78 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/04b4873dcc939db047ea81b1f0a79839.pdf b99c3088b9619e4a1b355ca80ea17e2b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Dragana RadojeviĤ Department of Italian Faculty of Philology University of Belgrade, Serbia drradojevic@hotmail.com Abstract: Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Key Words: auxiliary selection, L2 Italian, contrastive analysis 1. Introduction There are two auxiliary verbs (AVs) used in analytic forms of Italian verbs: essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘. Italian grammars traditionally explain auxiliary selection (AS) in the Active Voice by the verbs‘ (in)transitivity. Namely, all transitive verbs take avere, whereas most intransitive verbs (IVs) take essere. However, many IVs take avere (e.g. esitare ‗to hesitate‘, tossire ‗to cough‘, divorziare ‗to divorce‘), including some verbs of motion (e.g. camminare ‗to walk‘, nuotare ‗to swim‘, gattonare ‗to crawl‘). Additionally, some IVs can take both AVs, but in some cases the AS does not cause any change in meaning (e.g. piovere ‗to rain‘, nevicare ‗to snow‘), whereas the meaning of others (e.g. correre ‗to run‘, volare ‗to fly‘, saltare ‗to jump‘) is determined by the selection of one or another AV (e.g. È corso al parco ‗He ran to the park‘, but Ha corso al parco ‗He ran at the park‘). As far as the last group of IVs is concerned, in order to explain the differences in meaning caused by the use of one or another AV, most grammars traditionally just give a small number of unclear examples for both AVs, with the additional comment that more detailed explanations should be sought in monolingual dictionaries. However, monolingual dictionaries provide insufficient examples that cannot account for all the different meanings, and bilingual dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS with these verbs. Similarly, most L2 Italian textbooks do not take this issue into consideration leading to a low level of learner awareness of the problem. Therefore, since AS with those Italian IVs that can take both AVs has not been treated adequately in grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks, this phenomenon represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. The aim of this paper is to present a case study proving that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with the described Italian IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and consequently to suggest that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by learners of L2 Italian. 2. Auxiliary selection in grammars, dictionaries and textbooks In RadojeviĤ (to appear) we analysed the most important grammars, dictionaries and textbooks of Italian as L2, usually used by learners in Serbia, in order to investigate to what extent and in what way AS of the IV correre ‗to run‘, as a representative of its group, is described in them. In this chapter we will give a brief overview of our findings and conclusions. 2.1. Auxiliary selection in Italian grammars Italian grammars differ from each other in that most of them completely neglect the problem of AS, while among those that deal with this phenomenon some of them traditionally do it very superficially and without success, whereas others give more precise and thorough explanations. 377 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo An important step for the explanation of this problem was made by Jernej (1965: 200; 1999: 94), who explicitly put the IV correre among those verbs that can take both complements expressing motion towards or from a place, and those expressing motion at or inside a place. However, he failed to emphasise the way in which that distinction affects the AS, i.e. that correre takes essere to express motion towards or from a place, and avere in order to express motion at or inside a place. The most systematic and thorough approach was applied by Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52), who introduced Aktionsart‘s categories into their explanation of the AS. They claim that correre takes avere when it is intransitive, durative, continuous, and atelic, whereas it takes essere when it is unaccusative, non-durative, resultative, and atelic.69 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.5) we argued that their durative vs. non-durative and telic vs. atelic distinctions could be very useful for the contrastive approach to the teaching of L2 Italian to native speakers of Serbian because of the fact that the same distinctions exist in Serbian. Namely, on the basis of their distinctions we claimed that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is only the verb trčati ‗to run‘, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati (e.g. utrčati ‗to run into‘, istrčati ‗to run out‘ etc.), but not trčati itself. Although Salvi & Vanelli made a considerable contribution to the explanation of AS with correre, they still failed to place sufficient emphasis on the importance of the type of motion and the complement of place that influence the phenomenon of AS, which would have made their contribution more complete. However, the most precise explanation of the AS with correre was provided by Maiden & Robustelli (2004: 266-267), who were the first to explicitly introduce the concept of change of location, as that expressed by the AV essere with correre, into the explanation of AS. In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2.2.8) we suggested a completion of their explanation by introducing the concept of motion at a location as that expressed by the AV avere with correre. Although they are not expressed by AVs as they are in Italian, both concepts still exist in Serbian, where they are marked by the distinction between the bare verb and its prefixed derivatives, as described in the previous paragraph, as well as by different cases in prepositional phrases (PPs) even with the same preposition. Namely, many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre.70 Therefore, the conclusion is that the introduction of the concept of motion at a location, as well as the aforementioned contrastive remarks, finally shed some light on the explanation of AS with those Italian verbs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, thus making it complete and clear. 2.2. Auxiliary selection in Italian dictionaries An analysis of the following monolingual Italian dictionaries: Zingarelli (2010), Garzanti italiano (2009), Devoto–Oli (2007), Sabatini–Coletti (2005), and De Mauro (2000) showed that all of them provide every meaning of correre with the respective AV, but they do not pay enough attention to adequate complements of place nor do they insist sufficiently on the distinction between the different types of motion (change of location and motion at a location) affecting the AS. Therefore, their explanations and examples are neither complete nor clear-cut for learners of Italian as L2. Bilingual Italian-Serbian (Klajn, 1996) and Italian-Croatian or Serbian (DeanoviĤ–Jernej, 1984) dictionaries completely neglect the problem of AS. Although we are aware of the lack of space in dictionaries, in RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 3.2) we suggested that they should take into account this problem with all Italian verbs and especially with IVs that can take both AVs, but with a change in meaning, and that they should illustrate them with adequate simple examples, which would facilitate the acquisition of this phenomenon by Serbian learners of L2 Italian. 2.3. Auxiliary selection in L2 Italian textbooks Most L2 Italian textbooks treat the problem of AS in general very superficially and completely ignore the AS with IVs like correre. An analysis of: Balí & Rizzo (2002, 2003), Bidetti, Dominici & Piccolo (2009), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002, 2005), Marin (2008), Marin & Magnelli (2007, 2008a, 2008b, 2009), Mazzetti, Falcinelli & Servadio (2002, 2003), Mezzadri & Balboni (2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b), Chiappini & De Filippo (2002), Ziglio & Rizzo (2001), and StojkoviĤ & Zavińin (2010), which are the most frequently used L2 Italian textbooks in Serbia from level A1 to C1, showed that the AS with the IV correre occurred only five times.71 We consider this fact to be a crucial contributory factor in the unsatisfactory awareness of the problem in learners of L2 Italian, because textbooks are the learners‘ primary source of 69 For more details see Salvi & Vanelli (2004: 50, 52). For more details about other relevant grammars see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 2). 71 For a more detailed analysis of these examples see RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4). 70 378 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo information, whereas grammars and dictionaries are often only occasionally consulted and not always available to the majority of learners.72 3. Case study 3.1. Participants In order to prove our arguments we conducted an experiment involving eighty students from the Italian Department of the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philology, who are native speakers of Serbian. They were divided into four groups that consisted of twenty students belonging to the same undergraduate year of study. At the time the experiment was conducted the first year students had already reached the A1 level of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) and they were heading towards the A2 level, the second year A2 towards B1, the third year B1 towards B2, and the fourth year B2 towards C1. 3.2. Input All the groups had been exposed to the same traditional input regarding auxiliary selection in Italian, described in 1, during their education, independently of our experiment. However, in addition to the traditional input the second year group had also been given an explicit contrastive input on two separate occasions one month before the experiment. The additional input they received focused on the following three points: 1. correre uses essere to express change of location, whereas it uses avere to express motion at a location; 2. the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati, but not trčati itself; 3. many Italian PPs expressing space can have two Serbian equivalents, e.g. al parco can mean both u park ‗to the park‘ (accusative – change of location) and u parku ‗at the park‘ (locative – motion at a location), depending only on the AV used with correre. These explanations were illustrated by several clear-cut examples in both languages. 3.3. Hypothesis Consequently, our hypothesis was that the second year group would show significantly better knowledge of AS in L2 Italian compared to all the other groups since it was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples, which make AS more transparent to learners of L2 Italian, and, therefore, hopefully facilitate its acquisition. Among the remaining three groups we expected the fourth one to be the best, the third one the second best and the first one to be the worst because that order would correspond to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, we expected the second year group‘s error percentage to be significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. 3.4. Experiment For the purposes of our experiment all the students were given the same test consisting of ten sentences in Italian that they had to translate into Serbian. The tense used in all the sentences was the Passato Prossimo (the most frequently used Past Perfect Tense and the first analytic verb form taught to learners of L2 Italian) of the IV correre: five sentences had the AV essere and five avere. As described in 2.1 and 3.2, the Serbian equivalent of the Italian IV correre with the AV avere is trčati, whereas the corresponding equivalents of correre with essere are different prefixed derivatives of trčati. Every correctly translated sentence was assigned one point so that the maximum was ten points per student. The correct use of Serbian prepositions and cases expressing space was not assigned any points because the choice of correct verbs in Serbian logically led to the correct choice of corresponding prepositions and cases, whereas the use of incorrect verbs necessarily caused the choice of incorrect prepositions and cases. Or, if we look at it from the other way around, incorrectly understood Italian PPs led to the wrong choice of both verbs and prepositions and cases in Serbian. Therefore, these points would not have had any effect on the results. 3.5. Results 72 In RadojeviĤ (to appear: Chapter 4) we also gave some suggestions regarding possible ways of representing the problem of AS with the IV correre in L2 Italian textbooks in order to facilitate its acquisition even at the lowest levels. Future L2 Italian textbook authors might find them useful. 379 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The results of the test are shown in the following table and chart. The numbers in the table represent how many students had the respective number of points, whereas the chart shows the average points of each of the four years of study. Year Points 10 9 8 7 6 5 or less Average points I II III IV 6 8 2 2 2 0 8.7 12 6 2 0 0 0 9.5 8 5 4 3 0 0 8.9 10 3 4 3 0 0 9 Generally speaking, all the groups showed a satisfactory knowledge of AS in Italian, the average points ranging from 8.70 to 9.50 out of 10 points. However, the second year group is significantly better than all the others, as can be seen in the chart representing the average points. The difference between the second year group and all the others is even more obvious in the following chart, showing the error percentage for each year of study. While the error percentage for the first, second and third year ranges from 10% to 13%, the second year group‘s error percentage is significantly lower at 5%. This means that out of 200 sentences 20 second year group students made mistakes only in 10 of them and the remaining 190 were correct (as shown in the chart with the overall points), whereas the fourth year group students made twice as many mistakes despite there being a difference of two CEFR levels between them, as mentioned in 3.1. 3.6. Some examples The distribution of the two AVs in the test was equal, i.e. there were as many sentences with essere as with avere, as described in 3.4. The error percentage per sentence shows that there were slightly more mistakes concerning sentences with essere (52.56%) than with avere (47.44%). This means that the students overgeneralized the Serbian verb trčati and used it even in those contexts where its prefixed derivatives should have been used in order to correctly translate correre with essere. Generally speaking, in a large number of translations from Italian into Serbian made by Serbian learners of L2 Italian we have noticed this tendency to neglect the prefixation of verbs although it is a very productive morphological process in Serbian, but since we have not conducted any research into that phenomenon yet, we will not make any further claims about it. In order to illustrate the test, we will show only two sentences in which the students made the largest number of mistakes: Italian Serbian English Sentence 1 Ho corso al parco Trčao sam u parku I ran at the park avere trčati; u + locative motion at a location Sentence 2 Sono corso allo stadio Otrčao sam na stadion I ran to the stadium essere otrčati; na + accusative change of location The students‘ mistakes stemmed from the fact that they did not recognize that sentence 1 expressed motion at a location, so that their translation into Serbian was Otrčao sam u park as if in Italian it were Sono 380 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo corso al parco ‗I ran to the park‘; and similarly in sentence 2 they did not understand the change of location, so that they translated it as Trčao sam na stadionu as if the original Italian sentence were Ho corso allo stadio ‗I ran at the stadium‘. Our opinion is that the reasons for these mistakes are twofold. First of all, since in Serbian different cases are used to mark different types of motion (motion at a location – locative; change of location – accusative) although both cases can use the same preposition (e.g. u parku, u park), it is logical for our students to look for the type of motion in the Italian PPs. However, since most Italian PPs do not mark the type of motion, the students were not able to find it in them, and consequently they were likely to make mistakes. Secondly, since the first, third and fourth year students had not been exposed to the input suggested in this paper, they were not used to taking into account the distinctive contrastive features (i.e. that the Serbian equivalent of correre with avere is trčati, whereas its equivalents with essere are its prefixed derivatives), so they did not look for the type of motion in the AV used, which would have led them to the correct choice of the respective Serbian verb. 4. Conclusion On the basis of the results of our experiment we can conclude that our hypothesis was correct. The second year group had significantly better results compared to all the other groups. Among the remaining three groups the fourth year group was the best, the third one the second best and the first one was the worst, which also corresponds to our hypothesis and to their level of L2 Italian. Additionally, the second year group‘s error percentage was significantly lower compared to that of the other three groups. Our conclusion is that the reasons for such results are that the second year group was the only one that received the type of input that had taken into account not only the traditional explanation of AS in Italian, but also all the other relevant criteria important for such a phenomenon (described in 3.2), as well as the corresponding contrastive explanations and examples. All these remarks made the AS much clearer to the students and, therefore, facilitated its acquisition. By taking into account only translations from Italian into Serbian, in this paper we have only examined the receptive abilities of Serbian learners of L2 Italian concerning the AS of the Italian IV correre. However, for further investigations we recommend an examination of productive abilities regarding the same problem because it might lead to some interesting and useful conclusions that could explain the phenomenon in question in greater depth and make its acquisition by learners of L2 Italian, independently of their mother tongue, much easier and more efficient. In addition, there are also some other Italian IVs belonging to the same group as correre, as far as the AS is concerned, such as volare ‗to flow‘ and saltare ‗to jump, that might be interesting for further research into this subject. References Jernej, J. (1965). Grammatica italiana descrittiva: su basi storiche e psicologiche. Bern / Mùnchen: Francke Verlag. Jernej, J. (1999). Talijanski jezik: priručnik za viši stupanj. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. Maiden, M. & Robustelli, C. (2007). A Reference Grammar of Modern Italian. London: Hodder Education. Salvi, G. e Vanelli, L. (2004). Nuova grammatica italiana. Bologna: Il Mulino. RadojeviĤ, D. (to appear). Essere ili avere: pitanje je sad. In: Stavovi promjena – promjena stavova. Zbornik radova (VuĦo, J. & MilatoviĤ, B., eds.). NikńiĤ: Filozofski fakultet. Dictionaries Garzanti italiano. (2009). Milano: Garzanti. DeanoviĤ, M. i Jernej, J. (1984). Talijansko-hrvatski ili srpski rečnik. Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. De Mauro, T. (2000). De Mauro. Il dizionario della lingua italiana. Torino: Paravia Bruno Mondadori. Devoto, G. e Oli. G. C. (2007). Il Devoto-Oli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Firenze: Le Monnier. Klajn, I. (1996). Italijansko-srpski rečnik. Beograd: Nolit. Sabatini, F. e Coletti, V. (2005). Il Sabatini Coletti. Dizionario della lingua italiana. Milano: Rizzoli Larousse. Zingarelli, N. (2010). Lo Zingarelli. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. Bologna: Zanichelli. 381 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Textbooks Balí, M. e Rizzo, G. (2002). Espresso 2. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Balí, M. e Ziglio, L. (2003). Espresso 3. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. Bidetti, A., Dominici, M. e Piccolo, L. (2009). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedio-avanzato (B2-C1). Quaderno degli esercizi. Roma: Edilingua. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2002). Un giorno in Italia 1. Corso di italiano per stranieri: principianti, elementare, intermedio. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Chiappini, L. e De Filippo, N. (2005). Un giorno in Italia 2. Corso di italiano per stranieri: intermedio, avanzato. Libro dello studente con esercizi. Roma: Bonacci. Marin. T. (2008). Nuovo progetto italiano 3. Corso multimediale di lingua e civiltà italiana: livello intermedioavanzato (B2-C1). Libro dello studente. Roma: Edilingua. Marin, T. e Magnelli, S. (2007). Nuovo progetto italiano 2. 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E. (2000a). Rete 1. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2000b). Rete 1. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001a). Rete 2. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2001b). Rete 2. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002a). Rete 3. Libro di classe. Perugia: Guerra. Mezzadri, M. e Balboni, P. E. (2002b). Rete 3. Libro di casa. Perugia: Guerra. StojkoviĤ, J. i Zavińin, K. (2010). Amici 4. Italijanski jezik za osmi razred osnovne škole. Beograd: Zavod za udņbenike. Ziglio, L. e Rizzo, G. (2001). Espresso 1. Corso di italiano: libro dello studente ed esercizi. Firenze: Alma. 382 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 57 Title A name given to the resource A contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of auxiliary selection in L2 Italian Author Author Radojević, Dragana Abstract A summary of the resource. Auxiliary selection (AS) with those Italian intransitive verbs (IVs) that can use both essere ‗to be‘ and avere ‗to have‘, but with a change in meaning (e.g. È/Ha corso al parco ‗He ran to/at the park‘), represents one of the major challenges in the acquisition of Italian as L2. In this paper we argue that this is so largely because this phenomenon has not been treated adequately in relevant grammars, dictionaries and textbooks. In order to prove our argument we present a case study of AS with the IV correre ‗to run‘ involving university students of L2 Italian who are native speakers of Serbian. The results indicate that a contrastive analysis approach to the teaching of AS with IVs is more efficient than the traditional one, and it is suggested that it should be used more frequently in order to facilitate the acquisition of AS by learners of L2 Italian. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2a2f01de7dc8b0e1ef82f4163fc38344.pdf f0582692656eee6ad3f3b13e690b3ae8 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo On Extinct Suffixes: -arium GEORGETA RAŢĂ BUASVM, TimiĢoara, România georgeta_rata@yahoo.com Abstract: There are two English nominal suffixes sharing the same meaning ―a place or device containing or associated with [something]‖: -arium and -ary (for the latter, the English language dictionaries mention only the meaning ―one that relates to or is connected with [something]‖). These two suffixes have produced, directly or indirectly, a considerable number of derivatives designating more or less ‗a place‘ (35), ‗a device‘ (33), or other realities (15). Diachronically, the suffix -arium produced most indirect derivatives in the 13 th c. and almost stopped producing any in the 20th c., the suffix -ary reached a peak in the 16th c. and stopped producing any in the 20th c., while Latin nouns in -arium were borrowed in considerable amounts in the 19th c. and almost stopped being borrowed in the 20 th c. The suffix -arium can, therefore, be considered extinct from the point of view of its productivity. For students in nature-related fields almost all the nouns in -arium and -ary are indicative of places and devices of interest for these fields. Keywords: Nominal suffix, derivation, derivative INTRODUCTION The suffix -arium (< L neuter of -ārius ‗-ary‘) is a noun suffix indicating ―a place or device containing or associated with‖ [AHDEL]. The suffix -ary is both a nominal suffix meaning ‗one that relates to or is connected with‘ and an adjectival suffix meaning ‗of or relating to‘ [Middle English -arie, from Old French, from Latin -ārius, adj. and n. suff.] [AHDEL] According to etymological dictionaries, the suffix -ary (in most cases < L -ārius, -ārium ‗connected with, pertaining to, the man engaged in‘) appears in words borrowed from Latin in Middle English. In later borrowings from Latin to French, it became -aire and passed into ME as -arie, subsequently -ary [OED]. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS The corpus of derivatives in both -arium and -ary was made up using English language dictionaries and literature, as shown in References. Then, the derivatives were grouped as nouns in -arium and nouns in -ary derived directly and indirectly from Latin words in -arium and in each of the two groups we identified the nouns designating places, devices, and other cases. We have also compared chronologically the production of derivatives in -arium and -ary and analysed the productivity of the nouns in -arium and -ary to show how well these derivatives have turned Romanian nouns. 3. RESULTS 3.1. NOUNS IN -ARIUM There are 17 nouns in -arium in our inventory designating either a place or a device containing or associated with something: - place (14): aquarium ‗a place for the public exhibition of live aquatic animals and plants‘ [L aquārium ‗source of water‘ < neuter of aquārius ‗of water‘ < aqua ‗water‘] (1840-1850), cinerarium ‗a place for keeping the ashes of a cremated body‘ [L cinerārium < neuter of cinerārius ‗of ashes‘ < cinis, ciner- ‗ashes‘] (1875-1880), columbarium ‗a vault with niches for urns containing ashes of the dead, one of the niches in such a vault; a dovecote, a pigeonhole in a dovecote‘ [L columbārium ‗sepulchre for urns, dovecote‘ < columba ‗dove‘] (1840-1850), fumatorium ‗an airtight fumigation chamber in which chemical vapors are used to destroy insects and fungi on plants‘ [NL < L fūmāre ‗to smoke‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘], herbarium ‗a place or an institution where a collection of dried plants mounted, labeled, and systematically arranged for use in scientific study is kept‘ [LL herbārium < L herbārius ‗one skilled in herbs‘ < 496 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo L herba ‗herb, vegetation‘] (1770-1780), leprosarium ‗a hospital for the treatment of leprosy‘ [ML leprosārium < LL leprosus ‗leprous‘] (1840-1850), oceanarium ‗a large aquarium for the study or display of marine life‘ [OCEAN + -ARIUM, modeled on aquarium] (1935-1940), planetarium ‗a building or room containing a planetarium, with seats for an audience‘ [NL < neuter of L planētārius] (1765-1775), sacrarium ‗the sanctuary or sacristy of a church; piscina‘ [ML sacrārium < L shrine < sacer, sacr- ‗sacred‘] (1700-1710), sanitarium ‗a resort for improvement or maintenance of health, especially for convalescents‘ [NL < L sānitās ‗health‘] (18501855), solarium ‗a room, gallery, or glassed-in porch exposed to the sun‘ [L solārium ‗terrace, flat housetop‘ < sol ‗sun‘] (1815-1825), termitarium ‗a nest built by a colony of termites; termitary‘ [NL termit (ēs), pl. Of termes TERMITE + -ARIUM] (1860-1865), terrarium ‗a small enclosure or closed container in which selected living plants and sometimes small land animals, such as turtles and lizards, are kept and observed‘ [NL < L terra ‗earth‘; TERRENE + -ARIUM] (1885-1890), and vivarium ‗a place, especially an indoor enclosure, for keeping and raising living animals and plants under natural conditions for observation or research‘ [L vīvārium < neuter of vīvārius ‗of living creatures‘ < vīvus ‗alive‘] (1590-1600). - device (4): aquarium ‗a tank, bowl, or other water-filled enclosure in which living fish or other aquatic animals and plants are kept‘ [L aquārium ‗source of water‘ < neuter of aquārius ‗of water‘ < aqua ‗water‘] (1840-1850), planetarium ‗an apparatus or a model representing the solar system; an optical device for projecting images of celestial bodies and other astronomical phenomena onto the inner surface of a hemispherical dome‘ [NL < neuter of L planētārius] (1765-1775), solarium ‗a room, gallery, or glassed-in porch exposed to the sun‘ [L solārium ‗terrace, flat housetop‘ < sol ‗sun‘] (1815-1825), and termitarium ‗a nest built by a colony of termites; termitary‘ [NL termit (ēs), pl. Of termes TERMITE + -ARIUM] (1860-1865). - other meanings (3): honorarium ‗a payment given to a professional person for services for which fees are not legally or traditionally required‘ [L honorārium < neuter of honorārius ‗honorary‘ < honor, honor‗honor‘] (1650-1660), polyzoarium ‗a bryozoan colony or its supporting skeletal structure‘ [NL Polyzoa phylum name; POLYZOAN + -ARIUM] (1875-1880), and septarium ‗an irregular polygonal system of calcite-filled cracks occurring in certain rock concretions‘ [L saeptum ‗partition‘; SEPTUM + -ARIUM] (1775-1785). 3.2. NOUNS IN -ARY The 30 nouns in -ary in our corpus also designate a place or a device containing or associated with something: - place (12): apiary ‗a place where bees and beehives are kept, especially a place where bees are raised for their honey‘ [L apiārium ‗beehive‘ < apis ‗bee‘] (1645-1655), aviary ‗a large enclosure for holding birds in confinement‘ [L aviārium < avis ‗bird‘] (1570-1580), columbary ‗a vault with niches for urns containing ashes of the dead, one of the niches in such a vault; a dovecote, a pigeonhole in a dovecote‘ [L columbārium ‗sepulchre for urns, dovecote‘ < Columba ‗dove‘] (1540-1550), estuary ‗the part of the wide lower course of a river where its current is met by the tides; an arm of the sea that extends inland to meet the mouth of a river‘ [L aestuārium < aestus ‗tide, surge, heat‘] (1530-1540), formicary ‗a nest of ants, an anthill‘ [ML formīcārium < L formīca ‗ant‘] (1810-1820), granary ‗a building for storing threshed grain; a region yielding much grain‘ [L grānārium < grānum ‗grain‘] (1560-1570), itinerary ‗a route or proposed route of a journey‘ [ME itinerarie < LL itinerārium ‗account of a journey‘ < neuter of itinerārius ‗of traveling‘ < L iter, itiner- ‗journey‘] (14251475), library ‗a place in which literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, a room in a private home for a collection of literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, an institution or a foundation maintaining such a collection; a commercial establishment that lends books for a fee;‘ [ME librarie < AN < L librārium ‗bookcase‘ < neuter of librārius ‗of books‘ < liber, libr ‗book‘] (1300-1350), piscary ‗a fishery‘ [ML piscārium < L piscis ‗fish‘ + L ārium ‗-arium‘] (1425-1475), sanctuary ‗a sacred place, such as a church, temple, or mosque; the holiest part of a sacred place, as the part of a Christian church around the altar; a sacred place, such as a church, in which fugitives formerly were immune to arrest; a place of refuge or asylum; a reserved area in which birds and other animals, especially wild animals, are protected from hunting or molestation‘ [ME < OF sainctuarie < LL sānctuārium < L sānctus ‗sacred‘] (1300-1350), seminary ‗a school, especially a theological school for the training of priests, ministers, or rabbis, a school of higher education, especially a private school for girls; a place or environment in which something is developed or nurtured‘ [ME seed plot < L sēminārium < sēminārius ‗of seed‘ < sēmen, sēmin ‗seed‘] (1400-1450), and vestiary ‗a dressing room, cloakroom, or vestry‘ [L vestiārius < vestis ‗garment‘; ME vestiarie < OF < ML vestiārium < L wardrobe < neuter of vestiārius ‗of clothes‘] (16151625). 497 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - device (19): bestiary ‗a medieval collection of stories providing physical and allegorical descriptions of real or imaginary animals along with an interpretation of the moral significance each animal was thought to embody; a modern version of such a collection‘ [ML bēstiārium < L bēstia ‗beast‘] (1615-1625), breviary ‗Ecclesiastical.a book containing the hymns, offices, and prayers for the canonical hours‘ [ME breviarie < OF breviaire < ML breviārium < L ‗summary‘ < brevis ‗short‘] (1540-1550), c(h)artulary ‗a collection of deeds or charters, especially a register of titles to all the property of an estate or a monastery‘ [ME cartularie ‗collection of documents‘ < ML cartulārium < L cartula, chartula ‗document‘] (1565-1575), corollary ‗a proposition that follows with little or no proof required from one already proven; a deduction or an inference; a natural consequence or effect, a result‘ [ME corolarie < L corollārium ‗money paid for a garland, gratuity‘ < corolla ‗small garland‘] (1325-1375), diary ‗a daily record, especially a personal record of events, experiences, and observations, a journal; a book for use in keeping a personal record, as of experiences‘ [L diārium ‗daily allowance, daily journal‘ < diēs ‗day‘] (1575-1585), dictionary ‗a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given for each word, usually including meaning, pronunciation, and etymology; a book listing the words of a language with translations into another language; a book listing words or other linguistic items in a particular category or subject with specialized information about them; Computer Science a list of words stored in machine-readable form for reference as by spelling-checking software; an electronic spelling checker‘ [ML dictionārium < L dictio, diction- ‗diction‘] (1520-1530), glossary ‗a list of difficult or specialized words with their definitions, often placed at the back of a book‘ [ME glosarie < L glossārium < glossa ‗foreign word‘] (1350-1400), itinerary ‗an account or a record of a journey; a guidebook for travelers‘ [ME itinerarie < LL itinerārium ‗account of a journey‘ < neuter of itinerārius ‗of traveling‘ < L iter, itiner‗journey‘] (1425-1475), lectionary ‗a book or list of lections to be read at church services during the year‘ [ML lēctionārium < L lēctio, lēction- ‗a reading‘] (1770-1780), library ‗a collection of literary and artistic materials, such as books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, prints, records, and tapes, are kept for reading, reference, or lending, especially when systematically arranged; a series or set of books issued by a publisher; a collection of recorded data or tapes arranged for ease of use; Computer Science. a collection of standard programs, routines, or subroutines, often related to a specific application, that are available for general use‘ [ME librarie < AN < L librārium ‗bookcase‘ < neuter of librārius ‗of books‘ < liber, libr ‗book‘] (1300-1350), nectary ‗a glandlike organ, located outside or within a flower, that secretes nectar‘ [NL nectārium < NECTAR] (1590-1600), ossuary ‗a container or receptacle, such as an urn or a vault, for holding the bones of the dead‘ [LL ossuārium < neuter of L ossuārius ‗of bones‘ < os, oss-‗bone‘] (1650-1660), ovary ‗the usually paired female or hermaphroditic reproductive organ that produces ova and, in vertebrates, estrogen and progesterone; Botany. the ovule-bearing lower part of a pistil that ripens into a fruit‘ [NL ovārium < L ovum ‗egg‘] (1650-1660), pessary ‗any of various devices worn in the vagina to support or correct the position of the uterus or rectum; a contraceptive diaphragm; a medicated vaginal suppository‘ [ME pessarie < LL pessārium < pessus, pessum < Gk pesos ‗oval-shaped stone, pessary‘] (1350-1400), rosary ‗Roman Catholic Church. a form of devotion to the Virgin Mary, chiefly consisting of three sets of five decades each of the Hail Mary, each decade preceded by the Lord‘s Prayer and ending with a doxology; one of these sets of decades; a string of beads of 5 or 15 decades on which these prayers are counted; similar beads used by other religious groups‘ [ME rose garden < ML rosārium ‗rose garden, rosary‘ < L rose garden < neuter of rosārius ‗of roses‘ < rosa ‗rose‘] (1400-1450), sanctuary ‗immunity to arrest afforded by a sanctuary‘ [ME < OF sainctuarie < LL sānctuārium < L sānctus ‗sacred‘] (1300-1350), spermary ‗an organ or a gland in which male gametes are formed, especially in invertebrate animals‘ [NL spermārium < LL sperma, semen] (1860-1865), syllabary ‗a list of syllables; a list or set of written characters for a language, each character representing a syllable‘ [NL syllabārium < L syllaba ‗syllable‘] (1580-1590), and vocabulary ‗all the words of a language; the sum of words used by, understood by, or at the command of a particular person or group; a list of words and often phrases, usually arranged alphabetically and defined or translated, a lexicon or glossary; a supply of expressive means, a repertoire of communication‘ [F vocabulaire < OF < ML vocābulārium < neuter of vocābulārius ‗of words‘ < L vocābulum ‗name‘] (1525-1535). - other meanings (2): electuary ‗a drug mixed with sugar and water or honey into a pasty mass suitable for oral administration‘ [ME electuarie < LL ēlēctuārium probably alteration of Gk ekleikton < ekleikhein ‗to lick up‘] (1350-1400) and salary ‗fixed compensation for services, paid to a person on a regular basis‘ [ME salarie < AN < L salārium ‗money given to Roman soldiers to buy salt‘ < neuter of salārius ‗pertaining to salt‘ < sāl ‗salt‘] (1350-1400). 3.3. OTHER CASES The 28 nouns ending in other suffixes but -arium or -ary but that originate in the L -arium also designate ‗a place‘ or ‗a device containing or associated with something‘: - place (9): ambry ‗Chiefly British. a pantry; a niche near the altar of a church for keeping sacred vessels and vestments‘ [ME almerie ‗place for safekeeping‘ < OF almarie < ML almārium < L armārium ‗closet‘ < arma ‗tools‘] (1200-1250), armoire ‗a large, often ornate cabinet or wardrobe‘ [F armoire < OF 498 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo armoire < L armārium ‗chest‘ < arma ‗tools‘] (1565-1575), cellar ‗a room or enclosed space used for storage, usually beneath the ground or under a building; a basement; an underground shelter, as from storms; a wine cellar‘ [ME celer < OF < LL cellārium ‗pantry‘ < L cella ‗storeroom‘] (1175-1225), foyer ‗a lobby or an anteroom, as of a theater or hotel; an entrance hall, a vestibule‘ [F social center < OF foier ‗fireplace‘ < VL *focārium < LL neuter of focārius ‗of the hearth‘ (unattested sense) < L focus ‗fire‘] (1855-1860), fumarole ‗a hole in a volcanic area from which hot smoke and gases escape‘ [It fumarola < LL fūmāriolum ‗smoke hole‘ diminutive of L fūmārium ‗smoke chamber‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘] (1805-1815), fumatory ‗an airtight fumigation chamber in which chemical vapors are used to destroy insects and fungi on plants. [< L fūmāre ‗to smoke‘ < fūmus ‗smoke‘], garner ‗a granary‘ [ME < garner, garner ‗granary‘ < OF gernier, grenier < L grānārium] (1125-1275), larder ‗a place, such as a pantry or cellar, where food is stored; a supply of food‘ [ME < AN < ML lārdārium < L lārdum ‗bacon‘] (1275-1325), and rathskeller ‗a restaurant or tavern, usually below street level, that features the serving of beer‘ [ObsG restaurant in the city hall basement: German Rat ‗council, counsel‘ (< MHG rāt < OHG + G Keller ‗cellar‘ < MHG < OHG kellāri < L cellārium)] (1860-1865). - device (10): beaker ‗a wide cylindrical glass vessel with a pouring lip, used as a laboratory container and mixing jar; a large drinking cup with a wide mouth‘ [MD bīker ‗drinking vessel‘ and ME bekir < ML bicārius, bicārium probably < Gk bikos ‗jug‘ possibly of Egyptian origin] (1300-1350), calendar ‗any of various systems of reckoning time in which the beginning, length, and divisions of a year are defined; a table showing the months, weeks, and days in at least one specific year; a schedule of events; an ordered list of matters to be considered: a calendar of court cases; the bills on a legislative calendar; Chiefly British. a catalogue of a university‘ [ME calendar < OF calendier < LL kalendārium < L account book < kalendae ‗calends‘ (from the fact that monthly interest was due on the calends)] (1175-1225), chandelier ‗a branched, decorative lighting fixture that holds a number of bulbs or candles and is suspended from a ceiling‘ [ME chandeler < OF chandelier < VL *candēlārium alteration of L candēlābrum ‗candelabrum‘] (1655-1665), inventory ‗a detailed, itemized list, report, or record of things in one‘s possession, especially a periodic survey of all goods and materials in stock; the process of making such a list, report, or record; the items listed in such a report or record, the quantity of goods and materials on hand, stock; an evaluation or a survey, as of abilities, assets, or resources‘ [ME inventorie < ML inventorium alteration of LL inventārium < L inventus past participle of invenīre ‗to find‘] (1375-1425), mortar ‗a vessel in which substances are crushed or ground with a pestle; a machine in which materials are ground and blended or crushed; a portable, muzzleloading cannon used to fire shells at low velocities, short ranges, and high trajectories; any of several similar devices, such as one that shoots life lines across a stretch of water; any of various bonding materials used in masonry, surfacing, and plastering, especially a plastic mixture of cement or lime, sand, and water that hardens in place and is used to bind together bricks or stones‘ [ME mortar < OE mortere < OF mortier < L mortārium] (before 1000), pannier ‗a large wicker basket; a basket or pack, usually one of a pair, that fastens to the rack of a bicycle and hangs over the side of one of the wheels; a framework of wire, bone, or other material formerly used to expand a woman‘s skirt at the hips; a skirt or an overskirt puffed out at the hips‘ [ME panier < OF < L pānārium ‗breadbasket‘ < pānis ‗bread‘] (12501300), pitcher ‗a container for liquids, usually having a handle and a lip or spout for pouring; Botany. a pitcherlike part, such as the leaf of a pitcher plant‘ [ME picher < OF pichier alteration of bichier < ML bicārium ‗drinking cup‘ probably < Gk bikos ‗jar‘ possibly < Egyptian biķ ‗oil vessel‘] (1250-1300), primer ‗an elementary textbook for teaching children to read; a book that covers the basic elements of a subject‘ [ME < NF < ML prīmārium < neuter of prīmārius ‗first‘ < L < prīmus] (1350-1400), sampler ‗one who is employed to take and appraise samples, as of a food product; a mechanical device that is used to obtain and analyze samples; a decorative piece of cloth embroidered with various designs or mottoes in a variety of stitches, serving as an example of skill at needlework; a representative collection or selection; a variety, an assortment‘ [Partly ME model < AN *essamplur and partly short for ME ensampler < AN ensamplour < LL exemplārium ‗model, copy‘ < L copy] (1250-1300), and tiller ‗Nautical. a lever used to turn a rudder and steer a boat‘ [ME tiler ‗stock of a crossbow‘ < OF telier < ML tēlārium ‗weaver‘s beam‘ < L tēla] (1375-1425) - other cases (10): abecedarian ‗one who teaches or studies the alphabet; one who is just learning; a beginner‘ [ME < ML abecedārium ‗alphabet‘ < LL abecedārius ‗alphabetical‘ < A B C D + -ārius ‗-ary‘] (15951605), calamari ‗squid prepared as food‘ [It pl. of calamaro < LL calamārium ‗pen-case‘ < L calamārius relating to a reed pen < calamus ‗reed pen‘ (perhaps < the ―ink‖ the squid secretes)] (1560s), cellar ‗Slang. the lowest level, especially in the standing of an athletic team‘ [ME celer < OF < LL cellārium ‗pantry‘ < L cella ‗storeroom‘] (1175-1225), danger ‗exposure or vulnerability to harm or risk; a source or an instance of risk or peril; Obsolete. power, especially power to harm‘ [ME daunger ‗power, dominion, peril‘ < OF dangier < VL *dominiārium ‗authority, power‘ < L dominium ‗sovereignty‘ < dominus ‗lord, master‘] (1175-1225), dower ‗the part or interest of a deceased man‘s real estate allotted by law to his widow for her lifetime; money or property brought by a bride to her husband at marriage; a natural endowment or gift; a dowry‘ [ME douere < OF douaire < ML dotārium < L dos, dot- ‗dowry‘] (1250-1300), dowry ‗money or property brought by a bride to her husband at marriage; a sum of money required of a postulant at a convent; a natural endowment or gift, a talent; Archaic. the part or interest of a deceased man‘s real estate allotted by law to his widow for her lifetime‘ [ME 499 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo douerie < AN douarie < ML dotārium, doārium, doāria ‗dower‘] (1250-1300), exemplar ‗one that is worthy of imitation; a model; one that is typical or representative, an example; an ideal that serves as a pattern, an archetype; a copy, as of a book‘ [ME exemplere < LL exemplārium < L exemplum ‗example‘] (1350-1400), lekvar ‗a sweet spread or pastry filling made of prunes or apricots‘ [Hung lekvár ‗jam‘ < Slovak < Czech lektvar ‗electuary‘ < MHG lactuārje, latuērge < OF leituaire < LL ēlēctuārium ‗electuary‘] (1955-1960), quintal ‗a unit of mass in the metric system equal to 100 kilograms‘ [ME a unit of weight < OF < ML quintāle < Arabic qinţār < LGk kentēnarion < LL centēnārium (pondus) ‗hundred(weight)‘ < L centēnārius ‗of a hundred‘] (1425-1275), and seminar ‗a small group of advanced students in a college or graduate school engaged in original research or intensive study under the guidance of a professor who meets regularly with them to discuss their reports and findings; a course of study so pursued; a scheduled meeting of such a group; a meeting for an exchange of ideas, a conference‘ [G < L sēminārium ‗seed plot‘] (1885-1890). 4. DISCUSSION From a chronological point of view, the nouns in our inventory share the periods underlined in Figure 1. 12 10 8 -arium 6 -ary other 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Figure 1. Chronological distribution of nouns in -arium, -ary or other endings inherited or borrowed from Latin or other languages: 1: before 1000; 2: 1000-1099; 3: 1100-1199; 4: 1200-1299; 5: 1300-1399; 6: 1400-1499; 7 :1500-1599; 8: 1600-1699; 9: 1700-1799; 10: 1800-1899; 11: 1900-1999. Nouns in -arium have preserved their Latin plural and the most frequently used have also developed English plurals in -s (Table 1): Table 1. Plural forms of nouns in -arium Noun in -arium aquarium cinerarium columbarium fumatorium herbarium honorarium Plural form Latin plural Aquaria Cineraria columbaria Fumatoria Herbaria Honoraria English plural aquariums fumatoriums herbariums honorariums 500 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo leprosarium oceanarium planetarium polyzoarium sacrarium sanitarium septarium solarium termitarium terrarium vivarium Leprosaria Oceanaria Planetaria Polyzoaria Sacraria Sanitaria Septaria Solaria Termitaria Terraria Vivaria leprosariums oceanariums planetariums sanitariums solariums terrariums vivariums In their turn, English nouns originating in Latin nouns in -arium but that do not preserve any resemblance with the latter, have produced derivatives – mainly adjectival and verbal ones (Table 2). Table 2. Derivatives of English nouns originating in Latin nouns in -arium Noun abecedarian calendar cellar corollary dower estuary glossary inventory itinerary mortar nectary pannier septarium vestiary Noun Glossarist - Adjective abecedarian corollary estuarial glossarial itinerary nectarial panniered septarian vestiary Verb calendar cellar dower inventory mortar - 5. CONCLUSIONS … REFERENCES Online Etymology Dictionary. Online: http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=e. (OED) Soukhanov, A. H. (2008). The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. (AHDEL) 501 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 75 Title A name given to the resource On Extinct Suffixes: -arium Author Author RATA, GEORGETA Abstract A summary of the resource. There are two English nominal suffixes sharing the same meaning ―a place or device containing or associated with [something]‖: -arium and -ary (for the latter, the English language dictionaries mention only the meaning ―one that relates to or is connected with [something]‖). These two suffixes have produced, directly or indirectly, a considerable number of derivatives designating more or less ‗a place‘ (35), ‗a device‘ (33), or other realities (15). Diachronically, the suffix -arium produced most indirect derivatives in the 13th c. and almost stopped producing any in the 20th c., the suffix -ary reached a peak in the 16th c. and stopped producing any in the 20th c., while Latin nouns in -arium were borrowed in considerable amounts in the 19th c. and almost stopped being borrowed in the 20th c. The suffix -arium can, therefore, be considered extinct from the point of view of its productivity. For students in nature-related fields almost all the nouns in -arium and -ary are indicative of places and devices of interest for these fields. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35a9370944fa5d1f59a5919d765ead9c.pdf e89e14d72505142714683886fdfdac39 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo One Example of Balkanistic Discourse on Montenegro Olivera PopoviĤ Department of Italian language and Literature Univerzitet Crne Gore, Montenegro oljapop@yahoo.it Cvijeta BrajiĦiĤ Department of Italian language and Literature Univerzitet Crne Gore, Montenegro cvijeta82@yahoo.com Abstract: The aim of this study is to analyze the presence of balkanistic discourse in the article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones", published in the Washington Post on December 3, 2010, and to indicate the factors involved in its generation and reproduction. We will pursue the specifics of the author's perception of the Montenegrin geographical and civilizational space and examine his writings in their relation to prior paradigms of travel narrative regarding Montenegro and other Balkan countries. Key Words: balkanistic discourse, travel account, Montenegro Introduction In recent years, travel literature has been increasingly studied, not only its literary but also the cultural and historical aspects. Due to the abundance of themes and to the variety of the information offered, travel books are particularly suitable for the analysis of traditional views of a country and for the identification of stereotypes and connotations that were tied to it. In fact, we do not consider travel accounts only as a personal testimony about the encounter with the Other or as a transfer of impressions and observations of phenomena in a given historical moment, but also as the construction of images of the Other and selective transfer of observations, opinions and facts through their generalization. Many critics have pointed out that travel narrative was the "birthplace" of many stereotypes concerning one nation that were built in a specific historical time to be later accepted as a generalization of the essential and timeless qualities of the people. As Sarup (1993) underlines in his Postructuralism ―every narrative simultaneously presents and represents a world, that is, simultaneously creates and makes up a reality and asserts that it stands independent of that same reality. In other words, narrative seems at once to reveal or illuminate a world and to hide and distort it.‖ Edward Said with his study Orientalism (New York, 1978) enhanced the research in the field of a priori schemes of perception and representation of otherness or strangeness that are imposed by a particular discourse in a particular context. The recent events of the war in the Balkans and the renewed interest of politicians, historians, writers and publicists in the South Eastern Europe have led to a flourishing production of various articles on the Balkan countries, offering rich material for analysis of that kind of narrative in comparison with the writings of previous epochs. Basing their research upon Said's works many critics have dealt with issues such as essentialization of cultural differences in a particular historical moment and their politicization and instrumentalization in subsequent historical contexts. Bulgarian historian Maria Todorova, dealing with the reception of the Balkans in the scientific and political circles in Europe and the United States, also approaches this issue from the aspect of discourse. In her book Imagining the Balkans (New York, 1997) she argued "that a specific discourse, balkanism, molds attitudes and actions toward the Balkans and could be treated as the most persistent form or ‗mental map‘ in which information about the Balkans is placed, most notably in journalistic, political, and literary output." As opposed to "Orientalism" which she characterizes as a "discourse about an imputed opposition" she defines Balkanism as "discourse about an imputed ambiguity ", believing that the Balkans were seen as the alter ego of Europe and its uncivilized element, designed as "an incomplete self". The Balkans is therefore treated as an area inextricably bound up with a special identity that pre-determines the character of its inhabitants, making them substantially different from the inhabitants of the surrounding countries. 1011 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Findings and Discussion The article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones" written by Robert Rigney, published in the Washington Post 3/12/2010 provides numerous examples of some basic features of balkanistic discourse. This contribution can be characterized as travel reportage, although the description of the route is given only partially. The writer presented details of his travel through Montenegro and means of transport used, but did not mention where and how he came to the Balkans, nor gave any information on the return. Since he came to Montenegro by train from Serbia, we can assume that this visit is just one of the stages of his journey through the Balkans. The very title of this article, linking the words heart and stone, implies the image of the Montenegrins that Rigney wants to develop. The title also suggests that Rigney intends to use exotization and generalization in his reportage on Montenegro. This is reflected by his decision to use keywords such as "land of" followed by the conclusions applicable to all members of the country. Thus, "land of giants" means a country where there are no people of medium height or dwarves, a "land of stout hearts" attributed as trait to all its inhabitants, indicates the basic characteristics of this nation, by which it is substantially different from all the neighbors. Exotization of Montenegro is present from the very beginning of Rigney's stay in this country. The impression of "dramatic" train ride from Prijepolje to Podgorica while crossing a number of tunnels, over deep ravines and ―indescribably rocky mountains‖ is reinforced by his statement that people can not be seen in these areas because of the too inhospitable environment, ignoring the fact that those areas are inhabited by tens of thousands of people. This view corresponds to the perception of the Balkans present in the travel literature of nineteenth century where the Balkan countries are presented to readers as "Europe's Indian territory." (Todorova, 1997) Rigney made no attempt to conceal his perception of Montenegrin society as criminal and corrupted. After his arrival to Podgorica, the author compares the actual situation with the condition in the nineties, without revealing to the readers if he visited Podgorica in that period and if he had the opportunity to personally verify the assertion that the city was "rife with Mafiosi". Instead, without any inquiry into social conditions, Rigney affirms that "illicit atmosphere of those times still clings to the city" and compares the Montenegrin capital, where he spent a few hours around the train station, with the wild west. Other sites that Rigney managed to visit in Montenegro are the Ostrog Monastery, Cetinje, Herceg Novi and Budva. The first two places have great historical, cultural and spiritual significance for the people of Montenegro, while the other two are tourist centers. As the author himself claims, one of the reasons that encouraged him to visit Montenegro is its multi-ethnicity. Therefore, immediately after his arrival to Podgorica Rigney decides to visit the monastery of Ostrog, considered as a holy site by adherents of different religions. However, instead of believers that usually visit Ostrog, Rigney notes "all manner of religious kitsch", referring to the souvenirs, that are sold in front of many churches and monasteries in the world, and "a couple of cafes blaring the usual Serbian and Montenegrin national music, with waitresses wearing T-shirts emblazoned with the visages of Radovan Karadzic and other indicted war criminals." Rigney's opinion about the music that emerged in the '90 called turbo-folk, which, albeit very popular, can not be characterized as national since the state television channels and many radio stations do not broadcast it, is well known from his earlier writings on music in the Balkans. He undertakes to suggest: ―Turbo folk is a style of music unique to Serbia, but with equivalents in almost every developing country in the world, that blends elements of folk music with Western pop and is characteristic of societies in transition. Turbo folk is relentlessly upbeat, oriental, marked by maniacal keyboards and wailing Turkish style vocals with artists singing by turns of love and nationalism. The most famous practitioner at the time was Ceca, wife of murdered mafia boss and paramilitary leader Arkan―. Turbo-folk music without any doubt deserves a large number of objections, but it can hardly be proved that the connection of this kind of music and its fans to the nationalism is stronger than the connection of other kinds of music (pop, rap, rock, heavy metal ...) to the same phenomena. It seems that Rigney believes that the quality of music is directly related to the development of a country in which it arises, and that it can be expected that in the richer countries exists only quality music, which in addition celebrates the noble human feelings, while the poorer ones are dominated by the music devoid of art and other values. This progressionistic understanding of cultural development was present in some earlier works of travel writing genre regarding Southeastern Europe, where the Balkans were presented as an area "subject to the universal laws of evolution but theirs was a backward culture and civilization" (Todorova, 1997), while the culture in Western countries is assessed as advanced and superior in every way. Rigney repeats all the negative stereotypes about the Balkans that dominated the collective imaginaries of Western countries after the disintegration of Yugoslavia and often represents 1012 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the Balkan countries to his readers as a threat to European culture. Thus, in an article about Trumpet Festival in Guca, published on 16/09/2008 on a web page, entitled "European Balkan project, a cultural phenomenon, " Rigney concludes: "This was Serbia, a land of heated passions, and this was Guca, where nationalist sentiment is mixed with large quantities of alcohol made for a potentially dangerous mix. " In addition to showing surprise that at big music concerts in Serbia people drink alcohol (as it was specific only to Serbia and not a widespread phenomenon that characterizes major music events organized around the world) Rigney is also concerned about nationalism that, in his opinion, is promoted at these events. Rigney‘s intention to represent the Ostrog monastery as a gathering place for nationalist transpires in his description of two waitresses dressed in t-shirts with images of the Hague convicts. We can not verify the authenticity of this statement, nor claim that in Montenegro there are no people who support the military leaders concerned, but we were intrigued by other things that Rigney "saw" in Ostrog. There are, for example, cypress trees and olive groves which certainly do not grow there and our curiosity was also aroused by his assumption that the area probably was once inhabited by the "Albanian shepherds with fierce, wolflike dogs trained to fly at strangers‖. The first mention of this specific type of dogs can be found in the famous publication of Vialla de Sommieres Voyage Historique et Politique au Montenegro, published in the 1820th in Paris and later translated into English. This publication has served as a model for many authors who visited Montenegro and wrote about it. Rigney seizes the opportunity to present his reflections on nationalism in Montenegro during his visit to Cetinje (historical capital of Montenegro) and to the mausoleum on the Lovcen mountain which is the burial place of famous Montenegrin poet and ruler Petar II Petrovic Njegos. Rigney draws his readers' attention to the signs "perforated by bullets, fired by some drunken Montenegrin in an excess of glee, " which completes the fictitious image of Montenegro as the wild west. Upon arrival at the mausoleum he concludes that "The Nazis would have loved this place ". However, this observation applies not only to the "fascist architecture" but also to the "couple of Montenegrins in nationalist Tshirts" who were selling flags and ―patriotic souvenirs‖. While the sale of souvenirs is considered lucrative and desirable activity in other states, Rigney seems to think that in Montenegro this points to nationalism of its people and allows the categorization of souvenirs as patriotic and unpatriotic. In refering to the salesmen he cannot help noticing: "They would have preferred me to be a Serbian or a Montenegrin. They had at least hoped I was a Slav. Still, they could not refuse me a ticket. " It remains unclear to the readers what makes Rigney think that the salesmen are nationalists and racists when he only purchases the ticket without any discussion with them. The only dialogue that Rigney noted in his travel reportage is his conversation with the owner of a bookstore in Herceg-Novi. The conversation topic, the independence of Kosovo from Serbia, was chosen by the journalist after an unusual encouragement from the bookstore owner to ask him anything he wanted to know about Serbs and Serbia. This unnatural dialogue is more appropriate in situations where the speaker can not freely participate in the conversation and direct it to the topic of his interest, so he needs to find a way to suggest the questions he wants to be asked. After noting that the bookshop owner opposes the independence of Kosovo, Rigney quotes his words that may help the readers understand the bases of religiosity of the population in Montenegro: myths and fatalism. When asked if he is only the seller or the owner of the shop, the bookstore owner replies that everything belongs to God and explains his belief with a fairy tale about a farmer whose farm had been repeatedly burned until he realized that he needed to recognize that God owns everything on earth. Rigney's interlocutor shares his personal experience of surviving the earthquake in Montenegro in 1979, which warned him that he was nothing more than a "user" of things that belong to God. Dialogue is not the only form of narration used by Rigney to convey his thoughts on religion and spirituality in Montenegro. There are also descriptions: abandoned churches in the region of Budva, "dark Orthodox churches hung with icons and swimming in incense" in Herceg Novi, and we should not forget the random passerby who offered him a drive from the Ostrog monastery to Podgorica, in whose car at least four crosses were hanging from the rearview mirror. Rigney humorously explains their role. In his opinion, their presence "was perhaps an indication of how much he needed the grace of God to protect him on the road" because he was driving like a lunatic. We notice that Rigney pays particular attention to the values that he believes do not exist in Montenegro and that he nurtures an anachronistic and fabulous view on Montenegrins as fearless warriors. He claims that he decided to visit Montenegro because he was "inspired by the colorful history of the place, Montenegro's tradition of resistance to the Turks during the nearly 500-year Ottoman occupation of the Balkans". Therefore he quotes Rebecca West, who visited Montenegro in the thirties of the twentieth century, and says that the architecture of Cetinje depicts "the austere ways of the Montenegrins, who distinguished themselves mainly in the field of battle and never had much 1013 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo interest in the finer things of life ". Despite the fact that there is no longer a regular military service in Montenegro, Rigney is still fascinated by this very romantic mystification of Montenegrins in the spirit of a much older tradition of travel narratives and continues to exploit "the myth of Balkan rebellion and heroism" (ĥoloviĤ 2008). This confirms Maria Todorova's conclusion that the Balkans in the west are still seen as "The Volksmuseum of Europe." Climbing up to the mausoleum on LovĤen Rigney notices only desert and ruins which leads him to the following reasoning: ―I thought about the heroes who had once populated these valleys. In the words of Burns, it was once, perhaps a hundred years ago, "the birthplace of valor, the country of worth." The race has since all but died out. Left home. Moved abroad. The last representatives, big, quiet men, are to be seen sadly smiling behind the counter of some local restaurant. But up in the mountains, I thought about their ancestors, the race of mountain men who once nimbly trod these stones, armed to the teeth with guns and knives, accustomed to sleeping bareheaded in the rain at night in the mountains, ready to fight the Turks at a moment's notice. The whole landscape was full of the memories of these people; their ghosts lived in the stones.‖ In his article "Balkanistic discourse and its critics" Ivan Colovic points to the constitutive ambiguity of exotic discourse because "people and things that it ‘describes‘ do not have two kinds of characteristics, the bad and good ones, but those are mostly the same characteristics, differently interpreted. For example, in some circumstances use of force can be praised as a noble courage and grit, and in some other occasions this can be interpreted as barbarity and bullying." Also, according to Rigney, working in tourist sector, in other countries considered as one of the most important factors of development, in Montenegro is an indicator of degradation of social values. In his opinion, in the process of transformation into civil society Montenegro has lost much of its exoticism and authenticity. Therefore, disappointed in his expectations to see Montenegrins armed to the teeth, Rigney considers the warriors and heroes as guardians of real values, while he describes modern Montenegrin society as decadent and nationalistic. It is significant that Rigney wishes to present himself as an adventurous traveler, who, deprived of all conveniences of modern society, has to make his way through the rugged regions, and is even forced to deal with dangerous situations such as possible traffic accident, assault by wild animals or armed drunken Montenegrins, exposure to extreme weather conditions and so on. It is interesting, for example, that in the description of Montenegrin towns he does not mention their architecture which is a very r ich amalgam of various architectural styles, wherein the influences of various epochs find due expression. He also avoids to mention any hotel or resort, so the reader might wonder whether these facilities exist in Montenegro. He even chooses to stay in the old fort that was transformed into a bunker during the Second World War and to sleep in a tent, so the next day, "oppressed by the intolerable heat and deadly thirsty" he hardly manages to find a fishing village to quench hunger and thirst. Our traveler had no luck on this trip because he finds only closed shops, despite the fact that, due to the tourist orientation of the town, a large number of stores are open on Sundays in Budva. Also, after visiting the mausoleum on LovĤen, Rigney, exhausted from climbing the mountain, concludes that there is no question of returning, and is therefore forced to sleep on the mountain, without even taking into consideration the possibility to use some of very cheap taxi services. We conclude that the narrativization allows Rigney to create the image of Montenegro as an exotic area in which extraordinary experiences are expected. The climate is also one of the factors that contribute to exoticism of this small Balkan country. Rigney notices it immediately upon his arrival to Podgorica due to sudden changes in temperature and tropical heat. The experience of extreme climatic conditions is intensified by the description of a night spent in a tent on LovĤen: "That night, there was a thunderstorm that put the fear of God in me. I had never in my life heard such thunder. The heavens sounded like they were cracking open, and the ground shook under me. " In the atmosphere of intimidating nocturne the imagination of our traveler is captivated by the image of Njegos," who used to climb this mountain during thunderstorms to commune with the elements." This idea of geo-mystical symbiosis of man and nature, often present in romantic travel literature of the XIX century, is the only information about the famous Montenegrin poet and philosopher, died at an early age of 38 of a lung disease, that Rigney has chosen to share with his readers. Rigney concludes his article by quoting one Montenegrin who expressed his perception of the region claiming: "All we have is stones.", which effectively completes the picture of the country and the people that the American journalist wanted to present. Maybe it is a coincidence that the article was published in the Washington Post in December 2010, at the time when the EU members had to decide whether to grant Montenegro with 1014 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the status of a Candidate Country, but one should not lose sight of this fact in the analysis of Rigney's observations, especially after reading some of his articles about the Balkans published in online journals. Our search for other motives that have led Rigney to Montenegro and encouraged him to convey his findings to this reportage is inspired by his failure to accomplish his own goals. Thus, although he claims to have come to Montenegro to see the mountains and the sea, Rigney did not visit the north of the country nor mountain resorts which attract many tourists, and despite the assertion that he does not like crowds and tourists, he chooses to visit Montenegro during summer, in the months when this country has more tourists than residents, which prevents him from exploring the old town of Budva or other attractive tourist destinations. Conclusions and Recommendations The analysis of Rigney's description of his journey through Montenegro indicates the interpretative strategies and literary mystification of perception that are used to confirm a priori ideas about this Balkan country or to transform the desired perception into reality. Namely, it is noticeable that his experience of Montenegro is influenced by the "horizon of expectation" that he had prior to the arrival. His perception is based on images of travel writers who visited Montenegro in past decades, who also wrote their travelogues relaying on pre-existing cultural reference points, as well as on articles on the Balkans during the war. Nor did the author neglect the expectations of his readers or the audience for which the article was intended. Years of war and crisis have influenced the perception of the Balkans in Western countries. This rich depositary of images is dominated by ideological biases with negative connotations. The persistence of negative stereotypes in the collective imaginaries has also been influenced by film industry often linking the Balkans with nationalism, crime, violence, savagery and tyranny. Such fictitious images do not take into account decades of peaceful coexistence between people of different nationality and religion, but only years saturated with conflict, producing new images in order to reaffirm already adopted and ossified conventions of representation. Referrences : Berber, N. (2010). Unveiling Bosnia-Herzegovina in British Travel Literature (1844-1912), Pisa: PlusPisa university press. Bracewell, W. (2008). The Limits of Europe in East European Travel Writing, in: Under Eastern Eyes: A Comparative Introduction to Eas European Travel Writing on Europe, edited by Wendy Bracewell and Alex Drace – Francis, Budapest – New Yourk: Central European University Press. Bracewell, W. (2008). Travels through the Slav World, in: Under Eastern Eyes: A Comparative Introduction to Eas European Travel Writing on Europe, edited by Wendy Bracewell and Alex Drace – Francis, Budapest – New Yourk: Central European University Press. ĥoloviĤ, I. (2010). BalkanistiĦki diskurs i njegovi kritiĦari, Republika, glasilo graħanskog samooslobaħanja, no. 490 – 491, http://www.republika.co.rs/490-491/21.html ĥoloviĤ, I. (2008). Zašto se dičimo Balkanom, u: Ivan ĥoloviĤ, Balkan – teror kulture, Biblioteka XX vek. Goldsworthy, V. (2006). The Balkans in the Nineteenth-Century British Travel Writing, in: Travel Writing in the Nineteenth-Century: Filling the Blank Spaces, edited by Tim Youngs, London: Anthem Press. Hayden – BakiĤ, M., Hayden, R. (1992). Orientalist Variations on the Theme Balkans: Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics, Slavic Review, vol. 51, no. 1. Jezernik, B. (2008). Divlja Evropa, prevela s engleskog S. GlińiĤ, Biblioteka XX vek. 1015 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pratt, M. L. (1992). Imperial Eyes. Travel Writing and Transculturation, London and New York: Routledge. RaspudiĤ, N. (2010). Jadranski (polu)orijentalizam: Prikazi Hrvata u talijanskoj knjiņevnosti, Zagreb: Naklada JurĦiĤ d.o.o. Rigney, R. Belgrade not always likes the Electronic Trubaci, Norient: indipendent network for local and global soundscapes, http://norient.com/stories/shazalakazoo/ Rigney,R.(2010). Neukôlln‘s unwanted Gypsies, Exberliner: Berlin in English since 2002, http://www.exberliner.com/articles/neukllns-unwanted-gypsies/index.html Rigney, R. (2008). GuĦa, European Balkan Project: a cultural phenomenon, http://ebp.arthurengelbert.de/?p=41 Said, E. (2008). Orijentalizam, prevela s engleskog Drinka GojkoviĤ, Beograd: Biblioteka XX vek. Todorova, M. (2006). Imaginarni Balkan, (2. izdanje), prevele s engleskog A. B. VuĦen i D. StarĦeviĤ, Biblioteka XX vek. Todorova, M. (1997). Imagining the Balkans, New Yourk: Oxford University Press. Todorova, M.(2010) Balkanizam kao retorika drugosti, PeńĦanik, prevela sa engleskog Slobodanka GlińiĤ, http://www.pescanik.net/content/view/5623/1213/ Sarup, M. (1993). An introductory guide to post-structuralism and post-modernism, (second edition), London: Harvestar Wheatsheaf. 1016 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 571 Title A name given to the resource One Example of Balkanistic Discourse on Montenegro Author Author Popović, Olivera Brajičić, Cvijeta Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study is to analyze the presence of balkanistic discourse in the article "Montenegro, land of stout hearts and stones", published in the Washington Post on December 3, 2010, and to indicate the factors involved in its generation and reproduction. We will pursue the specifics of the author's perception of the Montenegrin geographical and civilizational space and examine his writings in their relation to prior paradigms of travel narrative regarding Montenegro and other Balkan countries. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1cb2439392d814d44577aababf5a21a1.pdf 101caff0b2f324fbbfc74b6c8992ea42 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Teodora Popescu ―1 Decembrie 1918‖ University of Alba Iulia Romania teo_popescu@hotmail.com Abstract:The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Key words: linguistic competence, sociolinguistic competence, pragmatic competence, intercultural competence, translation competence. I. Introduction The relationship between linguistic competence and translation competence has been sparsely addressed by various researchers, however, with differing standpoints. The use of translation in foreign language classes was discarded as a teaching technique, especially after the grammar-translation method had fallen into disuse, and the proponents of the communicative approach started to frown upon teachers‘ resorting to L1 in their courses. Translation was entirely left to some specialist courses in translation theory and practice, particularly in curricula destined for the formal training of translators and interpreters. Nevertheless, as Rodgers (1986: 4) pointed out, ―Grammar Translation dominated European and foreign language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s, and in modified form it continues to be widely used in some parts of the world today.‖ Our main tenet here is that by interspersing the foreign language class with translation tasks, students will enhance both their linguistic and linguistic competences. We also start from the assumption that in order for a translator from L1 into L2 to be successful, they need to master a relatively independent-user stage in their language learning. This paper attempts at identifying the constituent elements of both competences, and their interrelations. Further on, different teaching methodologies used for the development of both linguistic and translation competences. In the end, a possible model is presented and discussed. II. Linguistic competence For taxonomical reasons, I will employ the term ―linguistic competence‖ in order to refer to a learner‘s ―knowledge of and ability to use, the formal resources from which well-formed, meaningful messages may be assembled and formulated‖ (CEFR, 2001:109), as opposed to the knowledge and skills required to deal with the social dimension of language use and/or the meaning and language use that are dependent on the speaker, the addressee and other contextual features. It was Chomsky who first made a distinction between competence (the system of linguistic knowledge) and performance (the way the language system is used in communication): Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows its (the speech community‘s) language 1183 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance (Chomsky, 1965:3). The debate that ensued is well known to all scholars and students of linguistics. It was argued that it is not possible to study language is such a ‗purified‘ environment‘, as pictured by Chomsky, resting on the premise that a language without being used is no longer a language. The controversy was likened by Cook (1996) to a war ―waged as much in language teaching, in children‘s languages, or in computational linguistics, as it is in linguistics itself‖. Theoretical linguists, in particular, would welcome such a separate approach, while applied linguists are strongly opposed to the idea of learning a language as an abstract and isolated system. Other specialists scrutinised the issue from the perspective of teaching materials elaboration. According to Allen (1975:40), most language textbooks actually contain a limited number of completely abstract sentences or completely ‗authentic‘ utterances. The majority of classroom materials are based on sentences that are at the meeting point of the two extremes. It comes as no surprise that applied linguists would adopt a stance that favours second language instruction which aims at achieving native speakers‘ competence in a language. Undoubtedly, Chomsky‘s definition of language cannot be adopted as a language learning goal per se. It is not possible to teach students the abstract forms and rules of language and expect them to be able to use the language in real contexts in an appropriate manner. In Spolsky‘s (1972) words, linguistic competence ―is not enough for practical or educational purposes; we are interested not just in the fact that someone knows a language but that he knows how to use it‖. Language instruction should assist the student in competently using language forms, which can only come with practice and exposure to real-life contexts. In this terrain of discontent, Hymes‘ concept of ‗communicative competence‘ seemed to finally satisfy applied linguists. Stern (1992:73) points out Hymes‘ argument that besides linguistic competence, the native speaker possesses another rule system, according to which, he intuitively knows what is socially acceptable or unacceptable, and can adapt his language use according to the topic, situation and human relations at stake. By the same token, Widdowson (1989) comments that ―Hymes proposed his concept of communicative competence in reaction to Chomsky, and it is customary to present it as an improvement in that it covers aspects of language other than the narrowly grammatical‖. The concept of communicative competence, was nevertheless conceived from a sociolinguist‘s perspective, and only starting with Canale & Swain (1980) and Canale (1983) did this approach enter the area of second/foreign language teaching and learning. According to them, communicative competence is made of the following categories: - - grammatical competence: o phonology; o vocabulary; o syntax; o semantics. discourse competence - sociocultural rules having to do with language use; sociolinguistic competence - rules of discourse such as cohesion and coherence, strategic competence - the ability ―to compensate for breakdowns in communication‖ and ―to enhance the rhetorical effect of utterances‖ (Canale 1983:339). How to integrate these elements into language learning goals is yet another issue. Widdowson (1989:134) argues that ―[a]s soon as you talk about competence as ability, or what people can actually do with their language, you get into all kinds of difficulty‖, since ―there is so much you have to allow for in the way of individual differences, varying circumstances, attitude, and so on that specification becomes impossible‖. According to him, ―grammar needs to be in its place‖, while at the same time allowing for ―rightful claims of lexis‖, as the actual use of language may be more dependent on stocks of lexical items rather than the analysis of structures. In this, he seems to accept the idea that linguistic competence needs to be separated from language usage. Furthermore, Lyons (1996), departing from the premise that there exists a psychological difference between propositional (or declarative) knowledge (―knowing that something is or is not so‖) and performative (or procedural) knowledge (―knowing how to do something‖), tries to investigate the type of knowledge that linguistic competence falls under. He tends to consider it as a sort of procedural knowledge, i.e. being able to do something without being able to pin down the underlying rules. According to him, it is not necessary for a language learner to consciously ‗know‘ the language he internalises and to subsequently apply the rules, i.e. he does not need to possess meta-knowledge when actually using the language in real-life situations. 1184 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another second language education standpoint is provided by Brown (1996:202), who constructs a developmental paradigm (a ―virtuous spiral‖, as she calls it), according to which a child first manifests competence consisting of fundamental constraints on the nature of human languages. Subsequently, the child‘s perception of the language which he/she is exposed to (performance) starts to mould competence, and the process continues in the same manner, with more and more performance changing performance. She maintains that ―just as performance modifies and restructures competence in the first language, so it modifies and restructures competence in the second language‖. According to this statement, mother tongue acquisition and second language acquisition rest on the same principles, as competence is transferable language ability inherent in the human brain, working alike for first and second language. An even more complex model for language education is advanced by Bachman (1990), through his hierarchical model of language competence, which is now divided into organisational competence and pragmatic competence. The former represents grammatical competence and textual competence; while pragmatic competence contains illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. These consist of the following categories: - organisational competence: o grammatical competence - ―the knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax, and phonology/graphology‖ (p. 87). o textual competence - ―the knowledge of the conventions for joining utterances together to form a text‖ (p. 88). o illocutionary competence – the way we use words to do things, in terms of the speech acts theory (Austin 1962) and/or language functions (Halliday 1973, 1976) - sociolinguistic competence – the ability ―to perform language functions in ways that are appropriate to that context‖ (p. 94). More or less concurrently with the model developed by Bachman, the EU ‗Book‘ on language learning and teaching – The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages was produced in order to provide ―a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe‖ (CEFR, 2001:1). According to this manual, the communicative situations in which users and learners have to function entail the successful completion of certain tasks and activities. To this end, they ―draw upon a number of competences developed in the course of their previous experience‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). At the same time, ―participation in communicative events (including, of course, those events specifically designed to promote language learning) results in the further development of the learner‘s competences, for both immediate and longterm use‖ (CEFR, 2001: 101). As a matter of fact, all human competences play a part in the language user‘s ability to communicate, and can in turn be considered as components of the communicative competence. Nevertheless, they may be categorized into competences more or less closely related to the linguistic competence. Here is the classification offered by the CEFR: A. General competences Declarative knowledge (savoir) Knowledge of the world Sociocultural knowledge Intercultural awareness Skills and know-how (savoir-faire) Practical skills and know-how Intercultural skills and know-how ‗Existential‘ competence (savoir-être) Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre) Language and communication awareness General phonetic awareness and skills Study skills Heuristic skills B. Communicative language competences Linguistic competences Lexical competence; Grammatical competence; Semantic competence; Phonological competence; Orthographic competence; 1185 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Orthoepic competence. Sociolinguistic competence Politeness conventions Expressions of folk wisdom Register differences Pragmatic competences Discourse competence Functional competence III. Translation competence Among the very few studies on translation competence development, mention should be made of Campbell‘s (1998) research based on applied linguistics methodologies. He explored translation competence of non-native speakers‘ translation from their mother tongue into English. His informants were native speakers of Arabic, studying translation and interpretation at an Australian university. Data analysis and interpretation led Campbell to design a three-layered model of translation competence: - textual competence – the ability to produce TL texts with ―structural features of formal, written English‖ (p. 73). Evaluation benchmarks are nominalizations, type/token ratios, word length, passives, prepositional phrases, etc. - disposition – translators‘ behaviours in choosing different words when contracting TL texts. The parameters he advances are: o persistent vs capitulating; o prudent vs risk-taking. Combinations of the above categories will create four types of disposition: o persistent and risk-taking; o capitulating and risk-taking; o persistent and prudent; o capitulating and prudent. - monitoring competence, consisting of two sub-categories: o self-awareness; o editing. o However, this model overlooks the crucial issue of translation equivalence (grammatical, semantic, pragmatic, cultural, etc.). A second model is provided by Sofer (1998), who puts forward ten commandments for professional translators: 1. A thorough knowledge of both SL and TL; 2. A thorough ―at-homeness‖ in both cultures. 3. Keeping up with changes in the language and being up-to-date in all of its nuances and neologisms. 4. Always translating from another language into one‘s native language. 5. Being able to translate in more than one area of knowledge. 6. Possessing ease of writing or speaking and the ability to articulate quickly and accurately, either orally or in writing. 7. Developing a good speed of translation. 8. Developing research skills, being able to retrieve reference sources needed in producing high quality translation. 9. Being familiar with the latest technological advances; 10. Being able to understand the type of potential one‘s language specialty has in a certain geographic area. (pp. 33-37) If we analyse the two models, we would see most of the characteristics are pragmaticallyoriented, and refer to personal skills that translators need to possess/develop. However, we should not overlook from among a translator‘s competence, the explicit ability to achieve equivalence at lexical, semantic, textual (discursive), pragmatic (see Mona Baker, 1992), cultural level (see David Katan, 1999). I reiterate the idea that translation competence cannot be achieved unless a translator already possesses good knowledge of both SL and TL [by this meaning linguistic knowledge, on the one hand, as well as socio-linguistic, pragmatic and (inter-)cultural knowledge]. I would like to state that at the intersection of the two competences, we would find the above elements: 1186 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 1 Second language learning vs learning to translate The other components of translation competence would be, in synthesis, content-knowledge competence (economics, finance, medicine, law, etc.), ICT competence (hardware, operating system environment, packages used: Windows, Trados, etc., the Internet); monitoring competence (awareness of the quality of translations made) and research competence (the ability to resort to bibliographic and lexicographic resources). IV. Pedagogic implications I suggest therefore that the translation theory and practice syllabus for language learners should include as course aims the development of translation competence which includes all the elements pertaining to language learning (linguistic competence – phonetics, morphology, syntax, semantics, discourse; sociolinguistic competence; pragmatic competence and intercultural competence), as well as sub-competence pertaining to the translation profession proper (contentknowledge competence; ICT competence, Research competence and monitoring competence), as graphically represented in the figure below: 1187 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Fig. 2 Learning objectives for a translation course Although there is relatively little research carried out in the field of teaching translation proper, as opposed to teaching a foreign/second language, there are references to the use of translation in different learning methodologies advocated by different stages in the history of foreign/second language learning. As previously mentioned, the Grammar Translation method was the one which made most use of translation in language instruction. It has numerous times come under attack, as it only concentrates on grammar and vocabulary structure and is very far from the real task of translation, being rather artificial. The typical exercise in this approach is ―to translate sentences from the target language into the mother tongue‖ (Celce-Murcia, 1991), and its aim is to enforce ―the vocabulary and grammar encountered in the current and earlier units‖ (Cook, 1998). Nevertheless, in recent years we have witnessed a revival of interest in using translation as a classroom technique. Translation was not encouraged by subsequent methodologies, such as the Direct Method, the Audio-Lingual Method (where, according to Brookes, quoted in Richards & Rodgers, 1986: 58, there existed ―practice in translation only as a literary exercise at an advanced level‖), or Communicative Language Teaching. In the Humanistic paradigm (Community Language Learning (CLL) and Suggestopedia, teachers resort again to translation. In both methods, translation represents a sort of transition from the learner‘s mother tongue to the target language, and through it, learners‘ anxieties can be diminished. Translation tasks may interspersed in the language class, and it is particularly important to choose authentic and relevant texts to be translated from and into the mother tongue, so as for the students to understand the real usefulness and efficiency of good translation skills Conclusions I have tried to demonstrate through this paper that the role and importance of translation need to be reassessed in the foreign/second language classroom. Alongside the language teaching/learning, we need to try and develop students‘ translation competence as well. I have tried to decompose both linguistic competence and the associated sociolinguistic, pragmatic and intercultural competences, as well as give an inventory of elements that constitute the translation competence. It is argued that translation competence encompasses the linguistic one, therefore, all instructors who want to teach translation, need to pay heed first to students‘ foundation competences. 1188 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Allen, J.P.B. (1975). Some basic concepts in linguistics. In J.P.B. Allen, & S. Pit. Corder (Eds), The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics: Volume 2 (pp. 16-44). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Austin, J. L. (1962/2005). How to do things with Words (2nd ed.). Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University Press. Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baker, M. (1998). Translation studies. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Bassnett, S. (1991). Translation Studies. London: Routledge. Brown, J. D. (1996). Testing in language programs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Campbell, S. (1998). Translation into the Second Language. Harlow, Essex: Addison Wesley Longman. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J.C.Richards, & R.W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication. pp. 2-27. London & New York: Longman. Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to Second Language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics. 1(1), 1-47. Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Language teaching approaches: an overview. In Teaching English as a second or foreign language (2nd ed.) (pp. 3-11). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf. Cook, G. (1998). Use of translation in language teaching. In M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopaedia of Translation Studies (pp. 277-280). London: Routledge. Halliday, M.A.K. (1973). Explorations in the functions of language. London: Arnold. (Explorations in Language Study Series). Katan, D. (1999). Translating cultures. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Lyons, J. (1996). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (1986). Approaches and methods in language teaching: A description and analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Rodgers, T. S. (1989). Syllabus design, curriculum development and polity determination. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum (pp. 24-34). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sofer, M. (1998). The Translator‘s Handbook (2nd ed). Rockville, Maryland: Schreiber Publishing, Inc. Spolsky, B. (1972). What does it mean to know a language? In K. Croft (Ed.) Readings on English as a Second Language (pp. 26-42). Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop Publishers. Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. (Series Eds. Patrick Allen & Birgit Harley). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics. 10(2), 128137. 1189 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 560 Title A name given to the resource Linguistic competence vs. Translation competence: A pedagogic approach Author Author Popescu, Teodora Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this paper is to address the issue of linguistic competence versus translation competence seen from a pedagogical perspective. I will start by reviewing the well-known distinction between competence and performance and their interrelatedness. Other dimensions will be added to linguistic competence, which together contribute to the process of language learning (either foreign or second): sociolingistic competence, pragmatic competence and intercultural competence. In close connection with linguistic competence I will try to delineate the components of translation competence, by outlining similarities and differences between the two processes. Some elements of translation competence, apart from those that are also inherent to linguistic competence will be analysed and exemplified: monitoring competence, ICT competence and content-knowledge competence. From a pedagogic viewpoint, in order for the students to attain a certain degree of translation competence, their level of linguistic competence must be fairly well-developed (at least upper-intermediate, or B2 according to the Common European Framework of reference for languages); however, when learning how to translate, students have to be able to further enhance their linguistic competence. Therefore, I will also attempt at providing a basic teaching methodology involving the use of translation in EFL/ESL classes, so as to increase students‘ both competences. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/45702958ffbc3b4de30388d481ad5fd4.pdf 9b64b288f39d434086d4d51b6a5b22bb PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Adult Education: Using Motivating Strategies and Techniques Alma Piric Department of English Language and Literature University of Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina almapiric@gmail.com Abstract:Motivation is a key to success. It helps us understand why we do the things we do, or why we learn and thrive to further develop our abilities to do something. In language learning motivation plays a crucial role, because only the motivated students will succeed. Without motivation our performance is diminished. Learners who are not motivated tend to be distracted, bored, unfocused, and even frustrated. On the other hand, motivated learners are eager to find out more, learn new things, pay attention in class and conduct additional research at home in order to better understand a given topic. That is why many teachers/instructors consider motivation a crucial part of the instructional process. As teachers/instructors, we can certainly contribute to the motivation of our students. We can motivate learners through interesting classes, positive attitude as well as attractive exercises. This paper will look into different types of motivation and their influence on the learners as well as some techniques and strategies teachers/instructors can use to motivate their students. Keywords: Adult education, andragogy, motivation Introduction Knowing what motivation is and that there are different types of motivations is not enough. Instructors need to find out more, explore what they can do to further motivate their students and thus help them learn not only the language they teach but also some skills that will help the learners in real life situations. There are some common characteristics as well as strategies and techniques that every instructor can learn in order to make the language learning experience a successful one for both the learner and the instructor. Types of motivations: According to Gardner and Lambert (1972) there are two main types of motivation: integrative and instrumental motivation. Integrative motivation is the desire to become one with the target-language culture, while instrumental motivation reflects the desire to succeed in a field of study or at workplace. Although these are important distinctions, teachers rather look at motivation as intrinsic and extrinsic, the first one being the cognitive drive that pushes the learner to learn for his/her own sake, whereas the extrinsic motivation is derived from external incentives, for example if a learner completes a language course he/she will get a promotion. Intrinsically motivated learners believe in what they are doing and consider it worthwhile. Extrinsically motivated learners do not learn because they want to. They learn because they expect a reward, praise from their parents or a promotion at workplace. Brown (1987) make s a distinction between global, situational, and task motivation. While the global motivation reflects the overall attitude of the learner toward language learning, situational motivation focuses on the context in which the learner finds him/herself. Task motivation is the most focused on, analyzing how the learner approaches a specific task. Types of learners: There is a huge difference between pedagogy (the study of teaching children) and andragogy (the study of teaching adults). While pedagogy has to reflect on the learner‘s abilities and attention spans at a given age, andragogy focuses on learners who can greatly contribute through collaboration with the instructor as well as each other. Andragogy recognizes the maturity of an adult learner. Given the maturity level of the learners, the classes can be learner centered. Instructors can conduct a survey at the beginning of the given course to find out what the adult learners would like to learn (in this case the learners do not determine the overall course description, but rather the focus of the lessons in a given field of studies). Another benefit of adult learners is that they bring in past experiences, which can for example confirm some of the theoretical parts of the course. At the end of each course, the learners can evaluate the course and make suggestions as to where they would like to see improvements. The instructors can then redesign the course based on these evaluations. 96 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Being a Motivating Language Instructor: No matter which type of motivation, one is clear; the learners have a reason for taking a language course, and it is up to the instructor to help the student reach their goal. So how do we recognize motivated learners? A motivated learner is someone who is willing to take risks and appreciates challenges. He or she promotes a positive self-image and has specific goals that he/she wants to reach. A motivated learner is ambitious and not discouraged when he/she makes mistakes. But motivated learners are not a recipe for a successful language course, the language instructor needs to be motivated as well. Here are some common characteristics that can be learned for the purpose of becoming a motivating language instructor. 1. Offer expertise (both knowledge and preparation) Learners deserve to have knowledgeable and prepared instructors. An instructor does not need to have the knowledge of all things, but at the same time, it is wise to review some grammar points or the essay structure prior to teaching them. There are times when the instructor simply does not have the answer to a question the learner raises. There is no need to be ashamed; instead the instructor can use it to his/her advantage. Tell the student that you do not have the answer right at that moment, but that you will look it up and answer it next time you have class. You can then make a whole lesson about it if you feel that the rest of the learners would also benefit from knowing this. Instructors whose native language is not English should not feel uncomfortable if they do not know how to pronounce something. All they need to do is spend more time preparing for the class. Today, there are many online dictionaries that not only provide the definition, but also the pronunciation of a given word. An instructor‘s job is not only to be present in class, but also to prepare for it. Every now and then we all improvise, but it is unfair to the learners if the instructor constantly improvises. Just as the learners are dedicating their time and effort into the course they are taking, the instructors are expected to invest time in preparing the lessons. Adult learners are more likely to notice it if the instructor is unprepared. This will certainly cause them to be less motivated in class. NOTE: Too many ―ums‖ and ―ahs‖ may cause your adult learners to question your competence. 2. Have empathy Adult learners are most likely parents and have jobs. The instructors need to keep that in mind. Instead of assigning lots of homework, the instructor can design the class so that most of the work is done there and then. It is important to have rules, but at the same time, when it comes to adult learners, the instructors have to be more flexible with the schedule and the attendance. Afternoon and late evening courses are better than morning classes for those who are employed. Attendance should be taken seriously, but the instructors need to understand that every parent will spend time with a sick child rather than attend a class. The instructors can ask that the learners notify them if they will miss a class, so that the instructor can adjust the lesson or some of the activities (if necessary) to a smaller group of students. 3. Be enthusiastic If we show that we love what we do, people will notice and approach it with a positive attitude. Instructors need to be enthusiastic about their positions and transfer the positive attitude to their students. Grammar is dry, but with the right approach, the instructor can make it fun and thus more interesting. 4. Be clear Instructors should use the power of language and organization to make sure that every aspect of their course is clear. A very helpful tool is a syllabus. If it is clearly written, distributed at the very beginning of the course and followed by the instructor there will be less confusion. Additional Motivating Strategies: In addition to the motivation that the learner brings to the classroom, teachers can contribute through interesting lessons, as well as positive feedback. How do we make sure that we add to learner‘s motivation? There are several strategies and techniques that guaranty success and thus motivate students. 1. Friendly atmosphere Learners need to feel recognized and valued. Learning is much easier if the learners feel safe and comfortable. Sometimes it is not enough to praise correct answers only. Instructors need to pay close attention 97 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to learner‘s progress and acknowledge it. It is not always the matter of grading. Instructors can simply point out that the progress is noticeable by nodding when the learner raises his/her hand and thus acknowledging the learner. These seemingly small gestures help the learner build confidence and further develop his/her intrinsic motivation, as well as encourage him/her to participate more. NOTE: Some instructors tend to push their students. This approach my actually help in a given situation, but the downside of it is that the learners do not learn to be responsible, because every time they are in the classroom setting the instructor pushes them to produce language, for example. 2. Sense of accomplishment Another way to ensure motivation is through tests and competitions. Learners want a reward, and in the classroom the reward comes in form of a grade. So, testing and grading students will certainly be a motivating factor. Though taken individually, tests are used to compare the learners‘ abilities. Instead of focusing on tests only, instructors can also organize competitions through which the learners will have an opportunity to present their knowledge. If the individual learners do not feel comfortable being on their own in a competition, they can be paired up, or even put into small groups. If the competition is not graded, the instructors can come up with a small reward, such as movie theater tickets or a book for each member of the group that has won the competition. If the student who usually does not win or get a very high grade finds him/herself on the winning team, he/she will be intrinsically motivated to continue the good work, as they will feel the sense of accomplishment. 3. Connecting language to learner‘s interests and needs outside of class Each learner has interests outside of class. Instructors can ask the learners to share those and then focus the lessons on these topics. For example, if the learners play a particular sport, the instructor can create a lesson on the history of the given sport. Lots of times, the learners do not have the necessary vocabulary to describe things, so the instructor can ask that each learner prepares a short presentation in which he/she will present their favorite sport (how it‘s played, what the rules are, naming some teams and competitions, etc.). 4. Creating life situations in the classroom Adult learners usually take language courses to improve their skills for a specific purpose. A lawyer may have some new clients who speak another language; a businessman may be conducting business with foreigners and feels the need to speak their language. If, at the beginning of the course, the learners share the purpose of their language learning, the instructor can make connections to their needs. For example, one whole class can be dedicated to teaching learners how to make phone calls and leave a message. Adult learners appreciate the pragmatic aspects of a class, especially if they end up using the things they have learned in class in real life situations. Conclusion: It can be concluded that along with the intrinsic and the extrinsic motivation that the learner brings to a language course, the instructor can also greatly contribute by offering expertise, having empathy, being enthusiastic, and clear. There are also some additional strategies and techniques such as creating a friendly atmosphere, acknowledging the progress a learner has made, basing the lessons on the learners‘ interests outside of class, and or creating real life situations in the classroom to teach learners how to handle them in a foreign language, that can contribute to the learners‘ existing motivation to learn. Instructors should be aware of the fact that all these skills and characteristics can be easily learned. They need to keep an open mind and be willing to try the suggested strategies and techniques. 98 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, H.D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs NJ: PrenticeHall. Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation: Second Language Learning. Newbury House. Larson-Freeman, D., & Long, M.H. (1994). An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Longman. 99 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 18 Title A name given to the resource Adult Education: Using Motivating Strategies and Techniques Author Author Piric, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. Motivation is a key to success. It helps us understand why we do the things we do, or why we learn and thrive to further develop our abilities to do something. In language learning motivation plays a crucial role, because only the motivated students will succeed. Without motivation our performance is diminished. Learners who are not motivated tend to be distracted, bored, unfocused, and even frustrated. On the other hand, motivated learners are eager to find out more, learn new things, pay attention in class and conduct additional research at home in order to better understand a given topic. That is why many teachers/instructors consider motivation a crucial part of the instructional process. As teachers/instructors, we can certainly contribute to the motivation of our students. We can motivate learners through interesting classes, positive attitude as well as attractive exercises. This paper will look into different types of motivation and their influence on the learners as well as some techniques and strategies teachers/instructors can use to motivate their students Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d0e8b168c49cc12aa4d1305781245b7.pdf 15e6a8034e20e126680ac7fbe3ef62bc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Deja PiletiĤ Faculty of Philosophy, NikńiĤ University of Montenegro, Montenegro dejacet@t-com.me Abstract: This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Key words: pedagogical translation, translation, lexical errors, error analysis Ovaj rad nastoji da razvrsta, opińe i objasni najĦeńĤe leksiĦke greńke koje se srijeĤu u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika i predstavlja dio jednog sveobuhvatnijeg istraņivanja, koje ima za cilj analizu i klasifikaciju najuĦestalijih prevodnih greńaka karakteristiĦnih za razliĦite jeziĦke nivoe. Korpus na kome se navedeno istraņivanje sprovodi obuhvata prevode studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. U nastojanju da pribliņimo kontekst spomenutog istraņivanja, u uvodnom dijelu rada reĤi Ĥemo neńto o ńkolskom prevoħenju i o ciljevima koji se njegovom primjenom u nastavi ņele postiĤi. 1. Školsko prevoħenje i školski prevod Iako je u okvirima razliĦitih lingvistiĦkih teorija i glotodidaktiĦkih metoda Ħesto dovoħen u pitanje, dugotrajan i kompleksan odnos izmeħu prevoħenja i nastave stranih jezika nikad nije u potpunosti prekinut, a gledano iz perspektive savremenih nauĦnih saznanja Ħini se da je ovaj odnos prirodan, te da do njegovog prekida ne moņe i ne treba ni da doħe. ĥak i kada je, u jeku popularnosti audiovizuelnog metoda i prilikom raħanja komunikativnog pristupa, prevoħenje u svakom svom obliku bilo odbacivano iz nastave stranih jezika, ono nikad nije u potpunosti napustilo nastavni proces, posebno kada je u pitanju izuĦavanje jezika na univerzitetskom nivou. Danas je sve veĤi broj autora, koji nastoje da uklone talog nevjerice i nepovjerenja u odnosu na prevoħenje u didaktici stranih jezika za Ħije je nastajanje odgovorna upravo njegova neumjerena i neadekvatna upotreba u okvirima i u maniru gramatiĦko-prevodnog metoda. ZasnivajuĤi svoje stavove i argumente na rezultatima modernih istraņivanja na polju nauke o prevoħenju, kognitivne lingvistike i metodike nastave, ovi autori58 pozivaju na preispitivanje i ponovno vrednovanje znaĦaja, uloge i mjesta prevoħenja u savremenoj glotodidaktici. Oni na razliĦite naĦine nastoje da dokaņu da, ukoliko se primjenjuje na pravi naĦin, s pravim ciljem i u pravoj mjeri, prevoħenje moņe da bude od velike koristi i da pruņi odliĦne rezultate u uĦenju i nastavi stranih jezika. PojaĦano interesovanje za prevoħenje, naroĦito u posljednje tri decenije, povezano je, meħutim, ne samo sa njegovom didaktiĦkom ulogom veĤ i sa njegovom didaktikom. Naime, s poveĤanjem svijesti o znaĦaju prevoħenja, ubrzano se razvija nauka o prevoħenju, a sama djelatnost uzdignuta je na akademski nivo. Profesionalnim prevodiocem postaje se, dakle, sticanjem univerzitetske diplome mahom specijalistiĦkih i postdiplomskih studija, a prevoħenje se doņivljava kao vjeńtina za koju nije dovoljan samo prirodni talenat, veĤ koja se stiĦe kombinovanjem teorijskih znanja i prakse. Dakle, u kontekstu prevoħenja i nastave moņemo govoriti o prevoħenju kao „sredstvu― i prevoħenju kao „cilju―, o ńkolskom (gloto-didaktičkom) odnosno profesionalnom (stručno-didaktičkom) prevoħenju, tj. o 58 Calvi (2003), Gonzales Davies (2004), Sewell (2004), Carreres (2006), Di Sabato (2007), Landone (2008), House (2009), itd. 350 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo prevoħenju u funkciji jeziĦke vjeņbe, provjere znanja i objańnjenja pojedinih jeziĦkih sadrņaja59 na jednoj i prevodilaĦkoj kompetenciji kao svrsi i glavnom cilju upotrebe prevoħenja u nastavnom procesu na drugoj strani. U istom kontekstu pravi se razlika izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog prevoda. Naime, preneseno na univerzitetski nivo sticanja znanja iz jezika odnosno iz prevoħenja, studentski prevod koji nastaje kao proizvod prevoħenja na osnovnim univerzitetskim studijama bliņi je ńkolskom, dok je studenstki prevod na specijalistiĦkim ili master studijama prevoħenja bliņi profesionalnom, iako se sa njim joń uvijek ne moņe poistovjetiti. Pojedini autori insinsistiraju na jasnoj distinkciji izmeħu gloto-didaktiĦkog i struĦno-didaktiĦkog prevoħenja. Ne ņeleĤi da negiramo razliku, koja nesumnjivo postoji, mi dijelimo mińljenje onih koji dovode u pitanje potrebu i uopńte moguĤnost povlaĦenja ońtre granice izmeħu njih 60. Naime, upotrebom ńkolskog prevoħenja, koje svakako prethodi profesionalnom, kroz praktiĦan rad61, zajedno sa jeziĦkim, studenti se po prirodi stvari istovremeno upuĤuju u prevodilaĦki proces i neizbjeņno upoznaju neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih vjeńtina. To, po nańem mińljenju, svakako treba posmatrati kao dodatnu korist. Na ovakvom stavu zasnovani su i ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja u okviru osnovnih studija na Katedri za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. 2. Ciljevi školskog prevoħenja sa stranog na maternji jezik Dva su osnovna cilja koja se ņele postiĤi ovom vrstom prevoħenja: - Usvajanje, upotreba, utvrħivanje i prońirivanje znanja koja se tiĦu italijanskog jezika i kulture; - Usmjeravanje studenata ka sticanju sposobnosti reprodukovanja ciljnog teksta funkcionalno ekvivalentnog sa izvornim. Iako je drugi od navedena dva cilja vezan prije svega za pofesionalno prevoħenje i podrazumijeva vladanje vińim stupnjevima jeziĦke kompetencije, smatramo da ga nije nemoguĤe dostiĤi ni na nivou o kojem mi ovdje govorimo. Treba imati u vidu, naime, da je ovdje rijeĦ o prevoħenju autorskih tekstova 62 (kraĤi odlomci iz savrmenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka) Ħiji je izbor uslovljen predviħenim nivoom jeziĦke kompetencije studenata druge, odnosno treĤe godine osnovnih studija Italijanistike. Tome ide u prilog i Ħinjenica da se prevodi na maternji jezik, pa se pretpostavlja sposobnost studenta-prevodioca i da intuitivno bira elemente iz jeziĦkog repertoara sopstvenog jezika. Gore navedeni ciljevi, dakle, podrazumijevaju:  razvoj jeziĦkog znanja na svim nivoima;  razvoj kompetencije razumijevanja pisanog teksta;  usavrńavanje kompetencija vezanih za maternji jezik;  upuĤivanje studenata ka nekim od osnovnih nivoa prevodilaĦke kompetencije: -upoznavanje sa prvim koracima u pocesu povezivanja izvornog i ciljnog teksta; -razvijanje kreativnosti, upornosti, samokritike, samouvjerenosti; razvijanje autonomije; -razvijanje sposobnosti da se prepoznaju pojedini prevodilaĦki problemi i sposobnosti njihovog prevazilaņenja; -upoznavanje studenata sa razliĦitim savremenim prevodilaĦkim pomagalima i sa njihovom upotrebom. Treba svakako napomenuti da su ciljevi ovdje predstavljeni uopńteno, te da se u zavisnosti od nivoa studija (II ili III godina) prednost daje jednima u odnosu na druge. 59 Eksplikativno prevoħenje. U tom smislu slaņemo se sa Carreresovom:―Modern language departments cannot and should not try to double up as translator training institutions. However, I believe that bringing classroom work closer to the professional world can only be of benefit to our students. In my view, the divide between the teaching of translation as a language learning tool and as a professional activity has been overemphasized to the point of preventing useful dialogue and exchange‖. (Carreres 2006:12) 61 Nagalńavamo kroz praktičan rad iz razloga ńto na osnovnim studijama nijesu predviħeni predmeti koji se tiĦu opńte teorije prevoħenja, prevodilaĦkih tehnika, analize teksta i sl, a koji se podrazumijevaju na kursevima za obuĦavanje profesionalnih prevodilaca. 62 Suprotno od gramatiĦko-prevodnog matoda koji podrazumijeva prevoħenje vjeńtaĦkih, dekontekstualizovanih reĦenica, ili tekstova nastalih u namjeri da se izvjeņba odreħeno gramatiĦko pravilo. 60 351 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Evaluacija školskog prevoda Evaluacija tj. provjera kvaliteta prevoda kljuĦni je pojam koji se tiĦe kako ńkolskog tako i profesionalnog prevoħenja. BuduĤi da ove dvije vrste prevoħenja u osnovi imaju razliĦite ciljeve, razliĦitu publiku i razliĦite „ocjenjivaĦe‖, ocjena kvaliteta prevoda kao njihovih ishoda zasniva se na razliĦitim kriterijumima i nema istu svrhu. Ranije u tekstu smo spomenuli da je jedna od funkcija pedagońkog prevoħenja provjera znanja i napretka kod studenata u dostizanju ciljeva odreħenih nastavnim planom. Ova provjera ne podrazumijeva uvijek dodjelu ocjena i kredita, ona se sprovodi tokom cijele ńkolske godine kako bi usmjerila dalji rad kako studenata, tako i profesora. U namjeri da, izmeħu ostalog, utvrdimo i koje su to najvece prepreke na putu ka postizanju navedenih ciljeva, pokrenuli smo nańe istraņivanje na korpusu studentskih prevoda. Ovom prilikom, baviĤemo se, kao ńto smo na samom poĦetku rekli, najĦeńĤim leksiĦkim greńkama i njihovim uzrocima. 4. Korpus studentskih prevoda Korpus istraņivanja Ħine studentski prevodi raħeni na kolokvijumima, pismenim vjeņbama, zavrńnim ispitima i pismenim domaĤim i ńkolskim zadacima, u toku ńkolske 2008/2009. i 2010/2011. godine. RijeĦ je o prevodima odlomaka savremenih knjiņevnih djela i novinskih Ħlanaka, prilagoħenih planiranom i pretpostavljenom nivou jeziĦke i, uslovno reĦeno, prevodilaĦke kompetencije, studenata druge i treĤe godine. Od prevodilaĦkih pomagala na ispitima i kolokvijuma studenti se koriste jednojeziĦkim rjeĦnicima, prilikom rada na Ħasu raspolaņu i pristupom internetu. 5. Binarne i ne-binarne greške U teņnji da napravi razliku izmeħu prevodilaĦkih i jeziĦkih greńaka u studentskim prevodima, Antony Pym (1992:280) nudi jednu opńtu podjelu na „binarne― (binary) i „ne-binarne― greńke (non-binary errors). Ova podjela zasnovana je na autorovoj opńtoj definiciji prevodilaĦke kompetencije, koja po njemu predstavlja jednistvo sljedeĤe dvije vjeńtine: -vjeńtine stvaranja niza ciljnih tekstova - target texts (TT1, TT2...TTn) kao ekvivalenata za jedan izvorni tekst – source text (ST) i -vjeńtine izdvajanja samo jednog iz spomenutog niza ciljnih telstova, u odnosu na posebnu namjenu i ciljnu publiku izvornog teksta. Osnovna razlika izmeħu ove dvije vrste greńaka je sljedeĤa: „binarne― greńke uzrokovane su izborom pogreńnog odgovora, a „ne-binarne― ne predstavljaju pogreńan odgovor, veĤ samo jedan od moguĤih, ali ne i najprihvatljiviji. A binary error opposes a wrong answer to the right answer; non-binarism requires that the TT actually selected be opposed to at least one further TT1 which could also have been selected, and then to possible wrong answers. For binarism, there is only right and wrong, for non-binarism, there are at least two right answers and then the wrong ones. (Pym 1992: 282) 5.1. Binarne greške LeksiĦke greńke koje Ĥemo analizirati na korpusu studentskih prevoda, prema ovoj podjeli, spadaju najveĤim dijelom u „binarne― greńke, tj. greńke uzrokovane pogreńnim prevodom odreħene rijeĦi ili izraza u datom kontekstu. Pod pogreńnim prevodom u ovom sluĦaju podrazumijevamo potpunu promjenu znaĦenja rijeĦi. NajrazliĦitije uzroke ove vrste greńaka mogli bismo svesti na pet opńtih: -nedovoljno vladanje kompetencijom Ħitanja tj. razumijevanja teksta63; -praznine u jeziĦkom znanju na razliĦitim nivoima (sintaktiĦkom, leksiĦkom, morfolońkom); -stvaranje laņnih parova/laņnih prijatelja/kalkova -nedovoljno razvijene neke od osnovih prevodilaĦkih potkompetencija (prije svega vjeńtine pravilne upotrebe prevodilaĦkih pomagala) i osobina poput istrajnosti i preciznosti; -praznine u enciklopedijskom znanju (znanje iz opńte kulture), neobavijeńtenost. 5.2. Ne-binarne greške 63 Evropski jeziĦki portfolio (Little, Perclova 2003: 116, 120) za nivoe jeziĦke kompetencije B2 i C1, Ħije je dostizanje predviħeno u toku II i III godine osnovnih studija, kada je u pitanju vjeńtina Ħitanja, podrazumijeva, izmeħu ostalih i sljedeĤe sposobnosti: „Mogu da razumijem Ħlanke i izvjeńtaje o aktuelnim temama u kojima se izraņavaju posebni stavovi i brane odreħene pozicije. Mogu da razumijem specijalizovane Ħlanke izvan mog domena, pod uslovom da mogu s vremena na vrijeme da se posluņim rjeĦnikom― odnosno: „Sa lakoĤom mogu da Ħitam savremene knjiņevne tekstove. Mogu da prepoznam druńtveni, politiĦki ili istorijski kontekst nekog knjiņevnog djela. Mogu da se udaljim od fabule u nekom literarnom teksu i prepoznam poruke, ideje i implicitne odnose. Mogu da razumijem kompleksne tekstove izvjesne duņine―. 352 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Na istom korpusu uoĦili smo i „ne-binarne― greńke tj. one koje su, uslovno reĦeno, vińe prevodilaĦke nego jeziĦke prirode. Za nańu analizu one su takoħe bitne, buduĤi da prevoħenje na univerzitetskim studijama jezika, kao ńto smo ranije napomenuli, podrazumijeva i upuĤivanje studenata u proces prevoħenja i u neke od osnovnih prevodilaĦkih tehnika. U ovu vrstu greńaka moņemo svrstati prevode koji naruńavaju stil ciljnog teksta, ili njegovu pragmatiĦku funkciju, ali ne i njegov smisao. ĥesta pojava u studentskim prevodima jeste i izostavljanje pojedinih rijeĦi i suprotno, dodavanje vińe varijanti prevoda jedne iste rijeĦi. Uzroke nastanka ovih greńaka pronalazimo u nedostatku upornosti, istrajnosti, kreativnosti i samouvjerenosti, osobina koje podrazumijeva prevodilaĦka kompetencija. 6. Omaške Nepreciznost, brzopletost, dekoncentrisanost stoje u osnovi omańki. Ove izazivaju pogreńan prevod, koji polazeĤi sa nivoa rijeĦi nerijetko uzrokuje niz greńaka na razliĦitim jeziĦkim nivoima. Na ovaj naĦin kao proizvod prevodilaĦkog procesa dobijamo tekst sa promijenjenim smislom, ili joń ĦeńĤe, tekst lińen smisla. 7. Klasifikacija leksiĦkih grešaka prema uzroku nastanka U prethodnom poglavlju nastojali smo da pobrojimo opńte uzroke nastanka jeziĦkih i prevodilaĦkih greńaka i omańki na nivou leksike. Sada Ĥemo nastojati da ih klasifikujemo nezavisno od njihove prirode i teņine. U ovu klasifikaciju Ĥemo uvrstiti i omańke, s obzirom da imaju ozbiljne posljedice po smisao ciljnog teksta. Sve Ĥemo potkrijepiti primjerima pronaħenim u okviru istraņivaĦkog korpusa. LeksiĦke greńke o kojima je rijeĦ karakterińu oba prethodno spomenuta nivoa uĦenja jezika. NeĤemo, meħutim, praviti poreħenja u cilju utvrħivanja koje su od njih prisutnije na niņem, odnosno na vińem nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. Neophodno je takoħe napomenuti da je u priliĦno velikom broju sluĦajeva leksiĦka greńka uzrokovana spregom vińe razliĦitih uzroka, kao i to da jedna greńka Ħesto za sobom vuĦe niz drugih. To Ĥe se uostalom vidjeti i u samim primjerima. 7.1. Stvaranje laţnih parova Kod Ivira (1984: 106) nailazimo na sljedeĤu definiciju: „Laņni parovi su parovi jeziĦnih (ne samo leksiĦkih) jedinica u dva razna jezika koje imaju neńto zajedniĦkog, ali nisu u svemu jednake―. Isti autor dalje navodi: „DjelimiĦna sliĦnost jeziĦkih jedinica na kojoj prevodilac gradi svoje shvaĤanje o njihovoj jednakosti moņe biti u sliĦnosti oblika [...], zatim u zajedniĦkom metajeziĦkom nazivu koji obuhvaĤa obje jedinice [...], te napokon u nekim, ali ne svim aspektima semantiĦkog sadrņaja [...]―. Laņni parovi su najizrazitiji upravo na nivou leksike. Ivir (1984: 108-122) navodi sljedeĤe vrste laņnih parova koje odlikuje isti ili sliĦan oblik: 1. Laņni parovi s jednakim znaĦenjima 2. Laņni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima 3. Laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju 4. Izmińljeni parovi 7.1.1. Laţni parovi sa istim znaĦenjem To su parovi rijeĦi dva razliĦita jezika koje imaju sliĦan oblik i isto znaĦenje, ńto, meħutim, ne znaĦi da ih odlikuje ista upotrebna vrijednost i kolokacijski potencijal tj. moguĤnost kombinovanja sa drugim rijeĦima i stvaranje manje ili vińe Ħvrstih leksiĦkih sklopova. (Ivir:108). laņni par izraz karakteristiĦan za netaĦan prevod predloņeno rjeńenje lansirati alarm diĤi uzbunu italijanski novinski jezik lanciare – lansirati allarme - alarm lanciare l'allarme (II i III god.) LeksiĦki parovi sa istim/sliĦnim oblikom i istim znaĦenjem Ħesto pripadaju tzv. internacionalizmima – rijeĦima koje su Ħesto oba jezika preuzela iz nekog treĤeg. Ukoliko se ne radi o struĦnim tekstovima, stilskom nivou ciljnog teksta najĦeńĤe odgovara domaĤi termin (pod pretpostavkom da postoji). Evo nekoliko primjera takvih parova koje nalazimo na obraħenom korpusu: 353 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo internacionalizmi primjer moguĤa prevodna rjeńenja internazionale: ...l'agenzia internazionale per l'energia atomica... ...internacionalna (bolje: meĎunarodna) agencija za atomsku energiju...(III god) contaminare: ...il tratto immediatamente antistante ...pojas neposredno preko kontaminirati la centrale di Fukushima [...] zagaditi è fortemente contaminato. puta centrale u Fukuńimi [...] jako je internacionalni meħunarodni kontaminiran (bolje: zagaĎen). (III god.) SliĦno je i sa primjerom: adolescenza - adolescencija (pubertet), immaginazione-imaginacija (mašta) i sl. 7.1.2. Laţni parovi sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjima To su parovi koji imaju sliĦan oblik, ali im se znaĦenja ne preklapaju. (Ivir: 109) laņni par reĦenica netaĦan prevod Se accetti oltre Stipendio- stipendija ad avere un aumento notevole stipendio... di Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu stipendiju... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Ako prihvatiń, osim ńto Ĥeń imati znaĦajno veĤu platu... SliĦno je i sa pogreńnim prevodnim sparivanjima poput: frase-fraza, evidenziare-evidentirati i sl. na koje smo naińli prilikom analize nańeg korpusa. Ova vrsta greńaka ne nastaje, meħutim samo usljed homonimije/homofonije meħu rijeĦima maternjeg i stranog jezika koji se uĦi, veĤ moņe nastati i usljed negativne interferencije iz nekog drugog stranog jezika kojim studenti (djelimiĦno ili u potpunosti) vladaju: caldo-cold (engl.), parente- parent (engl.), matto- mattar (španski) itd. laņni par reĦenica Matto - lud Il re che andava matto per quella figliuola... Mattar - ubiti 7.1.3. netaĦan prevod Kralj, koji bi ubio zbog te djevojĦice... (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Kralj, koji je bio lud za tom djevojĦicom... Laţni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem u znaĦenju Kako Ivir (111) navodi, laņni parovi sa djelimiĦnim poklapanjem znaĦenja rijetko se spominju kao laņni parovi, ali su ipak oni potencijalno daleko opasniji kao izvor prevodnih greńaka nego pravi laņni parovi. Ovu Ħinjenicu autor objańnjava psiholońkim razlozima koji su, kada je u pitanju pogreńno poistovjeĤivanje leksiĦkih 354 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo jedinica iz dva jezika znatno jaĦi nego u sluĦaju laņnih parova sa sasvim razliĦitim znaĦenjem, buduĤi da, kako on kaņe, ovdje djeluje i pritisak sliĦnog oblika i zajedniĦkog dijela znaĦenja. predloņeno rjeńenje laņni par primjer iz prevoda netaĦan prevod studio-studio A lanciare l'allarme è Na uzbunu poziva Na uzbunu poziva jedan studio uno studio di Nielsen Media. jedno istraţivanje/jedna studija Nielsen Media. (II god.) Insegno da anni Godinama predajem Godinama predajem u in un istituto tecnico u jednom jednoj tehničkoj školi istituto-institut kompanije „Nielsen Media― tehničkom institutu (III god.) [...] alla fine dell'anno ...ako neki student ...ako neki učenik nije dobro prońao nije dobro prońao... se uno studente iz nekog predmeta – iz nekog predmeta – non va bene in una primjera radi iz primjera radi iz materia - per esempio in matematica- supera matematike – prelazi u matematike – prelazi u studente- student l'anno con un «debito». naredni razred sa jednim naredni razred sa jednim „dugovanjem― „dugovanjem― .(II god.) Ovaj sluĦaj ilustruju i parovi poput: tecnico-tehničar, impianto-implant i sl. 7.1.4. Izmišljeni laţni parovi O ovoj vrsti laņnih parova Ivir (115) kaņe sljedeĤe: Prevodioci su ponekad spremni, pogotovu kada prevode na strani jezik kojim ne vladaju dosta dobro stvoriti leksiĦki par u stranom jeziku po uzoru na rijeĦ svojega maternjeg jezika, u punom uvjerenju (bez provjeravanja!) da ta rijeĦ doista postoji u tom stranom jeziku. U nekim sluĦajevima to znaĦi stvaranje cijele rijeĦi, a u drugima samo pogreńno spajanje pojedinih djelova rijeĦi – obiĦno sufiksa i prefiksa s osnovom. Ova pojava se, meħutim, moņe sresti i u prevodima na maternji jezik. data rijeĦ nepostojeĤi oblik prevod collaboratore kolaborator (II god.) saradnik irriverente iriverentan (III god.) drzak; neuĦtiv carbone karbon (III god.) ugalj 355 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Za graħenje nepostojeĤih rijeĦi u prva dva od navedenih primjera najvjerovatnije je odgovorna analogija nańeg imeniĦkog sufiksa -ator i pridjevskog sufiksa –entan sa italijasnkim sufiksima –tore i -ente koji imaju zajedniĦko porijeklo u latinskom jeziku. Naime, sufiks–ator, kao i njegov italijanski „roħak― – tore, koriste se za izvoħenje imenica sa znaĦenjem vrńioca radnje. Tako je, vjerovatno pod uticajem pravih parova poput: comunicatore-komunikator, coordinatore-koordinator i sl. Nastao izmińljeni par: collaboratore-kolaborator. SliĦno je i sa pridjevom irriverentan. Student ni ne dovodi u pitanje postojanje ovog pridjeva u svom maternjem jeziku. On mu naprosto „dobro zvuĦi― buduĤi da sliĦni parovi veĤ postoje (irrilevante - irelevantan, latente latentan, trasparente-transparentan i sl.) 7.2. Greške usljed pogrešnog izbora znaĦenja rijeĦi u kontekstu reĦenica ...i tecnici giapponesi hanno ora cambiato strategia e smesso di irrorare i noccioli con acqua di mare, per il timore che il sale corroda gli impianti. pogreńan prevod ...japanski tehničari su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase lješnike morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so nagristi biljke64 (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...japanski stručnjaci su sada promijenili strategiju i prestali da kvase jezgra [nuklearnih postrojenja] morskom vodom iz straha da Ĥe so izazvati koroziju postrojenja. Osim ńto ukazuju na neadekvatnu upotrebu rjeĦnika, ove greńke su pokazatelj nemara i povrńnosti kod studenata, koji prevode izvorni tekst preskaĦuĤi i prvu i posljednju fazu prevodilaĦkog procesa tj. Ħitanje sa razumijevanjem, odnosno provjeru gotovog prevoda. To potvrħuje Ħinjenica da ovakve prevode vrlo Ħesto karakterińe odsustvo ikakvog smisla. Postavlja se pitanje kako prevaziĤi ovu vrstu greńaka. BuduĤi da se rad studenata kod kuĤe ne moņe nadgledati, preostaje vrijeme provedeno na Ħasu tokom kojeg se oni moraju „natjerati― da se u velikoj mjeri posvete analizi samog teksta i utvrħivanju problema, prije nego ńto poĦnu da prevode. 7.3. Greške uzrokovane zamjenom hiperonima i hiponima KarakteristiĦan primjer za ilustraciju ove vrste greńaka jeste italijanska imenica uomo, koja oznaĦava ljudsku vrstu (čovjek), ali i njenog pripadnika muńkog pola (muškarac). SliĦno je i sa italijanskom imenicom: bestia koja oznaĦava ņivotinjsku vrstu uopńte, a moņe da ima i uņe znaĦenje: stoka, dok se u sintagmi, Ħiji drugi element biva Ħesto izostavljen: bestia (feroce), prevodi nańom imenicom: zvijer. Navedena znaĦenja u studentskim prevodima Ħesto bivaju zamijenjena. reĦenica ...E non soltanto gli uomini si disinteressano di questo spettacolo ma anche le bestie. pogreńan prevod ...Ne samo da se za ovaj dogaħaj ne interesuju muškarci veĤ ni zvijeri. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...ne samo da se ljudi ne iteresuju za ovaj dogaħaj, veĤ ni ţivotinje. ...Tu abbracciatelo bene, baciagli l'orecchio che gli uomini perdono la testa quando gli baci l'orecchio... ...Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer ljudi gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. (III god.) Ti ga snaņno zagrli, poljubi ga u uho, jer muškarci gube glavu kad im ljubiń uho. 7.4. Greške uzrokovane nepoznavanjem sintaktiĦkih i tvorbenih svojstava rijeĦi reĦenica In quel tempo ero innamorato di mia di moglie: rotonda, 64 pogreńan prevod Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu: okruglastu, blijedu, predloņeno rjeńenje Tada sam bio zaljubljen u svoju ņenu onako privlačnu bijele puti, rumenu i s oblinama O ovoj vrsti greńaka vidi u poglavlju 7.6. 356 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bianca e rosa, appetitosa. ...per assistere alla levata del sole rumenu, halapljivu/dobrog apetita (II god.) ...da bismo pomogli izlasku sunca (II god.) ...da bismo prisustvovali izlasku sunca U prvom primjeru voljena supruga umjesto epiteta: privlačna, poţeljna dobija epitet halapljiva, zato ńto u osnovi izvedenog pridjeva student prepoznaje imenicu appetito (apetit), ne obraĤajuĤi paņnju na sufiks -oso koji joj donosi novo, pridjevsko, znaĦenje. Ova greńka povlaĦi za sobom i greńku u odabiru prevoda za pridjev rotonda. Naime, ako je veĤ „dobrog apetita―, onda je dama o kojoj se govori prirodno i okruglasta, buckasta, debeljuškasta ili elegantno popunjena (II godina). Drugi primjer ilustruje nerazlikovanje prelaznih i neprelaznih oblika pojedinih glagola, pa samim tim i njihovih znaĦenja. 7.5. Greške uzrokovane prevoħenjem metodom rijeĦ za rijeĦ Doslovni prevodi najĦeńĤi su uzrok greńaka na frazeolońkom nivou i na nivou stila, a vrlo Ħesto naruńavaju i smisao prevoda. reĦenica Ho messo l'occhio allo spioncino... ...aveva alzato un po' troppo il gomito. Per questo aveva dormito sodo netaĦan prevod Stavila sam oko na ńpijunku...(III god.) ...malo je previńe podigao lakat, pa je zato tvrdo spavao. (II god.) predloņeno rjeńenje Pogledala sam kroz ńpijunku... ...malo je više popio, pa je zbog toga čvrsto spavao. 7.6. LeksiĦke greške uzrokovane „unutarjeziĦkim― formalnim sliĦnostima izmeħu pojedinih rijeĦi Ovakve greńke najvjerovatnije nastaju usljed sliĦnosti po zvuku izmeħu rijeĦi Ħije je znaĦenje student ranije usvojio i neke druge rijeĦi iz nje izvedene ili jednostavno samo po obliku sa njom sliĦne, ali potpuno drugaĦijeg znaĦenja. reĦenica ...uno scrittore che ritiene gli uomini discendenti dagli spiriti netaĦan prevod ... pisac koji zadrţava/drţi ljude... (III god.) predloņeno rjeńenje ...pisac koji smatra da su ljudi potekli od duhova... uzrok greńke - sliĦnost: ritenere – rattenere/detenere U analiziranom korpusu naińli smo na veliki broj sliĦnih primjera: campus-campo, zotico-esotico, sentiero-sentimento, complesso-complicazione, impianto-pianta itd. 7.7. Greške do kojih dolazi uslijed nepaţljivog Ħitanja teksta Iako spadaju u omańke, ovakve nepaņnje Ħesto potpuno obesmisle prevod utiĦuĤi dalje na krajnji ishod prevoħenja. reĦenica netaĦan prevod taĦan prevod uzrok greńke: La regina era morta di parto Kraljica djelimično god.) Kraljica je umrla na poroĎaju parto-parte je bila mrtva (II Po istom principu pramenovi kose Tine Tarner u jednom prevodu postaju „...sjajni i crni kao ugljenik― (lucidi e neri come carbone/ carbonio) (III god.). 7.8. Greške uzrokovane pogrešnim odabirom registra u ciljnom tekstu Ova vrsta greńke moņe da se javi na raznim nivoima u tekstu. Mijeńanje registara nije nińta manja greńka od pogreńnog odabira registra na nivou teksta kao cjeline. U ovom sluĦaju govorimo o leksiĦkim greńkama Ħiji uzrok leņi u pogreńnoj registarskoj obojenosti koja nije u skladu sa pragmatiĦkom funkcijom izvornog niti ciljnog teksta. 357 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo reĦenica C'era una volta un Re che aveva una bimba. La regina era morta di parto, e il Re aveva preso una balia che gli allattasse la piccina… A Vittorio Emanuele le donne belle, alte [...] erano sempre piaciute. Se a volte ―s‘infervorava‖ di piccole e brutte... netaĦan prevod Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kraljica bjeńe umrla na poroħaju, pa je kralj morao da unajmi bebisiterku kako bi mu čuvala dijete― (II god.) Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „primao― na male i ruņne... predloņeno rjeńenje Bio jednom jedan kralj koji je imao jednu kĤerku. Kako je kraljica umrla na poroħaju, kralj je morao da uzme dojilju kako bi dojila djevojĦicu. Viktoru Emanuelu su se oduvijek sviħale lijepe, visoke ņene. Ako bi se ponekad „zagrijao― za neku sitnu i ruņnu... U prvom primjeru imenica bebisiterka, iako se u rjeĦniku nalazi pobrojana meħu sinonimima italijanske imenice balia, suvińe je moderna da bi za nju mogla predstavljati dobro prevodno rjeńenje u bajci koja veĤ prvom reĦenicom smijeńta radnju u davna vremena. Osim imenicom bebisiterka, balia je prevoħena i kao: ţena, sluškinja, sluţavka, hraniteljka, dadilja, pa Ħak i babica, a ni u jednom od studentskih radova nije se nańla rijeĦ dojilja, ńto je joń jedan od dokaza da studenti veoma Ħesto ne vode raĦuna o ńirem kontekstu i da ne sagledavaju tekst u cjelini. Na konkretnom primjeru je oĦigledno kako jedna greńka za sobom povlaĦi i niz drugih. Izbor da se balia prevede kao dadilja, ţena, sluţavka, bebisiterka uticao je i na pogreńan prevod glagola allattasse (dojiti), koji je u ovim sluĦajevima preveden kao čuvati/brinuti se o/podizati/odgajati. Student koji se odluĦio da balia prevede kao babica ostatak teksta prilagodio je „na svoju ruku― tom odabiru: „...a kralj je doveo babicu koja je porodila djevojčicu―. 7.9. Greške uzrokovane prazninama u enciklopedijskom znanju Znanje iz opńte kulture i obavijeńtenost igraju vaņnu ulogu u razumijevanju izvornog teksta, pa samim tim i u prevodilaĦkom procesu. Praznine u tom tzv. enciklopedijskom znanju mogu da uzrokuju greńke na razliĦitim nivoima teksta. BuduĤi da je jezik jednog naroda nerazluĦiv od njegove kulture u najńirem smislu te rijeĦi, uĦeĤi jedan jezik, uĦimo i o naĦinu ņivota i pogledu na svijet naroda koji se tim jezikom sluņi. U tom pogledu prevoħenje nam pomaņe i u podizanju svijesti ne samo o jeziĦkim veĤ i o kulturnim sliĦnostima i razlikama izmeħu dva razliĦita naroda. Kao primjer za ovu vrstu greńke, posluņiĤe nam prevod jednog segmenta teksta koji govori o amajlijama koje Italijani najĦeńĤe koriste protiv malera. Tu, naime, cornetti rossi (Ħuveni crveni roščići) postaju crvene kifle, crveni konac, crvene potkovice, bijeli luk. U prvom sluĦaju nepoznavanje tog karakteristiĦnog simbola, vezanog posebno za kulturu juņnog dijela Italije, uticalo je na to da se imenica cornetto ne prepozna kao deminutiv imenice corno-rog, veĤ se, bez razmińljanja, uzima u svom drugom znaĦenju – kroasan, kifla. Ostale varijante prevoda ukazuju na negativnu interferenciju kulture ciljnog jezika. Naime, crveni konac, potkovica, pa i bijeli luk jesu znaĦenjski ekvivalenti crvenih roščića u nańoj kulturi, ali im nikako nije mjesto u tekstu Ħija je osnovna namjera da nam pruņi informacije koje vezano za fenomen sujevjera karakterińu upravo Italijane. Ispravan prevod dobijen je samo u sedam od ukupno petnaest ispitnih tekstova. 8. ZakljuĦak Cilj ovog rada bio je da se prikaņu leksiĦke greńke koje su uoĦene na korpusu prevoda studenata II i III godine osnovnih studija na Odsjeku za italijanski jezik i knjiņevnost Filozofskog fakulteta Univerziteta Crne Gore. Ovdje nijesmo govorili o tome koje su od navedenih greńaka karakteristiĦnije za niņi, a koje za vińi stepen uĦenja italijanskog jezika na spomenutom univerzitetskom nivou. To ostavljamo za neku drugu priliku. StatistiĦki obraħeni i uporeħeni rezultati, zajedno sa rezultatima analize greńaka na ostalim jeziĦkim nivoima istog korpusa, pomoĤi Ĥe nam da utvrdimo kako teĦe proces usvajanja planom predviħenih jeziĦkih znanja, i u kojoj mjeri su ostvareni glavni ciljevi vjeņbi prevoħenja. Na taj naĦin dobiĤemo smjernice koje Ĥe nas uputiti u poboljńanje pojedinih segmenata nastavnog procesa. Ono ńto je oĦigledno jeste da studentima treba bolja „obuka― u korińĤenju jednojeziĦnog rjeĦnika i interneta prilikom prevoħenja. U tom smislu, treba insistirati na njihovom korińĤenju na samim vjeņbama. Koliko god to vremena od Ħasa oduzimalo, profesor, kao koordinator procesa prevoħenja, ne bi trebalo da daje rjeńenja prevodilaĦkih problema, veĤ da natjera studente da sami do njih doħu, eventualno uz pomoĤ njegovih smjernica. 358 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Doprinos u savladavanju uzroka najfrekventnijih greńaka mogao bi da pruņi i potencijalni udņbenik za prevoħenje65 koji bi sadrņao dodatak sa malim rjeĦnikom laņnih parova i sa napomenama o kontrastivnim razlikama izmeħu dva jezika koje su se u rezultatima istraņivanja pojavile meħu ĦeńĤim uzroĦnicima greńaka na razliĦitim nivoima. Joń jedno veoma vaņno pitanje koje se nameĤe i o kome treba povesti raĦuna jeste usklaħenost teorijskih predmeta i vjeņbi iz jezika, buduĤi da sam Ħin prevoħenja predstavlja spregu svih steĦenih jeziĦkih i vanjeziĦkih znanja. References Calvi, M. V.(2003). La traduzione nell‘insegnamento delle lingue e nello studio dei linguaggi specialistici. http://www.ledonline.it/ledonline/tradurrespagnolo/tradurrespagnolo_02_calvi.pdf Carreres, A. (2006). Strange bedfellows: Translation and Language teaching. The teaching of translation into L2 in modern languages degrees; uses and limitations. http://www.cttic.org/ACTI/ papers/Carreres.pdf Di Sabato, B.(2007). La traduzione e l'apprendimento/insegnamento delle lingue. http://www.glottodidattica.net/Articoli/articolo1_04.pdf House, J.(2009). Translation, Oxford University Press Ivir, V. (1984). Teorija i tehnika prevoĎenja. Novi Sad: Centar «KarlovaĦka gimnazija» Sremski Karlovci zavod za izdavanje udņbenika. LazareviĤ, R. (2009). ZnaĦaj upotrebe rjeĦnika u nastavi stranog jezika. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B (priredile), Individualizacija i diferencijacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti (str: 207-213). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009). Predlog udņbenika za vjeņbe prevoħenja s italijanskog jezika na vińim godinama studija. U VuĦo, J, MilatoviĤ, B. (priredile), Autonomija učenika i nastavnika u učenju i nastavi jezika (str. 313-317). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ Little, D, Perclová, R. (2003) Evropski jezički portfolio namijenjen nastavnicima i mentorima. Podgorica: Ministartvo prosvete i nauke Pym, Anthony (1992). Translation Error Analysis and the Language Teaching, in: Cay Dollerup & Anne Loddegaard (priredile), The Teaching of Translation. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 279-288 SamardņiĤ, M. (2008). Studentski prevod izmeħu ńkolskog i profesionalnog ocenjivanja. U VuĦo, J. (priredila), Evaluacija u nastavi jezika i knjiţevnosti. Zbornik radova (str.133-145). Univerzitet Crne Gore, Filozofski fakultet NikńiĤ. 65 O tome u LazareviĤ, R., PiletiĤ, D. (2009) 359 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 52 Title A name given to the resource LeksiĦke greške u studentskim prevodima sa italijanskog jezika Author Author Piletić, Deja Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper deals with classification and explanation of the reasons of the most frequent lexical errors which occur in the translations of the undergraduate students of the Department of Italian Language and Literature (University of Montenegro). The corpus of the research consists of the written translations from the Italian as a foreign language into the Montenegrin as a mother tongue. The translations have been made in class, at home and during the exams on the second and the third year of the mentioned courses of undergraduate studies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d677e89698ce1065512accfdd33c53e.pdf 5af510bc33d9771329a4f037a8ecbc6a PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Communicative language teaching and socio-cultural competence: An ongoing process Elisabetta Pavan Department of Linguistics and Comparative Cultural Studies Ca‘ Foscari University of Venice, Italy epavan@unive.it Abstract: Communicative language teaching is undoubtfully the most widely adopted teaching approach, however sometimes the learners turn out to be ‘fluent fools‘, especially when the balance between language forms (accuracy/usage) and language functions (fluency/use) are not linked to culture. Culture should not be considered a fifth skill, neither something to be taught deductively, reduced to a list of features to be learned. Culture is always in the background, challenging our ability to make sense of the world around us, so the teacher must raise students‘ awareness and develop a broad communicative competence encompassing linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences, especially when he/she teaches a lingua franca such as English. In this paper I will try to formulate a practical model offering some principles that may prove useful for the development of skills and methods appropriate to a lingua franca speaker, or rather, an intercultural speaker. Thus becoming an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid basis of intercultural awareness, and this implies a shift from description (usually linked to cross-cultural studies), to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations. Key Words: intercultural education, pragmatics, language teaching methodology Communicative Language Teaching and communicative competence Communication is defined as an exchange of ideas and information between two or more persons (Crystal 1992, Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary 1980). A communicative system consists of at least three components: a medium, a sender, and a receiver. A message is shaped by the sender, it may be verbal or nonverbal. It is then encoded into the nervous and muscular system. The message leaves the sender and is transmitted via air (ear - spoken mode) or paper (eye - written mode) to the brain of the receiver, where it is decoded and converted into concepts. The communicative approach to language teaching refers to the principle of language as communication. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) dates back to the Seventies and can be considered one of the current dominant methodologies, together with CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). In the communicative approach the main purpose of teaching a foreign, or second language, is communication. CLT desired outcome is for the learner to communicate successfully in real situations using the target language, with conscious knowledge of the rules governing that language as a secondary outcome. The goal of language teaching is to develop, in learners, what Hymes (1964, 1972) termed communicative competence, as opposed to Chomsky‘s (1965) theory of competence (linguistic competence vs. performance). Hymes (1972) explained what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent, and assumed that a person who acquires communicative competence will have also acquired both knowledge of and the ability to use the language of communication. The notion of developing learners‘ ability to use language appropriately in sociocultural contexts has been reformulated by later scholars such as Canale and Swain (1980) and van Ek (1986). Their interpretations of communicative competence cover two aspects: linguistic competence and pragmatic competence. Canale and Swain have identified four dimensions in communicative competence: grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences. Grammatical competence refers to Chomsky‘s linguistic competence and to Hymes‘ possibility (formally possible); it refers to language codes (grammar and lexis). Sociolinguistic competence refers to 413 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo knowledge and understanding of the social context in which communication takes place, the different relations between and purposes of the actors. It deals with the socio-cultural use of language: a speaker must know how to appropriately use words (vocabulary choice), register, style, in a given situation. Discourse competence encompasses the way meaning is represented, hence how message elements are interpreted and inferred, in the context of the entire discourse or text. Strategic competence implies knowledge of verbal and nonverbal communication strategies, as well as the strategies used to initiate, terminate, maintain and repair a communication. Grammatical competence refers to accuracy and usage, while sociolinguistic competence to fluency and use. According to the Council of Europe (COE 2001), communicative language competence can be considered as comprising several areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic. Each of these components is postulated as comprising, in particular, knowledge and skills and know-how. Hymes (1972) stated that competent speakers should not only be able to generate appropriate sentences but also should be aware that sociolinguistic rules must be included in the analysis of a language, arguing that language study cannot be restricted to discussion of linguistics rules. A speech act refers to the performance of a certain act through words. Olshtain and Cohen (1983) defined sociolinguistic competence as ―the speakers‘ ability to determine the pragmatic appropriateness of a particular speech act in a given context. At the production level it involves the selection of one of several grammatically acceptable forms according to the formality of the situation and to the number of available forms‖. Crystal (1985) affirmed that pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, in particular, of the choices they make, of the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and of the effects their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication. Pragmatics is the study of communicative action in its sociocultural context; it includes not only speech acts such as requesting, greeting, and so on, but also participation in conversation, engaging in different types of discourse, and maintaining interaction in complex speech events. Learners of a second language have to learn the conventionalized forms in the new language, as well as specificities of interactional styles. Intercultural communicative competence Intercultural communicative competence widens the concept of communicative competence to include intercultural competence. Appropriateness and effectiveness of communicative actions and of speech acts such as politeness strategies, requesting, greetings, apologizing, are culturally bound. In a foreign language not only does the linguistic realization of the same speech act differ in terms of lexical choices, the intention and the force of the act are different as well. For example, in Italian culture, accepting an offer immediately may be considered impolite, so it is better to refuse at least twice before accepting and, depending on the situation, the refusal may be strong in terms of vehemence. Intercultural competence is the term used to describe the ability to work across cultures with an understanding of cultures on a general level, it includes communication and knowledge of the world. Language teaching and learning involves the knowledge of a new language and in some cases of new contents related to a subject (such as in CLIL methodology). Students must be offered a new frame of reference in terms of culture specific and culture general knowledge and of insights into the way in which culture affects language and communication. The idea of offering foreign language students a structured world-view is not new; it can be traced back to the 17th Century, to Comenius‘ Orbis Pictus. However any representation of the target culture must be carefully constructed: sometimes folkloristic stereotypes may correspond to the traditional way a people see themselves and they can be used, but in order to develop sociocultural knowledge and intercultural skills it is much more productive to consider a model with three components, which Balboni (2006) identified as: • • • software of the mind communication software context software Software of the mind refers to the cultural factors which affect communication during the exchange of messages between two or more people who are pursuing specific goals through communicating with others. This software works like the software in a computer: the user is unaware of it until a warning message appears on the screen. This software is our cultural values. 414 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Communication software refers to the verbal and nonverbal codes in use. The communicator‘s attention is mainly focused on verbal acts, and little or no consideration is given to non-verbal communication, which, in many cases, is (wrongly) thought to be universal. Context software is the socio-pragmatic software which governs the beginning, the direction, and the conclusion of a communicative event (whether monocultural or intercultural). Pragmatic competences are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources in scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges and it is very important to stress the major impact of interactions and cultural environments in which such abilities are constructed. Sociolinguistic competences refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use. Highly sensitive to social conventions, the sociolinguistic component strongly affects all language communication between representatives of different cultures, even though participants may often be unaware of its influence. When two strangers lightly bump into each other, if they are British and Mediterranean people they may evaluate this bump similarly in terms of degrees of seriousness, and as a result they may not have similar conceptions as to whether a verbal apology is required. Richards & Sukwiwatt (1983) referred to a situation in which a Japanese learner (JE) has to express gratitude in English to a native speaker (E) may go as follows: E. Look what I‘ve got for you (maybe a gift) JE: Oh! I‘m sorry (thank you does not sound sincere enough in Japanese) E: Why sorry? Indeed Italians often add: ―We must have lunch /a coffee together sometime‖ to their repertoire of leavetaking formulae, which in English are: See you, Take care, Goodbye, and other formal or informal phrases, depending on the situations. But what Italians add is not meant to be a suggestion, it is a formula, and the foreign interlocutor may be puzzled, waiting for an invitation that doesn‘t come. To an offer in English, Italians may answer: ―Yes, thank you‖ instead of ―Yes, please‖ if they don‘t master the offers, refusals and requests speech acts. Intercultural awareness Learners of a second language have to learn the conventionalized forms in the new language, as well as peculiarities of interactional styles. The Council of Europe (2001) has stated that the need for communication presupposes a ‗communication gap‘, which can however be bridged because of the overlap, or partial congruence, between the mental context of the user in focus and the mental context of the interlocutor(s). The effect – and often all or part of the function – of a communicative act is to increase the area of congruence in the understanding of the situation in the interests of effective communication so as to serve the purposes of the participants. Differences in values and beliefs, politeness conventions, social expectations, etc. in terms of which the parties interpret the interaction are more difficult to bridge, unless the latter have acquired the necessary intercultural awareness. In Gass and Neu (1995:2) the following incident is reported: One morning, Mrs. G, a native speaker of English now living in Israel, was doing her daily shopping at the local supermarket. As she was pushing her shopping cart she unintentionally bumped into Mr. Y, a native Israeli. Her natural reaction was to say ―I am sorry‖ (in Hebrew). Mr. Y turned to her and said ―Lady, you could at least apologise.‖ On another occasion the very same Mr. Y. arrived late for a meeting conducted by Mr. W (a native speaker of English) in English. As he walked into the room he said, ―The bus was late‖, and sat down. Mr. W, obviously annoyed, muttered to himself, ―These Israelis, why don‘t they ever apologise!‖ (Olshtain and Cohen, 1989). What the incident tells us is that saying ‗I‘m sorry‘ in Hebrew is considered not strong enough by the native Israeli; on the other hand the native speaker of English cannot decode the words Mr. Y. utters as an apology. In the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR) (COE 2001) cultural awareness is defined as: Knowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‗world of origin‘ and the ‗world of the target community‘ produce an intercultural awareness. It is, of course, important to note that intercultural awareness includes an awareness of regional and social diversity in both worlds. It is also enriched by awareness of a wider range of 415 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cultures than those carried by the learner‘s L1 and L2. This wider awareness helps to place both of these in context. In addition to objective knowledge, intercultural awareness covers an awareness of how each community appears from the perspective of the other, often in the form of national stereotypes. The intercultural dimension of language education and intercultural competence has been widely researched by Byram and Flemming (1998), Byram (1997), and Byram and Zarate (1997). Communicating in a lingua franca and the intercultural speaker The use of English, or another language, as a lingua franca and the growing awareness that while it might resolve a specific communication problem between people, could not provide a basis for real communication. It is a useful shortcut and may help; nonetheless, according to Crystal (1997) language has no independent existence, it lives in some sort of mystical space apart from the people who speak it. It exists in the brains, mouths, ears, hands and eyes of its users, and when they succeed on the international stage, their language succeeds, and when they fail, their language fails. When two people conversing are from different countries, speaking in a language which is a foreign or a second language for one of them, or which is foreign to both of them, they may still be highly aware of their national identities. This awareness leads to feeling the other is different and such a situation may influence what they say and how they say it, because they see the other person as a representative of a country, or a nation. This focus on national identity, and the accompanying risk of relying on stereotypes, reduces the individual from a complex human being to someone who is seen as representative of a country or ‗culture‘. Regardless of the language, individuals must thus be sensitized to what underlies communication: the fact is that using a lingua franca is not always a suitable or successful solution to all problems. They must learn to cope with the complexities of intercultural communication, where grammatical or lexical correctness, important though they are, may not be the decisive factor in communicative success. Neither may a satisfactory control of language functions be enough (Jackobson 1963; Halliday 1973), however essential it may be. Even a basic generalized knowledge of the foreign language‘s culture may not be a guarantee of success, as it may lead to or enhance existing stereotypes (Steele and Suozzo 1994). Kramsch (1998). According to Byram (2001) linguistic and grammatical competence are part of the process of teaching a foreign language, nonetheless a reflection on the nature of interaction between native speakers of a language and foreign speakers of that language, or between foreign speakers of a language which is serving them as a lingua franca, has led to the recognition that it is neither appropriate nor desirable for learners to model themselves on native speakers with respect to the learning about and understanding another culture. The term intercultural is normative and carries values, as opposed to cross-cultural which is considered neutral, a mere description of elements that may vary in different cultures. Interculturality has moral and ethical dimensions for it incorporates respect for what is different and underlies a contact, a change, in both the sender and the receiver, which, after the encounter, will be an irremediable change (Pavan 2009). Being an intercultural speaker implies being able to engage with complexity and multiple identities, and so avoiding the stereotyping which accompanies perceiving someone through a single identity. It is based on perceiving the interlocutor as an individual whose qualities are to be discovered, rather than as a representative of an externally attributed identity. According to Kramsch (1998) this implies a language learner who acts as a mediator between two cultures, interprets and understands other perspectives, as well as questions what is taken for granted in his/her own society. Byram (2001) affirms that the intercultural speaker is: ―someone who has an ability to interact with ‗others‘, to accept other perspectives and perceptions of the world, to mediate between different perspectives to be conscious of their evaluations of difference (Byram and Zarate, 1997; see also Kramsch, 1998). Where the otherness which learners meet is that of a society with a different language, they clearly need both linguistic competence and intercultural competence‖. He adds that intercultural competence is necessary whether a different language is present or not. 416 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From description to modelling Being an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid intercultural awareness, and the practice described above indicates a shift from description to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations (Balboni 2007). Balboni states that a model is a generative framework, i. e. a pattern or a structure which can include all possible occurrences, it is able to generate behaviour and it is often internally structured in a hierarchical manner. He also states that the higher the level of a model, the greater its complexity, which does not necessarily lead to complexity in extensio, but rather in profundis, exactly like a website homepage. and finally he affirms that models are forms of declarative knowledge which must generate procedural knowledge. A model becomes a competence when it is able to generate behaviour, this occurs when the model is applied to a context of performance. Competence cannot be taught, but must be constructed, filling in the elements of the model with the information, declarations and procedures to be used in the performance phase. Balboni concludes that, since intercultural communication competence is a competence, it cannot be taught, nonetheless once a reliable model of it has been provided, it can be built up. Respect for cultural models is central to developing cultural awareness, a knowledge sometimes taken for granted. However it is often difficult to understand one‘s own models because we tend to assume our behaviour is natural and do not realise it is conditioned by our culture(s). Balboni‘s (2007) explanation leads to performance, and to intercultural awareness, which is the foundation of communication and involves the ability to stand back from ourselves and become aware of our cultural values, beliefs and perceptions, crucial knowledge we must have when interacting with people from other cultures. As the Council of Europe (2001) states, intercultural awareness is the knowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‗world of origin‘ and the ‗world of the target community.‘ The model of intercultural communication competence proposed in Balboni (2007) has already been described above, these are the three components that are crucial to a model of intercultural communication competence. Adopting Hofstede‘s (1991) metaphor, they are:  software of the mind, which refers to the cultural factors which affect communication;  communication software, which refers to the codes used, both verbal and nonverbal;  context software, which refers to the socio-pragmatic software that governs the beginning, the course and the conclusion of an interaction, of a communicative event as described by Hymes (1972). The first two elements, cultural and communicative, constitute the competence, the ability to do something, while the third, the ‗context software‘ makes it possible to move from competence to performance, the setting where ‗real‘ communication occurs. Conclusion In a world of change, where people are more and more mobile, where travel and communication are available at low prices to increasing numbers of travellers, the marketplace is global and the presence of non-native (foreign) students is a solid reality in the classroom, foreign language education must become intercultural. Foreign language education is, by definition, intercultural, since introducing a foreign language in a classroom implies connecting the students to a new world. Furthermore the primary goal of foreign language education should be real-life communication and the developing of critical-thinking skills in a variety of situations. Thus the challenge is that of promoting the teaching of foreign languages and the acquisition of intercultural competencies within a framework where the issue should be, as far as possible, learning by doing. If valid communication and co-operation are to exist, language teaching should also contribute to an active, critical understanding of each person‘s own culture and of the others‘ cultures too. 417 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Balboni, P.E. (2007). La comunicazione Interculturale. Venezia: Marsilio. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, M. (2001). ―Introduction‖. In Byram et al. (Eds.), Developing Intercultural Competence in Practice. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 1-8. Byram, M. & Fleming, M. (Eds.). (1998). Language Learning in Intercultural Perspective: Approaches through Drama and Ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Byram, M. & Zarate, G. (Eds.). (1997). The Sociocultural and Intercultural Dimension of Language Learning and Teaching. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). The theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics 1 (1), 1-47. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Boston: MIT Press. Cohen, A. D. & Olshtain, E. (1981). Developing a measure of socio-cultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 31(1), 113-134. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Crystal, D. (1985). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2nd edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (1992). An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Language and Languages. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gass, S.M. & Neu, J. (Eds.). (1995). Speech Acts across Cultures: Challenges to communication in a Second Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Halliday, M. 1973. Explorations in the functions of language. London: Edward Arnold. Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. New York: McGraw-Hill. Hymes D. (1972). On communicative competence, in Pride J.B. & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 269-293. Hymes, Dell (Ed.). (1964). Language in culture and society. New York: Harper and Row. Jackobson, R. (1963). Essais de linguistique générale. Paris: Editions de Minuit. Kramsch, K. (1998). The privilege of the intercultural speaker. In M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspective: approaches through drama and ethnography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 16–31. Newmark, L. (1966). How not to interfere with language Teaching. In C.J. Brumfit & K. Johnson (Eds.), The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Olshtain, E. & Cohen, A. D. (1983). Apology: A speech act set. In N. Wolfson & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and language acquisition. Rowley: Newbury House, 18-35. Oxford Advanced Learner‘s Dictionary (1980). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 418 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Pavan, E. (2009). Communicating in the Mediterranean Area: a Matter of Cultural Awareness. International Journal of Euro-Mediterranean Studies, 2, (1), 121-139 Richards, J. C. & Sukwiwat, M. (1983). Language Transfer and Conversational Competence. Applied Linguistics 4 (2). 113-125. Steele R. & Suozzo A. (1994). Teaching French culture: Theory and practice. Lincolnwood: National Textbook. van Ek, J. A. (1986). Objectives for foreign language learning. (Vol. 1): Scope. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 419 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 61 Title A name given to the resource Communicative language teaching and socio-cultural competence: An ongoing process Author Author Pavan, Elisabetta Abstract A summary of the resource. Communicative language teaching is undoubtfully the most widely adopted teaching approach, however sometimes the learners turn out to be ‘fluent fools‘, especially when the balance between language forms (accuracy/usage) and language functions (fluency/use) are not linked to culture. Culture should not be considered a fifth skill, neither something to be taught deductively, reduced to a list of features to be learned. Culture is always in the background, challenging our ability to make sense of the world around us, so the teacher must raise students‘ awareness and develop a broad communicative competence encompassing linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences, especially when he/she teaches a lingua franca such as English. In this paper I will try to formulate a practical model offering some principles that may prove useful for the development of skills and methods appropriate to a lingua franca speaker, or rather, an intercultural speaker. Thus becoming an intercultural speaker implies developing a solid basis of intercultural awareness, and this implies a shift from description (usually linked to cross-cultural studies), to modelling, in order to design a process of competence building. Descriptions cannot be taught, they can be memorized and are useful only when the right situation appears, while models can be taught and competences, based on models, can be developed and adapted to many different situations. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77ed4800380fcd1890989eb81598b342.pdf 967da2fc7262e9996e4ee1499a51dbcc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Michał B. Paradowski Institute of Applied Linguistics, University of Warsaw m.b.paradowski@uw.edu.pl Abstract: Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Key Words: pragmatic fluency, interface model, explication, awareness-raising, pragmatic transfer Like nature, the L1 creeps back in, however many times you throw it out with a pitch fork. (Cook, 2001: 405) Introduction It is an empirically supported psychological fact that learning invariably progresses by relating new information to the already familiar, relying on existing knowledge to facilitate new learning (e.g. Kielhôfer, 1994; that is why we learn in terms of prototypes, and that is why the uptake and use of linguistic features are highly correlated with their input frequencies; N. Ellis, 2010; see also Bowerman, 2008; Kittredge & Dell, 2008; Taylor, 2008); the inherent comparative expectations evident in the very question ―What does it look like?‖ From very early on, our brain organises our experienced and incoming information into categories (Vosniadou, 2008); the more narrow and restricted the cataloguing, the more effectual it seems to be (since broader categories make it easier to overshoot the mark; Bowerman, 2005). Meaning is constructed when the brain perceives relationships, relevant or consequential connections motivating it to focus and activate prior knowledge (Caine & Caine, 1994: 4). The very essence of learning lies not just in taking in new knowledge, but in integrating it with the already known knowledge structures, and subsequently—with time—extending it to new situations, refining its range of application, and employing it in appropriate ways. Constructing meaning involves the cognitive skills of: ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ focusing; predicting; inferring connections; organizing information; generalizing; analyzing; sorting relevant and irrelevant information; evaluating; and labeling. (Jackson, 2002: 4) 910 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Even a cursory analysis of the nature of these skills and strategies will reveal that crucial to all is the ability to draw upon prior knowledge. This general truth has been incorporated in Chapter 5.1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages under the label of savoir apprendre—the ability to learn, knowledge how to learn effectively—which is recognized as part of the general (i.e. not limited to the linguistic domain only) competences of a language learner/user: In its most general sense, savoir-apprendre is the ability to observe and participate in new experiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying the latter where necessary. (CoE, 2001: 106) This transfer of general skills is, of course, no CEF discovery. As we will learn from Coe et al. (1983), for instance, in late 1970s and early 1980s skills and strategies used when performing a listening, speaking, reading or writing activity were frequently taught through specific materials, where the students were encouraged to recognize that they already possessed skills in their L1 which they could transfer into the TL (Keddle, 2004: 45). By the same token, learners who are already bi-/multilingual are more aware of the learning and communication strategies which they had developed over time, and are able to apply these to yet another language. The familiar in FLL We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native language… Language is not simply a reporting device for experience but a defining framework for it. (Benjamin Lee Whorf, 1936; cf. also 1940/56: 212) Thus, new knowledge is internalised by integrating it with the already available. The familiarity is equally vital in the process of foreign language learning (FLL). Here the familiar is, of course, the students‘ mother tongue, which is why—whether they are ordered or forbidden—they will inevitably try to explain a new L2 item to themselves and make sense of it in NL terms and comparing it with their L1, making a conscious (even if unarticulated) link to the L1, as well as fall back on translation (especially at the earlier stages of proficiency). The L2 is always mediated by the L1, a base language which the learner strives to transform, rearticulate, reformulate (Filatova, 2010), and a clear vestige of concepts from the L1 remains even in advanced L2 users (Verspoor, 2008; Lowie, Verspoor & Seton, 2010). FL learners invariably attempt to incorporate the new language in the framework of the known one; they seek a safe passage from the TL to their mother tongue. These attempts are instinctive and made irrespective of the classroom methodology employed; learners compare languages with or without being instructed to do so, as proven by experiments from various disciplines (cf. e.g. Williams & Hammarberg, 1998; Franceschini et al. 2003; de Bot, 2004). Drawing on the learner‘s L1 (or another mastered tongue) and showing comparisons and contrasts between the languages mirrors, facilitates and accelerates the processes which occur independently in his/her mind. If our learners had no benefit of having been raised in a multilingual environment, the teacher should be obliged to make them at least partially conscious of their L 1 competence through metalinguistic awareness-raising. The role of pedagogic intervention is unquestionable, as transfer of operations from the L1 to the FL usually requires correction and clarification (cf. A. A. Leontiev, 1981): the transition [from operations in the mother tongue to these used in the foreign tongue] is not automatic, and the learner will not immediately or without effort come up with the foreign equivalent to the utterance in the mother tongue, remember the rules, and successively apply them. (op. cit.: 27) Yet, paradoxically, where most teachers are more than content when their students display the ability to transfer skills or extend strategies taught to new contexts, this has seemed not to concern language instructors, with late 20th-century ELT methodology discouraging the use of the L1 in the classroom. The overwhelming majority of language course books and grammar reference materials on the market (with a few notable exceptions where contrastive grammar boxes are present) provide English-language explanations and totally ignore the relations holding between the students‘ L1 and the TL. Such mainly Euro- or Amerocentric books moulded in the generic approach are, using James‘ (1980: 24) term, ―universally valid [but] for purely commercial reasons.‖ Many students—and teachers as well—are not fully aware of the common properties of the TL and their L1, which could be beneficially put to use in the teaching and learning process. A truly pedagogical grammar should be contrastive (especially with linguistically homogeneous FL groups in mind). This entails that competence in the FL should be built by exploiting the common ground. As Singleton (2005) observed, even with the Audiolingual Method, where no occasions were provided for making semantic-associative links between L2 and L1 words, such links were undoubtedly forged anyway. This links with the observation made by Wolff (2005) that learners can only comprehend items which they can assimilate with the knowledge structures already available. Noticing Having mentioned the role of conscious processes in the internalisation of a FL one cannot but revert to the notion of noticing. In a detailed diary study of Robert Schmidt‘s (1990) 22-week stay in Brazil and his acquisition of 911 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Brazilian Portuguese over that period, the author reported his conviction that he usually noticed—and subsequently began to acquire—forms in out-of-class input only after they had been taught. Schmidt and Frota (1986) substantiate the hypothesis that in order to acquire communicative aspects of linguistic competence, the learner‘s attention must first be directed to them, causing noticing. Their (1986: 310) ―notice the gap‖ premise posits two kinds of noticing that are necessary for uptake of novel linguistic forms to occur: 1. 2. in order for the input to become intake, learners must attend to the linguistic forms and features therein; 303 in order to make progress, learners must notice the ―gap‖ between their output (their developing IL) and the input (the TL system; op. cit.: 311; Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 388); what has also been called ―matching‖ (Klein, 1986: 62) or ―cognitive comparison‖ (Ellis, 1995: 90).304 Rephrased by Lewis (1993: 154), the ―process of acquisition is best aided by making students aware of features of the target language, and, in due course, of how their production of the target language differs from its norms.‖ This important point gains validation from Sajavaara‘s (1981: 115) remark that at the onset of SLA, the learner‘s perceptual (―cue detection‖) mechanisms are tuned to the phenomena and processes available in his/her L 1, and not to picking up relevant TL features! Thus, the learner will tend to hear the TL utterances in terms of categories and structures of his/her NL, and substitute its elements for the target ones.305 This belief was reiterated by White‘s (2000: 137) assertion that the L1 functioning as an active filter may prevent aspects of L2 input from being noticed (and hence lead to fossilisation) – thus presenting an L1-mediated UG access perspective which, under this view, is practically tantamount to ―no access‖306 (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). Noticing requires the allocation of focal attention and rehearsal in short-term memory (Robinson, 1997: 225); hence, detection alone without conscious registration is not conducive to learning (Schmidt, 1993; 1994: 17). Language tasks designed with the aim of promoting noticing should make the learner devote some attention to form, and facilitate comparisons between IL output and TL models. Reformulation, where students‘ flawed performance is weighed against a well-formed exemplar and where they obtain the chance to draw conclusions and learn from the comparison is very suitable here (Piechurska-Kuciel, 1999: 18). The dictogloss, where the learners reconstruct a previously heard (or read) text is another useful task, as it helps them attend to and recognise linguistic problems (Swain & Lapkin, 1995: 373). Conscious attention also plays a role in the acquisition of TL pragmatics. Arguing that a connectionist framework is a suitable representation for such noncategorical knowledge Schmidt (1993) makes the case that conscious attention (explicit learning) is necessary to establish connections and acquire pragmatic competence in the L2, with mere exposure to pragmatically significant experience inconducive to learning. Thus, the learner should not only have a knowledge of the linguistic resources available for realising particular communicative intentions and pragmatic effects, but also knowledge of their appropriate socio-contextual use. Concentrating on foreign language learning All the aforementioned factors are particularly consequential in FL learning, where the environment differs substantially from that in SLA, rendering direct evidence inevitable. Firstly, with a limited attention span, learners happen not to pay too much heed to what is going on in the classroom, and even if they do, they focus on the 303 This is why Ellis (1989: 305) uses the term ―explicit instruction‖ interchangeably with ―external manipulation of the input‖. Widdowson (1978: 13; 1979) distinguished two kinds of rules: reference rules, in absentio, knowledge of the FL (imposed by the teacher) to which reference can be made when required, constituting the learner‘s linguistic competence, and expression rules, in presentio, assumed by the learner to be the norm in a given situation, which determines what the learner actually does with the language and allows him/her to generate linguistic behaviour meeting the communicative needs even without sufficient linguistic competence (Krzeszowski, 1977/81: 75). Consequently, with a constant deficit of reference rules, ―a learner‘s errors are evidence of success and not of failure [because it is] the consequence of success in developing context rules‖ (i.e., IL; Widdowson, 1979: 190). 305 A similar hypothesis is now being entertained in explaining the difficulty of acquiring native-like pronunciation: it is conceivable that once the child becomes accustomed to a certain range of phonemes, his/her ―mental phonetic perception grid‖ becomes filled, not allowing new forms to enter and seeking their closest retrievable equivalent for substitution. 306 Since resorting to L1 mechanisms is less costly than preserving and accessing UG once the mother tongue has been established, and in most cases it is practically impossible to determine which of the two is at play during SLA (Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c., 2007, Feb. 19). 304 912 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo propositional content of the utterance rather than form (VanPatten‘s Primacy of Meaning Principle; 2004: 18) and fail to retain the structure. This is our universal propensity: we listen to language predominantly to understand the message, paying little attention to the precise wording; in Wilberg‘s (1987) words, ―we eat the sweet but discard the wrapper.‖ Secondly, while in an immersion situation learners have ample opportunity and occasions for out-of-school interaction with NSs and repeated and varied exposure to a very robust linguistic environment and will, hopefully, ultimately absorb a lot (which is why Krashen dubs natural settings ―acquisition-rich environments‖), this is not readily available in the conventional classroom (educational settings constituting an ―acquisition-poor environment‖), not least because the time factor does not allow sufficient exposure. And, thirdly, indirect linguistic evidence need not necessarily be 100% well-formed. There is one more reason why I concentrate on language learning. The critical/sensitive period hypothesis claims that after puberty a language cannot be acquired naturally. At the same time, adolescent and adult learners are already holders of a ―driving licence‖307 in one language—their NL—and will have some assumptions and expectations concerning the highway code of the TL (Łukasiewicz, 2006: 8). If we agree with Schachter that Universal Grammar only controls core linguistic competence and that the bulk of language data, ―up to two thirds of the contents of the pedagogical grammar‖ cannot fall within its scope (1996: 72), it follows that the overwhelming peripheral idiosyncrasy of language—whether in L1A, SLA, or FLL—simply has to be swotted anyway, irrespective of the age of the learner. After prolonged debate, recent research has positively settled that while teaching should not be limited to formal instruction, formal instruction should not be excluded from the language syllabus either. Without full access to UG and prolonged access to indirect positive evidence, the grammatical system of a FL will never be internalised without the compensatory remedy of formal instruction, a ―catalyser‖ in the words of Maria Dakowska (p.c., March 12 2007). The Language Interface Model ―Well,‖ said Owl, ―the customary procedure in such cases is as follows.‖ ―What does Crustimoney Proseedcake mean?‖ said Pooh. ―For I am a Bear of Very Little Brain, and long words Bother me.‖ ―It means the Thing to Do.‖ ―As long as it means that, I don‘t mind,‖ said Pooh humbly. —Alan Alexander Milne Winnie-the-Pooh (1926: Ch. 4: In Which Eeyore Loses A Tail and Pooh Finds One) This is not, however, the end of the story. The basic reason why we look for familiar orientation points and similarities when in a new situation is our natural need for safety. We feel more comfortable and at ease at home, in our district and city, than at a new venue, even though the latter may be objectively better-appointed, more attractive and safer, just because in the former we could take more things for granted that would bother us elsewhere. This is also why the target language should literally be taught in the framework of the learner‘s L1 – as in the Language Interface Model (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a), which proves appreciably more successful than other approaches, with the results and enhanced retention preserved long after the instruction period has ended. The method bases on the model of pedagogical grammar charted in Gozdawa-Gołębiowski (op. cit.: 201–9; 2003b), with a couple of minor modifications and expansions on my part. What is so new here? The model builds upon the long-known Contrastive Analysis, but in a novel, eclectic fashion, by forging an interface between the learner‘s L1 and the TL, supplemented with an explication of the underlying grammatical system, thus leading to an enhanced understanding of the ―how‘s‖ and ―why‘s‖ of the material to be mastered. But let us first delineate the modus procedendi step by step: 1. The method usually commences by initial exposure (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003a: 196ff; 2003b: passim; James, 1994: 210; 1998: 261) of new language material in a natural context, accompanied by its direct translational equivalent, but without aiming at structural decomposition. Preferably—for the learner to pay 307 This knowledge of language, including some awareness of deep structure phenomena, may be called—extending Rusiecki‘s (1980) term beyond the realm of vocabulary—latent bilingualism. The learning difficulty would then be seen as lying in discovering the idiosyncratic rules whereby the L2 relates DS to SS and the phonetic representations (Zybert, 1999: 24). 913 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo attention to the relevant grammatical information given the limited capacity to process information—the context should be a short sentence, as such are easier to process than discourse (Wong, 2004: 38–42); 2. Imprinting – the same invariant sequence of words will be exposed to the learner a few more times at reasonable intervals until TL-NL meaning equivalence has been established; for instance, moving from the sentence to a passage or connected discourse (as recommended by Wong, ibid.) into which the language point has been written. The new structure is intended for holistic (gestalt) processing and easy recall; 3. Explication of how the rules of a given grammar area operate in the learners‘ steady-state L1: examining, demonstrating, and bringing to the surface relevant facts and rules in the source language that are only subconsciously known to the learners, thus leading to L1 awareness.308 That is, the learner is introduced to rules and particulars s/he intuitively knows and subconsciously applies in performance, but which s/he may have never consciously pondered upon. More attention here is being paid to higher-order rules of use than lowerorder rules of formation. Thus, the first major step is getting the learners to observe and notice patterns in their NL. This finds support e.g. in Gabryś-Barker‘s (2005) evidence that source language proficiency is influential on L2 development. Things that have once been explicated have the preponderance of not becoming obliterated and can be recalled as the need arises. This has one more advantage: we can explicate only those L1 items that are relevant to the L2, disregarding ones that may cause confusion. We should also bear in mind the fact that learners often cope with structures that are totally different from their equivalents in the students‘ native language precisely because they are so unexpected and ―bizarre‖ and stick in the memory, which can thus further enhance retention. 4. A passage is subsequently made to the explanation of relevant L2 regularities – something more novel this time, being the target proper of the instruction. Since the learners are already au fait with some representative exemplars of the construction in question, the anxiety before having to master some new principles is reduced appreciably, with the reassuring feeling of a déjà vu (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 126) or déjà entendu. What happens now is raising the learners‘ consciousness of FL features—accumulating insight into what the learners do not yet know in the FL, without necessarily directly instilling the rules (Rutherford, 1987; James, 1998: 260)—revealing the underlying TL pattern and offering a rule, but without losing sight of the L 1 principle, showing parallels between both languages. New knowledge representations are not assimilated and stored in an isolated area of the brain, but will always be related (by neural circuits or other means) to areas storing some other information – for instance, implicit L1 knowledge that has become explicated (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: 123). This is necessary for making the new knowledge structures available for effective and efficient recall. Unlike in isolated item-leaning, the NL and TL facts are presented as systemically and systematically related (op. cit.: 126). Language-awareness tasks sensitize the learner to language phenomena which are present in both his/her L1 and the TL, but whose overt realization in the two languages may differ. Learners discover whether the L1 rules are operative in the L2 and vice versa (cf. Fraser‘s (2008) point that teachers expect modelling to work, while imitation without prior comparing and contrasting is by no means simple, and Paradowski‘s (2007) concise overview of comparative linguistics rationale).309 The teacher‘s task is to demonstrate to the learners through comparative analysis that they already know something which they have so far regarded as mysterious. This eases the burden and is greatly facilitative in lowering the affective filter – a factor not to be disregarded. It is essential to note at this point that at the two stages—especially at early levels of proficiency or where the subject-matter is complicated or would require the introduction of complex taxonomy otherwise—in order to maximize efficiency the explanations had preferably be formulated in the mother tongue of the learners ―as a more accessible and cost-effective alternative to the sometimes lengthy and difficult target-language explanation‖ (Ur, 1996: 17; cf. also e.g. Wilen et al. 2004, or Temple et al. 2005). Using the learner‘s L1 to provide examples and clarify explanation saves time, makes the input more comprehensible than might be possible with the ―sink-or-swim English-only approach‖ (Temple et al. 2005: 498), and relieves frustration caused by not understanding classroom instruction presented in the TL only (Balosa, 2006). Humans are limited capacity processors – when learning to drive a car, we will not be taking a turn at a busy crossroads, glancing in the rear-view mirror, keeping a 308 Language awareness means sensitisation of the learner to the functioning of a mastered language, ―an ability to contemplate metacognitively a language over which one has therefore developed a coherent and relatively stable set of intuitions: ‗ implicit knowledge that has become explicit‘‖ (James, 1994: 209; emph. added). 309 The use of mother-tongue exercises is also recommended to vividly help students realise that what works in their mother tongue may not work in the L2. 914 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo conversation going, operating the CD player, and applying mascara (the fairer sex) all at the same time, 310 unless our destination is massacre. When introducing a new concept or piece of information about the language system, care should be taken not to rock the boat too much, to ensure that the learners concentrate on the content of the rule, rather than direct all intellectual effort at painstakingly deciphering its metalinguistic wording. As a rule it is more important for the learners to understand a concept or grammar point than it is for it to be explained exclusively in the TL. A FL learner will—even at very advanced stages—still think in the L1 when performing more and less complex mental operations, such as e.g. mathematical calculations (only 23% of the full-time first-year students at the Institute of English Studies, University of Warsaw who were asked by the author in an anonymous questionnaire in which language they perform simple addition, subtraction or multiplication tasks when abroad, indicated English). Similarly, many errors had better be discussed in the L1. 5. Once the relevant material has been explained, an interface—a contact area between the two language systems—is forged, usually consisting in modifying the L1 rule to accommodate relevant L2 data (GozdawaGołębiowski, 2003a: 206). This has already been advocated by Leontiev, though surprisingly the implications of the relevant passage have gone unnoticed in the literature and praxis: As teachers, our task is to ―get rid‖ of the intermediate stage as quickly as possible and to bring the psychological structure of the utterance in the foreign tongue as close as possible to that which operates in the mother tongue. This means providing the student expediently with a system of operations which will not only correspond to the real psychological structure of the speech act, and will be easy to convert and put into effect, but will also ensure maximum support from the habits for the construction of utterances in the mother tongue. … The learner should not so much be acquainted with the rules of translation from the mother tongue to the foreign one … as, more importantly, with the rules governing the transition from the speech operations of the mother tongue to those of the foreign one. (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 27; emph. added) The Language Interface Model meets this postulate successfully, allowing the language learner to link new language items with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., placing it within his/her Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1934/1962), taken to denote ―the layer of skill or knowledge… just beyond that with which the learner is currently capable of coping‖ (Williams & Burden, 1997: 40); ―the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers‖ (Vygotsky, 1934/1978: 86), thus somewhat reminiscent of Krashen‘s ―i + 1‖ axiom. The rationale can be lucidly represented in the following manner: ZPD selfregulation Figure 2: The Zone of Proximal Development The inner circle of self-regulation denotes the learner‘s independent mental capabilities, e.g. strategic behaviours engaged in by learners with the aim of helping them to guide and monitor their actions when confronted with difficulty in performing a task. Beyond this area lie activities which can only be performed with external assistance. In the case of language learning, a new item can be internalized when the learner is able to connect it with his/her present knowledge or experience; i.e., when it lies within the person‘s idiosyncratic ZPD; any goal beyond is inaccessible (van Lier, 1996: 190–1). Naturally, with the aid of pedagogical intervention, or scaffolding, the learner‘s command and comprehension of the FL system gradually expands, s/he can carry out tasks at higher levels without the guidance of the teacher, slowly approximating to the TL system. Thus, pedagogic intervention ought to be tailored to the learner‘s needs; a postulate which logically connects with the cognitive mediation theory of Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein (Feuerstein et al. 1980), which takes the role of the mediator (teacher) to be the key factor in the process of learning, placing him/her between the learner and the material. His/her role is to select, 310 Attention may be freed up to focus on these other matters while weaving through the traffic ―non impediti ratione congitatonis‖ [unencumbered by the thought process; as goes the motto of radio show Car Talk aired from Cambridge, MA] only once the routine has been automatised. 915 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sequence, pace, frame, highlight, compare, interpret, review, break down, synthesize and present stimuli in a way most apt to facilitate optimal learning, making them both accessible and meaningful; to diagnose the learning potential and then provide support in transforming it into performance (Salo, 2006). This includes taking into account the learner‘s current knowledge and past experiences311 (which also implies the mother tongue!). Subsequent carefully monitored practice first expects the learner to apply the FL rules to L1 (!) examples. Precisely that: foreign rules are to be applied to mother-tongue texts. Focusing on the meaning and form at the same time overcomes the problem mentioned by Niżegorodcew (2005) that form-oriented input (principally morphosyntactic, as lexical and phonological feedback are typically perceived correctly; Gass, 2008) is unsuccessful if not interpreted as such (see also Gass‘ (op. cit.) observation that feedback may fail to be accurately perceived, going over the learners‘ heads); the shift of focus to the linguistic code simultaneously results in a deeper semantic processing of the message‘s content (Heine, 2008). This may look like building the L2 on the L1—which, to a certain extent, it is—but the mother tongue only acts as foundations upon which the construction proper is mounted, which with time become invisible, but remain present at all times. 6. Only then does the teaching move to more traditionally sanctioned TL exercises, but even then in a progressive, transitional fashion: the first assignments being translational equivalents of the L1 examples (in order to preserve the familiarity appeal), subsequently moving on to entirely novel ones, where the learner tackles the tasks without the aid of a déjà vu – as in real-life contexts. Thus, the tasks are sequenced by escalation of their cognitive complexity on the resource-dispersing dimension (i.e. by increasing the performative/procedural demands) from simpler ones, whose aim is to stabilise the new elements of the IL system, to pushed output, conjectured by Robinson‘s (2001, 2005, 2010) Multiple Resources Attentional Model and his extension of Cromer‘s (1974) Cognition Hypothesis to promote control and automatisation of the learner‘s existing L2 resources by directing his/her attention to aspects of the language, thereby leading to enhanced retention. 312 The resulting L1:L2 merger is expected to become automatised and—with sufficient frequency of use— proceduralised, thus conducive to accuracy-cum-fluency and compensating for the lack of native intuitions (Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, 2003b: passim). Additionally, such gradation of task complexity has been proven to diminish output processing anxiety (Robinson, 2010). The aim of this competence expansion stage, effected through the wisely constructed meaning-focused tasks, is making the learners collapse their already conscious knowledge of the FL system with their already explicit representations of their subconscious L1 competence and integrate the rules, ultimately expecting submersion and subconscious absorption thereof, bringing about multicompetence effects and allowing for the obliteration of the rules governing the structure of the utterance from the learner‘s conscious mind (A. A. Leontiev, 1981: 23). This is consistent with James‘ (1998: 263) observation that ―explanation is, in effect, comparative description: quite simply EA [error analysis].‖ Although formula memorization poses a lighter learning burden, rule internalization is undeniably more successful. Additionally, reflection about the best way to translate conceptual content into an adequate linguistic form in the problem-solving tasks promotes a deeper semantic processing of content, as it carries the potential of consideration of the semantic relationships between the concepts, an effect intensified by switching to the FL (Heine, 2008), as in this last stage of the LIM. 311 The teacher‘s task is, therefore, also to identify how to tap into the strengths within each learner‘s repertoire as well as the weaknesses. In the Feuersteinian approach emphasis thus shifts from product to process, where developing learning strategies assumes at least as crucial importance as the subject knowledge itself, with the goal of the qualitative teacher-learner interactions to equip the latter with skills and strategies strengthening his/her personal motivation and competence to learn, thereby helping him/her move along the continuum ―from dependence on the mediator to independence from the mediator‖ (Levine, 2001: 4), when the learner has internalised the strategies taught and can apply them to contexts outside of the instructional content. Mediation can thus be seen as promoting learner autonomy, assisting him/her in the acquisition process (Williams & Burden, 1997: 67–8). 312 Basing on findings of air traffic communication studies, Robinson (p.c., March 11, 13, 2008) theorizes that gradual increase of the cognitive demands of tasks will push learners to greater accuracy and complexity in L2 production also in situations when a car driver communicates with his/her pilot over route directions. However, there are three qualitative differences between the two situations. Primo, owing to an aircraft‘s cruising speed, decisions taken on board must be made in fractions of the time available on the road, where you can slow down or even pull over (which only choppers and the Mig-21 can do in the air, and even then for but three seconds). Secundo, an airline pilot has to take the vertical dimension into account, a coordinate largely irrelevant on the ground (even in F1 racing). Tertio, the fatal risks involved in a false manoeuvre are much higher in the air, with meagre cha nces of survival. Consequently, the former situation is in itself inherently more complex, therefore requiring precision of expression as repetition and reformulation may be costly; cf. the well-known case of the Spanish passenger plane nearly shot down when the pilot‘s announcement ―Fire on board‖ was understood by the air traffic control as ―Three men on board‖, or the 2006 air crash on the Canary Islands owing to miscomprehension of the term ―at take-off‖. 916 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Results Winwood Reade is good upon the subject,‖ said Holmes. ―He remarks that, while the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any one man will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but percentages remain constant. So says the statistician. —Sir Arthur Conan Doyle The Sign of the Four (1890: Ch. 10. The End of the Islander) The findings of a prolonged controlled classroom experiment indicate enhanced performance and retention in experimental population taught via the Language Interface Model over control groups even in a deferred post-test, 2 to 5 months after the instruction in the grammar areas taught was over (Paradowski, 2007: 149–200). The testing tools covered six distinct areas of English grammar, both structural and lexical in nature: articles, relative pronouns and adverbs, ―reported speech‖, preparatory ―there‖ vs. ―it‖, ―as‖ vs. ―like‖, and conditional structures (four of these, sc. articles, relativisation patterns, word order in reported questions, and existential constructions, are aspects which feature on Odlin‘s (2005) list of points whose presence or absence in the NL of the learner impinges on the success of SLA). Where raw final test data are concerned, only one CTR group failed to yield results which would be significantly below the performance of the EXP group. With the analysis shifting to analyse progress counterbalanced against a pre-test baseline, all the results prove significant. It thus seems that overall the Language Interface Method does perform its task satisfactorily, even though not many students from the treatment population declared independent attempts at metalingual reflection. Even if the effectiveness is not necessarily supreme in all areas of grammar, it is, at least, rarely significantly inferior to other methods (enjoying an average advantage of 13.1 per cent for the EXP UP progress and 21.38 per cent for the admittedly patchier EXP ADV data), and the participants‘ performance was maintained several months following the treatment; facts not to be ignored by language teachers and methodologists alike. The method seems particularly suited to teaching traditional systemic areas requiring manipulation of form (such as ―reported speech‖ and conditionals), although it also proceeds fairly well where the task merely demands the insertion of a lexical item (expletives, relativizers, and ―as‖ vs. ―like‖). One area where amelioration is clearly needed is the procedure for enhancing learners‘ awareness of the article system.313 The essential benefit of the LIM is that the results of the instruction hold when the learners have ceased receiving it for some time – a long-term pedagogical goal certainly more desirable, commendable and far-reaching than just short-term retention displayed in an immediate follow-up test. Importantly, the method turns out to be particularly successful for less-advanced learners as, despite strong correspondence between the participants‘ initial and final proficiency (r = .5356 for EXP UP and .6281 for EXP ADV), progress correlated negatively with the initial proficiency in both groups (r = -0.3907 and -0.4235, correspondingly)! Thus—barring articles—LIM appears to be more effective in helping FL learners master the relevant properties of English than other approaches. The model‘s potential Now this is not the end. This is not, even, the beginning of the end. —Winston Spencer-Churchill‘s (1942, Nov 10) speech given at Lord Mayor‘s Luncheon, Mansion House, London, in response to the Allied victory over the German Afrika Korps at the Second Battle of El Alamein The model can successfully be implemented in other fields of FL communicative competence. Thus for instance in a course on L2 writing conventions, discourse organization, structure of information and information packaging, the learners could first experimentally be taught the principles and asked to apply these in their mother tongue—say, a guided composition or two—before struggling with composing a FL text, which will probably provide several other challenges than just requiring to remember the principles that were mentioned during one or two classes at most. If the learners manage to successfully apply L2 strategies in L1 texts, thus becoming better trained in learning to ―think‖ in the way preferred in the target language, success lies within reach. By such differences I mean for instance, in terms of clause combining, the preference for coordination in English contrasted against more intensive use of subordination devices found in French, as pointed out by Chuquet and Paillard (1987), or the English preference for non-finite clauses vs. tensed ones in French, mentioned by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958). 313 The findings might suggest that inasmuch as articles need to be employed in nearly every utterance, each speaker‘s idiosyncratic usage is so entrenched that it is resilient to change (the variation between the initial and final measure—per group— rarely exceeded 5 per cent in a test containing 122 gaps). It is also conceivable that where the rules of grammar may seem ephemeral, intangible or conflicting—as it may seem in many instances of article usage—participants‘ performance becomes erratic and not quite reflecting their competence. Alternatively, the weaker results over this one area of grammar might act ually validate the LIM showing that it is most effective where you have something to transfer from (rather than a functional category nonexistent in the learners‘ L1; Romuald Gozdawa-Gołębiowski, p.c. 2007). 917 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Similarly, if not more importantly, a crucial part of expertise in ELF is ―pragmatic fluency‖ (House, 2006). The importance of developing pragmatic competence—the ability to employ TL resources in an appropriate way for particular contexts—has been ascertained in current models of communicative competence. The suggestion that contrastive analysis include a pragmalinguistic dimension is by no means new – cf. e.g. Gleason (1968), Hartmann (1977), Sajavaara (1977/81a), or Riley (1979/81). House (1997) argues that the notion of TL awareness be extended beyond aspects of the linguistic system to the communicative use of the language in context. She calls forth several enjoyable examples from both authentic interaction and role-plays between native speakers of English and German to demonstrate how not only words and idioms, but also lengthier formally analogical constructions can turn out to be deceptive faux amis, leading to inadvertent misunderstanding and irritation on the part of the interlocutor (2003:129-130). She thus emphasises the necessity of the acquisition of linguistically and culturally contrastive knowledge, of knowledge about the diversity of languages in general, and the worth of multilingualism and multiculturalism, so emphatically promoted especially in the CEF ideology. If communicative behaviour—e.g. Grice‘s (1967) conversational maxims or Lakoff‘s (1976) rules of politeness—were of universal nature across different languages (as assumed by critics of the Communicative Approach in late 1970s, cf. e.g. Mùller 1977), the universality of communicative skills and the possibility of their transfer from the L1 would void any discussion of the benefits or necessity of awareness in FLL. Yet, a succession of research studies in the last three decades indicate that communicative norms, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in certain, describable ways (House 1997:70). Thus, for instance, Brown and Lewinson‘s (1987) claims to the universality of their model of politeness quickly drew flak, especially from researchers dealing with non-western languages and cultures (e.g. Watts et al. 1992; Ide et al. 1992), who demonstrated that e.g. AngloSaxon and Japanese norms of politeness differ so profoundly that in no way can universality be invoked: the Japanese being characterised by the obligatory choice of a linguistic indicator and so-called ‗discernment‘, through which the speaker is obliged by certain social conventions to use ‗polite‘ speech, while Anglo-Saxon speakers are free in their choice of linguistic means. Further examples of this sort abound; e.g. a French compliment is never followed by an expression of thanks (a ‗Merci beaucoup‘ might sooner be interpreted as an ironic commentary; Riley 1979/81:122). Also Leech‘s (1983) Politeness Maxims cannot be taken as universal communicative principles, as demonstrated by Thomas‘ (1995) numerous examples of their culture-specific realisations. For instance the Tact Maxim, though central to western concepts of politeness in that certain speech acts such as requests or summons are customarily emasculated by a proposal of ‗optionality‘, this is not so in e.g. Chinese (Spencer-Oatey 1992). Several differences were proven even between so closely related languages and cultures as English and German, e.g. concerning the Agreement Maxim and indirectness in the realisation of various illocutionary acts (cf. e.g. House 1996a, House & Kasper 1981, 1987). Even within one language, interactive behaviour may clearly differ: Riley (1979/81:135) contends that it is the case with meetings, business negotiations, telephone calls, causal encounters and other situations on either side of the English Channel. All these and several other studies quoted in House (1997:71f.) provide evidence that norms of politeness, communicative styles and preferences vary depending on language and culture. It is therefore de rigueur for learning FL in use and for the development of communicative competence to recognise that these norms form an essential component and as such should be explicitly taught. Crucially, in Schmidt and Frota‘s (1986) ‗notice the gap‘ principle, it is not merely the linguistic forms that require attention, but also—simultaneously—the relevant contextual factors (functions) and pragmatic principles (context) regulating the application of these forms in a certain cultural macrocontext. This channelled attention brings the contextualised and regularly used forms to awareness. Schmidt (1993:31) hypothesises a close connection between noticing what is in the input—the linguistic form and its broadened context—and the corresponding intentional learning (where consciousness as ‗intentionality‘ plays a role). Thus, necessary for the acquisition of L2 pragmatic factors is directed attention to the linguistic form, its functional meaning, and the relevant contextual factors. For a thorough learning and retention of these, the learner‘s attention should be consciously directed at certain pragmatic phenomena in the input and s/he should try and analyse their meaning for deeper linguistic and conceptual generalisations. Schmidt (op. cit.:36) emphasises that FL realisations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learners, insofar as the relevant contextual factors that require attention are not self-evident (are ‗non-salient‘), or are ignored because they so inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena314. It may thus happen that the FL learner will pass years without directing his/her attention at the important pragmatic factors and realising the pragmatic differences between the L1 and the TL. Contrary to what Schmidt (ibid.) proposes, House (1997:82) argues that the fact this is not so during the acquisition of the mother tongue, when children together with lexico-grammatical competence pari passu acquire communicative competence, cannot be explained away by the positioning of a ‗Pragmatic Acquisition Device‘, whose strength weakens with age to become inert after a critical period, but it stands in direct connection with the continual effort on the part of the parents and other caretakers to explicitly teach this communicative competence. If, however, one did 314 Although consider for instance the shift from rejecting to accepting compliments, visible among young Poles (probably as yet another aspect of globalisation). 918 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo assume the existence of such a ‗PAD‘ and of an early and sustained contact with the target language and culture as a precondition for acquiring native pragmatic competence (many studies document the non-native pragmatic behaviour of advanced language learners), this would at least show that positing a NS norm for post-pubescent learners again misses the point (House & Kasper 2000:115). While mere transfer of knowledge and skills from the L1 does not warrant development of appropriate communicative competence in the L2, handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom has been proven to be conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. Thus, House calls for promoting communicative awareness, i.e. knowledge of communicative act, comprising not just the so-called ‗acts of speech‘ (e.g. apologising), but also the weaving of these acts into the whole discourse (1997:68). Equally important is the fact that this is what learners themselves appreciate. An experiment carried out by House and Kasper (1981), in which a communicative course was run in two versions, an ‗explicit‘ one raising awareness of the communicative phenomena that were being imparted, and an ‗implicit‘ one, without the benefit of metalanguage or directed attention, only increased input and practice in a wider range of scenarios, revealed that only the former corresponded with the advanced adult FL learners‘ expectations. Also Tateyama et al.‘s (1997) study of learners of Japanese confirms the hypothesis: the groups taught explicitly performed overall better, and the participants of both (explicitly and implicitly taught) declared unequivocal preference for the explicit teaching method, where forms, functions and distribution of language routines is brought to consciousness. In a longitudinal, 14-week study of two university groups in a communicative course House (1996b) investigated whether ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (appropriacy and fluency in the realisation of communicative acts) can be achieved in the FL classroom through mere provision of input coupled with intensive and extensive practice opportunities (including teacher correction; implicit course variant), or whether additional, explicit, consciousness/awareness-raising conveyance of language routines (oral explanation and detailed handouts on their form, function and distribution) and the use of metalanguage in conjunction with input and TL practice leads to improved results. An important factor in the explicit variant of the course is a contrastive juxtaposition of the norms of interaction in the L1 and the TL (cf. e.g. House 1996a, 1997). The explicitly, metapragmatically taught group superseded the other in the use of opening gambits in that they could realised a repertoire of speech acts that was richer, more varied, norm-sanctioned and interpersonally effective (i.e. referring to the interlocutor), while the group taught implicitly displayed a visible orientation at the content of the message, and less consideration of their interlocutor. However, when it came to responsive expressions, both groups displayed similar deficits (unconventional, non-customary expressions and unexpected, non-normative, minimalist ‗impolite‘ expressions). House (1997:78-80) puts forward three plausible hypotheses which can account for this lack of attestable impact of metapragmatic awareness on the improvement of responsive behavior of the learners in everyday interaction: 1. 2. 3. Through the Auto-Input Hypothesis (Sharwood-Smith 1988), which posits that raising awareness of one‘s own output is conducive to competence expansion in the FL (those learners who were regularly invited to confront their own output with metapragmatic explanations eventually displayed improved ‗pragmatic fluency‘); The underrepresentation of interpersonally focused routines in the realisation of gambits and discourse strategies could be explained through pragmatic transfer from the learners‘ L1 (German). Although pragmatic transfer occurred in routine usage of both groups, it was less pronounced in the explicit one, whose classes included the promotion of analysis and contrastive juxtaposition of the use of the routines in the L 1 and the TL. Thus, pragmatic transfer can be counteracted and reduced through directed attention at and awareness of L 2-specific routines, also in the conviction of the students themselves (House 1996b); Through cognitive overload during responding. Môhle (1994) proposed that the biggest problem for advanced adult L2 learners in the development of communicative competence and the acquisition of representations in the mental lexicon is not the representation of pragmatic and discoursal knowledge in the first place, but deficits in procedural knowledge. Thus, the deficits in response routines evidenced by House‘s learners could be accounted for by the lack of ‗control of processing‘ on their part, in the sense of Bialystok‘s (1993), i.e. underdeveloped control strategies, with whose help input must be efficiently processed and knowledge representations summoned. Such strategies are of utmost importance for the achievement of communicative competence: the provision of metapragmatic knowledge alone is insufficient; the acquisition of procedural know-how and the availability of ‗executive mechanisms‘ must come in as a prerequisite for spontaneous, ready-to-use FL communicative competence in the form of a corresponding procedural representation of means of speech. Still, the study indicated that consciousness (as ‗attention‘, ‗awareness‘, and ‗control‘) plays a judicious and beneficial role in the development of pragmatically appropriate and fluent communication in the FL, and that the provision of metapragmatic information and the raising of awareness of pragmatic and discoursal phenomena is 919 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo essential as counterpoise to transfer from the L1, as a means of acquiring a differentiated, interpersonally potent repertoire of linguistic routines, and of promoting ‗pragmatic fluency‘ (House 1997:80-81). It seems insufficient to expose FL learners to sociolinguistically appropriate varied input and to trust that pragmatic and discoursal knowledge will develop by and of itself. FL learners do not activate universally pragmatic competence or even positive L1 transfer, if these have not been taught reaching their attention and awareness. For the transmission of such knowledge a classroom setting is, according to House (op. cit.:81f.) very well suited. The importance of this area of language also gains support from other authors. In an empirical study Bardovi-Harlig and Dôrnyei (1997), for instance, reveal the difference between the role of the thus far largely neglected awareness-raising of pragmatic-discoural phenomena in the learning of ESL and EFL. Rather than these, in the latter setting, teachers and students were more cognizant of grammatical phenomena, and they evaluated grammar mistakes as more severe, which was the opposite in the case of ESL. The authors thus emphasise that, especially in the EFL context, ―awareness raising and noticing activities should supplement the introduction of pragmatically relevant input and structured L2 learning‖ (op. cit.:27). Even though this may be more difficult to implement in linguistically heterogeneous classes, with the increasing importance of ‗intercultural competence‘ House insists on bringing learners‘ awareness of linguistic and cultural similarities and differences, differences in value systems, mentalities, communicative preferences and conventions to the foreground of FL teaching. Her examples demonstrate that even in so closely related languages as English and German, the communicative styles differ markedly – to what extent would that have to be between typologically distant languages, with totally different cultural traditions to boot (2003:131)? Thus, the awareness of pragmatic and discourse phenomena in FLL should include an understanding of the contrasts and similarities in these areas between the TL and the L1 (L2, Ln…). Pragmatic competence would yield perfectly to the languageinterface rationale; an appropriate research project is being prepared in this regard. If the learners transfer pragmatic patterns anyway, let us enable them to transfer ones which will be appropriate. Moreover, research proves that the provision of explicit pragmatic information is only beneficial when it is not merely based on unreliable NS intuitions, but on the results of contrastive-pragmatic research (cf. e.g. House 1994, 1995, 1997), especially as comparison of course and authentic dialogues revealed frequently discomfittingly gross discrepancies (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991), thus once again reinforcing the contrastive rationale. Of beneficial influence on the development of communicative competence is the combination of intensive communicative practice with explicit awareness-raising, e.g. observation tasks wherein the learner‘s attention is directed at specific characteristic communicative features of interactional FL behaviour (cf. e.g. Bardovi-Harlig et al. 1991; Rose 1997), especially at the pragmatic contrasts between linguistic behaviour in the L1 and the TL (House 1997:82f.). What is important, House (ibid.) emphasises, is that the pragmatic norms should merely be brought to the learners‘ awareness so that—if they so wish for themselves—they know when and how they contravene them in given circumstances, and can predict the repercussions and sanctions of such deviations; not necessarily accept and adopt these NS norms. Through awareness-raising learners should in no way be expected to become ―like the L2 NS‖; rather, they should be empowered to actively indicate their distance or proximity (consciously create their own ―sphere of interculturality,‖ Kramsch 1993), and to form their subjective decisions concerning what is appropriate for them, so that they are not forced into—as Harder (1980) aptly called them—adapted crippled ―reduced personalities,‖ desperately attempting to be like indigenous native speakers to whom they will never belong. Thus, rather than adaptation and convergence with the NS norm, the FL learner had better be conceived as someone inbetween. Such a move away from the dominating (and frustrating) norm, advocated in the previous chapter of this dissertation, is easier to effect when the learner is aware of it (House 1997:83). In this way, communicative awareness helps the learner be more efficient cognitively, more flexible socially, and more enriching personally (ibid.). 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 556 Title A name given to the resource Raising Language Learners‘ Pragmatic Awareness and Intercultural Competence in Increasingly Multilingual Environments Author Author Paradowski, Michał B. Abstract A summary of the resource. Pragmatic fluency forms crucial part of a language user‘s competence. Norms of politeness, communicative styles, scripts and preferences differ between languages and cultures in describable ways, FL realizations of pragmatic functions are often unclear to the learner where the relevant contextual factors are not self-evident, or are ignored when they inconceivably grossly differ from the L1 phenomena. Even positive L1 transfer is not activated if the learner has not been trained, whereas handling pragmatic and discourse features of the TL in the classroom is conducive to increased operationality in the use thereof. A promising perspective for successful intercultural and pragmatic training is the Interface Model, which proceeds from an explication of how relevant principles operate in the learners‘ L1 (culture) through an explanation of pertinent L2 norms and subsequent modification of the L1 principle to accommodate L2 data, to practice first expecting the learner to apply the appropriate FL strategies and speech acts against an L1 (!) context. By such a gradual, multi-stage method the learner becomes ‗pragmatically fluent‘ before commencing to use the operational principles in the TL itself. The juxtaposition and use of L1 and L2 principles alongside lead to successful automatization and internalization of the material and the development of pragmatic multicompetence – L2 users differ significantly in their employment of pragmalinguistic strategies from monolingual speakers of either language, transferring similar speech acts back and forth between the tongues in their command. The Interface Model enables them to transfer those patterns of interactional behavior which will be appropriate. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c6ef6cc5e5a1c48fc788d38d2977cca.pdf 9cbf7d7ab5a6f93cac3a0ad38174419b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Abdullah Pamukcu International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina pamukcu74@hotmail.com Dzenan Salihovic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina dzeno19@hotmail.com Azamat Akbarov International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Introduction Writing is not only an innate skill that comes naturally. It is also an acquired ability learned or culturally influenced in an instructional setting in different environments. Writing skills need practice and studying with previous experience. Students who write and speak in a foreign language are socially and cognitively challenged. They are cognitively challenged because the language, the means of communication, is different. They are also socially challenged because of lack of adequate skills to build normal social relations with others. Vygotsky regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. (Berk & Winsler, 1995, p. 12) Vygotsky's (1978, 1986) socio-cultural framework of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding writing (Bodrova & Leong, 1995, 1996; Ross, 1976) are used as the theoretical basis to study the development of second language writing. Naturalistic approach, Krashen‘s (1982, 1984) theories, the way children learn their first language, and the apparent ease which they are able to pick up other languages with were acknowledged as relevant to SLA in general.. Furthermore, certain social and cognitive factors related to second language acquisition indicate that strategies involved in the language learning process also affect L2 writing. The culture-specific nature of schemata--abstract mental structures representing our knowledge of things, events, and situations--can lead to difficulties when students write texts in L2. Knowing how to write a "summary" or "analysis" in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to accomplish these in English (Kern, 2000). 8 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cognitive process of second language learners‘ writings Cognitive and psychological developments build the background of the individual knowledge is the first thing that comes to mind when talking about on individual‘s background. Knowledge was deal with the theory of Piaget‘s as mind and schema, that how infants function in the world surrounds them, how this influences their mental stability. Learning happens with environmental issues, especially equilibrium. When the infant figure out a problem, that‘s the infant learns, and the knowledge constructed by the action of that child. Learning comes with the environment, environment brings the knowledge, and then knowledge brings the acquisitions. According to the behaviorist school, as opposed to cognitive theory, learning happens through observable behaviors. The cognitive theory asserts that knowledge is acquired through communication and mind. Behaviorists come up with a different approach different view stating that learning is a product of stimulusresponse and environment. A neutral stimulus is not responded first. Then later on the organism learns to respond to stimuli with the help of reinforcement. If this is a positive reinforcement the response repeats. If the reinforcement is a negative, the response is not likely to repeat. Repetition of this process, that is the response given to stimuli, affects later learning. This is called positive and negative transfer .Effects of phonology and morphology of the first language means transfer. Both negative and positive transfer can help the second language learning. Positive transfer occurs when the rules are used correctly for the second language. Negative transfer, occurs when the rules are used incorrectly for the second language. Transfers affect the whole system of learning acquisitions. Cognitive Factors, acquisition is a product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner's internal mechanisms. With practice, there is continual restructuring as learners shift these internal representations in order to achieve increasing degrees of mastery in L2 (McLaughlin, 1988). Children invent, interact, react, and extend writing activities throughout the process of literacy acquisition. Language transfer is another important cognitive factor related to writing error. Transfer is defined as the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (Odlin, 1989). The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive transfer), avoidance of target language forms, and their over-use (Ellis, 1994). As mentioned previously Vygotsky, regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. According to, Berk & Winsler (1995, p. 12), language is such an interesting tool that it both provides communication and learning simultaneously. One can communicate while trying to use a foreign language on the one hand and he/she constantly improves language skills on the other. Both social and cognitive factors affect language learning. Exploration of social factors gives us some idea of why learners differ in rate of L2 learning, in proficiency type (for instance, conversational ability versus writing ability), and in ultimate proficiency (Ellis, 1994). Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). Much of the research on L2 writing has been closely dependent on L1 research. Although L2 writing is strategically, rhetorically, and linguistically different in many ways from L1 writing (Silva, 1993), L1 models have had a significant influence on L2 writing instruction and the development of a theory of L2 writing. However, a look at two popular L1 models will give us some insight into the problem of developing a distinct construct of L2 writing. [-2-] Cognitive writing process work Although it is often said that linguistic ―competence‖ in the sense defined by Chomsky (1965) involves some kind of ―knowledge‖ of the grammatical rules of a language, this ―knowledge‖ is ordinary out of conscious awareness … nevertheless, some adolescents and adults (and even some children) can be made to demonstrate an awareness of the syntactical structure of the sentence they speak … even among adults there are large individual differences in this ability, and these individual differences are related to successes in learning foreign languages, apparently because this ability is called upon when the student tries to learn grammatical rules and apply them in constructing and comprehending new sentences in that language. (pp. 7-8). Young children who learn a second language bring up all of the knowledge about language learning they have acquired through developing their first language. For these children, then, second-language acquisition is not a process of discovering what language is, but rather of discovering what this language is (Tabors, 1997, p. 12). And also we have to remember the existence of another impact on the L1 and L2 acquisition. The ―talent‖ for learning foreign language consists of three components. The first is verbal intelligence, by which is meant both 9 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo familiarity with words (this is measured in the Language Aptitude Battery by the ―Vocabulary‖ part) and the ability to reason analytically about verbal materials (this is measured by the part called ―Language Analysis‖). The second component is motivation to learn the language … The third component … is called ―auditory ability‖ … (Pimsleur, 1966, p. 182). There have been many researches that have come up with similar results. Edelsky (1982) analyzed the relationship between first language and second language writing of young writers in a bilingual contex.The texts writen by the same children in Spanish and English were analyzed.Edelsky found that a young writer knows about writing in the first language forms the basisi of new hypotheses for writing in another language. Furthermore Edelsky argued that certain L1 writing processesa are used in L2 writing .( Cahyono, B.2001) Moreover, several studies have looked at the effect of composing in the L1 and then translating into the L2 (Cohen & Brooks-Carson, 2001; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1994). These studies have found that the lower L2 proficiency writers benefit from composing in the L1 and then translate into the L2, a result that highlights the importance of using L1 composing strategies for lower L2 proficiency writers. (Wolfersberger, M.2003) Besides, at present some thinkers explain the knowledge with intelligence. Especially they are discussing the concept of multiple intelligence. The capacity of an individual‘s mind and intelligence at the environment in which person grew up might contribute to person aptitude for literature. Discussion Younger children learn grammar of the L2 more slowly than older learners so that although they start earlier with language learning they make slower progress and overall gains are not straightforwardly link to the time spend learning (Harley et. al 1995) The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). Writing teachers should be aware of how the instrumental motivation of their L2 students will influence the effectiveness of their lessons. Common purposes for learners writing in an EAP context include writing a research paper for publication in an English-speaking journal or writing a business report for a multinational company. These learners may be less motivated to write stories or poetry, because they perceive that these tasks are not related to their needs. Even writing a standard research essay may seem like a waste of time for those who will need to write project reports and memos. ( Myles, 2002, vol, 2 no 6) Keeping in mind all these, young learners need to build up a sound vocabulary enriched with ones‘ culture and background to produce writing, that ways to help basic writers improve their writings. Furthermore, improving writing skills depend on detailed plan and grammatical knowledge. Cognitive strategies and working memory capacity became the central focus for analyzing how writing expertise develops. It became very apparent that the well-developed writing experience comes with working memory capacity and long-term memory knowledge. Memory capacity improves as writers mature or gain writing experience. New learners lack experience in understanding reader‘s purposes, they need the oral language foundation and, rhetorical skills in order to select the most appropriate pattern through which to present their content, young learners face with weird characters, vocabulary, grammar and punctuation or inappropriate content. Environmental factors may provide a good motivation for one who just begins writing. However, equally importantly, if not more, inner motivation is also a key for writing. CONCLUSION Writing is not an instinctive talent; rather it is acquired later on. During this acquisition process several factors come into play. Either the way Piaget explains through the solution of environmental problems or through receiving help, as Vygotsky explains, the most important factors are knowledge and its acquisitions. Acquisition of knowledge is mostly about individual‘s cognitive process. These primary acquisitions affect the learning process of the first language. These acquisitions also affect the way a person learns a foreign language as the individual bases the second language on them. Therefore, the importance of writing becomes clear in the process of learning a second language. For those who start writing in a second language, there should be inner and outer factors of motivation are needed along with socio-cultural impacts. 10 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children.s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. (ERIC Document No. ED384443) Cameron, L.( 2001) Teaching languages to young learners Cambridge University Press 2001 Cahyono, B. Research Studies in Second Language Writing And In Contrastive Rhetoric Volume 3 number 1 (p, 40) Grabe, W. (2001). Notes toward a theory of second language writing. In T. Silva and P. Matsuda (Eds.), On second language writing (pp. 39-58). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kaplan, R. (1987). Cultural thought patterns revisited. In U. Connor & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 9-21). Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Kern, R. (2000). Literacy and language teaching. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen,S (1988) Second Language acquisition University of southern California McLaughlin, B. (1984). Second language acquisition inchildhood: Vol. 1. Preschool children (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. (ERIC Document No. ED154604) Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. New York: Cambridge University Press. Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Meridian Books. Piaget, J., (1983). Piaget‘s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. History, theory, and methods. New York: Wiley. Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (ERIC Document No. ED405987 Srivani, N (Y0342) An integrated approach to how children acquire language Project report (p,7) Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657-677. Wolfersberger, M (2003). L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers, Vol. 7. No. 2 A-6 September 2003 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 4 Title A name given to the resource COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Author Author Pamukcu, Abdullah Salihovic, Dženan Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/758ac7f622bcf51e6a71f178d43bfc19.pdf 73e39227639daf57fca387326c15f5a5 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo IRAK’IN YENiDEN YAPILANDIRILMASINDA AİLE EĞİTİMİ ve AİLE İŞLETMELERİNİN ÖNEMİ VE KATKISI Zeynel POLAT Yunus Emre Enstitùsù ozbekturk04@hotmail.com Ahmet DĠNÇ Ishik University Ahmet24dinc@hotmail.com Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġran‘dan sonra ispatlanmıĢ 115 milyar varilin ùzerinde petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. Tùrkiye‘nin Gùneydoğu komĢusu olan Irak‘ın kuzeyinde çoğunluğu Kùrtlerden oluĢan Kùrt Bôlgesel Yônetimi vardır ve onlardan kısaca bahsetmek istiyoruz. Nùfusu yaklaĢık 3 ila 6.5 milyon arasında değiĢen Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye valiliklerinden oluĢan bu bôlge yaklaĢık 40,000 km karedir. Bôlgeyi kalkındırma amaçlı dùzenlemeler 2006 yılından itibaren hayata geçirilmekte ve yabancı sermayeyi çekebilmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Son yıllarda komĢu Tùrkiye ile ikili ticari anlaĢmalar artmaktadır. Bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak genelindeki ve ôzel olarak Kùrt bôlgesel yônetimi içerisindeki Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde ailenin ônemi ve aile iĢletmelerinin ekonomideki yeri ùzerinde çalıĢtık. Bu çalıĢmamızda devletten ve ôzel sektôrden, birinci elden bilgi toplama gayretimizle bu bôlgede bulunmanın avantajını kullanmayı hedefledik. Ama ùlkenin geçirmiĢ olduğu sıkıntılı ve istikrarsız yapısından kaynaklanan nedenlerden dolayı bilgiye ve istatistiki dataya ulaĢma sıkıntıları hȃlȃ mevcuttur. Kısaca iktisat tarihine değindikten sonra iĢletmeler için (aile iĢletmeleri ve yabancı yatırımcıları da kapsayan) gerekli olan kanuni dùzenlemeler ùzerinde duruldu. Yapılan taramalardan 10‘a yakın aile Ģirketiyle irtibata geçildi. Onlar hakkında kısa malømatlardan sonra içlerinden birinin yôneticisiyle irtibat sağlanarak yùz yùze mùlakat yapıldı ve detaylı bilgi alındı. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı Irak‘ta çok sayıda var olan aile Ģirketlerinin durumu, hangi sektôrde ağırlık kazandıkları, ikinci veya ùçùncù kuĢak devamı var mı? Ne tùr yasal dùzenlemeler vardır? Sorularına cevap aramaktır. Bu çalıĢma kısmen Irak geneli ama ôzelde Kuzey Irak bôlgesi aile eğitimi iĢletmeleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Irak‘ın gùney kısımları Bağdat ve Musul gibi ônemli kentlere gùvenlik sebebiyle gidip gôzlemleme imkanımız olmadı ama Kuzey‘de 1307 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo bulunan baĢkent Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Duhok illerinde gùvenliğin varlığından dolayı aile Ģirketlerini birebir gôzlemleme imkanımız oldu. Anahtar Kelimeler: Irak, Aile eğitimi, Aile iĢletmesi, Yasal dùzenlemeler, Yeniden yapılandırma, Katkı 1. GĠRĠġ Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġrandan sonra ispatlanmıĢ petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. DıĢ ticaret gelirinin bùyùk bir bôlùmùnù oluĢturan petrol geliri ùlke ekonomisinde hakim sektôrdùr. 1980‘lerde Ġran‘la sùren 8 yıllık savaĢ Irak ekonomisinde bùyùk mali kayıplara sebep olurken; Irak, 1968‘den 2003‘e kadar Baas Partisi yônetimi altında idi. Amerika‘nın 2003 yılında koltuğundan ettiği Saddam Hùseyin 1979‘dan beri ùlkeyi yônetmekteydi. 2009 yılı sayımına gôre ùlkenin nùfusu 31,234,000 kiĢiden oluĢan Irak vatandaĢlarının çoğunluğu Araplar da olmak ùzere Kùrtler, Asurlular, Mandeans ve Tùrkmenlerden oluĢmaktadır. Yabancı ve yerli yatırımcıya kapılarını açan Irak, yeni yatırım kanununu 2006 yılında yùrùrlùğe koydu. Hùkùmet zor dônemden çıkıĢ yolunu seçebilmek ve ùlke istikrarını sağlayabilmek için ve bu zorlu sùreci baĢarılı kılmak için yatırıma ağırlık vermektedir. Ülkenin zorlu dônemecini ve bir dizi yeni teĢviklerle yasalarını yùrùrlùğe koydu. Yabancı yatırımcının yerli yatırımcıdan farkı yoktu. Irak halkının kùltùrù aile iĢletmelerine yatkın olduğundan çok sayıda aile iĢletmeleri de bu yeni yatırım kanunlarından faydalanmaktadır. YapmıĢ olduğumuz bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak ve Kuzey‘de bulunan Kùrt bôlgesel yônetiminde aile ĠĢletmelerini incelemeye çalıĢtık. Irak, 1979‘dan 2003 yılına kadar Saddam Hùseyin‘in kontrolùnde sıkıntılı gùnler yaĢamaya devam etti. 1980‘lerde baĢlayan ve 10 yıla yakın sùren Ġran-Irak savaĢı, I. ve II. Kôrfez savaĢları, uluslararası birliklerden uygulanan ambargolar ùlkenin tarihinde ônemli yer teĢkil eden ve istikrarsızlığın nedenini açıklayan en ônemli geliĢmelerdir. (U.S. Department of State vd. 2010) Bu çalıĢmamızda Irak aile yapısını inceledik. Bunun ekonomiye katkısı ùzerinde olumlu etkisi olup olmadığını araĢtırdık. Çùnkù biliniyor ki ùretim faktôrlerinden en ônemlisi iĢ gùcùdùr. SavaĢ ortamında eğitimin olmaması veya yeterli olmaması sonucu aile içinde yetiĢim veya bùyùklerinden gôrùp yetiĢme halk dilinde çekirdekten yetiĢme bu eksikliği hangi ôlçùde giderir? Sorusunun cevabını aradık. Irak kùltùrùnde bùyùklerin ôzellikle de babanın ağırlığının hissedilir ôlçùde olduğu kanaati oluĢtu bizde. SavaĢlarla boğuĢan Irak bu hengameden çıkıĢ yolu olarak yatırım gôrdùğùnden çalıĢmamızın ikinci kısmını yatırım dùzenlemeleri almaktadır. Yeni yatırım kanunları teĢvik edici gôrùlmùĢtùr. Üçùncù olarak ôzel sektôrù analiz ettik. Aile iĢletmelerinin ùlkede hissedilir derece ağırlığının olması Irak kùltùrùyle yakın ilintili olmasından kaynaklandığı sonucuna vardık. 2. AĠLE EĞĠTĠMĠ, ÜNĠVERSĠTELER VE BUNLARIN EKONOMĠK KALKINMAYA KATKISI Irak‘ta nùfusun geneli, Kuzey Irak Kùrt Özerk Bôlgesi‘nde yaĢamaktadır. Bu bôlgede yaĢayan Kùrt nùfusunun toplam 3 milyon civarında olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. SavaĢ sonrasında genel veya bôlgesel nùfus sayımı sağlıklı yapılamadığından, bôlgesel nùfus mùbadelesinin veya gôçùĢmenin yoğun Ģekilde yaĢanması nùfusun tam olarak nekadar olduğunu verememektedir. 1991 ve 2002 yılı sonrası Gùney Irak‘ta yaĢayan halk, savaĢ tehlikesinin yanında Sùnnî-ġiî tehdidinden kaçarak, Kuzey Irak‘a yerleĢmiĢtir. Bu sebeple Kuzey Özerk Bôlge‘de karıĢıklıktan uzak durmak isteyen Arap nùfusunda da artıĢ olmuĢtur. Özellikle Bağdat‘ın eğitimde kendini ıspatlamıĢ ùniversitelerindeki eğitim kadrosu da bu gôçte yerini almıĢ, bu hadise Kuzey Irak‘ın eğitim alanında gùnden gùne tırmanıĢına yardımcı olmuĢtur. Gôçler sebebi ile Kuzey Irak nùfusu tam olarak kestirilememektedir. Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde aile, gelenek ve kùltùrlerine sahip çıkmıĢ bir dùzen içindedir. KomĢularla iliĢkilerini sıkı tutan, onlarla Kùrt-Ġslam Kùltùrlerini yaĢatma gayreti gôsteren dùĢùnceye sahipler. Genelde kendi aralarında kız alıp verdikleri gôrùlùr. Bu davranıĢ Ģekli, kendilerini soyutlama anlamında dùĢùnùlmemelidir. Aile Ģirketinin devamı olarak algılansa, bôlge halkı hakkında sosyo-ekonomik açıdan yaklaĢmıĢ oluruz. Eğitim reformlarından ônce evlenme yaĢı 15-18‘ lerde iken, reform sonrası ise 20 yaĢın ùzerine çıkmıĢtır. Kuzey Irak‘ta soy-kabile iliĢkileri korunduğu için sosyo–ekonomik iliĢkilerin yine aile eğitim sistemi dairesinde geliĢip, korunduğuna Ģahit olmaktayız. Halk da hayatını idame ettiği topraklarda XI.yy. itibari ile gùnùmùze kadar olan sùreçte eğitimlerini medreselerde devam ettirmiĢtir. Bu sebeple medreseler bôlgedeki halkın ekonomik ve kùltùrel yaĢam tarzlarına Ģekil vermiĢtir. Dinî ilimlerin yanında mùsbet ilimleri (pozitif ilimler) fizik, kimya, astronomi, matematik, tıp, coğrafyayı yine bu medreselerde okuyarak kendilerini yetiĢtirmiĢlerdir. Bu medreseler bilim ve eğitim hayatına kazandırdıkları ile kendi toplumunun sosyal değiĢimine yônelik etkileri gùn yùzùne çıkmaktadır. Edebiyat alanında da durum bôyledir. TanınmıĢ Kùrt edebiyatçılarına bakıldığında edebî eser 1308 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo sahiplerinin hemen hemen hepsinin medreselerden yetiĢtiğini gôrmekteyiz.353 Kuzey Irak‘ın Eğitim sistemi çok zayıf gibi gôrùnse de gùnden gùne bu açığını kapatma gayreti, azmi ve çalıĢmaları içindeler. Okur-yazarlık oranı savaĢ ôncesi ve savaĢ sonrası olmak ùzere iki dôneme ayrılabilir. SavaĢ sebebi ile cephede bulunan veya değiĢik sebeplerle eğitimini tamamlayamamıĢ halk için gece okulları, dıĢarıdan eğitim, ders geçmede kolaylıklar sunulmaktadır. SavaĢ sonrası eğitimdeki reformlar ve yeni yaklaĢımlar sonucu, gùnden gùne ôzel ôğretimin de artmasına, buna bağlı olarak eğitimin doğru orantıda kaliteli olmasına yansımıĢtır. Bu yeni uygulama farklı etnik ve dinsel kimlikleri birleĢtirici rol oynamaktadır. Kùrt Özerk Bôlgesi'nden taĢralı bir ilkôğretim ôğrencisi. Toplumsal ve siyasi çatıĢmaların yaĢandığı toplumlarda daha huzurlu bir hayat yaĢamak için eğitimin rolù hiçbir zaman yadsınamaz. 2.1 ÇalıĢan kadınlar: Kuzey Irak‘ta yaĢayan nùfusta Erbil, Sùleymaniye gibi bùyùk yerleĢim yerleri dıĢında kalan yerlerde kadının çalıĢma hayatı içinde daha çok tarım iĢkolu ile sosyal ve kiĢisel hizmetler iĢkolunda yer aldıkları gôrùlmektedir. Eğitime bağlı olarak kadının iĢ istihdamı gùnden gùne artıĢ gôstermektedir. Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel yônetim dahilinde kadının iĢ istihdamı eğitime bağlı olarak değiĢim sùreci içine girmiĢtir. Bôlgede atılım gôsteren Tùrk iĢverenlerince açılan yeni birimlerde istihdam edilmekteler. Eğitim seviyesi dùĢùk ve kırsal kesimde olan kiĢiler daha çok tarım ve hayvancılık ile uğraĢmaktadır. Tùrkiye sınırına yakın bir tarlada çalıĢan Iraklı kôylùler . 2.2 Kamu çalıĢanları: SavaĢ sonrası Kuzey Irak‘ın eğitim seviyesindeki hızlı ilerleme neticesinde mahalli idareler, doktorluk, hemĢirelik, akademisyenlik, basın - yayın ve ôğretmenlik en çok kabul gôren mesleklerdir. Bùro iĢi yapma ve devlet memuru olma tercihi yaygın hale gelmektedir. Çağı yakalama aĢamasında Kuzey Irak Bôlgesi‘nde hizmet eden devlet ve ôzel ùniversiteler bulunmaktadır. Bu ùniversitelerin baĢında en çok ôğrencisi ile devlet ùniversiteleri Erbil Salahaddin Üniversitesi (Zankoi Salahaddin), Sùleymaniye Üniv. Kôysancak Üniv. Duhok Üniv. gelirken; çağdaĢ eğitimi ile Erbil ve Irak geneline hizmet eden ôzel ùniversitelerden Ishık Üniv. Cihan Üniv. Kùrdistan Üniv. gibi ùniversiteler Irak‘ın eğitim, siyasi dùĢùnce, ekonomik, yapılanmasında bùyùk rol oynamakta, kamu ve ôzel sektôre insan gùcù kazandırmaktadır. 353 Tarih Vakfı tarafından ġubat 2009 – Temmuz 2010 Tarihleri arasında gerçekleĢtirilen ―Toplumsal ve Siyasal ÇatıĢmaların YaĢandığı Toplumlarda UzlaĢma Aracı Olarak Eğitimin Rolù‖ Projesinde hazırlanan kitap 1309 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo SavaĢ sonrası eğitim faaliyetlerine hız veren Kuzey Irak, eğitimde kılık kıyafet basta olmak ùzere eğitim ve ôğretim alanında ôzgùrlùğù de benimsemiĢtir. ùniversite ôğrencileri kendi dinî ve millî kimliklerini aksettiren kıyafetleri ile derslere devam edebilmektedir. 3. YENĠDEN YAPILANDIRMADA UYGUN ORTAM VE YASAL DÜZENLEMELER Yatırım kanunlarıyla dùnya ticaret ôrgùtù içinde yerini almak isteyen Irak yatırımı ve modern teknoloji transferini gerçekleĢtirebilmek için Irak Hùkùmeti yabancı yatırımcıya bir dizi imtiyazları ve garantileri kanunlaĢtırdı. Iraklı ve yabancı yatırımcı toplu konut projelerinde yer almaları halinde bakanlığın onayıyla ulusal komisyon tarafından Ģartları belirlenmiĢ Ģekilde toprağı kullanma hakkına sahip oldular. Toprak sahibinin spekùlasyon hareketi kontrol altına alındı. Komisyon toplu konut projesi için gerekli toprağın alımını da kolaylaĢtırdı. Yerli ve yabancı yatırımcılar bu kanunlardan nasıl fayda gôrecekler sorusunun cevaplarını Ģôyle sıralayabiliriz: 1- Kanuna gôre yatırımcı dıĢardan aldığı ve vergisini ôdediği kapitali çıkarabilecektir. 2- Yabancı yatırmcı borsadan bono ve hisse alabilecek. 3- 50 yıla kadar toprak kiralayabilecek. 4- Proje, yerli veya yabancı sigorta Ģirketine sigortalabilinir. 5- Irak içinde veya dıĢında Irak Dinarı veya istenilen para cinsinden hesap açılabilir. 6- Irak‘ta çalıĢtırılacak iĢçi için firmanın isteği doğrultusunda istenilen ùlke vatandaĢı iĢçi olarak kabul gôrùp ikamet izni alabilecek. 7- Irak‘ta çalıĢan iĢçiler maaĢlarını kendi ùlkelerine transfer yapabilirler. Irak hùkùmetinin onayladığı bu yeni yatırım kanunları hem yerli hem yabancı yatırımcılar için geçerlidir. Yine bu teĢvik kanununda 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti vardır. Eğer yabancı firma bir Iraklı ortağa sahipse ve yerli ortağın hissesi %50 den fazla ise 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti 15 yıla çıkar. Hastahane, turizm bùrosu, otel, sağlık kuruluĢu, rehabilitasyon merkezi, bilim merkezi vb. yatırımlar da yurt dıĢından getireceği ofis mobilyaları ve benzeri ithal mallardan vergi alınmayacaktır. Bu kanunlar Kuzey Irak Yônetimi bôlgesi için geçerli kanunlar değildir. Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel Yônetiminin kendine has kanuni dùzenlemeleri mevcuttur. (Saiflaw, 2010) 2006 yatırım kanunu yatırımcılara hak ve sorumluluklar yùklemektedir. Yatırım için kurulan ulusal komisyon yatırım lisansı vermektedir. 7. maddeye gôre baĢvuru yapıldıktan sonraki 45 gùn içinde komisyon lisans verme kararını veriyor. Eğer yatırım projesi 250 milyon doları geçiyorsa lisansa baĢvurmak için bakanlar kurulunun onayı gerekir. 12. Maddede yabancı yatırımcıların ve iĢçilerin Irak‘a giriĢ-çıkıĢ kolaylığı belirtilmektedir. Bu kanunda Irak vatandaĢı iĢçilerin istihdam edilmesine ôncelik verildiği de vurgulanmıĢtır. 14. Maddeye gôre yatırımcı ekonomik ve teknik kolaylığı olan uygun yatırım kontratı sağlamalıdır. Yatırıma baĢlama tarihi ve iĢ planının aĢamaları bildirilmelidir ve bildirilen Ģartlara uygun hareket edilmelidir. 15.-18. Maddelerde bir dizi yatırım muafiyetleri var. Yukarıda bahsedildiği gibi bunların baĢında 10 yıllık vergi muafiyeti yer almaktadır. 21. Madde yatırımın Ģeklini tanımlamaktadır; ôdeme, aktiflerin değeri, gereçler ve teknik ustalık, patent ve hizmetleri içeren hakların tanımı vardır. Uluslararası yatırım sôzleĢmelerinde bulunan yatırımın tarifi baz alınmıĢtır. Yatırımcı ne çeĢit ve hangi sektôrde yatırım yapacağının farkında olmalıdır. 27. Madde, anlaĢmazlık halinde Irak mahkemelerine yargılama hakkı verir. 30. Madde bakanlar kuruluna kanunu yùrùrlùğe koyma yetkisi verir. (Iraq LegalGuide, 2010) Yatırımcılar hȃlȃ gùvenliği ônde tutan bir dùĢùnceyle hareket etmektedirler. 2008‘den 2010‘a geçerken ve bugùnlerde bile oteller ve devlet dairelerini hedef alan bombalama hadiseleri mevcuttur. Ama bu hadiseler ônceki yıllara nazaran dùĢmeye devam etmektedir. Bu dùĢùĢ durumu bile Irak devletine, ôzel sektôre ve yabancı Ģirketlere Irak‘ta yatırım imkanı tanımaktadır. Irak hùkùmeti baĢta petrol olmak ùzere birçok 1310 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo yabancı Ģirketle anlaĢmıĢ ve lisans vermiĢtir. Yapılan kontratlar Irak‘ın petrol ihraç kapasitesini son 7 yılda %500 arttırabilir niteliktedir. (Stategov, 2010) Bùyùk Ģirketlerin yanında kùçùk ve orta ôlçekli iĢletmeler, gùvenlik maliyeti, hantal ve ĢaĢırtıc prosedùr, devletin yatırım karĢılığı ôdeyeceği meblağın uzun vadeli olması gibi zorluklarla karĢılaĢılabilir. Dùnya bankasının yaptığı dùnyada en kolay iĢ yapma sıralamasında ırak 183 ùlkeden 153. Arap ùlkeleri arasında ise 16.sıradadır. (The World Bank, 2010) Bu sayılan zorluklar Irak‘ın Kuzey bôlgesel yônetiminde gôrùlmemektedir. Irakın kuzeyinde gùvenlik problemi olmamakla birlikte bôlgesel yônetimin yatırım teĢvikleri de vardır. Kuzeyde bulunan bôlgesel yônetim baĢkent Erbil olmak ùzere Sùleymaniye ve Duhok Ģehirlerinden oluĢmaktadır. Bôlge 40.000 km2 alanıyla Irak‘ın %18‘ini oluĢturmaktadır. Bôlgede yaĢayan Kùrt nùfusun yaklaĢık 3 milyon olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Yer altı kaynakları bakımından bôlge zengin petrol ve gaz rezervlerinin yanında kômùr, demir ve bakır rezervlerine de sahiptir. Bôlgenin gùvenlik sorunu olmaması yatırımın çekilmesinde baĢlıca sebeptir. Irak‘ta veya Kuzey Irak‘ta yatırım yapmak isteyen yerli ve yabancı yatırımcılar için bu bôlge adeta giriĢ-çıkıĢ kapısı rolù de gôrmektedir. Bôlgenin Ġran-Tùrkiye-Suriye‘ye sınırı olması Irak için adeta kapı konumunda olmasını ve ticarette de ùstùnlùk sağlıyor. Bôlgenin daha gùvenli olması sebebiyle yerli ve yabancı yatırımcıların dikkatini çekmiĢ ve bu da kiĢi baĢına dùĢen gelirin artmasıyla sonuçlanmıĢtır. 2007 yılında kiĢi baĢına gelir 2300 - 2500 Dolar‘dan (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) 2010 yılına gelindiğinde 3300 - 4500 Dolar‘a kadar çıktığı gôzlemlenmiĢtir. (Fathi M. Ali- Mudaris, 2010) - Yeni dùzenlemede yabancı firmaların yerli ortağı olma ihtiyacı ortadan kaldırıldı. Yabancı yatırımcıya Iraklı biri gibi ùlkede firma kurma kolaylığı getirildi. Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Bağdat merkezli ùç ayrı yerde yatırım yaptırmak isteyenler için kayıt yeri vardır. Kayıt yaptırmak isteyen firma avukatlar birliğine ùye bir avukat tutmak zorundadır. Yabancı yatırımcı herhangi bir Iraklı vatandaĢın haklarına sahipçesine firmasını Kuzey yônetim bôlgesinde kurabilir. Yabancı firma, yerli veya aile Ģirketi olması herhangi bir fark gerektirmemektedir. 1-Ülkesinde kayıtlı olan herhangi bir yabancı firma kayıtlı olduğu sertifikası, Irak bùyùkelçiliğinde veya Kuzey bôlgesel yônetiminin temsilciliği varsa onun mùhrùyle mùhùrlenmelidir. 2-KuruluĢ sertifikasının bir fotokopisi veya kurulduğu ùlkedeki resmi otoritede onaylı tùm belgeler kurucular veya temsilci tarafından imzalanmalı ve Irak elçiliği tarafından mùhùrlenmeli. 3-ġube açacak firmanın kurucu ùyeleri kiĢiyi (yônetici-avukat-iĢçi) resmi bir yazıyla atamalı ve bu atama yazısı Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalı. (Atanan insanların bôlgesel yônetimden oturum izni almalıdır.) 4-Yabancı firmanın atadığı kiĢi hakkında yetkililere doğru bilgi verilmelidir. 5-Merkez firmanın son yılın finansal raporları Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalı. 6-Tùm gerekli resmi evraklar Ġngilizce ve Arapça olmalıdır. Bu evraklar Irak elçiliği tarafından onaylanmalıdır. 7-Kayıt ùcreti 200.000 Irak dinarıdır. 8-Kuzey Irak Bôlgesel Kùrt Yônetimi‘ndeki Ģirketin kira sôzlenmesi. 9-SôzleĢmede belirtilen Ģirketin faaliyet alanı hakkında bilgi verilmelidir. 10-Tutulan barolar birliğine kayıtlı avukatın kontratı ve muhasebeciler birliğine kayıtlı muhasebe yetkilisinin kontratı belirtilmelidir. 11-Gerekli formlar doldurulmalıdır. (formlar websitesinde mevcuttur -www.br-iraq.com-) (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) Özel ve aile Ģirketlerini ilgilendiren bazı kanunlardan ve dùzenlemelerden bahsedersek: 1997 yılında 21 numaralı bu kanun 2003 yılında değiĢime uğradı. A-ġirket Kayıt Kanunu; 1- Kaydını yaptıran Ģirket yabancı veya yerli olsun ayrım yoktur. 2- Yabancılar Ģirketin %100‘ ùne sahip olabilirler. Yani yabancı Ģirket için yerli ortakla iĢ yapmak zorunluluğu olmayacaktır. 3- ġirket çeĢitli sektôrlerde aynı anda iĢ yapabilecektir. 4- Yabancı iĢçi çalıĢtırabilecektir. B-Sanayi GeliĢimi Kanunu; 1-ġirketler fabrika kurabilirler. 2- Ġmal edeceği ùrùnùn ôn fizibilite çalıĢması sunulmalıdır. 3- Yetkililer fabrika için dùĢùk maliyetli toprak sağlamasında kolaylık gôstereceklerdir ve hammade sağlanması için lisans verilecektir. C- Ticaret ve sanayi bakanlığı yerli ve yabancı Ģirketler için ithalat ve ihracaat lisansını bir yıllığına verecektir gerektiğinde bu sùre uzatılabilecektir. Ġthal mallardan; gıda, ilaç, tıbbi malzeme, kitap ve kırtasiye, inĢaat malzemeleri, çimento ve çelik hariç % 5 vergi vardır. (Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, 2007) 1311 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. AĠLE ĠġLETMELERĠNĠN SEKTÖREL ANALĠZĠ VE ÜLKE KALKINMASINA KATKISI Aile iĢletmeleri ùlke ekonomisinde bùyùk bir yer tutmakta ve ùlke ekonomisinin belkemiğini oluĢturmaktadır. Dùnya genelinde iĢletmelerin %65 ila %80‘inin aile iĢletmesi olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Fortune Dergisinin ilk 500 listesinde % 40‘ını aile iĢletmeleri oluĢturmaktadır. (Ward vd, 2001: 3) Amerika‘daki iĢletmelerin % 90‘ı aile Ģirketlerinden oluĢmaktadır. Ayrıca aile iĢletmelerinin Amerika‘nın gayri safi milli hasılasındaki ve tùm çalıĢanlara ôdenen ùcretlerdeki payı da yùzde 50 dir. (Bowman-Upton, 1991). Tùrkiye‘deki aile iĢletmelerinin oranı da yùzde 95 civarındadır. (Erdil vd, 2004, 2) Aile iĢletmeleri bir ailedeki bireylerinin sorumluluğu, kontrolù ve ortaklığı içerisindeki iĢletmelerdir. Aile iĢletmelerinin tanımlanması ile ilgili gôrùĢ farklılıkları olsa da ortak intiba aile iĢletmelerinin hisselerinin bùyùk çoğunluğunun aile bireylerine ait olması yanında yônetim biçim ve tarzının da aile fertleri tarafından belirlendiği iĢletmeler olduğu kanısı ortak dùĢùncedir. (Pazarcık, 2004: 2-3) Bu tanım ıĢığında aile iĢletmeleri aile içinden bir kuĢaktan diğer kuĢağa devredilebilen iĢletmeler olarak da tanımlanmaktadır. Yônetimin devri aile iĢletmesinin yaĢamında ônemli bir dônùm noktasıdır. Aile iĢletmelerinin en ônemli sorunlarından biri sùreklilik ve gelecek planlamasıdır. Ġstatistikler de devir iĢleminin tipik sorunlu bir konu olduğunu doğrulamaktadır. Yapılan araĢtırmalar ùçte birinden daha az oranda aile iĢletmesinin 1. kuĢaktan 2. kuĢağa geçebildiğini, bunların ise ancak yarısının 3. kuĢağı gôrebildiklerini ortaya koymaktadır. (Bowman-Upton, 1991) Aile tarafından kurulmuĢ ve bu ôzelliğini yitirmeden yùzyılı aĢkın sùredir baĢarı ile ayakta kalmıĢ birçok Ģirket vardır. Bu tùr Ģirketlerin dùnya ôrnekleri arasında Bosch, Prada, Miele, De Beers, Tùrkiye ôrnekleri icinde de Hacı Bekir, Kurukahveci Mehmet Efendi, Komili ve Konyalı sayılabilir. Ekonomik yapı geliĢmeler ıĢığında değerlendirildiğinde Irak ekonomik yônden incelendiğinde istikrarsızlıklar gôzlemlenmektedir. 1980‘lerde Irak-Ġran SavaĢı, 1990‘larda Kuveyt‘in iĢgali ùzerine baĢlayan uluslararası askeri harekat ve 2003 yılında Amerika‘nın askeri mùdahalesinin dônùm noktasını teĢkil ettiği son 30 yılda Irak ekonomisi oldukça istikrarsız bir yapı sergilemiĢtir. Çesitli dônemlerde yùrùrlùğe konan ekonomik ambargolar da Irak‘ın uluslararası ekonomiye entegrasyonunu gùçlestirmistir. 1991 – 1995 yılları arasında BirleĢmiĢ Milletler (BM) tarafından Irak‘a sunulan petrol karĢılığı gıda ithalatı ônerisi, Irak Hùkùmeti tarafından kabul gôrmemiĢ ve petrol geliri elde edilemediği için ùlkede fakirlik hızla artmıĢtır. 1996 yılında, Irak Hùkùmeti, BM tarafından ônerilen Gıda KarĢılığı Petrol Programı (OFF) ônerisini kabul etmek durumunda kalmıĢtır. Bu programla, Irak hùkùmetine sınırlı miktarda petrol ihraç etme ve bunun karĢılığında gıda ve insani malzeme ithal etme izni verilmiĢtir. 22 Mayıs 2003 tarihinde, BM Gùvenlik Konseyi 1483 Sayılı kararı kabul etmiĢ ve Irak ùzerindeki tùm ticari yaptırımların bittiğini ilan ederek, OFF programını yùrùrlùkten kaldırmıĢtır. Amerika‘nın askeri mùdahalesinin ardından kurulan Irak‘ın Yeniden Yapılandırılması ve Ġnsani Yardım Kurumu (ORHA- Yeniden ĠnĢaa ve Ġnsani Yardım Ofisi) ùlkede idari ve ekonomik yapıyı yeniden oluĢturmakla gôrevlendirilmistir. Bununla birlikte, 2003 yılında Irak ekonomisi savaĢın ve savaĢ sonrası gùvenlik durumunun kôtùleĢmesinin yanı sıra ùlkedeki devlet kurumlarının tamamına yakınının tasfiye edilmesi, gerekli idarelerinin tesis edilememesi ve artan istikrasızlık gibi nedenlerle kôtùye gitmistir. (Deik, 2010: 3) Kùrt bôlgesel yônetiminin tarihi ve ekonomik yônùnù de kısaca izah etmemizde fayda mùlahaza ettik. Kuzey yônetimi ôzerkliğini 11 Mart 1970‘te yapılan anlaĢmayla merkezi hùkùmetten almıĢtır. Ancak bu durum 3 sene sùrmùĢ ve anlaĢma 1974 yılında dùĢmùĢtùr. Bôlge yônetimi 1991 yılı Ekim ayında de facto (fiili) olarak ôzerkliğini almıĢtır. 2005 yılında da Geçici Irak Yônetimi tarafından tam ôzerklik verilmiĢtir. (U.S. Department of State vd. 2010) Kuzey Bôlgesel Yônetiminin ekonomisi petrol baĢta olmak ùzere tarım ve turizm gelirlerine dayanmaktadır. Bu yônetimin altındaki ùç yôresel idare (Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye) Amerikan ordusu tarafından tùm Irak‘ta ―gùvenli‖ kabul edilen tek yerlerdir. Bu durum bôlgenin Irak‘ın diğer yerlerine gôre daha fazla geliĢmesine ve yatırımın bu alanda yoğunlaĢmasını sağlamıĢtır. Bôlge yônetimi Saddam Hùseyin dôneminde BM‘in uyguladığı ―Gıda için Petrol‖ programı çerçevesinde alınan petrol gelirlerinin yùzde 13‘ùnù almaktaydı. Bu oran Ģimdilerde yùzde 17‘ye çıkmıĢtır. Bôlgede 2003 yılında Amerikan çıkarması baĢladığı andan itibaren koalisyon askerine karĢılık bir giriĢim vuku bulmamıĢtır. Ayrıca yeni çıkartılan yatırım teĢvik kanunlarında kuzey bôlgesi cazip bir duruma gelmiĢ ve kısa zamanda yùzlerce yeni yatırımcı gelerek onlarca yeni firma kurmaya baĢlamıĢtır. (KRG vd, 2010) Tablo 1‘de 2004 yılında Irak Planlama ve Kalkınma Bakanlığının hazırladığı raporda Amerikan çıkarması ôncesindeki resmi olarak Aile ĠĢletmelerinin sayısı ve hangi illerde kurulduğunu gôrebiliriz. 1312 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Tablo 1. Iraktaki Aile ĠĢletmeleri Sayısı ve Faaliyet Yerleri YERĠ AĠLE ĠġLETMELERĠ Amara 10 Bakuba 17 Bağdat 6 Basra 2 Divaniye 16 Dohuk 9 Erbil 4 Hilla 21 Kerbela 12 Kerkùk 3 Kut 21 Musul 11 Necef 4 Nasariye 2 Ramadi 25 Selahaddin 25 Samava 10 Sùlemaniye 16 Kaynak: Irak YaĢam Standardları ÇalıĢması, 2004 BirleĢmiĢ Milletler GeliĢim Programı ve Ġstatistik ve Bilim Teknoloji Merkez TeĢkilatı Irak Planlama ve Kalkınma Bakanlığı. Tablo 1‘den gôrùldùğù ùzere resmi olarak faaliyette olan aile iĢletmelerinin sayısı çok azdır. Firmaların bùyùk bir çoğunluğu 1. veya 2. kuĢak iĢletmeleridir. Bunun nedeni yukarda açıklandığı ùzere istikrarsızlıktan kaynaklanması olabilir. Yaptığımız araĢtırmalar sonucunda çok az sayıdaki firmanın 3. kuĢak tarafından idare edildiği gôzlemlenmektedir. SONUÇ Yaptığımız açıklamalar ıĢığında değerlendirildiğinde hem Irak genelinde hem de Kuzey Bôlgesel Yônetim alanında ticaret ve ekonominin 2003 yılı ôncesinde istenilen seviyede geliĢme gôstermediğini anlayabiliriz. Irak‘ta kurulan iĢletmelerin tùm dùnya genelinde olduğu gibi bùyùk oranını aile iĢletmeleri teĢkil etmektedir. Irak aile yapısı da bunu beslemekte ve aile bireylerinin birbirilerini iĢ partnerleri olarak gôrmesi de hemen hemen kurulan bùtùn iĢletmelerin aile iĢletmesi olarak kurulmasına yol açmaktadır. (Metz, 1988: 44) Toplumsal ve siyasal çalkalanmaların yaĢandığı toplumlarda eğitimin rolù bùyùktùr. Bu sebeple ùniversite destekli aile eğitiminin ùlke kalkınmasına katkısı çoktur. ġu anda bile Irak devleti savaĢ ortamında olduğundan dolayı gùçlù bir aile eğitimi ihtiyacı ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Bôlgede faaliyet gôsteren devlet ve ôzel ùniversitelerin savaĢ sonrası için eğitimli, tam techizatlı personel ihtiyacını karĢılama vazifesi bilinci içinde olup, ona gôre hareket etmelilerdir. 1313 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES The World Bank, Doing Business in the Arab World, International Finance Corporation, Abu Dhabi, 2010, p. 14 Fathi M. Ali Abdullah, Kurdıstan The commercial gateway to Iraq, Ministry of Trade & Industry, Minara publishing house, Erbil, 2007 Fathi M. Ali- Mudaris, A short guide to the KRG‘s trade policies, regulations and procedures, Ministry of trade & Industry, Erbil, 2010 Erdil, Oya, Çiğerim ErĢan ve Gôk ġahin (2004) ―Aile ĠĢletmelerinde Yônetim Biçimleri Üzerine Bir Literatùr AraĢtırması‖ Aile ĠĢletmeleri Kongresi, Kongre Kitabı 2.Baskı s. 2 Pazarcık, Orhan (2004), ―Aile iĢletmelerinin Tanımı KurumsallaĢması ve YônetiĢimi‖ AĠK 04 1. Aile ĠĢletmeleri Kongresi, Kongre Kitabi 2. Baskı, syf 2-3. Nancy Bowman-Upton 1991, ―Transferring Management in the Family-Owned Business‖, U.S. Small Business Administration. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6804.htm#profile [EriĢim 1.9.2010] Deik 2010, Irak Ülke Bùlteni ġubat 2010, http://www.deik.org.tr/Lists/Bulten/Attachments/130/Irak%20Ulke%20Bulteni,%20Nisan%202010_TR.pdf, [EriĢim 11.9.2010] KRG, (2010), Kurdistan Regional Government Fact Sheets, http://www.krg.org/articles/detail.asp?rnr=272&lngnr=12&smap=01060100&anr=25488[EriĢim 11.9.2010] Randel S. Carlock ve Prof. John L. Ward(2001), Strategic Planning for The Family Business: Parallel Planning to Unify the Family and Business, Palgrave) Metz, Helen Chapin(1988), Iraq: A Country Study, Family and Society, Washington: GPO for the Library O f Congress, p44-45. www.saiflaw.com/iraq.html, EriĢim, 08.08.2010) (http://trade.gov/iraq/LegalGuide2008.asp, EriĢim, 02. 08. 2010) (www.state.gov/e/eeb/rls/othr/ics/2010/138084.htm, EriĢim, 25.07.2010) 1314 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 681 Title A name given to the resource IRAK’IN YENiDEN YAPILANDIRILMASINDA AİLE EĞİTİMİ ve AİLE İŞLETMELERİNİN ÖNEMİ VE KATKISI Author Author POLAT, Zeynel DİNÇ, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Irak, Suudi Arabistan, Kanada ve Ġran‘dan sonra ispatlanmıĢ 115 milyar varilin ùzerinde petrol rezerviyle dùnyada dôrdùncù sırada yer almaktadır. Tùrkiye‘nin Gùneydoğu komĢusu olan Irak‘ın kuzeyinde çoğunluğu Kùrtlerden oluĢan Kùrt Bôlgesel Yônetimi vardır ve onlardan kısaca bahsetmek istiyoruz. Nùfusu yaklaĢık 3 ila 6.5 milyon arasında değiĢen Duhok, Erbil ve Sùleymaniye valiliklerinden oluĢan bu bôlge yaklaĢık 40,000 km karedir. Bôlgeyi kalkındırma amaçlı dùzenlemeler 2006 yılından itibaren hayata geçirilmekte ve yabancı sermayeyi çekebilmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Son yıllarda komĢu Tùrkiye ile ikili ticari anlaĢmalar artmaktadır. Bu çalıĢmada baĢlıca Irak genelindeki ve ôzel olarak Kùrt bôlgesel yônetimi içerisindeki Kuzey Irak bôlgesinde ailenin ônemi ve aile iĢletmelerinin ekonomideki yeri ùzerinde çalıĢtık. Bu çalıĢmamızda devletten ve ôzel sektôrden, birinci elden bilgi toplama gayretimizle bu bôlgede bulunmanın avantajını kullanmayı hedefledik. Ama ùlkenin geçirmiĢ olduğu sıkıntılı ve istikrarsız yapısından kaynaklanan nedenlerden dolayı bilgiye ve istatistiki dataya ulaĢma sıkıntıları hȃlȃ mevcuttur. Kısaca iktisat tarihine değindikten sonra iĢletmeler için (aile iĢletmeleri ve yabancı yatırımcıları da kapsayan) gerekli olan kanuni dùzenlemeler ùzerinde duruldu. Yapılan taramalardan 10‘a yakın aile Ģirketiyle irtibata geçildi. Onlar hakkında kısa malømatlardan sonra içlerinden birinin yôneticisiyle irtibat sağlanarak yùz yùze mùlakat yapıldı ve detaylı bilgi alındı. Bu çalıĢmanın amacı Irak‘ta çok sayıda var olan aile Ģirketlerinin durumu, hangi sektôrde ağırlık kazandıkları, ikinci veya ùçùncù kuĢak devamı var mı? Ne tùr yasal dùzenlemeler vardır? Sorularına cevap aramaktır. Bu çalıĢma kısmen Irak geneli ama ôzelde Kuzey Irak bôlgesi aile eğitimi iĢletmeleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Irak‘ın gùney kısımları Bağdat ve Musul gibi ônemli kentlere gùvenlik sebebiyle gidip gôzlemleme imkanımız olmadı ama Kuzey‘de bulunan baĢkent Erbil, Sùleymaniye ve Duhok illerinde gùvenliğin varlığından dolayı aile Ģirketlerini birebir gôzlemleme imkanımız oldu. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics