77 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35612543369cc8b164ef117171c3cbfa.pdf 77132c5573e74b611a7f56cd798e0049 PDF Text Text Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars Sadettin Küçük Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey kucuksadettin07@hotmail.com Meliha Temirkaynak Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey temirkaynak@hotmail.com Recep Çoşkun Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey recep0768@mynet.com Hüseyin Namal Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey hus_namal@hotmail.com Abstract: The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars. Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing 0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality. Keywords: Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp, IBA, rooting. Introduction Nowadays, the fig cultivation for earliness has expanded significantly in Turkey-Mediterrenean Region particularly in Antalya province. Therefore, interest in own-rooted fig plants has increase, especially in fig growing areas. The demand fort his plants has led nurseymen to look for effective means of propagation large number of plants rapidly and easily. The production of fig more quicly and cheaply would be considerable commercial value, and growing cuttings on their own roots could achieve this purpose by eliminating the need for producing rootstock as well as for budding and grafting. Previous research shown that fig cuttings are characterised by a variable rooting ability (Pinherio, 1984; Dolgun et al., 2004). Bench heating, mist, temperature control, growth substance and hormone treatments are always required to obtain satisfactory rooting (Chalfun et al.,2003). Material and Methods In this study, the hardwood cuttings of figs taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The research was carried out in the “Mist Propagation Unit” at Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute. Hardwood cuttings were taken to be 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter and planted into the rooting media. In the research, 0 ppm (control), 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA (Indole 3-butyric acid) doses were tested. In practice, in the form of sheaves of hardwood cutting, 1-2 cm of the bottom parts were dipped in IBA solution for a period of 5 seconds and we waited for short time fort he alcohole to release. Then cuttings were 824 �planted in a rooting media (including perlite) by 10x10 cm row and plant spacing (Kalyoncu, 1996; Ersoy et al. 2010). This experiment was carried out in a randomise block design with 4 replicates. Each replicate consisted of 20 hardwood cuttings. Analysis of variance and LSD multiple range test (p<0.05) were used to determine differences in rooting rate (%), root number, maximum root lenght (cm), average root lenght (cm), shoot lenght (cm) and shoot diameter (mm). Results and Discussion All hardwood cuttings were decayed 80 days after planting. Following treatment with IBA, IBA increased rooting rate. But there were not significant differences between IBA doses on rooting rate. The 1000 ppm IBA dose gave the highest mean value for rooting rate in all cultivars (Table 1). Cultivars Doses Rooting rate 0 85.00 250 500 1000 82.50 86.25 92.50 Nazareth LSD%5 Banana 0 100.00 250 500 1000 95.00 97.50 100.00 n.s LSD%5 Noire de Cromp 0 92.50 250 97.50 500 97.50 1000 100.00 LSD%5 n.s Morgüz 0 97.50 250 500 1000 97.50 95.00 97.50 LSD%5 Table 1. Effects of IBA doses on rooting rate of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The effect of IBA treatments on root number, maxiumum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght and shoot diameter are shown in Table 2. The average root lenght for the treatments of 0, 250 ppm, 500 ppm on Nazareth varieties were observed as 9.56 cm, 8.68 cm, 5.80 cm and 5.98 cm, respectively. Accordingly, the highest rate was obtained for control and low concentration of IBA. In Nazareth fig cultivars, sapling quality characters were not positively affected by IBA treatments (Table 2). In Banana cultivars, root number, average root lenght and shoot diameter positively affected by IBA treatments. The highest root number was determined for 1000 ppm IBA treatment (with 36.43). This rate was found to be 28.05 for control (Table 2). 825 �Cultivars Doses Root number Max. root lenght Average root lenght Shoot lenght Shoot diameter 0 15. 65 16.78 9.56 A 11.58 7.08 A 250 500 1000 LSD%5 13.98 14.18 12.73 n.s 16.48 12.93 14.40 n.s 8.68 AB 5.80 B 5.98 B 2.93 13.35 9.58 8.60 n.s 4.83 B 4.38 B 5.00 B 1.01 0 28.05 B 17.40 A 8.05 A 17.35 AB 5.73 A 21.85 C 25.70 BC 36.43 A 5.95 17.08 A 13.82 B 16.33 AB 2.78 6.80 AB 5.95 B 7.20 AB 1.91 16.25 B 15.35 B 19.43 A 2.85 5.03 B 4.55 B 5.20 AB 0.67 24.60 B 24.63 B 21.15 B 35.55 A 6.79 14.28 15.30 14.00 13.25 n.s. 5.55 B 8.95 A 5.58 B 6.23 B 2.28 17.18 19.30 16.90 18.20 n.s. 4.75 AB 5.90 A 4.50 B 4.08 B 1.38 13.78 B 13.78 8.26 16.58 6.38 Nazareth Banana 250 500 1000 LSD%5 Noire de Cromp 0 250 500 1000 LSD%5 Morgüz 0 250 19.86 B 18.60 10.53 14.98 6.50 500 19.65 B 17.98 8.50 16.68 5.05 1000 28.95 A 16.13 8.18 16.48 5.18 LSD%5 8.14 n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. Table 2. Effects of IBA doses on root number, maximum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght and shoot diameter of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. While Banana cultivar was showed high rooting rate (98.13 %), root number (28.00 roots/sapling), maximum root lenght (16.62 cm) and shoot lenght (17.89 cm), Nazareth cultivar was showed low rooting rate (81.56 %), root number (14.13 roots/sapling), maximum root lenght (15.14 cm) and shoot lenght (10.78 cm) (Table 3). Cultivars Nazareth Banana Noire de Cromp Morgüz LSD%5 Rooting rate 81.56 B 98.13 A 96.88 B 96.88 B 8.74 Root number 14.13 C 28.00 A 26.48 A 20.56 B 3.78 Max. root lenght 15.14 AB 16.62 A 14.21 B 16.16 A 1.86 Average root leght 7.50 B 7.00 B 6.58 B 8.86 A 1.28 Shoot lenght 10.78 B 17.89 A 17.09 A 16.17 A 1.99 Shoot diameter 5.32 AB 5.13 B 4.81 B 5.78 A 0.59 Table 3. Root and shoot quality characteristics of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. In conclusion, root quality were improved in the rooting medium added with IBA compared with control medium. The best cultivar was found to be Banana in terms of rooting behavior. 826 �References Chaldun N.N.J, M. Pasqual, P. M. Norberta, L.F. Dutra, J.M. Caval Cante & Alves, 2003. Rooting of fig (Ficus carica L.) cultivars; cutting time and IBA. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 605, II. International Symposium on fig (Abstract). Caceres, Spain. Dolgun O, F.E.Tekintaşi, G. Seferoğlu & N. Şahin, 2204. Sarılop incir çeşidide farlı üretim uygulamalarının fidan kalitesi üzerine etkileri. ADÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 1(1):19-22. Ersoy N., I.H. Kalyoncu, M. Aydın & M.Yılmaz, 2010. Effects of some humidity and IBA hormone dose appliations on rooting of M9 apple clonal rootstock softwood top cuttings. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 9 (17), p:2510-2514. Kalyoncu Đ.H., 1996. Konya yöresindeki kızılcık (Cornus mas L.) tiplerinin bazı özellikleri ve farklı nem ortamlarındaki köklenme durumu üzerine bir araştırma. Selçuk Üniversitesi Tarımsal Yapılar ve Sulama Bölümü. Doktora tezi (yayınlanmamış), Konya. Pinherio R.V.R and L.M.De Oliveria, 1974. The influence of fig cutting lenght on striking, rooting and branch and leaf development, Horticultural Abstract, 44 (3). 827 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 633 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars Author Author Küçük, Sadettin Temirkaynak, Meliha Çoskun, Recep Namal, Hüseyin Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3- butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars. Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing 0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/bb38d4ecda5b3ea7ddb095d1483eb868.pdf 155c4e70e75424a49de0e94154cadd04 PDF Text Text PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 DETERMINATION OF FIBROSIS SCORE IN THE VENTRICULAR ARTER BY USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES ON HISTOPATHOLOGICAL IMAGES Dilek Sönmezer1, Yasemin Benderli Cihan2, Fatma Latifoğlu3 1 Çukurova University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Department of Biomedical Engineering Adana, Turkey dsonmezer@cu.edu.tr 2 Department of Radiation Oncology Kayseri Education and Research Hospital Kayseri, Turkey cihany@erciyes.edu.tr 3 Erciyes University, Faculty of Engineering Department of Biomedical Engineering Kayseri, Turkey flatifoglu@erciyes.edu.tr ABSTRACT Histopathological image analysis is an important area for pathological image analysis and diagnosis in medicine. Among cancer patients, radiotherapy is widely used for treatment modality. The aim of the radiotherapy is giving maximum dose to tumor tissue as well as maintaining normal tissue unaffected as possible. The increase of the radiation dose is parallel with local tumor control. However, risk of complication of normal tissue is also increased. Thus, controlling of the tumor depends on the normal tissue tolerant. In this study, we aim to support radiologists to detect and control radiation dose and its effects for the radiotherapy. Determining of the ventricular artery thickness by using image processing techniques can give information about radiation effects and dose. Using by image processing techniques, adventitia layer which of cardiac vessel layer thickness is measured. For this measurement, whole cardiac histopathological RGB image is cropped and studies are applied on this image. Then RGB image is converted to grayscale image and after converted the binary image. Adventitia layer is detected with edge detecting method. After segmentation of the adventitia layer, this layer thickness is measured to show effects of the radiation dose. Thus, with this study an optimal radiation dose can be adjusted according to the increase of the adventitia thickness. Keywords: Histopathological images; cardiac tissue; radiotheraphy; fibrosis 153 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS INTRODUCTION Histopathological image analysis is important for getting good results on therapy. In this study, we aim to support radio therapist to detect radiological effects in cancer treatment. Treatment of radiation is used to kill cancer cells or to stop of cancer cells proliferation. At that time, determination of radiation dose limits depending on the layer of vessel wall can be a new approach in cancer treatment. Radiation damages the vessel wall, especially causes vessel wall fibrosis. Thus, radiation dose and its application are important for human health. Image processing techniques for diagnosis of diseases are widely applied in medicine [1, 2]. Fibrotic Myocardial Tissue Mechanics, classification of cervical cancer, diagnosis of prostate cancer, morphological analysis of carotid artery plaque and a study related with coroner artery and many more studies about histopathological image analysis are present in literature [3-7]. Image processing techniques also used in enhancement of vessels on angiography images. [8]. Response of arterial injury is determined based on adventitia of artery wall layer [9]. Thickness of the adventitia layer increases with the increment of the arteriosclerosis [12]. Radiotherapy is usually used for treatment of cancer disease, but also late side effects which depends on radiation therapy become crucially important [10]. Toxicological effects on the cardiovascular system are resulted from radiotherapy used for treatment breast cancer. [Mc Chesney SI, Rad Res, 1991; 125]. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the use of radiotherapy (RT) has a contribution to the development of radiation fibrosis in the heart. MATERIAL AND METHODS In this study, experimental studies were conducted in Erciyes University Faculty of Medicine Hakan Çetinsaya Experimental and Clinical Research Center (DEKAM) after ethical aproval from the Animal Experiments Local Ethics Committee of Erciyes University Faculty of Medicine. Twenty healthy female Wistar Albino rats aged 8 weeks and weigthing 213±27 grams were used in the study. The rats were kept under standard laboratory conditions (12:12hour light/dark cycle at 25±3 oC) and fed with standard commercial pelleted feed. The rats were divided into 2 groups with 10 animals in each group. The groups were designed as follows: Group C: The control group. No treatment was administered. The animals were followed under similar conditions as the other animals. Group RT: The radiotherapy-only group. The thoracic region was irradiated while the animals were under anesthesia. Histopathological examination: Samples were taken from various regions of heart that were fixed in formalin. Following paraffin blocking procedure, serial cross-sections of 5 microns were obtained. They were stained with hematoxylin-eosin. Mean of the fibrosis scoring was obtained for the heart vessel of each rat. The fibrosis score was numerically assessed based on values from 0 to 4. The scoring system for the intensity of fibrosis is as follows: Score 0: No fibrosis or minimal fibrosis in the vessel wall. Score 1: Moderate fibrosis that does not cause marked structural damage on the heart. 154 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Score 2: Increased fibrosis with definite damage to heart vessel and formation of fibrous bands or small fibrous masses. Score 3: Fibrosis that causes severe distortion in the heart vessel and that has large fibrous areas. Score 4: Total fibrosis. The rats were divided into two equal groups as follows: Group C: control and Group RT: RT only. RT was administered heart region in a single fraction at a dose of 12 Gy using a Co–60 device. At the end of 24 weeks, the rats were sacrificed after sedation. The heart was removed and blocked in paraffin. After H&E staining, the level of fibrosis in each crosssection was assessed with the help of a scale. Histopathological images were obtained from vessels, which showed late toxic effect on the heart. Histopathological tissue preparats of cardiac vessel were used for imaging. These cardiac tissues were locally applied radiotherapy on healthy rats. Leica microscope together with Olympus 3.2 Megapixel, C-3020 200m camera was used for routine inspections. Histological image dataset was cinsists of 10 image slides. Our approach proposes measuring the adventitia thickness in order to understand effects of the radiation therapy. Methods for measuring adventitia thickness were combined with image processing techniques. Firstly, RGB image of the histopathological image was converted to gray-level image. After that, optimal thresholding was carried out by Otsu method to create a binary image. Then, mathematical morphology operations were used to obtain adventitia layer. The proposed approach is based on measuring of the adventitia layer by segmenting of this layer on histopathological images. Obtaining an average of the adventitia thickness of two images was used to show effects of the radiotherapy. Figure 1. shows the microscopic image of the vessel of the rat at 600x magnification. In this image low radiation dose was applied to rat cardiac. Segmentation of the outer layer is seen as blue color (Fig. 1). In Fig. 1.A, histopathological preparats were imaged via light microscopy at 600x magnification. RGB image was cropped in order to show the related part of the vessel area in figure 1.B. Then, RGB image was converted to grayscale image and after that obtained grayscale image is converted to binary image as seen in figure 1.D. Vessel adventitia layer was detected with Sobel edge detection method (Fig. 1.E). Taking complementation of the edge was detected image and showed it on grayscale vessel image and RGB image (Fig. 1.G). Finally, adventitia layer was measured with using five points on the layer of the distance between outer and inner surfaces (Fig. 1.I). RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Radiotherapy is an important treatment for breast cancer and any other kinds of cancers diseases. Because of the side effects of the radiation can generate problems on cardiac tissue. Due to the success of mammography in early diagnosis and the advances in chemotherapy and radiotherapy, breast cancer is a type of cancer whose treatment techniques is changing rapidly and can be combined also. A multimodal treatment that includes surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and hormonotherapy is used in the treatment of breast cancer. After surgery, patients are initially treated with chemotherapy and then undergo RT. Although the optimal sequence of chemotherapy and RT is still controversial, the generally accepted approach is RT after chemotherapy is completed. It is still unclear whether hormonotherapy should be used sequentially or concurrently with RT. 155 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS For detection of the radiation toxicological effects on the cardiac vessels are examined with proposed method in healthy but applied radiation to rats. Therefore, an optimal dose of the radiation can be applied according to vessel damaged score. In this study, we aim to measure just adventitia layer using by histopathological vessel images. Fig. 1 Adventitia layer segmentation and measuring flowchart. 156 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 REFERENCES [1] KCA Sneeuw, NK Aaronson, JR Yarnold, M Broderick: Cosmeic and functional outcomes of breast conserving treatment for early stage breast cancer. 1. Comparison of patients ratings, observers’ ratings and objective assasments. Radiat and Oncology, 1992; 25:153-159. [2] Al-Ghazal SK, Blamey RW, Stewart J, Morgan AA: The cosmetic outcome in early breast cancer treated with breast conservation. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol; 1999;25:6:566-70. [3] L. Cordero-Grande, T. Sevilla, A. Revilla, M. Martín-Fernández and C. Alberola-López. "Assessment of the Fibrotic Myocardial Tissue Mechanics by Image Processing". Proceedings of the IEEE Computing in Cardiology Conference (accepted for publication), Zaragoza (Spain), Sep. 2013. [4] Rahmadwati, G. Naghdy, M. Ros, C. Todd & E. Norachmawati, "Classification cervical cancer using histology images," in International Conference on Computer Engineering and Applications, 2010, pp. 515519. [5] E.C. Kyriacou, C.S. Pattichis, M.S. Pattichis, C.P. Loizou, C.I. Christodoulou, S.K. Kakkos, and A.N. Nicolaides, "A Review of Noninvasive Ultrasound Image Processing Methods in the Analysis of Carotid Plaque Morphology for the Assessment of Stroke Risk", IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine, vol. 14, issue 4, pp. 1027-1038, July 2010 [6] S. Balocco, C. Gatta, M. Alberti, X. Carrillo, J. Rigla, P. Radeva, "Relation between plaque type, plaque thickness, blood shear stress and plaque stress in coronary arteries assessed by X-ray Angiography and Intravascular Ultrasound", Med Phys 39(12):7430-45 (2012), PMID 23231293 [7] S. Verma, A. Rajesh, AJR Am J. Roentgenol, A clinically relevant approach to imaging prostate cancer, 2011 Mar;196(3 Suppl):S1-10 Quiz S11-4. Review. [8] P. Tran Ho Truc, Md. A. U. Khan, Y. Lee, S. Lee, T. Kim: Vessel enhancement filter using directional filter bank.Computer Vision and Image Understanding 113(1): 101-112 (2009) [9] M. Jean-Baptiste, T. Olivier, H. Xavier, M. Olivier, C., Giuseppina, N. Antonino, 2000: Topological determinants and consequences of adventitial responses to arterial wall injury. Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology 27(6): 1259-1268 [10] Perez CA, IJROBP,1998,44:855 Lanciano RM, Cancer,1992,69:2124 Pollack A, IJROBP, 2002, 53:1097 [11] G. Rioufol, M. Elbaz, O. Dubreuil, A. Tabib, G. Finet, Adventitia measurement in coronary artery: an in vivo intravascular ultrasound study, Heart. 2006 July; 92(7): 985–986. 157 | P a g e � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2504 Title A name given to the resource DETERMINATION OF FIBROSIS SCORE IN THE VENTRICULAR ARTER BY USING IMAGE PROCESSING TECHNIQUES ON HISTOPATHOLOGICAL IMAGES Author Author SONMEZER, Dilek CIHAN, Yasemin B. LATIFOGLU, Fatma Abstract A summary of the resource. Histopathological image analysis is an important area for pathological image analysis and diagnosis in medicine. Among cancer patients, radiotherapy is widely used for treatment modality. The aim of the radiotherapy is giving maximum dose to tumor tissue as well as maintaining normal tissue unaffected as possible. The increase of the radiation dose is parallel with local tumor control. However, risk of complication of normal tissue is also increased. Thus, controlling of the tumor depends on the normal tissue tolerant. In this study, we aim to support radiologists to detect and control radiation dose and its effects for the radiotherapy. Determining of the ventricular artery thickness by using image processing techniques can give information about radiation effects and dose. Using by image processing techniques, adventitia layer which of cardiac vessel layer thickness is measured. For this measurement, whole cardiac histopathological RGB image is cropped and studies are applied on this image. Then RGB image is converted to grayscale image and after converted the binary image. Adventitia layer is detected with edge detecting method. After segmentation of the adventitia layer, this layer thickness is measured to show effects of the radiation dose. Thus, with this study an optimal radiation dose can be adjusted according to the increase of the adventitia thickness. Keywords: Histopathological images; cardiac tissue; radiotheraphy; fibrosis Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-36-3 Q Science (General),QH301 Biology,QH426 Genetics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6f639c494ce62f1ca6c8a1c8cd77b7eb.pdf 4361bdde1c53bf35853ea7eaa06b2e4f PDF Text Text Determination of Fungal and Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants in Bean Production Areas in Konya Province, Turkey Serkan YEŞĐL Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Konya, Turkey serkanyesil@selcuk.edu.tr Nuh BOYRAZ Selcuk University, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Plant Protection, Konya, Turkey nboyraz@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major crop that provides an important source of protein for human nutrition. In this study presence of plant pathogenic fungal and bacterial agents was determined in five mostly bean growing districts of Konya province in 2006. The surveys were carried out at seedlings, blooming and podmaturing phases of beans, and determined the average incidence of fungal diseases on three phases as 16.42%, 14.17% and 15.37% respectively. According to results, five fungal agents were identified as primary pathogens which were Fusarium equiseti, F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani and F. solani f.sp. phaseoli on beans. In the three sampling phases and on majority at collected samples, Fusarium spp. were isolated at ratios 65.36%, 76.27% and 68.88% respectively. R. solani was determined to be the most virulent agent (77.78%) in all of the fungal pathogens by the pathogenicity tests. Pseudomonas savastonoi pv. phaseolicola was identified on collected bean samples and found incidence of disease as 11.59%. Keywords: Fungal, bacterial, bean, disease, Konya. Introduction Legumes play an important role in human nutrition. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is one of the most important legumes in the World due to its high commercial value, extensive production, consumer use, and nutrient value (carbohydrates, protein, minerals, and vitamins). It is traditionally a basic food crop in many developing countries, and it serves as a major plant protein source for rural and urban areas. Approximately 99.000 ha are planted annually to common bean in Turkey. Konya ranks first in Turkey in terms of the bean planting areas with a total area of 13.860 ha and a production level of 26.591 tons (Anonymous 2010). Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) plants are adversely affected by numerous biotic and abiotic stresses that result in important yield losses. More than 200 pathogens have been reported attacking beans; however, only about a dozen of them can cause considerable economic losses (Schoonhoven & Voysest 1991). Annual production losses in world bean production as a result of diseases average about 10%. On bean plants 61 different diseases were described 31 of these diseases are caused by fungi, five by bacteria, five by nematodes, 18 by viruses, and two by mycoplasmalike organisms. Fungal pathogens of bean are identified mostly by the size, shape, and color of their spores. Fungal pathogens cause a wide range of symptoms on beans. Most frequently they cause variously colored (brown, yellow, red, or black) spots or blotches on leaves, stems, pods, seeds, or roots. Bacteria that cause bean diseases are microscopic, colorless or yellow cells. They cause water-soaked spots (then brown) and blotches (often with yellow borders) on leaves, pods, or seeds (Hall 1994). Konya province provides 21.5% of Turkey bean production (Çiftçi 2004). Therefore it’s very important to determine diseases of bean plants and to plan control measures for diseases. It’s reported that 219 �yield losses which are caused by diseases, pests, and herbs in legumes cultivated areas in worldwide on developed countries and developing countries were 17.2% and 37.1%, respectively (Agrios 1988). Particularly in large bean production areas, irrigation by sprinkling plays an important role for spreading of bacterial and fungal diseases. Also, using seeds which were cultivated the previous year as seed plays an important role for spreading seed-borne diseases. In this study, it’s aimed to determine and identify fungal and bacterial diseases and incidences of the diseases which may cause yield losses on bean production in Konya province. In Turkey, early researches about bean diseases were carried out by Bremer (1948, 1954) and Göbelez (1956). Up to date, several survey studies about bean diseases in different provinces in Turkey has been carried out (Tekinel et al. 1969, Karahan 1971, Özalp 1971, Soran 1977, 1981, Turak & Arslan 1988, Temizel & Ertunç 1992, Demir & Gündoğdu 1994, Biçici et al. 1995, Hatat & Özkoç 1997, Turak 1997, Demirci & Çağlar 1998, Turhan et al. 2001, Kırbağ & Turan 2006) Material and Methods Material The main material of the study is infected ones of bean plants which are grown in Konya province, in 2006. Survey area of the study is determined with regard to bean production statistics of 2005 which were provided from Konya Directorate of the Ministry of Agriculture. According to the data (Anonymous 2005), districts where bean are planted in more than 1000 ha, Center districts (Selçuklu, Meram and Karatay), Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli were chosen as the survey area. Methods Surveys Survey area was selected from intensively bean cultivated areas and in such a way to represent Konya province. Surveys were carried out in bean growing areas in Center districts (Karatay, Selçuklu and Meram), Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli. Sampling was done at least in 1% of bean production area in each of the districts. Minimum sampling areas of the districts were determined as 150 da., 450 da., 210 da., 140 da., and 100 da., respectively. Bean planting areas, sampled field numbers and areas in the districts were shown in Table 1. District Center Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Ereğli Toplam Planting Areas (ha.) 1480 4500 2100 1400 985 10465 Field Number 14 15 14 14 10 67 Sampled Planting Areas (da.) 186 517.5 386 157 285 1531.5 Table.1. According to the districts and size of field examined field numbers. In this study, the surveys were carried out at 3 phases as at seedlings, blooming and pod-maturing phases of beans. The first one was carried out at appearing of bean seedlings on the soil surface to two real leaves phase (first week of June), the second one was at appearing of first flowers (second week of July) and the last one was at maturing of pods and seeds phase (third week of August). In field surveys controlled plant numbers in examined field were determined according to size of examined field, as in Table 2. 220 �Area of field (da.) 1-5 6-10 11-50 51-100 Number of controlled plant 25 50 100 150 Table 2. According to size of examined field, number of controlled plant During survey studies, disease incidence ratio and infected plant ratio values which belong to each field, each district and Konya province were calculated according to Bora and Karaca (1970). a) Isolation and Identification of Fungal Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants Preliminary diagnosis was based on symptoms in shoots, hypocotyls, and roots that are usually associated with specific root rot and wilt pathogens. In all isolations, hypocotyl or root tissues showing symptoms were first washed in running tap water and cut into 1-cm portions. They were then surface sterilized in 1.5% NaOCl for 1min, double rinsed in sterile distilled water, blot dried between sterile paper towels, and plated aseptically on potato dextrose agar added with streptomycin sulphate. Plates were then incubated in a growth chamber at 22 to 26°C with a 12-h photoperiod supplied by long, fluorescent, day light tubes. Plates were examined 2 to 14 days later for fungi associated with the various symptoms observed (Warcup 1958). Pure cultures were obtained by subculturing. Fungi were identified according to colony characteristics and reproductive structures by using binocular microscope according to Von Arx (1970); Booth 1971; Barnett and Hunter (1987); Domsch et al. (1980). Fungal structures of identified fungi were screened by means of a trinocular microscope and photographed by digital camera. b) Pathogenicity Tests In the pathogenicity tests “Akman 98” bean cultivar used. It’s known as sensitive to fungi which were tested. The most frequently isolated fungal species were chosen. Pathogenicity tests of 5 Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli (Fop), 5 F. solani f.sp. phaseoli (Fsp), 3 Rhizoctonia solani and 3 Macrophomina phaseoli isolates which were identified by species, were carried out on pots in climate chamber conditions. In this study, corn flour sand culture which is mostly used and thought better for soil borne fungi was used. (Killebrew et al. 1988). Assessments were done after 30 days from planting. Therefore, CIAT 1-9 scale (Pastor-Corrales & Abawi 1987) was used for plants inoculated by Fop and Fsp, and 0-4 scale (Meinhardt et al. 2002, Eken & Demirci 2003) for plants inoculated by R. solani and M. phaseoli. Isolation and Identification of Bacterial Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants Bacteria were isolated and identified according to Schaad et al. (2001) from the parts of bean plants which showed bacterial disease symptoms. For identification, biochemical tests including Gram's stain, motility, utilisation of mannitol, sorbitol and inositol together with LOPAT tests and growth on King’s B were carried out. Results Survey Results Incidence of Fungal Root Rot on Bean Plants Extent of the study, result of the surveys which were carried out at seedling phase of bean in 2006 incidence of fungal root rot in Center, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli districts were determined as 221 �19.88%, 10.40%, 17.81%, 19.75% and 21.35%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 16.42% (Fig. 1). In the same year, result of the second surveys which were carried out at blooming phase of bean incidence of fungal root rot in the same districts were determined as 16.57%, 10.84%, 14.68%, 11.43% and 19.45%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 14.17% (Fig. 2). Result of the last surveys which were carried out at pod maturing phase of bean incidence of fungal root rot in the same districts were determined as 15.96%, 15.28%, 11.95%, 17.63% and 18.53%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 15.37% (Fig. 3). 21,35 22 19,88 19,75 20 17,81 16,42 Incidence ( %) 18 16 14 10,4 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Merkez Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Districts Ereğli Konya(Ort.) Figure 1. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at seedling phase Figure 2. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at blooming phase 222 �Figure 3. Incidence of fungal root rot on bean plants at pod maturing phase Incidence of Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants In the survey studies which were carried out at seedling, blooming and pod maturing phases of bean in Konya Center, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli districts, in 2006 bean production seasonal symptoms of bacterial diseases were only observed at pod maturing phase. Therefore, only this survey results were given and evaluated. As a result of the analysis of these findings, plants which infected with bacteria were observed mostly in Altınekin district by 27.74%. Çumra, Ilgın, Center and Ereğli districts followed Altınekin by 9.56%, 7%, 3.22% and 1.36%, respectively. The average of Konya province was determined as 11.59% (Fig. 4). Incidence (%) 27,74 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 11,59 9,56 7 3,22 1,36 Merkez Çumra Altınekin Ilgın Ereğli Konya(Ort.) Districts Figure 4. Incidence of bacterial diseases on bean plants at pod maturing phase Results of Laboratory Studies Isolation and Identification of Fungal Pathogens from Infected Bean Plants 223 �In the survey studies, from Center districts, Çumra, Altınekin, Ilgın and Ereğli, bean plants were collected number of 440, 710, 430, 345 and 315, respectively. And fungal pathogens were isolated from these plants. In the survey studies at seedling phase, totally 615 diseased bean plants, 160 from Center districts, 200 from Çumra, 75 from Altınekin, 95 from Ilgın and 85 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 3. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 9 different genus. In this phase, 402 of 615, in other words 65.36% of bean seedlings which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. In addition, in seedling isolation studies; incidence rates of R. solani, M. phaseoli, Alternaria spp and Pythium spp were determined as 19.18%, 8.61%, 8.61% and 1.78, respectively. At blooming phase of bean, totally 590 bean plants,160 from Center districts, 155 from Çumra, 75 from Altınekin, 95 from Ilgın and 105 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 4. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 8 different genus. In this phase, 450 of 590, in other words 76.27% of bean plants which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. Fusarium spp. were followed by R. solani (22.37%), M. phaseoli (10.67%) and Pythium spp (5.59%). Districts Fungi Fusariu m spp. R. solani M. phaseoli Alternari a spp. Pythium spp. Curvular ia spp. Ulocladi um spp. Penicilli um spp. Chaetom ium spp. Toplam Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 113 70,62 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 115 57,5 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 41 54,66 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 75 78,94 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 58 68,23 20 4 12,5 2,5 39 20 19,5 10 18 12 24 16 23 --- 24,21 --- 18 17 21,17 20 14 8,75 16 8 10 13,33 9 9,47 4 4,70 11 6,87 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 1 0,62 2 1 --- --- 4 4,21 --- --- 3 1,87 1 0,5 --- --- 1 1,05 --- --- --- --- 7 3,5 3 4 1 1,05 1 1,17 --- --- 2 1 4 5,33 --- --- --- --- 160 --- 200 --- 75 --- 95 --- 85 --- Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Table 3. Infection rates of bean seedling samples with fungi Districts Fungi Fusariu m spp. R. solani Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 107 66,87 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 117 22 73 13,75 75,48 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 62 82,66 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 79 63,47 4 18 Infecti on rate % 224 5,33 83,15 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 85 80,95 18,94 15 14,28 Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % �M. phaseoli Alternari a spp. Pythium spp. Penicilli um spp. Chaetom ium spp. Gliocladi um spp. Toplam 12 7,5 22 14,19 5 6,66 7 7,36 17 16,19 7 4,37 1 0,64 4 5,33 12 12,63 5 4,76 9 5,62 --- --- --- --- --- ---- 24 22,85 --- --- 4 2,58 1 1,33 --- --- --- --- --- --- 3 1,93 5 6,66 --- --- 1 0,95 --- --- 3 1,93 --- --- --- --- --- --- 160 --- 155 --- 75 --- 95 --- 105 --- Table 4. Infection rates of bean plant samples with fungi at blooming phase At pod maturing phase of bean, totally 1035 bean plants,120 from Center districts, 355 from Çumra, 280 from Altınekin, 155 from Ilgın and 125 from Ereğli were collected and used for fungal isolation. Isolated fungi and incidence rates of each fungus as regards to districts are shown in Table 5. As given by the table fungi species were determined from 10 different genus. In this phase, 713 of 1035, in other words 68.88% of bean plants which were examined for isolation were determined as infected by Fusarium species. Fusarium spp. were followed by R. solani (24.05%), Alternaria spp. (15.26%), Pythium spp (11.59%), and M. phaseoli (10.33%). Districts Fungi Fusarium spp. R. solani M. phaseoli Alternaria spp. Pythium spp. Ulocladiu m spp. Penicilliu m spp. Chaetomiu m spp. Gliocladiu m spp. S.sclerotio rum Toplam Konya Center Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 60 50 Çumra Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 255 71,83 Altınekin Numb Infecti er of on infecte rate d % seedli ngs 213 76,07 Ilgın Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 88 56,77 Ereğli Numb er of infecte d seedli ngs 97 77,6 15 8 12,5 6,66 59 17 16,61 4,78 42 34 15 12,14 36 34 23,22 21,93 42 14 33,6 11,2 27 22,5 53 14,92 44 15,71 12 7,74 22 17,6 14 11,66 40 11,26 34 12,14 5 3,22 1 0,8 --- --- 3 0,84 4 1,42 17 10,96 --- --- --- --- 5 1,40 3 1,07 4 2,58 --- --- --- --- 3 0,84 2 0,71 1 0,64 --- --- --- --- 15 4,22 15 5,35 --- --- --- --- 1 0,83 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 120 --- 355 --- 280 --- 155 --- 125 --- Infecti on rate % Infecti on rate % Table 5. Infection rates of bean plant samples with fungi at pod maturing phase 225 Infecti on rate % �Distribution of Isolated Fungi During the survey studies, as a result of the isolation of the media grown from collected bean plants, 221 isolates from 15 different fungi species were obtained (Tab. 6). 57.02% of the isolates in other words half of the isolates were identified as Fusarium. In this study, 5 different Fusarium species were identified. As a result of species identification studies, isolation frequency of F. equiseti at seedling, blooming and pod maturing phases was determined as 24.70%, 23.40% and 22.58%, respectively. F. equiseti was followed by F. oxysporum with 17.65%. Isolation frequency rates of this fungus were determined as 19.75%, 14.90% and 17.20%, respectively. Macrophomina phoseoli was third mostly isolated fungus by 15.38%. Isolation frequency rates of this fungus were determined as 11.11%, 25.53% and 13.98%, respectively. Isolation frequency rates of R. solani, which is one of the most important pathogens of bean plants at seedling, blooming pod maturing phases and average were determined as 16.05%, 12.77%, 15.05% and 14.93%, respectively (Tab. 7). Fungi Center B P T 0 1 4 F. equiseti S 3 F.oxysporum 5 0 0 5 S 1 0 7 F. solani 1 0 0 1 F. culmorum F.semitectu m R. solani 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 M. phaseoli 1 Alternaria spp. Curvularia spp Ulocladium spp. Chaetomium spp. Gliocladium spp. P.oligandru m Pythium spp. S.sclerotioru m TOTAL Çumra B P 4 4 2 5 3 4 4 0 1 4 0 0 2 2 0 1 3 5 6 4 0 1 2 3 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 T 1 8 1 4 1 1 6 2 Number of isolates Altınekin S B P T S 0 4 8 1 3 2 2 1 8 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Ilgın B P 0 3 T 6 S 4 Ereğli B P 3 5 0 2 3 1 4 1 T 1 2 6 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 1 2 0 0 0 2 1 4 3 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 2 0 1 3 2 0 4 6 2 0 4 6 4 2 4 1 1 2 1 5 4 1 1 2 1 0 4 0 3 1 5 1 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 3 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 1 7 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 4 1 3 2 3 9 9 9 2 4 1 1 1 2 1 3 7 5 3 3 1 7 5 2 2 5 2 S: Seedling survey, B: Blooming survey, P: Pod maturing survey, T: Total of the surveys. Table 6. Distribution of isolated fungi depending on survey phases and districts 226 �Isolates Seedling 24,70 19,75 6,17 9,88 3,7 16,05 11,11 2,47 0 0 F. equiseti F. oxysporum F. solani F. culmorum F. semitectum R. solani M. phaseoli Alternaria spp. Pythium spp. S. sclerotiorum Isolation rates (%) Blooming Pod maturing 23,4 22,58 14,9 17,2 10,64 5,38 0 3,23 4,26 4,3 12,77 15,05 25,53 13,98 4,26 7,53 0 1,08 0 1,08 Average 23,53 17,65 6,79 4,98 4,07 14,93 15,38 4,98 1,08 1,08 Table 7. Isolation rates of the fungi depending on survey phases. Results of Pathogenicity Tests Results of pathogenicity tests were given by Table 8. According to the results of pathogenicity tests, Ç.12/2 of Fop was determined as the most pathogen isolate with 67.41% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, chlorosis and total growth reduction on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of Fop, rate of disease severity were determined as varying from 31.85% to 54.96%. The average rate of disease severity of all isolates was calculated as 54.96%. In Fsp isolates Ç.O.10/2 was determined as the most pathogen one with 63.70% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, growth reduction, early blooming, lesions on hypocotyls and taproot on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of Fsp, rates of disease severity were determined as varying from 45.93% to 62.96%. The average rate of disease severity of all Fsp isolates was calculated as 56.89%. The average rate of disease severity of Rhizoctonia solani isolates was calculated as the highest with 77.78% in all tested fungal isolates. E.O.3/1 isolate was determined as the most pathogen isolate with 100% rate of disease severity. On all pots which the isolate was inoculated, it prevented the emergence of all bean seeds. In M. phaseolina isolates Ç.O.15/3 was determined as the most pathogen one with 51.66% rate of disease severity. The isolate caused stunting, growth reduction, chlorosis, blight on stems on bean plants in comparison with control plants. In other isolates of M. phaseoli, rates of disease severity were determined as varying from 32.14% to 38.33%. The average rate of disease severity of all isolates was calculated as 40.91%. Fungi F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli (Fop) F. solani f.sp. phaseoli (Fsp) R. solani M. phaseoli Isolate Name K.11/1 A.4/2 E.Çi.2/4 Ç.2/1 Ç.12/2 A.O.10/1 Ç.O.16/2 Ç.Ç.9/2 Ç.O. 10/2 Ç.Ç.6/3 E.O.3/1 Ç.Ç.8/2 I.O.7/2 A.6/2 E.Ç.6/3 227 Disease Severity (%)* Isolate Average** 31.85 57.78 54.96 B 59.26 58.52 67.41 60.00 62.96 45.93 56.89 B 63.70 51.85 100.00 86.66 77.78 A 50.00 38.33 40.91 B 32.14 �Ç.O.15/3 51.66 Kontrol-1 0.00 Kontrol Kontrol-2 0.00 0.00 C Kontrol-3 0.00 *Disease severity was calculated by McKinney’s infection index formula. **LSD = 19.04;P<0.01. Means followed by the same letters within each fungus aren’t significantly different according to LSD0.01 Table 8. Pathogenicities of the isolates on Akman 98 bean variety Suggestions Determination of factors which negatively effect crop yield and quality in plant production provides a basis of pest control. The first step of pest control is identification of problem correctly. If it couldn’t obtain, control strategies wouldn’t achieve. This condition is most important for bean production areas in Konya province. According to results of the study, for reducing or eradication of phytopathological problems in bean production areas in Konya province and in order to produce more yielded and more quality bean production, the following suggestions must be regarded. 1. First of all, certified and pathogen-free seed must be used because, most of the important bean pathogens can survive on or in seed. 2. Before seed sowing, field soil must be cultivated properly. Therefore, in autumn plant debris of the previous year is buried in soil by cultivating 10-15 cm deep. In spring, when soil humid is proper, it should be prepared for sowing by cultivating 1 or 2 times, then, harrow or disc harrow can be used. 3. Especially, it’s very important to minimize soil compaction in control of mostly observed root rot diseases in surveyed bean fields. This can be achieved by crop rotation, by loosening sublayers or wheel tracks with chisels at planting time, by not cultivating wet soil, and by reducing the pressure exerted by wheels on the soil surface. 4. As well in other plant crops production, in bean production cultural practices are very important. If all conditions which are necessary for growing healthy plant can be obtained, possibility of phytopathological problems occurrence will minimum. For this purpose, cultural practices such as sowing, fertilizing and irrigation should be done properly. 5. Planting depth is effective on seedling emergence and occurrence of root rot diseases. As well as depending on seed size, generally planting at a depth of 3-4 cm is suitable. 6. Crop rotation should be done, particularly for soil borne diseases. For this purpose, long term crop rotation (at least 3 years) out of beans such as corn, wheat, barley, alfalfa etc. may reduce soil inoculum. 7. Thiram (a.i.80%) should be used for controlling root rot diseases as seed treatment. 8. Bean is planted from beginning of May in Konya province. Early planting isn’t recommended, as it stimulates root rot diseases. 9. As much as possible, tolerant varieties should be used. Acknowledgements This research was supported as a master thesis by the Scientific Research Coordination Center of Selçuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06101027). References Agrios, G. N. (1988). Plant Pathology. Academic Pres. Inc., N.York (803 s.). Anonymous (2005). Đlçelere göre Konya ili fasulye üretim verileri. Konya Tarım Đl Müdürlüğü. 228 �Anonymous (2010). www.tuik.gov.tr Barnett, H.L & B.B. Hunter (1987). 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Doktora Projesi http://www.erzincanbk.gov.tr/sb32.htm Turhan, G., Bora, T., Karsavuran, Y., Özaktan, H. & L., Yolageldi (2001). Fasulye tohumları ile taşınan önemli bakteriyel ve fungal etmenler ile zararlıların saptanmasına yönelik araştırmalar. E.Ü. Araştırma Fonu Araştırma Projesi, 98-ZRF-018 nolu proje. Warcup, J.H. (1958). Distribution and Detection of Root Disease Fungi. Plant Pathology Problems and Progress (Ed.) C.S: Hulton, G.W.Fulton, Helen Hert, SEA, Mc CAllon The Ragents of the University of Wisconsin, 317-324 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 407 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Fungal and Bacterial Diseases on Bean Plants in Bean Production Areas in Konya Province, Turkey Author Author YESİL, Serkan BOYRAZ, Nuh Abstract A summary of the resource. Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is a major crop that provides an important source of protein for human nutrition. In this study presence of plant pathogenic fungal and bacterial agents was determined in five mostly bean growing districts of Konya province in 2006. The surveys were carried out at seedlings, blooming and podmaturing phases of beans, and determined the average incidence of fungal diseases on three phases as 16.42%, 14.17% and 15.37% respectively. According to results, five fungal agents were identified as primary pathogens which were Fusarium equiseti, F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani and F. solani f.sp. phaseoli on beans. In the three sampling phases and on majority at collected samples, Fusarium spp. were isolated at ratios 65.36%, 76.27% and 68.88% respectively. R. solani was determined to be the most virulent agent (77.78%) in all of the fungal pathogens by the pathogenicity tests. Pseudomonas savastonoi pv. phaseolicola was identified on collected bean samples and found incidence of disease as 11.59%. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8061bc4924bce1217bad9a33f92c6f4c.pdf eb156b79af7d80ce6b042fa6064ce2f2 PDF Text Text Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method Đbrahim Aytekin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey aytekin@selcuk.edu.tr Saim Boztepe Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey sboztepe@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity, polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697. Keywords: Güney Karaman sheep-breed, polymorphism, RAPD-PCR Introduction It is of great importance to determine, at DNA level through molecular techniques, the variations of farm animals that have a huge genetic potential in number and variety, to define them, to prepare schemes to preserve and develop them to this end. The majority of the sheep in Turkey are composed of domestic breeds and types that haven’t been refined. Also known as Black sheep, the Güney Karaman sheep breed is raised in South and south-eastern cities, notably on the Taurus Mountains and looks very much like Karagül with its fat-tail. Its proportion is rather low in the Turkish sheep population (Öztürk, 2000). In sheep breeding, genotype confusion has emerged in domestic sheep breeds, which constitute the gene resources, through a gradual genetic change as a result of selection on the economically important yields in certain breeds. Consequently, the present gene resources are getting lost, and the continuation of offspring is put in jeopardy with the risk of these genotypes disappearing. The disappearance of the domestic breeds means the disappearance of the distinctive traits that they bear. At this stage, it is hard or impossible to say which of these traits will be required in the future. Also, the possible traits of these gene resources, which haven’t been identified yet, can be kept available with the survival of these breeds (Ertuğrul et al., 2005). One of the Turkish domestic breeds, the Güney Karaman sheep is a breed in danger of extinction. For this reason, the breed involved is brought under protection within the context of protecting gene resources with the declaration of guidelines for subsidizing animal farming (Rescript No: 2006/9) by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (Anonymous, 2006). Genetic evaluation has usually started by analysing phenotypes to identify genetic influences, whereas molecular genetics often begins with known alleles or DNA sequences and then examines their influence on phenotypes. Eukaryotic genomes show considerable DNA sequence variations 183 �(polymorphisms) between species and among individuals within a species (Beuzen et al., 2000). Studies of molecular genetics and molecular biology at DNA level have recently come to the fore so as to determine these variations in individuals and populations. Molecular techniques are utilized for determination of the genetic makeup of farm animals at DNA level and for selection studies based on a marker in amelioration studies. It is rather difficult especially in stock raising to detect the genotypes that carry the best alleles by examining the phenotypes of animals which have an economical value, and that have expensive- and difficult-to measure quantitative characteristics. In such cases, so as to determine the individuals that carry the related alleles with DNA markers, intense studies have been conducted in recent years on such quantitative characters as milk yield, resistance to diseases and fecundity (Schnabel et al., 2005). In the QTL analysis concerning quantitative characters, quantitative characters are identified in cattle, sheep and swine for commercial and experimental purposes. The markers that are connected with milk and milk components yields in dairy cattle, birth weights, horn development and preweaning growth in beef cattle, fecundity and muscle hypertrophy in sheep have been identified (Davis and DeNise, 1998). One of the molecular techniques, the RAPD technique (Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA) is based on the amplification of PCR and DNA fragments of randomly spread areas in the genome by using random primers (9-10 bp). Unlike the other PCR applications, only one primer is used for DNA production both in the pattern DNA chain and in the complementary chain. It is required that the ratio of G + C primers used in RAPD techniques be 50–80% , that they not contain any palindromes and that they shouldn’t be complementary to each other (Williams et al., 1990; Williams et al., 1993). Compared with other PCR applications, RAPD method is easy to apply, and more preferable because of its low cost and high and quick efficiency. Among its advantages are the sufficiency of a minimum and low quality DNA in nanogram levels and also no prerequisite information regarding DNA sequence. Moreover, the rate of polymorphism is high (Bowditch et al., 1993; Kantanen et al., 1995; Öz Aydın, 2004). It is reported that the disadvantages of this technique are low repeatability with different equipment and chemical material, and low reliability as a result of diverse results in diverse laboratories by diverse researchers. Nevertheless, RAPD technique is fit for automation under laboratory conditions (Tingey and Tufo., 1993). Along with its widespread use in molecular biology and in many various areas, the RAPD-PCR technique is successfully used in many fields, such as the identification of genetic similarity and difference in livestock, prediction of the genetic relationship between different breeds and ecotypes, identification of wild species (Lee and Chang, 1994), study of evolution (Stepniak et al., 2002), genetic mapping (Cushwa et al., 1996), pedigre determination (Cerit, 2001), determining the sex of ovine embryos (Gutiérrea-Adán at al., 1997), and developing species-related markers. RAPD method have found application in various animal species, such as cattle and sheep (Kantanen et al., 1995; Cushwa et al., 1996; Tahmoorespur et al., 2003; Ahmed Ali, 2003; Paiva et al., 2005), goat (Li et al.,2002; Şahin, 2005), turkeys (Smith et al., 1996), chickens (Smith et al., 1996; Sharma et al., 2001), quails (Sharma et al., 2000), fish (Akhan and Canyurt, 2005), bees (Suazo et al., 1998), horses (Apostolidis, 2001) and pigs (Yen et al., 2001). This has demonstrated the efficiency RAPD as a potential genetic marker. The studies conducted with the RAPDPCR technique have shown that this method can be successfully used in predicting genetic makeup of species and intra- and inter-population genetic parameters. This study aims to demonstrate both the applicability of RAPD-PCR method and to reveal the DNA fingerprints belonging to the population involved with the aim of identifying, at DNA level, genetic variation of Güney Karaman sheep breed, which constitutes the recent gene resources. Material and Method Animal Material and DNA Isolation In the context of preservation and protection of gene resources, the blood samples that were taken from 8 male and 8 female Güney Karaman sheep, which were kept in Bahri Dağdaş International Agricultural Research and Application Center, were used. For DNA isolation, the blood samples that were taken from Vena jugularis of the animals by using vacuum blood tubes with sodium citrate were preserved in cold chain (+4°C), taken to the Molecular Genetic and Biotechnology Laboratory of Faculty of Agriculture in Selcuk University in the shortest possible time, and were kept at -20°C until DNA isolation were achieved. DNA isolation kit (Bio Basic Inc., Canada) was used for the purpose of pursuing a method that wouldn’t yield different results between different blood samples and that consisted of as few 184 �components as possible in DNA isolation. In the study, the DNA concentrations that dissolved in the 100 ul 1xTE buffer solution were read through spectrophotometer, and the concentrations were equalized with sterile pure water so as to get 20 ng/ul. PCR Amplification In the RAPD technique, 10-base primers, some of which had been tried before, were utilized and 10 best efficient primers (18, 19, Op15, Opm10, Opp15, Opq04, Opq06, Ra03, Ra35, Ra59) were chosen in connection with their monomorphic/polymorphic characteristics and with their productivity of sufficient number of strips and then used in RAPD analyses. The PCR protocol was optimized as Şahin (2005) and Ahmed Ali (2003) reported, and PCR application was carried out. The DNA samples of 1 ul that were obtained as a result of DNA isolation and that were balanced so as to be 20 ng/ul each were put in PCR tubes. Reactions were triggered in thin-walled PCR tubes with a volume of 25 ul in total with 1 ul DNA+24 ul mix. The mix for PCR reaction was prepared with 14.0 ul sterile distilled water, 2.5 ul 10x Buffer pH: 8.5 (48.4 g Tris base, 10.22 ml Glacial Acetic Acid, 20 ml EDTA pH: 8.0), 2.5 ul 25 mM MgCI2, 4.0 ul dNTPs, (2.5 mM from each), 0.5 ul primer (50 pmol/ul) and 0.5 ul Taq Polymerase (Taq Bioron 5 U/ul). The PCR applications conducted in Thermal Cycler (Eppendorf Master Gradient) were exposed to 40 cycles in total- hot start at 94°C for 2 min., at denaturation level at 94°C for 50 sec., at annealing stage at 32-34°C for 55 sec. and at extension stage at 72°C for 50 sec and final extension at 72°C for 5 min. Some optimizations were made in the heat and duration units connected to the primers that were used. The RAPD fragments were separated on a 1.5% agarose gel by electrophoresis. Then it was taken out of the gel solution containing 0.5 µg/ml Ethidium Bromide, RAPD fragments were viewed in gel documentation system under UV light with the help of transilluminator. The resulting data were stored in an electronic setting. DNA Moleculer Weight Marker (100 bp Ladder, AMRESCO) was used as standard to determine the size range of amplified bands (bp) on which RAPD fragments moved in gel according to their molecule sizes. Scoring and Statistical Analysis The photographs related to RAPD fragments were scored on the basis of present/absent (1=present, 0=absent), and data matrix was formed. By using this obtained data matrix, genetic similarity between individuals, the ratio of polymorphism, the values of heterozygosity were obtained through POPGEN-1.32 pc program, and the dendogram that showed genotypical relation between individuals and PCoA (Principle Coordinates Analysis) were obtained according to the UPGMA method through NTSYS-2.1 pc (Numerical Taxonomy and Multivariate Analysis System) program. The genetic similarity between individuals (Fxy) was calculated using the formula below as defined by Nei (1987). Fxy = 2 Mxy / (Mx + My) Fxy: Genetic similarity; Mxy: The number of common RAPD fragments between sheep X and Y, Mx: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep X, My: The total RAPD fragment number of sheep Y In calculating the average value of heterozygosity (H), the formula given below was used (Nei, 1987). H=Σh/r; In the formula; r: The number of locus, h: The expected single locus heterozygosity, which was calculated as; h=1- ΣXi2; In the formula; Xi2: This is the ratio of homozygot genotypes Where the ratio of polymorphism was calculated with a comparison of the number of observed polymorphic fragments with the total fragment number. Results and Discussion The RAPD-PCR fragments of 16 animals were obtained, using 10 primers. The primers used in the study and the sequences, melting temperatures (Tm), the size range of fragments (bp), the total fragment numbers (TFN), fragment numbers (FN), polymorphic fragment numbers (PFN), polymorphism (P%), the ratios of heterozygosity and standard devision (H±SD), obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep are given in Table 1. 185 �Primers 18 19 Op15 Opm10 Opp15 Opq04 Opq06 Ra03 Ra35 Ra59 Sequence (50-30) Tm Size range of fragments (bp) GGG CTA GGG T ACC GGG AAC G GAC GGA TCA G TCT GGC GCA C GGA AGC CAA C AGT GCG CTG A GAG CGC CTT G CGA TCG AGG A AAG CTC CCC G CGG GCA ACG T Total Average 34 34 32 34 32 32 34 32 34 34 700 - 3000 700 - 3000 600 - 3000 800 - 3000 600 - 3000 700 - 3000 600 - 3000 800 - 3000 900 - 3000 900 - 3000 TFN FN PFN 116 155 148 124 160 217 160 154 96 121 1451 10 16 17 12 15 18 19 16 8 16 147 9 12 15 12 15 14 19 14 8 15 133 P (%) 90 75 88.23 100 100 77.77 100 87.50 100 93.75 90.48 H±SD 0.3452 ± 0.1405 0.2304 ± 0.1956 0.3158 ± 0.1914 0.4006 ± 0.1527 0.4055 ± 0.1166 0.3104 ± 0.1960 0.3301 ± 0.1440 0.3013 ± 0.1790 0.4121 ± 0.1422 0.2946 ± 0.1571 0.3273 ± 0.1697 Table 1. Some information obtained from 16 Güney Karaman breed sheep with the 10 primers As can be seen in Table 1, the fragments obtained with the 10-mer primers generally ranged from 600 to 3000 bp. In total 1451 fragments were obtained, of them 673 being in male individuals, 778 being in females. When the number of fragments obtained from each individual, Opq04 primer is the one which yielded the highest number of fragments, with 217, and Ra35 is the one that yielded the lowest number of primers, with 96. Of the 147 fragments that were obtained with all the primers, 133 were determined to be polymorphic, and 14 monomorphic. The average polymorphism ratio obtained in the study was found as 90.48%. When all the fragments that could be scored were examined, the Opm10, Opp15, Opq06 and Ra35 primers proved to be the primers with the highest ratio of polymorphism (100%). The lowest polymorphism ratio (75%) was obtained from the primer 19. The 10 primers that were used and the locus of the individuals that we studied had a high level of polymorphism, which made it unnecessary to scan more diverse locus. Cushwa et al. (1996) identified the polymorphism ratio, with RAPD method, to be between 65% and 96% with a mean 85%, using 53 primers in total from 5 sheep breeds (Coopworth, Merino, Perendale, Romney and Texel) and from their crossbreds. In a study made with 17 RAPD primers on 5 Iranian sheep breeds (Arman, Balouchi, Iranblack, Kordi and Karakol), Tahmoorespur et al. (2003) reported that they obtained 10 polymorphic fragments from only three of these primers (Moh-4, Moh-13 and Moh-21) and that they found the variation within and between the markers used and the 5 Iranian sheep breeds to be rather low, and that more studies were required with more primers so as to determine, in more details, the relations within and between sheep breeds. In this study, enough polymorphic fragments (133 pcs.) to exhaustively evaluate individual genotypes of the RAPD primers that were used in Güney Karaman sheep breed. In other words, when compared with the Güney Karaman sheep breed (90.48%), the ratio of polymorphism was seen to be lower in their studies. Paiva et al. (2005) stated that polymorphism ratios in 5 Brasilian hairsheep breeds (Santa Đnes, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca) were found as (%) 100, 98.15, 98.15, 94.44 and 90.74, respectively. When compared with these breeds in terms of polymorphism ratio, it displayed a rate relatively closer to Bargamasca hair sheep, but had a lower value than all the Brazilian hair sheep. As to primers, in the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003) with 19 RAPD primers in total for the identification of genetic similarity in Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in Egypt, though the primers no. 18 and 19 yielded no polymorphic fragments, it appeared that they could be effectively used for the identification of individual genotypes in this study. Similarly, Sharma et al. (2001) used the Opm10 and Opp15 primers, which were also used in this study, to determine the genetic variation between White Leghorn, Rhodes Island Red, Red Cornish, White Plymouth Rock and Kadaknath chicken strains. However, they reported that they couldn’t obtain any polymorphic fragments with Opp15 primers. In this study, it has appeared that both Opm10 and Opp15 primers could be effectively used for identifying individual genotypes. The heterozygosity values in polymorphic locus calculated according to Nei (1987) generally varied between 0.0615 and 0.5000, and the rate of heterozygosity on the basis of primers was changed to be between 0.2304 and 0.4121. In general, the average heterozygosity was calculated to be 0.3273 ± 0.1697. As defined by Stephen et al. (2001), in a study they made with 4 RAPD primers so as to identify the genetic 186 �relations between 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotype, reported that the highest average heterozygosity value was the Arusha ecotype (0.203) and that the lowest heterozygosity value was in the Dodoma ecotype (0.137). When compared with these sheep ecotypes in terms of the average heterozygosity value, Güney Karaman sheep (0.3273) can be said to have a higher value. For this reason, since the higher the heterozygosity value is in a population, the wider the genetic variety of the population will be, it is understood that Güney Karaman sheep have a higher genetic variation than 5 Tanzanian sheep ecotypes. Paiva et al. (2005) stated that heterozygosity values in Snata Ines, Rabo Largo, Somali, Morada Nova and Bergamasca hair sheep by using 19 RAPD primers were found as 0.3881, 0.3857, 0.4050, 0.3929 and 0.3229, respectively. When compared with Bergamasca hair-sheep in terms of heterozygosity, Güney Karaman sheep has a little higher heterozygosity value, but a lower value when compared with other breeds. As seen in Table 2, K9 and K10 sheep were the individuals genetically closest to each other (0.8844). The sheep, genetically the most distant from each other were K5 - K7 (0.5646), K5 - K9 (0.5646), and K5 - K15 (0.5646). In this respect, the sheep no K5 can be said to be genetically different from the rest. The genetic similarity between individuals is estimated to be 0.7009 on average; the genetic distance 0.2991 on average (Table 2). In the study made by Ahmed Ali (2003), genetic similarities between Barki, Rahmani, Baladi and Suffolk sheep breeds raised in Egypt were found to be between the values 0.8190 and 0.9570. When compared with Güney Karaman sheep breed, the genetic similarity in this study was determined to be higher between 4 Egypth sheep breeds In Table 2, the genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds were given in terms of 10 RAPD markers. K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 K12 K13 K14 K15 K16 K1 0.6599 0.6803 0.7959 0.6599 0.7687 0.7687 0.6463 0.7551 0.7483 0.8299 0.7415 0.7211 0.8027 0.7007 0.7347 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6 K7 K8 K9 K10 K11 0.7347 0.6871 0.7415 0.6735 0.6054 0.6327 0.6327 0.6395 0.6395 0.6463 0.5986 0.6667 0.6054 0.6259 0.7483 0.5850 0.6531 0.6259 0.6259 0.7211 0.6871 0.7007 0.7075 0.5918 0.7415 0.6395 0.6190 0.6054 0.8503 0.7687 0.6463 0.8231 0.8299 0.7755 0.7687 0.6395 0.7347 0.7551 0.6939 0.6599 0.5646 0.6735 0.5646 0.5986 0.6939 0.5918 0.7075 0.6531 0.5646 0.6259 0.7687 0.6735 0.7687 0.8027 0.7619 0.7687 0.6803 0.7211 0.7415 0.6531 0.6599 0.7823 0.7347 0.7619 0.8095 0.6803 0.6531 0.7143 0.7211 0.6327 0.6395 0.6667 0.7007 0.8163 0.6395 0.6054 0.6939 0.8844 0.7483 0.7959 0.6122 0.7075 0.7415 0.6667 0.7415 0.7347 0.6190 0.7279 0.7347 0.6735 0.7619 0.7959 0.7687 0.6939 0.7823 K12 K13 K15 0.6803 0.6803 0.7143 0.7415 0.6531 0.6939 0.7075 0.7959 0.7143 0.7075 Table 2. The genetic similarity values of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds 187 K14 K16 - �Figure 1. The UPGMA dendogram of 16 Güney Karaman sheep breeds At the final stage of the study, the NTSYS-pc out of the RAPD fragments that could be scored and the genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation was displayed were formed through UPGMA method. As seen in Figure 1, 16 sheep were divided into two main groups, one with K2 and K5 individuals, and the other with all the other individuals. The individuals that made up the other group apart from K2 and K5 again were sub-grouped with K8, K13 and K16 out of them and with the remaining individuals. Again these sub-groups had their own sub-groups within themselves. From the dendogram, it can be seen that the individuals no K9 and K10 are genetically the closest genotypes. As seen in Table 2 and in Figure 1, the individuals no K2 and K5, particularly the individual no K5, can be said to be genetically different from other sheep. Figure 2. PCoA analysis of Güney Karaman sheep breed in terms of RAPD markers It can be seen in the PCoA, the three dimensional vectorial analysis, the individuals no K9 and K10, which are closest to each other in genetic makeup on the dendogram are genetically related. Genetically the most distant individuals were the individuals no K2 and K5. Again during PCoA analysis, K8, K13 and K16 individuals as well as the individual no K3 are seen, on the dendogram and in PCoA analysis, to form a different group, unlike the individuals that constituted the other group outside K2 and K5. Conclusion As a result, it can be said that these 16 individuals, which are representative of Güney Karaman sheep, has a heterogenous nature and that this genetic variation has the potential use for purposes of improvement. In this study, the genetic similarity/distance values identified between individuals and the genetic relation dendogram on which genotypic variation is shown and PCoA analysis have shown that genotypic variation on individual basis can be obtained through RAPD-PCR method. However, with a more comprehensive study that will include all Turkish domestic sheep breeds, determination of certain 188 �genetic parameters within and between all sheep breeds that make up the population would be more informative. Moreover, by making use of the available endemic gene resources, creating populations that have such characteristics as resistance to diseases and adverse weather conditions would be of great importance. Acknowledgments This research was supported by a master research project from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey (Project No: 06101029). 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Genet. 118: 111–118. 190 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 374 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Genetic Polymorphism within Güney Karaman Sheep-Breed via RAPD-PCR Method Author Author Aytekin, İbrahim Boztepe, Saim Abstract A summary of the resource. Analysis of individual genotypes aims to provide information for understanding within population genetic parameters such as genetic similarity, polymorphism and heterozygosity. The aims of this research were to determine the genetic parameters within Güney Karaman sheep involved in a protection programme of gene resources by using randomly oligonucleotide primers via Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method. Among the primers tested, 10 most suitable ones, in terms of repeatability and scorability, were used and 1451 DNA fragments were scored. All the RAPD fragments were determined to be between 600 - 3000 bp in size. From 147 fragments, 133 were polymorphic (90.48%) and 14 fragments were monomorphic (9.52%). Within population average genetic similarity (Fragment Sharing Frequency, Fxy) and genetic distance were calculated as 0.7001 and 0.2991, respectively. The average expected heterozygosity was estimated as 0.3273 ± 0.1697. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/408ccf1464ee63bc71bda8fd5aae29d9.pdf f05d850245f9b67ef0f4e3702275b2ce PDF Text Text Determination of Optimum Seed Sowing Time for Six Different Sorghum Cultivars in Purpose of Silage Production in Mediterrenean Coastline Mehmet ÖTEN Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Instıtute, Antalya Sadık ÇAKMAKCI Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture, Field Crops Department, Antalya cakmakci @akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: Six different sorghum cultivars (Gözde 80, Rox, Leoti, Early Sumac, Nes ve N 4692xRox), registered by Mediterreanean Agricultural Research Institute, were sown in different periods in order to determine the optimum sowing time. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications. Count of 50% blooming days, count of full blooming days, forage yield, dry matter production, and leaf-stem-bunch ratio were determined. The Rox cultivar comes to number one since the enhance of green foliage have been demanded. The dry matter production having been evaluated as the most important property in terms of slage quality and production. Nest comes to fore at the first and second and at fourth Rox, at fifth period Gözde 80, respectively. The first week of May was determined to be optimum time compared to other seed sowing period in view of the climatic conditions data of year, on which the experiments were conducted and the pronounced performance of cultivars within other different seedsowing time Keywords: Sorghum, sowing time, silage. Introduction Mediterranean region of Turkey has suitable climate and soil conditions for production of many forage crops. In our country, for silage production purpose, maize and sorghum are take first place. The increasing importance of sorghum as an important livestock feed in the Turkey. Sorghum is more resistant to drough, high temperatures, diseases and pests than maize (Mcginth, 1972; Anonymous 1990; Aslangiray et al. , 1991; Tüsüz et al. 1984). Various studies showed the effect of different sowing times on the quality of silage of sorghum (Çakmakçı et al. 1999). The aim of this study was to determine the effects of different sowing times on silage quality of various sorghum cultivars. Material and Methods In this study, six different sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.) cultivars (Gözde 80, Rox, Leoti, Early Sumac, Nes and N 4692xRox), registered by Mediterreanean Agricultural Research Institute, were used as plant material. The research was conducted at the research field situated in Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Field Crop Department in Antalya-Turkey. In this study, 5 different sowing time (1st sowing time (1-10 April), 2nd sowing time (20-30 April), 3rd sowing time (1-10 May), 4th (20-30 May) and 5th sowing time (20-30 May)) were tested to determine to optimum sowing time for sorghum cultivars. Trails are as follows: count of 50% blooming days, count of full blooming days, forage yield, dry matter yield and leaf-stem-bunch. The experiment was laid out with three replications in a randomized complete block design (RCBD). The main factor consisted of 6 diffirent cultivars. The second factor consisted 5 different sowing time. Data were analysed 464 �with MSTAT-C software package programme (Freed et al. 1989). The means were seperated using Duncan Multiple Range Test at 0.05 levels. Results In this study, different sowing times ( 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th ) in combination with various sorghum cultivars (Gözde 80, Rox, Leoti, Early Sumac, Nes and N 4692xRox), were tested. The responses of different sowing times varied with various cultivars. The effects of different sowing times on count of 50 % blooming days, count of full blooming days, green forage yield and dry matter yield are shown Table 1, 2,3 and 4. Looking into, 50 % blooming days and statistical analyses are evaluated, it can be seen that cultivars and sowing times reciprocal interaction between cultivar and sowing time are significanty effective. The count of 50 % blooming days changed between 49.00 and 72.17 days. While the highest record was determined from 1st sowing time, the lowest record was determined from 5th sowing time. Sowing time Cultivars 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Leoti 72.17 a 64.33 e 61.17 g 55.83 k 53.00 n Nes 65.83 d 59.33 h 55.17 kl 58.50 ı 52.00 o Gözde 80 65.67 d 61.00 g 55.67 k 49.33 q N4692xRox 69.50 b 62.00 f 58.17 ı 53.67m mmm 58.83hı Rox 69.83 b 61.67 fg 56.50 j 58.83hı 50.83 p E.sumac 67.50 c 59.50 h 54.83 l 53.83m 49.00 q Ortalama 68.41 61.30 56.91 56.58 50.99 51.83 o LSD:0.66 Table 1. Count of 50 % blooming days responses to different sowing time with various sorghum cultivars In the study conducted on count of full blooming days, the count of full blooming days ranged from 52.83 to 77.17 depending on sowing time (Table 2). The highest count of full blooming days was recorded by 1st sowing time in Leotti cultivar. On the other side, the lowest count of full blooming days was recorded by 5st sowing time in E. Sumac cultivar. Sowing time Cultivars 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Leoti 77.17 a 67.83 f 65.33 ghı 61.17 o 56.83 r Nes 72.67 cd 64.83 ı 60.17 p 62.00 mn 56.17 rs Gözde 80 72.00 de 65.83 gh 61.50 no 58.33 q 56.00 s N4692xRox 73.33 c 65.17 hı 62.50 lm 63.33 jk 55.17 t Rox 74.33 b 66.00 g 61.33 no 62.83 kl 54.50 t E.sumac 71.33 e 63.83 j 58.67 q 58.50 q 52.83 u Ortalama 73.47 65.58 61.58 61.02 55.23 LSD: 0.74 Table 2. Count of full blooming days responses to different sowing time with various sorghum cultivars 465 �Resuts obtained from the present study indicated that sowing time and cultivars had significantly effect on green forage yield (Table 3). Green forage yields were found 9428.5 by 1st sowing time and 9688.7 by 5th sowing time. Sowing time Cultivars 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Leoti 9111 hıjk 8356 ıjk 9556 ghı 986 7efg 7789 jk Nes 9156 hıjk 12040 abc 11690 bcd 12070 hı 9644 fghı Gözde 80 9289 ghıj 7689 k 10360 def 11290 abc 11820 bcd N4692xRox 9200 hıjk 10800 cdefg 10800 gh 8444 bcd 5089 l Rox 10840 cdefg 11200 bcdef 13380 a 12130 ıjk 11160 bcdef E.sumac 8978 hıjk 9689 fghı 11420 bcd 12530abc 12600 ab Ortalama 9428.5 9962.3 11201.0 11055.2 9683.7 LSD: 1350 Table 3. Green forage yield (kg/da) responses to different sowing time with various sorghum cultivars The effects of different sowing times on dry matter yield of various sorghum cultivars is shown Table 4. Results reveal that the effects of sowing time and cultivars are statistically significant. Upon examination of data in Table 4, the highest dry matter yield were determined by E. Sumac cultivar with 3725 kg/da in 4th and 5th sowing time. Sowing time Cultivars 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Leoti 2260 ıj 2383 hıj 3068 cdef 2369 hıj 2369 hıj Nes 3033cdefg 3655 abc 3698 ab 2715 fghı 2715 fghıj Gözde 80 2934 defgh 2416 ghıj 3140 bcd 3937 a 3937 a N4692xRox 2838 defghı 3219 bcdef 3260 bcd 1391 k 1391 k Rox 3019 defg 3176 bcdef 3958 a 2762 fghı 2762 fghı E.sumac 2758 fghı 2818 efghı 3461 abc 3725 ab 3725 ab Ortalama 2807.0 2944.5 3430.8 2816.5 2816.5 LSD: 531.6 Table 4. Dry matter yield (kg/da) responses to different sowing time with various sorghum cultivars Conclusion It was found that different sowing times effected on sorghum silage quality. The results show that the selection of sowing time depends on cultivars. Acknowledgements This reseach was financially supported by The Scientific Research Projects Administration Unit of Akdeniz University. 466 �References Anonymous, 1990b. Amerikan Sorgumunun Hayvan Yemi Olarak Kullanımı. U.S.Feed Grains Counsil.News. Sayı: 43 Aslangiray, C., Tansı, V. Ve Sağlamtimur, T. 1991. Çukurova Koşullarında II. Ürün Olarak Yetiştirilen Mısır (Sea Mays L.) Ve Sorgum (Sorghum Sp.) Tür Ve Çeşitlerinin Gelişme Dönemlerine Göre Biyolojik Üretimlerinin Saptanması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Türkiye 2. Çayır-Mer’a Ve Yem Bitkileri Kongresi. 369-378. 28-31 Mayıs 1991, Đzmir. Çakmakçı, S., Gündüz, Đ., Çeçen, S., Aydınoğlu, B. Ve Tüsüz, M.A., 1999. Sorgumun Silajlık Kullanımında Farklı Biçim Devrelerinin Verim Ve Kalite Üzerine Etkileri. Turkısh Journal Of Agriculture&Forestry V:23, N:3 Freed, R., Eıenensmıth, S. P., Guetz, S., Reıcosky, D., Smaıl, V. W. And Wolberg, P.1989. User’s Guide To MSTAT-C Analysis Of Agronomic Research Experiments. Michigan State Universty., USA Mcginty, D. D. 1972. Sorghum Đn Animal Nutrition, Oxfort And IBH Publishing Co. 461-481. Tüsüz, M., Polat, N., Ünal, F., Aydemir, G., Ateş, M. 1984. Đkinci Üründe Silaj Sorgum Ve Sudan Otu Tarımı. Đkinci Ürün Tarımı Araştırma Yayım Projesi Konu Uzmanları Yayınları T. O. K. B. Ziraat Đşl. Gen.Md. 467 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 547 Title A name given to the resource Determination of Optimum Seed Sowing Time for Six Different Sorghum Cultivars in Purpose of Silage Production in Mediterrenean Coastline Author Author ÖTEN, Mehmet ÇAKMAKCI, Sadık Abstract A summary of the resource. Six different sorghum cultivars (Gözde 80, Rox, Leoti, Early Sumac, Nes ve N 4692xRox), registered by Mediterreanean Agricultural Research Institute, were sown in different periods in order to determine the optimum sowing time. The experiment was conducted in a split plot design with three replications. Count of 50% blooming days, count of full blooming days, forage yield, dry matter production, and leaf-stem-bunch ratio were determined. The Rox cultivar comes to number one since the enhance of green foliage have been demanded. The dry matter production having been evaluated as the most important property in terms of slage quality and production. Nest comes to fore at the first and second and at fourth Rox, at fifth period Gözde 80, respectively. The first week of May was determined to be optimum time compared to other seed sowing period in view of the climatic conditions data of year, on which the experiments were conducted and the pronounced performance of cultivars within other different seedsowing time Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/02561645e087048a714c3bec6f667527.pdf 3ae16e1cf405010fea0a3ef6f786ce4e PDF Text Text Determination of The Effects of Loads on Some Engine Parameters for Agricultural Tractors Zafer ÖZGÜR Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Biga Vocational College zozgur@comu.edu.tr Abstract : The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. To this end, partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The trials have been carried out separately for each tractor and the engine parameters have been measured concurrently with the applied loads. In all trials the exhaust gas temperature has been found to be between 181.10-603.40 °C, the engine cooling water temperature between 63.20-83.40 °C, the fuel consumption between 3.15-15.68 L/h and the specific fuel consumption to be between 230.371112.79 g/kWh. According to the results of the research there is a distinct increase in the exhaust gas temperature and fuel consumption parameters due to the increase of PTO and there is a decrease with similar ratios in specific fuel consumption. Whereas cooling water temperature values tend to decrease very slightly due to power change. According to variance analysis results it has been determined that the PTO speed and PTO power factors and their interactions have statistically significant (P<0.01) effects on all the measured parameters. As a result of the study it has been concluded that even though the three PTO speeds have different engine operation parameters, they can be used as alternatives for each other for many PTO driven agricultural machines. Keywords: Tractor, PTO, engine performance parameters Introduction Nowadays in the world against the energy shortages, quality and quantity of production, as well conscious of the mechanization of agricultural production to achieve the most ideal conditions is obligatory. Mechanization of agricultural practices to ensure efficiency, knowledge of the ability of the tractor in agricultural enterprises, and accordingly the use of tractors conveniently, the use of tractors and business machines by increasing efficiency can help reduce operating costs Aging of engine and the reduction in work efficiency depending on the annual working hours and working conditions of tractor usually are not being noticed or not ignored by the users. This situation is realized by the consume of more fuel for the same work of the tractor or unable to fulfill the work. These conditions causing significant losses in business is need to be foreseen and taken precautions. To detect and evaluate negative changes mentioned by the tractor engine periodically parameters such as temperature and fuel consumption are required to determine. Because he loss of efficiency in engines are directly effective on tail shaft torque and power transferred from the agricultural machine, periodcally and practically the efficiency of PTO should be meassured. For this process, in static conditions usually workshop-type hydraulic dynamometer is used. With dynamometer, maximum tractor PTO power can be determined. The measurements will be made periodically, it informs users about the efficiency of the tractor engine. 198 �In this study partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. Specific Fuel Consumption and Fuel Consumption Motor is a machine that converts heat energy resulting in the burning of fuel in cylinders to mechanical energy. Power produced per unit time to the amount of fuel consumed is called the specific fuel consumption. Specific fuel consumption varies depending on engine load conditions. For example, the fuel consumption at full is less than the half that of gas. Engine Exhaust Gas and Water Temperature In ınternal combustion engines, the ratio of beneficial work from the motor shaft to the energy supplied with fuel to machine is defined as brake thermal efficiency. The fuel to the engine that convert heat energy into mechanical energy, some losses have occurred. These losses occur by exhaust, cooling, friction and radiation. To increase the brake thermal efficiency, it is necessary to reduce these losses and to know the share of total losses. Kayıp enerjilerin ve efektif gücün belirlenerek değerlendirilmesine ısı balansı denilmektedir. Evaluation of energy loss and effective power is called as heat balance. Heat balance that define the economy in engine also give idea about the various losses. In ınternal combustion engines, the maximum cycle temperature is limited due to the structural features of the engine. Therefore, in reciprocating internal combustion engines, it is necessary cooling systems to check the temperature of engine parts. For four-stroke diesel engines, the heat loss through the cooling is ranged from 20-28%. This heat loss comprises the heat passing to cooling water and lubricating oils. An average of only 8% loss of lubricating oil is in question. Material and Method In workshops, experiments conducted at static conditions, full and partial load is applied to three test trials of the tractor tail spindle and the necessary parameters have been determined. Measurement systems used for this purpose is given schematically in Figure 1.1 In experiments carried out in workshop conditions, loads connected to the tractor PTO engine exhaust gas temperature, cooling temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters are examined, evaluated the relationship between them. 199 �Figure 1.1. Schematic illustration of measurement systems used in research Relations Between PTO Power and the Exhaust Gas Temperature Engine exhaust gas temperatures measured for each load level applied to the tractor PTO are given in Table 2.1. PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 238.00 253.10 278.20 299.30 323.30 348.50 373.80 405.30 422.50 540 NH TD85 248.30 277.60 311.80 345.60 378.90 412.00 446.10 481.00 514.70 exhaust gas temperatures (°C) 540E JD NH MF MF 3085 5625 TD85 3085 267.80 181.10 203.70 219.30 302.20 209.80 244.00 270.50 337.30 248.80 286.90 320.00 373.90 281.60 330.40 372.40 404.60 310.50 368.80 420.00 437.00 339.50 411.20 474.80 471.20 368.50 452.80 518.00 501.00 407.20 494.40 570.90 531.90 439.90 540.30 603.40 Table 2.1. Engine exhaust gas temperatures 200 JD 5625 232.00 256.60 281.30 302.00 331.40 356.70 374.20 406.90 428.60 750 NH TD85 267.20 293.90 324.80 354.80 387.90 419.10 448.90 480.20 511.50 MF 3085 276.80 308.30 342.90 376.00 414.80 443.00 477.00 504.20 532.70 �When the charts examined, exhaust gas temperatures obtained for John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to increase in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and Cooling Water Temperature Engine cooling water temperatures measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO are given in Table 2.2 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 81.90 82.20 82.30 82.10 81.80 82.60 82.90 83.40 83.40 540 NH TD85 67.00 67.50 68.00 69.00 69.40 70.00 70.00 71.00 71.20 MF 3085 64.10 67.30 70.70 74.10 74.60 74.70 76.00 75.10 76.00 cooling water temperatures(°C) 540E JD NH MF 5625 TD85 3085 79.40 65.00 63.20 80.10 65.10 66.60 80.10 66.00 69.40 80.00 66.00 72.20 80.00 67.00 75.00 80.30 67.50 76.00 80.80 68.00 76.40 81.40 69.00 77.00 81.50 70.00 76.80 JD 5625 82.80 81.90 82.20 81.90 82.90 82.60 82.80 82.10 83.00 750 NH TD85 66.00 66.00 66.80 67.00 67.30 68.00 68.00 69.00 69.00 MF 3085 63.20 64.80 71.60 74.10 74.60 74.70 76.00 75.10 76.00 Table 2.2. Engine cooling water temperature values Cooling water temperatures obtained for he John Deere 5625 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was not found significant difference in the application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and Fuel Consumption Engine fuel consumption measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO is given in Table 2.3 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 6.62 7.45 8.44 9.52 10.55 11.66 12.92 14.33 15.38 540 NH TD85 5.09 5.95 6.90 8.02 9.08 10.21 11.30 12.53 13.78 MF 3085 4.76 5.72 6.73 7.79 9.00 10.17 11.34 12.70 13.93 Fuel consumption (L/h) 540E JD NH MF 5625 TD85 3085 3.93 3.55 3.15 4.81 4.58 4.14 5.79 5.60 5.22 6.85 6.75 6.38 7.89 7.81 7.50 8.98 8.95 8.73 10.08 10.06 9.88 11.36 11.33 11.17 12.59 12.67 12.54 Table 2.3. Motor fuel consumption values 201 JD 5625 6.73 7.52 8.52 9.63 10.74 11.96 13.28 14.50 15.68 750 NH TD85 5.83 6.75 7.82 9.00 10.08 11.38 12.54 13.63 14.92 MF 3085 5.36 6.27 7.45 8.73 9.96 11.15 12.43 13.80 15.02 �Fuel consumption values for John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to increase in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Relations Between PTO Power and the Specific Fuel Consumption Engine specific fuel consumption values measured each load level applied to the tractor PTO is given in Table 2.4 PTO power (kW) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 JD 5625 1095.64 616.01 465.19 393.68 349.10 321.35 305.29 296.23 282.58 Specific fuel consumption (L/h) 540 540E NH MF JD NH MF JD TD85 3085 5625 TD85 3085 5625 841.17 786.86 649.90 586.84 520.82 1112.79 492.45 472.74 398.19 378.53 342.31 622.29 380.50 370.78 319.01 308.48 287.62 469.78 331.59 322.21 283.19 279.06 263.81 398.09 300.27 297.65 261.03 258.42 248.10 355.14 281.43 280.33 247.52 246.80 240.78 329.63 266.99 267.92 238.15 237.65 233.48 313.85 259.02 262.51 234.80 234.26 231.01 299.85 253.26 256.04 231.36 232.90 230.37 288.20 Table 2.4. Engine specific fuel consumption values 750 NH TD85 964.33 558.24 431.18 372.12 333.52 313.64 296.19 281.86 274.11 MF 3085 886.27 518.90 410.83 361.02 329.64 307.31 293.63 285.36 276.05 Specific fuel consumption values obtained for the John Deere 5625, New Holland TD85 ve Massey Ferguson 3085 tractors was found to decrease in application of three PTO depending on the load levels. Conclusions and Recommendations Study, for 540 rpm , the tail of a tractor PTO shaft speed to the load applied in the experiment in the with the tail.In this study, for loads applied to the trial tractors which are in 540 rpm PTO speed , tractor fuel consumption, specific fuel consumption and PTO torque variables were determined. Torqu values depending on the loadings for 540 rpm PTO speed are varied among the 88 888 Nm. That implies the change in PTO speed with the same power levels will also change the torque values. In other words, because of the different torgque needs of agriculturel machinery moving from PTO, operating characteristics of an agricultural machine working with 540 rpm speed may vary with 750 rpm speed. 750 rpm PTO option is used for agricultural machines that not require more torque as an alternative speed option for 540 rpm and 1000 rpm PTO speed. During the dynamometer test, torque power and speed measurements in parallel with the fuel consumption values were also measured. The data obtained by processing the results of calculations , specific fuel consumption was also determined. Values for fuel consumption increased proportionally with the power values despite specific fuel consumption decreased with increasing levels of power. For Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 ve John Deere 5625 tractors with the same speed level, avarage special fuel consumption value increased 9.92%, 11.16% ve 1.70% respectively when it is passed from 540 rpm PTO to 750 rpm PTO. Fuel consumption values of 750 rpm instead of 540 rpm PTO speed with the case has shown a certain tendency to increase. When all the applied load is taken into account (5 50kW), the fuel consumption increase rate between two PTO speed varied between the values 7.56-12.63% for Massey Ferguson 3085, 7.59 14.64% for New Holland TD85 and 1.00-2.80% or John Deere 5625 tractor. Cooling water temperatures are 63–77 ºC, 66–72 ºC and 79–87 ºC respectively for Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 ve John Deere 5625 tractors respectively. These difference between cooling water temperatures are thought to be arised from the different thermostat features. 202 �In this study, 540 rpm and 750 rpm PTO speed were compared statically only workshop conditions. From the evaluations, especially fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters are emphasized. However, this study should be support with the field work. For example when disk fertilizer distribution machine is run with 750 rpm instead of 540 rpm PTO speed, it would be possible that work wildth will increase and work completion time will be influenced. For these reasons, the differences between the two PTO speed (work size, operating time, fuel consumption, torque, etc) should be compared for various agricultural machinery moving from PTO in actual working conditions. References Anonim, 2004. New Holland TD 85 Kullanım kitabı. New Holland Trakmak A.Ş. (In Turkish) Anonim, 2008a., (08.Kasım 2008) Tarım ve Köy işleri Bakanlığı yayınları, Traktör Tekniği kitabı (http://www.tarim.gov.tr/sanal_kutuphane/basili/permem/ kitapweb/tarmekkit/bilgi/b210.pdf) (In Turkish) Balcı, Y., 1982. Traktör Motor Gücü ve Egzoz Gazı Sıcaklığı Arasındaki Đlişkilerin Saptanması Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Tarım Makinaları Bölümü. Lisans Tezi. (18)s. (In Turkish) Bastaban S., 1994. Traktör Performansını Belirlemek Đçin Kullanılan Genel Amaçlı Ölçüm ve Datalogger Seti. Tarımsal Mekanizasyon 15. Ulusal kongresi, Antalya, 10–22 Eylül, Sayfa: 14–23(In Turkish) Downs H.W., Hansen R.W., 2006. Selecting Energy-Efficient Tractors. Colorado State University. Cooperative Extension. 9/98. Reviewed 1/05. no. 5.007. Engürülü, B., Ö. Çiftçi, M. Gölbaşı, H.Ç. Başaran and M. Akkurt. 2005. Traktör Tekniği. Tarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı Ankara Zirai Üretim Đşletmesi, Personel ve Makina Eğitim Merkezi Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Ankara. (In Turkish) Evcim, Ü.,Ulusoy, E., Gülsoylu, E., Sındır, K. O., Đçöz, E., 2004. Türkiye tarımı makinalaşma durumu. (In Turkish) Gil-Sierra, J. Ortiz-Cañavate, J., Gil-Quirós, V., Casanova-Kindelán J., 2007. Energy Effıcıency in Agrıcultural Tractors: a Methodology for Theır Classıfıcatıon. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. Vol. 23(2): 145-150. Grisso, R. D., Kocher,M. F., Vaughan D. H., 2004. Predicting Tractor Fuel Consumption. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. Vol. 20(5): 553−561. Koertner, R.G., Bashford, L.L., Lane, D.E., 1977. Tractor Instrumentation for Measuring Fuel and Energy Requirements. Transactions of the ASAE. Vol. 20(3): 402-405. Lin, T., Buckmaster, D.R., 1996. Evaluation of an Optimized Engine-Fluid Power Drive System to Replace Mechanical Tractor Power Take-Offs. Transactions Sabancı, A. 1997. Tarım Traktörleri. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Ders Kitapları Genel Yayın No: 46. Adana. (In Turkish) Sümer S.K., Has, M., Sabanci, A., 2004. Türkiye’de Üretilen Tarım Traktörlerine Ait Teknik Özellikler. Ç.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 19(1):17-26. Adana. (In Turkish) Sümer, S.K., Sabancı, A., Ükler, K., 1998. Tarım Traktörlerinde, Güç ve Tarımsal Mekanizasyon Kongresi, Tekirdağ. (In Turkish) Thomas, R. S., Buckmaster, D. R., 2005. Development of a Computer-Controlled, Hydraulıc, Power Take-Off (PTO) System. Transactions of the ASAE. Vol. 48(5): 1669−1675. 203 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 384 Title A name given to the resource Determination of The Effects of Loads on Some Engine Parameters for Agricultural Tractors Author Author ÖZGÜR, Zafer Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to determine the load based engine exhaust temperature, cooling water temperature, fuel consumption and specific fuel consumption parameters and to examine the relationship between them. To this end, partial loads have been applied to three different tractor brands that are widely used in our country (Massey Ferguson 3085, New Holland TD85 and John Deere 5625) under workshop conditions at different PTO speeds (540, 540E, 750) by using an Eddy Current dynamometer. The trials have been carried out separately for each tractor and the engine parameters have been measured concurrently with the applied loads. In all trials the exhaust gas temperature has been found to be between 181.10-603.40 °C, the engine cooling water temperature between 63.20-83.40 °C, the fuel consumption between 3.15-15.68 L/h and the specific fuel consumption to be between 230.37- 1112.79 g/kWh. According to the results of the research there is a distinct increase in the exhaust gas temperature and fuel consumption parameters due to the increase of PTO and there is a decrease with similar ratios in specific fuel consumption. Whereas cooling water temperature values tend to decrease very slightly due to power change. According to variance analysis results it has been determined that the PTO speed and PTO power factors and their interactions have statistically significant (P<0.01) effects on all the measured parameters. As a result of the study it has been concluded that even though the three PTO speeds have different engine operation parameters, they can be used as alternatives for each other for many PTO driven agricultural machines. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fef52bacaee9172a6a6a636f97c46967.pdf e6c4a5f2eae98f586aadf585526b2cc4 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Determination of the Optimum Conditions of the Dissolution of Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Chlorine Gas Hakan Temur Ah met Yartaşı M. Muhtar Kocakerim Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Chemical Engineering Erzurum, TURKEY mkerim @atauni.edu.tr Abstract: The present work aims an experimental design based on the of Taguchi approach to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas. The ranges of experimental parameters were between 16-45 oC for reaction temperature, 0.05-0.20 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 30-120 min for reaction time, 0.0270.4 mol.L-1 for [Fe3+] and 0.025-0.4 mol.L-1 for [Cu2+ ]. The optimum conditions were found to be as follows: Reaction temperature (oC); 45, solid-toliquid ratio(g.mL-1); 0.05, [Fe3+](mol.L-1); 0.2, [Cu2+ ] (mol.L-1); 0,025 and reaction time(min); 120. Under these conditions, the dissolution percentage of copper from chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine was 68.44 %. Keywords: Chalcopyrite, optimization, Taguchi method, chlorination. Introduction Chalcopyrite, being one ofthe most abundant copper oresin the world isthe mostimportant ore used in production ofthe copper by pyrometallurgical methods. Recently,in production of copper and its compounds hydrometallurgical process have taken the place of classicalmetallurgical processes1.Important features of chlorination are high reactivity of chlorine, high volatilitiesof metal chlorides and solubility of most metal chlorides in water. Chlorination of metal sulphides offersthe additional prospect of recovering sulphur in the nonpolluting elementalform2. The high reactivity of gaseous chlorine as an oxidizing agent in leaching processes have been caused a number of studies on the extraction of metal sulphides by chlorine leaching. Bayrakçeken et al.3 studied the kinetics of the chlorination of pyrite in aqueous suspensions and found that the rate controlling step was the chemical reaction between chlorine and pyrite forthe temperature range 13-35 0 C, and the diffusion of chlorine through the fluid film forthe temperature range 40-60 0 C withthe activation energies respectively 36.7 kJ.mol-1 and 3.7 kJ.mol-1. Çolak et al.1 examined the kinetics of dissolution of chalcopyritein aqueous solutions saturated by chlorine gas and determined thatthe diffusion of the reactantsthrough productlayer was the rate controlling step with an activation energy of 9.81 kJ.mol-1. Reactions of copper sulfide minerals with chlorine in an aqueous medium were studied by Groves and Smith and determined that when the dissolution process was complete, the reaction products(copper, iron and sulfur) were in their highest oxidation states and stoichiometric amount of chlorine was consumed.4 In an study carried out by Ekmekyapar et. al.5 , they investigated the dissolution kinetics of an oxidized copper orein watersaturated by chlorine,and found thatthe dissolution process proceeded intwo stages and was controlled by diffusion through the ash layer in each stage. The authors determined that the activation energies forthe first and second stages were 27.15 and 20.21 kJ.mol-1,respectively. Chalcopyrite can be dissolved with various leaching agents such as hydrochloric acid6, chloride/hypochloride media7,ferric chloride8,9, acidic Cl- solutions10, CCl4 saturated with chlorine11 and H2 SO4NaCl-O2 12. In addition to these, oxide and sulphide ores of base metal minerals were examined by various 178 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo chlorinating agents such as Cl2, HCl, Cl2-O2, FeCl2 and O2 and CuCl2 .2 The optimization of leaching conditions of the ores is important in industrial processes and some researcher have been interested in these topics by using various techniques13-20. As a technique, Taguchi's Orthogonal Array (OA) analysis is used to produce the best parameters for the optimum design process, with theleast number of experiments.In recent years, Taguchi method has been used to determine optimum parameters because of its advantages. The main advantages of this method over other statistical experimental design methods are that the parameters affecting an experiment can be investigated as controlling and not controlling, and that the method can be applied to experimental design involving a large number of design factors18. In this study, determination of the optimum conditions of the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas was investigated by using Taguchi experimental design method. Reaction temperature, solid-to-liquid ratio,reaction time, [Fe3+], [Cu2+] and [H+] were chosen as parameters. Materials and Methods The chalcopyrite concentrate used in this study was provided from Çayeli, Rize in Turkey and sieved by using a 75 µm AST M standard sieve. Chemical analysis of concentrate gave a composition of 24.02 % Cu, 29.36 % Fe, 36.55 % S, 2.19 % Zn, 0.19 % Pb, 0.1 % Al2 O3 , 0.9 % moisture and 6.69 % other components. Xray diffractogram of chalcopyrite concentrate obtained by Rigaku D M A X 2000 Series X-ray diffractometer is given in Figure 1.Itis seen thatthe chalcopyrite concentrate contains CuFeS2, FeS2, ZnS, Cu2 S, CuS and very small amount of Al2 O3 and SiO2. Also, SE M photogram of the concentrateis shown in Figure 2. Dissolution experiments were carried outtwo stages.In the firststage, 7.0 g chalcopyrite was added to 200 mL of distilled water saturated with chlorine gas and the mixture was stirred at ambienttemperature fortwo hours. Atthe end ofthe experiment,the mixture was filtered and determined that 17.99 % of Fe and 13.66% of Cu in the ore were dissolved.At the second stage, 3.5 g chalcopyrite was added to 100 mL ofthe filtrate saturated with chlorine gas and the mixture was stirred underthe same conditions ofthe first stage. Afterthe second stage experiment,the mixture was filtered and Cu and Fe analysis were done in the filtrate.It was seen that 65% of Fe and 60% of Cu inthe ore were dissolved. This means that Cu2+ and/or Fe3+ are effective parametersinthis dissolution system. Because ofthis fact,Cu2+ and Fe3+ concentrations were taken as parameters. The other parameters chosen forthis study were reaction temperature, solid to liquid ratio,reaction time and [H+]. Dissolution experiments were carried outin 250 mL a jacketed glass reactor at atmospheric pressure. The reactor contents were mixed by a mechanical stirrer with tachometer and its temperature was controlled by a constant temperature circulator. The reactor was fitted with a cooler to prevent the volume reduction of the solution by the evaporation. In the experiments, 100 mL- distilled water was saturated previously with Cl2 atthe desired experimental temperature. Afterthe sample was added to the reactor, during the desired time period, Cl2 was passed through the reaction mixture, and the mixture was stirred at a fixed speed. Atthe end of dissolution period,the amounts of Cu2+ passing to the solution during the reaction were determined the volumetric method21. In this study, Taguchi method was used to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated by chlorine. The application of Taguchi Method to optimize of a process by using multiple performance characteristics includes eight steps, which make up Robust Design cycle view of planning and performing the experiments and analysing and verifying the experimental result22: -identify the main function, side effects, and failure modes, -identify noise factors and the testing conditions for evaluating the quality loss, -identify the quality characteristics to be observed and the objective function to be optimized, -identify the control factors and their alternate levels, -design the matrix experiment and define the data analysis procedure, -conduct the matrix experiment, -analyze the data, determine optimum levels for the control factors, and predict performance under these levels, -conduct the verification(also called confirmation)experiment and plan future action. Performance characteristics chosen as the optimization criteria are divided by three categories,the largerthe-better, the smaller-the-better and the nominal-the-best. The first two of them were calculated by using Equation 1 and 2. 1 n 1 n ∑Y2  i =1 i Larger-the-better SNL = −10 Log 10      (1) 179 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 1 n 2 Y  n ∑ i   i =1  Smaller-the-better SNS = −10 Log 10  (2) where SNL and SNS are performance characteristics, n number of repetition done for an experimental combination, and Yi performance value ofith experiment22. In Taguchi method,the experiment corresponding to optimum working conditions might not be found in randomized experimental plan table. In such cases; the performance value for optimum conditions can be predicted by using the balanced characteristic of OA. For this purpose; an additive model can be used as follows23. Yi = µ + X i + ei (3) where µ isthe overall mean of performance value, Xi the fixed effect of the parameter level combination used in ith experiment, and ei the random errorinith experiment. If experimental results are in percentage (%), before evaluating Eq 3 Ω transformations of percentage values should be applied firstusing the Eq. 4 by which values of interest are also later determined by carrying out reverse transformation by using the same equation24: 1  Ω( db) = −10 Log − 1 P  (4) W here Ω(db) is the decibel value of percentage value subject to omega transformation and P the percentage ofthe product obtained experimentally. Because Eq. 3 is a point estimation, which is calculated by using experimental data in order to determine whetherthe additive modelis adequate or not,the confidence limitsforthe prediction error must be evaluated22. The prediction erroristhe difference between the observed Yi and the predicted Yi. The confidence limitsfor the prediction error, Se ,is 1 1 Se = ±2   σ e2 +   σ e2  nr   n0  sum of squares due to error σ e2 = degrees of freedom for error 1 1  1 1  1 1  1 1 = + − + − + − ...... no n  n Ai n   n Bi n   nCi n  (5) (6) (7) where se is the two-standard-deviation confidence limit, n the number of rows in the matrix experiment, nr the number of repetition in confirmation experiment and n Ai ,nBi ,nC i ,… are the replication number for parameterlevel Ai ,Bi ,Ci ,… Ifthe prediction erroris outsidetheselimits,itshould be suspected ofthe possibility thatthe additive modelis notadequate. Otherwise,itcan be considered thatthe additive modelto be adequate. A verification experiment is a powerful tool for detecting the presence of interactions among the control parameters.Ifthe predicted response under the optimum conditions does not match the observed response,then itimplies that the interactions are important. If the predicted response matches the observed response, then it impliesthatthe interactions are probably notimportant and thatthe additive modelis a good approximation22. Experimental parameters used in this study and their levels are seen in Table 1. The orthogonal array (OA) was chosen as the most suitable to make up the experimental design, L16(54), with five parameters each four values given Table 2 18,22. Each experiment was repeated twice underthe same conditions at differenttimes, to determine the effects of noise sources on process. Results and Discussions Dissolution reactions W hen chalcopyrite concentrate is added into solution obtained by dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in water saturated with chlorine,the reactions taking place in the medium can be written as follows1; 2CuFeS2(s) → Cu2 S(s) + 2 FeS(s) + S(s) (8) Cu2 S(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + CuS(s) 180 (9) �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo CuS(s) + Cl2(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + S (aq) (10) FeS2(s) →FeS(s) + S(s) (11) 2FeS(s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl2(aq) + 2S(s) (12) 4S (s) + 2 Cl2(aq) → 2 S2 Cl2(l) (13) 2 FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(aq) → 2FeCl3 (14) (aq) 2 S2 Cl2(l) + 10Cl2(aq) + 16H2 O → 4H2 SO4(aq) + 24HCl(aq) (15) FeS2(s) + 2Fe3+(aq) →3Fe2+(aq) +2S(s) (16) CuFeS2 (s) +4Fe3+ → Cu2+ (17) 2+ (aq) +5Fe (aq) +2S(s) S(s) +6Fe3+(aq) +4H2 O → H2 SO4( aq) +6Fe2+ (aq) +6H+ (aq) (18) Statistical analysis The collected data were analysed by an IB M compatible PC using a program prepared by taking into account Tagushi aproach.In orderto see effective parameters and their confidence levels on dissolution process, the analysis of variance was performed. A statistical analysis of variance (ANOV A) was performed to see whether process parameters are statistically significant or not. F-test is a tool to see which process parameters have a significant effect on the dissolution value. The F value for each process parameter is simply a ratio of mean ofthe squared deviationstothe mean of squared error. Usually,thelargerthe F value,the greaterthe effect on the dissolution value due to the change of the process parameter. With the performance characteristics and A N O V A analyses, the optimal combination of process parameters can be predicted18. The results of variance analysis were given in Table 3. To obtain optimal dissolution performance, the larger–the-better performance characteristic (Eq. 1) has been taken for dissolution ofCu. The order of graphs in Figure 3-7 is according to the degrees of the influences of parameters on the performance characteristics. The optimal level of a process parameter is the level with the highest SN value calculated by Eq.1. At firstsightitcan be difficultand complicated to deduce the experimental conditions forthe graphs given in Figure 3-7. We’lltryto explain it with an example. Let’s see how Figure 4 is obtained. Figure 4 shows the variation of performance characteristics with solidto-liquid ratio. Let’s try to determine the experimental conditions for the first datum point. The level 1 is 0.05 g.mL-1 forthis parameterin this point. Now, let’s go to Table 2 and find the experiments for which the level in the column B is 1.Itseen in Table 2 thatthe levelis 1 forthe experiment with 1, 5, 9 and 13 numbers. The first datum point in Figure 4 is arithmetical average of performance characteristics for these experiments. All the pointsin Figure 4 graph and other graphs are established by the same way.In each graph,the numerical value of maximum point is correspond to the best value for that parameter. These values are seen to be A4 (45o C), B1(0.05 g.mL-1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min). Therefore,forthese process A4, B1, C3, D1 and E4 condition were taken as optimum dissolution conditions and the dissolution fraction under these conditions was found to be 68.44 %. If the experimental plan given in Table 2 is studied carefully together with parameter values given as A4(45 o C), B1(0.05 g.mL-1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min), it can be seen that experiments corresponding to optimum conditions A4(45o C), B1(0.05g.mL- 1), C3(0.2M), D1(0.025M) and E4(120 min) have not been carried out during the experimental work. Thus it should be noted that the dissolution percentages in Table 4 are predicted results obtained by using Eqs. 3-4 and observed results for same conditions. Also, the results in Table 4 are confidence limits of predictions. In order to test the predicted results, confirmation experiments were carried out twice at the same working conditions. The fact that the dissolution percentages from confirmation experiments are within the calculated confidence intervals calculated from Eqs.5-7 (see Table 4) shows thatthe experimentalresults are within ± 5 % in error. This case states thatthere is a good agreement between the predicted values and experimental values, and the interactive effects of the parameters are indeed negligible. It may be concluded that the additive model is adequate for describing the dependence of this dissolution process on the various parameters18. 181 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Conclusion The major conclusions from the present work are: 1-The effective parameters on dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas are solid-to-liquid ratio,reaction time, [Fe3+],reaction temperature and [Cu2+ ],respectively. 2-The optimum conditions are 45 o C for reaction temperature, 0.05 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 120 min.forreaction time, 0.2 M for[Fe3+] and 0.025M for [Cu2+].Underthese conditions given in Table 4,it can be seen thatthe dissolution of 68.44 % isjustfor Cu. 3-The predicted and observed dissolution values are very closeto each other,it may be concluded thatthe additive modelis adequate for describing the dependence ofthe dissolution process on the examined parameters. 4-Since optimum conditions determined by Taguchi method in laboratory environment is reproducible in real production environments as well, the findings of the present study may be very useful for processing in industrialscale. 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System of Experimental Design, Quality Resources, New York, 108. 183 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Parameters Levels 1 2 3 4 Reaction temperature (o C) 16 25 35 45 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 [Fe3+] (mol.L-1 ) 0.027 0.1 0.2 0.4 [Cu2+] (mol.L-1 ) 0.025 0.1 0.2 0.4 Reaction time (min) 30 60 90 120 Table1.Parameters and theirvalues corresponding to theirlevels studied in experiments. A B C D E Quantities and theirlevels Experiment No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 A 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 Conversion fraction of copper Experiment(I) Cu Experiment(II) Cu Average B C D E % % Cu % 1 1 1 1 34.65 39.88 37.27 2 2 2 2 31.75 23.01 27.38 3 3 3 3 30.45 25.73 28.09 4 4 4 4 16.22 20.17 18.20 1 2 3 4 48.11 41.70 44.91 2 1 4 3 33.65 36.33 34.99 3 4 1 2 25.73 22.12 23.93 4 3 2 1 18.61 23.33 20.97 1 3 4 2 56.62 54.23 55.43 2 4 3 1 18.78 20.18 19.48 3 1 2 4 38.63 37.09 37.86 4 2 1 3 30.85 34.65 32.75 1 4 2 3 47.79 43.14 45.47 2 3 1 4 56.75 49.62 53.19 3 2 4 1 24.68 29.38 27.03 4 1 3 2 29.54 26.52 28.03 Table 2. L16 (45 )Experimental plan table and results of experiments Degrees of freedom Parameters A B C D E Sum of squares Mean of squares F Reaction temperature (o C) 3 568.9250 189.6417 17.17 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 3 1929.8293 643.2764 58.26 [Fe3+ ](mol.L-1) 3 653.2051 217.7350 19.72 [Cu2+ ](mol.L-1) 3 181.0988 60.3663 5.47 Reaction time (min) 3 657.5962 219.1987 19.85 Error 16 176.6779 11.0424 Table 3. Results ofthe analysis of variance forthe chlorination of chalcopyrite concentrate Parameters Value Level Reaction temperature (o C) 45 4 Solid-to-liquid ratio (g.mL-1) 0.05 1 [Fe3+ ](mol.L-1) 0.2 3 [Cu2+ ](mol.L-1) 0.025 1 Reaction time (min) 120 4 Observed dissolved quantity for Cu(%) 67.86 Predicted dissolved quantity for Cu (%) 65.19 Confidence limits of prediction for Cu (%) 60.21-70.17 Table 4. Optimum working conditions and alternative working conditions fortwo differentexperimental conditions, observed and predicted dissolved quantities of Cu A B C D E 184 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. X-Ray diffractogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate Figure 2. SEM photogram of the chalcopyrite concentrate 185 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 10 20 30 40 50 0 Reaction temperature ( C) Figure 3. The effect of reaction temperature on performance statistics 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 -1 Solid-to-Liquid ratio ( g.mL ) Figure 4. The effect of solid-to-liquid ratio on performance statistics 186 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,0 0,1 0,2 [Fe 3+ 0,3 0,4 -1 ] (mol.L ) 3+ Figure 5. The effect of [Fe ] on performance statistics 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 0,0 0,1 0,2 2+ [Cu 0,3 0,4 -1 ] (mol.L ) Figure 6. The effect of [Cu2+] on performance statistics 187 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo 34 33 Performance statistics 32 31 30 29 28 27 20 40 60 80 100 120 Reaction time (min) Figure 7. The effect of reaction time on performance statistics 188 140 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 505 Title A name given to the resource Determination of the Optimum Conditions of the Dissolution of Chalcopyrite Concentrate in Aqueous Solutions Saturated with Chlorine Gas Author Author Temur, Hakan Yartası, Ahmet Kocakerim, M. Muhtar Abstract A summary of the resource. The present work aims an experimental design based on the of Taguchi approach to optimize the dissolution of chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine gas. The ranges of experimental parameters were between 16-45 oC for reaction temperature, 0.05-0.20 g.mL-1 for solid-to-liquid ratio, 30-120 min for reaction time, 0.027- 0.4 mol.L-1 for [Fe3+] and 0.025-0.4 mol.L-1 for [Cu2+ ]. The optimum conditions were found to be as follows: Reaction temperature (oC); 45, solid-toliquid ratio(g.mL-1); 0.05, [Fe3+](mol.L-1); 0.2, [Cu2+ ] (mol.L-1); 0,025 and reaction time(min); 120. Under these conditions, the dissolution percentage of copper from chalcopyrite concentrate in aqueous solutions saturated with chlorine was 68.44 %. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/854a87b5ab2582d5a097e2e985a4d790.pdf d0ab6dbb6f1968005fdec3ba7e133ca7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Determination of the Right Strategy to be Received for the Maximum Permanent Level of Learning Assist. Prof. Mehmet Civan The University of Gaziantep Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Business Administration civan@gantep.edu.tr Lecturer Mehmet Korpi The University of Gaziantep Naci Topcuoglu Vocational School of Higher Education korpi@gantep.edu.tr Lecturer Mustafa Aksin The University of Gaziantep Naci Topcuoglu Vocational School of Higher Education aksin@gantep.edu.tr Abstract: During training period in Vocational schools and faculties of the "Computer" and "Accounting" section , the basic lessons , taught in the first year be read as references to other courses because of teaching done in terms of spinal function. Đn this context the aim of our study is to make a Research on students and lecturers for the main course, training in the first year , in the relevant sections of Vocational School and faculties and get some proposals for these courses how to be read the next period and determining right strategy for teaching methods and removing the highest level to obtain the maximum benefit. As a result of this work for this part of the basic course is intended to maximize the learning. Keywords:Education, Teaching Models, Strategies, Computer Algorithms, Accounting. 1. The factors effecting the learning Throughout the human life as a conscious and systematic or unsystematic way to study, provide benefits. No matter which way they interact with the educational process within the individual. During this interaction within a specific system or person as an individual learning activities also performs as unsystematic. Unsystematic learning can present every moment of our lives, at an event, an observation or information obtained during a trip can be unsystematic. Learning system is also available as a target and this target in a specific time interval, if a particular issue within the framework of the mutual interaction of teaching / learning activities are organized. Learning / teaching issue or concept of targeted instructional strategies with which to perform, in terms of provision of learning is of course extremely important. Training methods and techniques used in time exactly as it affects students, student participation is affected. In-class activities can be more effective and meaningful to choose the right strategy, at the end of the educational process as individuals affect the exact level of learning. What is strategy? With a general statement of strategy, monitoring is determined to reach a goal or plan to the entire road is called strategy. Teaching / learning strategies as a brief description of the strategy to be taught about methods of learning which expresses the action will take place. 282 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Today, students interested in expanding their area, hence the interest in lessons and attention spans are decreasing. Given this situation is becoming increasingly difficult job of educators. Students 'high level of active participation Educator's main duties are to ensure that the basic teaching strategies to identify and issue according to the most appropriate strategy to identify near students' attention to keeping alive the course is fun to make education . When determining this training strategy teacher's consideration should be some of the issues are as follows: - the region's social living conditions, - the region's and students' economic status, - the current geographical location and local conditions, - domestic living conditions, - the education system of structural characteristics, - the school and the environment to live in harmony with the problems, - student readiness levels - goals and objectives for the future. Only a few of these factors under the hood, directly or indirectly affects the education system. Be determined to succeed in a course in strategy is only one correct strategy is not possible to determine that. Because they may occur, regional disparities, rural / urban areas in the education level of the students present many factors such as differences will show for the training will give the people of these factors taken into consideration as strategies are needed. These cases should be considered as the basis of student interest in lessons in the process of training and motivation will be to maximize the Mental present. The necessary methods and strategies will be effective for determining the factors which require investigation are available. The main topics of the students, cognitive, affective and psycho-motor behavior in the development, economic and social conditions, students impact on domestic education and training environments creates conditions are so versatile, must be considered and that under the conditions appropriate strategies must be determined. If we take the step to determine strategies that observations should be made. - Students must recognize that education should be defined purpose and goal. - Students need to be determined. Course in relation to previous knowledge level should be determined, the course content info needed and expectations can be learned. - Course later life or in our daily life, what will benefit or how to get a place to be, the students should be informed why to learn - Students' ideas and thoughts configuration, ten of how A learning course will be about the way must be shown. - Each student's intelligence structure is different because the students' learning and understanding the directions said would be different from the course in a single technique, but a very different techniques must be used. - To increase the Students’ interest and motivation / attention during the course collecting different samples and different perspectives should be presented, the students should be asked to express their viewpoint. - Students must take responsibility according to their level and abilities that students should not be asked more than they can do. - Project work may be requested related to issuesç Groups of students form the teams to work should be encouraged, distribution of tasks and responsibility must be installed. - Training issues and problems that may occur during .the teacher be able to predict the course should be prepared. Learners can be used by, and again by teachers can teach mental processes including learning strategies with the support of learned nature raising, learning ease and permanence (Babadoğan, 1994). The students can use all learning issues or status for the different learning strategies . And learning strategies should be varied, this situation can be changed when the show they are in nature. it Can be said different learning strategies and develop new learning strategies that students can place can set their own learning and effective it. When Literature is examined it can be seen that on learning strategies in relation to different classifications are made. Basically, the most common form of learning strategies, Repetition, Connotation, Organizing, to understand monitoring and Affective Strategy in the form of classified (Ozer, 1998; Trust, 2004, Weinstein, 1988). All of these factors, the learning-teaching activities is effective considering the strategy should be determined . what are the learning teaching strategies are available? 283 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2. What are the Active Learning Performing Instructional Strategies ? At Courses a high level of active participation of students with persistent learning level, reaching maximum to be followed dimensions.students at learning process as possible from the highest levels of activated,to maket hem responsible for their own learning. Classes provide a high level of student participation are some of the basic teaching strategies. (Harm, 1994) 2. 1. Inviting to share a new event Description: Invite the students to share new or interesting event they have experienced Purpose : Students gather their attention to the lesson and create a healthy classroom environment One of effective ways to begin the lesson the students will be selected a recent incident in which they live or who to ask their opinion about a current event. the subject does not matter, students will express their views and will debate. Talk about ideas without being overly long course should be continued by thanking. The aim here is to create an environment for discussion of students, the opportunity for students to express their views . This strategy does not take students in academic subjects that a lot of ideas and opinions about events provide revelation. The most important of these strategies into a top-class attention and concentration provides classes for students. 2.2.To detect the known and asked to be known Description :To ask while Getting ready for a particular student or course of study begins as relevant to them and they know what they want to know Purpose: To build and unit on students’interests knowledge and questions How to ask a student who wants to learn, a curiosity or interest in his efforts to resolve the means. Also curious to listen to other students in the class a student may be interested in different areas. This method increases the level of readiness of both students and allows the increase of attendance, as well as the emergence of new ideas and perspectives of students by making clear the course will determine the direction of flow. 2. 3.To prepare a fluency lesson plans Definition: to prepare a lesson plan which will ensure the Class for a smooth, interesting and high-level participation Purpose: In class, students learn the process without any penalties or rewards, of course, enough to ensure the participation of a lot of events and activities take place A classic way to describe the course and progress in a monotonous lecture course which will reduce the student's attention and makes it unsuitable for learning. Stages of the course students should be provided for class participation and interaction of learning activities must take place 2.4.Progress quickly and by fast steps Definition: the participation of all students in class to provide the course is to ensure rapid progress. Purpose: To prevent the spread of the students' attention. Progress at a rapid pace strategy consists of many small steps, and each small step in the processing of a subject is in question. If the energy of the students or the teacher feels it has fallen to the level of class participation can go another step. In this way, students' active participation can be ensured. 284 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2.5 As progressive or tiered teaching Description: A teacher, a particular topic, rather than one at a time understand that sometimes come back to the topic, the students' attendance and reduce the risk of loss. Purpose: Students on "instant" learning to print their personal and natural learn at a pace to allow. And time to focus on a subject to spend a long time, enabling students to learn about it is not always a good way. Students learn a subject fully and deeply , such as a short subject, but at frequent intervals might be useful to go back again and again. Phased and layered as education, will increase retention of information. 2. 6.To offer a limited range Definition: to maintain the participation of students in the classroom, but will also threaten their security to have a variety of learning formats. Purpose: To prevent excessive diversity in course. To have the diversified subject but this diversification should not decrease the attention of the students towards the course . For this reason, the motivation of students and courses related to a diminution of fear or worry is the question. Course topics and diversity in terms of limiting the control of teachers and students to facilitate the course will keep the interest alive. 2.7.Replying to questions Description: Ask any student in the class to answer a particular question, without asking or saying the right answer before the teacher's questions, all students in the class they want to write the answer to a question addressed. Purpose: Put on the highest level of number of students to think about a question. The implementation of this strategy is very simple. This question is asked a question to the class and say the correct answer to all the students in the class before they are asked to write answers to a question addressed. However, for the success of this strategy, students are asked a question with a question asking students to answer this question is useful to take a break between. Meanwhile, or "wait time" (Rowe, 1986), in their minds of the students give an opportunity to create a response. However, fort his success of this strategy, students are asked a question with a question asking students to answer this question is useful to take a break between. Meanwhile, or “wait time” (Rowe, 1986), in their minds of the students give an opportunity to create a response. 2.8. To form Working and sharing groups Description: Students, first divided into small working groups are trying to understand a particular problem. Students, then the different working groups composed of members coming together to teach each other as they learn. Purpose: To provide a high level of student participation with group works. This strategy takes place in two stages; First stage, classroom, working groups on specific issues or problems are created. For example, a list of interesting words in the sentences using each of your establishment, "or" deal with real life problems that can be applied to Generate alternatives such as ". At this stage, as well as for students to complete assigned tasks to determine a specific time period. And usually short period of time, is better than a long period of time, because the short time period allows students to move fast and smart. , In the second stage, students do not have their own working groups to come together with individuals and their ideas were discussed in working groups will be asked to share with each other. 2.9.Strategy of write-share-learn 285 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Description: Students answer a question before the individual authors and then share their writings with others. Objectives: The students basic writing skills and to gain the habit of writing as much as possible to provide a practical quantity. Write-share-learn strategy takes place in five stages. These phases are as follows; - The class requiring students to reflect on a question is directed. Then all the students in the class of their questions answered in a quiet way are asked to take special note. - Teachers, three or four students write finished realized when students' thoughts on paper and will leave, and students volunteer their ideas to tell ones ideas, expressing willingness to students such grants. - Then, students are asked to share their ideas with students and interaction among students is provided. - At this stage, students share their ideas, their partners and teachers in class are asked to share their ideas on the subject by saying the conversation ends. - The last phase of the teachers and students within the course of analyzing what they do, their thinking on emerging ideas. 2.10. To focus on concepts and generalizations Description: A course or unit, independent piece of information or details are not around, more generally, to be built around the concept or generalization. Objectives: The students' learning, to the level of concepts or generalizations. In this strategy, a small piece of information and details to more general concepts, and generalizations are used to achieve. Students not only to memorize a small piece of information, little information is asked to analyze the generalizations reached. 2.11.To make the application work Description: Students apply what they have learned to real life situations to ensure that the work performed. Purpose: Students learn to make them more meaningful, given the opportunity to cast what they have learned into practice. Teachers, students learn the information they want in real life applications, the course or subject may move to the application level. In this way, students learn to reconcile with life and thus get the habit of learning and a good location and income in real life. 2.12.Create signs Description: Students learn important truths about life and the use of signs reminding. Purpose: Students sensors, to ensure a balanced and self-responsible individuals. Produced many students in the class anxiety, worry and fear are affected. These students, for example, how teachers will be satisfied with regard, to show for their classmates' reactions to their errors, or about the topics covered in class to understand and are concerned about can not understand. Indeed, some students afraid to make mistakes, as they put themselves into position like stupid or ignorant not afford to attend the events are known. Thanks to this board should not make students who are intended to overcome the fear of making mistakes by learning. 2.13.Create table concept Description: The class works, and periodically review a concept to create the table. Purpose: Key concepts and important in the minds of students to enable them to stay as fresh or lively. The most important way of organizing a classroom environment is one of the students are learning during the year, they aim to learn the important concepts or ideas, or a wall to show the class. 286 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Classroom teachers with the concept of the periodic table, turning from time to time outlining the issues to ensure the permanence of the concepts discussed. In this way, will be easier for students to recall and knowledge of the subject will be more permanent. Vocational training and information about all of these strategies and other teaching strategies for the course when we examine the subject and content are the most appropriate strategy should be chosen. Besides the existing implementation of strategy rather than one to one of these strategies are appropriate to the format of the individual making the courses can be provided. To be reviewed as an example, consider first the IT field. The information provided in the field of vocational education programming in the sub-branch first as a student will receive training in computer hardware and history will be. Then the basis for programming the "Algorithm" and its follow-up structure in a programming language, small applications that will be provided by an introduction to programming. Programming logic programming slowly students increase their education and research in the sub-branch as they will continue to develop programming skills. For each course to provide the highest level of efficiency as a specific instructional strategies should be determined at the highest level of education should be implemented to ensure the right strategy. Determining the right strategy, both in the permanent student learning and more students in terms of ensuring the topic is extremely important in terms of understanding. The most fundamental issue to be dealt with here, a student will receive educational programming as the basis for programming "algorithms" course is fully understood. Students fully understand the structure of the algorithm to pass without programming, programming classes is largely unsuccessful. After basic training the first student in mind, this is usually 'why' questions are created. By students, "Algorithms" course due to the inability to connect to a reason for this question in the first period, which is the foundation of programming a reluctance to face and understand the difficulty of this course is observed. Yet on the basis of this course only "problem-solving logic" is located. A problem that "how" answers to determine the manner of resolving "Algorithms." This exceeded the highest levels of student learning and to win their first lessons about the "why" questions are the answers must be given to the students. The answer to this question of "how" will be given in terms of education is extremely important. As a verbal description of this course in terms of teaching staff will be very difficult and tiring. In line with this desired efficiency of the students clearly seems to not be obtained. The best method of people with a learning by doing ", learning to live with" to be given a basic education, education is very healthy in terms of yield. To achieve this purpose beginning of the semester to students that everyone of interest related to a project identified and the related issues that may arise problems regarding a resolution chart stickers, and so other students to their friends to tell Provided, every student in themselves "why" questions, the answers will have. For learning to occur and thus the level of readiness of students will come to the highest level. In this context "algorithms" course "for the question to respond," the study and sharing groups to create "and" Application studies to make "such methods in the course lasting learning to maximize delivery to the correct strategy would be. After this point needs to be explained by explaining the issues step by step in strengthening the case can be made at a maximum level of learning. Purpose in pursuing such a strategy as well as university students in the direction of the research will be carried out and the burden of the teaching staff will be minimized. Conclusions and Recommendations As noted in the examples given are intended to be a brief lesson has to do a feasibility study for the first month, then that should be followed on the needs of students must decide for the right strategy. 287 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The courses mainly in the application directly through the application of the issue before the planned application in our daily lives or in the future, students should be informed about the requirements. After this information without the knowledge and expectations of students that must be considered. A strategy should be determined according to students' needs and work in this direction by giving weight to ensure that learning is required. References Saban, A. (2004). Öğrenme Öğretme Süreci. Ankara. Nobel Publication ., Rowe, M. B. (1986). Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up. Journal of Teacher Education, 31, 43-50. Sünbül, A.M. (1998). Farklı Öğrenme Stratejilerinin Öğrencilerin Başarı, Tutum, Okuduğunu Anlama ve Öğrenmenin Kalıcılığına Etkisi. Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Unpublished doctoral dissertation Tunçer, B.K., Güven, B., (2007, Aralık), Öğrenme Stratejileri Kullanımının Öğrencilerin Akademik Başarıları, Hatırda Tutma Düzeyleri ve Derse Đlişkin Tutumları Üzerindeki Etkisi, Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt:IV, Sayı:II, 1-20 Uysal, F.(1996). Öğrenme sürecine etkin öğrenci katılımının öğrenme sonuçlarına etkisi. Unpublished doctoral dissertation Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Đzmir. Dikbaş, Y., Kaf Hasırcı, Ö., (2008), Öğrenme Stratejileri Öğretiminin ve Ders Đşlenişinde Kullanımının Öğrencilerin Akademik Başarılarına ve Tutumlarına Etkisi, Ahi Evran Üniversitesi Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD) Cilt 9, Sayı 2, (69-76) Açıkgöz K., (2005), Etkili Öğrenme ve Öğretme (6. Baskı). Đzmir, Eğitim Dünyası Yayınları; s8-12, 66-89. Baykan, Z., Naçar, M., Mazıcıoğlu, M., (2006),Öğrenme Stratejilerinin Öğrenci Başarısına Etkisi, IV. National Education Congress, May 2-5, Adana, Turkey. 288 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 708 Title A name given to the resource Determination of the Right Strategy to be Received for the Maximum Permanent Level of Learning Author Author Civan, Mehmet KÖRPİ, Mehmet Aksin, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. During training period in Vocational schools and faculties of the "Computer" and "Accounting" section , the basic lessons , taught in the first year be read as references to other courses because of teaching done in terms of spinal function. Đn this context the aim of our study is to make a Research on students and lecturers for the main course, training in the first year , in the relevant sections of Vocational School and faculties and get some proposals for these courses how to be read the next period and determining right strategy for teaching methods and removing the highest level to obtain the maximum benefit. As a result of this work for this part of the basic course is intended to maximize the learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/454c21ec095e99aeee72a1f67b2d3e7c.pdf 85271265e659e81ad2cdaf551190e238 PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Determination of the Yield and Yield Components of Narbon Vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) Lines Grown in Spring Selahattin Iptas Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY iptas@hotmail.com Yasar Karadag Department of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture Gaziosmanpasa University Tokat, TURKEY ykaradag@gop.edu.tr Abstract: Fifteen narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) lines obtained from ICARDA were used in this study. The highest seed yield (1163 kg/ha) was obtained by the line 2390, the lowest seed yield was obtained (1110 kg/ha) by the line 2561. As an average, the 1000-seed weight ranged between 171.4 g and 318.8 g, whereas biological yield ranged between 4043 kg/ha and 7899 kg/ha. It has been found that the relationship among the traits varied according to the years. Although there were negative correlations (-0.656**) between 1000-seed weight and seed per pod, and also there was positive correlations (0.830**) between 1000-seed weight and pod length. The biological yield was positively correlated (0.680**) with pod length and 1000seed weight. Except for the plant height, there was no significant correlation between the seed yield and other characteristics in summer sown lines. Keywords: Narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.), plant height, 1000-seed weight, biological yield, seed yield, relationship between seed yield and other traits. Introduction In the arid and semi-arid regions of Turkey,traditional cereal/fallow cropping systems are practiced by majority ofthe farmers. Every year,about 16.7 million ha are under cultivation and 5.1 million ha areleft as a fallow (Anonymous, 1998). Hence, approximately one fifth of the crop land is left as a fallow for 12-14 months. Central and southeastern areas generally receive lessthan 500 mm average annual precipitation during December and May months. Plant growth is seriously affected by the amount and distribution of rainfall. The fallow practice could be ended by using suitable cropping system intransitional regions having 400-500 m m or more annual rainfall (Acikgoz 1988, Iptas et al. 1994). Tokat Province is located in the region of the Transitional climate. Hence,the amount of rainfall varies according to year-to-year. Since the fallow area was 25.1% of the total cropland in the year 1980, it reduced to 8.9 % in the year 2000. The area obtained by reducing fallow area can be used to grow chick-pea,lentiland vetch species. Vetch species are grown either as pure stand or as a mixture with cereals for green herbage, hay and seed production. Narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.)is grown for seed production widely in arid and semi-arid regions (Acikgoz, 1988; Eason et al. 1987; ICARD A 1988). Buyukburc et al.(1994),Iptas et al.(1994), Buyukburc & Iptas (2001) have found that narbon vetch has a potentialimportance for seed production, when sown either in autumn or in spring in Tokat Province. Major portion of precipitation occursin early spring monthsin Tokat Province. Climatic conditions are suitable between the end of February and the second quarter of March for spring sowings. Narbon vetch crop when sown as spring legume under Tokat ecological condition will getit’sseed maturation within 119-128 days. The seed of narbon vetch contains about 20-32 % protein,hence itis expected to play a very importantrole in the dietary of broiler chickens (Abd-el Moneim 1992, Eason et al. 1990, Thomson et al. 1990). The straw is palatable as a forage for sheep (ICARDA, 1989). The objectives of this study are to: (i) determine the yield and the yield components, (ii) determine the relationship between the seed yield and other agronomic traits. 83 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Material and Methods This study was carried out during the year 1995 and 1996 under Tokat-Kazova (40o 13I -40o 22I N, 36o 1I 36 40 E, elevation 623 m) ecological conditions by growing narbon vetch lines as a spring crop. Some climatic data regarding the research area are given in Table 1. As itis seen in Table 1 that total rainfall of 236.8 mm, 354.1 mm and 203.6 mm was recorded between March and June months during the 1995, 1996 and long durations, respectively. In 1996, the amount of rainfall was higher than the year 1995 and long durations. Almost half of the annual rainfall has fallen into March and June months in Tokat-Kazova region as long durations. The study soils are slightly alkalinein reaction, medium in calcium carbonate content, medium to poor in P content, high in K content and medium to poor in organic matter. o I Average temperature (o C) Rainfall (mm) Relative humidity Months Long Long 1995 1996 duration 1995 1996 duration 1995 1996 March 9.0 5.2 7.1 30.1 112.9 40.2 45.7 73.8 April 10.9 10.2 12.5 115.3 122.1 63.7 52.8 69.4 May 17.1 18.8 16.3 33.7 83.9 60.3 44.9 64.0 June 21.0 18.6 19.5 57.7 35.2 39.4 45.3 58.8 July 20.9 23.0 21.9 26.7 0.9 11.2 55.2 55.0 Mean/Total 15.8 15.2 15.5 263.5 355.0 214.6 48.8 64.2 Table 1: Climatic data regarding the experimental years and long duration period (%) Long duration 57.9 57.6 55.2 55.5 52.9 55.8 Fifteen genotypes of narbon vetch were used; 2561 and 2393 accession, Syria origin; 2380, 2383, 2390, 2391, 2392, 2467 and 2468 accession, Lebonan origin; 2461, 2462, 2464, 2465 and 2466 accession, Turkey origin. The experiments were carried out as a randomized complete block design with three replications. The seed bed was prepared conventionally and the plots seeded as 200 seed/plot on 5th March 1995 and 12th March 1996,in rows spaced 30 cm apart with four rows. Before seeding, 30 kgN/ha and 60 kg P2 O5/ha were uniformly broadcast on allthe plots. The plots were weeded manually throughoutthe growing season as and when needed. At harvest, measurements on the plant height, pod per plant, number of seed per pod, and pod length were also recorded for each plot. These measurements were obtained from 10 plant for each plot. The plots were handharvested at the surface of soil and plants were weighed in order to determine the biological yield. After thrashing, clean seeds were weighed and the 1000-seed weight was determined. The harvest index was calculated by dividing the seed yield by total biological yield. Harvests were finished between 15-30 June in both years. The analysis of variance of the years 1995, 1996 and means of 2 years were done, and average differences were determined by Least Significant Difference (LSD) test as suggested by Duzgunes (Duzgunes et al. 1987). Also, the General Linear Model procedure of SAS was used to determine the simple correlation coefficients among all measured variables. Results and Discussion Yield And Yield Components Plant height of narbon vetch lines are presented in Table 2. As itis seen in Table 2, that plant height varied between 53.0 and 77.3 cm (average of two years). Highest plant height was observed for line 2468, lowestforline 2390. 84 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Plant height (cm) 1995 1996 Mean 2561 63.1 63.6 63.4 2380 64.3 60.0 62.2 2383 72.4 73.4 72.9 2388 65.2 68.9 67.1 2390 49.5 56.4 53.0 2391 63.1 65.1 64.1 2392 61.0 70.2 65.6 2393 66.8 68.4 67.6 2461 64.9 73.4 69.2 2462 65.2 74.3 69.8 2464 74.1 69.3 71.7 2465 63.9 52.2 58.0 2466 69.7 72.3 71.0 2467 75.4 69.7 72.6 2468 76.3 79.1 77.7 Mean 66.3 67.7 67.0 LSD ns ns 13.5** *,** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels Accession Pod per plant (no./plant) 1995 1996 Mean 5.4 10.6 8.0 4.5 12.4 8.5 5.2 11.9 8.6 5.3 10.0 7.7 7.0 9.7 8.3 5.6 11.9 8.7 7.4 16.1 11.8 4.6 10.9 7.7 5.8 10.4 8.1 7.0 10.0 8.5 6.7 8.5 8.3 6.4 10.7 8.6 6.8 9.6 8.3 6.6 10.5 8.6 6.2 10.5 8.4 6.0 10.9 8.5 ns ns ns Seed per plant (no./plant) 1995 1996 Mean 4.5 4.7 4.6 4.6 4.1 4.4 4.0 4.4 4.2 3.3 4.1 3.7 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.5 4.1 3.8 4.1 3.8 4.0 3.9 5.1 4.5 3.5 4.2 3.9 3.7 4.7 4.2 2.9 4.5 3.7 3.6 4.4 4.0 3.5 4.1 3.8 3.9 4.4 4.2 4.1 4.1 4.1 3.8 4.3 4.0 0.9** 0.7* 0.6** Table 2: Plant height, pod per plant and seed per plant of narbon vetch lines Pod length (mm) 1995 1996 Mean 2561 44.6 47.6 46.1 2380 50.6 53.3 52.0 2383 50.0 57.3 53.6 2388 49.3 55.6 52.4 2390 47.3 55.3 51.3 2391 49.0 56.6 52.8 2392 52.6 56.3 54.4 2393 53.6 62.3 57.9 2461 51.0 60.6 55.8 2462 53.6 61.3 57.4 2464 51.3 61.3 56.3 2465 50.6 60.0 55.3 2466 51.6 59.6 55.6 2467 53.6 57.3 55.4 2468 56.3 58.0 57.1 Mean 51.0 57.5 54.2 LSD 0.6** 0.7** 0.5** *,** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels Accession 1000 seed weight (g) 1995 1996 182.6 160.3 233.0 246.0 259.3 256.5 265.3 288.1 243.0 268.9 273.0 276.8 234.3 275.2 298.6 261.8 299.3 264.6 322.6 257.0 345.3 292.3 304.3 273.3 327.0 283.5 274.0 279.4 264.6 271.5 275.0 263.6 52** 22** Mean 171.4 239.5 257.9 276.7 256.0 274.9 254.8 280.2 282.0 289.8 318.8 288.8 305.2 276.7 268.1 269.3 33** Biological yield (kg/ha) 1995 1996 Mean 4033 3590 3811 3985 3854 3919 4666 4236 4451 4180 4478 4329 4277 3819 4048 3937 4593 4260 3693 2809 3251 5152 3958 4555 5152 4618 4885 7485 5104 6294 6076 5069 5572 5930 4963 5446 6319 4826 5572 5103 3666 4384 5881 3215 4548 5058 4186 4621 2065** 1420** 1256** Table 3: Pod lenght, 1000 seed weight and biological yield of narbon vetch lines The number of pod per stem was more during the year 1996 than 1995 (Table 2). The increase in the number of pod per stem was probably due to rainfall distribution during the vegetative stage. Buyukburc & Iptas (2001) also reported thatthe amount of rainfall had more effect on the number of pod per stem. Mean pod length ranged from 44.6to 56.3 mm in 1995, 47.6to 62.3 mm in 1996 and 46.1to 57.9 mm as a mean oftwo years. The difference among lines are statistically significant atthe 0.01 level.Increased number of pod per plantincreased the pod length because of the more rainfall happened during the year 1996. This result confirms the findings of Buyukburc & Iptas (2001). The resultsregarding the number of seed per pod is given in Table 2. As itis seen in Table 2,thatthe number of seed per pod varied according to the years. This difference in general was related to the amount of rainfall. The number of seed per pod was the highest (4.6 seed/pod) in line-2561 and the lowest (3.7 seed/pod)in line-2464 and line-2388. Forthe 2-year average,significant differences (P<0.01)in 1000-seed weight were found among narbon vetch lines (Table 3). Weight of 1000-seeds was more in the year 1995 than the year 1996. This difference was due to decreased pod length and the number of seed per pod inthe year 1995. Four lines (2464, 2466, 2462 and 2465) showed difference in 1000-seed weight than other lines. According to the means of two years, maximu m biological yields were obtained by line-2462 (6294 kg/ha),followed by line2464 (5572 kg/ha),followed by line-2466 (5572 kg/ha) and followed by line-2465 (5446 kg/ha) (Table 3). Data on seed yield and harvest index are presented in Table 4, respectively. Table 4 also indicates that both seed yield and harvestindex varied significantly (P< 0.01). Seed yield has also decreased inthe second yearin lines 2392, 2462 and 2468. The seed yield varied between 728 and 1532 kg/ha during the year 1995 and varied 85 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo between 930 and 1848 kg/ha during the year 1996. Data on average of two year indicate that maximum seed yield was obtained from line-2390 (1666 kg/ha), followed by line-2391 (1514 kg/ha),line-2392 (1411 kg/ha) and line-2383 (1373 kg/ha),respectively. Relationship between seed yield and the other characters Simple correlation coefficients among the seed yield and the other traits are presented in Table 5. There was no year-to-year variation interms ofrelationship between seed yield and yield components. Correlation was found (0.668**) between seed yield and the number of pod per plant (only in 1995). However,this correlation was not found in the year 1996. Decreased plant height, increased, the seed yield (mean of two year). Buyukburc & Iptas (2001) have reported a significant and positive relationship among seed yield, plant height and biological yield of similarlines when sown in winter. Similar authors have also found negative significant relationship with pods per plant. Since summer sowings have less vegetation growing period than winter sowings, due to this summer grown plants complete their vegetation stage in short period than winter grown plants. Hence, the difference in plant height and other agronomic characters is expected between sum mer and winter grown plants. An increase in pod length and 1000-seed weight have increased biological yield during the year 1995 (Table 5). In second year, a significant negative relationship was observed (-0.610*) between biological yield and number of pods per plant. According to the average oftwo years,increasing number of seed per pod decreased (-0.656**) the weight of 1000 seed (Table 5). Similar results were reported by Buyukburc & Iptas (2001) in winter sown. Itis possible to benefitfrom the seed and straw of annuallegume forage crops grown in arid and semi-arid region (ICARDA 1988, Cakmakci & Acikgoz, 1994). Due to this varieties which give more seed and straw are preferred. As reported by Abd-el Moneim & Cooks (1990) that generally varieties with high harvestindex have high biological yield. However,in summer sown crops this position is not true. A significant negative relationship was observed between harvest index and biological yield in both years. This position shows that summer sown lines with high seed yield have high harvestindex and low straw yield. Seed yield Harvestindex (kg/ ha) (%) 1995 1996 Mean 1995 1996 Mean 2561 910 1303 1107 23.8 36.0 29.3 2380 1161 1578 1370 29.8 41.3 35.0 2383 1066 1678 1373 22.2 39.4 30.4 2388 728 1848 1288 17.4 41.2 29.8 2390 1532 1800 1666 36.6 46.9 41.0 2391 1240 1787 1514 31.6 39.2 35.4 2392 1492 1331 1411 41.0 47.3 43.6 2393 869 1573 1217 16.7 40.7 26.6 2461 955 1598 1276 18.6 35.0 26.0 2462 1310 1280 1296 17.6 25.0 20.6 2464 1003 1343 1173 16.8 27.1 21.4 2465 1194 1370 1282 19.8 27.5 23.4 2466 1279 1319 1299 20.2 27.2 23.2 2467 1269 1403 1336 24.7 39.0 30.6 2468 1491 930 1211 25.9 29.1 27.0 Mean 1166 1476 1323 24.2 36.1 29.6 LSD 476** 521** 293* 10** 10** 7** *,** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probabilitylevels Table 4: Seed yield and harvestindex of narbon vetch lines. Accession 86 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Plant Pod per Seed per Pod length 1000-seed Characters height plant pod weight Pod per -0.105 1 plant -0.015 2 -0.055 3 Seed per -0.178 -0.319 pod 0.100 -0.331 -0.016 -0.093 0.584* 0.217 -0.110 Pod length 0.322 -0.258 0.249 0.518** 0.050 -0.236 1000-seed 0.378 0.294 -0.790** 0.509 weight 0.176 -0.076 -0.363 0.704** 0.316 -0.067 -0.656** 0.830** Biological 0.424 0.391 -0.418 0.537* 0.783** yield -0.087 -0.610* 0.283 0.510 0.282 0.286 -0.394 -0.265 0.585* 0.680** -0.183 0.668** 0.240 -0.320 -0.062 Seed yield -0.380 0.024 -0.173 -0.118 0.145 -0.528* 0.344 -0.319 -0.138 0.039 Harvest -0.510 0.278 0.472 -0.163 -0.600* index -0.256 0.570* -0.366 -0.448 -0.067 -0.470 0.569* 0.021 -0.464 -0.458 1: 1995; 2:1996, 3: means of 2 year. *,** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 probabilitylevels,respectively. Biological Seed yield yield 0.122 0.212 -0.335 -0.622* -0.626* -0.869** 0.684** 0.611* 0.729** Table 5: The simple correlations coefficient of seed yield and other traits Conclusions This experiment was carried out during the year 1995 and 1996 under Tokat-Kazova ecological conditions. The results are sum marized as under: a) When narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) was sown in March,it gave 1107-1666 kg/ha seed yield (average of two years). b) Ecological factors (especially precipitation) have significantly affected the seed yield and agronomic characters. c) The lines as 2390, 2391, 2392 and 2383 when sown in summer were found to be better than other lines in respectto seed yield. References Abd-el Moneim, M.A., & Cooks, P.S. (1990). Growth analysis, herbage and seed yield of certain forage legume species under rain-fed conditions. J. Agron. & Crop Sci., 164, 34-41. Abd-el Moneim, M.A. (1992). Narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.): A potential feed legume crop for dry areas in west Africa. J. Agron. & Crop Sci., 169 (5), 347-353. Acikgoz, E. (1988). Annual forage legumes in the arid and semi-arid regions of Turkey. In: D.B.Beck and L.A.Materon (eds.), Nitrogen Fixation by legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture, Martinus Nijhoff Publ., The Hague, Netherlands. pp. 4754. Anonymous, (1998). The Summary of Agricultural Statistics. Rep. of Turkey, Prime Ministry State Institute of Statistics Publication. Buyukburc, U., Iptas, S. & Yilmaz, M. (1994). Tokat ve yoresinde bazi tek yillik baklagil yembitkilerinin yazlik adaptasyonuna yonelik bir arastirma. Gaziosmanpasa University, Journal of Agricultural Faculty, 11 (1), 145-156. 87 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Buyukburc, U., & Iptas, S. (2001). The yield and yield components of some narbonne vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) lines in Tokat ecological conditions. Turkish J. of Agr. & Forestry, 25, 79-88. Cakmakci, S., & Acikgoz, E. (1994). Components of seed and straw yield in common vetch (Vicia sativa L.). Plant Breeding, 113: 71-74. Duzgunes, O., Kesici, T. Kavuncu, O. Gurbuz, F. (1987). Arastirma ve Deneme Metotlari. Ankara Universitesi, Ziraat Fakultesi Yayinlari, Ankara. Eason, P.J. Johnson, R.J. & Castleman, G.H. (1987). Narbon beans a potential new legume for poultry. Proc. Nutr. Soc. Aust. 12, 119. Eason, P.J., Johnson, R.J. & Castleman, G.H. (1990). The effects of dietary inclusion of narbon beans (Vicia narbonensis L.) on the growth of broiler chickens. Aust. J. Agric. Research, 41, 565-571. ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), Pasture, Forage and Livestock Program Report, (1988) p.143-166. Aleppo, Syria. ICARDA (International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas), (1988). Pasture, Forage and Livestock Program Report, Aleppo, Syria, pp.12-26. Iptas, S., Buyukburc, U. & Yilmaz, M. (1994). Tokat ve yoresinde tek yillik baklagil yembitkilerinin kislik adaptasyonuna yonelik arastirmalar. 1st. Tarla Bitkileri Kongresi, (1994) pp. 25-29 Nisan, Bornova-Izmir, 17-21. Thomson, E.F., Rihawi, S. & Nersoyan, N. (1990). Nutritive value and yields of some forage legumes and barley harvested as immature herbage, hay and straw in north-west Syria. Exp.Agriculture, 26, 49-56. 88 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 480 Title A name given to the resource Determination of the Yield and Yield Components of Narbon Vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) Lines Grown in Spring Author Author Iptas, Selahattin Karadag, Yasar Abstract A summary of the resource. Fifteen narbon vetch (Vicia narbonensis L.) lines obtained from ICARDA were used in this study. The highest seed yield (1163 kg/ha) was obtained by the line 2390, the lowest seed yield was obtained (1110 kg/ha) by the line 2561. As an average, the 1000-seed weight ranged between 171.4 g and 318.8 g, whereas biological yield ranged between 4043 kg/ha and 7899 kg/ha. It has been found that the relationship among the traits varied according to the years. Although there were negative correlations (-0.656**) between 1000-seed weight and seed per pod, and also there was positive correlations (0.830**) between 1000-seed weight and pod length. The biological yield was positively correlated (0.680**) with pod length and 1000- seed weight. Except for the plant height, there was no significant correlation between the seed yield and other characteristics in summer sown lines. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fab64b180b2aa891a6ec87263bbe5f16.pdf 44da1e8eac0421263ee15c11c1f9c971 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Determinations of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovinai Selma Delalić Centre for Economic Development and Research Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina delalic@cedar.ba Nermin Oručii International University of Sarajevo Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina oruc@cedar.ba Abstract: Rural development is identified as one of the key areas of intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). The main drivers of rural development can be small sized companies run by rural entrepreneurs, and intervention should be focused on enabling environment for their growth. The paper presents analysis of the factors determining growth in employment by small rural businesses in BiH, using quantitative data from original survey conducted in 2012. The direction and magnitude of different factors were further analyzed through qualitative data analysis. Findings from this research identify the key obstacles affecting growth of rural businesses, primarily related to infrastructure, access to finance, access to market, and availability of “soft” skills. The paper proposed possible ways of intervention in reducing these obstacles in order to promote rural development in BiH. Keywords: Rural Entrepreneurship, Firm Growth, Development, Regression JEL Classification: Q12, D92, L25 Article History Submitted: 06 Jun 2013 Resubmitted: 27 August 2013 Accepted: 16 September 2013 5 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč Introduction BiH as a developing and transition country faces severe obstacles in economic development, especially in rural areas, where majority (above 60%) of the population is located (Ministry of Foreign Trade and Entrepreneurship, 2008). Without proper and sustainable rural entrepreneurship development, there are further difficulties for strengthening economic development. This paper investigated the factors that hamper larger involvement of population in rural businesses in the framework of the model of determinants of growth of firms in rural areas. The focus is on micro and small businesses, run by rural entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship has an important overall role in the economic and rural development, building stronger than ever relations in rural areas. Entrepreneurship, as a dynamic force for growth, employment creation, and life quality improvement (Petrin, 1994), has been considered a key element in rural development and sustainable economic development. The more entrepreneurial region is, the more it outperforms neighbouring economic regions. Acknowledging the central role entrepreneurship has in economic rural development and properly developing conducive entrepreneurship environment (Sherief, 2005), leads to the rural entrepreneurship network that creates a positive business climate and behaviour, decreasing significantly important rural poverty and generates employment, particularly for youth. For the successful and productive environment, it is highly important to understand the factors that influence rural entrepreneurship, which include productive interventions by the state (Petrin, 1994), diversification of products, entrepreneurship promotion and marketing, knowledge transfer and sharing, supply chains and a net of cooperatives and large companies (Rongsen, 1998). Although rural areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina are characterized by small arable parcels per capita, of less than 2 ha of arable land per farm (Volk, 2008), consisting of approximately 250.000 firms, presenting twenty five per cent of the businesses (Volk, 2008), agriculture is very important and persistent way of rural entrepreneurship. Still, large defragmentation and disintegration of small producers, has kept producers mostly related to subsistence agriculture, leading to diminished productivity and inefficiency. This highlights the need to identify the most prominent obstacles to rural entrepreneurship and draft a precise, comprehensive and successful rural entrepreneurship strategy to create sustainable rural development, to generate employment and spur innovation. 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina Paper is further organized in five main sections. The next section presents review of the theoretical and empirical literature on factors determining growth of rural businesses. Third section describes the methodology used in the analysis of factors influencing growth of rural businesses in BiH, where the empirical model and data used in the analysis are explained. The fourth section presents results of the empirical estimation of the models. Finally, section five concludes and provides a list of policy recommendations for improving entrepreneurial activities in rural areas as of BiH. Literature Review Growing empirical evidence in the literature on rural entrepreneurship (Volk, 2008), supports the hypothesis that there is a positive correlation between governance, rural entrepreneurship and rural development, where goal oriented policy, transparent support and efficient law framework play an important role. Literature identified the main factors affecting growth of rural businesses. These factors can be broadly divided into “internal” factors (such as characteristics of entrepreneurs, characteristics of the business) and “external” factors (such as population trends, availability of natural resources, government support, characteristics of the labour and good market, quality of the supply chain, and availability of finances). Risk taker, innovator, motivated, opportunity taker, inspired, owner, are all features of the entrepreneur (Martin and Osberg, 2007). Successful entrepreneurs are performing and combining those determinants on the daily basis. Entrepreneurs have a special set of cognitive capacities Schiebold (2011) and attitude (De Mel, Mckenzie and Woodruff, 2010), that makes them unique, as those have direct impact on the success of the business. Cognitive abilities are influenced by the level of education, as more educated are proactive in all areas of the business and in technology development. Norms, values in behavioral contest which are shaped by culture, inevitably have its impact on the entrepreneurship performance (Schiebold, 2011). Personal traits, attitude and strong motivation of entrepreneurs are sufficient (Che Rose, Kumar and Lim, 2006), to overcome impediments for start-up and growth of the entrepreneurship. Although the lack of educated labor force tends to be one of the most influential factors in developed countries such as the United Kingdom, Smallbone et al. (2006) and Goetz and Freshwater (2000) point out on historical data, which show how family background used to be compensated for the lack of knowledge. 7 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč In Nigeria, research by Ajibefun and Daramola (2003) found out that the education level of the owner has highly influenced efficiency of the business and affects the growth of the business. This puts education on the level of high priority variables for technical and organizational effects. Nevertheless, in combination with the age of the owner, education and age have a parabolic shape as two variables, meaning that efficiency of the business performance first rises then declines as owner ages. Although young owners lack experience, they should be given trainings and encouragement to become entrepreneurs. Okurut (2008) stresses out the positive impact of education and business knowledge on the microbusiness performance, while a combination of rural entrepreneurship and female ownership decreases business success. There seems to be a positive link between number of start-up firms and educated owners (Acs and Armington, 2005), not referring solely to secondary degree education. Gianneti and Simonov (2009), assert that substantial entrepreneurial activity is to be influenced by positive entrepreneurial climate in the close regions, giving a special place to social interactions, as one of the main entrepreneurial drivers, that also enhance faster learning through social effect. The usage of many proxies makes this finding challenging in general application and opens a door to new entrepreneurial climate insights. Schields (2005), acknowledges the importance of culture and social factors and family relations, placing higher influence on successful rural entrepreneurship management, linking individuals to rural community development. External opportunities and threats play important role in rural entrepreneur's activity, where entrepreneurs creativity and motivation comes into play, if businesses are planning to survive. Characterized by constant depopulation, rural areas and rural entrepreneurs face a challenge more than ever before, in striving to attract skilled and educated labor, on one hand, and maintain supply of products that should correspond to demand in the market. The logical consequence to this is generally lower firm entry rate in rural areas than in urban areas (Plummer and Headd, 2008, Yu et al., 2008). It is important to note, that successful rural development is highly influenced by institutional support. This does not exclude the possibility of regional development itself, but slows the pace of development in a fast competitive global area and drives down any further motivation and success. Institutional support consists of formal and informal rules. Formal (codes of conduct) are written in the legal framework, directly 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina applying (Schiebold, 2011) to the business performance, while informal are shaped in norms, cultural values (Shirley, 2008). Infrastructure plays prominent role in its impact on rural entrepreneurship success, such as road, broadband access and access to water (Walzer, 2009). The more developed infrastructure, the more successful rural entrepreneurs we have (Okurut, 2008). Access to utilities, such as electricity, communication, markets and road, contributed to the growth of the microbusinesses in rural Kenya (Kirubi, 2006). Infrastructure refers to physical and non-physical. Physical infrastructure refers to roads or energy. Non-physical infrastructure consists of market structure. Infrastructure plays an important link of rural entrepreneurs in the urban market. Neglected by institutions in the rural development planning and investment, due to its substantial cost issue, infrastructure is one of the main impediments in transitional countries. Due to the characteristic of rural areas in the sense of their remoteness, additional challenges to rural development are transportation costs (Smallbone, 2006) and infrastructure, affecting entrepreneurship base (Ahmad and Hoffman, 2006). One of the limiting factors is a small local market that influences differently rural entrepreneurship sectors (North and Smallbone, 1996), pushing rural entrepreneurs to export markets from its very first establishment (Smallbone et al, 1993, Dabson 2011). This clearly provides insight into the importance of external and institutional support of rural firms. The evidence from the different research sources, indicate the ability of rural firms to overcome the influence of rurality and to adapt to exporting market conditions, more successfully than their urban counterparts (Gale, 1998). The pace of this adoption is facilitated by the level of the country's development and opens a door to export markets, institutional and policy support (Wyer and Smallbone, 1999) in developing and post transitional countries. Short supply chain as a constraining factor, has been recognized by France, in the new strategy for rural entrepreneurship development and is highly welcomed by Member States and drafted in New EU Rural Development Policy 2011 (NRN 2011). Rural businesses are often involved in the chain with the middlemen (Alsos et al, 2011), who by charging its margin, raises the price of the product and in one or another way affects the pace of sales. Shortening the chain, by introducing direct sales to customers, through farm shops, road stands, online sales, fair sales (Alsos et al, 2011) and other forms, reduces costs and allows producers to 9 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč interactively engage in sales. Yet, Verghaegen and Van Hylenbroeck (2001) acknowledge another angle to this issue, stressing out that direct sale to producers, require marketing and sales skills as a prerequisite and may take valuable time. As this might be true, for remote rural enterprises, we believe that short supply chain has possibility to contribute in general through various ways. To some extent, the external factors are more interlinked with lacking and skillful labor force (Petrin, 1994), whose decreasing motivation to rural employment is compensated with a growing propensity to urban market opportunities. This leads to faster ageing of the rural population that influences the possibility of dynamic rural enterprise growth. Even Dabson (2001), points out on the significance of population in the rural area, that creates demand for rural products, without which rural products cannot decrease overhead costs, due to large production. BiH agriculture is still behind regional countries Croatia, Serbia and Macedonia, on the competitiveness scale (Zekić et al, 2009), due to low productivity level, crop yields, inefficient and obsolete production techniques and broken links between production and supply chains. Volk (2008) asserts that agricultural enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina, face serious obstacles to their development and production, where the most cited are related to obsolete technological processes, subsistence farming, poor irrigation techniques, deficient capitalization level, marginal production innovation, dependence on the inputs and natural production. BiH agricultural demand dominates the domestic agrosupply, despite Bosnian natural and climate advantages and leads to large agro-import. Methodology Model Extending the model developed by Headd (2000) by business characteristics of rural entrepreneurship, and combining it with the recent research findings as presented in the literature review, we developed the following baseline model specification: yi  0   j  OCij   k  BCik  l  CSFil  ui (1) This specification is estimated by three models, with alternative specification of the dependent variable. In the first model, it is expresses 10 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina as average annual change in number of employees (aace). In the second, it is average annual growth in number of employees (aage), while in the third model it is expressed as a dummy variable taking value of 1 if number of employees increased (successdv). Due to such specifications of the dependent variable, the first two models were estimated by OLS method, while probit was used for the third one (with a dummy variable). The choice of employment increase is based on recent empirical studies on determinants of growth of firms, where employment was found as more appropriate than sales data, which are commonly underreported in surveys. Additional motivation for the choice of employment data is that they are more informative, as employment generation should be the most important objective of rural development activities in BiH, rather than growth of output. The main independent variablesiii are factors determining growth of rural businesses, a presented in Equation (1) are: OC – list of demographic characteristics of the owner, such as age, sex, education level, migration experience, BC – characteristics of the business (age of business, whether it was established by current owner of inherited, export orientation, etc.), including industry (5 types of businesses) and region dummies (3 regions) CSF – a list of 21 critical success factors (obstacles), expressed as dummy variables indicating that interviewed owner answered that she/he is, in running the business, facing these obstacles frequently. The list of critical success factors was prepared base on previous qualitative research, conducted by authors for the World Bank in 2012. In order to reach the best possible specification of the reduced model, we decided not to rely only on test-statistics from the hypothesis testing of statistical significance of coefficients from the estimated model for selection of the success factors, but also to identify the most influential factors by using descriptive statistics resultsiv. Then, the list of the most important factors was included into the model, and it was further reduced by excluding some of the insignificant variables related to owner's or business characteristics. Female owners are found to be in minority and face various obstacles due to gender issue, especially in complying with financial requirements (Papadaki and Chami, 2002) by financial institutions, although it has no implications to firm survival rate (Cooper et al, 1994). Age of the 11 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč entrepreneur is shown to be positively related to some extend and as owner ages, it becomes less dynamic affecting the business performance (Selaman et al., 2011). Family business presents a healthy ground for young entrepreneurs, who are in a position to learn from their family on rural entrepreneurship from the very beginning, to learn about processes and resources (Walzer, 2009). Although in advanced position, empirical evidence shows that businesses started from owners' own interest (not inherited) are more successful in the long term (Walzer, 2009). High growing entrepreneurships are negatively related to family businesses (Bjuggren et al., 2010). Beneth and Smith (2002), emphasize how the remoteness of rural areas contributes to decreasing tendency of access to trainings and knowledge transfer, associated with larger costs of services, inadequate training support, and obsolete knowledge. The more distant enterprises have a transportation cost as a significant part of the price calculation and it directly reduces its margins and profit (Walzer, 2009). Geographic location (Bosworth, 2011) is unprecedently defining the type of products harvested or services provided in the rural area of one country. The comparative advantage for the purpose of efficient production is important, but the geography provides no crucial obstacle to rural firms. Financing is ever growing obstacle, very sensitive in the aspect of rural entrepreneurship in the context of credit collateral and credit history. It is extended to difficulties in loan procedures and documentation (Nurbani et al., 2010). Confessing the fact that start-up in general have financial issues, as is supported by the research of Nurbaini et al. (2010), even providing the access to various financial schemes does not guarantee success. Data and Descriptive Statistics Since there are no available data for the purpose of analysis presented in this paper, a survey among 300 entrepreneurs in BiH was conducted. The sampling frame used for sample selection consists of various sources, of over 1.300 entities, as there is no single database of rural entrepreneurship existing in Bosnia and Herzegovina. From the database we have selected 300 rural businesses for our sample. Response rate was 70 percent, so we have ended up with 210 respondents. For selection of rural entrepreneurs, we applied settlement based definition of rurality, where rural businesses are the ones operating in villages. 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina The predominant form of rural businesses is micro and small business, where they account for 90 percent of all rural establishments (Buss and Yancer, 1999) and nearly two-thirds of all rural jobs, making them a vital part of the rural economy (McDaniel, 2001). Almost 75 percent of rural small businesses have fewer than 20 employees, accounting for a quarter of rural jobs, but only a fifth of rural payrolls (McDaniel, 2001). Therefore, we decided to focus on micro and small (0-49 employees) businesses in our research. The sampling selection procedure applied here was two stage stratification. First stage stratification was stratification of businesses according to their type. All businesses were grouped into five large groups (fruits, vegetables, rural tourism, rural retail, other businesses) and the number of businesses from each of these strata were selected into the sample according to their share in the sampling frame. In the second stage, we divided entire BiH into three regions, characterized by diverse characteristics of rural businesses present there. The regions are Northern Bosnia, Central Bosnia, and Herzegovina (southern part of the country). From each area, number of businesses selected into the sample was according to the proportion of the businesses in each type of business (first stage strata) from each region based on their share in the sampling frame. This way, we assured coverage of all types of businesses and representativeness of businesses predominantly located in a particular region, since it is expected that different types of businesses in different regions face obstacles (e.g. transportation) at a different extent. Descriptive analysis of data reveals some interesting findings, informative for the further econometric analysis. Entrepreneurs are mostly men (in 86.95% of cases), 47.8 years old on average, have a secondary education level (in 57.76% of cases), with 19 years of total experience and 12 years of experience in the sector of their business. Businesses are mostly established (82,43% cases) from the owner's interest and only a few are inherited (11.2%) from the family, and are using the owner's asset (in 87.14% of cases). Successful rural businesses have written contracts (60%) with one or two crucial customers (68%). Rural businesses are mainly established by one owner, using owner's savings and in a few cases, by using a combination of bank credit and owner savings. It employs 9 employees currently, have a 10% in growth employment, and a 4.5% growth in sales annually, on average, with a large standard deviation. It has written contracts (in 59.52% of cases) and sells to 2 different groups of customers. The rate of the rural business progress can be seen in a positive change in 13 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč the number of employees. Rural businesses in BiH on average employ one worker for every two years of a business existence. Ninety two percent of businesses are growing but the rate of its progress is very slow, particularly including average age of the business. Rural businesses are 7 km away from the closest bank or microcredit affiliates and 5 km away from the road. Supply of water, electricity, internet and access to the road are supplied in the 97% of cases on average, with no impediments. Rural businesses mostly have signed contracts and we have a situation where a group of business who signed no contract, in 48.57% of cases had no success, and businesses that signed a contract, by 22.11% faced the same situation. What makes those two groups distinct, is an uneven distribution of success. Micro businesses are burdened with the costs of transportation (51.41%). More than 68% of rural businesses which answered that their business faces complicated administrative procedures are micro businesses (employing 1 up to 10 employees), who are successful, employing 2 to 5 additional workers. Out of those, 43% are those faced with this obstacle the most and have zero employment growth, meaning zero success. Real interest rate as an obstacle, has an impact on micro businesses („the slow growers“) in 62.4%, affecting businesses that employ 1 to 5 employees the most. What is interesting is the nature of relations among owner's total experience, intention to expand the business and a written business plan. Almost 55% of owners do not have a written business plan. Of those who do have, 15th and 20th year of the business is crucial in planning. Owners express their intention and motivation to expand the business, but plan their activities every 10 years on average. Education of the owner does not particularly affect his/her motivation to write a business plan. Owner of the successful business in 82.24% of cases had the intention to expand the business, and 72.2% of them had a written business plan. Only those established by the pure interest of the owner (77.14%) using owners' savings as a starting capital (63.7%) is the most successful (77.14%). Results The results of regression analysis of three alternative specifications of the reduced model from Equation (1), with different dependent variable, are presented in the table below (t-statistics in parentheses): Table 1. Results of various models 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina Variables Model 1 OLS Dependent Average annual change in employees Age of owner If owner resides in rural areas Owner has tertiary education Business was inherited Business was started by using own savings Owner receives remittances Exports Taxes and contributions Lack of support by local authorities High costs of transport Exchange rate volatility Large competitors Difficult to obtain loan Constant Observations R-squared -0.012 (-0.92) -0.455* (-1.83) 0.331 (-1.43) 0.586 (-1.51) 0.691* (2.42) 0.463* (-1.77) 0.901** (3.16) -0.36 (-1.01) -0.699* (2.45) -0.784** (2.32) -0.325 (-1.26) 0.262 (-1.06) 0.717** (2.37) 1.202 (-1.67) 135 0.25 Model 2 OLS Average annual growth in employees (%) -1.223 (-0.94) -44.64* (-1.76) 33.876 (-1.43) 58.858 (-1.5) 69.649* (2.38) 46.973* (-1.76) 90.491** (3.13) -36.583 (-1.01) -69.314** (2.35) -78.964** (2.30) -31.567 (-1.19) 27.125 (-1.06) 70.756** (2.23) 120.627 (-1.65) 132 0.25 Model 3 Probit = 1 if number of employees increased 0.006 (-0.40) -0.304 (-1.14) 0.326 (-1.26) 1.344** (2.33) 0.414 (-1.38) 0.713** (2.09) 0.015 -0.05 0.779* (2.32) -0.967** (2.68) -0.033 (-0.1) -0.258 (-0.83) 0.294 (-1.09) 0.908** (2.93) -0.679 (-0.91) 166 Source: Calculation done by authors ** statistically significant at 1% level, * statistically significant at 5% level The results presented in the table above show that the most important factors affecting growth of a rural firm in BiH are lack of support by lower 15 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč levels governments (institutional factor), high transportation costs (infrastructural factor), and difficulties in obtaining a loan (access to finance factor). Some other success factors, such as presence of large competitors, large taxes and contributions, or exchange rate volatility, appeared as statistically significant factors in one of the three models, but the significance was not consistent across the models. In addition, significant variables affecting growth of rural businesses are, according to the estimation results from Table 1, export orientation of a business, if business was established by using own savings, if owner has tertiary education, and if owner receives remittances from abroad. The models were tested for standard OLS assumptions and no significant problems were identified. It was assumed that the high level of multicolinearity could be expected; however, the results of the correlation and variance inflation factor analysis did not suggest significant degree of colinearity between these variablesv. Possible endogeneity of the set of variables for critical success factors was identified. Less successful entrepreneurs could be more likely to report more significant obstacles. However, appropriate instruments were not available in the dataset, and it can be assumed that any possible endogeneity problem, arising from the correlation between these variables and the error term, was reduced by inclusion of a set of demographic characteristics of the owner. Exclusion of these variables would increase the endogeneity bias. Conclusions The results of the rural entrepreneurship survey reveal that the main factors affecting success of rural enterprises in Bosnia and Herzegovina are related to financial, institutional and infrastructural constraints. The model has shown almost each factor to have a similar level of impact on the rural success, which means we need to work on those factors simultaneously, without prioritizing one over another. Institutional factors, primarily related to the business climate, severely affect growth of rural businesses, as any other. BiH is well known as a country which has lowest rating with regards to business climate in Europe, and is among the worst in the world. Average number of days for starting a new business, according to the World Bank’s Doing Business reports, is more than 70 days. The government needs to start implementing necessary reforms of administrative procedures, improve functioning of their services to businesses, including better targeting and 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina coverage of subsidies, and to make other improvements of business climate (e.g. reducing tax burdens to businesses). These reforms, as we saw from the results presented, will help rural entrepreneurs to grow faster, but would also increase entrepreneurial activities by other people in BiH as well as attract more foreign investments. All these would result in increase of employment, which is highest in Europe and should be one of the goals at the top of the agenda of the BiH government. The results also show that rural entrepreneurs expect more support from local than state level government. This should be taken into account in evaluation of the results of government at different level, as well as for design of strategies for rural development and related activities. Support by the local government is particularly expected in the activities related to improvement of local infrastructure, such a local roads, access to water, and access to phone and internet. Successful businesses have a need for a source of finance, on a regular basis, especially when it comes to buying new machines and facilities or refurbishing old ones, and investing in new skills. In addition, easier access to start-up funds for new entrepreneurs would have positive influence on boosting entrepreneurial activities in rural areas. Such a support by the government would be directly transformed into the employment growth. Finally, besides the results provided above, additional research of rural entrepreneurship is necessary for better understanding of this issue, which is of extreme importance for BiH. Since data availability is the first condition for a proper research, a census of rural businesses and establishment of comprehensive database of such businesses is the first step in this direction. Establishment of the database is also one of the key EU requirements for BiH in order to be eligible for funds available for rural development in BiH (IPARD). 17 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč References Acs, Zoltan J. & Catherine Armington (2005). Using Census BITS to Explore Entrepreneurship, Geography, and Economic Growth. Small Business Research Summary No. 248, U.S. Small Business Administration, Office of Advocacy. Ahmad, N. & A. Hoffman (2006). A Framework for Addressing and Measuring Entrepreneurship.OECD. 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Description of the variables Variable Description Survey Question Owner’s characteristics O_male O_age O_birth O_resr O_prim O_sec O_tert O_exp-tot O_exp-s O_duration_migr =1 if owner is male Owner’s age in years =1 if owner born in rural area =1 if owner lives in rural area =1 if owner has primary education =1 if owner has secondary education =1 if owner has tertiary education Years of total experience of the owner Years of experience in that sector of the owner Years spent abroad A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A5 A5 A6a Age of business =1 if business is in fruits sector =1 if business is in Vegetables sector =1 if business is in Tourism sector =1 if business is in retail sector =1 if business is in other sectors =1 if business located in northern region =1 if business located in southern region Number of o wners 1=firm has long-term contract with customer Number of employees now Number of employees at start-up =1 if business inherited =1 if business established by owner -1 if own assets used in business Dummy variable, 1= savings, 0=other =1 if receives remittances Dummy variable, 1=if firm exports, 0=No B1 B3 B3 B3 B3 B3 A6c A7 Business characteristics B_age fruits Vegetables Tourism retail other north south owners contract Empl1 Empl2 inherited established assets saving rem export B2 B16 B3a B3b B5b B5a B8 B11 B12 B17 21 �Selma Delalić, Nermin Oruč coop 1=member of a cooperative B19 Obstacles Ci_1 Ci_2 Ci_3 Ci_4 Ci_5 Ci_6 Cii_7 Cii_8 Cii_9 Cii_10 Variable Ciii_11 Ciii_12 Ci_13 Civ_14 Civ_15 Civ_16 Civ_17 22 =1 if facing obstacle 1, “Complicated procedures for obtaining subsidies”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 2, “Lack of support by the government”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 3, “High taxes and contributions”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 4, “Lack of local community support”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 5, “Difficulties in obtaining standards, certificates, etc.”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 6, “Other institutional”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 7, “High transportation costs”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 8, “No access to water”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 9, “No access to phone, internet, etc.”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 10, “Other infrastructural”, frequently Desciption =1 if facing obstacle 11, “Lack of trained labour force”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 12, “Other skill related”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 13, “Difficulties in selling the products”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 14, “Low price of products offered by resellers”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 15, “Too volatile exchange rates”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 16, “High degree of competition”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 17, “Expensive C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 Survey Question C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16 C17 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determination of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina Civ_18 Civ_19 Cv_20 Cv_21 Cv_22 raw materials”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 18, “Remote from the larger groceries or discount center”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 19, “Other market related”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 20, “High interest rates”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 21, “Difficulties in obtaining a loan”, frequently =1 if facing obstacle 21, “Other finance related”, frequently C18 C19 C20 C21 C22 Stratification variables type region Categorical variable for type of business (=1 fruits, =2, vegetables, =3 retail, =4 tourism, =5 other types; for Albania first 4 for four types with largest share, 5 for the rest) Categorical variable for region (=1 centre, =2 north, =3 south) B3 iThis paper was prepared in the framework of the Regional Research Promotion Programme in the Western Balkans (RRPP), which is run by the University of Fribourg upon a mandate of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, SDC, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent opinions of the SDC and the University of Fribourg. iiCareer Integration Fellow of the CERG-EI, Prague iiiDetailed description of each variable included in estimation is provided in Appendix 1. iv Here, we used Pearson's χ2 statistics. vAll correlations were below 0.5 and all VIF factors were below 10, while the average VIF was below 4. 23 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2393 Title A name given to the resource Determinations of Firm Growth: A Study of Rural SMEs in Bosnia-Herzegovina Author Author DELALIĆ, Selma ORUČ, Nermin Abstract A summary of the resource. Rural development is identified as one of the key areas of intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH). The main drivers of rural development can be small sized companies run by rural entrepreneurs, and intervention should be focused on enabling environment for their growth. The paper presents analysis of the factors determining growth in employment by small rural businesses in BiH, using quantitative data from original survey conducted in 2012. The direction and magnitude of different factors were further analyzed through qualitative data analysis. Findings from this research identify the key obstacles affecting growth of rural businesses, primarily related to infrastructure, access to finance, access to market, and availability of “soft” skills. The paper proposed possible ways of intervention in reducing these obstacles in order to promote rural development in BiH. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-03-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)