81 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3f50fb25a5d2ad53f4a3d704e44c315d.pdf 4e3dd774de2b9631b85907e3da6caf8b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ―Coopertive Learning in ELT: A Literature Review‖ Deniz MADEN Department of English Language Education Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey denizmaden@sdu.edu.tr Abstract: Cooperative learning has received increased attention in recent years due to the movement through learner centred learning. This paper provides an overview of the use of cooperative learning (CL) and effects of it in second language instruction. After three brief definitions of CL, key areas are discussed in the paper. The first part of the article provides the theory of language and learning in CL while the second part introduces the objectives, syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities and the roles of teacher, learners and instructional materials in CL. The article concludes cooperative learning makes maximum use of cooperative activitites involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. Furthermore, Cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Keywords: Cooperative learning, English language teaching, group work, learner centred learning 1. Introduction ―Two heads learn better than one‖ Roger T. & David W. Johnson The cooperative learning method focuses on the integrated use of cooperative learning. It can be used in any lesson cooperatively, in any subject area, grade level or educational setting. Back to its history, it has its primary roots in social interdependence theory. Theoretically, it originates from the work of a few. One of whom is Kurt Koffka, one of the founders of the Gestalt School of Psychology. The other is, Kurt Lewin who is the founder of modern day social psychology. The third is, Morton Deutsch, one of Lewin's students, who formulated social interdependence theory in which cooperative, competitive and individualistic efforts are defined. (Johnson& Johnson, 2002). There are some explicit definitions of cooperative learning: 1. The instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other‘s learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1993). 2. Principles and techniques for helping students work together more effectively (Jacobs, Power& Loh, 2002). 3. Group learning activity organized so that learning is dependent on the socially structured exchange of information between learners in groups and in which each learner is held accountable for his or her own learning and is motivated to increase the learning of others. (Olsen& Kagan, 1992). The point is that, cooperative learning requires more than just asking students to work together in groups. Instead, cooperation is discussing material with other learners, helping other learners, or sharing materials with other learners. (Putting students into groups to learn is not the same thing as structuring cooperation among them). ―Cooperative Learning‖ has not been specially developed for foreign language teaching, but can be used with advantage in all subjects. The reason why the method is relevant for language teachers is that, it is a good way of conducting interactive and communicative language teaching. In language teaching its goals are:  ―To provide opportunities for naturalistic second language acquisition through the use of interactive pair and group activities.  To provide teachers with a methodology to enable them to achieve this goal.  To enable focused attention to particular lexical items, language structures, and communicative functions through the use of interactive tasks.  To provide opportunities for learners to develop successful learning and communication strategies 360 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  To enhance learner motivation and reduce learner stress and to create a positive affective classroom climate. CLL is thus, an approach that crosses both mainstream education and second and foreign language teaching.‖ (Richards &Rogers, 2008). Using the Richards and Rogers‘ model for conceptualizing approaches and methods described in ―Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching‖, 2008, Cambridge University Press, ―Cooperative Language Learning‖ is analyzed at the level of approach and design. 2. Approach 2.1 Theory of Language Cooperative language learning is founded on some basic premises about the cooperative nature of the language and language learning.  Premise 1: Communication is considered to be the primary purpose of the language. (Weeks, 1979).  Premise 2: Human beings spend a large part of their lives engaging in conversation and for most of them conversation is among their most significant and engrossing activities.(Richards and Schmidt, 1983).  Premise 3: Conversation operates according to certain agreed-upon set of cooperative rules or ―maxims‖ (Grice, 1975).  Premise 4: One learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one‘s native language through casual, everyday conversational interaction. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008).  Premise 5: One learns how the maxims are realized in a second language through participation in cooperatively structured interactional activities. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008). Practices that attempt to conduct second language learning according to these premises are called ―Cooperative Language Learning‖. 2.2. Theory of Learning Cooperative language learning underlines three main concepts in language learning; developing communicative competence in language by conversing in socially or pedagogically structured situations, improving learners‘ critical thinking skills, and setting classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning. 3. Design 3.1. Objectives: CLL is an approach designed to promote cooperation rather than competition, to develop critical thinking skills, and to develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction activities, these can be regarded as the overall objectives of cooperative language learning. 3.2. The Syllabus: CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus. What defines CLL is the systematic and carefully planned use of group-based procedures in teaching as an alternative to teacher centred teaching. 3.3. Types of learning and teaching activities: Johnson describes three types of cooperative learning groups.( Johnson& Johnson 2002). 3.3.1 Formal Cooperative Learning Groups These groups may last from one class period to several weeks. Any course requirement or assignment may be reformulated to be cooperative by the teacher. To set up formal cooperative learning groups, a teacher should decide on the objectives for the lesson, size of groups, the method of assigning students to groups, the roles students will be assigned, the materials needed to conduct the lesson and the way the room will be arranged. Also, the teacher clearly defines the assignment, teaches the required concepts and strategies, specifies the positive interdependence and individual accountability, gives the criteria for success and explains the targeted social skills students are to engage in and, monitor students‘learning and gives them effective feedbacks. 361 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.2 Informal Cooperative Learning Groups Informal cooperative learning groups are temporary, ad hoc groups that continue for only one discussion or one class period. They may be used at any time, but are especially useful during a lecture or direct teaching. Breaking up lectures with short cooperative processing times will give less lecture time, but it promotes interactive learning in classes. Students actively involve in processing what they are learning. It also provides time for the teacher to move around and monitor the students‘ progresses. 3.3.3 Cooperative Base Groups Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous groups with stable membership. The underlying responsibility of members is to provide each other with the support, encouragement and assistance they need to succeeed academically. Base groups last for at least a semester or year and preferably for several years. The success of the CL is dependent on the five basic elements according to Olsen and Kagan(1992): Positive Interdependence Positive interdependence is the heart of cooperative learning. It is the perception that you are linked with others so that you cannot suceed unless they do. (vice versa) In order to strengthen positive interdependence, the following methods could be applied (Johnson &Johnson, 2002). (a) give rewards (if all members of your group score 85 percent correct or better on the test, each will receive extra bonus points) (b) divided resources (giving each group member a part of the total information required to complete an assignment) (c) complementary roles such as, reader, checker, encourager, elaborator may also be used. In addition, positive interdependence may be created through a joint identity (identity interdependence), asking group members to imagine they are in a specific set of circumstances, such as being shipwrecked on a desert island. A series of research studies was carried out to clarify the impact of positive interdependence on achievement and other outcomes, and it is inferred that positive interdepence is required to produce higher achievement.(Johnson &Johnson, 2002). Individual Accountability Individual accountability is the one of the most motivating factor in cooperative learning, because everyone likes to feel that they know something that others can use. Practical ways to structure individual accountability are : (Johnson &Johnson, 2002) (a) giving an individual test to each student (b) having each student explain what they have learned to a classmate (c) observing each group and collecting data on participation (d) randomly selecting one student's product to represent the entire group Social Skills Putting socially unskilled students in a group and asking them to cooperate will not be successful. Students should be taught the interpersonal and small group skills that is neccessary for cooperation, and also they should be motivated to use these skills in learning environment. Group Processing Effective cooperation is provided if the followings are taken into consideration: (a) determine what member actions were helpful and unhelpful to achieving goals and maintaining effective working relationships and (b) make decisions about what actions to continue or change. When difficulties in working with each other arise, students engage in group processing to identify, define and solve the problems they are having working together. ( Johnson & Johnson, 2002). 362 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Structuring and Structures It refers to ways of organizing student interactions and different ways student are to interact. In order to use cooperative learning effectively, teachers must recognize the nature of positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills and group processing and develop skills in structuring them. Numerous descriptions exist of activity types that can be used with CLL. Coelho (1992 b: 132) describes three major types of cooperative learning tasks and their learning focus, each of which has many variations. (Richards &Rodgers, 2008). Cooperative Learning Tasks                 ―Team practice from common input-skills development and mastery of facts: All students work on the same material. The task is to make sure that everyone in the group knows the answer to a question and can explain how the answer was obtained. This technique is good for review and for practice tests; The group takes the practice test together, but each student will eventually do an assignment or take a test individually. This technique is effective in situations where the composition of the groups is unstable. Students can form new groups every day.‖ Jigsaw: differentiated but predetermined imput- evaluation and synthesis of facts and opinions: Each group member receives a different piece of the information. Students regroup in topic groups (expert groups) composed of people with the same piece to master the material and prepare to teach it. Students synthesize the information through discussion. Each student produces an assignment of part of a group project. This method of organization may require team-building activities for both home groups and topic groups, long term group involvement, and rehearsal of presentation methods. This method is very useful in the multilevel class, allowing for both homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping in terms of English proficiency.‖ Coopertive projects: topics/resources selected by students- discovery learning: Topics may be different for each group. Students identify subtopics for each member. Steering commitee may coordinate the work of the class as a whole. Students research the information using resources such as library reference, interviews, visual media, and internet. Students synthesize their information for a group presentation, each group member plays a role in presentation. Each group presents to the whole class.‖ 3.5. Learner Roles  The primary role of the learner is as a member of a group who must work collaboratively on tasks with other group members.  Learners are also directors of their own learning. (They are taught to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning). (Richards & Rodgers, 2008). 3.6. Teacher Roles The teacher not only teach the language, they teach cooperation as well. (Freeman, 2003). She/he has to create a highly structured and well-organized learning environment in the classroom, setting goals, planning and structuring tasks, establishing the physical arrangement of the classroom, assigning students to groups and roles, selecting materials and time. The teacher serves as a faciliator. 3.7. The role of instructional materials Materials play an important part in creating opportunities for students to work cooperatively. The same materials can be used as are used in other types of lessons. Besides, materials may be specially designed for CLL learning (information-gap activities etc.). 363 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Cooperative learning, according to the research ( Johnson & Johnson, 1999; Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 2000; Slavin, 1995) promotes many benefits beyond enhanced L2 acquisition. These benefits include increased self-esteem, greater liking for school, enhanced inter-ethnic ties, and improved critical thinking. (Jacobs, 2004). Moreover, cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. However, using CL may be a challenging task for teachers and learners. It requires some struggle to succeed. Often, students may not be familiar with or skilled at working together. And for teachers, cooperative learning activities require more preparation. But apart from all these, the rewards and benefits of cooperative learning for teachers and students go a long way. References Adams, D., Hamn M. (1996). Critical Thinking and Collaboration Across the Curriculum, Charles C. Thomas Publisher. Dôrnyei, Z. (2008). Motivational Strategies in Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acqusition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jacobs, G. (2004). Cooperative Learning: Theory, Principles, and Techniques. www.georgejacobs.net Jacobs, G. M. Power, M. A., Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher's sourcebook for cooperative learning: Practical techniques, basic principles, and frequently asked questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. http://www.corwinpress.com/index1.asp?id=detail.asp?id=27713 Johnson, D. Johnson, R. (2002). ―Learning Together and Alone: Overview and Meta-analysis‖ Asia Pasific Journal Of Education. 22: 1, 95–105. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Littlewood, W. (2008). Communicative Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCafferty, S.G., Jacobs G. , A. C., Iddings (2006). Cooperative Learning and Second Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Olsen, R. E. S., Kagan. (1992). "About Cooperative Learning". Cooperative Language Learning. A Teacher´s Resource Book. Ed. C. Kessler. Englewood Cliffs. http://gretajournal.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/file/15rev1.pdf Richards, J. C., Rodgers, T. S. (2008). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Slavin, E. R.(1995). Cooperative Learning, A Simon & Schuster Company. Stenlev, J. (2008).―Cooperative Learning in Foreign Language Teaching‖ Sprogforum number 25: 33–42. TaĢdemir M. TaĢdemir A. Yıldırım K.(2009). ― Influence Of Portfolio Evaulation in Cooperative Learning on Student Success‖ Journal of Theory and Practice in Education. 5.1 53–56. 364 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 53 Title A name given to the resource ―Coopertive Learning in ELT: A Literature Review Author Author MADEN, Deniz Abstract A summary of the resource. Cooperative learning has received increased attention in recent years due to the movement through learner centred learning. This paper provides an overview of the use of cooperative learning (CL) and effects of it in second language instruction. After three brief definitions of CL, key areas are discussed in the paper. The first part of the article provides the theory of language and learning in CL while the second part introduces the objectives, syllabus, types of learning and teaching activities and the roles of teacher, learners and instructional materials in CL. The article concludes cooperative learning makes maximum use of cooperative activitites involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom. Moreover, it establishes a democratic form of teaching. It enhances both the individual and the community. Each student can share his/her ideas and learn to listen and respect each other. Furthermore, Cooperative learning influences collabarative spirit among students by minimizing competition leading to conflicts in today‘s world. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5f2a19477fb4f856fcf73305506c467b.pdf c970e1804b564b8c7f2c1f12ff8aa8ee PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Value of Language and Content Needs Analysis in English for Legal Purposes Courses: Example from Croatia Ivana Lukica (Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb) PhD Programme in Foreign Language Learning, University of Zagreb ivana.lukica@pravo.hr, Agnieszka Kałdonek (Eureka centar, school of foreign languages, Zagreb) agnieszka.kaldonek@gmail.com Abstract: English for legal purposes (ELP) is gaining more importance worldwide, which means using this type of language in different cultural and linguistic contexts, and in different legal systems. Therefore there is a need to develop ELP courses which are sensitive to the particular environment in which they will be implemented (Jordan, 1997) and the first step is to conduct a thorough needs analysis of language knowledge and skills as well as areas of law the students find most important. This study evaluated the needs of three groups of ELP students: first-year law students taking ELP as a mandatory course, graduate law students taking ELP as an elective course and practising lawyers attending ELP courses at a specialised language school. A total of 161 students participated. The study adopted a quantitative approach and aimed at determining differences between the groups in the fields of language skills and areas of law, as well as at establishing students‘ satisfaction with the current ELP course and their motivation and usage of ELP. The outcomes of the study confirmed our initial hypothesis: there is a strong correlation between gaining work experience and the level of importance attached to areas of law studied in ELP courses. Key words: needs analysis, ELP, motivation Introduction There have been growing demands for accountability in foreign language learning and teaching which leads to increasing importance of careful studies of learner needs as a prerequisite for effective course design (Long, 2005). Effective course design is especially highly required in language courses for specific purposes as they involve participants who use a foreign language in particular circumstances and environments (Jordan, 1997). English for legal purposes (ELP), as part of English for specific purposes (ESP), was first primarily focused on lexis and then it started involving specific language skills (Master, 2000). Since the needs of participants of such courses are primarily linguistic and the participants are motivated by material from their own field, the course offers a mixture of both content and linguistic instructions (Master, 2000). Although grounds for conducting needs analysis research have been laid down (Berwick, 1989; Brindley, 1989; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Long, 2005) and a number of concrete examples can be found (Kaur & Baksh, 2010; Kavaliauskiene & Uņpaliene, 2003) the main problem with doing this kind of research is that the same template cannot be used in every study. The reuse of the method from previous studies is relevant only if our sample group is the same or similar to the one used in the previous research (Long, 2005). Needs analysis research involves various methods. Data can be obtained through interviews, questionnaires, language audits, observations, and through methodological triangulation (Long, 2005). It is not only the instrument that ensures relevant outcomes of needs analysis research, but also the approach of the researcher. It is important to possess knowledge of the field being investigated and of the participants (Long, 2005). Although learners can be a good source of information, sometimes they might find it difficult to express their present or future needs. On the other hand, the knowledge of the field and the participants might also negatively influence the instrument if the researcher designs it focusing only on his or her knowledge as an expert in the field. The credibility can be ensured by using triangulation in the study (Mackey & Gass, 2005), e.g. an interview and a questionnaire. However if data are to be obtained from a large group of participants the questionnaire is the most appropriate instrument (Mackey & Gass, 2005). It also needs to be mentioned that a questionnaire is a common instrument used in needs analysis research (Dôrnyei, 2008, p. 148, Long, 2005). 648 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo According to Master (2000) needs analysis constitutes the most important aspect of ESP courses. He further argues that it plays a crucial role by emphasising student-centred approach. When choosing such an approach, the teacher should teach the content of the course from the perspective of the students, which in Croatian ELP context means making the Croatian system of law and related legal terminology the foundation of the course. The teacher should also have a good understanding of what motivates students to take an ELP course. According to Dôrnyei, components of foreign language learning motivation can be found at the level of language, the level of learner and the level of learning situation (1994). Therefore, motivation can be integrative or instrumental with regard to why a particular language is learned and course-specific, teacher-specific and group-specific motivational components should be researched with regard to the learning situation level. At the learner level, components such as perceived language competence, language use anxiety and self-confidence should be considered. The study Participants There were 161 participants in total: 85 first-year students of law (University of Zagreb, Faculty of Law) taking ELP as a mandatory course, 22 graduate students of law from the same Faculty taking ELP as an elective course, and 54 lawyers with various amount of work experience. The difference in the number of participants in the three groups is proportional to the aggregate number of students taking ELP courses at the Faculty of Law, and to the number of practicing lawyers taking ELP courses in private language schools. Instruments The data were collected through four questionnaires in the participants‘ mother tongue (Croatian). Two of them were designed to check the participants‘ needs regarding areas of law and language skills to be taught in ELP courses; another one was aimed at checking participants' satisfaction with their current ELP course; and the last one checked participants‘ motivation for studying ELP. There were 26 questions in the needs analysis questionnaire on areas of law, covering fields of law as classified in the Croatian legal system with the addition of some items which are in line with the content of textbooks on ELP available in the market. One more question has been added, which aimed at checking preference of teaching approach in ELP, namely whether ELP should be taught through the English legal system, the Croatian legal system, or through both. In the questionnaire on language skills there were 18 questions, which covered reading and listening comprehension, writing and speaking skills and grammar. In addition, a number of other skills were included because they are necessary in the legal profession and are included in ELP textbooks: translation, interpretation of legal texts, public speaking, giving presentations, interviewing a client, drafting contracts and business letters, defining or explaining terminology, and usage of Latin terms. These questionnaires contained three types of answers for each question: 1) it is unimportant, 2) it is important, 3) it is very important. The distinction between answer 2 and 3 had been made to check if any tendency exists to give increasing or decreasing importance to the items regarding experience in studying and practising law. Additionally, participants were asked to explain their answers. The satisfaction questionnaire was a Likert-type questionnaire, which contained 15 items checking satisfaction with the content and organisation of the course, the teaching materials, the teacher and his/her teaching methods, and participants‘ readiness for using English and ELP at their work. The scale ranged from 1 (I completely disagree) to 4 (I completely agree). The questionnaire on motivation for studying ELP contained 12 questions (multiple choice questions, yes or no questions and open-ended questions) and in most cases the participants had to explain their answers. The questions covered the various factors of motivation: the learner as an individual, his/her attitudes towards language learning, his/her willingness and ability to communicate in foreign languages, the willingness and ability to use ELP, the classroom environment, the teacher and the materials used in teaching ELP. The questionnaires were distributed either during the class or by email. 649 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Method The approach adopted in this study was both quantitative and qualitative. The former one was used to calculate frequencies, percentages and means in respective questionnaires. The latter one was used to analyse the participants‘ explanations to their answers. Objectives The main objective of the study was to ascertain learning needs of three groups of participants of ELP courses (first-year university students, graduate students, and practising lawyers) with respect to both content and language, as well as to detect differences between the groups. The study was also aimed at checking preferences in teaching approaches, students‘ satisfaction with the course, and their motivation for studying ELP. Hypotheses First-year students will have difficulties in expressing their needs either by underlying unimportance of some areas of law or by not providing clear explanations to their answers. This is due to lack of knowledge of a given subject or lack of awareness about the practicality of a given subject. On the other hand, they will be stressing the importance of subjects they have studied in the first year. Graduate students will express their needs more clearly because of their greater knowledge of various areas of law; however their needs will not be strongly correlated with practicality as they do not possess work experience. Practising lawyers will express their needs clearly and they will be strongly correlated with their work experience. There will be no significant differences between the groups regarding general language skills as they are not strongly correlated with gaining knowledge and experience, however, lawyers will stress the need for skills strongly related to their profession. All three groups will express satisfaction with their current course, but first-year students will be the least satisfied and stress the classroom environment and the materials used in the course as the reason. Practising lawyers will be the most satisfied group as their courses are tailored to their specific needs. All three groups will show instrumental motivation with regard to the language level. At the learner level, lawyers will have the highest perceived competence in English and ELP, the highest self-confidence in using them and the lowest anxiety of use as opposed to first-year students. Course specific motivational components will be most important at the learning situation level for all participants. Findings and discussion Fields of law Six groups of fields of law have been analysed. The first group encompassed commercial law, contract law, and company law. Practising lawyers see these areas of law as either important (17%) or very important (83%), and although the majority of first-year and graduate students find them either important (51%) or very important (30%), there is still 19% of students who find them unimportant and 10% of first year-students who said they do not know what these areas of law cover. The second group consisted of areas of law related to business activities (employment, IP, financial, real property, and competition law; negotiable instrument and insolvency). In general, all groups regard these areas of law as important (44%). The importance is growing with gaining knowledge and experience concerning IP law, but with regard to negotiable instruments, financial law and insolvency, the increase in importance is noticeable only with practising lawyers which can be attributed to their work experience. However, it should also be mentioned that a significant number of lawyers, did not provide any answer to IP law and financial law (18% and 11% respectively), and that first-year students did not comment why IP law was important. Competition law should be also examined more carefully, as there was some inequality between the groups. More than 20% of lawyers and first-year students provided no answer to these questions as opposed to only 13.5% of graduate students. The areas of law which was equally and significantly regarded by all participants as unimportant was employment law (38%). In the group consisting of EU law, international law, human rights law, maritime law and environmental law, EU law was regarded as very important by 80% and important by 17% of all participants. High importance is also given to maritime law – 49% of participants find it important and 20% find it very important. In both cases importance is correlated with work experience. Regarding international and human rights law, the students see these fields of law as more important than practising lawyers (61% and 32% respectively). Environmental law was seen as important by first-year 650 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo students and lawyers (60%) while 60% of graduate students find it unimportant. It is also worth mentioning that a significant number of lawyers did not provide any answer for international, human rights, and maritime law (14%). Regarding civil and criminal law, they were similarly important for all groups (83% and 69% respectively), whereas law of tort was regarded as most important by first-year students (73% in comparison with the rest of participants – 48.5%). In terms of theory of law and the organisation of the system, all students think it is important to study the legal profession and the system of courts, and unimportant to study constitutional law. And while 50% of first-year students find studying sources of law important and additional 18% very important, the majority of graduate students and lawyers find it unimportant (76%). When explaining their answers in terms of importance or unimportance, all groups mentioned the general importance of various fields, their practical application, their international relevance and how connected some fields are to others. The unimportance was also explained by the particular characteristics of a given field. Additionally, first-year students tended to generalise when commenting the answers or did not provide any comment whatsoever, whereas practising lawyers usually made a reference to their job. The study has proved our hypotheses. The first-year students tended to express their needs unclearly, mostly by providing a generalised explanation or not providing any comments whatsoever. It was due to lack of knowledge on a given subject and to lack of awareness about the practicality of a given subject. On the other hand, they stressed the importance of subjects they have already learned, the subjects of general importance, and the subjects they regard as crucial for their future international career (e.g. EU law, international law, theoretical subjects, civil law, criminal law, the law of tort, legal profession), as 21% of them want to work in diplomacy. Graduate students expressed their needs more clearly because of their greater knowledge on a given subject. In comparison with practising lawyers, who expressed their needs clearly and correlated them with their work experience, they tended to generalise in their comments; however to some extend they also showed a reference with their future job. Both practising lawyers and graduate students recognise the importance of business law and related areas of law, as 63% of the lawyers work for a law firm and 45% of the students want to work for a one. Some further interesting observations can be done. Practising lawyers tended to be more careful in deciding whether something is important or unimportant. If they lacked knowledge of a given field or they had not practised in it, they left the question unanswered (e.g. IP, financial law, international, human rights, maritime law, criminal law, constitutional law, legal profession). Finally, competition law was strongly related to gaining knowledge, where first-year students and lawyers do not possess knowledge about the subject, as the former have not studied it yet, and the latter did not study it since it was not available as an optional subject at the time they went to school. Language skills In this part of the study we wanted to establish which language skills and what language knowledge the participants find most important in their profession. The items in the questionnaire were grouped into the following six categories: grammar, legal terminology, reading, writing, listening and speaking skills. The biggest gap between first-year students and practising lawyers exists in the skills 92 % of lawyers stress as the most needed, namely business correspondence and drafting contracts, while around 50 % of firstyear students say these skills are important but they give rather general answers such as ―…because we need to communicate with foreigners―. Rather naively, a number of them believe it is not a job of a lawyer to write to the client or draft contracts: ―I will have an assistant/secretary do it for me―. A significant increase in attributing higher importance to these skills is noticeable with graduate students and their explanations are quite precise: ―We will need this at work―, proving much greater awareness of legal profession. Low importance given to writing skills with first-year students is also evident in the fact that around 30% feel there is no need for them to learn how to write essays or summaries in English, a percentage that is cut in half by the time they start to work. The item which all three groups find most important is conversation practice. But, while both graduate students and practising lawyers find listening comprehension exercises very important (40%) linking it strongly with conversation practice and interviewing a client (e.g. ―One cannot have a meaningful conversation if one does not understand what the other person is saying― and ―It is important for a lawyer to be a good listener―), only 20% of first-year students agree and an equal percentage believe this skill is unnecessary. Another point of agreement is a strong reliance on grammar. More than 50% of participants find studying grammar rules very important and less than 5% find grammar practice unimportant naming them ―basic language knowledge― or ―foundations for good oral and written communication―. In terms of legal terminology, which constitutes the biggest part of legal English courses, 53% of first-year students believe it is very important to be able to explain legal terms in your own words in English rather than memorize their definitions (35%). The percentage is reversed with graduate students possibly due to the requirement to pass most of their law exams by 651 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo memorizing laws by heart. Practising lawyers, however, agree with the first-year students and the percentage is here even more significant for both skills (83% and 58%). They find definitions of legal terms useful because they provide the correct meaning of the term and ―It is extremely important to be precise in law―. On the other hand, to be able to explain a term in your own words means ―…that I have fully understood its meaning―. All three groups also show the need for translating English terms into their mother tongue Croatian (between 30 and 40% find it very important). More than 50% of graduate students and practising lawyers feel the need for translating legal text from English into Croatian because ―If I am able to translate it into Croatian it shows I understand the text―. Legal terminology and translation is connected to reading comprehension and interpreting of legal texts. The need for the skill of interpreting legal texts grows with work experience (from 20% of first-year students finding it unimportant to only 13 % of graduate students and none of practising lawyers), as does the need for reading comprehension exercises (13% of first-year students, none of graduate students and none of practising lawyers). We should mention, however, that 20 % of practising lawyers gave no answer to this question possibly because reading comprehension is essential part of interpreting legal texts and this is precisely what they do at their work. The presented data have confirmed our hypothesis that practising lawyers stress the importance of language knowledge and skills which are necessary in their everyday work (drafting contracts, business correspondence, interviewing a client). Due to the lack of awareness of the legal profession and its necessities, first-year students do not stress this importance. The hypothesis that the awareness increases not just with work experience but also knowledge of the areas of law is supported by graduate students giving higher importance to these skills. This shows that ELP courses for graduate students can be the same as for practicing lawyers when it comes to language skills, but first-year courses certainly cannot be. Courses for first-year students should focus on developing the general language skills that they already possess to various extents: speaking and reading (which they find very important) and listening and writing (which they do not, but which serve as foundation for more specific skills they will need in their career). Speaking is a particularly problematic issue with regard to first-year students as they currently attend their ELP course in groups of 150 students which makes conversation practice entirely impossible. Fifth-year ELP course is much smaller (30 students) so there is at least a chance for interaction in the classroom, but only practicing lawyers fully benefit from their awareness of the importance of speaking skills as they attend ELP courses in groups of 6. In order to be able to implement such a course, the groups need to be smaller, students grouped according to the level of language knowledge they possess, the materials interesting, interactive and relating to the field of law (importance of legal terminology) and the teacher able to raise their awareness of the importance of all basic skills. In such groups, the much needed grammar could be introduced to the extent which is needed at various levels. In addition, we believe the results of the research on language knowledge and skills speak strongly in favour of using the mother tongue in the ELP classroom, especially in courses for practising lawyers. Having much greater knowledge of the Croatian legal system and related terminology makes it impossible for practising lawyers not to compare it to the English legal terminology which they are studying. If the teacher is able to provide the Croatian terms or at least compare the two systems the students will feel safer in their understanding and more motivated. Teaching approach Most of participants claim that ELP should be taught through both systems of law (Croatian and English); however the distribution between the groups was not equal (63% of practising lawyers, 55% of firstyear students and 91% of graduate students). There were also a significant number of lawyers and first-year students who claimed that ELP should be approached through the Croatian system (33.5%). The English system was mostly favoured by first-year students (10%), and the least favoured by lawyers (0%). Additionally, firstyear students mentioned the importance of the EU system and would like to study ELP through materials related to EU law (5%). Our hypotheses have been partially reflected in the preference of the teaching approach. The fact that a significant number of first-year students chose teaching through the Croatian system may be interpreted as their reliance on the scope of knowledge they possess and their conviction that their future job will be more practised in a national dimension. On the other hand, the lawyers‘ preference for the Croatian system is correlated with their work experience and practising law in the Croatian system. Graduate students lack the experience but possess knowledge and therefore are more open to the comparative approach in ELP. In other words, the preference for the comparative approach in ELP positively correlates with gaining knowledge but not necessarily with gaining experience. Additionally, the fact that the most frequent answer was teaching through both systems 652 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (70%) and a significant number of participants opted for the Croatian system (24%) proves the importance of the Croatian system in teaching ELP. Satisfaction In general all participants are content with the ELP course they are attending or attended (M = 3.62): practising lawyers were most pleased and first-year students the least. In particular, all three groups are pleased with the teacher and the teaching methods. With regard to the size of the group, practising lawyers show greatest satisfaction (M=4.0) which is comparable to graduate students (M=3.8). The mean for first-year students is significantly lower (M=3.0) showing moderate satisfaction and indicating that there is a number of students who are not pleased with the size of the group. Furthermore, all participants are ready to use English and ELP at their work, however, lawyers are most confident about their language skills (M = 3.84), and first-year students the least, especially about ELP (M = 3.34). In other words, the willingness to use English and ELP is positively correlated with gaining knowledge and experience. Judging further from the outcomes, first-year students object to the lack of conversation practice in the ELP classroom, to the number of lessons per week, and to the outdated teaching materials. The outcomes of this part of research are in line with our hypothesis. The ELP courses are organised at a satisfactory level, however the dissatisfaction of first-year students with the lack of interaction in the classroom is a call for change. In other words, the willingness to use English and ELP is positively correlated with gaining knowledge and experience, whereas low willingness to use ELP is positively correlated with usage of the outdated textbook and the lack of conversation practice. Motivation With regard to the language level, all participants stressed usefulness for present/future job as the most important reason for studying ELP (80%) followed by the importance for lawyers to learn ELP as opposed to general English (10%) and the importance for lawyers as a profession to know foreign languages (9%) confirming our hypothesis. The remaining one percent opted for integrative motivation in describing studying ELP as a personal challenge. All three groups of participants stated that they find course-specific motivational components the most relevant at the learning situation level (95%), namely interest, relevance and satisfaction thus proving our hypothesis. This shows that ELP practitioners should pay special attention to the attractiveness of the course, the materials, the teaching method and the type of tasks they give their students. Lawyers feel most confident to use ELP as their perceived competence is higher than that of graduates and first-year students. They also show the least anxiety proving our hypothesis that gaining knowledge and experience is strongly correlated with motivational components at the learner level. Conclusion Our study has proven that knowledge and experience are strong factors that affect awareness of learning needs. There has been a positive correlation between gaining knowledge and a rise in awareness about the needs, which has been depicted by graduate students and practising lawyers providing more precise explanations to their answers. This tendency may be observed in both the areas of law and language skills. A strong reference with work experience has been observed in increase of needs that encompass studying specific areas of ELP – business related areas of law, such as company law and commercial law, as well as special language skills, such as drafting contract and business correspondence. With regard to the areas of law and language skills of general importance (e.g. civil law; reading and listening skills), their importance in the context of work have been also recognised by graduate students and lawyers. Having the above in mind, it may be stated that the difference between the groups is more significant when there is a significant range in knowledge and experience (first-year students and lawyers). When this range is narrowed there is no significant difference between groups (graduate students and lawyers). This statement should be taken into consideration when designing an ELP course and grouping candidates for this type of courses. Since first-year university students possess limited scope of knowledge on areas of law in their native language, they do not have a strong need for learning about them in English. Additionally, as they stress the importance of studying about the Croatian legal system in English, the content of such a course should be related 653 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to knowledge they already possess about it. With regard to language skills, first-year students differ from graduate students and practising lawyers in that they attribute more importance to general language skills in a general context. Therefore an ELP course for them should be based on developing these skills. Development of general language skills in the case of first-year students is crucial as they are grounds for job-related language skills important for a lawyer. Since practising lawyers and graduate students see more job-related context in language skills and have greater knowledge on law, an ELP course designed for them should be strongly workrelated and may include more demanding content. 654 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Berwick, R. (1989). Needs assessment in language programming: From theory to practice. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The second language curriculum, 48–62. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brindley, G. (1989). The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programme design. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The second language curriculum, 63–77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dôrnyei, Z. (2008). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing. New York: Routledge. Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centred Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R.R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kaur, S. & Baksh, A. (2010). Language needs analysis of art and design students: considerations for ESP course design. ESP World, 2 (28). Retrieved on January 30, 2011 from http://www.espworld.info/Articles_28/ESP%20World%20_Alla%20&%20 Sarjit_%20March%202010.pdf Kavaliauskiene, G. & Uņpaliene, D. (2003). Ongoing needs analysis as a factor to successful language learning. Journal of Language and Learning, 1 (1). Retreived on January 30, 2011 from http://www.jllonline.co.uk/journal/jllearn/1_1/kavauzpa_learn1_1 .html Kikuchi, K. (2005). Student and teacher perceptions of learning needs: A cross analysis. Shiken, 9 (2), 8-20. Retrieved on 20 December 2008 from http://www.jalt.org/test/kik_1.htm. Kumazawa, T. (2006). Construct validation of a general English language needs analysis instrument. JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter, 10 (2), 2-11. Long, M. H. (2005). Second Language Needs Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mackey, A. & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second Language Research: Methodology and Design. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Master, P. (2005). Responses to ESP. US State Department, 2000. 655 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 97 Title A name given to the resource The Value of Language and Content Needs Analysis in English for Legal Purposes Courses: Example from Croatia Author Author Lukica, Ivana Kałdonek, Agnieszka Abstract A summary of the resource. English for legal purposes (ELP) is gaining more importance worldwide, which means using this type of language in different cultural and linguistic contexts, and in different legal systems. Therefore there is a need to develop ELP courses which are sensitive to the particular environment in which they will be implemented (Jordan, 1997) and the first step is to conduct a thorough needs analysis of language knowledge and skills as well as areas of law the students find most important. This study evaluated the needs of three groups of ELP students: first-year law students taking ELP as a mandatory course, graduate law students taking ELP as an elective course and practising lawyers attending ELP courses at a specialised language school. A total of 161 students participated. The study adopted a quantitative approach and aimed at determining differences between the groups in the fields of language skills and areas of law, as well as at establishing students‘ satisfaction with the current ELP course and their motivation and usage of ELP. The outcomes of the study confirmed our initial hypothesis: there is a strong correlation between gaining work experience and the level of importance attached to areas of law studied in ELP courses. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e2f982f5faa0ff39bc2ec4834708b84d.pdf c964cc39c5b16a867f85a64480e95215 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Building Awareness of Discourse Structure Through Teaching Reading Strategies in English for Legal Purposes Class Ivana Lukica Department for Foreign Languages Faculty of Law, University of Zagreb ivana.lukica@pravo.hr Abstract: Research has been carried out for several decades on what makes some students more successful in foreign language reading than others. It was established that good readers possess greater awareness of discourse structure, meaning they are able to recognize the signalling mechanisms which give clues to the ways the text is organized (Grabe, 2009). Discourse structure awareness is seen as a type of metalinguistic awareness which also includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. Our research was based on the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students' awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. The data was collected through the SORS (Survey of Reading Strategies) questionnaire (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002), a reading comprehension test developed for this research and a semistructured interview to check how students perceive the reading process and discourse structure before and after strategies instruction. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and the results fully confirmed our hypothesis: the subjects (N=20) achieved better results on the reading comprehension test and reported easier identification and interpretation of discourse markers. Key words: reading strategies, English for Legal Purposes Introduction In times of increasing globalization, free flow of goods and work force and especially Croatia‘s accession to the EU, Croatian lawyers find themselves in great need of foreign languages, English in particular. Reading comprehension and interpreting legal texts are among most needed skills for practising lawyers in Croatia (Lukica & Kaldonek, in print) second only to speaking skills. As the role of the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is to cater to students‘ specific, work-related needs in the context of the particular environment (Jordan, 1997) it follows that English for Legal Purpose (ELP) in Croatia should focus on facilitating better and easier understanding of various legal texts. We believe this can be done through teaching reading strategies. Many definitions of reading strategies have been brought forth since the beginning of research on reading strategies thirty years ago as well as several taxonomies (Anderson, 1991; Cohen, 1990; Paris et al., 1991). For the purpose of this study, we cite Singhal‘s definition as it points clearly to the purpose of reading strategies ―Reading strategies are processes used by the learner to enhance reading comprehension and overcome comprehension failures.‖ (2001, p. 2). As for taxonomies, we will follow Mokhtari and Sheorey‘s (2002) classification of reading strategies into global, problem solving and support strategies as it has been developed for second/foreign language students. Regardless of the lack of a single definition or categorisation of reading strategies, research shows the usefulness and benefits of explicit teaching of reading strategies in foreign language classrooms. Kern‘s research (1989) was based on Directed Reading and Thinking Activities approach and yielded positive results on reading comprehension scores of French L2 university students. Similar results were achieved in Carrel, Pharis, and Liberto‘s (1989) study of English L2 university students adopting Experience-Text-Relationship method and semantic mapping method. Song‘s study (1998) involving English L2 university students used the Reciprocal Teaching method which also led to increase in reading comprehension. In a recent study involving ESP university students, Moghadam (2008) showed positive results of explicit teaching of reading strategies using Janzen and Stoller‘s approach (1998). Research has also shown that improvements in reading comprehension can result from discourse awareness and discourse-structure instruction (Grabe, 2009). Discourse-structure awareness is seen as ―a type of metalinguistic awareness at the text level‖ (Nagy in Grabe, 2009, p. 243) which includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. With regard to discourse-structure awareness instruction Grabe (2009) names three lines of instruction: teaching direct signalling of discourse structures, teaching the use of graphic organizers and teaching reading strategies, all of which improve discourse awareness and reading comprehension. 643 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The aim of this study was to confirm the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in ELP class will enhance students‘ awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. Method of the study This study was designed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative method was used to analyse the answers to the questionnaire and the comprehension test, and the qualitative method was represented in the use of a semi-structured interview. As each method has its advantages and disadvantages, using more than one method ensures greater credibility and dependability of results (Mackey & Gass, 2005). Participants 20 practising lawyers participated in the study. They were attending the same ELP course at the Centre for Languages and Law at the Faculty of Law in Zagreb, Croatia. The placement test which they were required to complete prior to beginning the ELP course showed they posses a lower-intermediate level of general English knowledge. All participants had been studying English for a minimum of 8 years. Four participants were male and the rest female, aged 22 to 45, but neither gender nor age were considered a variable in this study Instruments Two instruments were used in this study: a reading comprehension test designed for the purpose of the study and Survey of Reading Strategies questionnaire (SORS, Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). The reading comprehension test consisted of texts taken from an ELP course book suitable for lower-intermediate level followed by 30 questions each carrying one point. Five types of questions were used (yes/no questions, true or false questions, alternative questions, wh-questions and multiple choice questions) to cover six types of comprehension according to the taxonomy of Day and Park (2005). The SORS questionnaire is used to measure the perceived use of three categories of reading strategies: global strategies (e.g. using typographical features of a text to identify key information), problem solving strategies (e.g. adjusting reading speed according to the text one reads) and support strategies (e.g. going back and forth in the text to find relationships among ideas). It consists of 30 items each using a 5-point Likert scale (1-I never do this; 5-I always do this). This questionnaire was chosen because it was developed especially for adolescent and adult students of foreign languages (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). It was translated from the English original to the participant‘s mother tongue Croatian and two separate back-translations were done to ensure the accuracy of the Croatian translation. Both instruments were administered before and after the reading strategies instruction to determine the possible effect such instruction has on test results and the level of perceived strategy use. The instruments were administered during a regular ELP lesson which lasts 90 minutes. 60 minutes were allowed for the test and 15 minutes for the SORS. The semi-structured interview A semi-structured interview was chosen because it allows a greater degree of freedom in both administration and interpretation. The researcher is not limited by a strict set of predetermined questions, but can adapt their questions to the participants‘ answers. A semi-structured interview also gives an in-depth view of students‘ attitudes and ideas about reading in a foreign language and their interpretation of the problems they face while reading legal texts in English. Interviews were conducted individually at the time best suited to the participants and lasted between thirty and forty minutes depending on how elaborate students‘ answers were. Interviews were conducted both prior and after reading strategies instruction. Reading strategies instruction For the purpose of this study we adopted the Styles- and Strategies-Based Instruction (SSBI) method of teaching which is defined as ―a form of learner-focused language teaching that explicitly combines styles and strategy training activities with everyday classroom language instruction (Cohen, 2009). Teachers are instructed to follow five components of this method in preparing lessons: strategy preparation, strategy awareness-raising, strategy instruction, strategy practice and personalization of strategies (Cohen & Weaver, 2006). SSBI allows the teacher to either start with the course material, a set of strategies to be taught or insert strategies spontaneously into the lessons. The role of the teacher is that of a guide who helps students become more aware of the language learning process, to introduce various strategies, show students how to use them and encourage students to use them in a manner which is best suited for their learning needs which we believe leads to higher motivation as one of the key components for effective language learning (Dôrnyei, 2001, 2005). The strategies that were chosen for instruction in this study were the 30 strategies listed in Mokhtari and Sheorey. In addition, we decided to teach direct signalling of discourse structure as well as graphic organizers as they have been proven to increase both awareness of discourse structure and reading comprehension (Carrell, 1985; Carrell, Pharis, & Liberto, 1989; Jiang & Grabe, 2007). The instruction was part of a regular one-year course in legal English which consisted of 35 ninety minutes sessions, one session per week. 644 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Data Analysis Process Reading comprehension tests were corrected and points calculated for each student. The results of the pre-instruction tests and post-instruction tests have been compared and individual gains determined. The SORS was analysed according to the developer‘s instructions: the total mean was calculated for each student as well as means for three categories of strategies. The means were interpreted according to the scale offered by Oxford and Burry-Stock: high use (mean 3.5 or higher), moderate use (mean between 2.5 and 3.4) and low use (mean of 2.4 or lower) (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002). Two sets of results (pre-instruction and post-instruction) were compared to determine the increase in perceived use of reading strategies. The interviews were tape-recorded and later transcribed. The data obtained in the interviews were distributed into the following categories of ELP reading comprehension problems: legal terminology (technical terms, archaic term), text structure (long sentences, complex structure) and poor general English knowledge (grammar and vocabulary) in order to get a better idea of how students‘ perceive reading in a foreign language as well as reading legal texts in English. Findings and discussion Pre-instruction results The average number of reading comprehension test points was 20 out of 30 (66%). However, there were students who gave correct answers to only 16 questions and those who correctly answered as many as 25 questions. We believe this large gap is due to some students using more reading strategies and being more aware of discourse structure. This belief was corroborated by results of the interview. Namely, students who scored lower or the reading comprehension test spoke of series of problems they encountered while reading the text in all three predetermined categories (legal terminology, text structure, poor general English knowledge). Long, complex sentences were the biggest problem followed by unknown words. When asked how they attempted to solve these problems, these students said they tried to ―deduce the meaning of unknown words from the context, but there were simply too many unknown words‖ which led to frustration and giving up. They also attempted to divide the long sentences into smaller units, but that had not helped as they ―could not recognize the difference between subject and object of the sentence‖ or ―follow the train of thought of the author‖. They also mentioned they are much better at reading text which are not law-related and complained about the complexity of legal English. Students who scored better on the reading comprehension test had similar complaints about the overall complexity of legal texts, but they were not as easily discouraged from finding the correct answer as they felt more confident in their knowledge of English. They were willing to ―read problematic sections as many times as necessary‖ and they ―looked for the message, not what each word means‖. These points to higher strategies and discourse awareness as well as to difference in understanding the process of reading and utilizing not just decoding but constructing meaning as well. In terms of the SORS, the mean for the whole group was 3.7 showing very high use of reading strategies in all three categories which was not in line with poor test results. Namely, we expected the test results to be explained by low use of strategies. However, explanation was provided by the students‘ answers to the interview questions. One of the students said: ―Honestly, when I read texts for work, I don‘t remember half of these strategies. There are just few which I always use, like using a dictionary. And reading slower. I try to guess also even though you shouldn‘t in law.‖ Several students admitted they wanted to appear better then they actually were and several wanted to impress their teacher (who was also conducting the study). This points to two problems in methodology, the first being unreliability of questionnaires as students write what they think they do and not what they actually do while reading, and the second the teacher conducting the research. On the other hand, the actual situation of reading strategy use was detected in the interviews and students were more comfortable talking to their teacher than an unknown person. Post-instruction results The results of the post-instruction reading comprehension test showed improvement of the group as well as individual students, thus improving our hypothesis. The average number of correct answers was 24 out of 30 (80%) and the individual results raged from 19 to 27 points. The gap was still obvious but it is important to notice that each student scored higher on this test than on the pre-instruction test, three points in average. Equally important, all of the students reported higher self-confidence in reading legal texts. The majority of students attributed this to the method of instruction and only two students said they were more confident because they had been attending the course regularly and did not indicate the connection to the teaching method. When asked why they thought reading-strategies instruction helped them increase their understanding of legal texts, the students either mentioned ―knowing more strategies‖ or the explicit nature of the method of instruction. For example, a few students said they now have ―more tools to help them read in English‖, while others called them ―new techniques for solving problems‖. They also spoke very positively about SSBI because it gives them ―opportunity to practise and experiment with different strategies trying to figure out which helps best in which situation.‖ Because they are explicitly told what discourse structure and discourse markers are, they ―know what to look for when reading‖. One student gave a particularly long, heartfelt explanation which 645 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo we are citing in full as it shows the extent of benefits SSBI instruction has on a student‘s understanding of the reading process and on reading motivation: ―You (the teacher) didn‘t assume we know all this stuff about languages like what is cohesion and coherence, because we don‘t. It doesn‘t come natural to lawyers. We are not language experts. At first I thought it was a bit…what the word is when you think somebody is stupid…I thought that you thought we were all stupid because you were explaining everything step by step. I didn‘t really believe talking about my problems would help. Or this new method. I just wanted somebody to help me read better because I have to do that every day and I feel bad about it every day. But I thought there is some kind of magic that the teacher will do and I will read better, you know. Or that some people are just better in English and they can think in English and understand it. I was a little lazy. I didn‘t want to work so much. Reading should be easier. It‘s not easy still, but it‘s better. And I think I will be even better if I remember the strategies.‖ The results of the SORS with regard to overall use of strategies show a decrease of strategy use (M=3.0). However, we should keep in mind the fact that the results of the pre-instruction SORS were influenced by the students‘ wish to represent themselves in better light. In the post-instruction interview, students‘ said they were precise in their SORS answers. The post-instruction result shows moderate use of reading strategies, but students reported using more global strategies than before which is in line with the intended shift in the approach to reading. When asked to identify the most useful strategies mentioned in the SORS, students‘ answers varied, but they all stressed the usefulness of teaching direct signalling and graphic organizers as being particularly helpful with legal English. One student said: ―I know now that I have to pay attention to how words are connected in a sentence and how sentences are connected in a text. Not just look at them in isolation.‖ and another few that ―graphic organizers are very useful because they help in organizing information and representing it more clearly because they are visual‖. Conclusion and recommendations The results of the study confirmed our hypothesis that explicit teaching or reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students‘ awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. Each student achieved a better result on the post-instruction test in comparison with the preinstruction test and eighteen out of twenty students attributed this increase in reading comprehension to the method of instruction. All students reported higher awareness of discourse structure in the post-instruction interview as a result of explicit teaching of reading strategies. A significant increase in reading motivation was also observed in the post-instruction interview as a result of explicit teaching of reading strategies instruction. A problem was detected in administering the pre-instruction questionnaire as some students did not provide entirely truthful answers. Imprecise answers could have been provided unintentionally as well as students were reporting on what they believe they do while reading and were not observed during reading. As such problems could be anticipated, a semi-structured interview was chosen to provide a deeper understanding of students‘ awareness of reading, reading strategies and discourse structure. A suggestion for further research is to instruct the participants in verbal protocols in order to check reading strategies use during the reading process. The researcher also being a teacher was a problem in that it influenced the students‘ answers to the preinstruction questionnaire. However, it also proved an advantage because students reported it was easier for them to talk to the teacher about their reading problems than to somebody they do not know. Motivation for reading proved to be a very important factor in our study. Although English for Legal Purposes students are primarily motivated to attend classes because they need ELP at work, they also showed various degrees of reading anxiety or reading confidence which has to be kept in mind for further research. These can be conducted to ascertain if reading motivation increases using other teaching methods in ELP classes and is it affected by other factors such as the teacher or the learning environment. As SSBI proved very successful in an ELP class consisting of practising lawyers, another line of research could be investigating its usefulness for ELP classes for university students of law in Croatia, which consist of a significantly larger number of students, as well as its usefulness in other areas of ESP. 646 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, N. (1991). Individual differences in strategy use in a second language reading and testing. The Modern Language Journal, 75 (4), 460-472. Retrieved on February 10, 2009 from www.jstor.org/stable/329425 Carrell, P. L. (1985). Facilitating ESL reading by teaching text structure. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 727-752. 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Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Grabe, W. (2009). Reading in a second language: Moving from theory to practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Janzen, J., & Stoller, F. L. (1998). Integrating strategic reading in L2 instruction. Reading in a foreign language, 12 (1), 251-269. Retrieved on December 12, 2009 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Jiang, X, & Grabe, W. (2007). Graphic organizers in reading instruction: Research finding and issues. Reading in a foreign language, 19 (1), 34-55. Retrieved on December 12, 2009 from http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kern, R. G. (1989). Second language reading strategy instruction: Its effects on comprehension and word inference Ability. The Modern Language Journal, 73 (2), 135-149. Retrieved on July 20, 2009 from www.jstor.org/stable/326569 Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lukica, I. & Kałdonek, A. The value of language and content needs analysis in English for Legal Purposes class: Example from Croatia. A paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Sarajevo, 2011. Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Moghadam, M. K. (2008). The effect of strategies-based instruction on student‘s reading comprehension of ESP Texts. English for Specific Purposes World, 17 (7). Retrieved on April 16, 2009 from www.esp-world.info Mokhtari, K. & Sheorey, R. (2002). Measuring ESL students‘ awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Developmental Education, 25 (3), 2-10. Retrieved on June 12, 2009 from http://webpages.maine207.org Paris, S. G., Wasik, B. A., & Turner, J. C. (1991). The development of strategic reading. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2; 609-640). New York:Longman. Singhal, M. (2001). Reading proficiency, reading strategies, metacognitive awareness and L2 readers. The Reading Matrix, 1 (1), 1-23. Retrieved on September 16, 2009 from www.readingmatrix.com/archives.html Song, M. (1998). Teaching reading strategies in an ongoing EFL university reading classroom. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 8, 41-54. Retrieved on February 2, 2009 from www.cuhk.edu.hk 647 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 96 Title A name given to the resource Building Awareness of Discourse Structure Through Teaching Reading Strategies in English for Legal Purposes Class Author Author Lukica, Ivana Abstract A summary of the resource. Research has been carried out for several decades on what makes some students more successful in foreign language reading than others. It was established that good readers possess greater awareness of discourse structure, meaning they are able to recognize the signalling mechanisms which give clues to the ways the text is organized (Grabe, 2009). Discourse structure awareness is seen as a type of metalinguistic awareness which also includes knowledge of reading strategies and their appropriate use in order to resolve reading problems and properly interpret text information. Our research was based on the following hypothesis: explicit teaching of reading strategies in English for Legal Purposes class will enhance students' awareness of discourse structure as well as reading comprehension. The data was collected through the SORS (Survey of Reading Strategies) questionnaire (Mokhtari & Sheory, 2002), a reading comprehension test developed for this research and a semistructured interview to check how students perceive the reading process and discourse structure before and after strategies instruction. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistical procedures and the results fully confirmed our hypothesis: the subjects (N=20) achieved better results on the reading comprehension test and reported easier identification and interpretation of discourse markers. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caca84b6e7854acb439e49d29d57310a.pdf 6d1ed6106109d4a3f018f19d69343680 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Daniel Luca Lucian Blaga University Sibiu (Hermanstadt), Romania danycafr1970@gmail.com Abstract: The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Key words: periphery, suburbia, centre, novel, interwar literature. Introduction According to Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners (2001, 1144) periphery is: ―1. If something is on the periphery of an area, place, or thing, it is on the edge of it (…). 2. The periphery of a subject or area of interest is the part of it that is not considered to be as important or basic as the main part (…)‖. Still, the significances of the term ―periphery‖ go far beyond the sphere of these definitions and have to be correlated to the one of ―centre‖, since they form together a dialectical couple (Hess, 2001, 93). The centre and the periphery represent research topics that one may find more and more often in various fields like biology linguistics, philosophy, sociology, politics or economics. As far as literature is concerned, Virgil Nemoianu proposes the notions of ―main‖ and ―secondary‖ which may be equivalated to those of ―centre‖ and ―periphery‖. According to him, literature appears as peripherical with respect to other activities (that constitute the centre) – ―literature is itself a secondary issue in contrast to the central human preoccupations and to the central gearings of the history‖ (1997, 6) – while, on the other side, literature is a mirror ―reflecting in its substance, the connections between principal and secondary – between the structure and the texture, as some old critics would have put it – or, at least, interprets for the reader, the dialectical drama of the relationship between them. It means hegemony and subjugation, revolt and harmony, anarchy and order‖ (1997, 7). And, there are, indeed, hegemonies in the very core of literature. One may find, this way, first shelf books and second shelf ones. The differentiation is grounded on an aesthetical criterion, which is, however, in a continuous change. Another point of view comes from Constantin Cublesan who notices the turn from rural to urban areas in the Romanian novel written shortly after the First World War. ―There will be a special place within the description and analysis of the tentacular city occupied by a set of novels oriented to surveying the human universe at the bottom of the society, of those from the rudimentary peripheries‖ (2009, 181). A doctoral thesis has been already defended on this topic, at the West University in Timisoara (2009), by Alina Georgeta Toman, entitled The Centre – Periphery Relation in the Romanian Literature. The Case of G.M. Zamfirescu. It is mainly concerned with the way in which the work of G. M. Zamfirescu – he, himself, a marginal - had been perceived in the media of his time. Georgiana Sârbu has published a comparative book The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. She discusses 301 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there three different novels from different times: The Field with Love (1933) by G. M. Zamfirescu, The Hollow (1957) by Eugen Barbu and The Lover of the Wheat Boiling Woman38 (1996) by Radu Aldulescu. Usually, the slum area is ―thrown‖ away by the city: garbage hallows the place where the garbage is stored or where the dead animals are thrown away. The pub, the brothel, the church, the street are emblematical toposes of the periphery, being rich of colour and significances that we will uncover in this paper. Although we will analyse them separately, they form a unitary entity which plays an important role in designing a complete picture of marginality. It follows that the city‘s periphery has constituted a permanent preoccupation of Romanian writers, especially in the interwar period, when the topic was checked with a realistic approach, since it has its own, particular life at the edge between rural and urban. Despite of all these, it remained a second or third shelf literature and has seldom interested the critics. It was merely the vigour and the novelty of this space, as we have discovered it in the time‘s novels, the reason which determined us to conduct the present research. We will study here the novels: Love God – 1921 (1991) and The Decomposed Man – 1925, by Felix Aderca; The Diplomat, Leather Dresser (1928) and The Actress The House with Girls (1930), by Carol Ardeleanu; Don Juan Hunched (1933), The Childhood of a Worthless (1936), The Trust (1937), by Ion Calugaru; Codin – 1925 (1970) and Nerantzula – 1927 (1974), by Panait Istrati; The Field with Love – 1933 (1986), by G. M. Zamfirescu and The Nights of Miss Mili (1935), by Isac Peltz. Method of Study In the first paragraph, entitled Space of Periphery we will make a general presentation of the marginal spaces, using synthesis as it emerges from the notions of ―open space‖ and ―closed space‖ (Kovacs, 1987, p. 245). After this, we will analyse part by part, the main elements of such spaces, like the pub, the brothel, the church and the street. With respect to the pub, we will point to its parable aspect (Piskonov, 1979, 299) in order to compare and synthesise facts and ideas from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu and Felix Aderca. The same methods will be used while speaking about the brothel in order to depict the way this institution has been reflected in the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Felix Aderca, Panait Istrati, G. M Zamfirescu, Ion Calugaru. The next chapter will reflect the church issue as one can extract from the novels of Carol Ardeleanu, Ion Calugaru and Panait Istrati, while the paper ends displaying the significances of the street as they come out from the novels of Isac Peltz, Panait Istrati, Carol Ardeleanu and Ion Calugaru. The slum, as it is drafted in these novels, is a relatively new space, a transitional one, but which generates other areas like: the pubs, the brothel, the church, the street. The Space of Periphery In the present day theory of literature, the notions of open space and closed space have been defined. Thus, while the open space suggests freedom, unchaining, returning to the imaginary paradise of nature, the closed space would represent on one hand claustration, death, extinction, and on the other, protection, safety. There are plenty of cases in this respect, starting from the sacred space of the traditional house to the comfortable, intimate and protective of the modern person‘s car. While speaking about the closed space from a slum, there is no way to think about protection, safety or the same. On the contrary, getting together several members of a family in a single, sordid room is an endless opportunity for conflicts. It follows that we may say – once with the critics – that in Romanian slum ―we often find closed, inhospitable, hostile spaces, generating the feeling of sequestration or the act itself, if not the non-being‖ (Kovacs, 1987, 245). Moreover, we might tend to think that nothing is sure as related to the Romanian slum, since the spaces that usually are destined to providing safety, calm and happiness turn, all of a sudden into threatening, adversary, aggressive ones. To conclude, we should say that the entire topic of the space of Romanian slum is meant to draft an area of desperation, of refusal of life The pub This is the place where the men (in the majority of cases, but sometimes, women, as well) find their salvation – be it even a temporary one – from the home hell or from the Calvary of the animalic work in the 38 It refferes to a woman who usually boils wheat with honey and nuts for the funerals; 302 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo factory, enterprise, station, port. It is obvious that such a person becomes the slave of alcohol and finally, dependent on it. The pub means socialization. Is a place of getting information (Ardeleanu, 1930), here is where it comes out Consuls idea to kill Andrei (Ardeleanu, 1928), here friendships are tied and untied, and here destinies get united (the match-making of Nuta in novel The Lady in Neptun Street, by Felix Aderca). The pub is a parable inside the same type of prose, meaning a protective space of these disinherited people. It functions as a shelter of the unhappy guys in the slum but also as an element of local flavor, since there can‘t be imagined a periphery without a pub. Therefore, one may say, without the risk of exaggeration, that the true house of the unhappy inhabitants of the slum is the pub. They are genuine alienated men. This place of perish, the pub, becomes some sort of club, where the individual feels himself as a whole and may talk to his equals. ―This is what they are looking for, while crossing the threshold of the pub, which is, however, places in the middle of the road: the atmosphere‖ (Sarbu, 2009, 97). The pub is, in the novel of Romanian periphery, a place where the plenitude of life is more than anywhere else, manifested. Much more, according to some exegetes, it is the rationality of the novel. There is an emergent world, a humanity asking its right to existence and history, beyond the sometimes morbid aspect, over which the wing of death is often floating: ―the self reliance of novel grew up, especially after he XVIIIth and XIXth century, when it has dealt with the moral force of individuals and their relation to the surrounding world.‖ (Toma, 2003, 17) There is here, in this protector space of the pub where the clients spend a time of ―getting out of the world‖, of the world‘s time, namely of the one during which they are sentenced to work. We might call it a ―sacred time. This time is a profound spatial and concrete one.‖ (Bahtin, 1982, 436) The pub has also a narrative function that should not be ignored, besides its social, psychological, existential one, representing a bank of salvation, a realm of illusions, of hopes and dreams. It follows that people entering the sordid pubs of the slums hope to forget, to enter a different world, a different life. But life itself does not change. It can‘t become another one. The brothel The brothel should not be taken in a literary, textual sense. We do not always speak about a proper said institution. Thus, the hotel can replace (and it does very well) the brothel, according to all the proper rules, especially to those of paying the tax. ―Girls were raising their shirts to make him feel ashamed. Hey, merchant, have a look, since you got no money to pay…‖ (Calugaru, 1937, 160). Beyond the status of feminity, beyond the mix of guilt, shame, pleasure and horror that the sexual act supposes – at least at the beginning – being or not paid, eventually, the ―inhabitants‖ of the pleasure houses cross easily over their not honourable status, telling themselves (as well as all the people in the slum) that they have been pushed to it, by need. ―At the beginning, it was something that no women can say: a mix of pleasure and impulse; later on, frenzy of senses, and after, a vice or a habit, while now, at the end of the day, of all the instinctual joys, the need‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 27). Brothels are differentiated according to their quality, into select and common ones. This typology appears both in The House of Girls by Carol Ardeleanu (where Margarita‘s house belongs to the first group) and in Nerantula by Panait Istrati: ―we also knew two or three such houses in the ditch, where officers from the ships and married, well educated men used to go‖ (1974, 135). The connection to mud is not hazardous. There is primary instinct at work, the satisfaction of needs: ―The house here has its own smell: that of mud turned upside down. People used to enter though a dark courtyard full of dirty water, since the used water was thrown out from the chain of rooms, directly in the yard, thought the windows‖ (Aderca, 1925, 217). 303 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo But still, the brothel hosts its own feelings. It balances between uniting (in The God of Love, by Felix Aderca, Aurel meets Ema again and marries her) and decomposition (in Decomposed Man, by Felix Aderca, where the tired less search of the brothels in all the cities in the country ends in human dissolution, in sinking into the mud). While in Ion Calugaru‘s book, the brothel means the gain of sexual maturity, in Felix Aderca‘s work there is a different significance: looking for childhood (Ema), for heard purity. All these remain a simple illusion and leads to the search of other love affairs. This meaning is very similar to the one in Nerantula, by Panait Istrati, where the brothel reappears as a place of meeting again, even if painful. The paradox consists of preserving the soul‘s innocence despite of body‘s dishonour. Nerantula‘s room unveiled ―in its order and disorder, so much naïve innocence, so much childhood‖ (Istrati, 1974, 141). For Carol Ardeleanu (1930), the brothel is a means of enrichment, an affair; while for G. M. Zamfirescu (1986) it gains the connotation of revenge (Gore punishes Sultana through a sodomization act merely inside the house for she dared to disclose his truth). This space influences decisively the life in the slum as well as the shape of persons‘ characters. Therefore, the merit of these novels is that of describing realistically, with no prejudices, an authentic space. The Church Most of those populating the Romanian slums feel themselves left by the entire world, especially by their parents – and for many of them, this is the truth. Therefore, in the deep of their souls, they consider the church as a real mother, although expressively, they are against it. It may be ―unrealistic‖ that the girls from various brothels of the slum are faithful in the full sense of this word. Despite of their ―profession‖, they make their cross while passing along the church and say, voiceless, a pray. ―She passed in front of a church, stopped for a while, made a cross and whispered, only for God to listen: ―God, help me!‖…‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 15) Despite of her status of matron, a female in Carol Ardeleanu‘s work finds no impediment to move, for the winter time, from the brothel into the church. ―Following the advice of Margareta and Negrila, Jana has written to Alexandra that the possession enforcement had been postponed and she moves with Natasa into the church.‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 178). The church represents a bank, a light in a sea of despair, in this world of hopelessness and misery. For these disinherited people, the church is not a place (nor the time) of regret, of penance. It is the only hope that perhaps, somewhere, even if not in this world, there is some room for their happiness, as well. ―All the girls were still hoping for something and all were going to the church to pray‖ (Ardeleanu, 1930, 189). An important feature of this world is what we would call today as inter-ethnicity. Usually, the inhabitants of the slums are Romanians who had been expelled or self-exiled from the village world. But there are also, in these Romanian slums, many Turks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Russians, even Armenians, but, especially, Jews. It is obvious that synagogues will appear in these communities, bearing the religious function they had been ―invested‖ with. ―At the synagogue, lights should be burnt on the Atonement‘s Day, for all the Deaths.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 233). There are not rare the cases in which one of the partners in a couple (although it is hard to define them like that), converts himself to the other one‘s religion. Intention may be noble and the turn, a major one, but the overcoming of a miserable and crisis situation is seldom a success. ―The Jew woman received <the secret of the baptistery> from which she was waiting for a change in her Christian lover‘s attitude, but he was very little interested in all these stories ―with priests‖. However, a change had happened, but in a reversed way: my mother turned from a clean and working woman, into a dirty, uncaring and bad smelling bigot‖ (Istrati, 1974, 161). The Street On our territories, the cities ―appear‖ from the old markets, ―emerged‖ at their turn from the old ―capitals‖ or most often from the most developed rural communities, perhaps with commercial potential. Systematization had never been a preoccupation of the Romanians – at least with respect to cities‘ building – except, of course, for those in the Habsburgic or Austro-Hungarian Empire. While the cities still come out of something, the slums with their streets come into being from the dust of the fields full of thistles. ―Many houses 304 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo have been built, now having many inhabitants, on what had been desert streets, like five years ago.‖ (Peltz, 1935, 282). There is not only the religious perspective, but also an ethnical one to organise the streets. Mainly, those belonging to one ethnicity or nation, those coming from the same country (which they have left, mostly for economic reasons), all these settle in the same ―place‖, in the same desert space of a collectivity-to-be. ―I have passed, this way, through he slums, through the streets which are most characteristic for the city: the Russian one, the Jewish one, the Greek one, the Gipsy one. And I have found new morals and habits, all over‖ (Istrati, 1970, 31) In most of the cases, these streets are nothing but former, present or future ―garbage fields‖: here is where not only the rests of a slum are thrown away (animals‘ corps, all kind of garbage) but also those of the city. The smell, the bad one is the distinctive sign of ―reaching the place‖, much before the depressive picture. ―The Sun (…) was stirring here poisoned stinks, especially from some heaps of spoiled sour cabbage, entire butts thrown directly in the street, since the spring was already here.‖ (Istrati, 1970, 43). The general aspect of the slum is, thus, one of desegregation, of lack of systematization, of organization, of order: ―The pavement was broken by cobble stones, deepening hole after hole and creating the moon‘s landscape as seen through bad telescopes, when the ordinary people look at the miracle in exchange of some little money― (Ardeleanu, 1928, 9). There is a current admonition – used even nowadays - for those kids behaving unruly, namely sine you haven‘t grew up in the street. But the slum‘s kids literally are growing up on the street. Since they are very little, these kids discover the flavour of freedom, in the street, they find a space were they can breath, running away from the scandals in the miserable, crammed rooms where people quarrel, beat, struggle for gaining the daily food. ―Here there are the worse kids. The children of gypsy shoeing smiths, of German wheelwrights, the younglings of Jewish carriage makers or those of baggage men from the mill, they run after dogs, catch the geese in the court yards with the angling line, play oina in the middle of the street, throw stones in calm passers by or in the sick ones, or follow the crazy people in the market‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 40). The street of the slum is also the place where the stories of this unhappy place, come out. For instance, there had been a rumour that on a certain street, in a certain place, gold and silver had been thrown away. This is the golden dream of mankind. ―From the hidden small streets, from the military barracks, from the gypsy side, from the slums with fountains, people were coming to check whether was true that gold and silver had been thrown away.‖ (Calugaru, 1936, 232) The street is not only a component of the slum, it is its epidermis. Here is where everything is seen from, here is where the pulse of life is caught beyond the shrunk walls ready to fall down. ―The street is a transparent skin through which one may see how the inner organs work: but also a part of eternity that may be shared‖ (Calugaru, 1933, 6). Conclusions: We may conclude by saying that the problematic of space in the Romanian novel of the slum is, in the same time, complex and productive from a narrative point of view. It is complex, because, in contrast to the rural space, the slum is a relatively new area in our country and, in the same time, a transitional one. Currently, the slums of the big cities had been swallowed by the city. But, we believe, that the other way around is also true, namely, that the centre got enlarged and included the periphery. Many changes have occurred here, too. There have been not only mental ones, but also spatial changes. Secondly, we have to say that this literary tip which is the slum is generous from the point of view of generating new spaces, genuine scenes of a rather tragic show: the pub, the brothel, the street, the church. It is interesting to be hold that all these spaces have, in a normal context, some positive functions and significances, since the urban collectivities have precisely this role, to enlarge the safety of its inhabitants, to offer them a richer, easier, better life. This kind of literature throws away the idyllic picture of the periphery with coquette small houses, with ordered streets, with storks in the window. It is a terrible, tough, misery world, being in full and permanent degrading process. 305 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Aderca, F. (1991). Love God. TimiĢoara: Argo. Aderca F. (1925). The Decomposed Man. BucureĢti: Ancora. Ardeleanu Carol (1930). The House with Girls. BucureĢti: Cugetarea. Ardeleanu Carol (1928). The Diplomat, Leather Dresser and the Actress. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Bahtin M. (1982). Problems of Literature and Aesthetics. BucureĢti: Univers. Călugăru Ion (1933). Don Juan Hunched. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei. Călugăru Ion (1936). The Childhood of a Worthless. BucureĢti: Naţionala-Ciornei S.A. Călugăru Ion (1937). The Trust. BucureĢti : Naţionala – Ciornei S.A.R. (2001). Collins Cobuild English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. Glasgow: Harper Collins. Cubleșan Constantin (2009). Literary Conferences. Târgu-Lăpuș: Galaxia Gutenberg. Durand Gilbert (1977). Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului. BucureĢti: Univers. Hess Remi (2001). Centre et périphérie. Paris: Anthropos. Istrati Panait (1970). Selected Works, Tome V: Codin, Mihail. BucureĢti: Minerva. Istrati Panait (1974). Selected Works, Tome VI: Neranţula, Familia Perlmutter, Ciulinii Bărăganului. BucureĢti: Minerva. Kovacs Albert (1987). The Poetics of Dostoievski. BucureĢti: Univers. Manolescu Nicolae (1991). Noe‘s Arch, Tome II. BucureĢti: Eminescu. Nemoianu Virgil (1997). A theory of the secondary. BucureĢti: Univers. Peltz I. (1935). The Nights of Miss Mili. BucureĢti: „Universala‖Alcalay and Co. Piskonov Vladimir coord. (1979). Poetics, Aesthetics and Sociology. BucureĢti: Univers. Sârbu Georgiana (2009). The Histories of Periphery. The Slum in Romanian Novel. From G.M. Zamfirescu to Radu Aldulescu. BucureĢti: Cartea Românească. Toma Pavel (2003). Thinking on the Novel. BucureĢti: Humanitas. Zamfirescu George Mihail (1986). The Field with Love. IaĢi: Junimea. N.B.: Research conducted under Project 7706 POSDRU growing role of PhDs and PhD competitiveness in a united Europe financed by European Social Fund Operational Programme Human Resources Development from 2007 – 2013. 306 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 46 Title A name given to the resource Space of Periphery in Romanian Interwar Novel Author Author Luca, Daniel Abstract A summary of the resource. The novelists dealing with the issue of periphery aim to present as accurate as possible, the real world as a harsh, tough, hermetic one, shaped by very particular rules. The novel of suburbia is, above all, one of peripheral areas. They emerge as outcomes of the city‘s growth and are usually populated by a dirty, mixed crowd. We may say that dirtiness, misery, garbage represent the specificity, even the constant of this marginal world. The characters of the Romanian novel of periphery live, paradoxically, two-folded: namely, in a torturing, miserable, destructive present, that we may undoubtedly call as awful; but also in a pink, happy future hardly loomed among the alcohol steams or the smoke of sordid workshops, a desired future, ―invested‖ in a love story which, eventually, ends in crimes, extra-conjugal adventures, violence. In short, they project all in a ―golden future‖. What I am trying to do in this research is to show the representative areas of the periphery – like the pub, the brothel, the church, the street – as they are reflected in Romanian interwar novels on such topics, novels that follow the social reality of the time, with an almost naturalistic fidelity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c13fa6fce4818f7030643885c1a4d130.pdf ee4d3b649867a78d1ce6335deab09fe8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher knowledge What Every Teacher Should Know about It Adna Lojo Faculty of Philosophy, the Golden Badge of the University Of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina adna.lojo@gmail.com Abstract: It is certain that all teachers must possess knowledge. The question, however, is: „What kinds of knowledge every teacher aspiring to be successful in his or her job should have?― The purpose of this paper is to provide, if not definitive, than at least an elucidating answer to this question. The paper deals with three kinds of knowledge all teachers should possess: content or subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Content knowledge refers to the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject matter he/she teaches, and increases the teacher‘s own confidence, which directly influences the level of confidence the students‘ have for the teacher. Pedagogical knowledge, on the other hand, is not directly associated with the subject matter, but can still have an immense impact on the final results of the learning process. It is concerned with improving the relationship between the students and the teacher by helping the teacher recognize a variety of different situations which can appear in the classroom and equipping the teacher with appropriate techniques which enable him/her to respond appropriately to each of those situations. The third kind of knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, unites the previous two, and helps the teacher find the methodologically most appropriate ways to present the given content. As elaborated in the paper, taken together, these three kinds of knowledge improve rapport between the students and the teacher and maximize student achievement, which is the ultimate goal of any learning process. Teacher knowledge The word ―knowledge‖ is in its own nature closely associated with learning and teaching. It goes without saying that a teacher must possess knowledge. However, it is often unclear what this knowledge truly encompasses. Is teacher knowledge a matter of being able to recite piles of books from cover to cover? Is a successful teacher one who knows how to create a positive learning climate in which his students will feel motivated to explore the subject he teaches? Or is an effective teacher in fact a combination of these two elements, and many more? Even in the modern era, many of those not very familiar with the science of teaching and learning would claim that the only kind of knowledge a teacher should possess is subject matter or content knowledge, which can be defined as ―a teacher‘s quantity, quality, and organization of information, conceptualizations, and underlying constructs in their major area of study‖ (Zeidler, 1999). For those who claim so, the aforementioned avid reader would have just enough skills to transmit his knowledge onto everybody he attempts to teach. Practice, however, has proven that this is not the case. A person can indeed be the best expert in any field, and yet lack pedagogical training needed to successfully manage the classroom. When this is the case, discipline issues may arise, the students can become confused and uninterested, and the teacher, despite his tremendous subject matter knowledge, can feel helpless. In such cases, with the teacher unable to hold the attention of the students and inspire them to acquire new knowledge, learning – which is normally the ultimate goal of any teaching process - becomes of secondary importance. This fact emphasizes the need to introduce the second kind of knowledge a teacher needs to possess – pedagogical knowledge, knowledge which enables the teacher to create a motivating, student-centered environment conducive to learning. To acquire such knowledge, the teacher needs not only to have high qualifications in his subject area, but also undergo special pedagogical training, through which he would be made aware of the different affective, cognitive and developmental factors which influence the learning process. Through such training, the teacher would also acquire practical strategies for dealing with different situations which may arise in the classroom and providing the most appropriate responses for them. 24 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo However, when kept separately, these two qualities are still not sufficient to produce the desired results, as they remain unconnected and fragmented. The problem lies in the fact that neither of these two kinds of knowledge helps the teacher find the best, most appropriate strategies for teaching particular areas of the subject matter. When a teacher possesses no knowledge of such strategies, his teaching will suffer despite his knowledge of the content matter and the skills he acquired through pedagogical training. What is needed then is a combination of these two elements, an area which will unite the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject he teaches and his ability to make the classroom a place where that knowledge can be shared. This ‗common area‘ is called pedagogical content knowledge. These three main kinds of knowledge intertwine (amongst each other and with various other kinds of teacher knowledge) to create a solid base upon which the teacher can build his relationship with students and a more successful learning environment. Content knowledge It seems very logical that no teaching can take place if the teacher is not very familiar with the subject he/she is meant to teach others. This teacher trait is also recognized as extremely important by students, so, for example, Turkish preparatory school students describing an effective English language teacher listed teacher‘s knowledge of English as the most important characteristic (Arikan et al., 2008). Numerous other studies which examined the efficiency of teachers also yielded similar results, so Bruce D. Barnes (2010) reports that many of the studies he reviewed have found that students believe effective teachers: ― have sound content knowledge of their discipline (Chen, 2005; Faranda & Clarke, 2004; Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Kutnick & Jules, 1993; Xiao, 2006) • are able to answer complex questions (Faranda & Clarke, 2004) • are proficient in English (ELT) (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Park & Lee, 2006; Rammal, 2006) • have a sound knowledge of grammar (ELT) (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2005; Park & Lee, 2006)― Still, it seems this teacher characteristic is perhaps not yet fully understood and appreciated by teachers and education students, which results in teachers who have insufficient knowledge of their subject area and are thus unable to help students learn. A good grasp of the subject he/she teaches can make a tremendous influence on how the teacher manages the classroom and facilitates the process of learning. According to a research paper entitled ‗Why Teacher Content Knowledge Matters‘, content knowledge on the part of the teacher facilitates learning by influencing the way teacher present the content to their students (with more knowledgeable teachers making more connections with real life and drawing more on students previous knowledge). This characteristic, as reported by Barnes (2010), was deemed very important by students in studies conducted by Faranda and Clarke (2004) and Kelley et al. (1991). Content knowledge also influences the way teachers use teaching materials, so teachers who have a deeper knowledge of the subject tend to be more able to link lessons into a coherent sequence and identify the key points of each individual unit (MSPKMD, 2008). A study of outstanding university teachers, conducted by Hativa et al. (2001) has shown that these strategies were very highly or highly used by all the observed teachers (all university professors, experts in the area of their subject). By using their knowledge in such diverse ways, teachers with deeper content knowledge pose more difficult challenges before their students, thus further developing their cognitive skills and making them more involved in the learning process (Stronge, 2007; Neubrand, 2008). Still, all this does not necessarily mean that in all cases teacher subject matter knowledge will have a direct impact on student achievement. The debate on this issue is heated, and different studies have yielded different results. Perhaps the most accurate view is the one of Monk (1994) who argues that ‗teacher subjectmatter knowledge was related to student achievement only up to a certain point‘ (Marzano, 2003, p.64). What this means is that there is a threshold above which teacher content knowledge becomes less relevant. For example, whereas teacher‘s knowledge of basic characteristics of English sounds and the way they interact with each other is important when teaching English phonetic alphabet to high school students, in-depth knowledge of dialectal variations is not. On the contrary, such knowledge, if the teacher attempts to transfer it onto students (for whom it has no relevance or practical usage) can even negatively interfere with students‘ learning and motivation. Of course, the threshold varies based on the level or grade of the students being taught (Marzano, 2003), so more content knowledge is needed when teaching advanced students than when dealing with young children. Pedagogical knowledge The exact opposite, however, may hold true for pedagogical knowledge. Since young learners possess many characteristics unique to their own age group, it may be far more challenging to balance the various elements of classroom management (discipline, rapport, motivation, staying on-task etc.) when teaching them than when dealing with teenagers or adults. Age, however, is not the only factor which influences how the 25 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo teacher should behave towards students. Many other characteristics, ranging from learning style to culturespecific attitudes and beliefs, must be taken into account when deciding how to treat individual students and the class as a whole. These characteristics pertain not only to students, but also to the learning environment and the society in which the learning process is taking place. Being able to identify, take into account and successfully deal with these differences is what constitutes the pedagogical knowledge of teaching. In fact, all teacher behavior in the classroom related to personal interaction with the students can be connected to pedagogical knowledge. A teacher who possesses this kind of knowledge knows which types of behavior are appropriate in which kinds of situations. Such teachers understand the variety of contexts which can appear within the classroom and are able to adjust their behavior accordingly. This notion shows that pedagogical knowledge is in fact very much connected with the personal characteristics of the teacher, and that, through knowledge, teachers can reflect on their traits and behaviors and, when necessary, alter them to suit the needs of their students. Such reflections and alterations directly influence student-teacher relationship and the classroom atmosphere, thus directly impacting students‘ learning. Perhaps the best way to show the importance of pedagogical knowledge is through a practical example. Let us consider the example of student misbehavior - one of the most debated issues and one of the biggest teacher problems in the classroom. Many new teachers are worried about handling misbehavior properly. The worry arises from the fact that, when handled wrongly, student misbehavior can lead not only to deterioration in the learning achievements of that particular student, but also undermine the whole class‘ trust in the teacher and, through a chain reaction, make the entire class unresponsive and unwilling to learn. These severe consequences show the importance of pedagogical knowledge. A teacher who has no pedagogical training, and possesses only content knowledge, might resort to such ineffective practices as yelling, threatening or humiliating the misbehaving student, which would only worsen the situation and ultimately lead to the teacher‘s loss of control over the class. On the other hand, a teacher with appropriate pedagogical knowledge will know that the right way to handle discipline issues is to prevent them from ever happening by setting rules early on and consistently enforcing them. Even if a discipline problem arises, a pedagogically-knowledgeable teacher would know that the right thing to do in such a situation is to remain calm, react immediately and react to the behavior and not the student (Harmer, 2007). When following these and similar instructions which are a key part of pedagogical knowledge of any teacher, the teacher helps foster a positive learning environment, practices good classroom management and improves his rapport with the students. Pedagogical content knowledge However, as has been previously noted, pedagogical and content knowledge alone do not constitute a framework strong enough for effective teaching. An effective teacher must also possess a third kind of knowledge, the one which unites and combines the previous two concepts and provides a kind of a common ground on which the different aspects of the professional called ‗teacher‘ meet to produce the best possible results. This third kind of knowledge is called pedagogical content knowledge or PCK. In order to fully understand the concept of ‗pedagogical content knowledge‘, it is necessary to introduce its definitions, as formulated by Lee S. Shulman, the educational psychologist who first introduced this term. In his landmark paper ‗Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching‘, he describes PCK as follows: ‗Within the category of pedagogical content knowledge I include, for the most regularly taught topics in one's subject area, the most useful forms of representation of these ideas, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples, explanations, and demonstrations - in a word, the ways of representing and formulating the subject that make it comprehensible to others...Pedagogical content knowledge also includes an understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult: the conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and backgrounds bring with them to the learning of those most frequently taught topics and lessons.‘(Shulman, 1986, p. 7) After defining the term, it is time to explore the practical implications of pedagogical content knowledge for foreign language teachers. If we consider an EFL teacher attempting to teach his Bosnian students the usage of the Present Perfect tense in English, we will better understand why pedagogical content knowledge is so important. For the purposes of achieving this goal, we will compare the ways in which two very different teachers – one possessing PCK and the other lacking it – would attempt to teach this challenging grammar point. A teacher lacking PCK might attempt explain the usage to the students by using complex metalanguage, introducing too difficult oral explanations and presenting them with a myriad of abstract grammar-book rules. All of this could have inimical effects on students‘ learning, making them even more confused, which may lead to disinterestedness and lack of motivation, ultimately jeopardizing learning. The teacher possessing PCK, on the other hand, would first of all realize that that particular subject can be very difficult for Bosnian students because 26 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo there is no tense equivalent to Present Perfect in their own language. He would consider the students previous knowledge of the tense system in their own language and in English and attempt to tailor his teaching to suit this previous knowledge and build upon it, the teacher would also use his pedagogical knowledge to assess how the age of his students influences the way the grammar point should be presented, and avoid too much metalanguage if younger learners are in question. Finally, the teacher would attempt to find a wide variety of different techniques which would best serve to present the content and reinforce the student‘s knowledge of it. From this comparison, it is easy to see how a teacher possessing PCK differs from the one possessing only content knowledge. In short, an expert with no PCK will not be able to adequately explain certain concepts since he/she has not learned to ‗stoop‘ to the level of knowledge of the students and view things from their perspective. The teacher with PCK would, on the other hand, be able to identify himself with the learners, thus recognizing possible difficulties and misconceptions which may arise in the learning process. In this way he would not only facilitate learning, but also make the students confident in their knowledge, rather than intimidated as they would feel in the presence of a teacher without PCK. This confidence would then result in better student-teacher interaction and easier problem-solving. 27 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Stronge, JH (2007), Qualities of Effective Teachers, ASCD, Alexandria <http://books.google.com/books?id=0qi4i1las8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=qualities+of+effective+teachers&hl=en&ei=s8oXTIXuGtPgsAbE77HOC Q&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false> Harmer, J (2007), The Practice of English Language Teaching, Pearson Education Limited, Harlow. Neubrand, M (2008), 'Knowledge of Teachers – Knowledge of Students: Conceptualizations and outcomes of a Mathematics Teacher Education Study in Germany', viewed 3 May 2010 < http://www.unige.ch/math/EnsMath/Rome2008/WG2/Papers/NEUBR.pdf> Arikan, A, Taser, D, Sarac-Suzer, H S (2008), The Effective English Language Teacher from the Perspectives of Turkish Preparatory School Students, ERIC database, viewed 23 February 2010 http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/45/01/4d.pdf Shulman, L (1986), ‗Those who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching‘, Educational Researcher, vol. 15, No. 2., pp 4-14, viewed < http://www.science.utah.edu/mssstfiles/thosewho.pdf> Why Teachers‘ Mathematics Content Knowledge Matters: A Summary of Studies, MSPKMD, viewed 15 June 2010 < http://www.mspkmd.net/pdfs/blast16/3b2.pdf> Marzano, R J (2003), What Works in Schools: Translating Research into Action., ASCD, Alexandria, viewed 15 June 2010 <http://books.google.com/books?id=MVyhsp10SIgC&pg=PA64&dq=teacher+knowledge+of+subject&cd=5#v= onepage&q=teacher%20knowledge%20of%20subject&f=false> Hativa, N., Barak, R. & Simhi, E. (2001) Exemplary University Teachers: Knowledge and Beliefs Regarding Effective Teaching Dimensions and Strategies. Journal of Higher Education<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb172/is_6_72/ai_n28871046/pg_17/?tag=content;col1> Zedier, D L (1999) Dancing with Maggots and Saints: Past and future Visions For Subject Matter Knowledge, Pedagogical Knowledge and Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Science Teacher Education Reform <http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED434834.pdf> Barnes, B D (2010) The Attributes of Effective Lecturers of English as a Foreign Language as Perceived by Students in a Korean University. <http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ908194.pdf> 28 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 8 Title A name given to the resource What Every Teacher Should Know about It Author Author Lojo, Adna Abstract A summary of the resource. t is certain that all teachers must possess knowledge. The question, however, is: „What kinds of knowledge every teacher aspiring to be successful in his or her job should have?― The purpose of this paper is to provide, if not definitive, than at least an elucidating answer to this question. The paper deals with three kinds of knowledge all teachers should possess: content or subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. Content knowledge refers to the teacher‘s knowledge of the subject matter he/she teaches, and increases the teacher‘s own confidence, which directly influences the level of confidence the students‘ have for the teacher. Pedagogical knowledge, on the other hand, is not directly associated with the subject matter, but can still have an immense impact on the final results of the learning process. It is concerned with improving the relationship between the students and the teacher by helping the teacher recognize a variety of different situations which can appear in the classroom and equipping the teacher with appropriate techniques which enable him/her to respond appropriately to each of those situations. The third kind of knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, unites the previous two, and helps the teacher find the methodologically most appropriate ways to present the given content. As elaborated in the paper, taken together, these three kinds of knowledge improve rapport between the students and the teacher and maximize student achievement, which is the ultimate goal of any learning process. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/36c42b1863f7e1c05222440c1bbd6cb7.pdf 6f0da5a45528607642d387e555b8cd3a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Russian Emigration on The Balkans: The ―Limnos Episode‖ (On Memoirs and Verses of Representatives of White Army) Natalya Lapaeva Perm State Pedagogical University Perm, Russia natalya_lapaeva@mail.ru Abstract: The article traces the role island Limnos (Greece) in the fates of representatives of ―white movement‖ which has arisen after revolution in Russia in 1917 and during civil war. Parts of Russian Army were on Limnos since February 1920 till November 1921. It represents the results of analysis of memoirs and verses by some representatives of Russian Army, among which Ivan Kalinin, Erast Giatzintov, Ivan Sagatsky, Nikolay Turoverov. The author of the paper revealed features of the description of landscapes of Limnos in memoirs and verses those who passed through Limnos. It is shown what difficulties were endured by Russian Army on Limnos (cold, hunger, isolation from the world). It is proved that the Russian Army under the direction of Wrangel has shown moral courage, unity, patriotism. Authors of memoirs and verses concern problems of mutual relations of Russians and Greeks, the inhabitants of Limnos, what has found reflection in various forms of spiritual and cultural dialogue. Key words: Russia – Greece, Russian emigration of the first wave, memoirs, poetry, features of a landscape, the image of difficulties and courage, spiritual and cultural dialogue Introduction It is commonly known that Limnos (Λήμνος) is an island in the Aegean Sea, belonging to Greece. Why in this case can that far away Greek island be called «Russian»? Why today for the Russian mind is Limnos a short, but exciting, special chapter in the history of the civil war in Russia, that had began after the year 1917? The answers to this question can be found in the present article. Well, as early as in the beginning of 1920 during the battles with Red Army the armed forces of the South Russia under the command of Anton Denikin suffered a defeat after defeat. General Denikin took a decision to transfer abroad the injured and ill military men, as well as members of their families and of those who kept fighting. The first ships with the ill and injured, including to Limnos, left Novorossiisk in the middle of January, 1920. Later, since November 1920 till October 1921 on Limnos so-called «Limnos sitting» of Cossack army of General Petr Wrangel was taking place: more than 24 thousands of Kuban, Don, Terek, Astrakhan Cossacks found themselves there after Crimean evacuation. Thus, Limnos became the focus of the tragedy of civil war and at the same time – the symbol of courage, stout-heartedness, patriotism. We would try to prove this, basing on the memoirs and verses by the representatives of Russian army (White Army), passed through Limnos – Ivan Kalinin, Ivan Sagatsky, Erast Giazintov, Nikolay Turoverov. Besides, we would refer to the content of the book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921». Limnos in the ancient Greek mythology and in the history of Christianity. Ivan Kalinin about Hephaestus and St. Nicholas the Wonderworker Limnos was known as an island of Hephaestus, a god of Fire. According to legend, Hephaestus was born ugly and lame, and the baby was thrown by his mother Hera from the Olympus to the Earth on the Limnos island. Limnos people saved Hephaestus, and to express his gratitude he taught them the basic metallurgy and blacksmith's work. Limnos was also visited by Odysseus. When Argonauts headed by Jason during their quest for the Golden Fleece, arrived to the island, it was ruled by women. Ipsipila, the head of Limnos Amazons, wanted to make armed attack on them, but was persuaded to admit them in peace. In honour of arrival of the heroes Ipsipila established competition on Quinquertium – pentathlon. The island Limnos appeared to be connected also with the history of Christianity, namely – with the destiny of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker. There is a legend, that during the First Ecumenical Council in Nicea in 325, when Arius‘s heretical teachings were criticized, saint bishop Nicholas, 980 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo willing to protect the purity of Orthodoxy, hit Arius on his cheek. Council‘s Fathers considered this conduct redundant, withdrew advantages of his pontifical rank – omophorion – and locked him up in the prison tower on Limnos. However, soon they were convinced in rightness of saint bishop Nicholas and freed him. It is interesting that those facts became the object of portrayal and renderings of one of the «Limnos sitting»‘s participants Ivan Kalinin. In his most exciting memoirs he wrote about the island in the context of the history of culture and Christianity the following: «the Limnos island extruded from the abyss of the Aegean Sea not far from the Dardanelles estuary. <…> Greece mythology had given this clot of lava to the possession of Hephaestus, the god of blacksmith's work. If we believe to Gomer and Hesiod, permanent local winds create here giant bellows, which are blown on the highest mountain of the island, Thermos, by а lame god-blacksmith. There had also been preserved the godly legends from the very early times of Christianity. There had been suffering Nicholas the Wonderworker, ―rule of faith and an example of meekness‖, who had been sent here in exile in 325 for scandal behavior and scuffle with a heretic Arius during the Council in Nicea» (Kalinin 2003: 335). Limnos «pages» in Russian and world history Limnos with some lines of its history is connected with the history of Russia. In 1770 the Russian fleet of the First Archipelago Expedition under the guidance of count Alexey Orlov, what had got a victory in the Battle of Cesme earlier at the same year, laid siege and took the Castro castle (Myrina) and had been using Myrina a for some time as resting base. On the 19th of June (the 1st of July) in 1807 between the coasts of Limnos and the peninsula Aion-Oros (Athos) the battle of Russian and Turkey fleets took place, which went down in history as the Athos battle. The Russian fleet was commanded by Vice-admiral Dmitry Seniavin. Nowadays in Myrina, the capital of Limnos, on one of the embankments there situated a monument to the Russian naval mariners, who liberated Limnos from the Turks – it is a monument to count Orlov and vice-admiral Seniavin. During the First World War on the island the garrison of Atlanta forces was situated. The garrison disposition on the island in 1915 was supervised by Winston Churchill. Limnos is sadly connected with Dardanelles Campaign, or Gallipoli battle, which had begun in the morning of the 19th of February in 1915. The allied forces suffered a defeat, the Turks got a victory. Dozens of thousands of the British, the Scotch, the Australian, the New Zealanders, the Sikhs, the French, the Arabs were lost during the fight in the Gallipoli peninsula. Nowadays on entering the Moudros town there situated a military cemetery, where the participants of that battle were buried. After the First World War on Limnos the English and French armies stayed to control the island. In 1920 Ivan Kalinin wrote about the international state of the island, that it was «most absurd. It constituted a part of the possessions of Hellene‘s state and at the same time was rented by the Englishmen. However the French, again appeared on the island due to our presence, found themselves the owners» (1; 337). Precisely this was the situation on Limnos when in winter, and later in autumn of 1920 refugees from Russia and the Cossack troops of Wrangel‘s Army starting arriving there. The year of 1920: arriving of the Russians to Limnos Thus, the first ships with the injured and the ill started leaving for Limnos from Novorossiysk as early as from the middle of January 1920. After that the ships from Odessa and Sevastopol joined them. During the First World War on the island appeared mostly the injured, the ill, the cripples, women, children and the civilian. The second wave of emigration to Limnos was formed in November 1920, when the units of Wrangel‘s Army left the Crimea. The decision was taken to send to Limnos first the Kuban Cossack corps, and later – the Don Cossack corps, that was previously located in Turkey, in Chataldge. Precisely at that time the island was destined to become «asylum» for a part of the Russian army. The approaching to the island is shown in the memoirs of the military people in the following way: according to the description of Ivan Kalinin, the ships were coming to «a spider-like island, not more then 25 versts long» [about 25 km] (Kalinin 2003: 336.); Ivan Sagatsky‗s imagination gave birth to other associations, and he assured that «its outlines looked like a irregular shaped human heart» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 402). Thus, the Russians found themselves on Limnos. Hardly could a great many of the Cossacks know about the existence of the Limnos island on the earth, and surely nobody had ever supposed that on the island he would happen to suffer sorrowful fate of exile. An unknown poet-emigrant, whose lines Leonid Reshetnikov quotes in his book «Russian Limnos» (Reshetnikov 2009: 12), wrote afterwards: 981 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On those islands we began our roams, As if by distant voice we were called, And there happened parting with Russia … The Russian had to settle in tent camps, that they had to pitch themselves under severe wind. The Kuban Cossacks pitched tent camp in a desolate and waterless district Kaloeraki. Erast Giazintov remembered: «We were disembarked in the evening, given folded tents, and we hurryingly set them up on stoned and spent a first night» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). The whole territory, taken by the Cossacks, was surrounded by French army, mostly by the Senegalese and the Moroccans. The Don Cossacks Corp, arrived in December 1920, located in another camp – along the hill-sides at Mudros, on the other from Kaloeraki side of Big gulf of Mudros. There they also strengthened their tents. «It was hard work; <…> the camp was situated along the mountain slope, and we had to level the ground and ditch in rocky soil …» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 299), – this is the way to describe the situation by people on Limnos at that time. Limnos as «Death island» The Greek island Limnos, known in mythology as Hephaestus‘s island, and certainly beautiful and picturesque in ones own way, among the Russian emigration was called differently – the Death island. For many Russian refugees and 24 thousands of Kuban, Don, Terek, Astrakhan Cossacks that picturesque corner of the would became a real hell. The island greeted the Russians inhospitably. They saw it rocky, unoccupied and blown with the winds. The book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 19201921» reads: «The look of island was uncheerful. Small mountains, scarcely having any vegetation, of indefinite, isabelline colour, boarded a huge bay, absurdly hulked up one on another and in the distance died away with sea-fog. That is all. No forest, no high or projecting mountain, nothing to catch an eye» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 320). Memoirists note that most torturous were days when severe wind were blowing. According to Ivan Kalinin‘s statement, «the main enemies of refugees were winds …» (Kalinin 2003; 339). Erast Giazintov noted: «Terriable wind on the rocky Limnos‘s coasts was the bane of our life» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). The winter was especially difficult. In common memoirs of the Don Corps we found the following lines: «… Limnos winter was approaching. It rained more frequently, sometimes was snowing, and northeast wind became stronger and more fretful, severer. Sometimes it gained such strength that tore off tents and pulled apart old half-rotted clothes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 301). «Terriable wind on the rocky Limnos‘s coasts was the bane of our life», – echoes Erast Giazintov (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). Against the background of difficult climate conditions the Cossacks lodging looked pitiable. Tents, «Limnos houses», are a special theme in the memoirs of military men. The description of the tents in which the refugees were to lodge gives us the opportunity to fell the tragedy of the situation: «The incomers were partially lodged in tents, that were given by the French in limited quantity, <…>, besides, many tents were ragged, halve-rotted, providing no protection from wind or rain <…>. Due to the absence of construction materials and glasses, those bunk houses were dark, cold in winter, in summer <…> – stuffy because of heating of metal parts» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 299). The memoirists noted that in winter «due to continuous rains the underground waters close to the surface splayed out, the moisture in tents gradually turns into permanent mud. <…> In heavy rains large steams of water, coming from mountains, overwhelmed the camp, despite the numerous ditches» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 301-302). In autumn, in winter and early in spring the Russians emigrants were tortured with cold. They had to take care of getting the firing. «The situation with firing was bad. On the island there were no forests. Both aboriginals and new-comers went to the mountains for «koluka» – scrubby thorny shrub. The Greeks loaded their donkeys with those unpleasant burdens, the Russian – their backs», – Ivan Kalinin wrote (Kalinin 2003: 340). On Limnos the Russian were dreadfully starving. It was more torturous against unsettled living and hard climate. Erast Giazintov remembered «extremely short rations», distributed by the French: «For a tent (eight officers or soldiers) we were given one can of sweetened condensed milk (so that one person got about one spoon), extremely insignificant quantity of tinned meat, kidney beans, lens or something like this and little bread » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 412). Ivan 982 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sagatsky wrote in his dairy: «People wasted away and weakened from bad food» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 405).. Let us note that the Russian on Limnos faced not only material difficulties, but also with nonmaterial ordeals: informational «blockade», ideological «attacks» from the allies‘ side. We refer to the lines from the book of command staff of Don‘s Corps «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 19201921»: «The life was difficult, but the complete detachment from the world seemed more painful; there came no news from outside, not a single Russian newspaper was delivered to Limnos at that time. On a wild island, with desert rocky mountains, from all sides surrounded by water, the Cossacks felt like in prison» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 293). Allies‘ active campaign on deconcentration of Russian army, but actually on its demolition contributed to the depressive mood of the army. The French, not willing to support Russian Army any more, tried to demoralize it and «disperse». According to Ivan Sagatsky‘s words, «there was posted an order by General Brousseau, the French governor of the island, that stated that France did not recognized the Russian Wrangel‘s Army and on that reason the French command took a decision to feed the Russians only till the 1st of April, because it was not able to support such a large army. The French government stops giving credits and assistance to General Wrangel in his actions against the Soviet system. The Russian officers were offered either 1) to return to the Soviet Russia, or 2) go at work to Brazil, or 3) provide for their living by themselves» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 395). The general mood of the Russians on Limnos was certainly depressed and gloomy. «Everyone was hungry, bitter and uncommunicative», – states Ivan Sagatsky (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 401). Spiritual opposition of the Russian on Limnos Nevertheless, despite all the impossible difficulties that the Russian faced on Limnos, they kept resisting to the circumstances. The island turned out to be hell where their resistance to it was effected. «Limnos sitting», which is better to call «Limnos standing», is an example of strength of mind, courage, will. And – an attempt to save its identity. Leonid Reshetnikov wrote: «Huge tent camps were living – they prayed, worked, studied» (Reshetnikov 2009: 32). The Russian‘s faith played a great part in their opposition to the circumstances on Limnos. It spiritually guided the refugees‘ will. Every day was opened and finished with the regiment prayer: «…―uprisal‖ was sounded <…> units lined up at color line. The camp stood still. Communal prayer was singing», «At eight o‘clock <…> regiments lined up for inspection <…>. ―Daybreak‖ was clearly beated throughout the calmed down camps and further on, over the mountains and the bay, the prayer out of thousands of bosoms was running harmoniously and nobly» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 337-338, 339). Church was of great importance in the life of Limnos. In every regiment the churches were organized by Cossacks‘ and officers‘ initiative. Those were tent and bunk house churches. Out of incidental materials they built altars, for icon-stand private and family icons were given. This is the way one of Limnos tent churches looked like: «In a large tent a church was created. The icon-stand, lampads and all the churchware were made of incidental materials, out of sheets, blankets, can boxes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 295). The Russians also visited Greek orthodox churches in Mudros town, namely, – the Cathedral of the Annunciation and the Church of Holy Archangels. The Russians were glad to hear prayers in Old Church Slavonic during the service in the Cathedral of the Annunciation. The old church of the Holy Archangels in fact was presented to the Russains by the Greeks. According to the remembrances of the ―Russian Limnosers‖, «the Greeks gave an old church in Mudros town at the disposal of Russian clergy, where the service was hold according to Russian tradition, by Russian clergy and with Russian chorus. <…> The abandoned church was put in order, washed, cleaned from longstanding dust; the ancient, magnificent carving icon-stand was renewed, icons were placed in dehiscent hollows, thanks to this the church looked cosy» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336). Religious holidays, celebrated by the Russians on Limnos, were times when their patriot feelings dawned in especially acute way, the belonging to Russia felt more deeply. The holidays gave spiritual impulses, that saved from despair and melancholy. The memoirs of the Russian army representatives witness that Easter became the holiday celebrated on Limnos with special warmth. The description of Easter is filled with flickering feelings: «Easter was celebrated nicely. Morning Easter prayer went on the ascent, lightly and joyfully. For the first day after a fast lots of Easter cakes and 983 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo coloured eggs were ready» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336-337). Ivan Sagatsky pathetically remembered: «On Easter Imperial Cossacks had morning prayer in their camp church. Everyone was in exhilaration. After that there were kisses of peace» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 397-398). Striving for creative work and education What else supported the spirit of the people in exile? It turned to be creative work and striving for education. One of the forms of collective creation became singing songs in chorus. Singing was favourite occupation both of young and old Cossacks. Often they were singing Russian folk songs. In spring and in summer, when evening came, they began their favourite Cossack songs together. Those songs were «either quick and joyful <…>, or lingering, sad and dreary, like life on Limnos life». What did the Cossacks sing about? As eyewitnesses remembered, Cossacks were singing «… about Cossack glory, feats of arms, <…>, about the dear Don <…>. The Cossacks sang about everything. And about Bolsheviks, who expelled them from their native land, and about killed and tortured by them friends. Songs conveyed either a complaint of bitter fate, or gloomy menace to a fare away hateful enemy, and the whole Cossack soul, perturbate and pressed, but not destroyed, flowed out in those songs» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 339). It is amazing that in such incredibly difficult conditions on Limnos Russian refugees realized their creative potential and satisfied esthetic needs with the help of …. theatre. On Limnos two (!) extemporary theatre emerged – drama theatre and cabaret theatre. It is written about the former: «The stage was created in one of the bunk houses alongside the quay, the curtains were made of blankets <…>. The repertory was selected extremely thoroughly, with great scrupulousness. Chekov‘s things, even Ostrovsky and drama extracts from Pushkin (―The Coventous Knight‖ and others) and other classical plays were staged » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 343). There exists the following evidence about cabaret-theatre: «Among Don people there appeared to be lots of perfect singers and story-tellers, dancers, there were even consummate musicians. <…>. The main part in the concert program took choral singing.<…> In cabaret tricks and novelties from the capital stages were shown» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 343-344). The theatre was rather popular both among the Cossacks and the Greeks, as well as among the island principals, the English and the French. On Limnos there were even «universities». Many who found themselves on Limnos had serious gaps in education. It is typically that since the first days after the arrival of the staff of Don‘s Corps on Limnos the enormous culture awareness education had begun in the units. The book «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921» reads: «Meeting the Cossacks‘ needs<…>, the command, represented by informational department, organized a set of periodical lectures of sporadic character and on different areas of knowledge and science. <…> The readers were found among the friends. In army units there were many persons with higher education, who shared their knowledge with others in a clear and understandable manner. There were also lectures on political topics. <…> Generally speaking, all the lectures, even on astronomy and cosmography (they also happened to be) were willingly visited by the Cossacks. <…> On those courses, apart from special military subjects, such disciplines of general education, such as the history of Russia and Don, Russian literature, economic geography, jurisprudence and others were also taught» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342-343). Pleasures of Limnos life Severe staying on Limnos was prettified with little joys, which certainly were parts of Russian outcasts‘ everyday life. The Cossacks «revived» in spring and summer. Tired of winter cold, winds and hunger, they cheered about the sun, light, warm sea. Ivan Kalinin remembered: «With the beginning of spring on Limnos the Cossacks got warm and washed themselves at last» (Kalinin 2003: 340). The authors of the book «Cossacks in Chataldge and Limnos in 1920-1921» added to that: «In the beginning of warm season the swimming in the sea brought much liveliness in monotonous camp life. As early as in the middle of April the water in the Aegean Sea became so warm, that some most challenging Cossacks started to swim. <…> It was becoming hotter and hotter. The south sun was burning mercilessly, the stones heated up <…> All the territories which provided swimming facilities 984 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo were spangled with bathing and lying on sand Cossacks… » (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 340-341). From time to time the promenades around the island were organized. The Cossacks went to adjacent villages and to the island north-west top end, to the place where at one time a town of Hephaestiada was situated. The Cossacks were interested in the relics of the ancient civilization. They were interested to see «the wreckages of columns, bas-relieves, pottery fragments and statuettes» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342). Sometimes, when the French gave out passes, the outings to villages were possible. The Cossacks liked those outings, for – as memoirists stated – «the Greeks-inhabitants <…> met the Cossacks hospitably, treated them, in village taverns it was possible to get cheep local wine» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 342). Of course, the Russians also managed to notice the beauty of the island. The meeting with it gave pleasure to one‘s soul. The peculiar charm of Limnos found its reflection in Nikolay Turoverov‘s poetry. In lyrical opus «Archipelago» (Turoverov 1999: 37-38) the poet imprinted winter Limnos expressively «in lines and colours»: A February day, both still and pearly Whity in water surface was reflected. … shortly went a last sunray through the clouds. The sea gave watery salty breathe, And colours flowered suddenly and richly Aslope the tawny steeps. Russian cemeteries on Limnos: the signs of Civil war tragedy Still Limnos was not a ―resourt place‖ for those who turned to be there in 1920-1921. Deprivations, sufferings and often death as its natural final became just about everyday occurrence in Russian outcasts‘ lives. Refugee and Cossacks died. On Limnos Russian cemeteries appeared, that are one of the first in the history of Russian first wave emigration. There exists two Russian cemeteries on Limnos: one of them is situated near the town of Mudros, another – on Kaloeraki cape. The Don‘s Cossack regiment was located near the town of Mudros. Close to it allies‘ Military cemetery was situated. Thankfully the Russian graves were also reconstructed on Military cemetery. In general on Military cemetery 29 Russians were buried (28 officers and a colonel‘s wife Maria Karyakina, the mother of six). The Kuban Cossack regiment was situated not far from Pynda cape. There a large Russian cemetery appeared – «Rusiko necrotophiio». The road to it is rocky and bumpy. But at present there are signposts both in Russian and Greek, which gives the direction and let us find ourselves. Before 2004 there was practically nothing, except for several gravestones on the grass. The works on cemetery reconstruction have begun, and at present the names of all people buried there are restored and some of the graves are specified. The feelings that one has on the cemetery are special. They are born out of reading the namelist of those who rest on this mournful burying place, (more than 300 people), out of contemplation of gravestones, under which Russian people lie, out of thought about their bitter fate. One stand near children‘s grave for long. There are 82(!) of them on the cemetery. Tanya Muhortova was three, Lisa Shirinkina was hardly one. The Russian and the Greeks on Limnos: from the 1920th to the present day The Russian-Greek relationships have their own history. Having arrived to Limnos in far away 1920, the Russians found themselves in a country, culturally and religiously related to them. The Greeks treated the Russians humanly, with understanding. One of the special cords connecting the two peoples was Orthodoxy. The Greeks showed much interest in church services held by the Russians on Limnos. The memoirists recollects the Greeks‘ reaction on church services held by the Russians and their celebration oа religious holidays: «… the Greeks in numbers attended the Russian <…> church, admiring the new for them, never heard tone of Russian service, order and discipline, and harmonious singing of the Russian chorus» (The Russian Army in a strange land 2003: 336). 985 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo We consider extremely remarkable the fact that in Mudros Church of Holy Archangels the service is still – at present (!) – held before the icons that were presented to the church by the Cossacks in 1920 and left there after their departure from Limnos. On great feast days those icons are transferred to the town‘s cathedral of the Annunciation. Nowadays the memory of «Limnos standing» of the Russian on the island in 1920-21 still lingers. The author of these lines happened to meet those Greeks on Limnos, whose parents witnessed the staying of Russian Army. Those unforgettable meetings took place in May, 2010. Fotis Karamalis (born 1921), Evagelos Ahillyas (born 1918), Ioannis Patinorakis (born 1925) admitted that they remembered how their parents had told them about the Russians, appeared on the island in 1920, with obvious sympathy to them. The main features of the Russian‘s characteristics, given by the present day Greeks are respect to them and sympathy to their difficulties. Thus, below you can find some of the characteristics, which give us an opportunity to imagine a «collective portrait» of «Russia Limnosers» on the background of historical time: «They were expelled from Russia». «All the Russians were educated, cultivated people, of high ranks». «The Russians were starving; they worked in field for a piece of bread. The Greeks sympathized with them and gave work». «The Greeks treated the Russian well – as people who were thrown here by Destiny». «The Russian, appeared on the island, were decent and intelligent». «The Russian prayed, they sang beautifully». «The Russian and the Greeks were connected with Orthodoxy». Conclusions Surely there is a great distance between Russia and Limnos. However, today this distance cannot prevent us from thinking about the fates of the Russian, who stayed on the island in 1920-1921 and became involuntary Civil war victims. We necessarily should peer into those past days and try to understand the reasons why the Russian – being in exile and overcoming difficulties and unbearable tortures, suffering deeply – still kept on loving Russia and feel deep and close spiritual liaison with it. References Kalinin, I. M. (2003). Under Wrangel‗s banner. Moscow: Russian State University for the Humanities. Reshetnikov, L. P. (2009). Russian Limnos: historical essay. Moscow: Novospassky monastery. Russian Army in a strange land. Gallipoli epic (2003). Moscow: Centrpoligraph. Turoverov, N. (1999). The twentieth year – farewell to Russia! Moscow: Children‘s planet. 986 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 564 Title A name given to the resource Russian Emigration on The Balkans: The ―Limnos Episode‖ (On Memoirs and Verses of Representatives of White Army) Author Author Lapaeva, Natalya Abstract A summary of the resource. The article traces the role island Limnos (Greece) in the fates of representatives of ―white movement‖ which has arisen after revolution in Russia in 1917 and during civil war. Parts of Russian Army were on Limnos since February 1920 till November 1921. It represents the results of analysis of memoirs and verses by some representatives of Russian Army, among which Ivan Kalinin, Erast Giatzintov, Ivan Sagatsky, Nikolay Turoverov. The author of the paper revealed features of the description of landscapes of Limnos in memoirs and verses those who passed through Limnos. It is shown what difficulties were endured by Russian Army on Limnos (cold, hunger, isolation from the world). It is proved that the Russian Army under the direction of Wrangel has shown moral courage, unity, patriotism. Authors of memoirs and verses concern problems of mutual relations of Russians and Greeks, the inhabitants of Limnos, what has found reflection in various forms of spiritual and cultural dialogue. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b56f983858f9640978ae79569c5ed232.pdf 81717c9542ebef4db36b1f2a5ba0cef2 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE CRITICAL READING APPLICATIONS IN ELT/EFL CLASSES Hülya KÜÇÜKOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Hacettepe University, Turkey hulyaku@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, reading has become one of the most important skills in ELT/ EFL teaching. The importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas are the key elements of social and academic success. In the past decade, there has been a sustained interest in promoting reading as a significant and viable means of language development for second and foreign language (L2 and FL) learners (Day and Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1995). Critical reading is a skill which we use in our social and academic lives. As critical readers we need to understand, question and evaluate the texts which are actively participate in our lives. By looking at the texts which are already there, from a different point of view will develop our critical thinking as well as critical reading. Being one of the most frequent skills that we use in every part of our lives, critical reading can be developed through learning and practice. In this study the benefits of Critical (CR) practices in traditional EFL/ELT classes is discussed and some classroom applications to improve critical reading in ELT is presented Keywords: critical reading, critical thinking, ELT/EFL Introduction Starting with the numerous education reforms done in the last decades, new views of teaching and learning started to be discussed and used in EFL/ELT classrooms. These reforms explicitly ask teachers to change their teaching strategies by shifting the emphasis from the traditional textbook-based, rote learning, to exploration, inquiry-based learning situated in real-world phenomena (National Research Council, 1996). As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, the importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas became the key elements of social and academic success. In this era questioning has become the most frequently used techniques in every part of our lives. The need for the students to question and make connections between their studies and the world in which they live, is now a necessity in order to have social and academic success. Students who use critical thinking and reading strategies can demonstrate knowledge and understanding to the issues and can make connections between the concepts. At this point critical thinking becomes the key element of this connection. As teachers, we do not teach students what to think, but we can help them how to think by organizing their thinking to facilitate complex issues. Thinking skills can be improved by understanding the processes involved in thinking. Using different kinds of questions is one way to increase higher-level thinking in the classrooms. At this point some sub skills can be used to teach higher level thinking in the classroom such as: making inferences, drawing conclusions, comparing and contrasting, analyzing, predicting and evaluating. In order to read critically, the students need to learn how to think critically as the first step of the process. Although there are some quite diverse definitions of critical thinking, nearly all emphasize the ability and tendency to gather, evaluate, and use information effectively (Beyer, 1985). Chance (1986:6) defines critical thinking as the ability to analyze facts, generate and organize ideas, defend opinions, make comparisons, draw inferences, evaluate arguments and solve problems. Critical thinking skills aim at teaching the learner how to think rather than what to think (Taylor, 2001). In critical thinking, collecting, elaborating and using data are crucial. The components of critical thinking which are reasoning, problem solving, and decision-making along with creative thinking are thought to be the skills of vital importance for success at school and in life (Collier, et al., 2002:7). What is Critical Reading? Reading comprehension was given a range of definitions. Tierney and Pearson, (1994) claims reading as an active cognitive process in which the reader‘s background knowledge plays a key role in the creation of 620 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo meaning. Manzo and Manzo (1993, p.5) define reading as ―the act of simultaneously reading the lines, reading between the lines, and reading beyond the lines.‖ According to Davies (1995) there are two types of reading activities: passive and active. In passive reading exercises, students are required to respond comprehension questions, multiple choice questions, truefalse questions and gap filling questions. This kind of reading is commonly used in the classrooms where rote learning is practiced. Rote learning occurs when a person memorizes and gives back the information without thinking. This kind of reading is easier to apply in the classrooms as the teachers can easily check whether their students understand the ideas in the given text at a certain level. One other reason for the practical use in the classroom is that it is easy to correct. Active reading, on the other hand enhances the readers ability to expose their own opinions about the text they read rather than parrot the writer‘s opinion. Developing critical reading skills can be time-consuming and difficult for EFL students, but if we look at the issue from a wider perspective, this kind of reading would be accomplished with continual practice and the result of these practices would worth the effort. There is also a distinction between a critical and a non-critical reader. In order to better understand the distinction between the critical and non-critical reader, the first thing is to analyze their way of looking at the reading process. Kurland (2000) states that to non critical readers, texts provide facts. Non-critical readers get information from a text simply by memorizing it. Critical readers on the other hand do not only identify what a text says; they also identify what the text does and what the text means.  What a text says – restatement  What a text does – description  What a text means – interpretation (http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm) Reading is not only about getting the meaning from the text as it is given. As Grabe (1988) defines critical reading is ―a dialogue between the reader and the text‖. That is, it is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. During the process of reading, the reader interacts with the text and tries to get the meaning from the text where different kinds of information and knowledge are presented. L2 reading comprehension is known as highly complex, dynamic, multicomponential and multidimensional because it involves multiple interactions among reader factors (e.g., first language literacy (L1) literacy, L1 background, language proficiency, background knowledge, knowledge of genre and pragmatics, metalinguistic knowledge, motivation, metacognition, and strategy use) and contextual factors (e.g., text topic and content, text type and genre, text readability, verbal and non-verbal communication (Phakiti, 2006). Reading effectively requires approaching texts with a critical eye: evaluating what you read for not just what it says, but how and why it says. (http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/quicktips/criticalread.pdf.) The aim of critical reading is;  to recognize an author‘s purpose  to understand tone and persuasive elements  to recognize bias That is:  recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language  recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the nature of language choices  recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and language (http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm) ―Critical reading‖ is basically a reading process which involves critical thinking. In the last decades, in addition with the comprehension in reading, analytic reading was started to be discussed. Critical reading requires reading and critical thinking. In order to make a good critical reading, one should know how to do critical thinking. According to Marshall and Rowland (1998), critical thinking occurs when students question their own beliefs or what they are told. Correspondingly, Kurland (2000) states that Critical thinking is a technique for evaluating information and ideas, for deciding what to accept and believe. Critical thinking involves a variety of skills such as the individual identifying the source of information, analysing its credibility, reflecting on whether that information is consistent with their prior knowledge, and drawing conclusions based on their critical thinking (Linn, 2000). 621 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Adapted from Knott‘s (2005) five steps to read looking for ways of thinking is stated below: Central claims: The first one of the five steps is to distinguish the central claims or purpose of the text. At this point it would be beneficial for a critical reader to identify if the text states a fact or an opinion. If the text is an opinion, the critical reader aims to discover the purpose of the writer. Context: Context is another key element to identify the text. ―In which context the text is written and who is the potential reader according to the writer‖ are some questions to be answered. Kinds of reasoning: Differentiating the kinds of reasoning in the text would also give the critical reader to understand the organization of the text which would also give an idea to understand the text more clearly. Evidence: Another point to be covered is to find out the supporting details that the text covers that is the evidence that the text holds Evaluation: Evaluation is the outcome of a critical reading. Instead of accepting the ideas given in the text, a critical reader makes jugdements and tries to bring up counter argument. Knott (2005) also gives some tips to be used in classroom settings in order to promote critical reading. 1. Critical reading occurs after some preliminary processes of reading. Begin by skimming research materials, especially introductions and conclusions, in order to strategically choose where to focus your critical efforts. 2. When highlighting a text or taking notes from it, teach yourself to highlight argument: those places in a text where an author explains her analytical moves, the concepts she uses, how she uses them, how she arrives at conclusions. Don't let yourself foreground and isolate facts and examples, no matter how interesting they may be. First, look for the large patterns that give purpose, order, and meaning to those examples. The opening sentences of paragraphs can be important to this task. 3. When you begin to think about how you might use a portion of a text in the argument you are forging in your own paper, try to remain aware of how this portion fits into the whole argument from which it is taken. Paying attention to context is a fundamental critical move. 4. When you quote directly from a source, use the quotation critically. This means that you should not substitute the quotation for your own articulation of a point. Rather, introduce the quotation by laying out the judgments you are making about it, and the reasons why you are using it. Often a quotation is followed by some further analysis. In order to promote critical reading in ELT classses the reader use questions such as; What have I gained from the information given in the text? How are the facts, examples used and interpreted? What is the aim of the writer in writing the text? Who did the writer specify as the target reader? What is the organization method of the text? How does the text reach its conclusions? What is the specified time of the text? What are the bias of the writer? What is the setting of the text? How does this text work? How is the text argued? Therefore in reading, the teachers, should expect the learners to perceive and recognize 1. claims 2. the claims with reasons (arguments) 3. evidence 4. opposing arguments 622 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 5. refutations (to correspond them) 6. fallacies (flawed reasoning) (Stapleton, 2001) In order to foster critical thinking and reading in the classroom, the students can be asked open ended questions such as,  I wonder if…?  What could we do…?  Can you find a way to …?  What would happen if…?  Why do you think (that) happened…?  What did you notice about…?  Tell me about…? Critical Reading Strategies Improve Your Reading Strategies and Identify the Purpose of Your Reading Improve your reading by studying the reading strategies. In order to read the text effectively, you need to identify your reading and improve it according to your needs. Identifying the purpose of why you read the text will help you get the best out of your reading. Knowing the purpose will help you organize your ideas about the reading text. In order to organize your ideas properly, it would be beneficial to answer some questions such as:  ―Why do I read this book?‖  ―What kind of information I am looking for?‖  ―Are there enough supports for my argument?‖ Give Yourself Enough Time to Read Reading critically is not a fast process; the reader reads the text in order to get the whole idea presented in the text. It is for that reason that the reader should take his time to read the text carefully. Most of the time, rereading the text would let the reader better distinguish the ideas presented in the text. In the first reading, the reader reads the text to get the main idea. In the rereading part, it would be a better idea for the reader to work on the seperate parts of the text. In more complex texts, in order not to get confused with the different ideas presented in the text, the reader should organize the parts and the ideas in the text. Take Notes While Reading the Text While reading the text, the reader should take notes on the text in order to make the unknown words and terms checked out later. Also it would be a good idea to write down any questions that come to the reader‘s mind in order to have a clear understanding of the text. The unknown words and the questions can be discussed with the instructor to make sure that there is nothing left unclear about the text. By doing such studies, in one way the text is ―personalized‖. In addition to these, a summary can be written in order to record the main points to be fully covered. Try to Understand the Background of the Writer and How this Background Influence the Writing Reading a text critically requires asking questions about the writer‘s authority and the purpose of his/her writing the text. It should be kept in mind that every text that the reader reads, is there to try to change the reader‘s view in some way. In order to do this every text filters the realities for its purpose of existence. As a critical reader, you need to understand the reason why the text was written. It would be beneficial for your understanding to answer some questions such as;  ―What kind of information does the text give?‖  ―What is the purpose of the text?‖  ―What does the text say?‖  ―How does the writer support his/her ideas? ― Adapted from from the University of Minnesota‘s Student Writing Guide, 2004. 9–11 623 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sample Critical Reading Applications to Be Used In ELT/EFL Classes Wide range of materials such as newspaper articles, all sorts of literary texts such as short stories, poems, novels, song lyrics which are appropriate for the student‘s age and interests can be used in classroom settings. in order to promote critical reading in ELT classrooms. SUGGESTION 1 The teacher brings a newspaper article to the classrom which is suitable for the level and the interest of the students. The use of newspaper articles in English classrooms as a critical reading resource is beneficial as ―Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real-life purposes by real people.‖ (Nuttall 1996:172). It would be more suitable to find articles which have controversial ideas in it so that the students can find counter arguments to make the discussion more fruiteful.. Pre- reading; The teacher asks the students; - about the kind of food they consume. - nutrition policies held by the countries. - the reasons for the increasing number of obesity all aroud the World. While reading; The students are asked to read the text about ―healty food‖. ―Dietitians are fond of reciting the mantra 'all foods can fit into a healthy diet' and telling people that there are no "good' or "bad" foods. But considering that 64 percent of adults (plus an alarming 15 percent of children) are categorized by the government as overweight, some experts say this message is baloney (which happens to be a really bad food!). "The idea that there are no bad foods is a marketing trick thought up by the food industry to defend their products," says Bonnie Liebman, M.S., director of nutrition at the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), a nonprofit health-advocacy group based in Washington, D.C. "The whole notion is full of holes and makes no sense." Evil is the only appropriate word to describe foods that promise pleasure but deliver misery in the form of heart disease and obesity. Although a Whoopie Pie isn't going to sprout fangs and go for your jugular, it's wise to watch your back when traveling the dark alley of empty calories. A sweet, creamy taste and jazzy packaging can be hiding a food that will only do you wrong. That's the thing about evil: Sometimes it looks so good. What makes a food really, really scary? In the edibles department, a food gets the seal of disapproval if it does more harm than good -- that is, if it supplies calories but little else, and also contains heart-diseasepromoting substances like saturated and trans fats. Trans fats are the nasty man-made fats used to give foods a longer shelf life. Manufacturers hydrogenate oil to make it solid and literally twist the molecule into a form that wreaks havoc in the body.‖ (http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0846/is_12_22/ai_104943689/?tag=col1;subcol) Post reading; After reading the article, the students will be asked to answer the following questions about the article in order to identify;  Whether the article is written to inform, influence or merely entertain readers?  How central claims in the article are developed or argued?   What the main idea of the paragraph is? Whether the writer adequately supports his/ her opinion? If not, what type of fallacious thinking is employed in it? What are some of the counter arguments that can be used to refute the writer‘s argument?  624 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo  Which part of the article does the reader agree with the writer? Why? SUGGESTION 2 Pre-reading activity; As a first step of this activity the students will be asked to answer some questions in order to bring up a discussion in the classroom. (a) What are your most favorite fairy tales? Why? (b) How do you feel about the theme of ―injustice‖ especially in the most favorite fairy tales? (c) How do you generally feel about the endings of the fairy tales? (d) In real life we don‘t always have happy endings, why do you think the fairy tales always have a happy ending? While reading activity; In order to let everybody in the class remember the story, the students are asked to read the story. After reading the story, the students are asked to comment on the pitiful actions of the step mother. The teacher than asks the students to write down questions to be asked to the step mother, asking about all the cruel things she had done to Snow White. Such as: ―Why were you so cruel to Snow White?‖ ―What would you do if she was your own (biological) daughter?‖ ―Why didn‘t you try to find other ways to solve your problem with Snow White instead of trying to kill her?‖ ―Why do you give so much importance beauty?‖ ―What do you think about the moral values that people have in the society?‖ ―…….?‖ After writing the questions,, the students try to answer the above questions by giving answers as if they were the ―cruel‖ step mother. The students try to find excuses for the step mother in order to change the negative feelings towards her. Post reading activity; As the last part of the activity, the students are asked to write down the story with a different point of view. This time, the story is told from the step mother‘s mouth by using her point of view. In order to do this the students try to find reasonable supports for the step mother‘s actions. The students are asked to be creative in their writing in order to come up with different ideas. SUGGESTION 3 Pre-reading activity; The students are shown a picture and asked to comment on the picture by answering the open ended questions asked by the teacher. At this point the students are expected to make predictions about the text they are going to read. 625 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - What do you see on the picture? Does the picture give you an idea about the text you are going to read, how? Who do you think the man in the picture is? What do you think the man on the picture has in his hand? Do you think the horse is an ordinary one? What kind of story do you think you are going to read, what are your reasons for your prediction? By the help of this activity, the students are expected to come up with different ideas about a text. After every idea is presented, the teacher asks the students to create their own stories about the picture by using the predictions discussed in the classroom. While reading activity; At this point, the teacher hands out the original story for the student to read. The students try to find the points in the original story which overlap with their own story. ―Once upon a sunny morning a man who sat in a breakfast nook looked up from his scrambled eggs to see a white unicorn with a golden horn quietly cropping the roses in the garden. The man went up to the bedroom where his wife was still asleep and woke her. "There's a unicorn in the garden," he said. "Eating roses." She opened one unfriendly eye and looked at him. "The unicorn is a mythical beast," she said, and turned her back on him. The man walked slowly downstairs and out into the garden. The unicorn was still there; now he was browsing among the tulips. "Here, unicorn," said the man, and he pulled up a lily and gave it to him. The unicorn ate it gravely. With a high heart, because there was a unicorn in his garden, the man went upstairs and roused his wife again. "The unicorn," he said, ―ate a lily." His wife sat up in bed and looked at him coldly. "You are a booby," she said, "and I am going to have you put in the booby-hatch." The man, who had never liked the words "booby" and "booby-hatch," and who liked them even less on a shining morning when there was a unicorn in the garden, thought for a moment. "We'll see about that," he said. He walked over to the door. "He has a golden horn in the middle of his forehead," he told her. Then he went back to the garden to watch the unicorn; but the unicorn had gone away. The man sat down among the roses and went to sleep. As soon as the husband had gone out of the house, the wife got up and dressed as fast as she could. She was very excited and there was a gloat in her eye. She telephoned the police and she telephoned a psychiatrist; she told them to hurry to her house and bring a strait-jacket. When the police and the psychiatrist arrived they sat down in chairs and looked at her, with great interest. "My husband," she said, "saw a unicorn this morning." The police looked at the psychiatrist and the psychiatrist looked at the police. "He told me it ate a lilly," she said. The psychiatrist looked at the police and the police looked at the psychiatrist. "He told me it had a golden horn in the middle of its forehead," she said. At a solemn signal from the psychiatrist, the police leaped from their chairs and seized the wife. They had a hard time subduing her, for she put up a terrific struggle, but they finally subdued her. Just as they got her into the straitjacket, the husband came back into the house. "Did you tell your wife you saw a unicorn?" asked the police. "Of course not," said the husband. "The unicorn is a mythical beast." "That's all I wanted to know," said the psychiatrist. "Take her away. I'm sorry, sir, but your wife is as crazy as a jaybird." 626 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo So they took her away, cursing and screaming, and shut her up in an institution. The husband lived happily ever after. ―Moral: Don't count your boobies until they are hatched.‖ by James Thurber (http://english.glendale.cc.ca.us/unicorn1.html) Post activity; After reading the story by James Thurber, a classroom discussion is held. The teacher asks some questions to encourage the students.     Can you think of a saying or ―moral‖ that fits this story? Is the ―moral of the story‖ suitable for the ending? Do you think the man planned this situation? If you were the wife, what would you do to get rid of this situation? The teacher asks the students to write a different ending to the story starting from; ―When the police and the psychiatrist arrived, they sat down in chairs and looked at her, with great interest. …. The teacher asks the students to be as creative as possible in their writing. SUGGESTION 4 Pre-reading activity; As the first step of the activity, the students are asked about their opinions on ―animal testing. Every student is reinforced to construct a discussion about this topic. The students form groups; first group is for the idea of animal testing and the second group is against this idea. Both of the groups, write their arguments to support their ideas. While reading activity; The students will be given two different articles from two different newspapers with different views on the same topic. At this point, the teacher hands out the original articles which are appropriate for the level of the students and ask the students to read the articles slowly and silently and take notes to better understand the arguments in the articles. In addition to this, the students will be asked to write down the arguments of each writer. Then the students will be asked to underline the supporting sentences presented by both of the writers. Post activity; Having noticed the different point of views of the two writes, the students are asked to write their original ideas on the same topic. This new version will reflect their own ideas, with their own supporting ideas/sentences. Article 1 ―On face value, it is easy to see why advocates of animal testing support it, there are clearly some benefits that come from it: vaccines, drugs, and a host of discoveries that have helped, and continue to help, millions of people worldwide. According to various reports, more than 160 human drugs and vaccines have directly resulted from animal testing, together with 111 veterinary ones. That's right; these discoveries have helped other animals as well. When you consider the advancement in treatments such as heart disease, arthritis, cancer, and so on, it is hard to fathom, why anyone would take a stance against animal testing…‖ (http://www.helium.com/items/343721-the-case-against-animal-testing) Article 2 ―Animals are not good models for human cancer for 2 fundamental reasons: Animals and humans do not get the same diseases. As a result, animal research focuses on artificially inducing symptoms of human cancer and attempting to treat those symptoms. Experimental drugs and treatments that have been found effective on animal models will not necessarily work in people. Despite screening over half a million compounds as anti-cancer 627 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo agents on laboratory animals between 1970-1985, only 80 compounds moved into clinical trials on humans. Of these, a mere 24 had any anti-cancer activity and only 12 appeared to have a 'substantial clinical role.With billions of dollars, countless animals, and well over 30 years spent on the war on cancer, concrete results should have been seen if animal research was actually working. On the contrary, the incidence of cancer continues to rise...‖ (http://caatinfo.org/AgainstAnimalTesting.htm) References Beyer, B. K. (1985). ―Critical Thinking: What Is It?‖ Social Education 49/4: 270-276. Bloom, B. S. (1956). (Eds.). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Vol. 1: The cognitive domain. New York: McKay Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Chance, P. (1986). Thinking in the classroom: A survey of programs. New York: Teachers College,Columbia University. Collier, K, Guenther, T., Veerman, C. (2002). Developing Critical Thinking Skills Through a Variety of Instructional Strategies. An Action Research Project submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the School of Education as a Requirement of the Degree of Masters of Arts in Teaching and Leadership. Saint-Xavier University. Chicago, Illinois. Davies, F. (1995). Introducing reading. London: Penguin English Applied Linguistics. Day, R. R. and Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Grabe, W. (1988) "Reassessing the Term 'Interactive'", in Carrell, P.L., Devine, J. and Eskey, D.E. (eds) (1988) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge: CUP. Knott, D. (2005) Critical Reading Towards Critical Writing http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/critrdg.html Kurland, Daniel J. (2000). ―Critical Reading vs. Critical Thinking.‖ Retrieved April 5, 2011 from http://www.critical-reading.com/ Krashen, S. 1995. Immersion: Why not try free voluntary reading? Mosaic 3(1):1,3-4. Linn, M. C. (2000). Designing the knowledge integration environment. International Journal of Science Education, 22(8), 781–796. Manzo, A.V.and Manzo, U.C. (1993). Literacy Disorders: Holistic Diagnosis and Brace Jovanovich College Publishers; Fort Worth. Remediation. Harcourt Marshall, L. & Rowland, F. (1998). A guide to learning independently (3rd ed). Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman. National Research Council (NRC) (1996). National Science Education Standards-NSES. Washington, DC: National Academy. Nuttall, C. (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language (New Edition) Oxford, Heinemann O'Hara, Takeshi; et al (1978, March 27-31). Establishing a Causal Model for Bloom's Taxonomy through Path Analysis. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (62nd, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1978). ERIC Document Retrieval Service, ED166202. Pardede, P. (2007). Developıng Crıtıcal Readıng In The Efl Classroom, Presented in the FKIP-UKI English Department Bimonthly Collegiate Forum. Retrieved April 5, 2011 from 628 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo http://parlindunganpardede.wordpress.com/articles/language-teaching/developing-critical-reading-in-the-eflclassroom Phakiti, A. (2006). Theoretical and Pedagogical Issues in ESL/EFL Teaching of Strategic Reading, University of Sydney Papers in TESOL, 1, 19-50. Stapleton, P. (2001). Assessing Critical Thinking in the Writing of Japanese University Students. Written Communication Vol.18 No. 4 October 506-548 Sage Publications. Taylor, Chris. (2001) ‗It‘s the real thing‘ Using Ads To Promote Critical Thinking In the EFL Classrooms. News In Brief. The Quarterly Newsletter of INGED. Pp.10- 12 Tierney, R. J., and P. D. Pearson. 1994. ―Learning to learn from text: A Framework for Improving Classroom Practice.‖ In Rudell, Ruddell, and Singer, eds. 1994. 496–513. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0846/is_12_22/ai_104943689/?tag=col1;subcol Retrieved April 2, 2011 http://www.cdl.org/resource-library/articles/HOT.php?type=recent&id=Yes Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://www.helium.com/items/343721-the-case-against-animal-testing Retrieved March 13, 2011 http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/quicktips/criticalread.pdf Retrieved April 2, 2011 http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Higher_Order_Thinking Retrieved March 15, 2011 http://www.criticalreading.com/critical_reading.htm Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://writing.umn.edu/docs/sws/swgpdf.pdf Retrieved March 13, 2011 http://english.glendale.cc.ca.us/unicorn1.html Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://www.officeport.com/edu/blooms.htm Retrieved April 5, 2011 http://caatinfo.org/AgainstAnimalTesting.htm Retrieved March 13, 2011 629 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 93 Title A name given to the resource SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVE CRITICAL READING APPLICATIONS IN ELT/EFL CLASSES Author Author KÜÇÜKOĞLU, Hülya Abstract A summary of the resource. As the society we are living has become more complex and specialized in the last decades, reading has become one of the most important skills in ELT/ EFL teaching. The importance of connecting and commenting on the ideas are the key elements of social and academic success. In the past decade, there has been a sustained interest in promoting reading as a significant and viable means of language development for second and foreign language (L2 and FL) learners (Day and Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1995). Critical reading is a skill which we use in our social and academic lives. As critical readers we need to understand, question and evaluate the texts which are actively participate in our lives. By looking at the texts which are already there, from a different point of view will develop our critical thinking as well as critical reading. Being one of the most frequent skills that we use in every part of our lives, critical reading can be developed through learning and practice. In this study the benefits of Critical (CR) practices in traditional EFL/ELT classes is discussed and some classroom applications to improve critical reading in ELT is presented Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1b449e14b848ff2a3f14bf650380f03d.pdf 1157e5213b936467a3adfce0d90c62e3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Blair Kuntz Near and Middle Eastern Studies Librarian Robarts Library, University of Toronto, Canada blair.kuntz@utoronto.ca Abstract: The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Keywords: Arabic as a foreign language, colloquial Arabic Introduction As an international language, Arabic is certainly one of the most important and influential. With a total population of almost three hundred million native speakers (Prochazka, 2006) who speak Arabic as a first language, Arabic can claim to be the fourth most widely spoken language in the world. The Arabic script, which is written from right to left, is the second most widely used written script in the world and has been adopted and modified by other languages such as Urdu, Farsi, and Pashto. Arabic has also given many loan words to other languages such as Turkish, Urdu, Farsi, Spanish and Portuguese. Arabic has always had its share of foreign language students. Perhaps the most important of these until the present day are those who learn classical Arabic in order to study the Quran, Islam‘s holy book. Other foreign-language students embark on an academic study of the language in order to study the history, literature, or politics of the Middle East, while others study the language in order to live, work, or travel in the region. Students of Arabic as a foreign language at some point, however, must learn two languages because Arabic is a ―diglossic‖ language in which literate speakers use one form of Arabic as the written language but another for use in daily life. Thus, a student studying classical Arabic in order to read the Quran will discover that Saudi Arabians do not communicate using this language. Similarly, a student who has studied the modern variant of classical Arabic known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), also known as literary or standard Arabic, will find that upon landing in an Arab country his or her attempts to speak MSA will be met with quizzical looks—or worse, laughter. Most major universities teaching Arabic as a foreign language concentrate on teaching MSA as it is this form of Arabic which unites Arabs over a wide geographic area ranging from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West. Enormous resources have been poured into learning how to read, speak, write and listen to the standard form of Arabic used in radio and television broadcasts, newspapers, political speeches, and today in Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs and Twitter. Much less attention has been paid to teaching the many colloquial Arabic dialects which, if offered at all in universities, were only taught as an addendum to the main standard Arabic course. Although some universities have now instituted colloquial Arabic language courses into the curriculum (mostly teaching Egyptian colloquial), the teaching of colloquial Arabic language courses is still 249 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sometimes left to non-credit university continuing education programs or to private institutes both inside and outside the Arabic-speaking world. The preference for teaching MSA is understandable. As the form of Arabic which unites Arabs, learning MSA is absolutely essential for students wishing to study the history, politics, and literature of the Middle East. Teaching colloquial languages, on the other hand, involves choosing one or more colloquial languages which, unlike MSA, have not been standardized and, for the most part, are not written and therefore must be learned through listening and speaking. Nonetheless, the teacher of colloquial Arabic languages need not despair for many text-books on various colloquial languages have been published and continue to be published. Furthermore, the rise of the World Wide Web has been a boon for teachers of colloquial Arabic for, in addition to online courses in colloquial Arabic, the web offers an enormous number of resources for learning and teaching colloquial Arabic including music, television, and film videos. Meanwhile technologies such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer unprecedented possibilities for teaching listening and speaking in colloquial Arabic. Furthermore, the enterprising teacher of colloquial Arabic will find that many Arabic writers have employed colloquial Arabic in their written dialogues. Still other written sources of colloquial Arabic include cartoons, proverbs, and social networking sites. Methods and Aims of the Study This paper is a critical survey of the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic languages as a foreign-language. It first details the difficulties in learning ―diglossic‖ languages such as Arabic and then surveys various text-books (including online), grammars, and dictionaries available for studying a number of colloquial Arabic and evaluates their strengths and weaknesses. After commenting on the curricula of colloquial Arabic courses offered in North American universities and at private institutes throughout the world, it then surveys the resources available for studying colloquial Arabic as a foreign language on the Internet, especially Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube videos, social networking sites, and interactive messaging services such as Skype and MSN Messenger. It then examines colloquial Arabic resources found in Arabic proverbs and in the works of Arabic-language writers and cartoonists. Throughout the paper, the author suggests effective strategies for teaching colloquial Arabic. It is hoped that the discussion of the strategies and resources available for teaching and studying colloquial Arabic will lead to innovative methods for teaching this important component of the Arabic language which has often been neglected. Findings and Discussion Arabic as a ―Diglossic‖ Language In a now classic paper written in 1959 on the subject of ―diglossia‖ in languages, Professor Charles A Ferguson of Harvard University defined this linguistic phenomena as a state in which two varieties of language exist side by side in a language community. As Ferguson defines diglossia, it is: a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language which may include a standard or regional standards, there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body or written literature…which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversation (Ferguson, 1959: 336). In his paper, Ferguson identified four languages existing in a state of ―diglossia‖: Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole (he also briefly discusses Chinese). In the Arabic language, the two varieties of Arabic which exist side by side are the standard written Arabic language known as classical Arabic or ―al-fusha‖ (‫ )الفصحى‬which is the language of the Quran, preIslamic poetry, and medieval writings. Classical Arabic has morphed into what is termed as Modern Standard Arabic (or MSA) which includes more contemporary vocabulary, usages, and styles of expression. MSA today is used in the mass media in written form in newspapers and magazines, is spoken on television news broadcasts and documentaries and is used for speeches and formal occasions. Furthermore, classical Arabic has a long history of grammatical rules and vocabulary laid down by classical grammarians. However, existing side by side the standard language is colloquial Arabic which consists of any number of dialects constituting the everyday spoken language. In contrast to standard Arabic, colloquial languages are 250 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mostly unwritten and have not been subject to study by grammarians. Besides being spoken in daily life, the colloquial variety of Arabic is used in informal media such as television drama, soap operas and talk shows, and is also used in cinema. Although these languages are mostly spoken, some Arabic-language writers have written colloquial poems, drama, and dialogue in Arabic script although it is important to note that colloquial script has never been standardized. The difficulties of teaching MSA to native speakers of colloquial Arabic has been the subject of much research including those concerning the level of functional illiteracy in the Arab world which some attribute to the divergence between spoken Arabic and literary Arabic (Ayari, 1996: 243). Another study, researching illiterate adult Egyptian women learning modern literary Arabic also concludes that the mismatch between colloquial Arabic and standard Arabic is indeed an obstacle to literacy in standard Arabic with many adult learners wishing to write in the colloquial form (Khahchan, 2009: 656). Indeed, in order to minimize the gap between colloquial and standard Arabic, in 1954 the Egyptian Ministry of Education strove to develop teaching materials in colloquial Arabic for use in the first three years of primary schooling. No doubt this was a response to the fact that at the time between a quarter and a half of the total time in elementary school was spent on obtaining a bare mastery of standard Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 112). Indeed, it should be pointed out that the correct pronunciation of Arabic letters (which sometimes changes in the colloquial) is not always mastered even by educated Arabs (Greis, 2000: 6). The gap today is further exacerbated by the prominence given to French and English in many Arabicspeaking countries. A recent BBC report, for example, documents students in Lebanon who can no longer even speak colloquial Arabic well, much less be proficient in standard Arabic because their parents send them to English- or French-language schools. The BBC reports that the problem is evident in many parts of the Arab world where foreign schools are common including the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Egypt, and North African states (Shawish, 2010). Nonetheless, despite the variance between MSA and colloquial, Arabic has not developed along the lines envisaged by Ferguson in which he saw the development of several standardized languages each based on a colloquial variety with a heavy admixture of MSA vocabulary. Instead, with the rise of Arab satellite TV and other modern technological advances such as the Internet, MSA still appears to be on a firm footing. Difficulties for Students of Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Students of Arabic as a foreign language, meanwhile, are likely to approach the divergence between colloquial and MSA from a difficult angle as most foreign students are likely to become acquainted with standard Arabic first and only then will learn a colloquial dialect. According to a rather dated 1972 study, this chain of events might be rather unfortunate because it was the author‘s experience that students who learned colloquial Arabic first had an easier time mastering the acquisition of standard Arabic (Qafisheh, 1972: 6). Qafisheh discovered a far higher dropout rate for students studying standard Arabic with no knowledge of colloquial compared to students who had an acquaintance with a colloquial dialect. Moreover, he found those acquainted with colloquial to be more highly motivated and better in listening and speaking ability. Other researchers, however, think that learning standard Arabic first makes it easier to learn colloquial dialects (Rowland, 198?). Students recently graduated from the study of MSA, itself a difficult language, might indeed be awed to discover they must learn yet another one, although the colloquial languages are derived from classical Arabic and share a good deal of vocabulary with it. It is also true that an educated Arab will incorporate standard Arabic to some degree in his or her speech. Nonetheless, students travelling to different parts of the Arab world must be prepared to be familiar with different vocabulary items (many of them loan words depending on what part of the Arab world they are travelling in—for example, Levantine Arabic contains many Turkish loan words while Iraqi Arabic contains many Persian loan words), different grammatical structures, and widely different pronunciations and intonations (Rowland, 198?). In some cases, vocabulary items used in one dialect area are completely different from another region. Fortunately, however, colloquial Arabic is much less complicated than MSA (for instance, there is no dual and the system of nominal inflection for cases and verbal inflection for modes is completely abandoned in colloquial Arabic (Bateson, 1967: 97-98)) so in some ways it is like learning a simplified version of MSA. 251 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Nonetheless, it is safe to say that some of the Arabic colloquial dialects differ so completely that it would be better to classify them as separate languages rather than a dialect. While speakers of Egyptian, Levantine, and Gulf Arabic might find their dialects mutually intelligible, the same cannot be said of the Maghrebi Arabic of North Africa and the Mesopotamian Arabic of Iraq. Most North American universities have now realized the importance of studying one form of colloquial Arabic. Some offer credit courses (mostly in colloquial Egyptian which is the most widely-used and influential) while others offer certificate courses in continuing studies departments. The prestigious Middlebury College in Vermont, for example, offers five daily contact hours of Modern Standard Arabic and optional sessions in Moroccan, Syrian, or Egyptian colloquial, while Georgetown University, a training ground for diplomats, offers summer sessions in Levantine Arabic. Meanwhile, Arabic-language institutes in the Arab world offer colloquial language programs of the language in which the institutes are situated. For instance, the American University of Cairo offers summer courses in Egyptian colloquial while Arabic Language Institute in Fes, Morocco offers courses in Moroccan colloquial. Certainly, it would appear that colloquial Arabic is no longer overlooked. Text-Books, Grammars, and Dictionaries in Colloquial Arabic Early on, many researchers attempted to gain a grasp of the many colloquial Arabic languages that could not be learned by simply learning standard Arabic. Beginning in 1900, many European researchers, whose countries were engaged in a colonial occupation of the region, began to publish grammars dealing with colloquial Arabic in the region. For example, the book Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco: with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice by Joseph Lerchundi (translated and adapted to English from the second Spanish edition) was published in Tangier, Morocco in 1900. Looking at this book, which is at once a grammar and vocabulary list is interesting in that it uses both Roman and Arabic script to spell out pronunciations of the colloquial (later European works tend to use only Roman script to render the colloquial). Other books in various colloquial languages from this time through to the 1950s include works on Egyptian, Lebanese, Syrian, Omani, Libyan, Sudanese and Saudi Arabian Arabic. Taken together, these works form a valuable historical record of attempts to record, render and impart Arabic colloquial languages. Moreover, many of the books published before 1923 are no longer subject to copyright law and are now available as full-text open access retrieval in academic library catalogues. Because it represented a systematic attempt to study regional Arabic colloquial languages, a great advance in English-language text-books dealing with Arabic colloquial languages occurred in 1960 when the Arabic Research program was established as a contract between Georgetown University and the United States Office of Education. The series proceeded under the auspices of Richard Harrell, who died tragically in a car accident while conducting research for an Egyptian reference grammar. Unfortunately, considering that Egyptian colloquial is the most widely-taught colloquial Arabic, this work has still not been completed. Still, Dr. Harrell, who was chair of Georgetown‘s Arabic department, and his assistants managed to produce a series of grammars, dictionaries, and basic text-books that really have not been matched in stature even until the present day. In the end, the series included those dealing with Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian and Iraqi colloquial. Dr. Harrell‘s death saw the loss of several other projects in the projected series including a Syrian-English dictionary and a basic course in Syrian Arabic. An Egyptian-English dictionary began by Dr. Harrell and his team of assistants was completed and published by the American University of Cairo in 1986 (Nydell, 2003: xvii). Dr. Harrell‘s text-books consisted of a text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary (Harrell, 2003). Importantly, the text-books included a series of audiotapes (now replicated as CDs) which repeated in oral form the written texts in the book. As the texts were meant for beginning students, they did not use Arabic script but instead used a Roman transliteration scheme. The Department of Arabic Language, Literature and Linguistics at Georgetown University has attempted to continue production of colloquial Arabic materials and has branched out to producing audiovisual materials such as Margaret Nydell‘s Syrian Language Course. Georgetown University‘s colloquial Arabic text-books and reference grammars were left with some obvious gaps, most notably that of Gulf Arabic. This gap has been filled by the Colloquial Series (which produces text-books and grammars for a number of languages throughout the world) with Clive Holes‘ Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia published in 1984. It essentially replicates Harrell‘s pattern of text, grammatical notes, exercises and vocabulary and it also has an accompanying audio compact disc. A wealth of materials published on various forms of colloquial Arabic has been published since the Georgetown series including the colloquial of many other forms of Arabic. In addition, online Arabic colloquial courses available through the Internet offer even more opportunities for the enterprising teacher or student. 252 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Web 2.0 and Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Listening and Speaking Skills While the plethora of text-books available for studying colloquial Arabic is indeed a major resource, the text-book has its limitations. Although many students have a positive attitude to text-books, these books have certain limitations such as becoming dated. Furthermore, they can lock both the student and teacher into using the text-book content as the only material to be taken into the classroom (Harmer, 1998: 117). Most importantly, they can limit student autonomy in which students do not control their own learning and choices for study. The recent technological revolution of the Internet and Web 2.0 innovations has important implications for the study of Arabic as a colloquial language. Since colloquial Arabic is, for the most part, not written but rather learned through listening and speaking, the number of colloquial Arabic listening opportunities available on applications such as YouTube, the video-sharing website on which users can upload, share and view videos, and podcasting offer many opportunities for ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Meanwhile, applications such as Skype and MSN Messenger offer many opportunities for both ―reciprocal‖ and ―non-reciprocal‖ listening. Listening provided by text-books can be problematic because, as one researcher notes, ―listening activities…as much as possible [should be] controlled by the students rather than the teacher, since this increase in student autonomy is…one of the keys to successful learning (White 2008: 215).‖ In contrast, these new technologies make it easier for students to decide how and when they learn, how they manage their learning and even what and where they learn (Cotterall 1008: 111). One of the most useful materials for teaching colloquial Arabic is the many music videos sung in colloquial Arabic that exist on YouTube. In general, songs are useful in introducing the rhythm of a language, which in turn benefits memorization. Learning a language through songs is said to aid in vocabulary and grammar acquisition and develops all four productive language skills of reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Medina 2002). Many Arabic singers, including the famous Lebanese singer Fayrouz, sing in colloquial Arabic, and their songs are readily available on YouTube. Other singers whose ―story songs‖ (rather than simple popular love songs) could be used to further classroom activities include Egyptian singer Mohammed Mounir and the various Algerian ―rai‖ (opinion) singers who often switch to French when speaking of subjects that might be controversial in Arabic (Betahila, 2002: 192). Various activities that could be generated listening to colloquial songs include completing a true or false quiz or a gap fill exercise of missing words. Other important video sources of colloquial Arabic listening materials readily found on the Internet and YouTube are television news clips; television soap operas; sitcoms and serious drama; Arabic cinema; television and radio advertisements; prank shows; candid camera; and animated cartoons. Class room activities using these sources can easily be used in focused listening activities and can provide a springboard for interaction in pair and group work for more ―interactive‖ listening activities (McKay, 2008:4). For instance, a television news item about a political demonstration might have beginning students asked to make out the chants while more advanced students could listen to the protestors‘ demands. This, in turn, could lead to students pretending they were protestors who must present their demands in colloquial Arabic. Another Web 2.0 tool that provides a useful tool for learning ―reciprocal‖ or interactive listening and speaking are video chat tools such as Skype, MSN Messenger, Yahoo Messenger and also the lesser-known Paltalk, CUWorld, and ICQ. All of these applications, which allow users to make free audio and visual calls over the Internet, can be used for language learners engaging with authentic communication with native speakers (Eroz-Tuga, 2009: 787). For example, Skype and other video chat applications allow foreign language learners to learn correct pronunciation and cadence (especially important for colloquial Arabic languages where variations are wide) and become acquainted with colloquial slang and idioms. Skype, through its language exchange program, allows foreign language learners to connect with other Skype users all around the world. If someone wants to learn Arabic, they can go into Skype and search the forums for someone who is a native (or at least fluent) Arabic speaker. Meanwhile, teachers can create a group for their class and can invite colloquial native speakers to join the group and create a community of language learners. Because of the mismatch between standard and colloquial Arabic, it is likely easier to find language exchange students willing to speak their colloquial language as many of them might find speaking standard Arabic artificial. Once again, it is also easy to see how these video chat technologies allow students to take charge of their own learning by making chat friends and contacting them during their free time. 253 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Reading and Writing Skills Because writing in colloquial Arabic languages has never been standardized, it is difficult to teach and learn colloquial Arabic through reading and writing. Nonetheless, many Arabic writers have transcribed colloquial Arabic into Arabic script, while Western writers have transcribed it into Roman script. Today, for example, there exists a wide body of literature in Egyptian colloquial that includes drama, poetry, stories, songs, and newspaper or magazine cartoons. Moreover, the separation between standard and colloquial Arabic in written Arabic in newspapers and literary writing is not always so clear as modern literary Arabic is interspersed with colloquial and foreign terms. For instance, in his book Midaq Alley (ً‫ )خاى الخلٍل‬Nobel prize-winning author Naguib Mahfouz vacillates between the literary and colloquial in his dialogues. Other Egyptian dramatists have written plays in the colloquial, for example, Rashad Rashdi‘s The Butterfly (‫( )الفزاضة‬Greis, 2000: 13-14). Other noted writers who have written in the colloquial include Sudanese novelist Tayeb Salih, whose dialogues in Wedding of Zein are written in Sudanese colloquial, and Iraqi poet Saadi Yousuf who has written poetry in the Iraqi dialect. Yet another rich source of writing in various colloquial Arabic languages is the many books of proverbs not written in standard Arabic. Proverbs can reveal a good deal about a colloquial language; for example, Egyptian proverbs combine ancient Egyptian, Coptic, Islamic and foreign elements (Greis, 2000: 31)— all rich fodder for the foreign language classroom. Modern Web 2.0 technologies also offer opportunities for practicing reading and writing skills. While most blogs and Twitter feeds, for example, are written in standard Arabic, native speakers commenting on online news stories or posting updates and status reports on social networking sites such as Facebook tend to write in colloquial Arabic. In addition, most native speakers chatting using the keyboard on chat applications such as MSN Messenger as well as other technologies such as instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging, will do so in colloquial Arabic, either in modified Arabic script or in a modified Roman script which has come to be known as the ―Arabic Chat Alphabet.‖ In Arabic chat (developed at a time when it was only possible to communicate using Roman script), the letter ‫ ع‬is represented as a 3, the ‫ د‬by a d and its emphatic counterpart ‫ض‬as a D. Yet another technology known as ―IM Arabic‖ allows users to communicate using chat technologies by transliterating Latin script. Thus, in the classroom it is possible for students to write group posts for the teacher to review and comment upon either using Arabic script or perhaps ―Chat Arabic‖. Conclusions and Recommendations Most students studying Arabic as a foreign-language study standardized Arabic, either in the form of classical or Modern Standard Arabic. However, in order to know Arabic, they soon find that their knowledge of the standard language is not sufficient for understanding the language spoken in daily life. Instead, they discover that native speakers themselves learn standard Arabic almost as if it were another dialect. While hardly as well advanced as the resources devoted to standard Arabic, there is a wide network of resources devoted to colloquial Arabic ranging from early grammars and dictionaries published by European colonial era scholars to the impressive text-books, dictionaries and reference grammars produced by Georgetown University. Other published resources for colloquial Arabic include Arabic literature and proverbs from which both colloquial Arabic language teachers and students can strategize and design lessons. The more recent advances in the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have also greatly expanded the resources available for students and teachers, not the least of which is the vast number of videos using various forms of colloquial Arabic as well as technologies such as video chat which allow students to listen, speak, and even read and write in colloquial Arabic languages. Moreover, these technologies allow teachers to be more creative in designing their lessons and students to control their own learning, a key ingredient for successful language learning. As this paper is for the most part a critical survey, it opens the door for further research such as whether studying colloquial Arabic makes it easier to study standard Arabic or whether the opposite is true. (Or, does it matter?) The paper might also serve as a springboard for studies in other ―diglossic‖ languages such as Swiss German, Haitian Creole, Modern Greek and Chinese. It could also spur further research on teaching and studying other languages with much colloquial variation, for example, Brazilian Portuguese and the Portuguese of Portugal. Certainly, the relatively recent advances in foreign language learning involving the Internet and Web 2.0 technologies have engendered and will continue to engender research regarding their efficacy. For example, we might ask: how do they affect or improve foreign language acquisition? How do they enhance foreign language student autonomy? 254 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo What this paper has attempted to make clear, however, is that there is no longer any reason for foreign language study of colloquial Arabic to stand in the shadow of Modern Standard Arabic. Instead, one can indeed enhance and complement the other. References Ayari, Salah (1996). Diglossia and Illiteracy in the Arab World, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 9 (3), pp. 243-253. Bateson, Mary Catherine (1967). Arabic Language Handbook. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Betahila, Abdelali and Eirlys E. Davies (2002). Language Mixing in Rai Music: Localisation or Globalisation,‖ Language & Communication, 22 (2), pp. 187-207. Cotterall, Sara (2008). Autonomy and good language learners, in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. Eroz-Tuga, Betil and Randall Sadler (2009). Comparing Six Video Chat Tools: A Critical Evaluation by Language Teachers. Computers & Education, 53 (3), pp. 787-798. Ferguson, Charles A. (1959) Diglossia. Word, 14, pp. 47-56. Greis, Naguib (2000). Aspects of Modern Arabic: Its Structure, Humor, Proverbs, Metaphors, Euphemisms and Common Expressions. Washington, D.C.: Educational Resources Center. Harmer, Jeremy (1998). How to Teach English. Essex, England: Addison Wesley Longman. Holes, Clive (1984). Colloquial Arabic of the Gulf and Saudi Arabia. London: Routledge. Khachan, Victor A. (2009). Diglossic Needs of Illiterate Adult Women in Egypt: A Needs Assessment, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 28 (5), pp. 649-660. Lerchundi, Joseph (1900). Rudiments of the Arabic-vulgar of Morocco : with numerous exercises and examples of its theory and practice. Tangier: Spanish Catholic Mission Press. McKay, Sharon and Kirsten Schaetzel (2008). Facilitating Adult Learner Interactions to Build Listening and Speaking Skills. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. Medina, Suzanne L. (2002). Using Music to Enhance Second Language Acquisition: from Theory to Practice,‖ [online], http://www.forefrontpublishers.com/eslmusic/articles/06htm Nydell, Margaret (2003). Forward to the Georgetown Classics Edition, in Harrell, Richard S. (2003). A Basic Course in Moroccan Arabic. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Prochazka, S. (2006). Arabic, Encyclopedia of Language and Lingusitics (2nd ed.) Qafisheh, Hamdi A. (1972). From Gulf Arabic into Modern Standard Arabic: a Pilot Study. ERIC Report ED109881. Rowland, Howard D. (198?) ―Colloquial Arabic: What is it and How Does One Learn It? Part One and Two, Newsletter XVII and Newsletter XVIII (US Defense Language Institute), [online] http://how-to-learn –anylanguage.com/forum/forum_posts.asp?TID=15493&PN=39 Shawish, Hesham (2010). ―Campaign to Save the Arabic Language in Lebanon‖, BBC News Middle East, 24 June 2010. White, Goodith (2008). Listening and Good Language Learners,‖ in Griffiths, Carol (2008). Lessons from Good Language Learners. Cambridge University Press. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 38 Title A name given to the resource Strategies, New Directions and Resources for Teaching Colloquial Arabic as a Foreign Language Author Author Kuntz, Blair Abstract A summary of the resource. The spoken and written language known as Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) is the idiom that links almost three hundred million Arabic speakers from Iraq in the East to Morocco in the West, and it is this form of Arabic that is used in broadcast media and newspapers, and also for speeches and addresses on formal occasions. For obvious reasons, it is Modern Standard Arabic which is for the most part taught to students of Arabic as a foreign language in universities and private institutes. However, for someone to claim that they really ―know‖ Arabic, it is also necessary to master one or more of the many colloquial Arabic languages spoken throughout the Arab world. In contrast to MSA, Arabic colloquial languages are relegated to an inferior position in the classroom where they are most often added as an afterthought to the MSA course (although some separate colloquial language courses are taught in university continuing education courses and private institutes). At least part of the difficulty in teaching colloquial Arabic is because these languages are, for the most part, not written or standardized and thus are only mastered through listening or speaking. Arabic colloquial languages were strengthened by Georgetown University‘s important series of colloquial language text-books and grammars first published in the nineteen sixties; however, today, with the advent of the Internet and other electronic resources, this series can be supplemented or superseded using Web 2.0 technologies such as YouTube and podcasting as well as popular songs and cinema. In addition, many Arabic literary authors have also written text in colloquial dialects. This paper highlights strategies and assesses resources for teaching colloquial Arabic as a foreign language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e2fa9647467559f9eae58501237980c.pdf d368e3a2b626d2deff2075a777d85f5d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Bologna Process in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Strengthening, Re-Branding, or Undermining Higher Education? Zoë Brennan-Krohn English Language and Literature og Banja Luka BIH University of Banja Luka, Bosnia-Herzegovina zbrennankrohn@gmail.com Abstract:Several years after Bosnia-Herzegovina formally agreed to partake in the Bologna Process of higher education reform, confusion, frustration, and misconceptions still abound among the country‘s students and educators about what Bologna actually means. This paper will analyze and discuss the process of integrating the Bologna process into college and university English language programs in BiH.The paper will use a number of sources in order to facilitate an in-depth exploration of the complexities surrounding Bologna implementation. Official guidelines, texts, and declarations published by the Council of Europe about the Bologna process will be a major source of research for this paper. The paper will also incorporate interviews with students, assistants, and professors from English departments of local universities to understand the perceived reality of these changes in college-level English programs. Drawing these sources together will be the case study of a year-long Council of Europe project devoted to curricular reform in BiH, one which included participation of both education experts and local English professors. By examining these sources together, this paper will contrast and analyze the fundamental tenets of the Bologna reforms, as well as the onthe-ground perceptions of the same process among English language teachers and learners. The paper will seek to pinpoint some sources of confusion between these positions, and to discuss the broader implications of these disconnects . What is Bologna? The reforms that became the Bologna Process were initiated in 1998 by some of the countries with the longest and most illustrious histories of higher education in Europe: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy. In celebration of the Sorbonne‘s 750th anniversary, education ministers from these countries called for a post-nationalist view of education, a kind of education version of the then-forthcoming common currency.354 By the time the Bologna Declaration was signed by 29 founding member-countries the next year, the concept of the border-free education area in Europe had evolved considerably. No longer a declaration of support among the old-boys club of ancient Western European universities, the 1999 Bologna Declaration made specific mention of the importance of educational cooperation in ―the development and strengthening of stable, peaceful and democratic societies‖ and made special note of the importance of this issue in South East Europe. 355 The 1999 Bologna signatory countries included the usual suspects for cooperation in Europe at the time – all of the initial Euro countries were founding members of Bologna.356 The Western European countries which notably opted out of a common currency – the UK, Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden – did choose to join Bologna. In addition, however, the founding Bologna declaration included nine countries that had emerged from behind the Iron Curtain only a decade before. 357 All of these post-socialist countries were, at the time, far from being eligible to join the European Union or the Euro zone. This approach of a remarkably inclusive zone of cooperation in education is worth noting. Despite its widespread perception today, Bologna — unlike the EU, the Euro Zone, or NATO — was never a highly exclusive club for only the richest or most developed countries. The Bologna declaration of June 1999 specified several goals for the future of European higher education, which have been expanded upon but fundamentally consistent in the years since. The declaration called for a ―Europe of Knowledge,‖ a revitalization of the continent’s intellectual and educational dominance from earlier centuries.358 It also mentioned the importance of maintaining Europe’s international appeal and competitiveness into the new century, and of building the foundation of stability and democracy that strong and cooperative education can bring. 354 ―The Official Bologna Process Website, 2010-2012, History.‖ www.ehea.info ―The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999.‖ www.ehea.info, 1. 356 European Navigator: A History of a United Europe on the Internet. www.ena.lu Accessed 15 April 2011. 357 ―The Bologna Declaration of 19 June 1999.‖ 358 Ibid. 355 1315 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In pursuit of these aims, the declaration committed to adopting a system of comparable and clear degrees across the region, establishing a credit system to improve student mobility, improving quality assurance mechanisms in universities, and increasing inter-institutional cooperation.359 One of the most remarkable elements of these goals is how fundamentally unobjectionable they are. For a document that has spawned such resentment, not to mention protests, it seems notably benign. Who would disagree, on principle, with allowing for students to travel or improving the quality of education? Only the most recalcitrant and entrenched members of universities would take issue with these concepts on principle, and such people are not the typical or critical disavowers of Bologna. Biennially after the Bologna Declaration in 1999, ministers of education from member countries met for follow-up meetings, and the main points of these meetings were published in a series of ―communiqués‖. These communiqués added certain new elements to the goals of the Bologna Process, including formalizing the goal of a European Higher Education Area by 2010, emphasizing the importance of lifelong learning, and affirming the important role of students as active participants in reforming and strengthening higher education. 360 The concept of a ―Europe of Knowledge‖ and a subsequent focus on strengthening research and doctoral programs were added to the agenda in 2003.361 Even looking at all of the goals laid out in the Bologna Declaration and five subsequent communiqués, there are relatively few points that seem clearly contentious, certainly not to that extent that protests and anger have suggested. The 2009 Leuven Communiqué responded to the global financial crisis by emphasizing employability and noting universities’ responsibility to respond to labor market demands, and these elements could certainly be objectionable if one took the purest and most philosophical view of what education should be for and about. The backlash against the Bologna process began long before 2009, however, and so these elements of the Leuven Communiqué cannot be seen as the catalyst or the fundamental problem with the process. At most, this document may have strengthened opposition, although in reality most students, professors, and administrators, were probably not aware of the document at all. How did Bologna come about in Bosnia-Herzegovina? Bosnia-Herzegovina joined the Bologna process in 2003, along with Serbia and Montenegro and Macedonia. With the addition of these countries, the entire former Yugoslavia became part of the Bologna Process. 362 Although theoretically a voluntary commitment, international community pressure is widely believed to be the impetus for Bosnia’s 2003 entry into the Bologna Process. Although higher education in Bosnia-Herzegovina suffered significantly during the 1992-1995 war, most universities continued to function during the war, albeit under highly strained circumstances. Most notably, the University of Sarajevo continued to hold courses throughout the nearly four-year siege, in spite of extreme danger and hardship for students and faculty. Additionally, the University of East Sarajevo (originally called the Serb University of Sarajevo), and separate Croat and Bosniak Universities of Mostar were actually founded during the war, in an effort to establish ethnically identified institutions to replace the formerly multiethnic universities in these cities. During and after the war, primary and secondary schools in BiH were formally segregated by ethnicity, resulting in some instances of ―two schools under one roof,‖ where one building and schoolyard were physically divided and transformed into separate schools, and students were sorted on the basis of ethnicity. Curricula, especially language and history, became ethnically based. These measures were very successful at solidifying and re-entrenching ethnic tensions throughout the country. At the level of higher education, universities in BiH are not formally segregated – there is no official ethnic identity of any university. The divisions from earlier years of school, however, as well as broader societal segregation, create de facto ethnic segregation at universities as well. While the University of Sarajevo maintains something of a multi-ethnic identity (although predominantly Bosniak), the country’s seven other public universities have an overwhelming predominance of one ethnicity. Pervasive ethnic tensions and divisions are a major element of life in Bosnia-Herzegovina, education being no exception. The Bologna Process aims indirectly to facilitate a more integrated education system through student and faculty mobility and cooperation among universities. As a Europe-wide initiative, however, Bologna has no specific provisions for tackling the major and often traumatic repercussions and tensions that have grown out of war. 359 Ibid. ―Towards the European Higher Education Area.‖ Prague, 19 May 2001. www.ehea.info 361 ―Realising the European Higher Education Area.‖ Berlin, 19 September 2003. www.ehea.info 362 This is no longer true since Kosovo‘s declaration of independence in 2008. Because of tensions regarding the recognition of an independent Kosovo, it is no longer a participant in the Bologna reforms. Montenegro, which became independent from Serbia in 2006, however, successfully joined Bologna as an independent state in 2007. 360 1316 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Into this ethnically identified conflict, Bologna’s indirect attempts to integrate education in the country have not done nearly enough to actively heal the gaps left by the war and meaningfully recreate a single functioning system of education. The goals of Bologna in BiH in many ways parallel the broader goals of European Union integration for Bosnia-Herzegovina. Both seek to move beyond internal struggles by making them obsolete through Europeanizing the education system and the country as a whole. While an idealistic goal, post-conflict reconstruction rarely seems to be cured by simply skimming over the traumas and troubles remaining in the wake of the war. What are students’ perceptions of Bologna? Eighty-one students of in the English Language and Literature departments in Banja Luka and Tuzla were surveyed for this project. Respondents were second, third, and fourth year undergraduate students who were asked to reflect on their understanding and opinion of Bologna in their departments, in BosniaHerzegovina, and in Europe. One of the most striking elements of the survey results was the students’ understanding of what the intended purpose of Bologna actually is. Only one of eighty-one students mentioned student or faculty mobility as part of the goal of Bologna, and only seven (9%) referred to standardizing and harmonizing education, either within BiH or across Europe. It is remarkable that less than 10% of respondents mentioned either of the two main facets and goals of Bologna, although it has been present in their education and influencing their lives for upwards of four years. What did students think that Bologna was designed to do? There was a wide variety of theories presented by students. The two most common responses were the purposes of forcing students to study constantly, and making their studies easier, suggested by 40% and 35% of respondents, respectively. The former response was almost certainly informed by the establishment of grades based on a point system comprised of midterm test results, class participation, and homework, rather than the old system of final grades based entirely on written and oral final exams. Making programs easier to pass was a sentiment echoed by several teaching assistants and professors, as well. The continuous study element of the reforms is not entirely unrelated to Bologna’s goals, but nor is it the primary aim of the project. Increasing the transparency of grading policies is part of Bologna’s mission, and creating standardized formulas based on a variety of criteria is a common way of working towards that goal. The specific outcome of making students study continuously, rather than cramming before exams is, while probably a positive change, not in any specific way connected to Bologna. Asked about their overall opinions of Bologna in Bosnia-Herzegovina, the overwhelming majority of responses were either partly or entirely negative. Indeed, only a very small percentage of students described their opinion about Bologna in BiH in only positive terms, while many more described them as entirely negative. A very common student observation was that the reforms in Bosnia-Herzegovina were either not ―real‖ or not ―complete‖ Bologna. 62% of students referred in some way to their belief that Bosnian Bologna was incomplete, misapplied, or lacking unified implementation. This is particularly unusual because there was no question directly related to this point in the survey. It is clear that this is an opinion that many students hold strongly and went out of their way to express in their surveys. 363 The main causes suggested for this ―fake‖ Bologna were lack of resources, organization, and professor support. One student wrote, ―Bologna in BiH is impossible! They started some reforms which cannot be done in our country and they made it even harder for us students.‖ Another commented that, ―In BiH this system [is] a good idea but it’s not really applicable. Our education system is too disorganized and messy.‖ A third student mused, ―I would personally like…to know what the real Bologna Process is like.‖ These spontaneous and adamant observations reflect the perception that professors, deans, rectors and politicians often cherry-pick elements of reforms to implement in their institutions, and that the changes they do implement are often primarily cosmetic. Yet the students’ comments also suggest an erroneous belief that ―Bologna‖ is a unified, cookie-cutter mandate that is either implemented or not. Commonly echoed among teaching staff and politicians, this view of the process is primarily counterproductive. It prevents education stakeholders from becoming actively involved in education reforms because they believe that the process is one of enacting a demand rather than adapting reforms based on individual goals, institutions, and realities. For many in BiH, the role of being the passive site or recipient of projects, reforms, and systems has become a kind of default and assumed position. In the nearly two decades since the war, Bosnia-Herzegovina has frequently been the subject of mandates and intensive international interventions. Regardless of their opinions about these projects, the scenario of imposed reforms has become commonplace. In the case of Bologna, this assumption often precludes any meaningful engagement that might actually be possible. What are faculty perceptions of Bologna? Perceptions of the Bologna Process among teaching staff vary widely. As with students, faculty tended to focus on the elements of the changes that influenced them the most. Of twelve professors and teaching 363 Most instances of this sentiment were in response to the survey question ―What is your opinion about Bologna in BiH?‖ 1317 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo assistants interviewed, only two identified harmonization or mobility among the goals of Bologna as they understood them. Students’ comments that Bologna is different in different universities were clearly echoed through comments from Banja Luka and Tuzla. Many professors and students in Tuzla noted the change with Bologna that students can only attempt an exam three times before being required to re-take the course. In Banja Luka, this change is not yet regularly enforced or agreed upon, and so, not surprisingly, was infrequently mentioned as an element of Bologna. Another common observation from faculty at both universities was a change in the grading scale so that it became easier to pass classes but more difficult to get the highest grades of nine or ten. In some ways, this perception reflects one of Bologna’s general goals to make a college degree more accessible continent-wide, such that simply passing classes is no longer the sometimes-monumental feat that it once was. Like students, many members of the teaching staff cited continuous studying as a key point in Bologna, and many also noted that there was not enough money in BiH to have ―real‖ Bologna. Surprisingly, several faculty members said that their teaching methods and content had changed little or not at all since Bologna, and that only assessment and administrative elements were changed. This helps to explain the sense of Bologna as a set of cosmetic reforms. Either out of confusion or choice, most professors do not see Bologna as an opportunity or a requirement to meaningfully assess and potentially modify their courses. Where students often blamed professors for failing to give enough information about the process, professors often lay this blame with their superiors – deans and rectors. In sum, faculty opinions, like those of students, represented a wide range of opinions about Bologna. While the majority of opinions were primarily negative, either in the theory or the execution of Bologna in BiH, some people felt that the changes had improved education. One teaching assistant, expressing this more optimistic perspective of the changes, noted, ―I think – I don’t think, I see – that students take it more seriously when they have fewer exams and they know they’ll be checked, so they study continuously.‖ Students and teaching staff in Tuzla were, on the whole, more positive about the changes brought by Bologna, while people in Banja Luka were more likely to describe the process in very negative terms. Within the scope of this small survey, it is not possible to tell whether this difference represents variations between these two individual universities in their approach to the reforms, or whether it is indicative of broader, entity-based patterns through which universities in Republika Srpska would be predisposed to more negative attitudes toward international involvement than institutions in the Federation. Analyzing Perceptions and Realities; Theory and Practice of Bologna in BiH One of the most common observations among students and teaching staff was that Bosnia-Herzegovina does not have the money to adequately resource ―real‖ Bologna. While there is no question that financial constraints pose serious limitations to education reforms, there does not seem to be significant awareness of the elements of Bologna which could be implemented without large amounts of money. There is no question that large classes, shortages of classrooms, poor libraries and limited internet access combine to hobble some educational reforms. Some reforms, though, can proceed irrespective of funding, such as encouraging externallyfunded student and professor exchanges throughout Europe; extending the role and scope of student advising; and structuring courses with a greater focus on student needs and learning outcomes. While surely these changes would be progress more smoothly with large quantities of money, they are not dependent on it. What seems like the possibility for true reform in spite of financial constraints is reduced to a theoretical possibility when the perceptions of the potential implementers of these reforms are taken into account. As there are so few professors or students who view the process in these – perhaps idealistic – terms, then the perceived limitations become a reinforced and entrenched reality. The long history of international community involvement in Bosnia-Herzegovina also plays a major role in perceptions of, and openness to, the Bologna Reforms. Especially in Republika Srpska, where international interventions are generally seen in a particularly negative light, impositions or any project that resembles the perceived history of unjust impositions are treated with serious suspicion. The degree to which this dynamic was or was not present in reality as Bosnia joined Bologna is largely irrelevant because this is so universally believed to be the case. As we have seen throughout this paper, there is widespread confusion and misunderstanding about the ultimate purpose of Bologna. This disconnect is pervasive at the level of students and teaching staff, and likely continues even up to the level of deans, rectors, and politicians. Without a clear conception of the ultimate purpose of Bologna, and with no clear efforts to mend this problem of public relations, it is hard to envision the kind of meaningful collaboration that Bologna requires among stakeholders at all levels. Analyzing student and faculty interviews and surveys, it becomes clear that most people understand Bologna based on its functional implications for them. Bologna is whatever has happened to these people: a watering down of the curriculum from the perspective of professors who feel that the scope and content of their courses have been curtailed; a demand to study constantly from the perspective of students who must now 1318 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prepare for a myriad of partial examinations and projects; a sadistic bureaucratic nightmare from the point of view of teaching staff who are now required to accompany their work with many times the paperwork than was once demanded. Although all of these realities are connected in some ways to the big-picture goals of the Bologna reforms, it is troubling that nearly all of the students and teaching staff contacted for this paper understood Bologna entirely based on how it had already affected them, and not based on how it could impact their future or how they themselves could be active members of it. A combination of disinterest, assumptions specific to the Bosnian context and history, and poor information dissemination has created a country of educators and students who see Bologna as something happening to them. In this context, those who should be the active reformers and participants in meaningful reform become entirely passivized. This passivity ensures that reforms will continue to be decided not by those with the most direct and practical understanding of what needs to changed, but by tangential stakeholders with much less information and experience, thus ensuring that Bologna will continue to have a disconnect between theory and practice. Can Bologna in Bosnia-Herzegovina Survive? It is clear from this research that there are serious problems and challenges facing Bologna’s implementation and sustainability in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Looking to the future, many questions and doubts linger. One approach to these problems is simply pushing through them. The joint European Union/Council of Europe project ―Strengthening Higher Education in Bosnia-Herzegovina‖ is an example of this approach. In the third part of this multi-year project, teaching staff from universities across BiH were brought together to learn about the Bologna approach to education and tasked with developing a pilot curriculum based on learning outcomes, flexibility and mobility, and student-centered approaches. Over the course of more than a year, these working groups met monthly and ostensibly succeeded in creating Bologna-friendly pilot courses, curricula, and degree programs. Yet in spite of this seeming success, most of the participants in this program from the English language and literature departments do not hesitate to express their belief that the whole project was mainly an exercise in futility. Although the EU/CoE organizers have said that the project participants should now be viewed as on-theground experts in the field of adapting programs into this European framework, informal conversations suggest that this has not been the case, and that participants themselves would not be eager to take on this role. Without rejecting the possibility that in some subtle ways this project may have been important and may still be a vehicle for success indirectly, it is widely believed by participants that the project was largely useless. Assessing the successes and challenges of the Bologna Process across Europe, a report noted that smaller countries have generally seen greater success in implementing reforms than larger countries like Germany and France, which have diverse and autonomous regions and universities. Although BosniaHerzegovina is certainly small in terms of population and land area, it has many of the divisions and intense local autonomy more commonly found in large, decentralized countries. The geographic proximity between Sarajevo and Pale, for example, does not mitigate the deep tensions that remain for many people in both cities, and this is true for their universities as well. The almost crippling autonomy granted to each entity in the Dayton Peace Accords is proving a major hindrance to harmonizing education country-wide, and within this dynamic Bosnia has perhaps more in common with large, decentralized European countries than with places that are more similar in population and physical size. In many ways the problems of Bologna in BiH reflect larger problems of the country as a whole. On paper, Bologna could be construed as a successful project in BiH: if one chooses not to look too deep or find out too much, the superficial and partial changes that Bologna has created could be perceived as evidence of a broadly successful process. Likewise, the Dayton Peace Accords have superficially ―solved‖ the problems of the war while leaving crucial issues festering. Bologna seems to be working in Bosnia, if that is the answer one hopes to find; in the same way that Dayton seems to have been a success. In both cases, serious problems are left unaddressed or solved in a primarily cosmetic way. In the case of both Bologna and Dayton, the unsolved issues that remain are by their nature the stickiest, most vague, and most contentious. Meaningfully addressing these problems will require an in-depth, countryspecific plan that brings key players on board and persuades them of the possibility of substantive reform. In the case of Bologna, this will mean that stakeholders will need to genuinely believe that changes are possible, that their opinions will be taken into account, and that reforms will not represent a threat to their work. Is this possible in the case of either Bologna or post-Dayton Bosnia as a whole? Optimism seems hard to come by, especially as an outsider in a place where enthusiastic and often ill-informed outsiders have bungled so many projects. The universal European nature of Bologna means that formally opting out of the process could further isolate students, professors, and higher education institutions in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Yet stumbling through the process with haphazard and erratic cosmetic reforms without seriously making changes or discussing potential challenges seems to be undermining every element of pride and confidence that exists among educators and students. It is not without precedent in history that ―fake it until you make it‖ can be a successful philosophy 1319 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo even on an international geopolitical scale. Yet in Bosnia there are politicians and others working very hard against this, and that is a troubling reality. 1320 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 682 Title A name given to the resource The Bologna Process in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Strengthening, Re-Branding, or Undermining Higher Education? Author Author Krohn, Zoë Brennan Abstract A summary of the resource. Several years after Bosnia-Herzegovina formally agreed to partake in the Bologna Process of higher education reform, confusion, frustration, and misconceptions still abound among the country‘s students and educators about what Bologna actually means. This paper will analyze and discuss the process of integrating the Bologna process into college and university English language programs in BiH.The paper will use a number of sources in order to facilitate an in-depth exploration of the complexities surrounding Bologna implementation. Official guidelines, texts, and declarations published by the Council of Europe about the Bologna process will be a major source of research for this paper. The paper will also incorporate interviews with students, assistants, and professors from English departments of local universities to understand the perceived reality of these changes in college-level English programs. Drawing these sources together will be the case study of a year-long Council of Europe project devoted to curricular reform in BiH, one which included participation of both education experts and local English professors. By examining these sources together, this paper will contrast and analyze the fundamental tenets of the Bologna reforms, as well as the onthe- ground perceptions of the same process among English language teachers and learners. The paper will seek to pinpoint some sources of confusion between these positions, and to discuss the broader implications of these disconnects. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0e5d5e9f85b2d9183241e76d2da0e7fc.pdf 1337ca4987e19ba9c68e18a53f740a97 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo To Use or Not to Use: First Language in Tertiary Instruction of English as a Foreign Language Andreja KovaĦiĤ Department of Foreign Languages and General Educational Disciplines Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia andreja.kovacic@foi.hr Valentina KiriniĤ Department of Information Systems Development Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb, Croatia valentina.kirinic@foi.hr Abstract: The issue of whether first language (L1) use in teaching foreign languages (FL) is justified can be considered from various perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the role of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective considering the effects of its use and examining attitudes, beliefs etc. of participants in the dynamic process of FL teaching and learning. The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using Croatian in tertiary English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction concerning L1 use. Two groups of respondents involved in the study were undergraduate nonlinguistic majors at a Croatian university and ESP instructors in various higher education institutions in several Croatian universities. The questions that the research in this paper addresses is 1) whether the tertiary students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language instructors and 2) whether students and instructors, respectively, support the usage of L1 in the tertiary EFL classroom. First language use is explored in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The presented findings comprise those obtained by quantitative as well as qualitative data analysis. Key Words: First language, EFL, ESP, tertiary instruction, research, survey Introduction The question ―Should the first language (L1) be used in foreign language (FL) instruction?‖ has posed a challenge for ESL/EFL materials writers, scholars and, in particular, instructors, who need to address it in their day-to-day teaching practice. In spite of its relevance for the stakeholders, it seems that there is no comprehensive agreement on L1 use. The authors whose formalization of L1 use over the last two and half decades has shaped the opinion of EFL/ESL professionals include Atkinson (1987), Auerbach (1993), Cook (2001b), Turnbull (2001) and Butzkamm (2003). First language use in the FL classroom can be observed from three perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the evolution of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories, often within the ESL context. Moving along the continuum between the two extremes – proscribed and firmly prescribed L1 use – was primarily reflected in the amount of precious class time during which the learner needs to be exposed to FL. The methods that advocate the orthodox use of FL are based on the assumption that a greater amount of FL is one of the preconditions for its easier acquisition, still allowing for L1 to be used when it aids comprehension (Krashen, 1989; Lightbown and Spada, 2006). Furthermore, L1 use can also be considered as one of the parameters that define the differences between methods in terms of differing functions assigned to L1 in each of them. Monolingual approach, which is based on the language compartmentalisation theory, is thus countered by methods that deliberately involve L1 (Cook, 2001b). The turning point in reassertion of L1 in FL teaching is the theory of multicompetence (Cook, 2001a). Butzkamm (2000) places ―the ability to capitalise on the vast amount of both linguistic skills and world knowledge (…) already accumulated via the mother tongue‖ among habits of good language learners. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use, taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. In that respect, the springboard for explicit consideration of L1 was the 150 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo paper by Atkinson (1987), who identified the gap in methodological literature on L1 use as one of the reasons for its indiscriminate use. Inventories of practical uses of L1 and its pedagogical implications have since ranged from resource books (e.g. Atkinson, 1993; Deller and Rinvolucri, 2002) to articles comprising general principles for L1 use (e.g., Gill, 2005, Cook, 2001b), or those providing a cognitive rationale for L1/FL comparison (Dońen, 2001, Ibarra Hidalgo, 2009). The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective, drawing on research into various aspects of participants‘ use of L1 in the dynamic context of the FL classroom. Scott and De la Fuente (2008) proposed the key questions to be addressed when L1 is concerned and also pointed out that most research into L1 use is conducted from the interactionist perspective. Accordingly, Alegrìa de la Colina and Garcìa Mayo (2009) examined the benefits of L1 use for lower proficiency students in collaborative tasks. Research into attitudes of students (Kavaliauskienė, 2009) or students and teachers toward L1 use in tertiary FL/SL instruction (e.g. Schweers, 1999; Tang, 2002; Shimizu, 2006) revealed the respondents‘ tendency toward rational use of L1. Contrary to the findings of Prodromou (2002), who revealed that the students‘ preference to use L1 in FL class diminishes with their proficiency level, the research conducted among students in Iran (Nazary, 2008) showed that respondents were reluctant to use L1 in class regardless of their proficiency. Finally, of particular interest for practitioners are studies on teachers and students‘ attitudes toward different uses of L1 (Macaro, 1997). In their research among US university teachers, Polio and Duff (1994) established varying preferences for specific L1 uses. The questions that the research in this paper addresses are 1) whether the tertiary ESP students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language teachers and 2) whether students and teachers, respectively, support L1 use in the tertiary EFL classroom. Method of the Study The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using L1 (Croatian) in tertiary ESP instruction concerning L1 use in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The research was conducted by means of two analogous questionnaires, one for the students and the other for the teachers. The instrument, which is an adapted version of the questionnaires used by Schweers (1999), Tang (2002) and Shimizu (2006), was administered in Croatian. Generally speaking, all the three groups of L1 uses specified by Cook (2001b), i.e., ‗teacher conveying meaning‘, ‗teacher organizing the class‘ and ‗students using L1 within the classroom‘ were represented in our survey. The student questionnaire consisted of 11 questions: 3 demographic questions; 2 questions concerning the linguistic competence level; 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use. The teacher questionnaire consisted of 8 questions: 1 on the respondents‘ general data; 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use and 1 open-ended question. In both questionnaires, among the 6 questions concerning perception of L1 use there were 2 dichotomous questions and 4 multiple-choice questions. Combining various question types makes it possible to collect data based on which hypotheses can subsequently be formulated and a scale of a higher internal consistency developed (Mackey and Gass, 2005). Sampling Two groups of respondents included in the study were: 1) undergraduate non-linguistic majors at the Faculty of Organization and Informatics, University of Zagreb and 2) ESP instructors in Croatian higher education institutions. The first group of respondents (N=171) were students in the undergraduate intermediate English Language I course in the 2008/2009 academic year. 121 (70.88%) of respondents were male and 48 (28.1%) female, while in 2 cases the data on gender was missing. Undergraduate respondents‘ age ranged between 19 and 28, 19 being the average (M=19.982, sd 0.939). This obligatory course is delivered in the first term, but can also be enrolled by second- and third-year students. The majority of respondents had been learning English for 9 years (M= 9.123, sd 3.453). The other formal indicator of students‘ EFL knowledge was the self-assessed active and passive EFL competence, on the scale from 5 (excellent) to 1 (unsatisfactory). The average passive competence obtained was 4 (M=4.147, sd 0.875). On the other hand, although the average active competence obtained was 3 (M=3.412, sd 1.064), due to the coefficient of variation V=31.18% respondents did not form a sufficiently homogeneous set. Therefore the mode (D=4.00) makes for a more representative value for the passive competence variable. In this paper, students‘ competence level is not discussed in relation to other variables. 151 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The second group of respondents (N=20) were female instructors teaching non-linguistic majors in 15 Croatian higher education institutions. While 16 respondents were teachers of ESP, EAP and communication skills in 3 different Croatian universities, 4 respondents taught vocational ESP courses in 3 higher education institutions. Data Analysis Processes The student survey was administered in class in January 2009. The teacher survey was conducted by electronic mail in January-February 2009, in accordance with guidelines in Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007). The e-mail response rate was 41.6%. The data obtained by research was processed by means of SPSS software, using the descriptive statistics methods, with the exception of the last (open-ended) question in the teacher survey. While applying analogous instruments to different groups of respondents enabled data triangulation, the qualitative question in the teacher survey allowed for methodological triangulation (Medved-KrajnoviĤ, 2010; Brown and Rodgers, 2002) with quantitative data in the rest of the teacher survey. Using the data collected by the open-ended question, we extracted several categories. They were further subdivided into subcategories, to which applicable parts of teachers‘ written replies were added. Findings and Discussion By examining the problem using the questionnaires we obtained values for the following variables: perception of the need to use L1, perception of L1 frequency, preferred frequency of L1 use, perception of L1 usefulness, and appropriateness of L1 for 12 concrete cases of use. All the variables were examined on both groups, except for preferred frequency, which was only included in the student questionnaire. Perception of the Need to Use L1 Most students (117, or 68.4%) provided a positive answer to the question ―Should Croatian be used in the English classroom?‖. Most of the teachers (16, or 80%) also provided a positive answer, which generally indicates that both students and teachers consider that the use of L1 in their English classes is justified. Such answers are in correspondence with our expectations based on the results of similar research (e.g. Schweers, 1999). Moreover, since our research was conducted on a monolingual group of students taught by the speaker of their native language, it was unlikely that L1 would be totally excluded from instruction for naturalness sake (Cook, 2001b). The results obtained by Shimizu (2006) among Japanese students, in which 66% of nonlinguistic majors supported L1 use in EFL classroom, with an additional 18% who opted for the answer ‗It depends‘ are closest to those obtained in our research. Surprisingly, the percentage of undergraduate Chinese students supporting L1 use (70%) in Tang (2002) is also comparable to that in our research, although the Chinese study was conducted among English majors. In research by Schweers (1999) among L1Spanish learners of ESL the percentage of students in favour of L1 was much higher (88.7%). Tang explains that by higher motivation among Chinese learners who, while aware of the merits of L1, still expect to use FL in class as much as possible. Perception of L1 Frequency and Preferred Frequency of L1 Use Among the 6 answers to the question ―How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom?‖ (see Appendix, Table 1), most students (96, or 56,1%) chose the answer ‗sometimes‘. This answer was also the most frequent one among teachers (9, or 45%), although in their case the percentage is slightly lower. Interestingly, when asked ―How often do you use Croatian in the English classroom?‖, most teachers (13, or 65%), chose the same answer. However, from the slightly higher percentage of teachers who opted for this answer compared to the percentage obtained for the question at the beginning of this paragraph (45,00%) we may conclude that teachers find they use L1 more than they should. In her recent research, Edstrom (2006) confirmed that differences in the perception of teacher‘s L1 use and the actual L1 use are a worthwhile avenue of exploration. Furthermore, it is notable that although no universal agreement on the optimum amount of L1 in a 152 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo FL classroom exists, teachers‘ perception of their use of L1 tends to lean to the ‗L1 used more than actually necessary‘ stance. The reason why teachers may feel uneasy using L1 is that they feel they are breaking ‗the mother tongue taboo‘ (Deller and Rinvolucri, 2002, in Gill, 2005). Among the answers to the question ―Is it preferable that your teacher uses Croatian in class?‖, (‗not at all‘, ‗a little‘, ‗moderately‘, ‗very‘) most students (87, or 50.9%) chose the answer ‗moderately‘. This result, which is in correspondence with the students‘ answer regarding the frequency of use, leads us to conclude that most students find occasional use of L1 FL classroom acceptable – the attitude also supported by most teachers – and that teachers should use it moderately. Perception of L1 Usefulness Two questions in both summaries addressed the usefulness of L1. Most students (125, or 73.1%) found that using L1 in FL class is helpful for learning English, which is also the option selected by most teachers (16, or 80%). In the question ―Do you think it is necessary to use Croatian in your English class? If so, why?‖, respondents had to choose one of 4 positive effects of L1 use – ‗aid to comprehension‘, ‗more effective classes‘, ‗feeling less lost in class‘, ‗saving time‘ – or the answer ‗I don‘t find it necessary‘. Most respondents in both groups found that the greatest benefit of using L1 is easier comprehension. However, this percentage was much higher among teachers (16, or 80%) compared to students (61, or 35.7%, with 15 missing answers). Namely, among students‘ answers all the other benefits of L1 use were also represented. For example, 32 (18.7%) of students reported that owing to L1 they felt less lost in class. Although L1 is often considered in terms of crosslinguistic influences and cognitive benefits, this particular result in our research points out the importance of affect in language learning and acquisition, recognized by Krashen (1981) in his Affective Filter hypothesis. In our survey, L1 was perceived by students as a valuable tool in lowering that filter. L1 Appropriateness for Selected Cases of Use In the survey respondents were given a list of 12 cases of L1 use and were asked to choose several options for which they thought using L1 is appropriate. The answers for each group are shown in Table 2 (see Appendix). While most students (150, or 87.7%) stated that using L1 was appropriate for explaining difficult grammar points, a lot of them (123, or 71.9%) also opted for L1 use in explaining difficult concepts. These two answers were also the most frequent ones among teachers, but in reverse order. Interestingly, exactly half of the teachers found the use of L1 for explaining grammar and defining new vocabulary, respectively, equally appropriate. These results may arise from the awareness that L1 can be used to facilitate the intake process that is not automatically guaranteed by the FL input (Swain, 1993, in Turnbull, 2001). Alegrìa de la Colina and Garcìa Mayo (2009) defined such use of L1 as a cognitive tool mediating higher-order thinking processes. It should be noted that the respondents in our survey were ESP students and the ability to understand and use technical terminology in a FL is among the learning outcomes of their course. Ibarra Hidalgo (2009) pointed out the paradox that, owing to techniques in which L1 was used to teach lexical items, learners gradually became less dependent on L1. Moreover, it is not surprising that both students and teachers found L1 acceptable in explaining grammar. Scott and De la Fuente (2008) established the positive role of L1 in explicit, form-focused collaborative tasks in which students were encouraged to use L1 to analyze grammar features and verbalize rules. Another example of L1 use ranked highly by the teachers (7, or 35%) were written translation exercises. Atkinson (1993, in Mattioli, 2004) recognized the value of translation in ‗raising one‘s consciousness of the nonparallel nature of languages‘. It is notable that almost half of the students (77, or 45%) prefer having the instructions concerning activities done outside class to be delivered in L1. When we consider that, under the Bologna process, students are involved in the continuous assessment scheme and are exposed to a lot of administrative information concerning the course, projects, tests etc., it is natural they find clear and straightforward communication to be vital for academic success. Finally, the L1 uses that refer to communicative practice in class and spoken comprehension checks were assigned fairly low rankings by both groups. This can be explained by other aids that students have at disposal when using FL in oral communication, like compensation strategies. Interestingly, such an explanation would be countered by some authors (Atkinson, 1987) who actually emphasized the usefulness of L1 in developing circumlocution strategies during FL use. The frequency and percentage of respondents‘ answers by the total number of selected options among the 12 cases of L1 use (see Appendix, Table 3) reveal that most students (40, or 23.4%) chose 4 options, while most teachers opted for either 2 or 5 L1 uses (5, that is 25% of respondents, respectively). Since, on the whole, 153 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo most respondents selected between 2-5 options, we can conclude that both students and teachers are aware of the diversity of functions of L1 in the ESP classroom and the need for a varied use of L1. Teachers' Impressions regarding the General Policy toward L1 Use Teachers were also asked to summarize their impression on their institution‘s policy regarding L1 use in FL instruction. From the collected answers we first extracted the categories that potentially impact teachers‘ decision whether to use L1. We divided the obtained categories into 3 ‗external‘ (Consensus regarding L1 use, Awareness of the changing impact of teaching methods, Students) and 3 ‗internal‘ elements (Efficiency, Contrastive approach, Affective factors). In our research the term ‗external‘ refers to elements concerning the circumstances in which instruction takes place, not defined by teachers (e.g. educational policy). ‗Internal‘ refers to individual factors that may be susceptible to change in accordance with the teacher‘s agency (e.g. techniques used). After further analysis, most of the categories were divided into subcategories (e.g. Efficiency was subdivided into Saving class time, Exposure to L2, Lexical /structural /pragmatic accuracy and Course and classroom/task management). In some cases, contrary statements from teachers‘ answers were integrated within the same subcategory. For example, consider the statements assigned to the subcategory Mixed proficiency levels that we grouped under the Students category: (1) ―There is a significant number of students with poor foreknowledge of English, while within the Bologna Reform the only languages are English and German taught only as languages for specific purposes.‖ (2) ―In my opinion, considering our students‘ level of knowledge, Croatian is not necessary.‖ The examples above indicate one of the key organizational challenges of the current ESP teaching practice in Croatia. Namely, while in theory, tertiary ESP courses are automatically identified with high proficiency levels (with minimum L1 use), as in (2), in reality it is not uncommon that teachers have to deal with mixed levels of competence and motivation in one-size-fits-all ESP courses, as reported in (1). Contrary views are also found in teachers‘ remarks concerning instruction efficiency. One of the identified subcategories here is Lexical /structural /pragmatic accuracy. Consider the statements related to acquisition of professional language skills: (3) ―Skills of drafting contracts, writing instructions etc., vital for the engineers‘ future profession, are best acquired with the aid of Croatian.‖ (4) ―Students are aware of the importance of English for their profession and readily accept communication in English, even outside the classroom.‖ Both replies above reveal that teachers are aware that ESP courses need to fulfil the immediate needs of students‘ future profession. However, while in (3) L1 is seen as a catalyst for acquisition of professional competences, in (4) maximum exposure to FL is suggested as crucial in that respect. Interestingly, most diverse answers were found in the category Consensus regarding L1 use at the institutional level, including: Consensus in favour of L1 use, Consensus against L1 use, Consensus in favour of a balanced approach and Lack of consensus. This last subcategory, which results in teachers making decisions on L1 use at the individual level, is illustrated as follows: (5) ―It would seem that foreign language teachers still doubt whether to use L1, and to what extent. While some tend to avoid it, others overuse it.‖ The analysis of the teachers‘ answers, only some of which are presented in this section, reveals that the open-ended question enabled the teachers to state their attitudes and preferences in accordance with but also beyond the set of possible uses listed in one of the multiple-choice questions. From a holistic perspective, we can argue that our qualitative findings support those obtained through quantitative analysis. Indeed, the findings presented in this section should be taken as ‗words‘ that collated with ‗figures‘ provide a more in-depth view, as suggested by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004). 154 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Conclusions and Recommendations The research presented in this paper reveals that Croatian students and teachers involved in tertiary ESP courses generally support the use of L1 in FL instruction. Both students and teachers find that L1 use should be moderate. Although there are some differences between the two groups concerning selected examples of L1 usage, the most frequently selected examples are the ones also most frequently dealt with in recent research on pedagogical uses of L1. Using L1 in a way that would add value to FL instruction while maximizing the use of FL in the classroom may seem a tall order. Not only do teachers need to adapt to the requirements and expectations of specific groups or teaching contexts, but they also need to balance between the institutional policies toward L1 (provided it exists) and their own beliefs and practices. Edstrom (2006) found that reflection can be a valuable tool for teachers and researchers in developing a more informed awareness of merits of L1 use. Any attempt to quantify the amount of L1 to be used in the classroom needs to be made in conjunction with the functions that L1 will be used for. Along with the variables presented in this paper, in future research students‘ language competence level or motivation could be considered. Furthermore, it needs to be mentioned that the quantitative data obtained in this research refer to a specific population among EFL learners/teachers and cannot be generalized. Finally, regarding the processing of the teachers‘ open-ended answers, we are aware that coding qualitative data is a demanding and iterative process, as suggested by Dôrnyei (2007). The classification proposed in this paper is therefore inconclusive. In spite of the limitations of this study, we hope that it will help contribute to the research of L1 use in ESP in our country27 or similar contexts. We also believe that the differing attitudes concerning various key facets of pedagogical L1 use identified in our research provide substantial evidence for its inclusion on researchers‘ as well as EFL teachers‘ agenda. 27 As a contribution to discussing this issue in public fora, a recent plenary delivered by Ms Mirna RadińiĤ, M.A., at the Conference of the Association of Croatian Teachers of English (HUPE) in Opatija, Croatia, in April 2011, deserves to be mentioned. 155 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Alegrìa de la Colina, A., & Garcìa Mayo, M. (2009). Oral interaction in task-based EFL learning: The use of the L1 as a cognitive tool. IRAL— International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 47(3-4), 325– 345. Atkinson, D. (1987, October). The mother tongue in the classroom: a neglected resource?. ELT Journal, 41(4), 241-247. Atkinson, D. (1993). Teaching Monolingual Classes. 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Perception of Frequency of L1 (Croatian) Use in the English Classroom Students (N=171) Teachers (N=20) Teachers (N=20) How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom? How often do you think Croatian should be used in the English classroom? How often do you use Croatian in the English classroom? Answer frequency % frequency % frequency % No reply 2 1.2 0 0 0 0 Never 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very rarely 27 15.8 4 20 3 15 Sometimes 96 56.1 9 45 13 65 Frequently 18 10.5 0 0 0 0 Fairly frequently 9 5.3 0 0 0 0 Only when necessary 19 11.1 7 35 4 20 Table 2. Respondents' Frequency and Percentage for the 12 Cases of L1 (Croatian) Use 157 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Students (N = 171) Answer Teachers (N = 20) frequency % ranking frequency % ranking To explain difficult grammar points 150 87.7 1 10 50 2 To define new vocabulary items 94 55 3 10 50 2 To explain difficult concepts 123 71.9 2 15 75 1 To practice the use of new expressions and phrases 36 21.1 10 1 5 9 To help students feel more comfortable and confident 43 25.1 8 6 30 4 To give instructions concerning activities done in class 54 31.6 6 5 25 5 To give students advice on effective studying 31 18.1 11 3 15 7 To give feedback 52 30.4 7 2 10 8 To check for comprehension (in speaking) 20 11.7 12 4 20 6 To joke around with students 37 21.6 9 3 15 7 In written tests (translation tasks) 62 36.3 5 7 35 3 To give instructions concerning activities done outside class 77 45.0 4 3 15 7 158 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 3. Respondents' Frequency and Percentage by the Total Number of Selected Options Among the 12 Cases of L1 (Croatian) Use Students (N = 171) Number of selected options Teachers (N = 20) frequency % frequency % None 2 1.2 0 0 1 option 3 1.8 2 10 2 options 23 13.5 5 25 3 options 29 17 3 15 4 options 40 23.4 4 20 5 options 26 15.2 5 25 6 options 17 9.9 0 0 7 options 16 9.4 1 5 8 options 6 3.5 0 0 9 options 5 2.9 0 0 10 options 1 0.6 0 0 11 options 0 0 0 0 all the 12 options 3 1.8 0 0 171 100 20 100 Total: 159 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 26 Title A name given to the resource To Use or Not to Use: First Language in Tertiary Instruction of English as a Foreign Language Author Author Kovačić, Andreja Abstract A summary of the resource. The issue of whether first language (L1) use in teaching foreign languages (FL) is justified can be considered from various perspectives. The diachronic perspective considers the role of L1 in FL instruction along with the development of teaching methods and linguistic theories. The taxonomic perspective concerns the arguments for and against L1 use taking into account its cognitive, social and affective aspects. The role of L1 can also be viewed from the empirical perspective considering the effects of its use and examining attitudes, beliefs etc. of participants in the dynamic process of FL teaching and learning. The survey presented in this paper aims to investigate and compare the perception of using Croatian in tertiary English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction concerning L1 use. Two groups of respondents involved in the study were undergraduate nonlinguistic majors at a Croatian university and ESP instructors in various higher education institutions in several Croatian universities. The questions that the research in this paper addresses is 1) whether the tertiary students‘ perception of using Croatian as L1 in teaching EFL corresponds to that maintained by tertiary language instructors and 2) whether students and instructors, respectively, support the usage of L1 in the tertiary EFL classroom. First language use is explored in terms of necessity, frequency, usefulness and its appropriateness for selected examples of usage. The presented findings comprise those obtained by quantitative as well as qualitative data analysis. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics