8 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ab48b7a9378f9b20f251acd2906f4122.docx d2fe1318bff95403b97f9f66e8e6b36b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/54b94a1abfb3ee21ea9080e44e4c6e10.pdf 2ddbe4c77e420f232baf947b29183ae5 PDF Text Text A Comprehensive Look at Generation Z and Their Expectations from Public Administration Hasan Tağraf Cumhuriyet University Turkey hasan157@hotmail.com Görkem Nemutlu Cumhuriyet University Turkey gorkemnemutlu@gmail.com Ahmet Murat Özkan Cumhuriyet University Turkey ahmetmozkan@hotmail.com Abstract: One can argue that there is vast amount of difference in behavior and expectation of generations. In this paper, we try to bring together some insights about generation z and their role in today's world. Firstly, we take a brief look at the phenomenon and review basic descriptions. We try to demonstrate basic differentiation of this new generation. We have seen some revolts and riots throughout the world, mostly led by generation z, against governments. Based on these definitions and actions, secondly, we try to develop empirical knowledge of generation z's main expectations from public administration, using a questionnaire conducted on a limited number of generation z members. Authors are using a quantitative research methodology on this paper, with the aim of understanding how expectations of generation z differ from previous ones. Based on some factors from existing literature, we argue that they demand more transparency, accountability, social welfare and fair administration. Current study can be expanded as; comparative studies based on similar questionnaire with members of other generations. Some limitations of the study should be noted as well. Sample group is selected on a narrow geographical location and in limited numbers. Time and budget constraints prevented researchers from reaching a wider sample group. In summary, this paper tries to focus on generation z and their expectations from public administration. Keywords: generation z, public administration. 173 �173 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2653 Title A name given to the resource A Comprehensive Look at Generation Z and Their Expectations from Public Administration Author Author TAGRAF, Hasan OZKAN, Ahmet Murat NEMUTLU, Gorkem Abstract A summary of the resource. One can argue that there is vast amount of difference in behavior and expectation of generations. In this paper, we try to bring together some insights about generation z and their role in today's world. Firstly, we take a brief look at the phenomenon and review basic descriptions. We try to demonstrate basic differentiation of this new generation. We have seen some revolts and riots throughout the world, mostly led by generation z, against governments. Based on these definitions and actions, secondly, we try to develop empirical knowledge of generation z's main expectations from public administration, using a questionnaire conducted on a limited number of generation z members. Authors are using a quantitative research methodology on this paper, with the aim of understanding how expectations of generation z differ from previous ones. Based on some factors from existing literature, we argue that they demand more transparency, accountability, social welfare and fair administration. Current study can be expanded as; comparative studies based on similar questionnaire with members of other generations. Some limitations of the study should be noted as well. Sample group is selected on a narrow geographical location and in limited numbers. Time and budget constraints prevented researchers from reaching a wider sample group. In summary, this paper tries to focus on generation z and their expectations from public administration. Keywords: generation z, public administration. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/112c9ea588a51351ec5948bddf70db2b.pdf aa1d7539acd82b2cfe902579f662fe4a PDF Text Text A Computer Based Flexible Real Time Fuel Controller System Implementation for Four-Cylinder Internal Combustion Engines Barış Boru Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik-Bilgisayar Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya barisb@sakarya.edu.tr Halil Đbrahim Eskikurt Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi Elektronik-Bilgisayar Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya eskikurt@sakarya.edu.tr Adnan Parlak Sakarya Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitin Fakültesi Makine Eğitimi, 54187 Esentepe/Sakarya parlak@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, a computer and microcontroller based fuel control system for fourcylinder internal combustion engines has been designed and some applications have been implemented. Fuel control system designed for real time control the amount of fuel in alternative fuel applications. System is suitable to use with both diesel and petrol engines. A Graphical User Interface has been designed in computer side. The pc programme uses Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting calculation methods. The percentage of the fuel to be sprayed has been defined according to the engine speed, load and fuel rack or throttle position got from the engine. These physical signals have been controlled and read by microcontroller based electronic circuit. Communication has been set using RS232 standard between PC and microcontroller. Introduction Energy as the most important input for economic and social development, has been took place in all world countries as an important agenda about 1970's (Tekin et al.,2004). Having limited amount of oil resources, which is decreasing rapidly, economic and political differences, dependence on foreign countries and the air pollution are important problems for all countries. To reduce the dependency on oil and to minimize the problems about potential oil crisis in the future has brought up the researches about alternative fuels (Çetinkaya et al.,1997, Salman et al, 1990). Using of fossil fuels and environmental awareness, has made the engineers and scientists to oriented develop of clean, renewable and sustainable energy system (Yüksel et al., 2002, Borat et al., 1992) The reduction of harmful and pollutant emissions and the improvement of the engine performance are today's most popular research subjects. For this purpose, many studies are performed by researchers and automotive manufacturers. Lots of researches can be found in literature about using alternative fuels instead of petrol or using alternative fuels with petrol. These researches have such aim like fuel costs lowering, increasing engine performance with the same cost and eliminating or lowering percentage of exhaust gases, harmful to atmosphere . These alternative fuels or substances are mostly alcohol, alternative fuels, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), biomass, natural gas, hydrogen, water and water vapour. These substances are alcohol, LPG, natural gas, hydrogen, and biodiesel for engine performance and emissions are widely used as an alternative fuel. While using the substances mentioned above, the effects on engine performance and engine emissions should be well analyzed. According to the various researches it is clear that to have good results, it is very important to use the correct fuel mixture amount or spray correct amount of fuel. In other application, the alternative fuels are sprayed with a nozzle to the intake manifold by vacuum effect. Unlike other studies, an injection system supported by on electronic programme has been developed to spray alternative fuels with a certain rate. This system uses solenoid injectors to spray the fuel. It is targeted that, 732 �to build a such compatible fuel control system for all four-cylinder engine using alternative fuel. Since using alternative materials in the engine is not dependent on a single parameter linearly. The injection signal cannot be produced by a mechanical way. Because of nonlinear engine operating conditions and dependency of these conditions more than one variable makes difficult to produce the injection signal by a typical electronic circuit without a programme. In the system, the calculation methods, Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting, have been used to achieve high accuracy for all working conditions The general structure of the system The fuel control system designed consists of a computer programme and an electronic circuit controlled by a 8051 based microcontroller. The connection between the microcontroller and the PC is provided with RS232 serial protocol. Reading and controlling the physical data are carried out by the microcontroller. Calculating of the fuel amount, the injection signal's length and timing are performed by the computer programme. Block diagram of designed system can be seen in Figure 1. Figure 1: Block diagram of the fuel control system During the operation, mcu reads the inputs load, speed and fuel rack position momentarily and sends them to the programme. According to these three values, the fuel amount is calculated and the injection signal's timing and length will be determined by considering the injector parameters and advance angle and sent to the mcu. After data is received mcu will constitute the injection signal related to angle read from encoder. So that the desired amount of fuel is sprayed. For determining the correct amount of fuel to be sprayed, it is very important to read momentarily working conditions such as engine speed, fuel rack position and engine load. Measurement of this data has been done by the microcontroller with a number of sensors. Angular velocity has been measured by digital absolute encoder fitted to crank of engine. At the working conditions, the instant measurement and control of angle are needed to provide a real time system. While the engine is running, encoder also has functions to determine upper dead point and to produce the right signal to spray the fuel on start and end at the correct angles. Position of the fuel rack of the engine has been measured with a potentiometer by mcu’s ADC unit. Potentiometer’s analogue output voltage is been changing linearly according to fuel rack position. Engine load has been measured with a load cell fitted to the engine dynamometer. Data acquired from the load cell have been read by mcu’s ADC unit and digitally filtered by mcu programme. Defining injector parameters For a high precision control of fuel timing and amount, an injection signal must be produced according to the parameters of the injectors. System is designed to be used with solenoid injectors. As known there are opening and closing time delays in solenoid injectors caused by injectors coil windings (Zhao et al., 1999) These delays causes a problem in which to construct the right injection signal length and spray the fuel with the right advance angle. These delays must be well defined for the injectors. While the system is running for applying the fuel to the engine in the right advance angle, it has to produce the injection signal before the real advance angle. There is no linear correlation between injection signal length and sprayed fuel amount (Zhao et al., 1999). In this work, it is aimed to control the amount of fuel as massively by a fuel control system. Hence, the correlation between sprayed fuel mass and signal length must be well known. 733 �injector ti Precision Balance Figure 2: Injection signal and injector parameter measurement While the system was designed, a set of experiments has been done for injector parameters measurement. The system is designed to work under 3 bar standard fuel pressure. Experiments for measuring injector parameters have been done under same conditions. For measuring correlation between the signal length and the fuel amount, the injection signal having 50 mS period, has been applied in 1000 times. When the engine is running on 1200 rpm single revolution takes 50 mS. Therefore, this period was accepted to fit the real working conditions. During the tests, injection signals increased step by step. After finishing every step sprayed fuel weight measured and divided to 1000 to find fuel consumption for each period (Fig. 2). The test results shown in Figure 3 give the correlation between the injection signal length and the sprayed fuel amount. 50 Fuel Mass (mg) 40 30 20 10 0 0 2.5 5 7.5 10 Injection Signal Length (mS) 12.5 15 Figure 3: Correlation between the signal length and the fuel amount for a solenoid injector While the system is running, the computer programme calculates the fuel amount with a selected calculation method. Finally the signal length has been calculated by using the injector parameters obtained by these results as shown in Figure 4. To produce the injection signal in a right time, the opening delays of the injectors have also been used by the system. td ti °Injection Advance Figure 4 Produced injection signal, td corresponds injector delay, ti corresponds injection signal length User Interface The core functions of the user interface is the setting a communication between pc and mcu and providing a practical and visual platform to the user. The user interface designed can be seen in Figure 5. 734 �Figure 5: The User interface for the designed fuel control system. Interface instantly shows input and output values in graphics to increase functionality and user interaction. In the operation, these graphs are always updated for each input and output data pair. Engine's fuel consumption which can be found from engine catalogue data or obtained by experimental analysis, is a basis for all calculation methods. The user interface, designed uses fuzzy logic, neural networks and curve fitting methods to perform calculations. Calculation method can be selected by the user. After calculation, the fuel amount can be applied to the engine with different percentages defined by the user. However, it has a manual control option to apply the fixed amount of fuel, entered by the user. The user can also enter the injection advance. During the operation, the injection signal is generated according to the injector parameters and the advance angle. Received input values and calculated data are displayed on the user interface are also updated for each input and output data pair. A test section, has been located on the user interface to test calculation method results without sending them to the microcontroller. User can check whether the calculation method gives expected results or not. Received input values and calculated data can be saved to the computer automatically by user interface and they can be used for evaluating of results. Serial port connection settings, the injector parameters and the engine fuel consumption data set can be changed by using the settings section of user interface. To use the system with another engine and injector, user only need to enter new injector's parameters and engine fuel consumption data set from settings section. Therefore the designed fuel control system can easily be adapted to all 4 cylinder engines. The system is ready for use after entering settings and choosing desired control options. The system can be connected to mcu unit and started to control the fuel with real time data flow by clicking to connect button. The calculation methods In the designed fuel control system three different calculation methods have been used. All methods have been designed to adapt themselves to new values when the engine fuel consumption data set changed. In the calculation, artificial neural networks, fuzzy logic and curve fitting methods have been applied. All these methods have been tried to produce an output corresponding to the three input values. As mentioned previously, engine speed, load and fuel rack position are used as inputs. It is expected that the calculation methods will determine the fuel amount for every new input value with minimum error based on the engine's fuel consumption data set. Engine Speed Load(kg) Fuel rack position Fuel Consumption (mg) 1000 3,43 50 17,43 1000 4,45 77 29,24 1000 5,61 100 34,6 Table 1: Fuel Consumption Data set example 735 �The above examples in Table 1 are part of the example fuel consumption data set. The fuel consumption data set can be obtained by the experiments that have been on the engine. The data set should be carefully obtained because of the nonlinear relationship between the engine fuel consumption and input values. Engine load and fuel rack position input are two values that can be changed by user. While data set is obtained by changing these two values step by step, so as to cover minimum and maximum values of them. The smaller step size the calculation method's error rate will be. Curve fitting method directly uses this data set to find what interim values. Neural Networks use this data set as training data and estimate this data with minimum error. This data set will be used for determining fuzzy logic rules by ANFIS method. Inputs Fuel Consumption Data Set Engine Speed Calculation Method Output Fuel Amount Fuel Rack Position Load Figure 6: Calculation Methods The fuzzy logic controller for the system is designed with the Sugeno fuzzy inference method in common structure, shown in Figure 6 .The designed fuzzy logic controller has three membership functions for engine speed input, three membership functions for fuel rack position input and four membership functions for load input. Fuzzy logic rules, for the controller have been determined by ANFIS method according to the engine fuel consumption data set mean absolute error of. 2x10-4 was obtained with the controller from a four-cylinder diesel engines date set. By experimental analysis it is achieved that the controller can find the values which are not been in fuel consumption data set with mean absolute error of 0.02. According to this explanation given above, the controller’s accuracy has been accepted as suitable for this work. The neural network controller for the system is designed in Feed Forward Back Propagation structure. Like other controllers the Neural Network controller has three inputs and one output. The Neural Network Controller has three hidden layers in a structure of 8,13,7. For neural network controller training LevenbergMarquardt algorithm is preferred. Training was conducted with an error of 10-5 from a four-cylinder diesel engines data set. As another option for calculation method, 3. order curve fitting algorithm has been used in the system. Corresponding fuel for interim input values, which are not in the fuel consumption data set, can be calculated with curve fitting method. Conclusions and Evaluation For testing the system, ethanol as an alternative has been fuel applied to diesel engine It is known that if ethanol is applied to diesel engines with appropriate percentages it reduces NOX emissions(Jiang, Q. et al). During the experiments ethanol applied in a percentage of 3.75 %, 7.5%, 11.25% to the engine while the engine was running in maximum position of fuel rack. Measured NOX emissions with ethanol injection and standard NOX emissions are shown in the Figure 7. It can be seen that NOX emissions have been reduced by ethanol injection as expected. 736 �Figure 7: Ethanol applied and standard NOX emissions It is observed that the system can keep the fuel amount in fair values for optimum emissions and the engine performance. In addition suitability of system for all alternative fuel applications on both diesel and gasoline engines is another good result of this study. To enhance the efficiency and accuracy of the system it will be better to transfer instant information such as measured emission values and specific fuel consumption to the user interface. In such a structure, the computer programme could be designed to optimize error rate in real time. Therefore it will not be required to create a training set, so that a higher-performance and more practical fuel control system can be obtained. References Borat, O., Balcı, M., Sürmen, A., (1992), Đçten Yanmalı Motorlar”, Cilt 1, T.E.V. Yayını, Ankara. Çetinkaya, S., Çelik, M. B.(1997), Buji Ateşlemeli Motorlarda Yakıt Olarak Metanol-Benzin Karışımlarının Kullanılması, 5. Yanma Sempozyumu. F. Zhao, M. C. Lai and D. L. Harrington (1999), Automotive spark-ignited direct-injection gasoline engines, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science Volume 25, Issue 5, October 1999, Pages 437-562 Jiang, Q., Ottikkutti, P., Vangerpen, J., Vanmeter, D., The effect of alcohol fumigation on Diesel flame temperature and emissions. SAE Paper No: 900386. Juan F., Xian-Min M. (2009), Research on Fuel Injection Intelligent Control System, 978-1-4244-2800-7/09, ICIEA. Salman, M. S., Sümer, M.(1990), Buji Ateşlemeli Motorlarda Etanol ve Etanol-Benzin Karışımlarının Motor Performansına Etkileri, Politeknik Dergisi, Cilt: 2, Sayı: 2, S. 27-35. Tekin, M., Yörük, S. (2004), Motorlarda Metanol Kullanımının Performans ve Çevre Đlişkileri, GO. Ü. Zile MYO, Otomotiv Programı, TOKAT. Yüksel, F., Yüksel, B. (2004), The use of ethanol-gasoline blend as a fuel in an SI engine”, Renewable Energy, No: 11811191. 737 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 623 Title A name given to the resource A Computer Based Flexible Real Time Fuel Controller System Implementation for Four-Cylinder Internal Combustion Engines Author Author Boru, Barıs Eskikurt, Halil İbrahim Parlak, Adnan Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, a computer and microcontroller based fuel control system for fourcylinder internal combustion engines has been designed and some applications have been implemented. Fuel control system designed for real time control the amount of fuel in alternative fuel applications. System is suitable to use with both diesel and petrol engines. A Graphical User Interface has been designed in computer side. The pc programme uses Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks and Curve Fitting calculation methods. The percentage of the fuel to be sprayed has been defined according to the engine speed, load and fuel rack or throttle position got from the engine. These physical signals have been controlled and read by microcontroller based electronic circuit. Communication has been set using RS232 standard between PC and microcontroller. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f9b87a1b42ac107113d51ac97bdb1fb6.pdf 22d346dfefa9c31b48e9d2644d3546cc PDF Text Text A Content Based Scheduling Approach for Wireless Sensor Network MACs Nukhet Sazak Faculty Of Engineering Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey nazak@sakarya.edu.tr Ismail Erturk Faculty Of Technical Education Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey erturk@socaeli.edu.tr Murat Çakiroglu Faculty Of Technical Education Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey muratc@sakarya.edu.tr Etem Köklükaya Faculty Of Engineering Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey ekaya@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: MAC protocols have direct control over radio which is the most energy consuming part of a wireless sensor node. TDMA based WSN MAC protocols are more energy-efficient than contention based counterparts. However, classical TDMA based protocols are not appropriate for event driven WSN applications. There are some MAC protocols assigning time slots to only source nodes. Our proposed protocol assigns a time slot to one of the source nodes with same data. As a result it reduces data redundancy achieving energy savings. The analytical expressions are given for the proposed MAC and its performance is compared to the conventional E-TDMA protocol. Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, MAC, energy efficiency, event driven applications 1. Introduction A WSN consists of many low-power, low-cost and multi-functional sensor nodes which can be densely deployed either inside the phenomenon or very close to it (Akyildiz, 2002). The applications of WSNs are so diverse such that the application range is only limited by the imagination (Sohraby, 2007). In these applications, a number of sensor nodes are deployed in harsh networking environments. It is not easy and even impossible to recharge or replace the batteries of the nodes (Kredo, 2007). Thus energy efficiency becomes one of the most important design criteria for WSNs. There are many medium access control (MAC) protocols considering energy efficiency as the primary goal in the literature since MAC has direct control over the radio that is the most energy consuming part of a sensor node (Kredo, 2007). A WSN MAC protocol manages how and when its nodes access the wireless channel to be able to use the shared medium effectively and fairly. The sources of energy waste are idle listening, collision, overhearing and control packet overhead (Ye, 2003). A collision occurs if two or more nodes attempt to transmit data at the same time. Idle listening is another serious kind of energy waste, occurring when a sensor node listens the channel to check whether there is data related to it. Overhearing takes place when a node receives messages that are transmitted to other nodes. Transmitting control packets also causes energy waste since these packets do not carry useful data. In designing an energy-efficient MAC protocol, these subjects should be carefully taken into consideration. In event driven WSN applications, nodes are prompted to transmit the related measurement values when the specific conditions occur according to the application requirements (e.g. temperature threshold exceeds). The neighbor nodes close to the phenomenon may sense and also might have to transmit the same data. This data redundancy consequently results in energy waste. Then the slot assignment to only source nodes is not the desired solution. A more energy efficient protocol is achieved by allocating slots to the only one of the nodes 413 �with same data. The aim of this presented study is to propose a new idea for energy efficient TDMA-based MAC protocols by assigning slots to only the nodes that have different data in event driven WSN applications. 2. Related Work In energy-efficient TDMA (E-TDMA) protocol, the energy consumption in idle mode is reduced by letting the non-source nodes turn off their transceivers in their own slots (Li and Lazarou, 2004). Bit-map assisted (BMA) MAC (Li, 2004) (Li and Lazarou, 2004) is also schedule-based. BMA is designed for event driven WSN applications in which sensor nodes transmit data only when they sense significant/predefined events. The operation of BMA is also divided into rounds including a set-up and a steadystate phase. The steady-state phase is partitioned into sub sessions consisting of contention period, data transmission period and idle period (Figure 1). The size of the data transmission period is variable because every node does not always data to send. On the other hand, the sum of the data transmission and idle periods is equal to a constant value. All of the nodes turns their radios on during every contention period. The contention period follows a TDMA-like schedule. Each node is assigned a time slot and it transmits 1-bit control message if it has data. Otherwise, it leaves that slot empty. After contention period completed, the CH knows the source nodes, prepares a transmission schedule and broadcasts it. The system followed enters the data transmission period. If none of the member nodes has data to transmit, the system enters the idle period until the next session. Throughout data transmission period, source nodes turn on their radios in their allocated slots and transmit the data to the CH. The other member nodes keep their radios off during the data transmission. In idle period, the radios of all the member nodes are off. BMA is an appropriate protocol for low traffic conditions since it easily outperforms TDMA and E-TDMA in low and medium traffic loads. 3. The Basics of the Proposed Method The proposed idea for the MAC protocols consists of rounds including set-up and steady-state phases as in the other scheduled protocols. In set-up phase, cluster head is chosen and the cluster is formed according to a specific mechanism. There is a contention period as in BMA in steady state phase (Figure 2). However, source nodes transmit the difference data between the threshold and measurement values instead of declaring whether they have data or not by sending 1-bit in BMA. Therefore 4-bits slot is allocated to each node. When the nodes sense the values equal or bigger than the predefined threshold value, called as source nodes, they transmit the difference data between the threshold and measurement values in those 4-bits slots. Thanks to this, the CH not only knows the source nodes but also the nodes having same data and assigns data slots according to this knowledge. A large number of nodes with predetermined temperature threshold in an example application are deployed randomly and densely by plane over the forest. The nodes which measure at least the threshold value are called source nodes. The source nodes transmit the difference data during contention period. The non-source nodes are in idle mode in their own 4-bits slots. The CH compares the difference data from source nodes and assigns data slot to the only one of the nodes having same data. In this way, different measurements are transmitted in data transmission period after the contention period. Figure 2. Illustration of single round for BMA protocol (Li, 2004). 414 �Figure 2. Illustration of single round for our proposed protocol. P t: T d: Ein: P i: P r: T c: Tch: l: N: p: n: transmit mode power consumption time required to transmit/receive a data packet energy consumption of an idle node power consumption of an idle node receive mode power consumption time required to transmit/receive a control packet time required for the CH to transmit a control packet number of frames number of nodes probability number of source nodes n=Np 3.1. Our Proposed Method Used in a Simple MAC p' : probability m: number of source nodes which are assigned data slots (number of source nodes having different data) m= np' (1) Energy consumed by a source node in a frame Edn = Pt(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ (N-1) Pi Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTd + PrTch (2) Energy consumed by a non-source node in a frame Ein= NPi(Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PrTch (3) The CH consumes nPr (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTch and mPrTd in the data transmission period (4) Ech = nPr (Tc+(3N/data rate))+ mPrTd + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/data rate)) + PtTch Total energy consumed during a round in the proposed protocol EPROPOSED = l[n(Pt(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ (N-1) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PrTch)+ mPtTd + (N-n)( NPi(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ PrTch)+ nPr(Tc+(3N/ data rate))+ mPrTd + (N-n) Pi (Tc+(3N/ data rate)) + PtTch] (5) 3.2. E-TDMA Protocol Energy consumed by a source node in a frame Edn= Pt Td (6) Energy consumed by the cluster head Ech= nPrTd + (N-n) PiTd (7) Energy consumed by the cluster head to transmit a control packet Ech= PtTc (8) Energy consumed by each node to receive a control packet En= PrTc In set-up phase, total energy consumption 415 (9) �EC= PtTc + NPrTc (10) Total energy consumed during a round in E-TDMA protocol EE-TDMA = PtTc + NPrTc + l [nPt Td + (N-n) Pi Td + nPrTd] (11) 4. Performance Analysis Rockwell’s WINS model (Raghunathan, 2002) is used for numerical analysis. Transmitting power is 462 mW, receiving power is 346 mW, idle listening power is 330 mW and data rate is 24 kbps for transceiver. Assume a data packet size of 250 bytes, a control packet size of 18 bytes and Pi=Pe, Tch=Tc. The graph of energy consumption versus p and p' probabilities are shown in Figure 3 for number of frames (l) 2 and number of nodes (N) 10. 2 energy consumption (Joule) E(E-TDMA) E(PROPOSED) p'=0.25 1,8 1,6 1,4 1,2 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 p Figure 3. Energy consumption versus probability. The energy consumed by the CH for comparing difference data from source nodes is ignored in energy computations. Transmitting 1 kb data over 100 meters is approximately the same as executing 3 million instructions (Pottie, 2000). Considering the energy consumption in communication is higher than the one in computation, it is clear that the proposed protocol will provide energy-efficient results even the energy consumption of computation is included. Although the source-to-cluster-head control message is only 1-bit long in BMA protocol, control packet includes other MAC level overhead information plus 1-bit control message (Lazarou, 2007). In computations, three times the number of nodes (3N) bits are added to the control packet length to allocate 4-bit slot for each node since the contents of the control packet is unknown and it has already N bits. The p' denotes the probability what fraction of the source nodes have the same data and hence the percentage of the source nodes assigned data slots. Since slot assignment is realized without considering the contents of the data in E-TDMA protocol, energy consumption values of E-TDMA does not vary with p'. The effect of the p' on our proposed protocol is seen in the graph. The more p', the more source nodes assigned data slots and the more source nodes having different data. The 25% of the source nodes transmits data, this protocol is more energy efficient than E-TDMA. 5. Final Remarks We present an idea for TDMA-based MAC protocols which offer data slot assignment by considering source nodes transmitting same data in event driven WSN applications in this paper. In this approach, contention period is increased because of transmitting difference data in 4-bits slots instead of 1-bit slot. On the other hand, number of assigned data slots is decreased, which results in energy saving. The energy efficiency of the proposed method is shown by comparing to the E-TDMA. References Akyildiz, I.F., Su, W., Sankarasubramaniam, Y., & Cayirci, E. (2002). A Survey on Sensor Networks, IEEE Communications Magazine. 416 �Kredo II, K., & Mohapatra, P. (2007). Medium Access Control in Wireless Sensor Networks, Comput. Networks, Vol. 51, No. 4, pp. 961–994. Lazarou, G.Y., Li, J., & Picone, J., (2007). A Cluster-based Power-efficient MAC Scheme for Event-driven Sensing Applications, Ad Hoc Networks, Elsevier, Vol.5, Issue 7, pp. 1017-1030. Li, J., Lazarou, & G. Y. (2004). Modeling the Energy Consumption of MAC Schemes in Wireless Cluster-Based Sensor Networks, Proceedings of the 15th IASTED International Conference on Modeling and Simulation (MSO), pp. 313-318, Marina del Rey, California, USA. Li, J., & Lazarou, G.Y. (2004). A Bit-map Assisted Energy-efficient MAC Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, in Proceedings of 3rd International Symposium on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN’04), pp. 55-60, Berkeley, California, USA. Li, J., (2004). A Bit-map Assisted Energy-efficient MAC Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, M.Sc. Thesis, Electrical Engineering, Missippi State University. Pottie, G.J., & Kaiser, W.J. (2000). Wireless Integrated Network Sensors, Commun., ACM, 43(5), 51-58. Raghunathan, V., Schurgers, C., Park, S., & Srivastava, M.B. (2002). Energy-aware Wireless Microsensor Networks, IEEE Signal Processing Magazine, pp. 40-50. Sohraby, K., Minoli, D., & Znati, T. (2007). Wireless Sensor Networks: Technology, Protocols, and Applications, John Wiley & Sons, pp. 75-229. Ye, W., & Heidemann, J. (2003). Medium Access Control in Wireless Sensor Networks, USC/ISI Technical Report ISI-TR580, http://www.isi.edu/~johnh/PAPERS/Ye03c.html. 417 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 537 Title A name given to the resource A Content Based Scheduling Approach for Wireless Sensor Network MACs Author Author Sazak, Nukhet Erturk, Ismail ÇAKIROGLU, Murat Köklükaya, Etem Abstract A summary of the resource. MAC protocols have direct control over radio which is the most energy consuming part of a wireless sensor node. TDMA based WSN MAC protocols are more energy-efficient than contention based counterparts. However, classical TDMA based protocols are not appropriate for event driven WSN applications. There are some MAC protocols assigning time slots to only source nodes. Our proposed protocol assigns a time slot to one of the source nodes with same data. As a result it reduces data redundancy achieving energy savings. The analytical expressions are given for the proposed MAC and its performance is compared to the conventional E-TDMA protocol. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/04b4873dcc939db047ea81b1f0a79839.pdf b99c3088b9619e4a1b355ca80ea17e2b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Dragana RadojeviĤ Department of Italian Faculty of Philology University of Belgrade, Serbia drradojevic@hotmail.com Abstract: Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Key Words: auxiliary selection, L2 Italian, contrastive analysis 1. Introduction There are two auxiliary verbs (AVs) used in analytic forms of Italian verbs: essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘. Italian grammars traditionally explain auxiliary selection (AS) in the Active Voice by the verbs‘ (in)transitivity. Namely, all transitive verbs take avere, whereas most intransitive verbs (IVs) take essere. However, many IVs take avere (e.g. esitare ‗to hesitate‘, tossire ‗to cough‘, divorziare ‗to divorce‘), including some verbs of motion (e.g. camminare ‗to walk‘, nuotare ‗to swim‘, gattonare ‗to crawl‘). Additionally, some IVs can take both AVs, but in some cases the AS does not cause any change in meaning (e.g. piovere ‗to rain‘, nevicare ‗to snow‘), whereas the meaning of others (e.g. correre ‗to run‘, volare ‗to fly‘, saltare ‗to jump‘) is determined by the selection of one or another AV (e.g. È corso al parco ‗He ran to the park‘, but Ha corso al parco ‗He ran at the park‘). As far as the last group of IVs is concerned, in order to explain the differences in meaning caused by the use of one or another AV, most grammars traditionally just give a small number of unclear examples for both AVs, with the additional comment that more detailed explanations should be sought in monolingual dictionaries. However, monolingual dictionaries provide insufficient examples that cannot account for all the different meanings, and bilingual dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS with these verbs. Similarly, most L2 Italian textbooks do not take this issue into consideration leading to a low level of learner awareness of the problem. Therefore, since AS with those Italian IVs that can take both AVs has not been treated adequately in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks, this phenomenon represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. The aim of this paper is to present a case study proving that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with the described Italian IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and consequently to suggest that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by learners of L2 Italian. 2. Auxiliary selection in grammars, dictionaries and textbooks In RadojeviĤ (to appear) we analysed the most important grammars, dictionaries and textbooks of Italian as L2, usually used by learners in Serbia, in order to investigate to what extent and in what way AS of the IV correre ‗to run‘, as a representative of its group, is described in them. In this chapter we will give a brief overview of our findings and conclusions. 2.1. Auxiliary selection in Italian grammars Italian grammars differ from each other in that most of them completely neglect the problem of AS, while among those that deal with this phenomenon some of them traditionally do it very superficially and without success, whereas others give more precise and thorough explanations. 377 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An important step for the explanation of this problem was made by Jernej (1965: 200; 1999: 94), who explicitly put the IV correre among those verbs that can take both complements expressing motion towards or from a place, and those expressing motion at or inside a place. However, he failed to emphasise the way in which that distinction affects the AS, i.e. that correre takes essere to express motion towards or from a place, and avere in order to express motion at or inside a place. The most systematic and thorough approach was applied by Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52), who introduced Aktionsart‘s categories into their explanation of the AS. They claim that correre takes avere when it is intransitive, durative, continuous, and atelic, whereas it takes essere when it is unaccusative, non-durative, resultative, and atelic.69 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.5) we argued that their durative vs. non-durative and telic vs. atelic distinctions could be very useful for the contrastive approach to the teaching of L2 Italian to native speakers of Serbian because of the fact that the same distinctions exist in Serbian. Namely, on the basis of their distinctions we claimed that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is only the verb trčati ‗to run‘, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati (e.g. utrčati ‗to run into‘, istrčati ‗to run out‘ etc.), but not trčati itself. Although Salvi & Vanelli made a considerable contribution to the explanation of AS with correre, they still failed to place sufficient emphasis on the importance of the type of motion and the complement of place that influence the phenomenon of AS, which would have made their contribution more complete. However, the most precise explanation of the AS with correre was provided by Maiden & Robustelli (2004: 266-267), who were the first to explicitly introduce the concept of change of location, as that expressed by the AV essere with correre, into the explanation of AS. In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.8) we suggested a completion of their explanation by introducing the concept of motion at a location as that expressed by the AV avere with correre. Although they are not expressed by AVs as they are in Italian, both concepts still exist in Serbian, where they are marked by the distinction between the bare verb and its prefixed derivatives, as described in the previous paragraph, as well as by different cases in prepositional phrases (PPs) even with the same preposition. Namely, many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre.70 Therefore, the conclusion is that the introduction of the concept of motion at a location, as well as the aforementioned contrastive remarks, finally shed some light on the explanation of AS with those Italian verbs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, thus making it complete and clear. 2.2. Auxiliary selection in Italian dictionaries An analysis of the following monolingual Italian dictionaries: Zingarelli (2010), Garzanti italiano (2009), Devoto–Oli (2007), Sabatini–Coletti (2005), and De Mauro (2000) showed that all of them provide every meaning of correre with the respective AV, but they do not pay enough attention to adequate complements of place nor do they insist sufficiently on the distinction between the different types of motion (change of location and motion at a location) affecting the AS. Therefore, their explanations and examples are neither complete nor clear-cut for learners of Italian as L2. Bilingual Italian-Serbian (Klajn, 1996) and Italian-Croatian or Serbian (DeanoviĤ–Jernej, 1984) dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS. Although we are aware of the lack of space in dictionaries, in RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 3.2) we suggested that they should take into account this problem with all Italian verbs and especially with IVs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, and that they should illustrate them with adequate simple examples, which would facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by Serbian learners of L2 Italian. 2.3. Auxiliary selection in L2 Italian textbooks Most L2 Italian textbooks treat the problem of AS in general very superficially and completely ignore the AS with IVs like correre. An analysis of: Balí & Rizzo (2002, 2003), Bidetti, Dominici & Piccolo (2009), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002, 2005), Marin (2008), Marin & Magnelli (2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009), Mazzetti, Falcinelli & Servadio (2002, 2003), Mezzadri & Balboni (2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002), Ziglio & Rizzo (2001), and StojkoviĤ & Zavińin (2010), which are the most frequently used L2 Italian textbooks in Serbia from level A1 to C1, showed that the AS with the IV correre occurred only five times.71 We consider this fact to be a crucial contributory factor in the unsatisfactory awareness of the problem in learners of L2 Italian, because textbooks are the learners‘ primary source of 69 For more details see Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52). For more details about other relevant grammars see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2). 71 For a more detailed analysis of these examples see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4). 70 378 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo information, whereas grammars and dictionaries are often only occasionally consulted and not always available to the majority of learners.72 3. Case study 3.1. Participants In order to prove our arguments we conducted an experiment involving eighty students from the Italian Department of the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology, who are native speakers of Serbian. They were divided into four groups that consisted of twenty students belonging to the same undergraduate year of study. At the time the experiment was conducted the first year students had already reached the A1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and they were heading towards the A2 level, the second year A2 towards B1, the third year B1 towards B2, and the fourth year B2 towards C1. 3.2. Input All the groups had been exposed to the same traditional input regarding auxiliary selection in Italian, described in 1, during their education, independently of our experiment. However, in addition to the traditional input the second year group had also been given an explicit contrastive input on two separate occasions one month before the experiment. The additional input they received focused on the following three points: 1. correre uses essere to express change of location, whereas it uses avere to express motion at a location; 2. the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati, but not trčati itself; 3. many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre. These explanations were illustrated by several clear-cut examples in both languages. 3.3. Hypothesis Consequently, our hypothesis was that the second year group would show significantly better knowledge of AS in L2 Italian compared to all the other groups since it was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples, which make AS more transparent to learners of L2 Italian, and, therefore, hopefully facilitate its acquisition. Among the remaining three groups we expected the fourth one to be the best, the third one the second best and the first one to be the worst because that order would correspond to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, we expected the second year group‘s error percentage to be significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. 3.4. Experiment For the purposes of our experiment all the students were given the same test consisting of ten sentences in Italian that they had to translate into Serbian. The tense used in all the sentences was the Passato Prossimo (the most frequently used Past Perfect Tense and the first analytic verb form taught to learners of L2 Italian) of the IV correre: five sentences had the AV essere and five avere. As described in 2.1 and 3.2, the Serbian equivalent of the Italian IV correre with the AV avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati. Every correctly translated sentence was assigned one point so that the maximum was ten points per student. The correct use of Serbian prepositions and cases expressing space was not assigned any points because the choice of correct verbs in Serbian logically led to the correct choice of corresponding prepositions and cases, whereas the use of incorrect verbs necessarily caused the choice of incorrect prepositions and cases. Or, if we look at it from the other way around, incorrectly understood Italian PPs led to the wrong choice of both verbs and prepositions and cases in Serbian. Therefore, these points would not have had any effect on the results. 3.5. Results 72 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4) we also gave some suggestions regarding possible ways of representing the problem of AS with the IV correre in L2 Italian textbooks in order to facilitate its acquisition even at the lowest levels. Future L2 Italian textbook authors might find them useful. 379 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The results of the test are shown in the following table and chart. The numbers in the table represent how many students had the respective number of points, whereas the chart shows the average points of each of the four years of study. Year Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 or less Average points I II III IV 6 8 2 2 2 0 8.7 12 6 2 0 0 0 9.5 8 5 4 3 0 0 8.9 10 3 4 3 0 0 9 Generally speaking, all the groups showed a satisfactory knowledge of AS in Italian, the average points ranging from 8.70 to 9.50 out of 10 points. However, the second year group is significantly better than all the others, as can be seen in the chart representing the average points. The difference between the second year group and all the others is even more obvious in the following chart, showing the error percentage for each year of study. While the error percentage for the first, second and third year ranges from 10% to 13%, the second year group‘s error percentage is significantly lower at 5%. This means that out of 200 sentences 20 second year group students made mistakes only in 10 of them and the remaining 190 were correct (as shown in the chart with the overall points), whereas the fourth year group students made twice as many mistakes despite there being a difference of two CEFR levels between them, as mentioned in 3.1. 3.6. Some examples The distribution of the two AVs in the test was equal, i.e. there were as many sentences with essere as with avere, as described in 3.4. The error percentage per sentence shows that there were slightly more mistakes concerning sentences with essere (52.56%) than with avere (47.44%). This means that the students overgeneralized the Serbian verb trčati and used it even in those contexts where its prefixed derivatives should have been used in order to correctly translate correre with essere. Generally speaking, in a large number of translations from Italian into Serbian made by Serbian learners of L2 Italian we have noticed this tendency to neglect the prefixation of verbs although it is a very productive morphological process in Serbian, but since we have not conducted any research into that phenomenon yet, we will not make any further claims about it. In order to illustrate the test, we will show only two sentences in which the students made the largest number of mistakes: Italian Serbian English Sentence 1 Ho corso al parco Trčao sam u parku I ran at the park avere trčati; u + locative motion at a location Sentence 2 Sono corso allo stadio Otrčao sam na stadion I ran to the stadium essere otrčati; na + accusative change of location The students‘ mistakes stemmed from the fact that they did not recognize that sentence 1 expressed motion at a location, so that their translation into Serbian was Otrčao sam u park as if in Italian it were Sono 380 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo corso al parco ‗I ran to the park‘; and similarly in sentence 2 they did not understand the change of location, so that they translated it as Trčao sam na stadionu as if the original Italian sentence were Ho corso allo stadio ‗I ran at the stadium‘. Our opinion is that the reasons for these mistakes are twofold. First of all, since in Serbian different cases are used to mark different types of motion (motion at a location – locative; change of location – accusative) although both cases can use the same preposition (e.g. u parku, u park), it is logical for our students to look for the type of motion in the Italian PPs. However, since most Italian PPs do not mark the type of motion, the students were not able to find it in them, and consequently they were likely to make mistakes. Secondly, since the first, third and fourth year students had not been exposed to the input suggested in this paper, they were not used to taking into account the distinctive contrastive features (i.e. that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas its equivalents with essere are its prefixed derivatives), so they did not look for the type of motion in the AV used, which would have led them to the correct choice of the respective Serbian verb. 4. Conclusion On the basis of the results of our experiment we can conclude that our hypothesis was correct. The second year group had significantly better results compared to all the other groups. Among the remaining three groups the fourth year group was the best, the third one the second best and the first one was the worst, which also corresponds to our hypothesis and to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, the second year group‘s error percentage was significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. Our conclusion is that the reasons for such results are that the second year group was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples. All these remarks made the AS much clearer to the students and, therefore, facilitated its acquisition. By taking into account only translations from Italian into Serbian, in this paper we have only examined the receptive abilities of Serbian learners of L2 Italian concerning the AS of the Italian IV correre. However, for further investigations we recommend an examination of productive abilities regarding the same problem because it might lead to some interesting and useful conclusions that could explain the phenomenon in question in greater depth and make its acquisition by learners of L2 Italian, independently of their mother tongue, much easier and more efficient. In addition, there are also some other Italian IVs belonging to the same group as correre, as far as the AS is concerned, such as volare ‗to flow‘ and saltare ‗to jump, that might be interesting for further research into this subject. References Jernej, J. (1965). Grammatica italiana descrittiva: su basi storiche e psicologiche. Bern / Mùnchen: Francke Verlag. Jernej, J. (1999). Talijanski jezik: priručnik za viši stupanj. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. Maiden, M. & Robustelli, C. (2007). A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian. London: Hodder Education. Salvi, G. e Vanelli, L. (2004). Nuova grammatica italiana. Bologna: Il Mulino. RadojeviĤ, D. (to appear). Essere ili avere: pitanje je sad. In: Stavovi promjena – promjena stavova. Zbornik radova (VuĦo, J. & MilatoviĤ, B., eds.). NikńiĤ: Filozofski fakultet. Dictionaries Garzanti italiano. (2009). Milano: Garzanti. DeanoviĤ, M. i Jernej, J. (1984). Talijansko-hrvatski ili srpski rečnik. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. De Mauro, T. (2000). De Mauro. Il dizionario della lingua italiana. Torino: Paravia Bruno Mondadori. Devoto, G. e Oli. G. C. (2007). Il Devoto-Oli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Firenze: Le Monnier. Klajn, I. (1996). Italijansko-srpski rečnik. Beograd: Nolit. Sabatini, F. e Coletti, V. (2005). Il Sabatini Coletti. Dizionario della lingua italiana. Milano: Rizzoli Larousse. Zingarelli, N. (2010). Lo Zingarelli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. 381 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Textbooks Balí, M. e Rizzo, G. (2002). Espresso 2. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Balí, M. e Ziglio, L. (2003). Espresso 3. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Bidetti, A., Dominici, M. e Piccolo, L. (2009). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio-avanzato (B2-C1). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2002). Un giorno in Italia 1. Corso di italiano per stranieri: principianti, elementare, intermedio. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2005). Un giorno in Italia 2. Corso di italiano per stranieri: intermedio, avanzato. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Marin. T. (2008). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedioavanzato (B2-C1). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2007). Nuovo progetto italiano 2. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio (B1-B2). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2008a). Nuovo progetto italiano 1. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello elementare (A1-A2). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2008b). Nuovo progetto italiano 2. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio (B1-B2). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2009). Nuovo progetto italiano 1. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello elementare (A1-A2). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Mazzetti, A., Falcinelli, M. e Servadio, B. (2002). Qui Italia. Corso elementare di lingua italiana per stranieri. Quaderno di esercitazioni. Firenze: Le Monnier. Mazzetti, A., Falcinelli, M. e Servadio, B. (2003). Qui Italia. Corso elementare di lingua italiana per stranieri. Lingua e grammatica. Firenze: Le Monnier. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2000a). Rete 1. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2000b). Rete 1. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001a). Rete 2. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001b). Rete 2. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002a). Rete 3. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002b). Rete 3. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. StojkoviĤ, J. i Zavińin, K. (2010). Amici 4. Italijanski jezik za osmi razred osnovne škole. Beograd: Zavod za udņbenike. Ziglio, L. e Rizzo, G. (2001). Espresso 1. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. 382 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 57 Title A name given to the resource A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Author Author Radojević, Dragana Abstract A summary of the resource. Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3402 Title A name given to the resource A CONTRASTIVE STUDY OF SOME LAKOFF AND JOHNSON'S METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS FROM LOVE IS A JOURNEY METAPHOR AND THEIR CROATIAN EQUIVALENT Author Author Božić Lenard, Dragana Abstract A summary of the resource. Many people would argue that metaphor is a characteristic of extraordinary rather than ordinary speech. However, Lakoff and Johnson (2003: 8) strongly disagree with that claiming that our conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in its nature. Moreover, metaphors do not only shape our communication but the way we think or act. Occurring primarily in thought, metaphors are grounded in culture; hence serve as a valuable resource for a cross-cultural linguistic research. This paper aims at studying similarities and differences of English and Croatian perspective of love in terms of a journey. For the purpose of this research, Lakoff and Johnson’s 8 metaphorical linguistic expressions of LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor from Metaphors we live by (2003) were used in a survey and offered to 28 native Croatian speakers and former English language and literature students majoring in the field of translation studies being asked to provide their Croatian equivalents. After the conducted survey, the research has shown the great similarity of metaphorical linguistic expressions in English and Croatian language. However, it has shown that, in order to maintain the same effect, sometimes different tenses or voice perspectives have to be used. Furthermore, it has shown the existence of the same metaphorical expression in the respective languages, yet used within different conceptual metaphor. Moreover, the research has shown not only interliguistic but also intralinguistic differences, i.e. synonimical options Croatian language has due to a close geographical, historical, cultural and linguistic contact with Serbian language. In conclusion, it has been proved that even though two languages might share the same conceptual metaphor, the actual linguistic expressions underlying the conceptual metaphor may be coined on the basis of cultural-ideological differences, thus referring to metaphors being both cognitive as well as cultural entities. Keywords: metaphorical expressions, love, journey, cross-cultural linguistic comparison Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1637d2c9039b17fc81a4f95c3902f85f.pdf 8e5678eb1243d696d5505243b68500b1 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents Dragana Božić Lenard Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Osijek, Croatia Submitted: 14.04.2014. Accepted: 23.11.2014. Abstract Many people would argue that metaphor is a characteristic of extraordinary rather than ordinary speech. However, Lakoff and Johnson (2003: 8) strongly disagree, claiming that our conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in its nature. Moreover, metaphors do not only shape our communication but the way we think or act. Occurring primarily in thought, metaphors are grounded in culture; hence they serve as a valuable resource for cross-cultural linguistic research. This paper aims to study similarities and differences of the English and Croatian perspectives on love in terms of a journey. For the purpose of this research, Lakoff and Johnson’s eight metaphorical linguistic expressions of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor from Metaphors We Live By (2003) were used in a survey and offered to 28 native Croatian speakers and former English language and literature students majoring in the field of translation studies who were asked to provide their Croatian equivalents. After the survey was conducted, the research has shown the great similarity of metaphorical linguistic expressions in English and Croatian language. However, it has shown that, in order to maintain the same effect, sometimes different tenses or voice perspectives have to be used. Furthermore, it has shown the existence of the same metaphorical expression in the respective languages, yet used within different conceptual metaphors. Moreover, the research has shown not only interliguistic but also intralinguistic differences, i.e. synonimical options that the Croatian language has due to close geographical, historical, cultural and linguistic contact with Serbian language. In conclusion, it has been proved that even though two languages might share the same conceptual metaphor, the actual linguistic expressions underlying the conceptual metaphor may be coined on the basis of cultural-ideological differences, thus referring to metaphors being both cognitive as well as cultural entities. Key words: metaphorical expressions, love, journey, cross-cultural linguistic comparison 59 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents Introduction Many people would argue that metaphor is a characteristic of poetic expressions. Moreover, it is usually understood as a characteristic of a language per se rather than thought or action. Lakoff and Johnson (2003: 8) strongly disagree with this notion, claiming that our conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in its nature. Furthermore, metaphors do not only shape our communication but the way we think or act, making our conceptual system the core in defining our everyday realities. Since the way we speak is based on the same conceptual system used for perceiving, thinking or acting, linguistic study is a good resource for proving the nature of the system. Aim This paper aims to study similarities and differences of English and Croatian perspective of love in terms of a journey, examining Lakoff and Johnson’s subset and Croatian translation equivalents. The objective is to find out how the figurative meaning of love is expressed in the respective languages and to investigate interlinguistic and intralinguistic differences together with the cultural involvement in the linguistic expression of this metaphor. Material and method For the purpose of this research and due to length restrictions, Lakoff and Johnson’s eight metaphorical linguistic expressions of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor from Metaphors we live by (2003) are selected. The selection was based with respect to different subdomains representation. Then, 28 former English language and literature students majoring in the field of translation studies who are native Croatian speakers were asked to provide their Croatian equivalents. The survey was done using the Googledocs tool, which offered efficient and fast data analyses. Furthermore, the questions/examples were composed in open-ended form, offering the interviewees liberty in their translations. Given the small number of variations, all provided translations will be used based on their frequency, starting with the most frequent (marked with a) examples) and ending with the least frequent (marked with d), where possible, examples). The examples that might be understood by native Croatian speakers, yet are not used as such in the language will be marked with ? and the examples that clash with any level of Croatian language will be marked with *, thus implying their incorrectness. Bearing the small number of interviewees in mind, it must be noted that the results might have been different with a larger number of interviewees, which is the limitation of this study. 60 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Theoretical background Jakobson and Halle’s book Fundamentals of Language in 1956 marks the beginning of linguistic-metaphor research, prior to which only literary research was applied. However, the turning point was Lakoff and Johnson’s book Metaphors We Live By in 1980, which offers very precise methodological instrument for linguistic metaphor researches. They established three major theses: metaphors are omnipresent and should not be limited to literary contexts; metaphors show high level of systematicity and coherency; and they are not just a figure of speech, but a way of thinking. Keeping that in mind, cognitive linguistics establishes conceptual metaphor. Conceptual metaphor Conceptual metaphor is a cognitive mechanism that provides for highly abstract entities to be conceptualized through concrete ones, i.e. the source domain A is understood in terms of the target domain B. In addition, it is necessary to distinguish conceptual metaphor from metaphorical linguistic expression as Kövecses (2002: 4) suggests. To paraphrase, metaphorical linguistic expressions are manifestations of underlying conceptual metaphors. Additionally, conventional metaphors can be categorized according to conventionality, function, nature, and level of generality of metaphor (Kövecses 2002: 29) into three categories, namely structural, ontological and orientational metaphors. Considering the nature of the paper, the concept of structural metaphors will be presented. Structural metaphors Structural metaphors allow us to use highly structured concept to structure another one (Lakoff, 1992: 61). Similarly, Kövecses (2002: 33) indicates that the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge for the target domain. Like their ontological and orientational counterparts, structural metaphors are grounded in our experience. For example, we metaphorically view time as money based upon correlation with people’s everyday busy lives where they struggle to earn money, leaving them with no time for their families. Being a universal bodily experience, we use metaphors automatically, which makes them universal as well. However, next to universality, metaphors might also be culture-related. 61 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents Cultural variation in metaphor As Kövecses (2002: 183) suggests, there are two types of cultural variation: intercultural and intracultural. Considering the nature of this paper, both intercultural and intracultural variations, where possible, will be studied. Kövecses (2005: 231) goes on to identify two large categories of causes for cultural variation: differential experience and differential cognitive preferences and styles. Differential experience As Kövecses (2005: 232) suggests, there are several causes influencing differential experience, namely physical and social environment (which, due to length restrictions, will not be elaborated on) and cultural context. Cultural context includes a broader context that a culture provides for an understanding of its concepts. A well-known example of a correlation between language and culture is the Eskimo language. Due to inevitable need, Eskimos have more than a dozen expressions for snow. By comparison, Slavic languages have only one term for snow due to inexistence, hence lack of need. The same phenomenon applies to metaphors. Frank Boers and Murielle Demecheleer (in Kövecses, 2005: 236) elaborate on concepts of hat and ship being more metaphorically productive in English and concepts of sleeve and food in French because they are more salient to the respective languages. Different cognitive preferences and styles Cognitive processes such as elaboration, conceptualization, specificity and transparency can be found in all languages and cultures; however, the degree of their application varies from culture to culture (Kövecses, 2005: 246). In addition, there are some cognitive preferences. a) Experiential issues Cognitive linguists have always claimed that humans use a great deal of bodily experience to build metaphors. Kövecses (2005: 247) answers the question of whether bodily experience can be universally applied to metaphors or is culturerelated by comparing English and Japanese anger metaphors. In English language and culture, the metaphor ANGER IS HEAT is associated with high blood pressure and increasing skin temperature, whereas in Japanese it is only associated with pressure. This indicates different metaphorical conceptualization of anger depending on the culture. 62 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics b) Viewpoint preference Sometimes metaphors depend on a culture’s viewpoint preference. For example, different cultures view time differently. In some cultures, the future is viewed as something yet to happen, i.e. events move from past to future in cases where we are dealing with ego-moving metaphors, whereas in others, events move from future to past, which are time-moving metaphors. To be more precise, as Boroditsky (2000: 6) suggests: ”In the ego-moving metaphor, front is assigned to a future or later event.” He continues (2000: 6) “In the time-moving metaphor, front is assigned to a past or earlier event.” Analysis and discussion Some of Lakoff and Johnson’s metaphorical linguistics expressions of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor in the English language will be presented in this chapter alongside their translated Croatian counterparts. The selected examples will be classified into subcategories on the basis of different source subdomains. Furthermore, ways of understanding and interpreting love in terms of a journey will be discussed in the major themes and mappings subchapter. Love is a journey Not many people would associate love with a journey, yet the two concepts share numerous similarities. However, even though two languages may share conceptual metaphors with metaphorical linguistic expressions overlapping, the culturalideological background in which the conceptual metaphor functions might be used to express subtle differences based on the expressions, as Kövecses (2005: 155) states. A relationship is a vehicle When two people decide to go on a trip to a destination they have never visited before, they may stop in order to check the map, find out where they are and how long will it take to their final destination. These mental images can be mapped onto love: when two people decide to start a romantic relationship, after a certain period of time at least one of them will want to clarify the status of the relationship: Are they just having fun, not thinking about the future, or is the relationship eventually going to develop into marriage? So, the mappings obviously serve as the grounding for the following metaphorical expression. 63 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents 1) Where are we? a) ?Kuda ovo vodi? b) ?Kuda ovo ide? c) *Gdje smo? d) *Gdje se nalazimo? In Croatian language there are three translational options for the word where, namely gdje, kamo and kuda. Despite being used interchangeably, there are subtle differences in their meanings. Firstly, the question word gdje is used when one wants to find out something about a place where a person/thing is located. In addition, it can be used only if alluding to the literal meaning, which is the reason why neither 1c) nor 1d) are grammatically correct, yet they are frequently used. Indeed, they do not underlie any kind of metaphorical expressing. Secondly, kamo is used for finding out about someone’s intended destination and it perfectly underlies the conceptual metaphor in question. However, probably due to the formal sound in its usage, none of the interviewees chose it. Thirdly, kuda is used for the direction of someone’s movement, thus conveying literal meaning. However, native Croatian speakers use it equally for both literal and figurative meaning. Moreover, it happens to be their first translational choice for the English expression in 1). The difference between the examples 1a) and 1b) is in the verb choice. More precisely, in 1a) the verb is to lead and in 1b) to go, both of which underlie the metaphor in question. However, what differentiates both of them from the English example is the perspective. Namely, by asking the question in 1), a person wants to find out about the current relationship status, whereas by the questions in 1a) and 1b), a person is asking about the future of the relationship. Moreover, the literal translation of the example 1) would not function in Croatian language let alone convey figurative meaning. 2) This relationship is foundering. a) *Ova veza tone. b) Ovaj brod tone. c) Kola su nam krenula nizbrdo. Bearing the verb choice in mind, in example 2) the relationship is conceptualized as a boat. If the boat is filling with water getting and about to sink, and we conceptualize the relationship as the boat, there is one conclusion left – the relationship is about to end. Example 2a) is a straightforward translation, but even though it would be understood by a native Croatian speaker, it is never used. Additionally, very similar to 2a) is example 2b) where instead of the noun relationship, the noun boat is explicitly used, thus strengthening the conceptualization connection. However, since 64 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics it is mostly heard in politicians’ speeches describing Croatia’s unpromising future, this is an example of the LIFE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor. More interesting is the 2c) example. Even though tourism is Croatia’s most productive economic branch, Croatia is not so maritime-oriented. Furthermore, in the region of Slavonia and Baranja, whose residents are mostly farmers, people used a wagon for both work and transport. Moreover, young people in the region, wanting to preserve old customs, tend to choose a wagon for their wedding car. So, possibly due to Croatia’s orientation to its roots and appreciation of old customs, an expression using a wagon exists in the language. The metaphorical expression in 2c), if translated straightforwardly, would be the wagon is moving down the hill, underlying the same conceptual metaphor as the original. After some time spent on an unknown road, travelers might realize that they have diverged from the right road. Similarly, after some time in a relationship/marriage, lovers may realize they have involved themselves in irrelevant things just to keep their minds off the important issues. This may seem easier at first, but it is not a permanent solution, so eventually they will have to remind themselves about their priorities. 3) We’ve gotten off the track. a) Iskočili smo iz tračnica. b) Ispali smo iz tračnica. Both examples 3a) and 3b) correspond to the English version in terms of conceptual metaphor and conveyed meaning. However, there is a slight intralinguistic difference in the verb choice and voice perspective. Namely, the verb in 3a), if literally translated, is to jump off and is used in active voice, alluding to the lovers themselves being responsible, whereas in 3b) the verb is to fall out off and is used in passive voice, alluding to external factors that are responsible for the lovers getting off the track. Either way, the result is the same; however, in 3a) the lovers blame themselves while in 3b), they blame someone else for their problems. 65 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents A turning point in a relationship is a crossroads A crossroads is a place where roads meet and a traveler has to decide which road to take. With this picture in mind, the metaphorical expression to be at a crossroads was coined. The expression refers to a stage in life where a person has to make an important decision that will affect his life either positively or negatively, like being at a crossroads; if you decide to go the wrong way, you will eventually have to return, which will affect the rest of your trip with respect to your timetable. So, everyone is especially careful at a crossroads they approach for the first time, just like a person who does not want to make a mistake is extremely careful when making serious life decisions. 4) We’re at a crossroads. a) Nalazimo se na raskrižju. b) Nalazimo se na raskršću. c) Nalazimo se na raskrsnici. All Croatian counterparts correspond to the English original. However, the Croatian versions offer three synonimical possibilities used according to frequency and usage preference. To be more precise, raskrižje in 4a) is neutral and recently the most used option, whereas raskršće in 4b) and raskrsnica in 4c) are options more used in Slavonia and Baranja region, i.e. precisely in areas where Croatian and Serbian language are in a closer contact. The only thing that distinguishes example 4a) raskrižje and examples 4b) raskršće and 4c) raskrsnica is the root word, namely križ and krst. Etymologically, krst derives from Praslavic and Old Slavic languages (krьstъ), which were ancestor languages of both Croatian and Serbian, hence both languages used the word krst. However, as the consequence of the Croatian War of Independence, there was a linguistic tendency to eliminate all similarities with Serbian language during the 1990s, hence krst, being associated with Eastern Ortodoxy and the Serbian language, was to be eliminated and replaced with križ, which is associated with the Catholicism that most Croats claim to practice. To summarize, the option in 4a) is neutral and the preferred one, whereas the options in 4b) and 4c) might be labeled as the “Serbian” ones. Further, they are most likely to be used in areas of a close interlinguistic Croatian and Serbian contact; however, all three options can be understood by any Croatian speaker and underlie the same conceptual metaphor as the English one. 66 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Progress in a relationship is advancement in place Like a journey, every relationship has a beginning, a course to run, and an ending. The experiences lovers gain and the time they spend together might be conceptualized through the distance travelers cover on their journey. 5) Look how far we’ve come. a) Pogledaj kako smo daleko došli. b) Pogledaj kako smo daleko stigli. c) Pogledaj kako smo daleko dogurali. d) Pogledaj kako smo daleko dospjeli. All Croatian translations correspond to the English version. The four Croatian examples used different synonimical verbs, all of which are travel-related, thus perfectly underlying the conceptual metaphor. Difficulties in a relationship are barriers on a road As George Lakoff (1992: 208) states, two travelers travel towards a common destination. During their journey, they may encounter some barriers and get stuck. Furthermore, when constructing a road, one has to be aware of geographical obstacles and overcome them. Sometimes, however, due to natural processes, deterioration and poor maintenance, bumps inevitably occur, and a driver has to be very careful when passing them in order not to damage his vehicle or injure himself. If he pays attention, he can overcome obstacles and continue with his journey. These images can be mapped onto love. During a relationship, due to different personalities, priorities and wishes, lovers encounter problems. If they believe in their love, they can work it out and continue enjoying their love. Building on the aforementioned mappings, the metaphorical expression is as follows. 6) It’s been a long, bumpy road. a) ?Bila je to duga, neravna cesta. b) Bio je to dug, neravan put. In Croatian, two synonyms can be used for the English word road, namely cesta and put. Despite being used interchangeably, there is a slight difference between them. Precisely, cesta refers to a public, asphalt surface, whereas put usually refers to a dirt road and is more frequently used in metaphorical linguistic expression than the former option. Furthermore, the adjective bumpy defines something that is not smooth and presumably has some obstacles. By comparison, in the Croatian examples the adjective neravan, which translationally corresponds to the adjective bumpy, has two meanings; on the one hand, it may refer to a bumpy surface, whereas 67 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents on the other, it might refer to a surface that has no turns, i.e. a surface that extends in a linear manner and might have no bumps at all. When travelers get lost on a dead-end street, they can either end their journey or return to where they came from. In other words, there is no possibility for them to advance the journey, which can be mapped onto the love relationship. When lovers come to a point where neither of them wants to make a compromise, the relationship cannot be advanced. 7) This relationship is a dead-end street. a) Ova je veza naišla na zid. The only usable option is the one in 7a); however, the word’s literal meaning is not the same. The expression does not refer to any kind of street, but rather refers to a relationship hitting a wall. Hence the two examples carry the same figurative meaning. To clarify, if someone/something hits a wall, he/it cannot advance in the same direction, so retreating to a certain point is the next step, like entering a deadend street. Further, a dead-end street has one way in and out and on the other end a house or a wall blocking it, so the wall might be a part of the visual dead-end street image; hence the expression underlies the same metaphor. Spliting up is taking different roads When two travelers cannot agree on which road to take, they might decide to take different roads. The same thing happens with two lovers; if they do not see eye to eye anymore or have different goals in life, they may decide to end a relationship, i.e. each lover will continue pursuing his own goals. 8) We’ll just have to go our separate ways. a) Morat ćemo ići svatko svojim putem. b) ?Morat ćemo ići svatko svojim putom. Both Croatian translations underlie the same metaphor as the English one; however, a closer look reveals subtle differences between them. Croatian noun put can take two inflections; either -om (putom) or –em (putem) but not randomly. If referring to a particular way/road, one should use the inflection –om as in 8b). If, on the other hand, one refers to a metaphorical road, like in example 8), one should use the –em inflection as in 8a). Since the expression indicates the metaphorical nature, Croatian speakers should not translate expression 8) with the 8b) option because it employs literal meaning. However, since putem and putom are incorrectly interchangeably 68 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics used, both 8a) and 8b) options are equally frequently used, possibly alluding to tight connection between the literal and figurative meaning of a road. Major themes and mappings Lakoff (1992: 6) claims that a metaphor is not a matter of a language itself, but a matter of thought and reason. The mapping is primary and language secondary. In addition, the mapping is conventional, i.e. it is one of our conventional ways of conceptualizing something; in this case love relationships. Furthermore, what constitutes love as a journey is ontological mapping from the source domain of journeys to the target domain of love. Based on the examples above, it can be summarized as follows: lovers are travelers on a joint journey with their common life goals seen as destinations yet to be reached. Each traveler needs a vehicle to reach his destination, conceptualizing a love relationship that is promising as long as it allows lovers to make progress towards their goal. However, occasionally travelers arrive at crossroads where they have to decide which road to take, like lovers who must decide whether they still share the same goals. In addition to crossroads, travelers may have to deal with different barriers they encounter along their way. In comparison, lovers may have to face life problems and choose from among several options. They might choose one that will keep them together or they might choose not to solve the problem and go in different directions, thus indicating the end of their relationship – like travelers who choose the latter option, ending their journey. The mappings associating the source domain JOURNEY and the target domain LOVE are summarized as follows: SOURCE JOURNEY a) travelers TARGET LOVE lovers b) vehicle destination relationship c) journey life goal d) crossroad turning point in a relationship e) advancement in place progress in a relationship f) impediments problems in a relationship g) taking different road splitting up h) ending of a journey ending of a relationship 69 �A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents Conclusion This paper deals with similarities and differences of some Lakoff and Johnson’s metaphorical expressions of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor in English and their Croatian counterparts. The research has proven that there is a great similarity of metaphorical linguistic expressions in English and Croatian. However, it has indicated numerous subtle interlinguistic differences. To be more precise, it has shown that, in order to maintain the same effect, sometimes different tenses or voice perspectives must be used. Further, it has proved that single word choice in Croatian alludes to either literal or figurative meaning. Equally importantly, it has been shown that the same metaphorical expression exists in the respective languages, yet used within different conceptual metaphor. Simultaneously, to maintain the same effect, different linguistic expressions may sometimes be used. Additionally, Croatian language has been shown to be able to express either literal or figurative meaning through choice of inflexion, while the English language cannot. However, the research has shown not only interliguistic but also intralinguistic differences, i.e. synonimical options that the Croatian language has due to a close geographical, historical, cultural and linguistic contact with the Serbian language. To summarize, even though two languages might share the same conceptual metaphor, the actual linguistic metaphorical expressions underlying the conceptual metaphor may be influenced and coined on the basis of cultural-ideological differences. Therefore, in addition to being cognitively motivated, metaphorical expression is also culturally motivated, thus referring to metaphors being both cognitive as well as cultural entities. References Boroditsky, L (2000) Metaphoric structuring: understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, No. 75, pp. 1-28. Elsevier Jakobson, R. & Halle, M (1956) Fundamentals of Language. Mouton & Co. SGravenhage Kövecses, Z. (2002) Metaphor: a practical introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kövecses, Z. (2005) Metaphor in Culture. Universality and Variation. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. (1992) The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor. In Ortony, A. (1992) Metaphorand Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 70 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Lakoff, G & Johnson, M. (2003) Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 71 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2786 Title A name given to the resource A Contrastive Study of some Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphorical Expressions from LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphor and their Croatian Equivalents Author Author Božić Lenard, Dragana Abstract A summary of the resource. Many people would argue that metaphor is a characteristic of extraordinary rather than ordinary speech. However, Lakoff and Johnson (2003: 8) strongly disagree, claiming that our conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in its nature. Moreover, metaphors do not only shape our communication but the way we think or act. Occurring primarily in thought, metaphors are grounded in culture; hence they serve as a valuable resource for cross-cultural linguistic research. This paper aims to study similarities and differences of the English and Croatian perspectives on love in terms of a journey. For the purpose of this research, Lakoff and Johnson’s eight metaphorical linguistic expressions of the LOVE IS A JOURNEY conceptual metaphor from Metaphors We Live By (2003) were used in a survey and offered to 28 native Croatian speakers and former English language and literature students majoring in the field of translation studies who were asked to provide their Croatian equivalents. After the survey was conducted, the research has shown the great similarity of metaphorical linguistic expressions in English and Croatian language. However, it has shown that, in order to maintain the same effect, sometimes different tenses or voice perspectives have to be used. Furthermore, it has shown the existence of the same metaphorical expression in the respective languages, yet used within different conceptual metaphors. Moreover, the research has shown not only interliguistic but also intralinguistic differences, i.e. synonimical options that the Croatian language has due to close geographical, historical, cultural and linguistic contact with Serbian language. In conclusion, it has been proved that even though two languages might share the same conceptual metaphor, the actual linguistic expressions underlying the conceptual metaphor may be coined on the basis of cultural-ideological differences, thus referring to metaphors being both cognitive as well as cultural entities. Key words: metaphorical expressions, love, journey, cross-cultural linguistic comparison Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PQ Romance literatures,PR English literature https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f920cdbde71c99875cf558f886e81a5e.docx 7ff700d87c380e6f841f8875743b8190 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/130e2d757a0d518a1f01e5a6b7d35cc3.pdf c6fc67ce55a4d37cb886bbbf2516378e PDF Text Text A Contribution to Pedagogical Specialized Lexicography - Illustrated English-Serbian Dictionary of Musical Terms with Serbian-English Index Snežana Drambarean & Dorin Drambarean University of Niš/Niš, Serbia Union of South Eastern Europe Faculties of Novi Sad/Novi Sad, Serbia Key words:pedagogical specialized lexicography, music dictionary ABSTRACT The paper focuses on the essential lexicological concepts at the basis of the authors‟ dictionary (Illustrated EnglishSerbian Dictionary of Musical Terms with Serbian-English Index), as well as on the practical usage of certain rules observed when elaborating it. With over 16,000 entries (on 445 A4 pages, F9), the dictionary offers broad coverage of a wide range of musical categories spanning many eras and areas including important ancient, classical and modern musical trends, popular music, ethnomusicology, music analysis, various instruments and their technology. Generally speaking, the dictionary propounds the entry structure that presents a lexical unit from various points of view following the vocabulary model that comprises three categories: the music-specific terms, or highly specific lexical terms in the field of music; the so-called “border terms” between the music-specific language and the general language, i.e. lexical terms that come from the general language but have acquired one or more different meanings when used in the area of music, and general vocabulary of frequent use in music. The indispensable parts of the entry word in a bilingual dictionary proposed by the authors could be summarized as follows: the presence of the entry word in its canonical form, grammatical information in the extent required by the presupposed user of the dictionary, pronunciation in the source language, orthographic information, equivalents in the target language in their canonical form, indication of the whole lexical meaning of the entry word by partial equivalents of the target language, remarks about usage restrictions, examples of application and, in some cases, illustrations. The dictionary is tailored to serve as an essential point of reference for music students, teachers, lecturers, professional musicians, translators, as well as music enthusiasts. On a rather artful level, the dictionary may be said to be an attempt to help music enthusiasts to „English their music and music there English‟. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1939 Title A name given to the resource A Contribution to Pedagogical Specialized Lexicography - Illustrated English-Serbian Dictionary of Musical Terms with Serbian-English Index Author Author DRAMBAREAN, Snežana DRAMBAREAN, Dorin Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:pedagogical specialized lexicography, music dictionary ABSTRACT The paper focuses on the essential lexicological concepts at the basis of the authors‟ dictionary (Illustrated English-Serbian Dictionary of Musical Terms with Serbian-English Index), as well as on the practical usage of certain rules observed when elaborating it. With over 16,000 entries (on 445 A4 pages, F9), the dictionary offers broad coverage of a wide range of musical categories spanning many eras and areas including important ancient, classical and modern musical trends, popular music, ethnomusicology, music analysis, various instruments and their technology. Generally speaking, the dictionary propounds the entry structure that presents a lexical unit from various points of view following the vocabulary model that comprises three categories: the music-specific terms, or highly specific lexical terms in the field of music; the so-called “border terms” between the music-specific language and the general language, i.e. lexical terms that come from the general language but have acquired one or more different meanings when used in the area of music, and general vocabulary of frequent use in music. The indispensable parts of the entry word in a bilingual dictionary proposed by the authors could be summarized as follows: the presence of the entry word in its canonical form, grammatical information in the extent required by the presupposed user of the dictionary, pronunciation in the source language, orthographic information, equivalents in the target language in their canonical form, indication of the whole lexical meaning of the entry word by partial equivalents of the target language, remarks about usage restrictions, examples of application and, in some cases, illustrations. The dictionary is tailored to serve as an essential point of reference for music students, teachers, lecturers, professional musicians, translators, as well as music enthusiasts. On a rather artful level, the dictionary may be said to be an attempt to help music enthusiasts to „English their music and music there English‟. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4b9c795aedf808febfd3aa47fbbe07c4.pdf e09477b38fa29aac527451e113c9b7d3 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Fatma Aksoy Anadolu University, Turkey Submitted: 09.04.2014. Accepted: 01.11.2014. Abstract The present study was designed to investigate if there is a significant difference among SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners, and if there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom. A total of 46 preparatory school students, studying at Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages, participated in this study. The participants were required to provide Turkish equivalents of the 15 new words presented in semantic, thematic or totally unrelated sets that they were encouraged to learn through word cards. The data gathered from 37 of these participants were analyzed. The results of the delayed tests revealed that semantically related sets (SR) significantly differed from unrelated and thematic sets, and helped the participants learn and recall more words, while the results of the immediate tests did not yield to a statistically significant difference. Keywords: Vocabulary presentation, semantic clustering, lexical sets, thematic clustering. Introduction “Without grammar very little can be conveyed,without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed.” David Arthur Wilkins, 1972 As the quotation above lays bare, vocabulary is vitally important for the generation and maintenance of communication, which is the preliminary purpose of learning a language. If we regard communication, either oral or written, as a wall that we put up with the advent of every kind of new knowledge related to language, without a shadow of a doubt, words constitute the bricks of this wall. Despite this importance, 69 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) however, vocabulary has only recently gained recognition. As Decarrico points out (2001): Vocabulary learning is central to language acquisition, whether the language is first, second or foreign. Although vocabulary has not always been recognized as a priority in language teaching, interest in its role in second language learning has grown rapidly in recent years, and specialists now emphasize the need for a systematic and principled approach to vocabulary by both the teacher and the learner. (p.285) Perceiving vocabulary differently from time to time may be attributed to the historical development process of language learning and teaching in general. Although vocabulary teaching was notably important when Grammar Translation Method and Reading Approach were the leading languageteaching methodologies (the early decades of the 20th century), the emergence of Audio-lingual Method had a devastating effect on vocabulary teaching and research, with the argument that too much vocabulary learning would distract learners from the main purpose of language learning, which was, at that time, basic habit formation of phonological and grammar patterns. 1980s and after, however, have seen a resurgence of interest in vocabulary instruction (Seal, 1990). Now, after having been of secondary importance for a period of time, vocabulary instruction is coming into prominence with “the teachers and researchers waking up to the realization that vocabulary is an important area worthy of effort and investigation” (Seal, 1990:309). Besides the significance of vocabulary instruction, yet another reality of the issue that we need to embrace is that learning vocabulary poses a great challenge for EFL learners due to the amount of the words that a learner needs to know and the complexity of learning process. As Schmidt(2000)alsospecifies,languages include enormous numbers of words, “something that was probably already obvious from the thickness of your dictionary.” (p.6) It is certainly not possible to learn all of these words and “the learning process is not an all-or-nothing process in which a word is suddenly and completely available for use.” (Schmidt, 2000:6)However, regarding that the significance of vocabulary has been recognized, only recently though, language teachers as well as authors and researchers in the field are faced with how learners can best learn as many vocabulary items as possible. In an effort to seek answers to this question, studies on such current issues as implicit learning versus explicit learning, presenting vocabulary in context versus in isolation, monolingual dictionaries versus bilingual dictionaries, etc. have emerged. Of these current issues, an equally controversial one is presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets versus thematic sets, which is the argument that this paper endeavors to tackle. 70 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics As will be mentioned later, not many studies have been recorded on this controversial issue in Turkish context, which was the starting point of the present study. In addition to the scarcity of related studies in Turkey, especially in preparatory classes, the importance of how vocabulary is presented as well as what is presented and how it is taught, on which a good number of studies have already been carried out, played a crucial role on the emergence of this study. As for the significance of this study, it is expected to reveal beneficial results for learners, teachers and textbook writers with regard to the way of vocabulary presentation that can pave the way for the most effective vocabulary learning. Below each side of this argument, namely semantic clustering and thematic clustering of vocabulary, is discussed referring to related empirical studies. Review of Literature Semantic Clustering Semantic clustering of vocabulary simply means presenting words that share the same semantic and syntactic features, generally grouped under a headword (e.g. flower names or clothing items). (Mirjalili, Jabbari, Rezai, 2012)To be more precise, they share the same semantic features, which means that they have similar meanings. As for what is meant by “they share the same syntactic features,” itindicates that they conform to the rules of syntax, a branch of linguistics that is interested in the way in which words are put together in sentences.To give an example, dish-bowl-plate and shirt-jacket-sweater are semantic clusters, with the headwords being kitchen utensils and clothing items respectively. (Tinkham, 1997) They have similar meanings (share semantic features) and they all belong to the same part of speech (share syntactic features).Below semantic clustering is discussed referring to both supporters and opponents considering that there is dichotomy in the research area regarding its use in vocabulary teaching. As AlShaikhi(2011) indicates, despite many a textbook writer who presents new vocabulary in semantic sets without empirical basis, Seal(1990) explainsthe reasons why he prefers such presentation in his book American Vocabulary Builder 1: Semantic clustering makesmore sense in terms of vocabulary structure and progress and enables learners to guess the meanings of the unknown words as they are presented with other words that share similar characteristics. Other writers who provide justification for semantic clustering include Neuner (1992) and Dunbar (1992). Neuner maintains that learners need less effort to learn words in semantic sets and it is easier to retrieve the words learned in such a way from memory. Similarly, Dunbar puts forward that semantic sets provide learners with an opportunity to see how information is organized and stored in the brain and also enables learners to notice how the words are similar or different. 71 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) All in all, employing semantic sets in vocabulary teaching and thus textbooks dates back to the advent of notional/functional syllabuses, developed by Wilkins (1976). As Nunan (2001) states: “Notions are general conceptual meanings such as time, cause and duration, while functions are the communicative purposes that are achieved through language such as apologizing, advising and expressing preferences (p.61).” Considering that notions and/or functions are placed at the center of syllabus design, it seems inevitably easier to present new vocabulary in semantic sets. Other authors and researchers, on the other hand, hold the very opinion that semantic clustering hinders vocabulary learning as words sharing similar syntactic and semantic features interfere with each other (Higa, 1963; Laufer, 1986; Nation, 2001). Nation (2002) provides language teachers with some guidelinesregarding deliberate vocabulary learning through the use of word cards, which also includes a warning to avoid interference as follows: “Make sure that words of similar meaning or of related meaning are not together in the same pack of cards. This means days of the week should not be all learned at the same time. The same applies to months of the year, numbers, opposites, words with similar meanings, and words belonging to the same category, such as items of clothing, names of fruit, parts of the body and thingsin the kitchen. These items interfere with each other and make learning much more difficult.” (p.42) So as to base the opposing ideas to semantic clustering on scientific grounds, it is worth mentioning Interference Theory, developed by McGeoch (1992), which claims that two learning materials interfere with one another and consequently learning is impaired. As Baddeley (1990) indicates,“as similarity increases between targeted information and other information learnt either before or after the targeted information, the difficulty of learning and remembering the targeted information also increases” (Papathanasiou, 2009: 318). Concordantly, it seems unequivocally illogical to present word items sharing similar syntactic and semantic characteristics together. In a similar vein, Distinctiveness Hypothesis by Hunt and Mitchell (1982) also links ease of learning to distinctiveness, in other words non-similarity, of the information to be learned. In the light of these two sound supports against semantic clustering, we can move on to adiscussion of the third method of vocabulary presentation mentioned in this study. 72 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Thematic Clustering Thematic clustering is grouping words that share the same thematic concept although they may not share the same syntactic features (Mirjalil, Jabbari, Rezai, 2012). To illustrate, as explained above, what is meant by “sharing the same syntactic features” is thatwords may not be used in a sentence in the same way; in other words, they may not belong to the same part of speech. Another characteristic of thematic clustering is that the words presented in thematic sets are cognitively associated. To give an example, beach, sunny and swim are thematic clusters(Tinkham, 1997), and although they share the same thematic concept, they all come from different parts of speech, noun, adjective and verb respectively. Of the key principles of teaching vocabulary, such as presenting new vocabulary in rich contexts to provide learners with clues and multiple exposures to target vocabulary, one principle suggests “exercises and activities include learning words in word association lists” (Decarrico, 2001:288).Such cognitive associations of words are useful on the grounds that they reflect the relationships in the mind (Decarrico, 2001).Similarly,Haycraft (1987) holds the view that words related to a general theme should be offered together. For example, teaching such words as brake, crash, door, engine, seat, speed, passenger, park (the words that means of transportation have in common) is likely to come in more useful than teaching only all the means of transportation such as cars, trains, aeroplanes, etc. at a time. The logic behind this is that once the learners acquire the underlying vocabulary items, “the teacher can make the application wider and more useful, and can revise the vocabulary later in different situations” (p.46). The scientific basis of thematic clustering can be attributed to Barlett’s Schema Theory, whose foundations he laid in 1932(cited in AlShaikhi, 2011). Schema Theory simply maintains that knowledge is organized into units and stored accordingly. That is to say, just like in the mother tongue acquisition, a learner of a second or foreign language forms a schema with the advent of a new word and company of thematically related words expands this schema and thus the vocabulary knowledge of the learner. In this sense, Schema Theory can be said to closely relate to Haycraft and Deccario’s viewpoint mentioned above. Having reviewed the concepts of semantic clustering, along with arguments for and against, and thematic clustering,along with their scientific bases, it is well worth peeking over the empirical investigations into the issue. 73 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Related Research Studies As a result of having placed much importance on teaching and learning vocabulary in recent years, a good number of studies have been conducted to gain insights into, in semantic and lexical terms, which way of presenting new vocabulary proves to be a more useful tool. (Tinkham, 1997, Waring, 1997; Finkbeiner and Nicol, 2003; Hashemi and Gowdasiaei, 2005; Erten and Tekin, 2008; Papathanasiou, 2009; Hoshino, 2010; Bolger and Zapata, 2011; Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai, 2012) It is worth mentioning that these studies have come up with different findings, although many of them are in favor of making use of either semantically unrelated sets or thematically related sets in vocabulary teaching. To begin with,Tinkham(1997)explored the effects of semantic and thematic clustering on L2 vocabulary learning, and concluded that the latter facilitates vocabulary learning, whereas the former hinders it. He carried out two separate experimentsin which he compared the effect of semantically related artificial words with that of unrelated artificial words and thematically related artificial words respectively. To reinforce the findings that semantically related sets are superior to semantically unrelated sets, but inferior to thematically related sets in terms of learning and recall of vocabulary, subject perceptions of relative difficulty of the aforementioned vocabulary sets were also recorded on a short questionnaire. Waring(1997) carried out a close replication of Tinkham’s, in which he paired Japanese words with artificial ones. This replication study also brought the facilitative effect of thematic related and unrelated sets over semantically related sets to the light, supporting the findings from the original study. Additionally, Waring, in his study, administered a trials-to-criterion test to find out which of the two sets in each experiment (1. Semantically related sets versus semantically unrelated sets, 2. Semantically related sets versus thematically related sets) was learned completely before the other one. Similarly, Finkbeinerand Nicol (2003) conducted a study, in which the participants learned 32 new words in either a related or unrelated way, and were asked to translate these words at test. The researchers found that the participants translated the words learned in semantic sets more slowly and their translation performance was reported to be lower in proportion to the unrelated sets. A similar study from Turkish context, by Erten and Tekin(2008), indicated that presenting words in semantically unrelated sets proved to be a more useful tool than presenting vocabulary in semantically related sets. The researchers also confirmed 74 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics that, with help of delayed post-test, the positive effect of the unrelated sets persisted in the long term. It was also established that the participants completed the test for semantically related vocabulary at a longer time then they did at the test for unrelated vocabulary, which demonstrates that it takes more time and is relatively more difficult to recall the words learned in semantically related sets. Papathanasiou’s(2009) action research, in which the Greek EFL learners learned and were tested on six related word lists (either sense relation such as synonyms, antonyms and homonyms, or topic relation) and six word lists that did not have any relationship at all, investigated which of the aforementionedmethods was more useful. The findings suggested that presentation of unrelated vocabulary facilitated vocabulary learning among adult learners at beginner level. A recent study whose findings are compatible with the previous ones listed here isBolger and Zapata’s (2011) extension of Finkbeiner and Nicol’sresearch, in which they presented 32 artificial words in either semantically related or unrelated sets, embedding them in story context. Apart from making use of context, what makes this study differ from previous ones is that it included three phases, in the third of which a stimulus template was introduced to make stimulus match verification with eyetracking possible. The researchers concluded that semantic relatedness inhibited vocabulary learning or delayed it. However, it was also noted that use of context moderated the negative effects of semantic clustering. The latest of the related studies mentioned above was conducted by Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai (2012), whoexamined the effects of semantic, thematic and unrelated clustering of vocabulary for different proficiency levels, namely elementary, preintermediate and intermediate, under two instructional approaches of isolation and context. The results demonstrated that semantically related words were recalledleast frequently, and the participants recalled more words when they were exposed to thematically related sets. Another finding of the study was that the participants performed better when the words were presented in isolation rather than in context. As a result, the findings of this study are also in line with Interference Theory, Distinctiveness Hypothesis and Schema Theory. Despite the abundance of research in favor of presenting new vocabulary in semantically unrelated sets, there are few studies with findings in the opposite direction. Hashemi and Gowdasiaei(2005)managed a study to assess the effectiveness of lexical sets and semantically unrelated vocabulary instruction on 60 EFL learners from Iran. In contrast to the findings mentioned above, lexical sets proved to be more useful for upper- and lower-level students, with the upper-level students making more progress. 75 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Accordingly, AlShaikhi (2011) obtained results against thematic clustering in his thesis study for his Master of Arts degree. Although he hypothesized that the most effective way would be thematic clustering among semantically related, semantically unrelated and thematically related vocabulary lists, the results revealed that semantically related and unrelated sets are better to gain new vocabulary with no statistically significant difference, whereas thematically related setsare the least effective. The final research study to mention is by Hoshino (2010), who investigated which of the five types of word lists –namely, synonyms, antonyms, categorical, thematic and arbitrary (unrelated)–contributed to maximum learning of new vocabulary in a classroom setting. According to the results, neither semantically related (synonyms and antonyms) nor thematic lists, but categorical lists proved to be the most effective. As an example of a 10-item vocabulary list and test offered by the researcher indicates, “categorical list” meansa list that contains two words from five different semantic categories; to exemplify, moth-wasp, asthma-diabetes, calf-chick. In a nutshell, clashing points of view and research findings confront us with a controversy. Despite this controversy, most textbooks keep presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets with no empirical justification. Along with this being a controversial situation and the prevailing presentation of new vocabulary in a semantically related way, scarcity of related research studies in the Turkish context addressing preparatory school learners also paved the way for the present study to be conducted with the intention of seeingwhether presenting vocabulary in semantically related, semantically unrelated and thematically related sets yields to statistically significant difference as the previous studies suggest. Therefore, the present study sought answers to the following research questions: 1. Is there a significant difference between SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners? 2. If there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom? Methodology Participants Forty-six Turkish EFL students studying at the preparatory school of AnadoluUniversity participated in the present study. According to Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR), the participants were at B2 level. However, Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages prefers to split 76 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics B1 and B2 levels into two as B1.1 - B1.2 and B2.1 - B2.2, aiming to elaborate the learning outcomes for each level and better equipthe learners with these outcomes. In light of this fact, the participants of the current study fall into B2.1 level, which is assumed to correspond to intermediate level. It is worth mentioning that they were two repeat-classes (not mainstream); that is to say, it was the second time the participants were studying at the mentioned level. It is equally necessary to note that most of the participants had been studying at this school for four semesters, indicating that they also repeated some of the previous modules (A, B1.1, B1.2, B2.1). The participants’ language-proficiencylevel was determined by the proficiency exam of the schoolthat they sat after a placement test at the beginning of the fall term (2013). Each module takes eight weeks on average, at the end of which learners sit an end-of-module test. Those who get 60 and above are entitled to pass to the next level, whereas those who obtain less than 60 are required to repeat the same module. This study was carried out at the beginning of the spring term (2013), namely at the third module of the year. Since the experiment was conducted only one week after the end-of-module exam of the previous module, and the participants sat the very same exam, they were assumed to be at the same level. Materials and Instruments Three word lists, (semantically related (SR), semantically unrelated (SU) and thematically related (TR)), each containing fifteen words, were utilized during the implementation of the present study. Benefiting from a number of similar studies (AlShaikhi, 2011; Papathanasiou, 2009; Erten&Tekin, 2008) thefollowing criteria were determined to decide on the words to be used in each list:  The words must be unfamiliar to the participants  The words must not contain cognates.  Borrowed words should be abstained from.  Words with idiomatic meaning should be avoided.  Concrete words should be chosen as much as possible. (The logic behind this is the ease of teaching and testing rather than the cognitive development of the participants.)  The words on semantically related list should belong to the same part of speech. As mentioned before, it is not possible to control the parts of speech of thematic clusters. Unrelated sets could have contained the words that belong to the same part of speech; however, in this study, different parts of speech were chosen. With the aforementioned criteria having been considered, three word lists were formed. The words on SR list were taken from a 77 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) website(http://www.enchantedlearning.com/wordlist/landforms.shtml),with the headword landforms. The 15 words were all nouns and the mean of letters was 5.86. The words on the TR list, including five verbs, four nouns and five adjectives, were taken from another website (http://www.majortests.com/word-lists/word-list11.html), with the mean of letters being 5.73. Nine words out of 15 on the TR list were taken from AlShaikhi’s (2011) master’s thesis, in which the thematic set of words concerned ahospital theme, whereas the other six words were added by the researcher herself. This list included six verbs, five nouns and four adjectives, with the mean of letters being 7.4. In order to ensure that the participants were unfamiliar with every one of the words, a pilot study was conducted with 10 students sharing similar characteristics with the participants. The attendants of the pilot study were provided with the word lists, and asked to tick the words they know or have seen before. Another material used was the small word cards with which the participants were provided to write the English words on one side and the Turkish equivalents on the other in orderto learn and practice the target words. The reason why word cards were preferred over word lists was to preventlist-effect(Nakata, 2008).The word lists were also used as the testing material, with the words having been reshuffled to avoid the risk that the participant may have recalled the meanings of the words to be learned thanks to visual memory if they had been tested in the same order. Finally, a short questionnaire of four open-ended questions were employed in which the participants were asked about their perception of the difficulty of learning the words on each list and the immediate tests subsequent to each teaching session. The open-ended questions were taken from Tinkham’s (1997) experimental study and included which set the participants found the most difficult, why they thought it was difficult, which set they found to be the easiest and why they thought it was easy. It is worth mentioning that the Turkish translations of the questions were addressed to the participants, and they were asked to respond in Turkish as well. The reason why the native language was preferred although the participants would have been able to comprehend and answer the questions in English was to enable them to express themselves better. (See Appendix for the instruments) Data Collection Once it was confirmed that the participants were unlikely to know or recognize the words to be used, the data-collection procedure was started. The study was conducted with two classes, each containing 23 students, during normal 45-minute class hours, and was completed within two weeks. The first week was allocated for learning the new words and immediate tests, and a delayed test was administered in the following week. Subsequent to the delayed tests, the participants were requested to answer four 78 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics open-ended questions, adapted from Thinkham (1997). The purpose was to gain insights into students’ perception of the difficulty of the different types of clustering. Each intact class was offered each word list with the same order (SR-SU-TR) on the same day in two different class hours. Word sets were presented every other day, namely Monday (SR), Wednesday (SU) and Friday (TR). Since, based on the pilot study, the participants were assumed not to know or have seen the target words before, no pre-test was administered prior to the presentation. Therefore, each lesson had three main steps, presentation, practice and immediate test respectively. The same procedure was followed for each word set. Ten minutes were allocated for the presentation phase, in which the participants saw a list of the 15 words with their parts of speech projected on the thin client. The teacher first read aloud the words so as to familiarize the students with the form of the target words and then provided the Turkish translations. The participants were asked to write the new English words on one side of the small cards provided by the teacher and the Turkish translations on the other. The purpose was to enable the participants to learn the new vocabulary at a receptive level only; that is, they were merely expected to learn and recall the meaning of the words. The second step of each lesson was the practice, for which twenty minutes were allocated. The participants were encouraged to learn the words with help of repetition. While they were practicing the words by turning the cards over and over, the teacher walked around the class to provide help if necessary. After the students went through the cards as many times as they needed (they were encouraged to do it at least five to six times), the teacher asked them to orally provide Turkish equivalents of the words she uttered. Once the time allocated for the practice was over, the word cards were collected and immediate test sheets were distributed. It is worth mentioning that the test paper was the same as the list provided at the very beginning of the lesson, with a different order of the words and, needless to say, without the Turkish equivalents. The participants were required to write the Turkish translations of the target words at their own pace. The words were presented in isolation because the purpose of the assessment here was to see if the participants could recall the words they had just learned and find out which way of vocabulary presentation (SR, SR, TR) better facilitated learning and recollection. Depth of processing, a theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972) (cited in Brown &Perry, 1991)that suggests“retention is dependent on the level at which information is processed” (p.657), had to be disregarded; translation was preferred because it was quick and practical. 79 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Data Analysis and Results In both the immediate and the delayed tests, the participants were required to provide the Turkish translations of the 15 words given, and each correct translation was considered as one point, making the total score in every list 15. It is worth mentioning that the data provided by the participants who did not sit any of the six tests (three immediate and three delayed) were excluded. The remaining data gathered from the tests (of the 37 participants who sat all the tests) were computed through IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics along with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA test were run. One-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was used because the data were collected from the same participants at different time periods (Larson-Hall, 2010). Additionally, content analysis was used to analyze the participants’ answers to the questions regarding the difficulty of the word sets. The findings of these tests as well as the participants’ answers to the questionnaire are expressed below. Quantitative Results The participants’ scores on the immediate tests for each clustering were quite close to each other. The mean scores for SR, SU and TR were M=14.35, M=14.46 and M=14.62 respectively. Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics of the immediate test results for each clustering. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of the Immediate Test Results Group SR SU TR Number of Participants 37 37 37 Mean Scores 14.35 14.46 14.62 of Standard Deviation 1.418 1.426 .861 Minimum Score 9 7 12 Maximum Score 15 15 15 Although the mean scores for each clustering were slightly different from one another, a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA (RM ANOVA) was run to see if this is statistically the case. Regarding the immediate test scores, the one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed a non-significant difference amongthe three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2.72)=.480, p>.001. The delayed test results, on the other hand, differed from one another to a larger extentcompared to the immediate test results. It was revealed that the participants performed better on the SR test (M= 11.05), while their performance wasreported to be considerably similar concerning SU and TR sets, with the mean scores being 80 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics M=8.16 and M=8.08 respectively. Table 3 displays the descriptive statistics of the delayed test results for each clustering. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Delayed Test Results Group SR SU TR Number of Participants 37 37 37 Mean Scores 11.05 8.16 8.08 of Standard Deviation 3.636 4.622 3.244 Minimum Score 2 1 2 Maximum Score 15 15 14 As the descriptive statistics indicate, there seemed to be an important difference between SR clustering and the other two types of clustering. To be able to ensure this difference and if it is statistically significant, a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was run on the data gathered from the delayed tests. The one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference among the three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2,72)=13.118, p<.001. To see which types of sets caused this difference, a follow-up independent samples t-test was conducted. Table 3. Paired Samples Statistics Std.Error Mean Pair 1: SR SU Pair 2: SR TR Pair 3: SU TR Mean 11.05 8.16 11.05 8.08 8.16 8.08 N 37 37 37 37 37 37 Std. Deviation 3.636 4.622 3.636 3.244 4.622 3.244 .598 .760 .598 .733 .760 .533 The independent samples t-test revealed a statistically significant difference between SR (M=11.05, SD=3.636) and SU (M=8.16, SD=4.622),t(36)=4.535, p<.001. Another statistically significant difference was reported between SR (M=11.05, SD=3.636) and TR (M=8.08, SD=3.244),t(36)=4.857, p<.001. However, no significant difference was found between SU (M=8.16, SD=4.622) and TR (M=8.08, SD=3.244), t(36)=.111,p>.05. Table 4 below displays the results of the paired sample t-test in more detail. 81 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Table 4. Paired Samples Test Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 95%Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig. (2tailed) Pair SR SU 1 2.892 3.879 .638 1.559 4.185 4.535 36 .000 2.973 3.723 .612 1.732 4.214 4.857 36 .000 Pair SR TR 2 .081 4.431 .728 -1.396 1.558 .111 36 .912 Pair 3SU TR Qualitative Results Once the six sessions (three teaching sessions followed by immediate tests – three delayed tests) were completed within two weeks, each participant was asked the following questions: 1. Which set did you find to be the most difficult? 2. Why do you think it was difficult? 3. Which set did you find to be the easiest? 4. Why do you think it was easy? Thirty-seven participants answered the questions.Table 5 displays the data gathered regarding questions 1 and 3. As the results indicate, the participants reported to find the semantically unrelated set the most difficult (n: 24 - %64.86), whereas semantic clustering seemed to be the easiest to the participants (n:20 - %54.05). The qualitative results related to the easiest set are congruent with the quantitative results, namely the test scores of the participants. However, a great number of the participants said they found the semantically unrelated set the most difficult, even thoughit was the thematic set in which they performed the worst. 82 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Table 5. The Participants’ Perception of the Difficulty of the Word Sets The most difficult The easiest Word Sets Number * Percentage Number * SR 6 %16.21 20 SU 24 %64.86 2 TR 7 %18.91 15 37 %100 37 Total *Number refers to the number of the participants. Percentage %54.05 %5.4 %40.54 %100 Regarding questions 2 and 4, inquiring as to the reasons why the participants found a particular type of clustering easiest or most difficult, inductive content analysis was used since “the data moves from the specific to the general, and particular instances are observed and then combined into a general whole” (Elo, &Kyngas, 2007). As stated above, the participants reported to have found the SU set the most difficult. Regarding the reasons, most of the participants agreed on that no relationship among the words in terms of meaning as well as different parts of speech made learning and recalling process difficult. Some of the participants noted that SU set was easy to learn but difficult to retrieve from the memory. Still some other participants stated that they had great difficulty associating the words with one another, thus could not remember a good number of them. In reply to question 4, most of the participants conveyed to have found the SR set the easiest. Most of the participants stated that they found the SR set to be the easiest because they came from the same part of speech and were similar in terms of meaning. According to the participants, it was easy to learn and recall these words because they were semantically related to each other. Some participants also reported that this set was easier since it enabled them to visualize the words better. Other participants claimed that the words in this set were shorter and easier to pronounce, thus making these words easier to learn and retrieve from the memory. A few participants noted that this set was easier because it was the first to be presented. Lastly, one participant expressed that theSR set was the easiest because s/he was interested in geography (all the words on SR set were related to landforms). Below the findings of the present study are discussed with reference to related studies. Discussion This study was conducted to find out if three different approaches topresenting new vocabulary (Semantically Related, Semantically Unrelated, Thematically Related) differ significantly when it comes to learning and recalling vocabulary; and if so, 83 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) which set causes this significance.To achievemore reliable and valid results, quantitative data were reinforced with qualitative data, gathered from the participants’ responses to a four-item questionnaire about their perception of the relative difficulty of the word sets. The descriptive statistics of the immediate tests showed that no big difference came into discussion concerning the different types of clustering. With relatively slight differences, the participants performed the best in thematic set test (M=14.62), followed by semantically unrelated set test (M=14.46) and semantically related set test (14. 35). That this difference was not statistically significant was also confirmed with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA test, F(2.72)=.480, p>.001. The descriptive statistics of the delayed tests, however, revealed that the difference was not slight. To ensure this, another one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA was run and a significant difference was found among the three types of vocabulary clustering, F(2,72)=13.118, p<.001. This barelymeans that the way in which new vocabulary is presented has a significant effect on learning and recalling this vocabulary. To explore which word set/s gave way to this significance, a paired samples t-test was conducted for further analysis. For the instruction of paired samples t-test, the word sets were paired and the results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between SR (M= 11.05) and SU (M=8.16). This means that the participants performed significantly better in theSR delayed test in proportion to theSU test, indicating that presenting new words with sharedsemantic and syntactic features is much more advantageous than organizing and presenting new vocabulary in an unrelated way in terms of semantics and syntax. Another significant difference was found between SR (M=11.05) and TR (M=8.08), accordingly signifying the advantage of semantic sets over thematic sets. The participants confirmed this finding by clearly reporting to have found the semantically related sets as the easiest and the semantically unrelated set the most difficult. At this point, it is worth mentioning that although the participants performed the worst in thematic set test, they said they found TR slightly less difficult than SR and much more easier than SU, indicating that the quantitative data are not congruent with the qualitative data concerning TR set. Why this is the case can be explained by the effect of the order in which the words sets were presented in this study. TheTR test was the last to be presented, and accordingly, the delayed TR test was conducted in the sixth (the penultimate) session. The participants must have been bored towards the end. Another interfering effect, as observed by the researcher, may be the different parts of speech that the words belonged to. Even 84 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics though the words in SU test also belonged to different parts of speech, and the part of speech that each word belonged to was written next to that word in the tests, the participants had difficulty in retrieving that right word in the thematic word set. They may not have interfered with the parts of speech in SU test because the words were totally different from one another, whereas in TR test similar words along with different parts of speech may have raised difficulties on the participants’ side. These findings do not support many of the previous related studies that found thatsemantically related word sets hinder learning and recalling, whereas words organized and presented regardless of any semantic and syntactic relationship at all and thematic sets facilitate both learning and recalling (Tinkham, 1997, Waring, 1997; Finkbeinerand Nicol, 2003; Erten and Tekin, 2008; Papathanasiou, 2009; Bolger and Zapata, 2011; Mirjalili, Fabbari and Rezai, 2012) On the other hand, the aforementioned findings of the present study were congruent with Hashemi and Gowdasiaei(2005) and AlShaikhi (2011), whose findings also indicated that lexical or semantic sets proved to be more useful in terms of learning and recalling new vocabulary. Finally, no significant difference was found between SU (M=8.16) and TR (M=8.08), claiming that presenting new vocabulary in either unrelated sets or thematic sets do not yield much difference. In qualitative terms, it was revealed that SR clustering proved to be a more useful tool in learning new vocabulary, whereas SU clustering was regarded as the most difficultapproach with respect to learning and recalling new vocabulary.This finding is in line with the quantitative data. However, regarding TR clustering, the two types of data contradict each other. Almost 40% of the participants (n: 15) reported to have found TR clustering the easiest; however, this type of clustering also produced the lowest scores in the delayed test. At this point, it is necessary to look into the reasons why the participants reported thusly. The participants claimed that the TR set was easy because the wordscentered ona specific theme (hospital scene). In addition, the participants also stated that it was easy to visualize these words; these words are associated with a single event, and are likely to be encountered in real-life situations.On the other hand, participants’ perception of this set’s difficulty (n: 7)was reportedlybecause the words in this set were relatively longer and the participants lacked motivation towards the end. Other reasons included some participants’ lack of interest in hospital-related words and the fact that this set was presented last.As a consequence, the reason why the participants were not able to perform onthe TR test as well as they did on the SR test may be attributed to the limitations of the study to be explained below. 85 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Limitations and Further Research The present study has some limitations and missing points that can be considered for further research. Some of these limitations and missing points are related to the participants, while some others stem from factors such as time concern and practicality. Regarding the participants, first of all, the sample size could have been bigger, which would have made itpossible to reach more generalizable results. Another factor that could have affected the results of the study is the participants’ lack of motivation. Considering the fact that the study was conducted during the last module of the semester, it has to be accepted that the participants were tired and not eager to do a single thing that would not be covered in either the mid-module or endof-module exams. In addition, the study was completed within a total of seven sessions, which may have bored the participants. In this regard, one suggestion for further researchisto better motivate the participants is to form the word lists from their textbooks or other teaching materials, if possible. As for the other factors mentioned above, first, the order of the word lists could have influenced the results. In the current study, the participants were first provided with the semantically related set, followed by the semantically unrelated and thematic sets respectively. It would have yielded to more reliable results if each group had taken each word list as the first, the second and the third. In that case, each group would take nine word lists as well as nine immediate and delayed tests, although thiswould be a rather long and impractical process. Second, the participants were encouraged to learn the target vocabulary via repetition only. Both teaching and testing were based on recognition rather than production, which led to ignoring depth of processing, as mentioned above. The logic behind this was to enable the participants learn the target vocabulary within the shortest time possible. As for testing, a definition recall test was determined as the assessment and evaluation instrument so as to offer more objective and standard results. One drawback, which is rooted in the way the participants learned the target vocabulary and were tested, was that the learners with good memory skills had an advantageover the learners with relatively poorer memory skills. However, the present study came up with some basic insights as to which way of presenting new vocabulary is more efficient in proportion to the others concerning Turkish EFL preparatory school learners. Finally, in order to obtain a particular pattern of results, the present study was conducted only on intermediate level students, which is regarded as a threshold according to Common European Framework References. Testing various level students and including language proficiency level as a variable can lead to insights into the results and their interpretation on a wider scale. 86 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Given the aforementioned limitations and missing points, further research with a bigger sample size, including participants from different levels of language proficiency is required either to substantiate the present results or give way to contradictory ones. So as to come up with more accurate findings, the prospective effect of the order in which the different types of clustering are presented should be reconsidered. Additionally, the advantage of good memory skills can be eliminated by incorporating different learning styles rather than resorting to repetition only. Conclusion The primary purpose of this particular study was to find out which way of organizing and presenting new vocabulary, namely semantically related sets, semantically unrelated sets and thematic sets, help EFL learners learn and recall the most words. For this purpose, the participants’ scores from three definition-recall tests, each organized and presented in semantically related (SR), semantically unrelated SU) and thematic sets (TR) respectively, were compared with a one-way Repeated Measures ANOVA, in terms of immediate and delayed tests. The results of this present study revealed that the participants learned and recalled the most words when they were presented in semantic sets. Semantically unrelated and thematic sets, on the other hand, resulted in students learning and recalling fewer words.The findings obtainedthrough statistical analysis were also supported by the participants, who reported to have found the semantically unrelated set the easiest. Similarly, in response to the question about the most difficult word set, the semantically related set was rated the lowest. The participants also cited the semantically unrelated set as the most difficult in terms of learning and recalling, whereas the qualitative results showed that the participants performed the worst in thematic set test, although the mean scores of the thematic set test and semantically unrelated set test were quite close to each other. As the aforementioned findings of the current study suggest, it can be concluded that the Turkish EFL preparatory school learners best learn and recall new vocabulary when it is organized and presented in semantic sets, which means a group of words that share the same semantic and syntactic features. Semantically unrelated sets – groups of words that share neither semantic nor syntactic features – seem to pose the greatest difficulty for Turkish EFL preparatory school learners, as both the test scores and the comments of the participants of this particular study indicate. Although the participants reported that the thematic set wasclose to the semantically related set in terms of both ease and difficulty, the delayed test scores showed that the thematic set was on the negative side, just like the semantically unrelated set. Following the results of the present study, some implications concerning the way new vocabulary is organized and presented in a Turkish EFL context can be made. First, the findings of this particular study do not support presenting new vocabulary in either unrelated sets 87 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) or thematic sets. Although further research is requiredto verify the findings of the present study, organizing and presenting new vocabulary in semantic sets can be recommended. In summary, how vocabulary is organized and presented is of crucial importance as it may facilitate or obstruct the learning and recalling process. In this sense, the current study may provide some contributions to EFL teachers, learners and even textbook writers; and it supports presenting and testing new vocabulary in semantic sets. However, the present study is not free from drawbacks, necessitating further research to validate the findings. APPENDICES A- WORD LISTS Semantically Related Set (SR) Landforms 1. Atoll (n) : Mercanada 2. Bight (n) : Koy 3. Brook (n) : Dere 4. Dune (n) : Kumtepesi 5. Estuary (n) : Haliç 6. Gully (n) : Küçükvadi 7. Meander (n) : Menderes 8. Pond (n) : Gölet 9. Scarp (n) : Yamaç 10. Tributary (n) : Akarsu 11. Escarpment (n) : Kayalık 12. Mound (n) : Höyük, tepecik 13. Ravine (n) :Hendek 14. Inlet (n) : Körfez 15. Prairie (n) : Çayır *All nouns *Mean of letters:5.86 Semantically Unrelated Set (SU) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 88 Boor (n) : Çokkabainsan Abate (v) : Azaltmak Nugatory (adj.) : Değersiz Blunder (n) : Gaf, pot Abjure (v) : (Hakkından) Vazgeçmek; Feragatetmek �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Glib (adj.) : Üstünkörü Whittle (v) : Yontmak Repine (v) : Şikayetetmek Feint (n) : Sahtesaldırı Caret (n) : Düzeltmeişareti Runic (adj.) : Gizemli Probity (n) : Dürüstlük Supine (adj.) : Uyuşuk Augury (n) : Falcılık Coerce (v) : Zorlamak *Five verbs *Five adjectives *Four nouns *Mean of letters:5.73 Thematic Set (TR) Hospital Scene 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Alleviate (v) Drip (v) Sanitize (v) Suture (n) Convalescence (n) Incise (v) Debilitated (adj.) Wail (v) Deteriorate (v) Lazaret (n) Matron (n) Infirm (adj.) Robust (adj.) Vaccinated (adj.) Balm (n) : (Ağrıyı) Hafifletmek : Damlatmak : Temizlemek : Dikiş : İyileşme : Kesmek : Zayıflamış : Bağırmak, inlemek : (Durmu) Kötüleşmek : Karantinayeri : Başhemşire : Halsiz : Güçlüvesağlıklı : Aşılanmış : Merhem *Six verbs *Five nouns *Four adjectives *Mean of letters: 89 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) B- TESTS Start Time: Finish Time:  Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Brook (n) Scarp (n) Inlet (n) Bight (n) Meander (n) Prairie (n) Atoll (n) Gully (n) Ravine (n) Mound (n) Dune (n) Pond (n) Estuary (n) Escarpment (n) Tributary (n)  Start Time: Finish Time: Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Probity (n) : Augury (n) : Runic (adj.) : Supine (adj.) Feint (n) Boor (n) Blunder (n) : Nugatory (adj.) Coerce (v) Abate (v) Repine (v) Glib (adj.) Caret (n) Whittle (v) : Abjure (v) 90 : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics  Start Time: Finish Time: Please give the Turkish translations for the following words. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Lazaret (n) Incise (v) Matron (n) Deteriorate (v) Alleviate (v) Debilitated (adj.) Drip (v) Infirm (adj.) Balm (n) Sanitize (v) Vaccinated (adj.) Suture (n) Wail (v) Robust (adj.) Convalescence (n) : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : C- QUESTIONNAIRE  Please answer the following questions. 1. Which set did you find to be the most difficult? 1 2 3 2. Why do you think it was difficult? 3. Which set did you find to be the easiest? 1 2 3 4. Why do you think it was easy? 91 �A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) References AlShaikhi, A. Z. (2011). 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Nunan, D. (2001). Syllabus Design. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed. )Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (pp. 55-65). Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Papathanasiou, E. (2009). An investigation of two ways of presenting vocabulary. ELT Journal. 63 (4), 313-321. Schmidt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching. United States of America: Cambrdige University Press. Seal, B. D. (1990).American Vocabulary Builder 1. United States of America, Longman. Seal, B. D. (1991). Vocabulary Learning and Teaching. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed. ) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (2nd Edition, pp. 296311). Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Thornbury, S. (2011).How to Teach Vocabulary. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited. Tinkham, T. (1997). The effects of semantic and thematic clustering on the learning of second language vocabulary. Second Language Research. 13 (2), 138163. Waring, R. (1997). The Negative Effects of Learning Words in Semantic Sets: A Replication. System. 25 (2), 261-274. Wilkins, D. A. (1976).Notional Syllabuses: a taxonomy and its relevance to foreign language curriculum development. Oxford: Oxford University Press 94 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2809 Title A name given to the resource A controversy in presenting new vocabulary in an EFL class: semantically related sets (SR), semantically unrelated sets (SU), thematically related sets (TR) Author Author Aksoy, Fatma Abstract A summary of the resource. The present study was designed to investigate if there is a significant difference among SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners, and if there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom. A total of 46 preparatory school students, studying at Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages, participated in this study. The participants were required to provide Turkish equivalents of the 15 new words presented in semantic, thematic or totally unrelated sets that they were encouraged to learn through word cards. The data gathered from 37 of these participants were analyzed. The results of the delayed tests revealed that semantically related sets (SR) significantly differed from unrelated and thematic sets, and helped the participants learn and recall more words, while the results of the immediate tests did not yield to a statistically significant difference. Keywords: Vocabulary presentation, semantic clustering, lexical sets, thematic clustering. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LT Textbooks,PA Classical philology,PE English,PK Indo-Iranian,PR English literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3428 Title A name given to the resource A CONTROVERSY IN PRESENTING NEW VOCABULARY IN AN EFL CLASS: SEMANTICALLY RELATED SETS (SR), SEMANTICALLY UNRELATED SETS (SU), THEMATICALLY RELATED SETS (TR) Author Author Aksoy, Fatma Abstract A summary of the resource. The present study was designed to investigate if there is a significant difference among SR clustering, SU clustering and TR clustering of vocabulary presented to Turkish EFL learners, and if there is, which way of presentation would be a more useful tool in a Turkish EFL classroom. A total of 46 preparatory school students, studying at Anadolu University School of Foreign Languages, participated in this study. The participants were required to provide Turkish equivalents of the 15 new words presented in semantic, thematic or totally unrelated sets that they were encouraged to learn through word cards. The data gathered from 37 of these participants were analyzed. The results of the delayed tests revealed that semantically related sets (SR) significantly differed from unrelated and thematic sets, and helped the participants learn and recall more words, while the results of the immediate tests did not yield to a statistically significant difference. Keywords: Vocabulary presentation, semantic clustering, lexical sets, thematic clustering. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3452 Title A name given to the resource A CRITICAL OVERVIEW OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION IN TURKISH EDUCATION SYSTEM: PRE-SERVICE AND IN-SERVICE Author Author Genç, Hümeyra Abstract A summary of the resource. A teacher is an essential part of any education systems. Teacher training is always in the center of politics and various attempts have been made for it to become more efficient. Furthermore, great effort has been spent for improving language teacher education for more than 150 years in the Turkish Education System. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to reveal the changes which have occurred in both pre-service and in-service language teacher training between the times of Ottoman Empire and Republic of Turkey Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English