates the time at which two or more languages diverged from a common earlier proto-language. It is based on the assumption that the basic or core vocabulary of a language changes or is replaced at a constant average rate. The result is an estimate of the age of the language studied or its origin. Glotochronology uses Lexicostatistical method that is a simple mathematical technique to estimate the distance between two related languages. Lexicostatistics is also widely used as a method in comparative linguistics. It involves quantitative calculations of lexical cognates or words that have a common origin. This method was developed by Morris Swadesh who collected and created words and the meaning slots in languages being studied. The Swadesh Word list contain 207 meanings in a number of languages. It was later reduced to 100 most important words presented as a list. The present study on Batak languages uses Lexicostatistics and the 207 Swadesh Word list as a basis of comparing cognate words or words having common meaning in Batak and Malay. Before the field study, trials and practices using Lexicostatistics and Glotochronology methods were tested using published data. A 207 Swadesh word list in Malay language encompassing concepts in human language such as personel pronouns, body parts, verbs of basic actions, numerals, was looked into and the Malay version was produced. The list was to be used as an instrument in the actual field work with the native speakers of Batak language or dialects in Indonesia. Some students make the effort of getting pictures to represent the words that could create confusion to the informants. Others thought of other ways to relate the meanings – such as using gestures. Preparation for the Field Study The purpose of the visit, that is to study the Batak language and meet the native speakers of the language was made clear so that full use of the little time that we had for the study, can be made. Full itinerary together with travel insurance was prepared before the trip. The first destination was Medan, a cosmopolitan city with over two million residents. It was identified as a starting point for excursions in the region of the Batak. Residents of Medan consist of two main thnic groups the Batak Peoples – as well the Malays of Sumatera. Contact with the University of North Sumatera (USU) , our host, was made very much earlier. Arrangements with the travel agents for accommodation and transport was done to make the trip of 12 students and lecturers a comfortable one. The Actual Field Study in Medan The field trip undertaken in November 2010 was carried out as part of the practical aspect of data gathering for the study on heritage languages of the Malays in Singapore. Malay language is studied in Singapore schools and research on the Malay language heritage, its language families and origin was supported by the Ministry of Education, specifically the Malay Language Learning and Promotion Committee (MLLPC). Overseas educational trips to understand the various cultures and languages of our heritage roots even as far as China and India are encouraged and supported by our Ministry of Education. Upon reaching Medan, a meeting and briefing was held in USU where our Singapore students meet with the Indonesian student volunteers who are native speakers of various dialects of the Batak language. After that interviews and travel to the villages of the Batak clans was undertaken, that is, on the second and third day of our arrival in Medan. The student researchers were able to visit the scenic Lake Toba as well as some historical sites related to the Batak people during their free time and after their gathering of data was completed. Data gathering Procedure There were two parts of data gathering: the first task is a semi-structured interview . The second task involved calculations using Lexicostatistics and Glotochronology methods. a) Semi or unstructured interviews 726 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Guide questions of what to investigate with regards to Batak language, dialects and use among the speakers were prepared before the trip and these were used when the semi or unstructured interviews were undertaken with native speakers who are also students at USU. Some of the interviews were conducted after lunch break and some did the interview once the preliminary introduction at the university was completed. This form of free-flowing and indeterminate interview was selected as it can also be like an opening conversation between two persons who unknown to each other. We would like it to be less formal and more ‗collegial‘ rather than like a formal interview between a ‗foreigner researcher‘ and native speaking informants as subject of research. The question of research ethics were strictly followed. Even though the student researchers possessed a set of guide questions, they were told not to seek answers directly or to impose it on the informants. Rather, they are encouraged to improvise allowing the interview to follow whatever course it takes. They should remain neutral during the data gathering process. They were told to withhold their own opinions vis-à-vis the questions and to remain impassive and objective in the face of their respondents‘ answers. It is heartening to note that the recording of the interview was done in a smooth and easy manner. The Batak words to the full Swadesh list in Malay was obtained by the students who worked in threes for the project. Findings from the project. Findings from the semi-structured interviews. The students reported many current facts on the sociolinguistics of Batak language. Some of the important findings are: 1. Most Bataks are now bilingual and speak at least two dialects. 2. Almost all understood and are able to speak Bahasa Indonesia , a variety of Malay 3. Among non Bataks, the Indonesia language is used. 4. Amongs Bataks, the relevant Batak dialect is used. 5. The younger Bataks are more inclined to speak Indonesian and some are not fluent in the Batak dialects 6. Even tough the use of bahasa Indonesia is prevalent among the people residing in towns and cities, it is often replaced by the Batak language when they return to their villages. 7. Batak language is widely used in the Batak homeland where Indonesian is only used for administrative purposes and with non-Bataks. Finding using Lexicostatistics and Glotochronology Two groups of students worked the the Batak Toba dialects, the largest in terms of speakers. Another group chose to study both the Batak Toba as well Batak Pak Pak Diari. The result of their calculations are as follows:  Sarifah Hassan, Maznunnisah and Md Farhan who studied the Batak Toba language found that the language separated from Malay about 3249 years ago.  Emrizal M Suhaimi, Nurfaeza Rahmat and Nurul ‗Ain Kamarulzaman who also studied Batak Toba found that the language separated from Malay about 2157 years ago (standard error – 110 years)  Ahmad Farkhan Mohd Nasir, Erfasiah Abdul Rahim, Noryanti Yahya found that according to their list, Batak Toba separated from Malay also about 3813 year to 3005 years ago.  Ahmad Farkhan Mohd Nasir, Erfasiah Abdul Rahim, Noryanti Yahya who also studied Batak Pak Pak Diari, a more recent dialect found that it separated from Malay about 5267 years ago (std error 660 years ago). There was a discrepancy in the number of years the Batak Toba language separated from the Malay language family. This is to be expected as the study is a preliminary one. Their findings and much of the results are based on their own respondents‘ information about the words (in Batak) on the Swadesh Word list. Further studies should be done by interviewing more informants in order to be more certain of the findings. Besides these the students were able to gains knowledge on the phonology, morphology and syntax of the Batak dialect that they studied. Students‘ Reflections The students gave very good feedback on the research journey. They were enthusiastic about doing the type of research not normally undertaken by others. They mentioned their anxiety at first and their preparation which took a lot of time and effort. But their initial fear was unsubstantiated, they really enjoyed doing the kind of research involving native speakers in a faraway lang from Singapore. Many students wrote on their appreciation on the culture and people. They now had more knowledge and would like to learn more on the people, their history and their tradition. Some mentioned their rapport with the interviewees and their ability to blend together with the Batak 727 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo students. All mentioned positively of their memorable visit to the Batak homeland as well their appreciation of the culture and language of this hospitable people. They had gained new insights and made new friends. Accomplishments Some of the noted accomplishments gained from the project are as follows: 1. Students discovering new information and consolidating their old or established knowledge on the subject. 2. They were able to obtaining different perspectives on the ‗same‘topic in participants‘ and informants‘ own words. 3. They gained information on participants‘ views, attitudes, beliefs, responses, motivations and perceptions on the topic studied. 4. They are able to examine shared understandings of everyday life and the everyday use of language and culture of this particular groups 5. They brainstorm and generate ideas among themselves and their interviewees 6. They also gained insights into the ways in which individuals are influenced by others and by their environments 7. The project help to generate a sense of rapport between the researcher and the researched. Lessons for Future Study Some lessons could be drawn from our study. This shows the way to channel concern and appreciation of linguistic diversity into concrete knowledge building projects. The most concrete result of this study is that scientific inquiry such as field work in a designated foreign land can be carried out successfully if adequate preparation and training is undertaken before the actual trip. The time and financial burden should be calculated even before embarking on the trip and to account for unexpected expenses. In our case a special boat, not the regular passenger boat had to be charted and this involved extra expenses. Moreover, the planning part should involve many parties including the students themselves who know more about their needs than older people. Most important for the academic part is the intellectual training and information of the place to do the field study. It should be thoroughly researched so that many of the ―culture shock‖ can be avoided. If possible the project planners should work in partnership with a local host or university familiar with the subject so that the activities could be done smoothly. Research ethics should be practiced at all times. Respect for others must be the motto when we travel to other places. Researchers should be flexible and accommodating in their interaction with the informants and host. Congenial atmosphere for more meaningful and closer interaction should be created so that a more ‗authentic‘ response. We had a particular case where ―interviews‖ between student researchers and informants were held in a bus while traveling on a long journey to the village. The informants gained a lift to their villages while our students get their information. At other times informants follow our group and stayed with us in our hotels. Field study can be an enriching experience for both the researcher and the researched. Work and play can be experienced together. References Asmah Haji Omar. (2001). Kaedah Penyelidikan Bahasa di Lapangan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Blust, R. (1988). Malay Historical Linguistics: A Progress Report. In Mohd Thani Ahmad and Zaini Mohamed Zain, Rekonstuksi dan Cabang-cabang Bahasa Melayu Induk. Siri monograf sejarah bahasa Melayu. Pp 133. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Nigel Edley and Lia Litosseliti. (2009) . Contemplating Interviews and Focus Group. In Lia Litosseliti , Research methods in Linguistics. Continuum International Publishing. Nothofer, Bernd. 1988. "A discussion of two Austronesian subgroups: Proto-Malay and Proto-Malayic." In Mohd. Thani Ahmad and Zaini Mohamed Zain (eds.) 1988. Rekonstruksi dan cabang-cabang Bahasa Melayu induk, Siri monograf sejarah bahasa Melayu.pp. 34-58. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. 728 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Paitoon, M.C. (2002). Glotokronologi Dialek Austronesia: Satu kajian Leksikostatistik di Pulau Karimun, Indonesia. Singapura: Persidangan Antarabangsa Bahasa, Sastera dan Kebudayaan Melayu ke-2. 729 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 107 Title A name given to the resource STUDYING A DIALECT OF MALAY LANGUAGE FAMILY – THE BATAK LANGUAGE , THROUGH FIELDWORK IN INDONESIA: LESSONS FOR FUTURE STUDY IN THE AREA. Author Author Kamsiah, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. All research is field work but field work undertaken to study a dialect of a community ‗foreign‗ to researchers, in an unfamiliar part of the world is a particularly daunting but enriching experience. So much about the language and culture of the people speaking the language, the dynamics of language and culture, the way language changes through contact with the outside world, can be learned through field study in the area. This paper will present a preliminary study on a dialect of Malay language family, that is, the Batak language, spoken by the Batak communities in the island of Sumatera Indonesia in 2010. The study was undertaken as part of a module on Methods and Approaches in Malay Linguistics taught at the National Institute of Education, Singapore (NIE). The first part of the paper will describe the aims and preparation process undertaken before the field trip. This will be followed by explanation on the actual study conducted in the field and its findings in relation to the objective of the research. Lastly, the limitations, accomplishment and implication in doing fieldwork research will be discussed. The issue of research ethics will be highlighted whenever appropriate Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6f494bf80f003018f2ee1ae2cb5584f6.pdf f62e29884eae1c9d38cce957c1ecd6ad PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Measuring Authorship - A Tribute to Forensic Discourse Analysis Nejla KalajdţisalihoviĤ Faculty of Philosophy, Sarajevo English Department nejlak@gmail.com Abstract: It is believed by many that our fingerprints are as unique as our DNA. Owing to the advances in modern technology and the aid of computers, it is possible to use software that is able to measure all the probabilities of occurrence of identical fingerprints, DNA, written or spoken discourse. In recent years, forensic discourse analysis experts and linguists have been trying to measure the degree to which every individual is unique. These findings are especially relevant for analysing the content of suicide letters, testimonies, testaments, ransom demands, confessions, SMS messages, diary entries etc. The quest of forensic discourse analysis is to apply the linguistic knowledge to the legal context with the aim of deciding on the authorship of the above-mentioned short notes. In applying the linguistic knowledge to the analysis of suicide letters, for instance, it is of great importance to determine whether there is a murder behind such a letter, viz. whether the letter is a genuine suicide letter. Another interesting phenomenon is related to testimonies, viz. the degree to which the interrogators added written content to the oral confession, or the degree to which the testimony, based on the linguistic evidence, is false. In this process, experts apply various methods of measuring the degree to which the testimonies are authentic. Some of these methods involve measuring sentence length average, word length average, collocations analysis, and forensic transcription. The aim of this paper is to pay tribute to forensic discourse analysis of English texts and focus on some of its methods that are particularly related to the application of the linguistic knowledge. In doing so, we shall focus on a brief analysis of two well-known cases, Derek Bentley and Susan Smith. Key words: forensic, transcription, word length average, sentence length average, collocation Introduction In recent years, there has been a rapid growth of interest in forensic linguistics, or forensic discourse analysis. The term ‗forensic English‘, however, was first used in 1949 by Philbrick in Language and the Law: Semantics of Forensic English (Coulthard, 2007:5). In 1968, Jan Svartvik analysed the statements given by Timothy Evans, who was accused of murdering his wife and child. Svartvik, who used the term ‗forensic linguistics‘ first, concluded that Evans did not give all the statements provided in the record written down by police. Namely, some of the statements were clearly distinctive due to their more formal style. Another important founding father of forensic linguistics is Roger Shuy, whose contribution to the science is related to Miranda rights. Even today, a lot of research is being done on whether immigrants understand their rights. Shuy made it clear that an individual cannot testify nonvoluntarily, especially if he/she does not understand his/her rights. Therefore, one of the major contributions of forensic linguistics to police interrogations is making sure that an individual‘s words are recorded correctly and not paraphrased. Apart from police and courtroom-related issues, the main concerns of forensic linguistics are related to detecting plagiarism and attributing authorship to pieces of different types of written discourse. Especially popular is attributing authorship to SMS messages as it is sometimes found that a criminal is sending messages from a victim‘s phone. A similar analysis is applied when it comes to attributing authorship to e-mails. Therefore, we can say that the focus of forensic linguistics is applying linguistic knowledge to the context of legal documents, courtroom interaction, speaker identification (SMS, e-mail, phone calls) and detecting plagiarism. Methods applied in measuring authorship A lot of emphasis has been placed on finding the best method for measuring and attributing authorship. So far, numerous statistical methods have been applied on finding the most accurate and 994 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo most reliable method for attributing authorship. One of the first scientists who attempted to compare two texts using forensic linguistics methods was Augustus de Morgan, ‗who used the word length average as a marker‘ (Olsson, 2004:11). As for the sentence length average, it was U. Yule who considered it to be a ‗viable marker‘ for attributing authorship (Olsson, 2001: 12). It is quite clear why word/ sentence length average cannot be considered the vital marker for attributing authorship unless we take into consideration the differences between spoken and written discourse, and some other factors. A. Q. Morton claims that there is not much difference between the two if it is about the speaking/writing habits of an individual. This author is famous for his ‗Qsum‘or ‗Cusum method‘. Namely, in analysing shorter texts, Morton looks for vowel-initial words and two or three-letter words. After finding these values, one has to measure their distribution in the text, as well as in the sentence. These values should correspond to the values related to the average sentence length. If there is a discrepancy, that should imply that a piece of text has been inserted by another author. This method is purely statistical and, according to many experts, not considered to be reliable as it lacks the dimension of intuition, which is often important for the analysis. Perhaps the most interesting approach is that of forensic stylistics. Namely, forensic stylistics compares texts in terms of (mis)spelling, the design of the pages, the space between the words, handwriting, collocations, word frequency, capitalisation, indentation, etc. (See: G.R. McMenamin, 2002). The scientific evidence or what is considered to be valid at courts is sometimes not clearly defined. As Olsson points out, although there are thousands of references to the subject of forensic linguistics, the question of whether or not we have the linguistic fingerprint is still unsolved. Namely, in Studies and Authorship Recognition: A Corpus-based Approach (1998), Hänlein discusses the possibility of recognizing the stylistic profile of an individual (Olsson, op.cit. p. 27). The recognition of the stylistic profile depends on whose stylistic profile it is as more language aware individuals are more able to switch codes or adapt their linguistic choices to the register or the context. In the lines that follow, we shall focus on the approaches given by J. Olsson, as he is one of the experts who thoroughly analyses most of the above-mentioned theories. We are, namely, going to focus on the already solved cases of Derek Bentley and Susan Smith to show how it is possible to determine whether some parts of a testimony have or have not been inserted. Forensic transcription - calculating word and sentence length average The piece of text that can be processed for forensic analysis may be a page from a diary, an email, a post-it note, a letter, etc. In case it is necessary to transcribe a text that was hand-written, one has to observe certain regulations when transcribing icons (e.g. smiley), exclamation or question marks, parts or words that were erased, etc. One of the most reliable methods of forensically transcribing a piece of text is transcribing it manually to a Word document. In addition to that, there is a number of software platforms that ease the transcription process as they are designed to find collocations (viz. colorcations) or calculate probability (e.g. Copy Catch). The word length average is calculated by counting the number of characters in a text from which all the punctuation marks have been removed and dividing the number with the number of words. The number is usually reduced to two decimals. As for the sentence-length average, it is calculated by counting the number of words in a sentence and dividing it with the number of sentences in the text. Data analysis- Susan Smith confession and Derek Bentley statement In 1994, Susan Smith, while trying to end both her life and the life of her two sons, admitted to having killed her children by letting her car roll down into a lake. After being interrogated, Susan Smith wrote a confession and confessed the crime. The average sentence length of the whole text is 14 words, whereas the average word length is 3.9 words. In total, the text contains 568 words, 2.173 characters and 39 sentences. Part one contains 25 sentences. The average word length for Part 1 is 13 words, whereas the average word length is 3.7. Part 2 contains 14 sentences. The average sentence length is 17 words, whereas the average word length is 3.9. We know for sure that Susan Smith herself wrote the statement using some formal phrases/collocations she may have heard (e.g. emotionally distraught) from police officers. The whole text is an emotional rollercoaster ending in statements of justification and self-evaluation. The author is also inconsistent spelling-wise ('he' vs. 'He'), 995 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo which suggests that she is either distraught or unsure about correct spelling. The deleted parts occur at very specific spots and seem to be deliberate at hiding something that is not supposed to be revealed. Also, it is unusual that the words referring to religious imagery occur quite often. The second part has word length longer by 0.2 and sentence average by 4 words. Although there are variations in sentence and word length average, her idiolect is quite specific in terms of repetition and consistency in grammar and spelling errors (See: Appendix A). As for Derek Bentley, a British teenager who was sentenced to death for being in the company of the juvenile Christopher Craig when Craig shot a police officer (1952), it has been confirmed that Bentley‘s statement given to the police was not properly recorded (See: Appendix, B). Analysing the text, and keeping in mind that Bentley suffered from epilepsy and had low intelligence quotient, it is apparent that the confession is not genuine, viz. as given by Derek Bentley. It is apparent that there are at least two authors of the statement as it is unlikely that Bentley could have remembered the date, the time and other details related to the event at the time of interrogation. In the part that we refer to as DB1 (the text that starts with ‗I have known Craig‘ and ends with ‗I then ran after them‘), there are 8 sentences and 483 characters. The average word length is 4.0, whereas the average sentence length is 15 words. In the part that we shall refer to as DB 2 (‗There was a little iron gate‘ to ‗he was going to use the gun‘), there are 9 sentences and 346 characters. The average word length is 3.9 and the average sentence length is 10 words. DB1 is significantly different from DB2 for several reasons. First of all, in DB1, it seems that the author had enough time to precisely remember the date and the time, as well as the order of events. Secondly, since the author had enough time to think about the setting, he can use tense agreement properly, viz. he is using Past Perfect Tense together with Past Simple Tense. Also, he is using afterthoughts, separated with dashes. The use of indirect speech shows that this is not an immediate reaction to interrogation. Also, in DB2, the personal pronoun ‗I‘ occurs nine times, whereas in DB 2, 'I' occurs only three times (Coulthard points out that the ‗I then‘ string is found in police-written statements). However, in DB2, the author is using shorter sentences, resembling spoken language. The events are put in an order, and they seem more immediate to the reader. The author is using direct speech and Past Simple Tense, a well-known pattern of economy in language when retelling recent events in the past. He is also not as precise as the author of DB1 (''for about ten minutes''). A comparison between DB1 and DB2 indicates that DB2 is the original statement given by Derek Bentley, while DB1 was inserted afterwards, as DB1 has elements of precision found in police statements. As for events and actions, DB1 is more focused on the events, where the narrator is a patient (and not an agent). DB2, however, is more action-oriented, viz. both the narrator and his colleague are active participants in the event. We propose that it is possible to analyse another part of DB2, the part that we shall refer to as DB2.a (the string from ‗The policeman dragged him‘ to the end), or the answers to police interrogation written down. Conclusion The above-given cases of Susan Smith and Derek Bentley are presented with the aim of stressing the importance of forensic discourse analysis when analysing statements given to the police or at court. In applying the linguistic knowledge to the analysis of corpora, it is of great importance to determine the degree to which the interrogators added written content to the oral confession, or the degree to which the testimony, based on the linguistic evidence, is false. In this process, experts apply various methods of measuring the degree to which the testimonies are authentic. Some of these methods involve measuring sentence length average, word length average, collocations analysis, and forensic transcription. However, there is not a single method that can be used for all the textual or phonetic evidence. Apart from linguistic and statistical evidence, profiling an individual's style and analysing the context or purpose for which a particular piece of text (or audio material) was created could be of great importance for discovering the vital cues. The two cases do not differ much in terms of the variations of sentence and word length. However, in terms of orthography, idiolect and style, it is evident why the authorship of the Bentley statement stirred so much debate. Further analysis of these and other texts (such as authorship reports in percentages) is beyond the scope of this paper, but it is important to point out that, for forensic discourse analysis, the roles of forensic stylistics and statistics are equally important. In studies that follow, our aim is to apply the forensic knowledge to the context of students‘ papers and to the analysis of authorship and instances of plagiarism. Our aim is to stress the importance of proper language acquisition as it is a vital step towards increasing language awareness. Note: Parts of the analysis presented above are taken from assignments the author of the article submitted to The Forensic Linguistics Institute (Powys, UK) in March 2010. 996 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Coulthard, M. (1994). ‗Forensic discourse analysis‘, in: Advances in Written Text Analysis, M. Couthard (ed.). London: Routledge, pp. 242-258. Coulthard, M. & Johnson, A. (2007). An Introduction to Forensic Linguistics, Language in Evidence. New York, New York, NY: Routledge Coulthard, M. & Johnson, A. (2010). The Routledge Handbook of Forensic Linguistics. New York, NY: Routledge Gibbons, J. & Turell T. (2008). Dimensions of Forensic Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Hänlein, H. (1998). Studies in Authorship Recognition- A Corpus-based Approach. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. McMenamin, G.R. (2002). Forensic Linguistics, Advances in Forensic Stylistics. Florida: CRC Press Olsson, J. (2008). Forensic Linguistics - The Language Detective, Unit 1. Powys, UK: Forensic Linguistics Institute. Olsson, J. (2004). Forensic Linguistics - An Introduction to Language, Crime and the Law. London: Continuum. Radford, A. (1990). Syntactic Theory and the Acquisition of English Syntax. Oxford: Blackwell. Svartvik. J. The Evans Statements. Gotheburg Studies in English No. 20. Yule, G. Udney (1944). The Statistical Study of Literary Vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Web: Coulthard, M. "Identifying the Author." Web. 24 March 2011. <http://clf.unige.ch/display.php?idFichier=168>. "Analysis of Susan Smiths Confession." LSI Laboratory for Scientific Interrogation, Inc. Web. 14 Jan. 2011. <http://www.lsiscan.com/susan_smith_s_confession.htm>. "Forensic Linguistics Institute." Forensic Linguistics Institute - The Home of Forensic Linguistics. Ed. John Olsson. Web. 14 Jan. 2011. <http://www.thetext.co.uk/cgibin/view_texts.pl?dir=&folder=Confessions&text=Derek Bentley's Police Statement.txt>. "How Rare Is That Fingerprint? Computational Forensics Provides the First Clues - UB NewsCenter." University at Buffalo. 7 Dec. 2010. Web. 14 Jan. 2011. <http://www.buffalo.edu/news/12073>. Articles: Dugandņija, M. (2011). Napisao je toĦku umjesto zareza. Po tome su otkrili ubojicu. GLOBUS, No. 1048, 68-7 Durrant P. & A. Doherty (2010). Are high-frequency collocations psychologically real? Investigating the thesis of collocational priming. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 6(2). Guillen-Nieto, V. (et.al.) (2008). Exploring State-of-the-Art Software for Forensic Authorship Identification. IJES, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 1-28. Appendix: A) Susan Smith confession When I left my home on Tuesday, October 25, I was very emotionally distraught. I didn‘t want to live anymore! I felt like things could never get any worse. When I left home, I was going to ride around a little while and then go to my mom‘s. As I rode and rode and rode, I felt even more anxiety coming upon me about not wanting to live. I felt I couldn‘t be a good mom anymore but I didn‘t want my children to grow up without a mom. I felt I had to end our lives to protect us all from any grief or harm (deletion). I had never felt so lonely and so sad in my entire life. I was in love (underlined) with someone, very much, but he didn‘t love me and never would. I had a difficult time accepting that. But I had hurt him very much and I could see why he could never love me. When I was @ John D. Long Lake, (deletion) I had never felt so scared and unsure as I did then. I wanted to end my life so bad and was in my car ready to go down that ramp into the water and I did go part way, but I stopped. I went again and stopped. I then got out of the car and (deletion) stood by the car (insertion>a) nervous wreck. Why was I feeling this way? Why was everything so bad in my life? I had no answers to these questions. I dropped to the lowest when I allowed my children to go down that ramp into the water without me. I took off running and screaming go back, but I knew it was too late. I was an absolute mental case! I 997 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo couldn‘t believe what I had done. I love my children w/ all my (icon: heart). That will never change. I have prayed to them for forgiveness and hope that they will find it in their (icon: heart) to forgive me. I never meant to hurt them!! I am SORRY (underlined) for what has happened and I know that I need some help. I dont think I will ever be able to forgive myself for what I have done. My children, Michael and Alex, are with our Heavenly Father now and I know that they will never be hurt again. As a mom, that means more than words could ever say. I knew from day one, the truth would prevail, but I was so scared I didnt know what to do. It was very tough emotionally to sit and watch my family hurt like they did. It was time to bring a piece of mind to everyone, including myself. My children deserve to have the best and now they will. I broke down on Thursday, November 3 and told Sheriff Howard Wells the truth. It wasn't easy, but after the truth was out, I felt like world was lifted off my shoulders. I know now that it is going to be a tough and long road ahead of me. At this very moment, I don't feel I will be able to handle what's coming, but I have prayed to God that he give me the strength to survive each day and to face (illegible) times and situations in my life that will be extremely painful. I have put my total faith in God and He will take care of me. Susan V. Smith 11/3/94 B) Derek Bentley statement I have known Craig since I went to school. We were stopped by our parents going out together, but we still continued going out with each other - I mean we have not gone out together until tonight. I was watching television tonight (2nd November 1952) and between 8pm and 9pm Craig called for me. My Mother answered the door and I heard her say I was out. I had been out earlier to the pictures and got home just after 7pm. A little later Norman Parsley and Frank Fazey called. I did not answer the door or speak to them. My Mother told me that they had called and I then ran out after them. I walked up the road with them to the paper shop where I saw Craig standing. We all talked together and then Norman Parsley and Frank Fazey left. Chris Craig and I then caught a bus to Croydon. We got off at West Croydon and then walked down the road where the toilets are - I think it is Tamworth Road. When we came to the place where you found me, Chris looked in the window. There was a little iron gate at the side. Chris then jumped over and I followed. Up to then Chris had not said anything. We both got out on to the flat roof at the top. Then someone in a garden on the opposite side shone a torch up towards us. Chris said: "It's a copper, hide behind here." We hid behind a shelter arrangement on the roof. We were there waiting for about ten minutes. I did not know he was going to use the gun. A plain clothes man climbed up the drainpipe and on to the roof. The man said: "I am a police officer - the place is surrounded." He caught hold of me and as we walked away Chris fired. There was nobody else there at the time. The policeman and I went round a corner by a door. A little later the door opened and a policeman in uniform came out. Chris fired again then and this policeman fell down. I could see he was hurt as a lot of blood came from his forehead just above his nose. The policeman dragged him round the corner behind the brickwork entrance to the door. I remember I shouted something but I forget what it was. I could not see Chris when I shouted to him he was behind a wall. I heard some more policemen behind the door and the policeman with me said, "I don't think he has many more bullets left." Chris shouted "Oh yes I have" and he fired again. I think I heard him fire three times altogether. The Policeman then pushed me down the stairs and I did not see any more. I knew we were going to break into the place, I did not know what we were going to get - just anything that was going. I did not have a gun and I did not know Chris had one until he shot. I now know that the policeman in uniform is dead. I should have mentioned that after the plain clothes policeman got up the drainpipe and arrested me, another policeman in uniform followed and I heard someone call him 'Mac'. He was with us when the other policeman was killed. 998 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 566 Title A name given to the resource Measuring Authorship - A Tribute to Forensic Discourse Analysis Author Author Kalajdžisalihović, Nejla Abstract A summary of the resource. It is believed by many that our fingerprints are as unique as our DNA. Owing to the advances in modern technology and the aid of computers, it is possible to use software that is able to measure all the probabilities of occurrence of identical fingerprints, DNA, written or spoken discourse. In recent years, forensic discourse analysis experts and linguists have been trying to measure the degree to which every individual is unique. These findings are especially relevant for analysing the content of suicide letters, testimonies, testaments, ransom demands, confessions, SMS messages, diary entries etc. The quest of forensic discourse analysis is to apply the linguistic knowledge to the legal context with the aim of deciding on the authorship of the above-mentioned short notes. In applying the linguistic knowledge to the analysis of suicide letters, for instance, it is of great importance to determine whether there is a murder behind such a letter, viz. whether the letter is a genuine suicide letter. Another interesting phenomenon is related to testimonies, viz. the degree to which the interrogators added written content to the oral confession, or the degree to which the testimony, based on the linguistic evidence, is false. In this process, experts apply various methods of measuring the degree to which the testimonies are authentic. Some of these methods involve measuring sentence length average, word length average, collocations analysis, and forensic transcription. The aim of this paper is to pay tribute to forensic discourse analysis of English texts and focus on some of its methods that are particularly related to the application of the linguistic knowledge. In doing so, we shall focus on a brief analysis of two well-known cases, Derek Bentley and Susan Smith. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics