77 10 3494 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 115 Title A name given to the resource Gestures as a Peer-Assistance Mechanism in Collaborative Tasks Author Author Sabbah, Manal Abstract A summary of the resource. Although research on the learner-learner interactive processes has shown how collaboration may result in provision of developmentally appropriate assistance, the mechanisms providing or obtaining assistance during language learning tasks have been little examined. In addition, EFL research has been scarce when nonverbal communication, including gesture, is concerned. The purpose of this qualitative exploratory study is to explore to what extent, in what ways and in what types are gestures are used as a mechanism of obtaining and providing assistance amongst peers to complete collaborative language learning tasks in an ESL classroom. The study is conducted in a school in Bosnia. To collect data, collaborative tasks in an ESL classroom were observed for nine days and video-tapped. The participants were interviewed about their gestures. The results of this research suggest that many types of gestures are used to a great extent as a mechanism of obtaining and providing assistance amongst peers to complete collaborative language learning tasks. These gestures are mainly synchronized with speech. The results have some pedagogical implications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/44a910da1bee55a3796179c0c8aefc41.pdf 71911435a87aba92e21aabd57d813ec3 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo USING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSES: SHORT STORY Assoc. Prof. Arif SARIÇOBAN Department of English Language Teaching Hacettepe University, Turkey arifs@hacettepe.edu.tr Hülya KÜÇÜKOĞLU School of Foreign Languages Hacettepe University, Turkey hulyaku@hacettepe.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate underline the benefits of using literature in EFL classes. Short Stories can be used as a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels depending on the difficulty status of the story. Due to their length which is very appropriate for language classrooms, students can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. Using short stories in ELT classrooms is an effective technique for teaching linguistic system as well as the life in relation to the target language. Choosing the right short story is an important part of the process. At this point, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. In this study the importance of using Short Stories in ELT classrooms and points to be considered while choosing the right short story was discussed at the opening part of the study. On the next part, teaching discrete language skills by using short story in ELT classrooms is studied and a sample application is build up in order to share practical ideas. Key Words: Literature in ELT classes, short story Introduction The first use of literature in EFL classes was started at the beginning of the century when Grammar Translation Method was the only method which was known to suit ELT classrooms. The use of literature in these classes was limited as the only aim was to translate the literary texts from the target language to their native language. Using literature in EFL classes gave a long break with the use of new teaching methods such as Direct Method or Audiolingual Method. The main reason for this was because these methods of teaching emphasized mostly on structures and vocabulary. Starting from the last two decades, the goal of EFL teaching has changed and the aim of English teaching is now to help students to communicate fluently in the target language. As a result of this, teachers and trainers have started to seek for new ways of integrating literature in EFL classes once again because literature has an important role in teaching English. When used appropriately, with their authentic nature, literary genres are functional tools for language classes for all levels. Oster (1989) affirms that literature helps students to write more creatively (p. 85). Instructors can create a variety of writing activities to help students to develop their writing skills. They can ask students to write dialogues or more complex writing activities if students have reached a high level of language proficiency (Murdoch, 2002, p. 9).. With this new era, literature appeared in EFL classes as appropriate tasks and activities which were designed for language classes. Short Story in EFL Classes Researches show that among the other literary genres, short story is the most preferred one in language classrooms. According to Arıkan‘s research findings, students find the contents of the novel, poetry, and drama courses more difficult to follow because these types require ways of reading that are different from those required for the short story. The results of his study also show that the students identify short story reading as simpler and less complex than reading other literature courses. (Arıkan, 2005, p. 33). In this sense there are several advantages of using short stories in ELT classrooms. One of the most important of all is its controlled length. As they are shorter than a novel, short stories are effective sources of teaching 160 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo in classroom situations. Another point that makes short stories efficient tools for ELT classes is that they maintain high interest and attention. A short story with its setting, characters and compelling plot, captures and holds the attention of the learners which is an important part of the learning process. The use of short stories to teach English has several other benefits including motivational, literary, cultural and higher-order thinking benefits. Short stories allow the instructors to teach the four main language skills to all levels of language proficiency. Murdoch (2002) indicates that ―short stories can, if selected and exploited appropriately, provide quality text content which will greatly enhance ELT courses for learners at intermediate levels of proficiency‖ (p. 9). The inclusion of short fiction in the ESL / EFL curriculum offers the following educational benefits (Arıoğul 2001, p.11-18): It -makes the students‘ reading task easier due to being simple and short when compared with the other literary genres, -enlarges the advanced level readers‘ worldviews about different cultures and different groups of people, -provides more creative, encrypt, challenging texts that require personal exploration supported with prior knowledge for advanced level readers, - motivates learners to read due to being an authentic material, - offers a world of wonders and a world of mystery, - gives students the chance to use their creativity, - promotes critical thinking skills, -facilitates teaching a foreign culture (i.e. serves as a valuable instrument in attaining cultural knowledge of the selected community, - makes students feel themselves comfortable and free, -helps students coming from various backgrounds to communicate with each other because of its universal language, -helps students to go beyond the surface meaning and dive into underlying meanings, and - acts as a perfect vehicle to help students understand the positions of themselves as well as the others by transferring these gained knowledge to their own world. Another important benefit of using literature to teenage and adult learners at all levels is to develop their reading tasks. As to our case we aim to improve our students‘ not only reading comprehension skills, but their other skills as well. Choosing the Right Material What sort of literature is suitable for use with language learners? Short stories can be a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels from young learners to adult learners so that they can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. While choosing the right short story, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. The needs of the students, interests, cultural backgrounds, and language levels should be taken into consideration when choosing the suitable material for the classroom. One other significant criterion to consider is whether the particular work stimulates personal involvement by arousing the learners‘ interest. At this point it is important to choose books which are relevant to the life experiences, emotions, or dreams of the learner. The difficulty level of the story is another important thing to be considered while choosing a suitable material. This is crucial as the learner is attached to the text if she can understand it. In addition, interest, appeal, and relevance should be taken into consideration. Sample Application: ―Araby‖ Writers' note: "This sample application was prepared for upper intermediate level students because of the grammatical structures and the level of vocabulary used in the text." Pre-Reading Activities Before reading the short story (Araby) by James Joyce, students should be informed about the writer to provide background information. This will help the students to understand the target culture and the 161 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo atmosphere of the story which will be studied during the class. Another point to be underlined is the organization of a short story. This information is also necessary as it will help the students understand the theme of the story clearly. Background Information about the Writer A short biography of James Joyce James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish author of the 20th century. He is known for his landmark novel Ulysses (1922) as well as the short story collection Dubliners (1914) and the semi-autobiographical novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1916). Although he spent most of his adult life outside Ireland, Joyce's psychological and fictional universe is firmly rooted in his native Dublin, the city which provides the settings and much of the subject matter for all his fiction. Joyce became one of the most cosmopolitan yet one of the most regionally focused of all the English language writers of his time.8 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce8 Background Information about the Organization of the Particular Story Triangular Plot Structure (Freytag‘s Triangle) Plot is the literary element that describes the structure of a story. The organization of events and characters in a literary work: the plan, design or pattern of events (Bozer, 1995). This organization consists of five plot parts: exposition, rising action, turning point (climax), falling action, and resolution. In exposition the reader is informed about the background information, the time, the place of the action (setting), the characters, the context of situation and the problem before the action starts. The problem (conflict) is presented at the beginning of the story. This leads to a second act, the rising action. Rising action presents the ―dramatization of the events that complicates the situation and gradually intensifies or puzzles the conflict or contributes the new ones‖ (Arıoğul, 2001:97). After exposition rising action continues successive stages of conflict up to the climax (turning point) according to (Bozer, 1995). In turning point (climax) there is an important development in the action which will cause somehow new events in the action. The vital point in the action occurs when the problem is about to be solved. In falling action the problematic cases that occur in the previous parts come close to resolution (conclusion) where the story may end with some solutions. During falling action, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist is solved either with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist (Bozer, 1995). The falling action might have a final suspense, during which the final outcome of the conflict is controversial. In resolution the event(s) following the climax presents the solution of the problem and/or the explanation of the outcome (Bozer, 1995). 162 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Another striking point in this organization type is the Conflict. It is the tension or opposition between forces in the plot. It is introduced to interest readers enough to continue reading the story. Without conflict, there is no plot. Types of Conflict Authors develop plot through the introduction, development, and resolution of conflict. Conflict usually takes one of four forms: *Human vs Nature *Human vs Society *Human vs Human ―external conflict‖ *Human vs himself ―internal conflict‖ Conflicts in the story Human versus society-The basic conflict in the adolescent boy in Joyce's story 'Araby' is that between his boyish imagination and the hard realities of the market-dominated work-a-day life. Human versus society-Conflicts are between the materialistic modern life and the boy's reaction to it- he imagines carrying his chalice through the hostile market place. Human versus society-There is also a conflict between the materialism of the indifferent world and the mask of spirituality that it wears- the rich priest, Mrs. Mercer 'selling' used stamps for some 'pious purpose.' Human versus himself- Within the boy, there is another conflict unknown to him- his romantic yearning for transcendence and yet his entrapment in physical attraction and therefore the narrative voice talks about 'foolish blood' and 'the serious business of life.' Discussion In order to activate the background knowledge of the students, some pictures are shown. By this way, the ―schema theory‖ which according to Arıkan (2006:7) is a rule system and a mental process which includes a body of experiential knowledge of related concepts, events, emotions, ideas, and roles. He believes that with schemata (prior knowledge) in our minds, we perceive and synthesize new knowledge. According to schema theory comprehending a text is an interactive process between the readers‘ background knowledge and the text itself. This process can be divided into two parts (Sarıçoban, 2001:69); To do this the teacher asks some questions related with the pictures. - When I tell you the word ‗Araby‘ which is the title of our short story, what comes up to your mind? - Do you think the story takes place in an Arabian Country? Why, Why not? - What do you see on the below picture? Do you think the story takes place in this bazaar? Why, why not? 163 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo - What seems to be unusual about the picture? Who do you think is the boy sitting? Do you think this boy is lonely or disappointed? Try to remember your own disappointments or loneliness and comment on the picture accordingly. While-Reading Activities Araby, James Joyce Activity 1. Students read the short story "Araby" ( this can be done as home reading) The summary of the text: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Araby by James Joyce -------------------------------------------------------------------------------The story opens with a description of North Richmond Street, a "blind," "cold ... .. silent" street where the houses "gazed at one an-other with brown imperturbable faces." It is a street of fixed, decaying conformity and false piety. The boy's house contains the same sense of a dead present and a lost past. The former tenant, a priest, died in the back room of the house, and his legacy-several old yellowed books, which the boy enjoys leafing through because they are old, and a bicycle pump rusting in the back yard-become symbols of the intellectual and religious vitality of the past. The boy, in the midst of such decay and spiritual paralysis, experiences the confused idealism and dreams of first love and his awakening becomes incompatible with and in ironic contrast to the staid world about him. Every morning before school the boy lies on the floor in the front parlor peeking out through a crack in the blind of the door, watching and waiting for the girl next door to emerge from her house and walk to school. He is shy and still boyish. He follows her, walks silently past, not daring to speak, overcome with a confused sense of sensual desire and religious adoration. In his mind she is both a saint to be worshipped and a woman to be desired. His eyes are "often full of tears," and one evening he goes to the back room where the priest had died. Clasping the palms of his hands 164 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo together, he murmurs, "0love! 0 love!" in a prayer not to God, but to the concept of love and perhaps even to the girl, his love. Walking with his aunt to shop on Saturday evenings he imagines that the girl's image accompanies him, and that he protects her in "places the most hostile to romance." In the mixed symbolism of the Christian and the Romantic or Oriental myths Joyce reveals the epiphany in the story: "These noises con-verged in a single sensation of life for me: I imagined that I bore my chalice safely through a throng of foes." He is unable to talk to the girl. Drifting away from his schoolmates' boyish games, the boy has fantasies in his isolation, in the ecstasy and pain of first love. Finally the girl speaks to the boy. She asks him if he is going to Araby. He replies that if he does he will bring her a gift, and from that moment, his thoughts upon the mixed imagery of the saintly light upon her hair and the potential sensuality of "the white border of a petticoat," the boy cannot sleep or study. The word Araby "cast an Eastern enchantment" over him, and then on the night he is to go to the bazaar his uncle neglects to return home. Neither the aunt nor the uncle understands the boy's need and anguish, and thus his isolation is deepened. We begin to see that the story is not so much a story of love as it is a rendition of the world in which the boy lives. The second part of the story depicts the boy's inevitable disappointment and realization. In such an atmosphere of "blindness"-the aunt and uncle unaware of the boy's anguish, the girl not conscious of the boy's love, and the boy himself blind to the true nature of his love-the words "hostile to romance" take on ironic over tones. These overtones deepen when the boy arrives too late at the bazaar. It is closing and the hall is "in darkness." He recognizes "a silence like that which pervades a church after a service" but the bazaar is dirty and disappointing. Two men are "counting money on a salver" and he listens "to the fall of the coins." A young lady, bored with him and interested in two men who are flirting with her, cheapens and destroys the boy's sense of an "Eastern enchantment." His love, like his quest for a gift to draw the girl to him in an unfriendly world, ends with his realizing that his love existed only in his mind. Thus, the theme of the story-the discrepancy between the real and the ideal- is made final in the bazaar. The epiphany in which the boy lives a dream in spite of the ugly and the worldly is brought to its inevitable conclusion: the single sensation of life disintegrates. The boy senses the falsity of his dreams and his eyes burn "with anguish and anger." (http://theliterarylink.com/araby_essays.html) Activity 2. After reading the story, the students and the teachers studies the organization on the board in order to make the meaning of the story clear. EXPOSITION/ INTRODUCTION Description of the place the boy lives RISING ACTION He and the girl have a conversation 165 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Information about his feelings for the girl Information about the boy and his family CLIMAX He promises to bring a present for the girl. FALLING ACTION Falling action He asks for permission to go toAraby. He waits for his uncle to come. His uncle comes but he has forgotten about the trip. He takes the train to Araby. The train delays. He reaches there. The salesgirl treats him badly. RESOLUTION Resolution Discouraged he leaves the Bazaar Activity 3. Questions for Interpretation In this part, the questions given below will be discussed in the classroom and the students will be asked to make predictions about the text they have read. 1. Judging from the games the boys play, how old do you think the narrator is? 2. What is the mood of the story? How does Joyce establish it in the first few pages? 3. Would you describe the narrator's feelings toward Mangan's sister as realistic or romantic? Explain. 166 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. Why does the word ―Araby‖ contain so much meaning for the narrator? Discuss the possibilities the word represents to him. 5. How are the results of the trip to Araby foreshadowed? Activity 4. The students are asked to write an excuse note addressing the girl, telling her why he could not buy the bracelet. The teacher reminds the students that the excuse note doesn't have to be realistic; they can use imaginary reasons thinking themselves as the little boy. Dear friend, -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Activity 5. In the below exercise the students are asked to find the sentence that matches. (Column A) 1)Mangan is the same age and in the same class at the Christian Brothers school as the narrator… 2) Although the boy had crush on Mangan‘s sister,… 3) Mangan‘s sister says she would like to go to the bazaar… 4) The boy describes Mangan‘s sister in reverential terms … 5) The way the uncle comes home that night suggests… 6) Mangan‘s sister can‘t go to the bazaar so she offers to bring her something from the Araby,,, 7) The boy thinks he is in love with a young girl… 8) After the boy speaks to Mangan‘s sister… 9) On the Saturday evening of the bazaar, the boy‘s uncle has forgotten about the trip… 10) The boy wants bazaar to be bright and open… (Column B) a) but it is dark and closed. b) but all of his thoughts, ideas, actions show that he is merely obsessed. c) he finds it hard to con concentrate on anything except for her. d) which causes the narrator to arrive at the bazaar very late. e) so he and the narrator often play together after school. f) which brings his life to a standstill until he can get this symbol of his love for her. g) he is drunk and that it‘s a usual thing the boy sees. h) she has no idea how the narrator feels about her. i) but she cannot because she has to attend a school retreat that weekend. j) which call to mind the Virgin Mary. Activity 6 Multiple Choice The teacher goes on with some multiple choice questions. 1) In the story Araby doesn‘t symbolize… a) beauty b) content c) romance d) mystery e) commercialism 2) Which is not included in the falling action? a) The boy asks for permission to go to Araby. b) The train delays. c) Information about the boy‘s feelings for the girl d) The salesgirl treats the boy badly. 167 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo e) His uncle comes but he has forgotten about the trip. 3) In the story_____represents the uncle‘s debt and irresponsibility? a) Mangan b) The boy‘s uncle c) Mangan‘s sister d) The boy e) Mrs. Mercer 4) Which is the climax of the story? a) Information about the boy‘s feelings for the girl b) The train delays. c) The boy and the girl have a conversation. d) The boy promises to bring a present for the girl. e) Discouraged the boy leaves the Bazaar. 5) Which one of the following themes are not included in the major themes of the story? a) Religion b) Loneliness c) Alienation d) Transformation e) Impatience 6) Which of the following items cannot be regarded as foreshadowing for the boy‘s disappointment? a) The boy‘s being younger than the girl b) Uncle‘s answer to boy‘s question c) Delay of train d) The harsh weather e) Uncle‘s indifference 7) Which is the following is the antagonist of the story? a) The train b) The boy‘s uncle c) Mangan‘s sister d) Bazaar e) Time 8) Joyce is famous for creating characters who undergo a/an ______ and the narrator of ―Araby‖ is one of his best examples. a) change b) epiphany c) depression d) transformation e) stress 9) Mangan‘s older sister becomes the object of the narrator‘s schoolboy _____. a) crush b) embarrassment c) girl d) enjoy e) fail 10) Narrator‘s aunt warns the boy that he may have to ____the bazaar ―for this night of Our Lord. a) do without b) go on c) call off d) put off e) show up Post-Reading Activities Activity 1 Role-play 168 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Teacher wants the students to do role-play for this activity. The teacher selects 6 volunteer students from the class to act some of the parts in the story. Firstly, she divides 6 students into 3 groups and wants them to choose a card the teacher hands them. In these cards the names of the characters are written. In the first card, students should act out the dialogue between the uncle and the boy. In the second one, they should act out the dialogue between the girl and the boy. And lastly, the dialogue between the boy and the salesgirl should be acted out. Secondly, she tells them to create a dialogue between those people. CARDS The boy and the girl The boy and the uncle The boy and the salesgirl Activity 2 The teacher hands out the first part of a different version of the play and ask them to write a different ending (preferably a happy one). Observing me, the young lady came over and asked me did I wish to buy anything. The tone of her voice was not encouraging; she seemed to have spoken to me out of a sense of duty. I looked humbly at the great jars that stood like eastern guards at either side of the dark entrance to the stall and murmured: 'Yes, please.' ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 169 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arıkan, A. (2005). An Evaluation of Literature Component of Hacettepe University English Language Teaching Department. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 29, 40-49. Arıoğul, S. (2001). The Teaching of Reading through Short Stories in Advanced Classes. Hacettepe University, the Institude of Social Sciences, Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Ankara. Bozer, D. ―An Analysis of a Short Short Story‖. Journal of English Language and Literature, 3, 83-88, December 1995. Murdoch, G. (2002). Exploiting Well-known Short Stories for Language Skills Development.IATEFL LCS SIG Newsletter, 23, 9-17. Oster, J. (1989). Seeing with Different Eyes: Another View of Literature in the ESL Class. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 85-103 Sarıçoban, A. ( 2001). The Teaching of Language Skills. Ankara: Hacettepe TaĢ Yayıncılık, http://theliterarylink.com/araby_essays.html Retrieved, April 5, 2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce Retrieved, April 12, 20011 170 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 27 Title A name given to the resource USING LITERATURE IN EFL CLASSES: SHORT STORY Author Author SARIÇOBAN, Arif KÜÇÜKOĞLU, Hülya Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study was to investigate underline the benefits of using literature in EFL classes. Short Stories can be used as a good source in ELT classes in almost all levels depending on the difficulty status of the story. Due to their length which is very appropriate for language classrooms, students can make good use of short stories in learning the target language. Using short stories in ELT classrooms is an effective technique for teaching linguistic system as well as the life in relation to the target language. Choosing the right short story is an important part of the process. At this point, students‘ proficiency level, age, and interests should be taken into consideration. Another important thing is the course objectives and appropriateness of the story as content. In this study the importance of using Short Stories in ELT classrooms and points to be considered while choosing the right short story was discussed at the opening part of the study. On the next part, teaching discrete language skills by using short story in ELT classrooms is studied and a sample application is build up in order to share practical ideas. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/523c00ec418060056042b26dd7ad439b.pdf 5f6de1dbbab8ee50a5edd9e79457f90b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COLLABORATIVE WEB 2.0 TOOLS IN ELT CLASSROOMS Assoc. Prof. Arif SARIÇOBAN Department of English Language Teaching Hacettepe University, Turkey arifs@hacettepe.edu.tr Eyüp YaĢar KURUM Department of Foreign Languages Turkish Military Academy, Turkey yasarkurum@gmail.com Abstract: The internet applications first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0 have offered numerous new opportunities for the English teachers. Blogging, wikis, podcasting, and social networking are a few examples of the so-called Web 2.0 technologies that language teachers are currently exploring. However, not only many ELT teachers currently working at the schools but also a good number of prospective English teachers‘ awareness of Web 2.0 tools in ELT is far from satisfactory (Usluel and others, 2009). This paper aims to provide awareness for the educators for the potentials of Web 2.0 tools in language learning and teaching. A theoretical foundation for a technology enhanced pedagogy is outlined, one that places Web 2.0 within a social constructivist and connectivist context. Also the importance of Web 2.0 tools in providing comprehensible input to the language learner is emphasized. Finally, an overview of relevant technologies applicable to ELT is provided, along with successful classroom usage models and links to online resources. Key Words: Web 2.0 tools, collaborative learning environments, social constructivism, connectivism Introduction The interactive internet applications which allow the user to perform a more active and participatory role on the net was first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0. The traditional internet applications, which are known as Web 1.0, include only the presentation of the content to the user. The users are sole consumers. They have no chance to contribute or make any changes on the content of the web page they visit. In Web 2.0 however, the sole consumer is replaced by a more contributing and participatory user. The user has an active role; he/she can control the content of the site. He/she is not only bound with whatever content he is presented. With the recent technological developments and a philosophical shift of knowledge, the internet has become more and more interactive today. Why Should English Teachers Concern About the Web 2.0? The implementation of Web 2.0 technologies in the classroom does not immediately improve the teaching quality to an immense level. A teacher deciding to use a new technology in the classroom takes the challenge of increasing his burden of already existing practices and this requires extra time and effort. So, the fundamental questions that should be asked by a teacher deciding to apply a new technology must be these: Is this new technology worth allocating time and effort? Is it a must to implement Web 2.0 technologies to practice a good teaching? The answer is absolutely not. Good teaching practice requires a desire of making a difference in students‘ lives and effort and patience shown to achieve this goal and an inspiring character complementing all these. So then, if the Web 2.0 technology is not something must for a good teaching practice, why should the teachers concern about the issue? As being foreign language teachers every new development in technology concerns us, because our subject matter is oral and written communication and this is what we call language which covers every aspect of human life. Usually the human response to a new technological innovation comes out of a 3 stage cycle which is called ―Hype Cycle‖. In the first phase the new technological innovation arouses a great excitement and unrealistic expectations. Then comes the next stage of disappointment in which people start to think that this new gadget is of 171 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo no value at all. The real fruitful stage of new innovation is the last stage. In this phase, people learn to evaluate the innovation with its strong and weak points and more realistic expectations are created. Web 2.0 based internet applications were first met with great excitement and became a cover story for the Time magazine. In 2006, the Time columnist Lev Grossman wrote that the Web 2.0 applications on the net not only changed the world, but also opened a new way on how to change the world. Although, we cannot easily say how the world will be changed through Web 2.0, we can definitely assume that Web 2.0 will present new perspectives in ELT classrooms. Which Learning Theory Accounts for Web 2.0? Computer assisted language learning dates back to the first wide use of PCs in 1980s. In this first phase, which is called Web 1.0, students were able to do some applications on the ready-made software they were presented. They were not allowed to make any changes or any contributions on the content of the program they were studying. The Web 2.0 applications on the other hand, present a more contributory learning media in accordance with the contemporary learning theory of connectivism (Siemens, 2004). The behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist learning theories used in the past to design learning programs do not suffice today. According to behaviorist learning theory, learning is so complex to be comprehended fully. The fundamental principles of behaviorism can be stated as follows: 1. We should focus on the observable behaviors of individuals rather than focusing our attention to the inner complex mechanisms in human mind which are far from any clear explanation. 2. The human behaviors should be examined as definable stimulus response phases. 3. Learning can only be explained by observing the changes in behaviors. The cognitivist learning theory compares learning like a computer that processes data and explains the acquisition of new information and skills likewise. According to this model, individual first processes the information gathered from the environment in his short term memory. Then, the meaningful information within these newly received data is stored in long term memory as mental symbols. This recorded information is therefore learned. The constructivist model, on the other hand, argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. Learning happens as a result of individual‘s endeavor of giving meaning to his/her experiences. The behaviorist and cognitivist models handle knowledge as a phenomenon that is outside of the individual. The constructivists, however, argue that individual is not an empty vessel filling himself/herself with output coming from outside. He/she rather actively selects, processes and constructs knowledge with meanings given to one‘s individual experiences. In behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist learning models, learning is a phenomenon happening within an individual‘s inner world. Even in social constructivism in which learning is claimed to occur as a result of social interaction, learning is something inner. In modern world, due to the technological and social advances that reduce the half life of knowledge rapidly, the learning paradigms mentioned above cannot be sufficient. According to the American Statistical Association, the present knowledge we have in today‘s world has doubled in the past 10 years. In other words, what we know of today was unknown 10 years ago. However, data assumes that in the next 18 months what we know of today will double, which means a 100% increase in 1.5 years. So what does this mean? This means that people will no longer go for a school for some period of time and then graduate and keep on their work. Knowledge is so abundant and this vast amount increases so rapidly that life long learning is not a fantasy, but a must. Therefore, the fundamental skill that an individual in today‘s school must achieve is learning to learn. In a world in which knowledge is so widespread, to act by using the knowledge that is not stored in our mind is more important. Here is where the connectivist model accounts for. The Connectivist model sees continuous learning as a process of recognizing the relationships between disciplines, ideas and concepts and give decisions based on these relationships. Accordingly, the fundamental skill of an individual in connectivism is the ability of deciding on what to learn and what these newly learned information mean. A correct decision based on the present data might become a wrong one depending on the 172 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo changing context. In short, the connectivist model sees learning no more an inner and individual activity, but rather an impact of the social changes on individual In modern world, as knowledge flourishes every single day, the important thing is not to know how, but rather to know where. Informal learning today is as important as formal learning. Social sharing Web 2.0 addresses affect even format individuals in terms of lifelong learning, professional development, socialization, etc. Lev Vygotsky‘s social constructivist theories must be realized this way in modern world. How Can Web 2.0 be Implemented in Classroom Settings? According to a study conducted in the U.S., 90% of the 12-17 age group of youth use the internet almost every day (Greenhow & et al., 2009). In Turkey, the rates must be similar especially for the urban youth population. In another study, 55% of the youth on the net were found to be using social sharing Web 2.0 sites on a continual basis (Greenhow & et al., 2009). These findings reveal us that the English instructors have a potential to exploit this widely used medium to realize their course objectives. In order to accomplish this, the English instructors themselves first get to know about Web 2.0 applications. The best source of help to achieve this goal would again be the internet itself. First of all, we could start the work by visiting the blog address http://plcmclearning.blogspot.com/2007/01/learning-20-message.html This site is an internet project prepared for the introduction of Web 2.0 for the personnel of a library in Charlotte, North Carolina. When the users complete the 23 activities in the site, they both have an understanding of Web 2.0 and win presents like a laptop or MP3. The example activities in the site are as follows: 1. Visit http://www.blogger.com/home and prepare your own blog, 2. Visit http://www.flickr.com and share your photos there. Search for a photo on a certain topic, download and upload photos. 3. Activities on RSS (Really Simple Syndication). RSS is a special XML file format used to publish frequently updated works —such as blog entries, news headlines, audio, and video — in a standardized format. The internet user can subscribe to the site and follow the continually updated content by using a reader. http://www.commoncraft.com/rss_plain_english presents a 3 minute comprehensive video on RSS. Visit addresses such as http://generatorblog.blogspot.com/, http://www.letterjames.com/start.php?mod=image-personalization to gather information on photo and image making. Visit http://www.librarything.com to check for the activities in which people online catalogue the books they read and write comments on them. There are also comments on similar web addresses. 4. 5. 6. Visit http://www.rollyo.com to make your personal search engine on the net. 7. Visit http://delicious.com to get information about social bookmarking. There is a 8-minute introductory video on http://www.ottergroup.com/learning2.0/?p=14 about delicious.com. By bookmarking your frequently used addresses in delicious.com, you can easily access your favorite addresses from any computer. At the same time, you can contact others visiting your favorite addresses. So, let‘s say you are doing a research on the use of Web 2.0 in foreign language teaching. By using delicious.com, you can easily contact researchers from anywhere in the world studying on the same topic. 8. To learn to work with blog pages like Technorati by using bookmarking sites. 9. To learn about popular Web 2.0 Wiki, YouTube, etc. applications. By following the above steps, you can raise your awareness and experience of Web 2.0 practices. By having been exposed to more Web 2.0 experience we can develop new perspectives and ideas on how to use Web 2.0 in our language teaching practices. We can encourage our students on the use of blogs, podcasts and social networking sites to prepare their class projects. The Web 1.0 practices of ELT students usually covered listening and reading skills. Web 2.0 practices on the other hand, can cover a whole range of 4 skills including speaking and writing. Therefore, Web 2.0 practices on the net are more appropriate for the course objectives of ELT. 173 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo From the point of language acquisition hypotheses, Web 2.0 sites offer a promising resource of comprehensible input. In the field of second language acquisition we can mainly talk about three general hypotheses (Krashen, 2007). The hypotheses to be considered are these: 1. 2. 3. The Comprehension Hypothesis, the view that we acquire language and develop literacy when we understand what we hear and what we read. The Comprehensible Output Hypothesis, which claims that language acquisition occurs when we are forced to produce language beyond our current competence. We change our hypothesis about grammatical rules and word meanings when we are not understood and have to ―try again.‖ The Skill-Building Hypothesis says that we improve when we make mistakes and are corrected, thus changing our conscious idea of what the rules of the language are. According to this hypothesis, we first consciously learn about language, that is, study the rules and vocabulary. Through output practice the vocabulary and grammar become automatic. In all of the above mentioned acquisition hypotheses Web 2.0 applications can claim a role. Comprehensible input hypothesis claims second language acquisition to occur only if learner is exposed to a fair amount of listening and reading input that he understands. To receive this input, the internet can be a valuable source. Podcasts or youtube for instance, can offer a great amount of listening input. Myers & Linzmeier (2007) coined the term ―Free Web Surfing‖ as a possible means of language development. Free voluntary surfing is doing free voluntary reading on the Internet, or using the Internet to locate printed material of interest for free reading. From the points of Comprehensible Output and Skill-Building hypotheses Web 2.0 applications can again offer numerous benefits. Social network media like blogs or facebook writings and you tube video presentations encourage language production. Learners should adapt their language output in order to give their intended message to their audience. This output practice, according to output hypothesis, improves the language competency of the learners. At the same time it builds not only receptive skills, but also productive skills like speaking and writing. Following are some suggestions on how to exploit some example Web 2.0 sites in ELT: 1. Twitter.com: Short writing practices especially for those learners who are not fond of writing long passages. Besides, students have a chance to practice authentique daily spoken language. 2. The blog sites like http://supportblogging.com/ ; http://www.21publish.com/; http://www.edublogs.com/ can be used to share various activities out of the classroom. 3. The podcast sites derived from the combination of words of ipod and broadcast such as http://www.podcastalley.com or http://www.podcastpickle.com can be very useful in improving the speaking and listening skills of learners. Students can also upload their audio and video files or can make narrow listening on following podcasts on a certain topic. For example, students can be asked to upload their comments on a book or movie they have recently read or watched. So, anyone on the net can follow these comments and students will most likely enjoy contributing to such an activity. In the end, a podcast class library on various topics can be established at the end of the semester. 4. Social network sites like www.myspace.com or www.facebook.com having 100s of millions of users or video sharing sites such as www.youtube.com or http://www.teachertube.com/ can be quite useful in providing our students authentique materials. They can also be used in encouraging the learners to produce something interesting and new by using their English. 5. Students can be asked to upload their visual materials on www.voicethread.com and all students can make comments on other‘s works. These comments can be written messages, audio files or live connections. So, learners from different parts of the world can have a chance to interact on a topic. To conclude, Web 2.0 practices are valuable resources in encouraging the students‘ creativity and personal use of second language. Besides, English instructors can share their successful activities and opinions with their colleagues throughout the world. With the help of Web 2.0, the English can be carried out of the classroom and this is important for especially students learning English as a foreign language. Because foreign language learners, as 174 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo compared to second language learners, usually do not have a chance to practice their language out of the classroom. For them, the internet can be the most precious medium. 175 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Brown, H.D. (2007). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Pearson Longman. Celce-Murcia, M. (ed), (2001). Teaching English as a Second Language. Prentice Hall. Ellidokuzoğlu, H. (Ocak, 2003). Basic Principles in FLT. The Journal of Turkish Armed Forces, No: 375. Ellis, R. (1994). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Greenhow, C. & Robelia, B. & Hughes, J. (2009). Learning, Teaching and Scholarship in a Digital Age. Educational Researcher, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 246- 259. Retrieved from http://er.aera.net Krashen, S. (2007). Case Histories and the Comprehension Hypothesis. Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Symposium on English Teaching, English Teachers‘ Association – Republic of China. Taipei: Crane Publishing Company. pp. 100-113. Kùrùm, E. Y. (4-8 February, 2002). ―The Latest Developments in Educational Technology‖. Military High School Conferences on The Recent Developments in Educational Technology, Ġstanbul. Myers J. & Linzmeier J. (2007). Free Voluntary Web Surfing. The Proceedings of 2007 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics, Department of Applied English, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan . Taipei: Crane Publishing Company, pp. 7–14. Richards, J. C. (1985). The Context of Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press. Scarcella R. & Oxford, R. (1992). The Tapestry of Language Learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Siemens, G. (2004). A Learning Theory for the Digital Age. http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm Spada, N. & Lightbown, P. (1999). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University Press. Stern, H.H. (1984). Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford University Press. Talandis, J. (22-25 November 2007).― Web 2.0 in the Classroom―. Japan Association for Language Teaching Conference,Tokyo, Japan. http://www.slideshare.net/talandisjr/web-20-in-the-elt-classroom-anintroduction Yalden, J. (1987). Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 176 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 28 Title A name given to the resource THE IMPLEMENTATION OF COLLABORATIVE WEB 2.0 TOOLS IN ELT CLASSROOMS Author Author SARIÇOBAN, Arif KURUM, Eyüp Yaşar Abstract A summary of the resource. The internet applications first labeled by Tim O‘Reilly in 2004 as Web 2.0 have offered numerous new opportunities for the English teachers. Blogging, wikis, podcasting, and social networking are a few examples of the so-called Web 2.0 technologies that language teachers are currently exploring. However, not only many ELT teachers currently working at the schools but also a good number of prospective English teachers‘ awareness of Web 2.0 tools in ELT is far from satisfactory (Usluel and others, 2009). This paper aims to provide awareness for the educators for the potentials of Web 2.0 tools in language learning and teaching. A theoretical foundation for a technology enhanced pedagogy is outlined, one that places Web 2.0 within a social constructivist and connectivist context. Also the importance of Web 2.0 tools in providing comprehensible input to the language learner is emphasized. Finally, an overview of relevant technologies applicable to ELT is provided, along with successful classroom usage models and links to online resources. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/029a44e7c9efb83f57346fc28210f742.pdf d9e94895f56e4f7eaf80b6418985b1d7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Being an English Teacher in Turkey: Future Teachers‘ Perspectives Dr. H. Sezgi SARAÇ BaĢkent University, Ankara, Turkey hsarac@baskent.edu.tr Abstract: This study aims at identifying prospective teachers‘ perceptions with respect to positive and negative aspects of being an English teacher in Turkey. To this end, a qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The collected data imply those prospective teachers‘ beliefs and values as well as perceptions over teaching and working as an English language teacher in Turkey. The results also denote how future teachers evaluate the present conditions, which are financial and moral, the practitioners work in Turkey today. 1. INTRODUCTION As highlighted in the related literature, actions and identities are closely bounded with personal beliefs (Kagan, 1992; Pajares, 1992; Witcher, et. al. 2001). Belief, as a system, acts as a perceptual filter while adhering meaning to the outside world and reality (Puchta, 1999). Richardson (1996) defines beliefs as psychologically related apprehensions, presumptions or intentions over the world that is perceived to be true. Thus, a system of belief functions as a personal guide that helps a person to define and understand the world and himself (Pajares, 1992). Teachers‘ beliefs are stated to have a form of structured set of principles and they are derived from practitioners‘ experiences, practices and personality (Borg, 2003). Zheng (2009) indicates that a teacher‘s system of beliefs is the substructure of his general belief system and effected from former experience. Beliefs inspire teachers‘ planning, decision making and in-class behavior. Calderhead (1996) distinguishes five main areas of teachers‘ belief which are beliefs on learners and learning; on teaching; on subject; on learning to teach; on self and on teaching role. Since it is not possible to observe or measure individuals‘ beliefs directly, people‘s statements can be used as resource to make inferences from (Rokeach, 1968; Johnson, 1994). Even though beliefs are tacit, the importance of doing research on English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers is underscored by Zheng (2009) as beliefs have an effect on what the practitioners state and how they act in the classroom, which, results in shaping their own beliefs again. While emphasizing the importance of teachers‘ belief, it should also be noted that the actual setting of teaching and contextual factors are to be taken into consideration. The realities of teaching conditions, such as school setting, workload, motivation, parental and administrative pressure on teachers might act as a hindrance to put beliefs into practice (Duffy, 1982, Mohammed, 2006). Khonamri and Salimi (2010) propose that there is a complex and sometimes inconsistent relationship between practitioners‘ beliefs and practices, which might be related to contextual factors and classroom life the teachers face with. Therefore, teachers‘ knowledge alone is not sufficient to understand practitioners‘ behavior and way of prioritizing problematic issues, which requires the elaboration of teacher beliefs (Zheng, 2009). Thus, the aim of this study is to examine pre-service EFL teachers‘ beliefs in a dichotomy of positive and negative associations with three different but interrelated concepts which are: being a teacher, being an English teacher and finally being an English teacher in Turkey. The research questions guided the method and procedures of study are as follows: What are the pre-service teachers‘ positive and negative associations with the concepts: a. ―teacher‖? b. ―English teacher‖? c. ―English teacher in Turkey‖? 2. METHOD 1107 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive free associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. As stated by Brown and Rodgers (2002) free association was introduced as a method of psychological research by Sigmund Freud. In one of the forms of free association method, right after the researcher states a word, the participant is asked to utter an immediate response which comes to his mind. The pre-service teachers who took part in the data collection procedure were asked to put forward their free associations with an unlimited number of words, phrases or sentences. The participants‘ associations were recorded to be transcribed and coded under different themes. Since there was no limitation with the number of productions, each participant‘s all of the utterances were taken into consideration and categorized in accordance with the themes. Therefore, the total number of associations was not limited to the number of participants but to that of associations put forward for each concept. In addition, the association stated by only one participant was left out to exclude non-repeating data. The findings were presented in frequencies and percentages. 3. FINDINGS The first set of data is on the participants‘ positive free associations with the concept ―teacher‖. Totally eleven themes are highlighted by the pre-service teachers, which are: sacred, love, fun, devotion, guaranteed, summer break, ideal job for women and patience. Table 1: Positive associations on the term ―teacher‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Love 16 17,9 Fun 13 14,7 Devotion 12 13,6 Patience 10 11,3 Summer break 8 8,9 Sacred 6 6,7 Guaranteed 6 6,7 Ideal job for women 6 6,7 Idealist 5 5,6 Up-to-date 4 4,5 Fair 3 3,4 Total 89 100 The most repeated association on the term ―teacher‖ is ―love‖ (N=16). The participants stated this theme in chunks, such as ―love for students‖ and ―love for human-beings‖. The second most repeated association is ―fun‖ (N=13). ―Devotion‖ (N=12) and ―patience‖ (N=10) were stated to be positive associations by the pre-service teachers. The participants indicated that ―summer break‖ is a positive aspect of being a teacher. The participants associated the key term with ―sacred‖ (N=6), ―guaranteed‖ (N=6) and ―ideal job for women‖ (N=6). The other, less uttered associations are ―idealist‖ (N=5), ―upto-date‖ (N=4) and ―fair‖ (N=3). On the dichotomy, there exist the negative associations with the concept ―teacher‖. This time, the participants provided associations in fewer themes but with more frequency. There are three themes proposed: Association Difficult conditions Low salary Public Personnel Examination (PPSE) Total Table 2: Negative associations on the term ―teacher‖. Frequency (N) Percentage (%) 28 39,5 25 35,2 Selection 18 25,3 71 100 Most of the associations are related with the theme ―difficult conditions‖ (N=28). The actual associations grouped under this theme are: ―difficult working conditions‖ (6), ―corporal punishment‖ 1108 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo (3), ―punishment‖ (2), ―responsibility‖ (1), ―receiving orders‖ (2), ―fatigue‖ (5), ―demanding‖ (2), ―service done in the eastern part of Turkey‖ (3), ―dealing with parents‖ (2), ―educational system in Turkey‖ (2). As the third most repeated negative association (N=18), the participants stated the Public Personnel Selection Examination (PPSE) that is administered before appointing servants to work in state institutions, including state schools in Turkey. The third set of collected data is on participants‘ free associations with ―English teacher‖. There are seven main themes stated by the participants related with the keyword given. The data analyzed in frequencies and percentages are as follows: Table 3: Positive associations on the term ―English teacher‖. Association Enjoyable Communication Culture Privileged Job opportunities Cool Creativity Total Frequency (N) 21 19 17 12 10 7 6 92 Percentage (%) 22,8 20,7 18,5 13 10,9 7,6 6,5 100 The participating pre-service teachers associate the term ―English teacher‖ with the job being ―enjoyable‖ (N=21) and leaving space for ―creativity‖ (N=6). The most repeated associations were related with the aspects of ―communication‖ (N=19) and culture (N=17). The other statements were on the themes of ―privileged‖ (N=12) and ―job opportunities‖ (10). The participants also stated that the target term associated with ―cool‖ (N=7). The themes on the negative associations are five in number. Among these themes, ―prejudiced ides‖, ―incompetent teachers‖, ―difficult conditions‖, ―bad pronunciation‖ and ―foreign/imported teachers‖ were included. The findings in frequencies and percentages are: Table 4: Negative associations on the term ―English teacher‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Prejudiced ideas 25 34,2 Incompetent teachers 15 20,5 Difficult conditions 12 16,5 Bad pronunciation 12 16,5 Imported teachers 9 12,3 Total 73 100 Most of the associations are related with ―prejudiced ideas‖. Within this theme, utterances such as ―being compared with native speakers‖ (N=4), ―students‘ with negative attitude towards English‖ (N=4), ―people regarding that English is too simple‖ (N=2) were also included. The second most repeated theme is ―incompetent teachers‖ (N=15). ―Teachers using classical methods‖ (N=5), ―teachers using Grammar Translation Method only‖ (N=3), ―teachers using inappropriate teaching methods‖ (N=2) were among the productions included under the category of ―incompetent teachers‖. ―Difficult conditions‖ (N=12) and ―bad pronunciation‖ (N=12) were the other associations put forward. ―Imported teachers‖ (N=9) was also stated by participants. The phrase ―imported teachers‖ is frequently used in Turkish media to name the contemporary issue in national education that 40.000 foreign English language teachers have been planned to be recruited in Turkey. (http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25195744/, 2011). The next concept presented to the participants to find out their associations was ―English Teacher in Turkey‖. The pre-service teachers proposed associations that were categorized in six different themes, which were ―difference‖, ―prestige‖, ―job opportunities‖, ―enjoyable‖, ―superiority‖, and ―privileged‖. 1109 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 5: Positive associations on the term ―English teacher in Turkey‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Difference 13 25 Prestige 11 21,1 Different job opportunities 8 15,4 Enjoyable 8 15,4 Superiority 7 13,5 Privileged 5 9,6 Total 52 100 Being an ―English teacher in Turkey‖ was associated with ―difference‖ (N=13) and ―prestige‖ (N=11). ―Different job opportunities‖ (N=8) and ―enjoyable‖ were also among the themes. The concept was proposed to have associations with ―superiority‖ (N=7) and ―privileged‖ (N=5). The last set of data is on negative associations related with ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The participants associated the term with ―imported teachers‖, ―PPSE‖, ―bad coursebooks and materials‖, ―low salary‖, ―bad curriculum‖, ―service in eastern Turkey‖ and ―not being appointed‖. The findings are as follows: Table 6: Negative associations on the term ―English teacher in Turkey‖. Association Frequency (N) Percentage (%) Imported teachers 27 22,5 PPSE 23 19,3 Bad coursebooks and materials 22 18,3 Low salary 19 15,8 Bad curriculum 13 10,8 Service in eastern Turkey 9 7,5 Not being appointed 7 5,8 Total 120 100 Among the negative associations foreign teachers planned to be recruited in Turkey, ―imported teachers‖ (N=27) is the most recurring theme of all. Secondly, ―PPSE‖ (N=23) was stated by the participants. ―Bad coursebooks and materials‖ (N=22) and ―bad curriculum‖ were other themes of association proposed. ―Low salary‖ (N=19), ―service in eastern Turkey‖ (N=9) and ―not being appointed‖ were the last themes analyzed. 3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The most significant finding of current research is that the participants relate foreign teachers planned to be recruited in Turkey, ―imported teachers‖, and ―PPSE‖ as negative associations to working as an EFL teacher in Turkey. In addition, the curriculum, coursebook and materials used are not appreciated by the participants, either. It can be stated that the participants‘ reflections upon such issues derive from previous learning experiences. As is stated by Numbirch (1996) practitioners‘ beliefs are affected from prior learning experiences and these beliefs are influential all through their professional lives. Even though being a teacher is associated with many positive aspects, such as; ―love‖, ―fun‖ and ―devotion‖, associations on difficult working conditions, low salary and PPSE point at the negative aspects of working as a teacher in Turkey again. Besides, enjoyable, communicative and cultural aspects of being an English teacher are emphasized; however, the prejudiced ideas against the target language and profession, incompetent teachers and difficult job conditions were also mentioned by the participants. In another complementary study, pre-service teachers of EFL also indicate in their memoirs that ―teachers who were not specialized in English language teaching‖, ―teachers‘ inability in using English fluently‖ and ―over-crowded classes ... with poor technology‖ are problematic issues in English language instruction in Turkish primary school setting (Saraç & Arıkan, 2010). 1110 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The current study is limited to a group of pre-service teachers‘ (N=40) associations. Future research necessitates comprehensive qualitative and quantitative studies on identifying the negative issues in EFL instruction in Turkey. Besides, expert opinions are to be collected on how to eliminate such problems to excel foreign language teaching nationwide. References Brown, J. D. & Rodgers, T. S. (2002). Doing Second Language Research. OUP: Oxford. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81-109. Dufy, G. (1982). Response to Borko, Shavelson, & Stern: There‘s more to instructional decisionmaking in reading than the ―empty classroom‖. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 295-300. Ġngilizce derslerine ithal ôğretmen. NTVMSNBC. 24.03.2011. http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/id/25195744/ Khonamri, F. & Salimi, M. (2010). The interplay between EFL high school teachers‘ beliefs and their instructional practices regarding reading strategies. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 4(1), 96-107. Retrieved 12.02.2011, from http://www.novitasroyal.org/Vol_4_1/khonamri_salimi.pdf Johnson, K. E. (1994). The emerging beliefs and instructional practices of preservice English as a second language teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 10(4), 439-452. Kagan, D. M. (1992). Implications of research on teacher belief. Educational Psychologist, 27, 65-90. Mohammed, N. (2006). An exporatory study of the interplay between the teachers‘ beliefs‘, instructional practces, and professional development. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Universiy of Auckland, USA. Numrich, C. (1996). On becoming a language teacher: Insights from diary studies. TESOL Quarterly, 30(1), 131-153. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers‘ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332. Puchta, H. (1999). Beyond materials, techniques and linguistic analysis: The role of motivation, beliefs and identity. Plenary Session at the 33rd International IATEFl Annual Conference, Edinburgh. Rokeach, M. (1968). Beliefs, Attitudes, and Values: A Theory of Organization and Change. JosseyBass: San Francisco, CA. Richardson, V. (1996). The role of attitudes and beliefs in learning to teach. In j. Sikula, T.J. Buttery and E. Guyton (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 102-119). New York: Macmillan. Sarac, H. S., & Arikan, A. ―The state of English language teaching in Turkish primary schools as reflected in prospective English language teachers' memoirs,‖ Comparative Education, Teacher Training, Education Policy, School Leadership and Social Inclusion (Vol. 8), 233-237, 8th International Conference on Comparative Education and Teacher Training, Plovdiv, Bulgaria, 2010. Witcher, A. E., Sewall, A. M., arnold, L. D. & Travers, P. D. (2001). Teaching, leading, learning: It‘s all about philosophy. Clearing House, 74(5), 277-279. Zheng, H. (2009). A review of research on EFL pre-service teachers‘ beliefs and practices. Journal of Cambridge Studies, 4(1), 73-81. Dr. H. Sezgi Sarac holds a PhD from Hacettepe University, specializing in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. She currently works as an Assistant Professor at Baskent University in Turkey and is also the associate editor of the journal Novitas: ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language). Her research areas are curriculum development, pedagogical knowledge, material development and syllabus design . 1111 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 589 Title A name given to the resource Being an English Teacher in Turkey: Future Teachers‘ Perspectives Author Author SARAÇ, Sezgi Abstract A summary of the resource. This study aims at identifying prospective teachers‘ perceptions with respect to positive and negative aspects of being an English teacher in Turkey. To this end, a qualitative research design was used and the participants were future teachers (n=40) studying at the department of English language teaching in Turkey. In order to gather data, each participant was interviewed via structured questions. During these interviews, the prospective teachers were asked to put forward their negative and positive associations with the terms: ―teacher‖, ―English teacher‖ and ―English teacher in Turkey‖. The collected data imply those prospective teachers‘ beliefs and values as well as perceptions over teaching and working as an English language teacher in Turkey. The results also denote how future teachers evaluate the present conditions, which are financial and moral, the practitioners work in Turkey today. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4bfc270d9e97543284233b0ab1109aa3.pdf 1406c8d47b130d494708db735ea72eea PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Individual Orientations Towards Intercultural Differences on The Basis of a Study Conducted Among The Polish Students of English Philology Piotr Romanowski Department of English State Higher School of Vocational Education in Krosno romanowskip@poczta.onet.pl Abstract: The aim of the present paper is to show how the Polish students of English Philology changed their orientations towards intercultural differences as a result of intercultural encounters they experienced and instruction in intercultural development offered to them. With increased levels of intercultural communication, their competence in intercultural relations magnified. As assumed, the students‘ initial emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences occurred to be weak. However, with the intercultural development, the levels of intercultural sensitivity being a component of intercultural competence, rose significantly. In effect the students were able to recognize certain values and pick up on verbal and non-verbal signals typical of other cultures allowing for further empathy being developed and adjusting to different scripts of communication. For the purpose of observing the varying levels of intercultural sensitivity and subsequently intercultural competence, the author decided to design a ranking questionnaire as a research instrument. It consisted of a series of statements marked by the respondents with numbers 1-5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with them. It was designed for comparative analysis of their responses. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. Through careful examination of the questionnaire and its collected data, the author managed to notice a meaningful change in the attitudes, values and skills exhibited by his students in terms of their intercultural identities. Key words: intercultural communication competence, intercultural sensitivity, intercultural differences, English Philology Research objectives Answering an increasing need for developing intercultural communication competence at a continually growing number of speakers, the aim of the present paper is to measure the level of intercultural communication sensitivity of the students of English Philology at State Higher School of Vocational Education at Krosno. Following the findings of other researchers (Bennett, 1986, 1993; Chen and Starosta, 2000; Fritz and Moellenberg, 2002), three basic assumptions have been made to meet the objective. Firstly, it has been assumed that the role of extra-linguistic determinants of intercultural communication competence tend to be even more important than of the verbal language in a communication success of intercultural communicators, which accounts for the research being focused on their investigation. Secondly, intercultural sensitivity has been assigned the role of its essential non-verbal component and skill determining a proper development of other communication skills. Thirdly, building upon the research of Milton Bennett (1986) speakers‘ cognitive orientation towards cultural differences and thus their education tailored to their needs greatly account for intercultural development. The decision to examine intercultural sensitivity as the main dimension of intercultural communication competence is mostly grounded in the research of Milton Bennett (1986, 1993), GuoMing Chen and William J. Starosta (2000) and Wolfgang Fritz and Antje Moellenberg (2002). Milton Bennett (1993:107) considers intercultural sensitivity as the main variable accounting for a communication success of intercultural communicators. He understands it as the ability to be aware of other cultures and to accept the differences resulting from them. Based on his observations that if individuals are taught how to confront cultural differences by becoming more sophisticated and sensitive to them, they may predict at least some of them and diminish their misunderstandings and failures. 1029 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Also, for Chen and Starosta (2000:124) intercultural sensitivity is a basic dimension of intercultural communication competence. It is a person‘s ability to understand similarities and differences of other cultures, which embraces their emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences, their multiple perspectives on an event or behaviour, their recognition of own cultural values and those of others as well as their empathy and ability to adjust to different ways of communicating (Chen and Starosta, 2000: 155). In a more recent approach to intercultural sensitivity Wolfgang Fritz and Antje Moellenberg (2002) have concurrently isolated intercultural awareness and intercultural adroitness as equal and additional constituents of intercultural communication competence. Intercultural awareness is the cognitive dimension of intercultural communication competence, intercultural adroitness acts as a behavioural aspect, and ultimately intercultural sensitivity performs the role of affective aspect of intercultural communication competence. Profile of respondents and available methods The research sample consisted of the students of Year 3 of English Philology at State Higher School of Vocational Education at Krosno. The mission of the school is to educate students at the level of three-year long Bachelor programmes. Most of them start work as teachers of English in primary and secondary schools where they are the only language models for their learners to follow. It should be also mentioned that the students are not very mobile, which is of importance when their intercultural communication competence is concerned. Hence, the value of the course in intercultural communication, which is included in the study programme and the responsibility of the school to prepare them well for their future professional is of immense importance. The research methods widely used to measure intercultural sensitivity such as self-reflection, participant observation, qualitative interviews and questionnaires were borrowed from social sciences, ethnography and anthropology. To enhance their advantages and reduce their drawbacks, they tend to be combined together to allow for more objective and reliable results whose validity could thus be generalized. All of the above methods have been used for the purpose of the present research. Self-reflection preceded other methods and served to approach conceptually cross-cultural communication competence, formulate basic assumptions, working hypothesis as well as research questions which were used later in the questionnaire and interviews. It was made used of during the research to analyze the empirical data and draw conclusions. Its role was important in seeking for explanations of the results obtained by means of the questionnaire and interviews. Participant observation was used all the time because the author of the investigation lectures in the Department of English. His work allowed him to observe his students in a natural way, which facilitated him to check his assumptions, formulate and reformulate the research questions and also get explanations of the communication behaviours of his students and their experience as intercultural communicators. The type of questionnaire used for the purpose of the present investigation serves to measure intercultural sensitivity of the students of English Philology. The same sample of students (50 altogether) were involved completing the questionnaire consisting of ten pairs of questions, all of which refer to various behavioural aspects of intercultural communication. The respondents were asked to allocate to each statement a number from 1 to 5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with it – where 5 meant a strong agreement and 1 a strong disagreement respectively. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. A statistical analysis allowed for obtaining quantitative results which made their qualitative interpretation more objective and reliable. Measuring intercultural sensitivity of the students of English Philology The choice of respondents was based on a random selection of students of Year 3 of English Philology. The research was conducted directly in the written form at two separate stages. The first stage was carried out before the commencement of the course in intercultural communication in December 2009 and the second stage after it was over when the students had managed to get their credits in June 2010. The questionnaire was administered twice to the same sample of students in order 1030 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo to learn about the evolution of their skills and attitudes as a result of their participation in the course. Among them, 33 were female and 17 were male. 34 participants marked towns/cities respectively as their place of residence and only 16 of them showed villages. The average age of the sample was 21.96. The total number of answers obtained in the present investigation reached 2000, 1000 responses per each stage of the questionnaire administration. The questionnaire is a result of a pilot study. It was conducted before the course in intercultural communication and its purpose was to identify all the problematic areas for students regarding their communication. The pilot study consisted of participant observation and interviews. Based on the outcomes of both methods the author came to the conclusion that for his students communication in a foreign language means mastering the four language skills and grammatical accuracy. As a matter of fact the approach implies mastering purely linguistic skills and developing linguistic communication competence. The students did not possess any awareness of how communication is dependent on non-linguistic factors, such as culture. The conclusion was a sound piece of evidence that the choice of non-linguistic dimensions of intercultural communication competence as the research area was a good decision. The statements were as follows: 1. I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. 2. I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded. 3. I am quite sure of myself when interacting with people from different cultures. 4. I find it very hard to talk in front of people from different cultures. 5. I always know what to say when interacting with people from different cultures. 6. I can be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. 7. I don‘t like to be with people from different cultures. 8. I respect the values of people from different cultures. 9. I get upset easily when interacting with people from different cultures. 10. I feel confident when interacting with people from different cultures. 11. I tend to wait before forming an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts. 12. I often get discouraged when I am with people from different cultures. 13. I am open-minded to people from different cultures. 14. I am very observant when interacting with people from different cultures. 15. I respect the ways people from different cultures behave. 16. I try to obtain as much information as possible when interacting with people from different cultures. 17. I would not accept the opinions of people from different cultures. 18. I think my culture is better than other cultures. 19. I often show my culturally-distinct counterpart my understanding through verbal or non-verbal cues. 20. I have a feeling of enjoyment towards differences between my culturally-distinct counterpart and me. As already stated each of the statements refers to knowledge, skills or attitudes which should be mastered by intercultural communicators in the process of developing their intercultural sensitivity. Their specific value for assessing their role in intercultural communication sensitivity and also intercultural communication competence is shown by means of a content analysis of each statement. As for the interviews which followed the questionnaire stage of the research, they helped the author clarify and complete the information provided by the students by means of the questionnaire and get some additional knowledge which was either not evident or even absent from the respondents‘ answers. The number of students who participated in the interviews was smaller as only 31 respondents decided to take part in them. They were mainly women (26), which also confirms the 1031 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo gender composition of the group of students of Year 3 in the Department of English with a conspicuous prevalence of women. The levels of intercultural communication competence of the students of English Philology before and after the course The empirical material gathered by means of the questionnaire before the course in intercultural communication and after its completion was divided into two groups. The first group embraced the data implying the respondents‘ positive attitudes and skills and the second one included their negative repertoire. Generally speaking, the positive orientation towards interlocutors with different cultural backgrounds implied open, tolerant and friendly attitudes, ability to deal with stress, taking risk, a recognition of opinion diversity, a necessity to build relationships. It also included a conviction about equality of cultures and a need to work towards understanding among them. Out of the twenty statements from the questionnaire, statements 1, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, 16, 19 and 20 positively assess the respondents. The second group of statements refer to contradictory intercultural communicator‘s features and remain in opposition with the first group. They imply the respondents‘ disrespectful assertiveness and aggression. A few of them indicate negative attitudes, such as hostility, ambiguity within a society, low tolerance of differences and new situations and a lack or low acceptance of all sorts of otherness. These statements are 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17 and 18. The analysis of the empirical data considered the following statistical phenomena: mean (average value), standard deviation, median, lower and upper quartiles. The average value is indispensable as it indicates how strong or weak a particular trait or dimension is. It points out how much variation there is from the average. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be very close to the mean, whereas a high standard deviation indicates that it is spread out over a large range of values. Standard deviation is a widely used measure of variability or dispersion. In the present study the deviation is crucial as it gives further implications regarding the types of answers obtained from the students for a subsequent analysis. Also, the median is crucial as it is a dividing value of the data which is either located in the upper or lower halves. The upper half cuts off the highest 25% of data and is referred to as the upper quartile. Similarly, the lowest 25% of the cut off data is usually related to as the lower quartile. The significance of quartiles is enormous as they direct our attention to the middle value of the collected data and let us look at the skills the students have already developed (values in the upper quartile) as well as those, which need to be developed (values in the lower quartile) as a result of their participation in the course in intercultural communication. Before the respondents attended the course, in the first group of positive statements the results they scored ranged from the highest mean of 4.50 for statement 8 to the lowest one of 2.82 for statement 5. The disparity shows that some abilities and attitudes have been better developed than others and identifies the skills which need to be improved. The above-mentioned highest average proves that the students of English Philology highly respect the values of people from other cultures and display openness, lack of prejudice, tolerance and willingness, which consequently indicates low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance. Statement 1 as the next one, which has received the highest score of 4.38, is similar in a sense to the previous one since the students confirmed in it their willingness for interactions with people from different cultures. In statement 13 the students also acknowledged their open-mindedness to strangers by achieving the average value of 4.30. The statement proves that their openness and willingness for contacts have been enhanced and their respect for otherness will probably be fostered soon. They also show a lot of understanding towards foreign cultures, which is evidenced by statement 15 as the average value obtained in the questionnaire equaled 4.24. All the scored values also strongly confirm their ethnorelative attitudes. In statement 16 they see the urge to obtain as much information as possible about their interlocutors during interactions. With the average value of 4.20 they exemplify their tendency to develop curiosity and lack of prejudice, which is reinforced by the score for statement 6. It is high and amounts to 4.10. It reveals the students‘ propensity to be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. Although in statement 20 the students reconfirmed their feelings of openness and enjoyment towards cultural differences between themselves and their culturally-distinct counterparts the mean of 3.62 suggests that they should work towards developing it in the future. The mean achieved for statement 19 which refers to their ability to use effectively either verbal or non-verbal cues is 3.50. It thus indicates that they should focus on improving it. A rather low mean of 3.44 was achieved for statement 10, which points out the respondents‘ level of confidence in intercultural encounters. The attitude is very important because it makes the interactors move from ethnocentrism towards ethnorelativism and thus deals directly with intercultural sensitivity. The aforementioned lowest value of all the positive 1032 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo statements received for statement 5 (only 2.82) stresses the students‘ lack of proper knowledge of how to behave or react in an intercultural exchange. The biggest change in the values obtained after the administration of the questionnaire has been noticed in statement 5 by 1.6, in statement 10 by 1.22, in statement 19 by 1.2, and in statement 20 by 1.16 respectively. Fluctuations in estimates by over 1 point, when the marking range maximum value is 5 and the highest scores received in Stage 1 – 4.5 in statement 8 and in Stage 2 – 4.84 in statement 6, signify an indisputable intensification of certain intercultural traits and attitudes. All the four statements, for which the highest increase in value has been noted, confirm the author‘s hypothesis that the students awareness, understanding and respect of otherness grew stronger, because by re-assigning higher values to the statements they showed a meaningful rise in their positive attitudes demonstrated by their interaction engagement and enjoyment (statements 5, 10, 19 and 20). This can consequently imply that since the statements have been earlier categorized as those displaying low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance, the author might presume that the students‘ levels of tolerance for certain diversities must have significantly risen. Additionally, their support for equality among societies has been stressed and enhanced. The values for the remaining statements are below 1 point and oscillate between 0.22 (statement 8) and 0.74 (statement 6). Although being relatively lower when compared to the others, they prove a major change in the attitudes of the students of the English Department as they indicate their respect for cultural differences and show their interaction attentiveness at the same time. The students have gained the skills to adapt their behaviour more easily and effectively by intentionally changing their communication style. In addition, their confidence in interaction has grown stronger and their willingness to be more sociable is another feature, which has heightened notably. Table 1. Students‘ positive attitudes towards cross-cultural differences (before and after the course administration) Questionnaire Statements 8 I respect the values of people from different cultures. 1 I enjoy interacting with people from different cultures. 13 I am open-minded to people from different cultures. 15 I respect the ways people from different cultures behave. 16 I try to obtain as much information as possible when interacting with people from different cultures. 6 I can be sociable when interacting with people from different cultures. 20 I have a feeling of enjoyment towards differences between my culturally-distinct counterpart and me. 19 I often show my culturally-distinct counterpart my understanding through verbal or non-verbal cues. 10 Stage Mean Standard Deviation Lower Quartile Median Upper Quartile 1 4.50 0.79 4 5 5 2 4.72 0.67 5 5 5 1 4.38 0.64 4 4 5 2 4.76 0.43 4.75 5 5 1 4.30 0.71 4 4 5 2 4.76 0.43 4.75 5 5 1 4.24 0.82 4 4 5 2 4.80 0.40 5 5 5 1 4.20 0.78 4 4 5 2 1 4.78 4.10 0.42 0.58 5 4 5 4 5 4 2 4.84 0.37 5 5 5 1 3.62 0.67 3 4 4 2 4.78 0.42 5 5 5 1 3.50 0.68 3 3 4 2 4.70 0.46 4 5 5 1 3.44 0.67 3 3 4 1033 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo I feel confident when interacting with people from different cultures. 5 I always know what to say when interacting with people from different cultures. 2 4.66 0.48 4 5 5 1 2 2.82 4.62 0.77 0.49 2 4 3 5 3 5 The second group of investigated statements describes rather suspicious attitudes or even negative feelings shared by the students of English Philology towards intercultural differences. Some statements best characterize those individuals, who refuse all interaction with other cultures and have no interest in discovering cultural differences. That is why, the students, who exhibit such traits may also act aggressively during intercultural situations. Others can also wrongly evaluate foreign cultures to be inferior to their own culture and will constantly criticize the behaviour or thoughts of foreigners. The highest mean (4.24) of all the statements comprised by Table 2 was obtained for statement 14, which, in fact, may be viewed as neutral, because it does not reveal any enjoyment or respect towards intercultural differences on the part of the students. The same happens to statement 3 where mere confidence of the speaker without any engagement in intercultural encounters is manifested. It was valued with the average of 3.52. What is also noticeable among the students is the fact that some of them when faced with otherness become very observant. They tend to wait before they form an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts as it is demonstrated in statement 11, for which the mean equaled 3.42. The next common feature is the students‘ timidity, being explicitly exposed by statement 4 with the mean of 2.84. Statements 12 and 9, with the mean values of 2.28 and 2.16 respectively, are the two examples demonstrating the students‘ uneasiness, discomfort and discouragement in intercultural situations. The successive four statements: 18, 17, 7 and 2 confirm high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance, which are typical masculine features. Moreover, by judging other cultures negatively and putting their own culture in the focus and as being superior (statements 18 and 17), the students are showing their prejudice and stereotyping. Their bad attitudes and emotions are intensified in statements 7 and 2 exemplifying even their hostile behaviour. The average values obtained for the statements are as follows: 1.72, 1.60, 1.58 and 1.48 proving that the traits are not very strong, however they exist among some students. Table 2. Students‘ neutral or negative attitudes towards cross-cultural differences (before and after the course administration) Stage Mean Standard Deviation Lower Quartile Median Upper Quartile 14 I am very observant when interacting with people from different cultures. 3 I am quite sure of myself when interacting with people from different cultures. 1 4.24 0.69 4 4 5 2 4.86 0.35 5 5 5 1 3.52 0.84 3 3 4 2 4.70 0.46 4 5 5 11 I tend to wait before forming an impression of culturally-distinct counterparts. 4 I find it very hard to talk in front of people from different cultures. 12 I often get discouraged when I am with people from different cultures. 9 I get upset easily when interacting with people from different cultures. 18 I think my culture is better than other cultures. 17 I would not accept the opinions of people from different cultures. 1 3.42 0.84 3 4 4 2 4.70 0.58 4 5 5 1 2.84 0.84 2 3 3 2 1.46 0.54 1 1 2 1 2.28 0.88 2 2 3 2 1.44 0.50 1 1 2 1 2.16 0.93 2 2 2 2 4.80 0.40 5 5 5 1 1.72 0.95 1 1 2 2 1.40 0.49 1 1 2 1 1.60 0.61 1 2 2 2 1.48 0.50 1 1 2 Questionnaire Statements 1034 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 7 I don't like to be with people from different cultures. 2 I think people from other cultures are narrow-minded. 1 1.58 0.67 1 1 2 2 1.58 0.70 1 2 2 1 1.48 0.71 1 1 2 2 1.38 0.49 1 1 2 When examining the value changes for the negatively-oriented group of statements, it becomes noticeable that there exists a correlation between the two groups of analyzed statements. Since the statements were paired on the basis of positive and negative traits expressed each time, but they were still dispersed throughout the questionnaire, all the respondents could objectify their answers more specifically and had to think of a proper quality or skill twice. This phenomenon is reflected in the statistical data of the present study where a sudden fall in value for the negative group of statements can be perceived and a value rise for the positive set of statements respectively. The highest decline by 1.38 has been reported for statement 4, which obtained 2.84 during the first administration of the test and after the course in intercultural communication it dropped to 1.46. It may be stated similarly that the students‘ openness towards intercultural differences has expanded. As a result of that definitely stereotyping and prejudices have become less common. Another vital shift in the magnitude of values is noticeable in statement 12 with a drop of 0.84 when comparing the estimates for stages 1 and 2. Both statements express more willingness on the part of the respondents regarding their enjoyment and respect of other cultures. The conclusion which can be drawn clearly demonstrates that the students have improved in all the categories. The results of the course in intercultural communication had a positive impact on their attitudes and skills. The course allowed for an improvement of those skills, which the students had acquired informally before the commencement of the course as well as those, which used to be hardly noticeable, or did not exist at all. The positively-oriented values towards intercultural encounters have increased in strength, and those negatively-oriented at the initial stage have lowered in size. To be more specific, it seems vital to point out that the students of English Philology can comprehend cultural differences better and even accommodate to them. Although some of them showed their initial tendency to withdraw from intercultural encounters, their disinterest towards them, or even avoidance of interaction, it must be highlighted that most of the problematic issues, after a period of transition, have been successfully resolved. Individual orientations towards intercultural differences The collected data extracted from the questionnaire allows us to analyze the students‘ individual orientations towards cultural differences. A clear evolution of their intercultural sensitivity and an improved cultural profile of intercultural communicators could be noticed. As revealed by both a quantitative and a qualitative analysis of the choices of the positively and negatively oriented statements, ethnocentrism seems to be the dominating characteristics of the students‘ profile before their participation in the course. Consequently, they displayed their initial denial, disinterest and avoidance of intercultural situations, or interactions with culturally-distinct counterparts. Referring to the knowledge gained from the interviews, some students even tried to alienate themselves from their own intercultural experiences, either because they were uncomfortable with a complex multicultural identity, or because they could not manage to deal with intercultural perspectives. They also admitted to lack intercultural knowledge, skills and attitudes, which in turn accounts for their reactions overridden with fear, uncertainty, low self-esteem, low self-confidence and high risk avoidance. Furthermore, the interviews confirmed that most students are not placed in the privileged position in any way. They admitted that due to their economic situation they do not have many chances to exploit foreign cultures. Only a few have had an opportunity to visit other countries within the Erasmus Exchange Programme. The Internet and the media seem to be the sole sources of intercultural information, which provides them with mediated experience of multiculturalism. Their contacts with Erasmus students were limited, which marked their concept of multiculturalism and impoverished its experience. Consequently, their inability to see and exploit the cultural richness around them prevents them from developing intercultural sensitivity. The mutual correlation between intercultural communication sensitivity and experience of multiculturalism is very strong and resembles a vicious 1035 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo circle. Considering the environmental as well as psychological constraints, the majority of students demonstrated some difficulty in recognizing patterns of cultural difference in their own and other cultures. They could hardly adapt to and accept intercultural otherness by moving from a onedimensional to multi-dimensional reality and shifting their prospective behaviour into other cultural contexts. A shift towards enthorelativism and consequently a positive change in the intercultural communication sensitivity could be observed after the course was over. They have developed more self-confidence by stressing universal values of all cultures, which is typical of the minimization stage in the process of acquiring intercultural communication competence. When interviewed they claimed the importance of commonalities and similarities among cultures. They also assumed that although cultures differ across the globe certain cultural values, typical for Polish students, can be also found among their culturally-distinct interlocutors. Showing a strong commitment to the idea that people from other cultures are basically alike, they viewed the world in terms of common needs, interests and goals as well as values, norms, beliefs and practices. At the same time they were able to recognize basic patterns of cultural difference. Although their emerging ethnorelative attitude stemmed from generalizations and use of unsophisticated cognitive schemata it showed the beginning of a positive evolution. The big change was seen in their declarations that they are interested in interacting with culturally different people, which is enjoyable and enriching. A transitional change in the students‘ cultural identification with an acceptance of multicultural identity existing in today‘s worldviews among many young people could also be noticed. A positive change in the cultural profile of the respondents should serve as the most efficient motivation to make them continue towards the development of their intercultural communication competence becoming at the same time more effective in interpersonal contacts across cultures. References: Bennett, M. J. (1993). Towards Ethnorelativism. A Developmental Model of Intercultural Senistivity. In R. M. Paige (ed.) Education for the Intercultural Experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Chen, G. M., and Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication 3, 2-14 Fritz, W., Moellenberg, A. and Chen, G. M. (2002). Measuring International Sensitivity in Different Cultural Context, Intercultural Communication Studies 11/2002 (2), 165-176 1036 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 575 Title A name given to the resource Individual Orientations Towards Intercultural Differences on The Basis of a Study Conducted Among The Polish Students of English Philology Author Author Romanowski, Piotr Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of the present paper is to show how the Polish students of English Philology changed their orientations towards intercultural differences as a result of intercultural encounters they experienced and instruction in intercultural development offered to them. With increased levels of intercultural communication, their competence in intercultural relations magnified. As assumed, the students‘ initial emotional desire to acknowledge, appreciate, and accept cultural differences occurred to be weak. However, with the intercultural development, the levels of intercultural sensitivity being a component of intercultural competence, rose significantly. In effect the students were able to recognize certain values and pick up on verbal and non-verbal signals typical of other cultures allowing for further empathy being developed and adjusting to different scripts of communication. For the purpose of observing the varying levels of intercultural sensitivity and subsequently intercultural competence, the author decided to design a ranking questionnaire as a research instrument. It consisted of a series of statements marked by the respondents with numbers 1-5 to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with them. It was designed for comparative analysis of their responses. The interpretation of the collected data involved searching for relations between the investigated variables. Through careful examination of the questionnaire and its collected data, the author managed to notice a meaningful change in the attitudes, values and skills exhibited by his students in terms of their intercultural identities. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5073c0ab863a8741ef0cf46cec731d05.pdf ad74c726311fcd657a192e3b6d7c4bdc PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Contributions of Diatopic Hermeneutics for Intercultural Education Carmen Domingues Reste CIDTFF. Department of Education. University of Aveiro. Portugal carmen.reste@ua.pt Maria Helena Ançã CIDTFF. Department of Education. University of Aveiro. Portugal mariahelena@ua.pt Abstract: The article intends to present data from the exploratory research of an ongoing doctoral project on reciprocal social representations between national and foreign students32. This research and intervention project is being developed by the LEIP (Laboratory of Research in Education in Portuguese / Line 2), coordinated by Maria Helena Ançã, University of Aveiro. Qualitative data collection occurred between January and April 2011 and its main goal was to approach the internal complexity of foreign students in Portuguese Schools, in order to identify reflection points for an intervention project in the future. We understand that there is a co-existing linguistic and cultural diversity amongst students, which does not seem valued and at times is even considered adverse, and could potentially encourage mutual interaction and enrichment. These observations lead us to advocate an intervention project based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics as a strategy for dialogue. Keywords: Intercultural Education; Diatopic Hermeneutics; Social Representations Introduction Regarding migrant education policy, Portugal is considered ―the best of the new immigration countries‖ (MIPEX, 2011: 159), namely for recognizing the importance of language of the destination country as an factor for integration, which led to the introduction of Portuguese as Non-Native Language in the National Syllabus of basic education since 2006 (Normative Order nº. 7/2006) and secondary education since 2007 (Normative Order nº. 30/2007). However, some authors state that in Portugal there has not been true intercultural education, where the school becomes a hegemonic characteristic of the dominant culture, meaning that minority cultures are symbolically (and collectively) suppressed (Cortesão & Pacheco, 1991; Pacheco, 1996; Dias, Ferrer & Rigla, 1997; Casa-Nova, 2005; Monteiro, 2010). There are also patterns of socio-cultural differences which heavily penalize young people with different ethnic backgrounds, i.e., white, Catholic, urban and Portuguese – Luso (Stoer, 2001). Vieira da Silva (2002) states that ―schools are discriminatory‖33 and the target of that discrimination – from both teachers and other students – are the students from ethnic and cultural minorities. According to Pires (2007), despite the fact that state members are obliged by the European Union to receive and treat children and young people in the same way, in reality this does not happen, ―the Basis Law of the Portuguese Educational System mentions Education for Citizenship but the claimed concern has not been directly proportional to reality‖34. Thus, we emphasize that Intercultural Education should instead replace cultural multi-experiencing by interaction and enrichment between diverse groups (Ouellet, 2002; Abdallah-Pretceille 2006). It should transform the mere presence of different cultures into an action plan which ensures mutual acknowledgment of each culture through increasing interaction (Cortesão, 1991). We agree that Intercultural Education is not only intended for schools where there are children of immigrants and ethnic minorities, but to all schools, in order to 32 - Project approved and financed by FCT. 33 - Our Translation - Our Translation 34 262 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo enable them to build a plural and democratic society (Neto, 2007). And it should not be restricted to certain subjects, nor solidarity and human rights campaigns, nor aimed at specific targets such as migrants (Cochito, 2004). Schools should become spaces of integration and socio-cultural diversity management, with a focus on cultural criticism, rather than on the self and a lack of appreciation for others. Nor should they accede to the interests of multinational corporations which promote the process of cultural homogenization, but rather promote reflection on cultural identity, under the acknowledgement and acceptance of its diversity (Castaðo, Moyano & Castillo, 1999). An essentialist notion of culture, with a monocentric tendency, bound up in tradition and memory, should be opposed to an ecologic, pluralist and interactionist notion, which perceives culture as dynamic and differential, a complex set of human relations with its environment, of thinking interactions in the social space. This implies looking critically at the concept of culture. (André, 2009, 2006, 2005; Benhabib, 2006). We are aware that respect and mutual understanding between cultures is only attained through dialogue (UNESCO, 2006), and is even potentially perceived as a ―synonym of Diatopic Hermeneutics‖ (Sousa Santos, 2006, 2004), which as an ―interpretation work‖ between different visions of the world and social practices promotes the conscience of ―cultural incompleteness‖ through ―self-reflection‖, and ensures a ―participative, interactive and intersubjective production of knowledge‖. Diatopic Hermeneutics proposes to combine the recognition of equality and difference (André, 2009). Finally, our research situates itself on the same level as Social Representations (SR) which are perceived as a set of concepts, propositions and explanations created in everyday life through communication between individuals, which in our society is equivalent to the myths and systems of beliefs of traditional societies (Moscovici, 1984, 1989). They are ways of practical knowledge or naive wisdom which help understand the world and communication, lending coherence to social dynamics (Jodelet, 1989; Vala, 1993). As interpretation systems, they dictate our relationship with the world and with others and they are also involved in processes as diverse as the diffusion and assimilation of knowledge, individual and collective development, identity definition and social transformation. Despite being a carrefour concept because it places itself at a crossroads of different subjects (Doise, 1986), some authors highlight its pertinence - even when contradictory - for the study of educational phenomena, enabling the adaptation of individuals to the reality with which they are confronted, keeping its own balance and its own need for coherence in their social practices and their relation with the environment (Gilly, 1989). In this way, the exploratory research we present seeks to understand the (de)valorization of linguistic and cultural diversity in schools through SR. The SR we have of others justifies the way we interact (Palmonari & Doise, 1986), and guide inter-group relations which allow us to anticipate the behavior of others and programme their strategy of action (Vala, 2010; Abric, 2000). Therefore, to analyze a social representation is to attempt understanding and explain the nature of social ties which bind individuals, their social practices, as well as intra and inter-group relations (Bonardi, 1999). As such, they are viewed in our project as tools which justify the pedagogical action (Dias, 1998). Method of the Study This exploratory study was developed through qualitative research which intends to emphasize the qualities of the entities and the processes and meanings which are not experimentally measured through quantity, volume, intensity or frequency (Denzin & Lincoln, 2006). Instead, they reinforce an interpretative position of behaviors and social phenomena, giving precedence to the subjective experience as a source of knowledge, to the study of social phenomena from the perspective of the ―other‖ and to the interest of knowing the way people experience and interpret the social world which they interactively build (Almeida & Freire, 2008; Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). The purpose of our study is to discover some aspects, ideas and hypotheses of work which could bring us nearer to the internal complexity of the participants (Amado, 2009) and to provide us with points of reflection for an intervention project in the future, from the perspective of the participants (Bogdan & Biklen, 1994). According to this purpose we aim to identify and characterize sociability between foreign and national students in the school context and the factors which enable or prevent these relations. However, we intend in this article to demonstrate the way linguistic and cultural diversity is experienced by the subjects of our study, which seems to justify the necessity of implementing projects based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics. 263 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sample Our sample consists of five students (S): Four are foreign, Bissau-Guinean and Cape Verdean, and one is a Portuguese national, who was chosen using a snowball sampling technique. These pupils study between the 7th and 12th years in schools of a medium-sized town in Northern Portugal, where foreign students from various nationalities are a minority. However, the universe of our study also included parents (P) (in the case of minors), a Ukrainian member of an immigration support association and a teacher whose opinions were used in order to obtain data triangulation or subjective contrasting in view of the consistency of the data collected and interpretations produced (Almeida & Freire, 2008). We would like to point out that this is a non-representative sample, so the opinions expressed cannot be applied to the general population. Age Occupation Interview 1 Interview 2 Interview 3 15 13 Over 40 Interview 4 19 Interview 5 Over 40 Interview 6 Interview 7 Interview 8 Interview 9 18 16 Over 40 Over 40 Foreign Student (S) Foreign Student (S) Parent (P) Portuguese student, the son of Portuguese parents (S) Ukrainian member of an immigration support association Foreign Student (S) Foreign Student (S) Parent (P) Teacher Country of Gender origin Cape Verde F Cape Verde M Cape Verde M Residence time in Portugal 1 – 2 years 1 – 2 years 1 – 2 years Portugal M Ukraine F +5 Guinea Bissau Guinea Bissau Guinea Bissau Portugal F F M F +5 +5 +5 Data Analysis Processes Data was collected through a semi-structured interview carried out by the researcher (R), and it was essential to ensure a trusting environment and anonymity, due to the fact that this was an interview about personal experiences. After an audio recording, with the permission of the interviewees, the interviews were transcribed, although we are aware that any transcription system is always semi-interpretative, so no transcription represents verbal phenomena with absolute accuracy (Andrade & Araöjo e Sá, 1995). Data treatment was carried out using Bardin‘s (2009) content analysis techniques, and we used the program Nvivo for codification and exploration. Findings and Discussion About the (de)valorization of foreign students in schools The Teacher interviewed stated that in the schools where he taught in the last twelve years there has been a noticeable increase in linguistic and cultural diversity. However, he differentiates between the integration of Ukrainian students from that of the PALOP (Portuguese-speaking African Countries) students, stating that the latter exhibited greater difficulties with the Portuguese language (PL) and socializing, even though PL is the official language of their home countries. This is mainly justified by the proximity of the Ukrainian students‘ parents to the school and by the importance they place on schooling, since most of them have degrees. The interviewed Portuguese national student sees the foreign pupil merely as one more student, and believes that their presence should not bring disruption or cause problems. This suggests either assimilation by the dominant culture or preservation of national identity (Cortesão, 2011): ―S: Well, this is the thing, I don‘t know if… I‘m not sure if it‘s good or not… I personally don‘t… don‘t think it‘s either good or bad… bad, well, it doesn‘t harm anyone, right? Because it‘s just another one, it‘s just another student like all the others… hum… I mean, it ends up being disruptive… if it‘s a student who isn‘t… integrated (…) so that the Teacher doesn‘t have to waste more time and… and not being able to give attention to other students (…) when they have the mentality and 264 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the spirit to… to adapt… not being so stiff and… not… being worried about, for example, speaking good Portuguese (…) if they‘re open… then they make it easier.‖ (Interview N. 4)35 This student also believes that the State should not finance, for example, the teaching of Portuguese as a non-native language to foreign students. He states that if people want to come to Portugal they have to take that risk, as nationals might not be subsidized in the future. The national student points out the ―support to those who arrive, and are destitute‖ as a characteristic of Portuguese students, whose country is known for being ―hospitable‖, highlighting a ―protective and helpful spirit‖. This specificity is accompanied by the ―pride‖ of being Portuguese, someone who is ―destined‖ to ―fight for a better country‖, emphasizing both the history, namely the ―Discoveries‖, and the current desire to give Portugal a ―better direction‖. The majority of foreign students are perceived as ―respectful, nice people‖, ―interested‖ in the destination country and, above all, ―hard-working‖, although there are differences between nationalities. Thus, Eastern European students demonstrate a ―much greater spirit of sacrifice‖ than the majority of other foreign students, ―work much harder‖, ―are interested in the subjects‖. In comparison, ―Brazilian students‖, with some exceptions, are seen as those who do not possess ―that spirit of sacrifice and struggle‖, ―trying to do their own thing‖, ―not caring as much‖. With regards to African students, the native pupil interviewed observes that they ―form cliques‖, ―speak Creole‖, ―do not fit in much with Portuguese classmates‖, which causes ―distance‖, and these situations are interpreted as self-exclusion ―on their part‖: ―S: (…) unlike Eastern European students who… are students with a completely different mentality, who have a much greater spirit of sacrifice and… work much harder and… are interested and enjoy learning… hum… for instance, if we see students from other countries, it is the majority, right? What I see… of course there are exceptions, for example, in a country… a Brazilian student normally doesn‘t have that same… that… that spirit of sacrifice, that fighting spirit, right? I think that he kind of tries to do his own thing and not… he‘s not too worried about (…) African students… they speak, also speak the same Language… but there‘s one thing I… I see today… is that… there are many hum… and that I see in our school, in my school, hum… is that… they try to… create groups, right? And speak… speak Creole (smiles), they don‘t speak, don‘t speak Portuguese, they don‘t fit in much with Portuguese classmates… hum… and that is bad for them, isn‘t it?... and for others… and for other Portuguese classmates might also be… also create… maybe some kind of dirty looks in this way…. ―those over there exclude themselves and create… their own group‖ and… and… causes distance‖ (Interview N. 4) Foreign students, in their turn, generally see themselves as being aware of the opportunities they have in Portugal for studying and ―fight‖ ―for a better future‖, although they recognize that there are cases where that does not happen. They also see themselves as less privileged, and not having the same opportunities for the future, mainly in the job market, even if they are granted Portuguese nationality. In comparison with native students, African students believe themselves to be more ―genuine‖ in their way of being. According to the following excerpt, foreign students believe themselves to be seen by native students as ―different‖ and ―weird‖, as those who arrive in Portugal to ―take away‖ from the Portuguese what belongs to them, for example jobs. The importance given to difference is such that they believe they are seen as someone who comes from ―another planet‖: ―R: How do you think Portuguese students characterize foreign students? Can you give me eight adjectives?‖ S: They see different… they think… foreigners come here to take what is theirs… R: What do you mean take? S: Oh, for instance, work, oh… I think it‘s that… work and that… hum… I think some even believe… that we are from… a different… a different planet. S: ―Some look from a different planet‖? 35 - Our translation 265 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo A: Yes, it seems… like it S: Do you think it seems to Portuguese classmates that foreign classmates come from another planet? S: Yes… exactly… they find it weird… I think that‘s it… I don‘t have more… adjectives‖. (Interview N. 6) Native students‘ perceptions of foreign students are diverse. One of the interviewees admits that thanks to foreign students, national pupils learn about other cultures, believing that they are ―curious‖ to know more about them, via ―books‖ and the ―internet‖. Other students employ adjectives such as ―spoiled‖, ―ignorant‖, ―uninformed by their parents‖, ―antisocial‖, ―insensitive‖; someone who does not know another culture makes ―stupid comments‖, pays more attention to ―material goods, and what people wear‖. They are ―difficult people to deal with‖, ―unhelpful‖, ―say nice things‖ to classmates in their presence and ―bad things‖ when they‘re absent, ―judge by appearances‖ and ―not for what‘s inside‖. One of the foreign female students describes Portuguese students as not ―accepting‖ foreigners ―easily‖, ―always judging‖ and criticizing them. However, it is curious to note that, despite the negative adjectives used, the same student admits that in her home country there is a pre-conception of the Portuguese as being ―racist‖ and ―cocky‖, but regarding her class in the last academic year also with foreign students, she states they were ―very friendly‖, and there was a sense of togetherness, which leads her to believe that the previous description did not match reality: ―S: In Cape Verde we have a bad image, the majority has a bad image of the Portuguese and say ―oh they are racist and what have you‖ and when I arrived it was completely different, it‘s just that in last year‘s class if you were with one, you were with everyone, they were very friendly and I was a bit like.. because there we had a different image of the Portuguese, mainly youngsters and others, they think the Portuguese are cocky and so on and so on… but when we arrived here it was a different reality.‖ (Interview N. 2) When interviewed, the parents demonstrated close relations with the schools and class directors, and one of them was even a member of the Parents Association of one school. Only one identifies an occasional extra-curricular activity related to interculturalism and, although recognizing its potential, regretted that there were more parents - also in small numbers - than students participating. Another parent complained that, beyond the fact that there are no intercultural activities in the school, there is still a ―stigma‖ for not having been born in the country, and complained that her classmates mock her for being different: ―R: Those difficulties you initially felt, do you think they‘ve been overcome? P: Oh… yes… yes… the majority yes… because now they know the language better and are more or less integrated… and… yes, I can say that yes… occasionally there‘s one or two difficulties, but… there will always be because they weren‘t born here…they always carry that stigma, right? R: What do you mean stigma? P: Stigma… hum... maybe… for being… of…of certain habits… here they are not… things like that, right? Classmates notice that.(…) instead of appreciating they mock. They mock the difference.‖ (Interview N. 8) Another two situations are described where comments from teachers, regarding certain aspects of the students‘ home countries, were negatively received. In the second situation it is clear how comments from teachers, unintentional or not, can cause relationship problems between foreign students and their classmates, beyond mere ―embarrassment‖: ―S: (...) my class director now… something he says ―you think something or other of GuineaBissau and whatever‖… so, when he says something… we say something else, and he says ―oh, you think this is Guinea-Bissau and whatever‖… that kind of stuff. R: And you don‘t like when he says that? S: … I don‘t like it! And I say ―No, that hasn‘t got to do with anything!‖ R: And how do you feel when he says those things? S: Bad… R: Does he say it in class? S: In class! 266 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo R: In front of other students? S: (Nods).‖ (Interview N.7) ―P.: (…) they (teachers) make remarks which are… unhelpful… the fact they came from abroad, it‘s not… hum… regarding the recent arrival, it seems that some Teachers used to make remarks implying that our education system wasn‘t (good) and so they used to make those remarks in front of them (…) Then, when there were (good) results, Teachers used to make another type of remark, a remark meaning… which then created some confusion, hum… for example, ―look, that student came from Africa and… something or other… and came here and got better results than you!!!‖ I mean, how… in this case it is saying ―a student that came from Africa‖ and interpreting ―because it came from Africa can‘t have better results than…‖ (smiles). I think that… that situation upset her a lot at the time hum… I think it was Teacher X, something or other and she told me ―daddy, I‘m scared because the Teacher said this to me and that might create a relationship problem with my classmates‖, (…) and then… that, in fact, created some… some… some embarrassment (…).‖ (Interview N. 3) Conclusions and Recommendations Literacy cannot be seen solely as the development of basic skills such as reading, writing and arithmetic, ignoring citizenship participation both nationally and internationally; those skills, albeit necessary are not sufficient in our culturally diverse world, where it is also urgent to develop ―multicultural literacy‖ which consists of the development of skills which enable the concept of knowledge to be viewed from different ethnical and cultural perspectives, and help to create a more humane and fair world (Banks, 2004). The perceptions of the subjects in our study seem to suggest that there is multiculturalism, but not interculturalism, since we are in the presence of foreign students but diverse cultural groups do not encourage reciprocal cultural exchange, and even in some situations this presence is perceived as threatening or harmful. Therefore, the promotion of intercultural education seems urgent, beyond mere cultural teaching, since the former cannot be reduced to understanding cultural differences, as if it was a geometrization of these elements. It is necessary to see, to listen and to pay attention to others; above all to work towards an increased openness to diversity (Abdallah Pretceille, 2006). The issue of self-identity in relation to others is also part of the intercultural approach, since cultural diversity also exists within the group itself, as part of the human being. Notions of identity and culture are solely definable in an intersubjective structure, and are the result of discourses and relationships. The intercultural paradigm is one of the paths which hybrid, segmentary and heterogeneous thinking tries to follow. (Abdallah – Pretceille, 2006; Maalouf, 2002). To conclude, and considering that research in education implies ―an ethical commitment towards transformation and improvement of individuals, institutions and society in general‖ (Amado, 2009: 58), we propose a project of intervention based on intercultural dialogue and which, by using diatopic hermeneutics reciprocity, allows the sharing of personal experiences, discoveries and difficulties and not only knowledge. This proposal for intervention should not only target foreign students, but all students and other education agents inside and outside the school community. They should jointly promote the concept of cultural incompleteness, the production of knowledge in an interactive and intersubjective way, and the discovery that difference, which exists within each one of us, is not more important than the person and the ethical commitment it demands (Aguado & Malik, 2006; Abdallah Pretceille, 2001). In this way, it seems to us that such an intervention, which is adverse to ethnocentric behaviors and to a monoculture which hierarchizes differences, could contribute to an emancipatory education which would enable awareness of the cultural incompleteness of each group in relation to others (Cortesão, 2001), by promoting knowledge and affection in a permanent dialogue and interaction (André, 2009). 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For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 40 Title A name given to the resource Contributions of Diatopic Hermeneutics for Intercultural Education Author Author Reste, Carmen Domingues Ança, Maria Helena Abstract A summary of the resource. The article intends to present data from the exploratory research of an ongoing doctoral project on reciprocal social representations between national and foreign students32. This research and intervention project is being developed by the LEIP (Laboratory of Research in Education in Portuguese / Line 2), coordinated by Maria Helena Ançã, University of Aveiro. Qualitative data collection occurred between January and April 2011 and its main goal was to approach the internal complexity of foreign students in Portuguese Schools, in order to identify reflection points for an intervention project in the future. We understand that there is a co-existing linguistic and cultural diversity amongst students, which does not seem valued and at times is even considered adverse, and could potentially encourage mutual interaction and enrichment. These observations lead us to advocate an intervention project based on intercultural dialogue and diatopic hermeneutics as a strategy for dialogue. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7540e59f7e127e9ad3d3a7604a0108cf.pdf 7b3890a38554b16e7e074b76a9205e84 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Basic Colors and Their Metaphorical Expressions in English and Persian: Lakoff's Conceptual Metaphor Theory in Focus Abbass Eslami Rasekh Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Isfahan, Iran abbasseslamirasekh@yahoo.com Banafsheh Ghafel Department of English, Islamic Azad University Najafabad Branch, Isfahan, Iran banafshehghafel@yahoo.ca Abstract: Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1998). Accordingly, metaphor plays a major role in people's everyday language use and thinking. Our conceptual system is based on experiences we have gained with interacting with people and things surrounding us. In this respect, color plays an important role in convention metaphorical expressions in people's lives and daily communication. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Replying on ―Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors‖ proposed by Barcelona (2001, cf. Soriano, 2003) as a cognitive qualitative method and on the basis of ―Conceptual Metaphor Theory‖ (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999, 2003; Grady 1997; Kôvecses 2000, 2002, 2005; etc), this paper tries to investigate the extent to which connotations of basic colors, as used in the structure of metaphors are varied in English and Persian on the one hand; and, as compared to their differences in their metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned, on the other hand. To do so, we collected English instances from The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms (Siefring, 2005) and The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake, 2008) and some other dictionaries. Next, Persian instances were extracted from some Persian dictionaries. The findings of this comparative analysis show that, although the connotation of colors in the structure of metaphorical expressions are overlapping each other to some extent, most of the expressions are culture-bound and specific to each language. Key words: Metaphorical expressions; English; Persian; Conceptual Metaphor Theory; Metaphorical mapping; Color connotations; Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors Introduction Tacking the Etymology Online Dictionary as our trusted source as regards, the word 'metaphor' is derived from the Greek metaphora, which means 'transfer' , the composite meta, which means 'transfer, carry over', and pherin which is translated in English as 'to bear‘ , or ‗to carry'. Metaphor is common to all languages and cultures. It plays an important role in everyday life and is grounded in culture. Metaphorical expressions have penetrated the various aspects of our life including thought and action. Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action. Writers and speakers use metaphor to express abstract, difficult-to-talk-about concepts in term of concrete entities which are easier to understand (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1993). Metaphorical expressions (MEs, hereafter) are the cream of a language. They reflect the relationship between language and culture. It is a fact that English-speaking people use over 3000 metaphors weekly on average (Littlemore, 2001, cf. Kômùr & Cimen, 2009); Persian is not an exception. Metaphoricity is the main feature of all human languages. In fact, a language or any form of language, without metaphorical traits is nonexistent (Goalty, 1997). It is not confined to language. It runs trough all veins of man's everyday life, including language, thought and action. Cognitive linguistics provides a framework within which metaphors can be described and understood. Cognitive linguists claim that metaphor is not merely a figure of speech, but it is a specific mental and neural 211 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mapping that influences a good deal of how people think, reason and imagine in everyday life (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). As proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT, hereafter) indicates that human thought processes are largely metaphorical, and human conceptual system is structured and defined in a metaphorical way. Therefore, metaphor is defined as cross-domain mapping between source and target domain. A mapping is the systematic correspondence between constituent elements of the source and target domains. The relationship is in the form of 'TARGET DOMAIN IS SOURCE DOMAIN'. They are stored together in the mind (Lan & McGregor, 2009). However, under different cultures, cultural considerations play a crucial part while conceptual mapping is carried out. Accordingly, color plays an important role in convention MEs in people's lives. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used both literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Certain connotative values can be more generally associated with colors, so that they carry uncontrolled resonances in a given culture. They have also connotative meanings which can be specific to particular area of life and can differ across cultures (Phillip, 2006). In addition, connotative meanings of colors are incorporated into conventional linguistic expressions such as to feel blue (feel sad), to be in the pink (to be in the best condition), and to see red (become angry very rapidly) in English and ‫رٌص سفٍذ‬/ri:sh səfi:d/ white beard (experienced and knowledgeable/wise man),‫ چطن سفٍذ‬/chəshm səfi:d/ white eye (impudent; impertinent person), ‫ سٍاٍ بخث‬/ si:yˆh bæxt/ black fortune (bad fortune; unhappy one) in Persian. It is worthwhile to say that when we write about color metaphors, we deal with abstract associations. For example, the abstract associations include white with eternity, virtue, innocence, purity, heaven and light; and black with death, mourning, murder, sin and devils. In light of the aforementioned explanations, and given that color terms are known to portray connotative meanings, which may differ across languages and cultures, the present study aimed to investigate to what extent color connotations and their attributed metaphors can be different across English and Persian. In addition, it endeavored to put under scrutiny the metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned. 2. Metaphor, language and culture 2.1. Metaphoricity of language Metaphoricity is the main feature of all human languages. In fact, a language or any form of language, without metaphorical traits is nonexistent. (Goalty, 1997, p.1).It is not confined to language. It runs through all veins of man's everyday life including language, thought and action. Investigating conceptual metaphoric systems across cultures is enlightening in more than one aspect. It tells us whether the metaphoric concepts that shape our life are similar to, or different from, the other nations. Maalej (1999) stated that if the same conceptual metaphors are used to structure our lives, despite our belonging to different cultures (in our study English and Persian), we are conceptualizing the concepts in the same way; and in the case of different conceptual metaphors that structure our lives, the study of our respective metaphoric systems will highlight how we model our reality and how the understanding of these systems may contribute to further intercultural understanding. To clarify, we can focus on 'Pot calling the kettle black'. It is a metaphorical expression that is used in English when someone who criticizes someone else is as guilty as the person he or she criticizes. The construction of this ME originated from the fact that when cooking was done over fire, the smoke made cooking pots turn black (Oxford Idiom Dictionary, p.29; OID, hereafter). In Persian people use ' ‫دٌگ بَ دٌگ هی گٌْذ رٌّث‬ ‫ 'سٍاٍ اسث‬/di:g bə di:g mi:gu:yæd ru:yat si:yˆh æst/ (i.e.: pot calling the pot black). The underlying conceptual metaphor for these expressions is PEOPLE ARE THINGS metaphor (Kovecses, 2006) that uses the same metaphorical mapping to construct the concept. The other metaphoric concepts that are embedded in these expressions are that BLACK IS BAD and subsequently BEING GULTY IS BLACK. As we can observe, the metaphorical mapping is the same in English and Persian. Metaphor is not a ' special' use of language, but pervades all interaction (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 2000). They claim that metaphor in language is the result of analogical nature of human conceptualization. It is a conceptual phenomenon with external manifestations in everyday language and a key to the metaphorical nature of mind. It is argued that metaphor is conceptual and that a great number of our reasoning and thought processes are guided by metaphorical conceptions, although we may not realize it (Lakoff, 1995). 212 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In this connection, our way of thinking, our experiences and our activities are all a mater of metaphorphenomena which are more or less automatically dealt with in everyday life. 2.2. Metaphor and culture Language is not only the carrier of information but also of culture. It is a mirror which reflects the society and has strong cultural characteristics. Metaphors, as a part of language, reflect the society and have strong cultural characteristics. Li (2007) stated that metaphors, as part of language, are closely associated with nation's history, culture and customs. Lakoff and Johnson (1980; 2003) describe the relationship between culture and metaphor as follows: "The most fundamental values in a culture will be coherent with the metaphorical structure of the most fundamental concepts in culture."(Lakoff & Johnson, 2003; 1980, p.22). Metaphors reflect the relationship between language and culture. Human beings' environment and the things that they use and experience are in many aspects similar; therefore, English and Persian metaphoric expressions are not exceptions and may have some similarities and differences in their cognitive mappings. Culture is the reflection and pattern of thinking and understanding. Thinking and understanding can be sometimes inevitably metaphorical, and then culture and metaphor would also fall into a relation of mutual promotion or restraint, depending on how this relation is interpreted. That is, culture plays a role in shaping metaphor and in return, metaphor plays a role in constituting culture. Corradi Fiumara (1995) noted that metaphors are more appropriate for conveying cultural concepts (cf. Fahad Al- Jumeh, In this respect, let us consider emotion within cultural metaphor type. There are several emotion subtypes within the FEELING IS COLOR metaphor (Apresjan, 1997). For instance in English 'green' is associated with envy and jealousy as in 'He was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car' (OID, P.147) but in Russian 'yellow' is associated with envy as in ' pozeletet' ot zavisti '(cf. Apresjan, 1997) that means' to turn yellow with envy ', but envy and jealousy does not have any color in Persian. Metaphor is common to all languages and cultures. Although the use of metaphor is universal, the choice of metaphor for interpreting the world may be culture- specific (Liu, 2002, cf. Leung, 2007). In a nutshell, metaphor plays an important role in every day life and grounded in culture. Hence, conceptual metaphors expressed in language can serve as indicator of culture and a good resource for investigating of cultural beliefs expressed in language. The application of metaphorical concept shows that the metaphor cognition is universal across cultures, but, at the same time, it has some differences in their application because of their different social and cultural backgrounds. 2.2.1. Metaphor and color Color terms are playing a more and more important role in human communication, especially in bilingual communication (Zhang, 2007). Colors terms in any language are not only express the colors themselves, but also are carved and endowed with rich cultural characteristics of each nation. The relation between culture and language leaves a great effect on connotations of color words (Wang, 2007). Color is a kind of natural phenomenon. Color terms play an important role describing things, expressing words' meanings and strengthening languages' influence, and also rich in cultural associations. That is to say, they can be used either literally to refer to different colors or metaphorically to convey their associative meanings. Colors in different languages and cultures may convey different associative meanings. According to what is cited in Phillip (2006), " the color metaphors are influenced by metonymy , because most of the connotative meanings assigned to colors see to be grounded , at least to some extent to reality"(Niemeir, 1998). Additionally, the connotative values of colors emerged from conventional linguistic expressions that are constructed around folk beliefs about color meaning. The language user can appeal to his or her linguistic knowledge to support a belief (Niemeir, 1998, cf.Phillip, 2006). Colors may convey different messages to people of different cultures. They play an important role in describing things, expressing words' meanings and strengthen languages' influence, and also quite rich in cultural associations. That is to say, they can be used either literally to refer to different colors or metaphorically to 213 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo convey their associative meanings. The conceptual meanings conveyed in different languages and cultures (English and Persian in this study) may convey different associative meanings. Color meaning is often supported by citation from language, in the form of set phrases such as green with envy(i.e., to be envious and jealousy), go as red as beetroot (i.e., embarrassment, anger, shame), to see in black and white (i.e., absolutely bad or good; wrong and right with no grades between them), the black sheep of the family(i.e., odd member of a group or family ), yellow-belly (i.e., cowardice ) etc. in English and ٍ‫پطث لبث سبش ضذ‬/ pu:shtə læbət sæbz shu:dəh/(i.e., maturity ), ‫ چزا سرد کزدی ؟‬/chərˆ zærd kærdi: / (i.e., to be cowardice), ‫رٌص سفٍذ‬ ‫بْدى‬/ri: sh səfi: d shu: dæn/ (i.e, to be experienced; wise; and knowledgeable person), ٍ‫سق سٍا‬/sæq si:yˆh/ (i.e. evil-speech person), etc. in Persian. Phillip (2006) in her study claimed that it is a fact that these phrases in current language is seen to add weight to their authority and appropriateness as examples of figurative meanings ascribed to colors , and the use of color words in the language . In a nutshell, color words are considered as a kind of common language for people of different countries and different association of meanings is certainly produced beyond the literal concept of color words under the effect of cultural differences of each nation. Because of different cultural backgrounds, English and Persian may vary in the connotations of colors. 3. Method 3.1. Data source and collection Researchers used a number of English dictionaries on idioms and proverbs to collect the data such as The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms for learners of English (Siefring, 2nd Eds., 2005). Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English (Soanes & Hawker, 2008); McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and phrasal verbs (Richard A.Spears, 2006); The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake,5th Eds., 2008); and Online Etymology Dictionary. Besides, four dictionaries were used in Persian to find Persian metaphoric expressions. They included: Loghatnaamey-e-Dehkhoda; Amsal-o-Hekam-e-Dehkhoda; Farhang-e-Estelehat-e-Adabi (Hoseini, 2008); and Zarb-al-Masalhaay-e-Mashur-e-Farsi (Azarli, 1989). The researchers also searched the connotations of Persian colors in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, the great Persian epic book, the Holy Qur'an and some works in Persian. 3.2. Procedure Idiomatic expressions of colors cover different source domains both in Persian and English. Therefore, this article focused on selected source domains including HUMAN BODY (e.g. BODY including emotion; health; illness; and BODY PARTS) and LIVING THINGS (e.g., ANIMAL and PLANTS) to limite the scope of the study. First, the researchers compiled the metaphoric instances in English and Persian from the sources mentioned above. Then English and Persian samples were classified according to the sources they contain. In addition, each Persian idiomatic expression with its English phonetic representation (EPR, hereafter) and its metaphorical meaning (MM, hereafter) were put in order. After that they were explained connotatively and exemplified in English and Persian (EE and PE, hereafter). PE's were translated literally in English (literal translation, LT, hereafter). Their cultural backgrounds were explained deeply, if someone wants to study culturebound metaphorical expressions, it is necessary to pay more attention to the cultural background besides the surface meanings. Later, their conceptual mappings were described, qualitatively. Researchers used Google search engine to exemplify the Persian idiomatic instances in the text. They were typed in the search engine in order to find the text which contained the metaphoric expression. Finally, English and Persian samples were compared to each other qualitatively. 3.3. Data analysis Having chosen a cognitive approach and considering CMT as a theoretical basis for the current study, the researchers used some factors of Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors method proposed by Barcelona (2001) as a complement to describe conceptual metaphor. 214 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.1. HUMAN BODY (1) He is green with envy Metaphorical meaning: To be envious and jealousy Green is often associated with jealousy and envy and it had taken its place in English by Shakespeare's time (cf. Phillip, 2006). The MEs 'Green with envy' (Green is associated with envy, so jealous suitors used green jade as a potion) and 'green-eyed' (the green-eyed monster in Othello) show the association of green with jealousy and envy clearly (Phillip, 2006). It is adhering to the same general concept as green with envy, i.e. to feel so envious that the bile makes you feel bad. Hippocratic medicine assigns yellow to the choleric personality, characterized by bile, which is yellowish-green in color (cf.Phillip, 2006). The metonymic connection between green, yellow and bile give rise to a set of expressions in English and other languages (Persian in our study). The conflict between green and yellow is not particularly surprising, as both of these colors correspond to the color of bile, and this metonymical connection gives rise to another set of expressions absent in English but present in Persian. While most of these emotional states are related to physiological state of nausea, English prefers green as the color of envy and jealousy. For instance, ' he was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car' (Oxford Idiom Dictionary, p, 147).In this example, the conceptual keys for this metaphoric expression are as in Table (1) Table 1: The conceptual keys for ' He is green with envy' Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION ENVY IS A FLUID IN THE CONTAINER INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ENVY BECOMING ENVIOUS IS BEING GREEN IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION EMOTION IS COLOR ENVY IS GREEN Real, physiological sickness is the reaction of one's body to emotion of envy. A metaphorical mapping links the feeling of envy to this bodily sensation. Thus, envy is linguistically and cognitively conceptualized as a mental sickness. To some extent, this mapping can be consistent with the DISEASE mapping as green is a color associated with sickness, as people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill (cf.Kyive, 2007). EE: He was green with envy when he saw their expensive new car (OID, p, 147) (2) look green around the gills Metaphorical meaning: To be ill Green is the color used in English to describe the pallor of person's face caused by nausea, shock, fear and illness (Phillip, 2006). Green is a color associated with sickness, as people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill (Kyive, 2007); yet, the expression to look green around the gills is generally interpreted as an expression of illness, adhering to some general physiological manifestation in the complexion. Although in the 1800s white and yellow were paired with gills to suggest illness, the alternative green has survived them (American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms, 1997). 215 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table2: Conceptual keys for: ' to look green around the gills'. Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF BECOMING GREEN STANDS FOR ILLNESS INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING GREEN IN FACE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING GREEN IN COMPLEXION ILLNESS IS GREEN English example (EE, hereafter): After a long flight my friend looked green around the gills, and I am very pitiful about it (OID, P.147). As you see, all the abovementioned conceptual mappings in (1) underlie this metaphoric expression in English except the two last ones. BECOMING GREEN IN COMPLEXION refers to ILLNESS mapping in this ME (i.e. people‘s skin takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are seriously ill). (3)! ‫( روگ و رویت زرد شده‬ræng væ ru:yæt zærd shu:dәh! ' You look yellow in the face!') Metaphorical meaning: To be ill In Persian, MEs that are constructed around color yellow have associative meanings to illness, stagnation and death. It is the color of autumn, which reminded people of falling leaves of trees and stagnate vision. Therefore, the expressions like ‫ رًگ رٌّث سرد ضذٍ اسث‬/ræng væ ru: yæt zærd shu:deh æst / (i.e., your face turns yellow) connote someone's illness. Descriptions of human appearance focus on the color quality of skin and eyes as the factors revealing good or poor health. Colors occur naturally and are consistent in their manifestation under given sets of conditions. Liver disorders may well turn the skin yellow (Phillip, 2006). As mentioned in number (1), the Hippocratic medical view is also consistent in Persian. Ancient Persian medicine has classified people's personality (mezaj) based on the choleric (soda mezaaj), phlegmatic (balghami mezaaj), bilious (safraavi mezaaj) and sanguine (damavi mezaaj) into four groups (Internet, www.iranerooz.com/health/). The choleric personalities are bad-tempered and irritable because it is believed that they influenced by predominating in choler (Concise Oxford Dictionary), but phlegmatic personality is calm and unemotional. Bilious people were considered to be easily affected by vomiting and nausea. Therefore, this ME that is connoting ILLNESS is evoked on the basis of the following conceptual keys: Table 3: The conceptual keys for ræng væ ru:yæt zærd shu:dәh! Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS THE FACE IS A CONTAINER FOR ILLNESS BECOMING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION STANDS FOR ILLNESS INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION' ILLNESS IS YELLOW When someone is sick his or her skin looks pale and unhealthy but not the real yellow. Both (1) and (2) are different metaphoric indications of the same result (pallor) and differ only pragmatically in their cultural evaluation. English prefers green and Persian preference is yellow. PE: ...ٍ‫ ًطاى هً داد کَ چٌذ رّس اسث غذاي درسث ّ حسابً ًخْرد‬،‫رًگ ّ رّي سردش‬ (Collected from www.rasekhoon.net/Article/Show-50875.aspx) EPR: /ræg væ ru: yə zærdæsh nəshˆn mi:dˆd kə chænd ru:z æst qæzˆyə du:ru:st væ həsˆbi: næxu:rdəh æst/ 216 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo LT: His yellow complexion showed that he did not eat food, properly. (4) ‫ چرا زرد کردی؟‬/chәrˆ zærd kærdi:/?( i.e., 'Why do you turn yellow?') Metaphorical meaning: To be cowardice Certain light colors posses a negative cultural connotation, if used with reference to facial color, e.g., yellow color. Yellow color cannot signify a positive emotion in Persian, even though it is a light color. In ‫چزا سرد‬ ‫کزدی؟‬, the metonymical connection of bile and liver is responsible for meaning of yellow, though the focus is different. The adrenal glands secrete the so-called fight or flight hormone, with cowardice relating to the later. In the case of cowardice/fear the fluid is bile. Given that the expression was coined at a time when the liver was believed to be the seat of courage (Allan, 2009), the conceptual key that underlies this Persian ME is THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR EMOTION metaphor. Table 4: The conceptual keys for 'chәrˆ zærd kærdi:'? Conceptual Keys THE BODY IS THE CONTAINER FOR EMOTION THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR FRIGHT BECOMING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION STANDS FOR BEING COWRAD INCREASE IN BILE PRESSURE STANDS FOR ILNESS BECOMING ILL IS BEING YELLOW IN COMPLEXION FEELING IS COLOR FRIGHT IS YELLOW PE: ‫ حذاقل هزد باش ّ پای حزف خْدت ّاٌسا‬.‫بذجْری زرد کردی ُا‬ (Collected from www.hageghatnews4.wordpress.com) EPR: /hæd ju:ri: zærd kærdi: hˆ. hædə æqæl mærd bˆsh væ pˆyə hærfə xu: dæt vˆysˆ/ LT: You turn yellow, drastically. At least be a man and insist on your words. (5) ‫ ریش سفید بودن‬/ ‫ گیس سفید بودن‬/ri: sh sәfi: bu:dæn /, /gi:s sәfi:d bu:dæn/ (i.e.: ' To be white bread / to be white hair) Metaphorical meaning: To be experienced man/ lady According to Ferdowsi's great epic book, Shaahnameh, in ancient Iran, especially in Persian mythology, white is the symbol of superiority, spirituality and virtue. Additionally, knowledge ability of elderly people and their life experiences are referred to as white in Persian. Therefore, ‫ رٌص سفٍذ‬/ri: sh səfi:d/ (i.e., white bread) for male ones and ‫ گٍس سفٍذ‬/gi:s səfi:d/ (i.e., white hair) for female ones use metaphorically in Persian. People get old, and their hair, beard and mustache turning to be white because of their age. An old person has experienced the ups and downs of life more than others and therefore is a good counselor for the younger ones. In the Persian culture, such people are considered as wise and experienced. Therefore, younger ones refer to them and consult them to find a solution for their problems. rish sefid (for male ones) and gis sefid (for female ones) is used for an old man or lady, metaphorically. It is a kind of metonymy because the color of hair or bread stands for the whole person. The whiteness of the hair (as a part of the body) or bread is mapped for experienced person (the whole person). The conceptual keys that underlie this ME may be as follows: 217 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 5: The conceptual keys for (ri: sh sәfi: d bu:dæn / gi:s sәfi:d bu:dæn Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR THE PERSON THE BREAD/HAIR STAND FOR THE PERSON WHITE COLOR OF THE HAIR/BEARD STANDS FOR WHOLE PERSON OLDNESS IS BECOMING WHITE IN HAIR AND BREAD OLDNESS STANDS FOR BEING WISE/KNOWLEDGEABLE BEING WHITE IN HAIR/BEARD STANDS FOR BEING WISE/KNOWLEDGEABLE WISEDOM IS WHITE (6) ‫ سق سیاه داشته‬/sæq si: yˆh dˆshtæn/ ( i.e.: To have black palatal) Metaphorical meaning: someone whose imprecation caught others In ancient Persian, black is the symbol of Ahriman (evil). It is bad and the symbol of wicked spirit. In addition, in the Holy Koran (cf. Ayatolahi, 1998) the heart and the face of bad people is black (Zakhraf, 17; Naml, 58; Al omran, 106; Joseph, 27). Black is a cue for evil and mischief (Bahar, 1997). The Holy Koran teaches that they who desire to dwell in the presence of God, to experience His blessing, are those who will live righteously and who will not badmouth. Imprecation is not accepted according to the Persian culture and their religious believes because this evil manner poisons the tongue. There is a metaphorical motivation for this expression. Considering the points mentioned before, BLACK IS BAD in Persian. This orientational metaphor motivates a lot of MEs (idiom, proverb, etc.) in Persian. It is believed that a person who speaks offensively in a way that his/her evil manner caught others is saqe siyaah (i.e., black palatal) (Internet, www.loghatnameh.com). Here the BADNESS of speech is mapped in a BODY PART (speech organ; PALATAL). Table 6: The conceptual keys for/ sæq si:yˆh dˆshtæn / (i.e.: ' To have black palatal') Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR PERSON THE MOUTH (PALATAL) STANDS FOR PERSON BLACK FORCE IN PALATAL STANDS FOR EVIL SPEECH BLACK IS BAD (Soriano & Valenzuela, 2009) MANNER IS COLOR EVIL-SAYING IS BLACK PE: ٍ‫جْ چَ سق سٍاُی داری آقای کوالی! اس صبح ساٌحی کَ هٍشباى عکس هٌَ اس کار افحاد‬ EPR:/tu: chə sæqə si:yˆhi: dˆri ˆqˆyə kæmˆli æz su:bh sˆyti: kə mi:zbˆnə æksə mænəh æz kˆr u:ftædəh / LT: Mr. Kamali! What a black palatal you have! The website that is hosting my photo does not work from morning till now. (7( ‫ پشت لب سبس شدن‬/pu:shte læb sæbz shu:dæn/ (i.e. 'to be green behind the over lip') Metaphorical meaning: To begin to be mature; to be naive, to be young Green is an important color in nature. It is the color of grass and the leaves on trees, the color of most growing plants. In this connection, green always symbolizes the young, fresh and growing. It also can be taken of safety, hope, peace, and environment protection. (Lan & McGregor, 2009). Green also exhibits the idea of inexperience, an immature state. So it can be used ranging from unripe corn to person (Phillip, 2006). 218 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In Persian green is the color of vegetarian and nature. It is also associated with initial stages of maturation and youth. In the maturation period, the back of the boys' upper lip turns to be in darker color due to growing mustache and makes a green shed. It is similar to the way that grass come out of the earth at the first days of spring and shows a green shade on the land (Dehkhoda, 1999; Partoei Amoli, 1996). In this ME, the line of early growing grass is mapped to the growing of mustache on the back of boy's upper lip. This evokes conceptual links between PEOPLE and PLANTS. Lakoff's (1992) proposed conceptual metaphor PEOPLE ARE PLANTS that can underlie this ME. The freshness of people in their maturity and experience is mapped in plant domains. Table 7: The conceptual keys for /pu:shte læb sæbz shu:dæn/ (i.e. 'to be green behind the over lip') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE PLANTS (Lakoff, 1992) BEING GREEN BEHIND THE OVERLIP STANDS FOR BEING NEW IN ADULTHOOD/YOUNG YOUTH IS GREEN PE: . َ‫ دٌگَ كن كن پطث لبن دارٍ سفٍذ هٍط‬.ٍ‫ "ٌُْس پطث لبث سبش ًطذٍ!" هً گذر‬:‫االى سالِا اس اّى رّسي كَ هادرم هً گفث‬ (Collected from www.qudsdaily.com/archive/1385/html/2/.../page50.html) EPR: æLˆn sˆlhˆst æz u:n ru:zi: kə mˆdæræm mi:gu:ft hænu:z pu:shtə læbət sæbz næshu:dəh mi:gzærəhØ di:gəh kæm kæm pu:shtə læbæm dˆrəh səfi:d mi:shəh LT: Nowadays, many years passed from the days that my mother had said that you were not green behind the lip. It turns to white little by little. (8) To catch someone red-handed. Metaphorical meaning: caught someone in the act of guilty or wrongdoing; caught with evidence In the American history, red does not have positive connotations. It connotes cruelty, battle, death, danger and revolution. As Itten observes (1961:34, cf.Phillip, 2006), red is the color of revolution because of its links with political favor and spilled blood. In this vein, the expression catch someone red-handed was originally a metonymy because it describes a situation in which a killer had his hands covered with blood; the red hands stood metonymically for the killing. Red-handed does not have a mythical origin. The term originated from Scotland. The earliest known printed version of red-handed is from Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe, 1918 (Internet, www.phrases.org.uk). Therefore, the original conceptual key for this expression is RED IS BLOOD (Lan & McGregor, 2009). Red has traditionally been regarded as a symbol of guilt. Extreme anger can lead to crimes of passion and murderous intent clearly lies at the origin of the phrase. Kôvecses (2002, cf. Czepeczor, 2009) considers blood on the culprit‘s hands as the primary image and motivation for the use of red in the phrase (STAINED OR COVERED WITH BLOOD). This signification omitted through the time. Later it became a metaphor for all the individuals who are found to be behaving inappropriately, illegally and guilty because only exceptionally would a killer get blood on his hands and thus it became a metaphor for any form of wrongdoing besides murder. In other words, the abovementioned historical origin of the phrase is no longer perceived as relevant to its implied meaning. Today, the idea of being discovered in the middle of wrong-doing still remains with this expression. Therefore, the conceptual keys that underlie this ME may include: Table 8: The conceptual keys for' To catch someone red-handed' Conceptual Keys THE BODY PART STANDS FOR THE PERSON THE HANDS STAND FOR THE PERSON STAINED WITH BLOOD IN HANDS STANDS FOR BEING GUILTY WRONGDOING IS RED EE: A: How can you be sure that it was Rob who has been steeling the CDs? B: Linda saw him putting the in his bag during lunch break. He was caught red-handed (Wright, 2002, p.55). 219 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.3.2. LIVING THINGS (ANIMALS and PLANTS) (9) Black sheep of the family Metaphorical meaning: To be bad and odd one out In western culture, the black color is the sign of darkness. In the Bible, the black stands for the devil, the pain and misfortune (He, 2009). According to Jordan (1997), black was associated even in Elizabethan times with dirty, sinister and wicked qualities, as opposed to white which stood for beauty, virtue and goodness (Benczes, 2007). Considering the connotation of black ant its attribution, black sheep is used to connote the situation that the only person in a respectable and successful family , who has not achieve success, but instead has proven to be disappointment .HUMAN IS ANIMAL, HUMAN IS SHEEP (Goatly, 2006) and BLACK IS BAD underlie this ME. BLACK SHEEP as an Animal stands for HUMAN. This metaphoric expression refers to someone who is considered to have done something bad within every family or group to which they belong and make them to feel shame. Table 9: The conceptual keys for' The black sheep of the family' Conceptual Keys HUMAN IS ANIMAL(Goalty, 2006) HUMAN IS SHEEP (Goalty, 2006) ANIMAL STANDS FOR HUMAN BLACK SHEEP STANDS FOR BAD HUMAN BLACK IS BAD(Ruiz, 2007 ; Maalej, 1999) It is constructed around the fact that shepherds used to dislike black sheep because their wool was not as valuable as white wool (OID, p, 29). EE: Everyone in the family expected Susan to go to university like the rest of us, but she got a job in a casino on a ship. She was the black sheep of the family. (10) He went as red as a beetroot The redness of the beetroot is compared with the redness of people's complexion when they feel ashamed, embarrassment or angry. The physiological effects of some emotions increase the blood pressure. This phenomenon makes the complexion red in color. Blood is vital for our existence, and the metonymic use of red therefore carries the connotation over to other domains and areas of human existence and activity. The physiological effects of anger are supplemented by the metonymic pattern COLOR FOR ANGER. Considering the aforementioned observation, color red is coined from these two different domains and constructs this English expression, metaphorically. Therefore, the domain of physiological effect in human body is conceptualized in the domain of beetroot as plant to imply the abstract target domain of shame or embarrassment. The underlying conceptual keys can be as follows: Table 10: The conceptual keys for 'He went as red as a beetroot') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE PLANTS PEOPLE ARE BEETROOT 220 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo BEING RED IN BEETROOT STANDS FOR RED IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION FEELING IS COLOR SHAME/EMBARRASMENT/ANGER IS RED )11( ‫ مثل لبو سرخ شد‬/mәslә læbu: su:rx shu:d/(i.e., 'He went as red as a beetroot') In this Persian expression, like number (10), the redness of the beetroot is compared with the redness of people's complexion when they feel ashamed, embarrassment, but here the source is boiled beetroot. As far as we all know, boiled beetroot is a beetroot that is boiled in water and is ready to eat. Therefore, in this case source domain is FOOD domain as like as its English counterpart. The only difference between them is that English speakers use beetroot in the construction of metaphor as raw food, but Persian speakers prefers it boiled form. It is important to say that the researchers did not find example that connote anger by using of this expression in Persian. Therefore, it seems that Persian speakers prefer to use this metaphoric expression just to connote embarrassment and shy not anger. Along these lines, both the connotation of color and the mental map for this expression seem to be the same in either language. They differ just lexically. Accordingly, the underlying conceptual keys can be as follows: Table 39: The conceptual keys for /mәslә læbu: su:rx shu:d/ (i.e., 'He went as red as a beetroot') Conceptual Keys PEOPLE ARE FOOD BEING RED IN BEETROOT STANDS FOR RED IN COMPLEXION COLOR FOR EMOTION FEELING IS COLOR SHAME/EMBARRASMENT IS RED PE: ... !‫پسزٍ خجالث کطٍذ سزش رّ اًذاخث پاٌٍي ّ مثل لبو سرخ شد‬ (Collected from www.parmisazar.persionblog.ir) EPR: /pəsærə xəjˆlæt kəshi:d. særæsh ræ pˆyi:n ændˆxt væ məslə læbu: su:rx shu:d/! Equivalence translation: The boy was ashamed, bend down his head and went as red as beet root. Good and evil, health and illness, elderly and youth, experienced and inexperienced, etc. were paradoxes in the color connotations of this study. As seen in the above instances, the connotations expressed by color names, though similar in some cases, are culture-specific; that is, the way each culture views and values the world in relation to color names is different. Although metaphoric expressions are representative of culture from which they arise, they demonstrate significant associations. Conclusion It is worthwhile to mention that the relation between language and culture creates a great effect on connotations of color words. Considering the metaphoric expressions of colors in this study, the researchers concluded that although colors share common connotative ground in two languages, this does not necessarily entail the use of similar expressions. They were more culturally oriented and specific to each language. For instance, BLACK IS BAD and WHITE IS GOOD are, as conceptual metaphors, are present in either language, but, as the data has shown, each language and culture fill them with specific concepts and shows different mental mappings. The data in our study has shown that construction of metaphorical expressions of colors in English and Persian are grounded in reality as well; cultural believes, and to some extent symbolism, may also have a role to play. In addition, the findings of this study showed that metaphorical expressions of colors, besides their universality, are also culturally-oriented, which implies that even though some mappings seem to be universal in their generic level, many of them, especially the more specific ones, are culture specific and reflect the socio- 221 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo cultural context in which they are used. For instance, considering BODY IS A CONTAINER metaphor in its generic level, the metaphorical expressions ' you look green around the gills' and ' ræng væ ru:yat zærd shodәh' are both constructed around the BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR EMOTION conceptual metaphor, but English filled the generic level with GREEN as DISEASE color and Persian filled it with YELLOW as DISEASE color. Therefore, we have differences at specific level, namely, GREEN IS DISEASE in English and YELLOW IS DISEAE in Persian. Our study also revealed that color-based metaphorical expressions are interpreted mental mappings of their users. For instance rish sefidy that connotes knowledge and wisdom was reflected a specific mental representation in Persian and there was not such mental mapping in English data of the present study. Metaphor research may help us build up language-specific cultural model as well as reflect cultural differences based on the model identified. Since language is a part of culture, cross-cultural studies like the present study can shed light on cross-cultural similarities and dissimilarities in ways of thinking and speaking. For instance, the emotion of envy does not have any color in Persian but as it is shown in the study English conceptualize it as ENVY IS GREEN. Even so, for some European countries ENVY IS YELLOW. All in all, this study indicates that detailed contrastive analysis can shed light on similarities and differences between English and Persian, and identify properties that may have been overlooked in analysis of either language in isolation. But, first and foremost, this study revealed how contrastive analysis of metaphorical expressions of color may hint at the pervasiveness of metaphor in language. References Allan, (2009). The connotations of English color terms: Color-based X-phemisms. Journal of 41(3), 626-637. Pragmatics, Al Jumah, FH. (2007). A Comparative Study of Metaphor in Arabic and English General Business Writing with Teaching Implication. [Online] Available: http://www.dspace.lib.iup.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/.../Fahad+Al+Jumah.pdf Apresjan, V. (1997). Emotion Metaphors and Cross-Linguistic Conceptualization of Emotions. [Online] Available: http:// www.dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/fichero_articulo?codigo=2526528...0 Benzes, R. (2007). North American Slavery: A Cognitive Linguist's Perspective. http://www.das.elte.hu/content/faculty/benczes/benczes_frank_t.pdf [Online] Available: Czepeczor, EG. (2009). Red and Czerwony as Cognitive Categories: a corpus based study. [Online] Available: http://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL17/pdf_doc/02.pdf Goalty, A. (1997). The Language of Metaphors. Londen. Routledge. Goatly,A.(2006).Humans,Animals and Metaphor. http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/library/594_sa1414.pdf [Online] Available: He.G. (2009). English and Chinese Cultural Connotation of Color Words in Comparison. Asian Social Science. 5 (7). Pp.160-163 Kittay, E.F. (1989). Metaphor: Its cognitive force and linguistic structure. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Kômùr and Cimen. (2009). Using Conceptual Metaphors in Teaching Idioms in a Foreign Language Context. [Online]Available:http://www.akademik.mu.edu.tr/.../12-ġevki%20Kômùr,%20ġeyda%20Selen%20Çimen.pdf Kovecses, Z. (2005). Metaphor in Culture Universality and Variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 222 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Kovecses, Z. (2006). Universality and Variation in the Use of Metaphor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ogarkova, A, (2007). Green-Eyed Monsters‖: a Corpus-Based Study of Metaphoric conceptualization of JELOUSY and ENVY in Modern English. [Online] Available: http://www.metaphorik.de/13/ogarkova.pdf Lakoff and Johnson (1980). The tenet of Conceptual http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~iclc/pdfs/a99.pdf Metaphor Theory. [Online] Available: Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of metaphor. In Ortony, A. Ed. Metaphor and Thought (2nd Eds.). New York: Cambridge University Press Lakoff and Johnson, M. ([1980], 2003). Metaphor We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Lakoff.G. and Johnson, M. (2003). The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor George Lakoff [Online] Available: http://www.terpconnect.umd.edu/~israel/lakoff- ConTheorMetaphor.pdf Introduction. Lan, L. & McGregor. (2009). Color Metaphor in Business Discourse. Language for Professional Communication: Research, Practice and Training.pp, 11-24. Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Leung, WYY. (2008). A Contrastive Analysis of Chinese and English Metaphors of Marriage. LCOM Papers. (1), pp.21-35 Li, X. (2010). Conceptual Metaphor Theory and Teaching English and Chinese Idiom. Language Teaching and Research, 1(3), pp.206-210. Maalej, Z. (1999). Metaphoric Discourse in the Age of Cognitive Linguistics, with Special Reference to Tunisian Arabic (TA). Journal of Literary Semantics.189-206 Phillip, G. (2006).Connotative meaning in English and Italian color-word metaphor. [Online] Available: //metaphoric.de/10/Philip.pdf (accessed 28.06.2008) Perez, RG. (2008). A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Heart http://www.rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/10394/1/RAEI_21_03.pdf Metaphors. [Online] http: Available: Soriano, C.(2003). Some Anger Metaphor in Spanish and English: A Contrastive Review. IJES, 3(2), PP.107122 Soriano, C. and Valezuela, J. (2009). Emotion and Color Across Languages: Implicit Associations in Spanish Color Terms. [Online] Available: http://ssi.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/48/3/421 Zhang, (2007).A Cultural Comparison of Color Terms and Their Translation. US- China Foreign Language, vol 4, 5, pp.28-32 Wang, J. 2007. Analysis on the connotations of Color Terms in English and Chinese Language. Asian Social Science, vol 3, 4, pp.46-48 Wright, J. (2002). Idiom Organizer. Language Teaching Publications by Heline, a part of Thomson Corporation. Boston, MA 02210, USA. English dictionaries: Siefring, J. (2005).The Oxford dictionary of idioms. (2nd Eds.).New York: Oxford University Press. Speake, J. (Ed.) (2008).The Oxford dictionary of proverbs. (5th Eds.).Oxford: Oxford University Press. Soanes & Hawker.S, (2008). Compact Oxford Dictionary of Current English (3rd Eds.) New York: Oxford University Press. Richard A. Spears (2006). McGraw-Hill's Dictionary of American Idioms and phrasal verbs. 223 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Persian references: Dehkhoda, (1999). Amsaal va Hekam-e-Dehkhoda. Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Hoseini.S (2008) Farhang-e-Estelehat-e-Adabi Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Najafi, A. (2010) .Farhang-e-Estelaahaat-e-Aamiyaaneh. Tehran, Amir Kabir Publication. Ayatolahi, H. (1998). Raang dar Quran. Daneshvar Quartl, 6 (21). Bahar, M. (1997). Pajuheshi dar Asaatire Iran. Tehran, Agah Publication. Partoei Amoli, M.( 1996). Rishehaay-e-Tarikhiy-e-Amsaal va Hekam. Azarli, K.(1989).Zarb-al-Masalhaay-e-Mashur-e-Farsi. Tehran: Arghavan Publication. 224 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 33 Title A name given to the resource Basic Colors and Their Metaphorical Expressions in English and Persian: Lakoff's Conceptual Metaphor Theory in Focus Author Author Rasekh, Abbass Eslami Ghafel, Banafsheh Abstract A summary of the resource. Metaphorical language is an indispensable part of human life, involving language, thought and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff, 1998). Accordingly, metaphor plays a major role in people's everyday language use and thinking. Our conceptual system is based on experiences we have gained with interacting with people and things surrounding us. In this respect, color plays an important role in convention metaphorical expressions in people's lives and daily communication. As a sub-category of metaphors, color terms are widely used literally and metaphorically in different languages and may also reflect cultural identities of language users. Replying on ―Contrastive Analysis of Metaphors‖ proposed by Barcelona (2001, cf. Soriano, 2003) as a cognitive qualitative method and on the basis of ―Conceptual Metaphor Theory‖ (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, 1999, 2003; Grady 1997; Kôvecses 2000, 2002, 2005; etc), this paper tries to investigate the extent to which connotations of basic colors, as used in the structure of metaphors are varied in English and Persian on the one hand; and, as compared to their differences in their metaphorical mappings in the languages concerned, on the other hand. To do so, we collected English instances from The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms (Siefring, 2005) and The Oxford Dictionary of Proverbs (Speake, 2008) and some other dictionaries. Next, Persian instances were extracted from some Persian dictionaries. The findings of this comparative analysis show that, although the connotation of colors in the structure of metaphorical expressions are overlapping each other to some extent, most of the expressions are culture-bound and specific to each language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f41021843a1f901e1593d66d8aeff2e2.pdf c240fbb935ddaa4c399cdf1f64fce252 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Modernizam nasuprot postmodernizma – Ħitanje, razumijevanje, pouĦavanje Selma RaljeviĤ, M. A. Fakultet humanistiĦkih nauka Univerzitet „Dņemal BijediĤ― u Mostaru selma.raljevic@unmo.ba Saţetak: Namjera autorice jeste da ovim radom neposredno uporedi univerzalne i kulturalne specifiĦnosti u Ħitanju, razumijevanju i pouĦavanju knjiņevnog modernizma i postmodernizma s meħukulturalnog aspekta. U radu Ĥe se nastojati pobliņe osmotriti bogatstvo velikog knjiņevnog sazvijeņħa modernizma, kao i njegov diskutabilni zavrńetak u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤene, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. S obzirom da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu kako u Zapadnom, tako i u cijelom svijetu, te pobliņe i u Bosni i Hercegovini, posebna paņnja posvetit Ĥe se knjiņevnom svijetu XX i tendencijama XXI stoljeĤa, kao i njegovom razumijevanju od globalne prema nacionalnoj perspektivi. , l KljuĦne rijeĦi: modernizam, postmodernizam, postavljanje u perspektivu, Ħitanje, razumijevanje, pouĦavan 1. Uvod: OpĤe knjiţevno-historijske odrednice modernizma Rasprave o knjiņevnoj epohi modernizma (prema latinskom modernus, franc. moderne – nov, savremen) u svjetskoj knjiņevnosti, o njenim poĦecima, nazivu, trajanju, razvoju, vode se od samog nastanka epohe, od zadnjih decenija XIX stoljeĤa, a posljednjih desetljeĤa njima se pridodaju i one o diskutabilnom zavrńetku modernizma u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. Izmeħu mnońtva razliĦitih stajalińta i mińljenja u prouĦavanju savremenih knjiņevnih tokova i pouĦavanju o joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤenoj i elokventno neodreħenoj, ali ipak zamjetljivoj, Ħak nametljivoj postmodernoj knjiņevnosti, posebno se mogu izdvojiti dvije opreĦne argumentirane moguĤnosti. Jedna zastupa viħenje da modernizam kao velika epoha svjetske knjiņevnosti joń uvijek traje, a da je unutar njega „kasni modernizam― ili „postmodernizam― najnovija razvojna faza ili razdoblje poput esteticizma i avangarde, koje su, takoħer, neki knjiņevni teoretiĦari i historiĦari odreħivali kao razdoblja unutar modernizma, za razliku od onih koji su ih shvatali i tumaĦili epohalno. Drugo shvatanje koje se najńire prihvata u Sjedinjenim AmeriĦkim Drņavama, odakle je i poteklo, sve vińe zaokuplja diskusije o savremenoj svjetskoj knjiņevnosti, bilo u analiziranju moguĤnosti ili ironiziranju takvih tumaĦenja, jeste da je knjiņevna epoha modernizma veĤ zavrńila, a da sedamdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa poĦinje postmodernizam, nova knjiņevna epoha opreĦna modernizmu. Modernizam se okvirno, ali i uvjetno, moņe odrediti na temelju protuslovlja prethodnom realizmu. Naime, on se manifestira kao svojevrsna kritika konvencijama i tradiciji realizma, mada takav stav unutar razvoja modernizma, kada se Ħak stjeĦe dojam tek relativnog nastavljanja na kasni realizam u sintezi realistiĦkih i njima opreĦnih tehnika, nije uvijek podjednako izraņen. Roman je najdominantnija knjiņevna vrsta realizma, a po svemu sudeĤi i modernizma, na osnovu koje se i mogu izvesti teoretske postavke i suprotnosti tih dviju knjiņevnih epoha. Teorija umjetniĦke proze i drame u epohi realizma temelji se uglavnom na objektivnom, vjerodostojnom, dakle pseudoscenskom mimetiĦkom opisu zbilje i nekih bitnih istina ņivota i svijeta. Nasuprot tome, u modernoj knjiņevnosti činjenice lebde u ambiguitetnom i/ili destabiliziranom, pa i ukinutom diegetiĦkom, prvenstveno paradoksalnom spoju subjektivnog i objektivnog u odnosu prema ņivotu i doņivljaju svijeta. U modernoj aluzivnosti i sloņenosti, raznolikom, virtuoznom i novom oblikovanju modusa knjiņevnog slova koje ponire u najdublju i Ĥutilnu nutarnjost, ali percipira i vanjske poticaje, knjiņevni stvaraoci 1082 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo modernizma, izmeħu ostalog, profiliraju naglańenost i autonomiju individualnosti, subverzivnost izraza i otvorenost djela. Karakteristike realizma je teńko ili gotovo nemoguĤe primijeniti na poeziju, pa se ona u ovoj knjiņevnoj epohi razvija u pravcu koji vińe odgovara romantizmu ili modernizmu. Upravo zbog toga se francuski pjesnik Charles Baudelaire (1821.-1876.), svojom originalnom, glasovitom i jednom od najutjecajnijih zbirki svjetske poezije Cvjetovi zla (Les Fleures du mal, 1857.), a zatim njegovi nastavljaĦi u francuskoj knjiņevnosti, prvenstveno Arthur Rimbaud (1854.-1891.) i Stéphane Mallarmé (1842.-1898.), smatraju zaĦetnicima moderne poezije, iako se njihova djela javljaju u epohi realizma. Epoha knjiņevnog modernizma, kao i knjiņevnost opĤenito, ne moņe se razumjeti bez shvatanja njene pojavnosti unutar kulturalne cjeline i druńtvenih okvira, kao i deńavanja i pojava koje su obiljeņile svjetsku zbilju tokom neńto vińe od stotinu godina, kako na historijskoj sceni, tako i u umjetnosti, filozofiji, nauci i religiji. Stranice historije XX stoljeĤa, moņda najkontradiktornijeg doba u ljudskoj historiji, potresle su i ispisale velika svjetska deńavanja, nauĦne spoznaje i saznanja, ubrzani razvoj tehnike i tehnologije, industrijalizaciju, urbanizaciju i globalizaciju. Prije svega, najveĤi utjecaj na knjiņevne teme i misao imao je Prvi svjetski rat (1914.-1918.), rat koji je prema zvaniĦnoj angloameriĦkoj propagandi trebao biti „kraj svih ratova―. Njegov zavrńetak je trebao oznaĦiti poĦetak nove, svjetlije buduĤnosti, ali velike nade i oĦekivanja malom Ħovjeku donijele su samo razoĦarenje i prazninu egzistencije. Upravo razoĦarenje zbog neispunjenih obeĤanja XX stoljeĤa ameriĦki knjiņevni kritiĦar i intelektualac Harry Levin (1912.-1994.), vidi kao prvu premisu modernizma. Prema njegovom mińljenju, druga premisa ove epohe jeste fascinacija, Ħak ponekad i opsjednutost, fenomenom vremena. Naime, poseban utjecaj na knjiņevni izraz imala je i „specijalna teorija relativnosti― fiziĦara Alberta Einsteina (1879.-1955.) iz 1905. godine, koja je otkriĤem da je i vrijeme relativno promijenila dotadańnju percepciju o pravolinijskoj koncepciji vremena. TreĤa bitnost stvaralańtva modernizma, kako to Levin prepoznaje, jeste tematsko-idejna supstanca fiziĦkog ili duhovnog otuħenja, izgnanstva, egzila i odricanja nacionalnog identiteta, ńto je vjerovatno najbolje iskazao irski titan modernizma James Joyce (1882.-1941.) svojim polu-autobiografskim Bildungsromanom – Portret mladog umjetnika (A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, 1916.). Pariz je bio centar „otuħenih― umjetnika, u kojem su se, u tutorstvu ameriĦke knjiņevnice Gertrude Stein (1874.-1946.) privremeno izgubili i mnogi ameriĦki stvaraoci. U njemu je i samoizgnani Joyce rekreirao svoj rodni Dublin, te uspjeńno ostvario eksperiment Uliksa (Ulysses, 1922.), jednog od najkapitalnijih djela moderne knjiņevnosti, za koje se moņe ustvrditi da i jeste, na svojstven naĦin, „proizvod― ili, bolje reĤi, „plod― grada. Tako nije iznenaħujuĤa intencija i nastojanje njenih stvaralaca da u svojim djelima rekreiraju sliku grada. Godina 1922, ne samo zbog objavljivanja Uliksa, ali svakako i zbog toga, smatra se kao Annus mirabilis modernizma iz vińe razloga, mada se zapravo cijela epoha moņe nazvati briljantnim sazvijeņħem u univerzumu svjetske knjiņevnosti. Pored niza bitnih deńavanja, u toj godini desila se Proustova (1871.-1922.) smrt i objavljivanje Sodome i Gomore (Sodome et Gomorrhe), sredińnjeg dijela njegovog golemog ciklusa romana pod zajedniĦkim nazivom U traganju za izgubljenim vremenom (À la recherche du temps perdu, 1913.-1927.), kao i prva pojava njegovih djela u Engleskoj. Iste godine, dakle, veliki ameriĦki profet modernizma engleskog knjiņevnog ukusa, pjesnik i knjiņevni kritiĦar Thomas Stearns (obiĦno T. S.) Eliot (1888.-1965.) objavio je „paradigmatiĦnu poemu modernizma― (RadeljkoviĤ, 2004: 99) pod nazivom Pusta zemlja (The Waste Land). Svjetska knjiņevnost obogaĤena je i odreħenim djelima: Davida Herberta (obiĦno D. H.) Lawrencea (1885.1930.), Virginije Woolf (1882.-1941.), Katherine Mansfield (1888.-1923.), Thomasa Hardyja (1840.1928.), Williama Butlera Yeatsa (1865.-1939.), Maxa Beerbohma (1872.-1956.), Paula Valéryja (1871.-1945.), Bertolta Brechta (1898.-1956.), Rainer Maria Rilkea (1876.-1926.), Sinclaira Lewisa (1885.-1951.), Eugenea O'Neilla (1888.-1953.), i drugih. 2. Modernizam u knjiţevnoj Bosni i Hercegovini U knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine kao Annus mirabilis modernog izraza mogla bi se oznaĦiti 1966. godina, kada su objavljeni svjetski poznati: roman Derviš i smrt, Mehmeda Meńe SelimoviĤa (1910.-1982.) i zbirka poezije Kameni spavač, Mehmedalije Maka Dizdara (1917.-1971.). PoetiĦki i knjiņevno-historijski razvojni procesi i pojave u bosanskohercegovaĦkoj knjiņevnosti u prvoj polovini XX stoljeĤa, pa sve do pojave Ive AndriĤa i njegovog romana, ne prate aktuelne evropske i svjetske knjiņevne tokove, s izuzetkom poetskog romana Grozdanin kikot (1927.) Hamze Hume (1895.-1970.) i romanesknih pokuńaja Novaka SimiĤa (1906.-1981.). Na Huminim zasadima poĦivaju poĦeci modernog knjiņevnog izraza, koji Ĥe se u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine ozbiljnije razviti tek ńezdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa. Dominantni knjiņevni model bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti sve do tridesetih godina XX stoljeĤa jeste prosvjetiteljski, iako je u tom periodu ekspresionizam veĤ osjetno obuhvatio knjiņevne interese podneblja. Potpuno prevladavanje prosvjetiteljske dominacije desit Ĥe se 1083 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo uzletom poezije artizma, koja na podlozi ideje o knjiņevnoj samosvrhovitosti i autonomnosti oslobaħa umjetniĦku svijest od tradicionalnih sprega. Musa ģazim ģatiĤ (1878.-1915.) i njegova poezija na granici tradicije i moderne predstavljaju iskriĦavi bljesak u bosanskohercegovaĦkim poetiĦkim modelima toga doba i njihov zaokret prema evropskim i svjetskim knjiņevnim tendencijama modernizma. Tako Ĥe se i razvoj bosankohercegovaĦkog romana okvirno deńavati u ozraĦju dvaju perioda – kanonskog i nekanonskog. Odrednice prvog perioda, koji traje od kraja XIX do prve polovine XX stoljeĤa, jesu okońtali, kanonizirani, klasiĦni ņanrovi, a razvijaju se unutar prosvjetiteljskog i artističkog modela. Drugi, nekanonski period, zapoĦinje u drugoj polovini XX stoljeĤa procesom individualizacije identiteta unutar romanesknog iskaza, raskidom sa ideolońkim sistemom i eksperimentalnim istraņivanjima moguĤnosti knjiņevnog slova. Razvija se u okvirima artističkog i tzv. semiotičkog modela, koji dominira krajem XX stoljeĤa. Uvaņeni esejista i knjiņevni kritiĦar Enver Kazaz kategorizira bońnjaĦki i bosanskohercegovaĦki roman nekanonskog modela, pri Ħemu okvirno primjenjuje nacrt slike hrvatskog romana u periodu od 1945. do 1990. godine Cvjetka Milanje (Hrvatski roman 1945-1990, nacrt moguće tipologije hrvatske romaneskne prakse, 1996.), prema slijedeĤoj tipologijskoj shemi: 1. simplificirani mimetiĦki model, 2. sloņeniji tip mimetiĦkog modela, 3. egzistencijalistiĦki roman, 4. strukturalistiĦki model, 5. fantastiĦki model, 6. ņanrovski roman, 7. novopovijesni roman, 8. autobiografski roman, 9. teorijski roman. Meħutim, takva tipologija moņe se samo uvjetno primijeniti na romaneskni iskaz bosanskohercegovaĦkih knjiņevnika s obzirom na paradigmatiĦnost pojedinih romana, ńto primjeĤuje i Kazaz. On odstupanje od modela pojańnjava na paradoksu odreħenih romana koji obuhvataju nekoliko Milanjinih tipova, kakvi su npr. Derviš i smrt Meńe SelimoviĤa, Pobuna materije (1985.) Alije IsakoviĤa (1932.-1997.), i drugi. Modernizam ili moderna, prema usvojenom terminu bosanskohercegovaĦke, kao i pluralne juņnoslavenske literarne prakse, u knjiņevnim tokovima Bosne i Hercegovine javlja se u drugoj polovini XX stoljeĤa pojavom romana Ive AndriĤa (Travnička hronika, 1945; Na Drini ćuprija, 1945; GospoĎica, 1945; Prokleta avlija, 1954.), Meńe SelimoviĤa (Tišine, 1961; Magla i mjesečina, 1965; Derviš i smrt i TvrĎava, 1970.), Dervińa SuńiĤa (1925.-1990.) (Ja Danilo, 1960. i Danilo u stavu mirno, 1961.), novog lirskog iskaza individualnog glasa u poeziji Maka Dizdara (Kameni spavač) i Skendera KulenoviĤa (1910.-1978.) (Soneti, 1968.), ali i knjiņevne kritike i esejistike, poput one Ivana Fogla i Ivana Fochta. Moderni proces prevlasti individualnog i estetskog nad kolektivnim i ideolońkim zapoĦeo je, zapravo, u drugoj deceniji XX stoljeĤa Huminim panerotskim doņivljajem svijeta u romanu Grozdanin kikot i paradigmatiĦnim proznim tekstovima u kojima se isprepliĤu ekspresionizam, poetika avangarde i stanovite tradicionalne odlike pripovijedanja. U Sarajevu se moderno knjiņevno otkrovenje i zbacivanje okova ideologije deńavalo sporije nego u veĤim centrima poput Zagreba i Beograda. Tako Midhat BegiĤ (Raskršća IV, bosanskohercegovačke knjiţevne teme, 1987.) utvrħuje da prvi poratni period knjiņevnosti u BiH, socijalni realizam ili socrealizam, kasnije obiljeņen odrednicom simplificiranog, odnosno pojednostavljenog mimetičkog modela koji pripada prosvjetiteljskom ili kanonskom poetičkokulturalnom makromodelu, traje sve do 1954. godine. Iz rata je proizańla novonastala vrsta memoarske proze s najveĤim utjecajem na bosanskohercegovaĦku poratnu pripovijetku s posrednim ili neposrednim ideolońkim usmjerenjem da knjiņevni tekst djeluje u sluņbi Revolucije, veliĦa herojsku ratnu prońlost i podstiĦe na izgradnju, oĦuvanje i jaĦanje svijetle socijalistiĦke buduĤnosti. Pedestih godina XX stoljeĤa Sarajevo joń nije imalo znaĦaj velikog knjiņevnog centra, veĤ se smatralo, naroĦito van njega, knjiņevnom provincijom. To je bio jedan od razloga ńto su se mnogi bosanskohercegovaĦki pisci nastanili u Beogradu i Zagrebu, i time veĤinom postali srpski ili hrvatski. Meħutim, kako to zapaņa tadańnja i kasnija knjiņevna kritika, niti jedan pisac porijeklom iz Bosne i Hercegovine nije odlaskom iz nje napustio knjiņevni hronotop i tematiku rodnoga kraja. PolitiĦka uvjetovanost Bosne i Hercegovine unutar bivńe SFRJ utjecala je na nacionalnu opredjeljenost mnogih pisaca toga perioda. Tako se, na primjer, jedan od najveĤih bosanskohercegovaĦkih knjiņevnika Meńa SelimoviĤ samostalno deklarirao kao srpski pisac. Zbog toga i u savremenim gledińtima dolazi do konfuzije i svojatanja neupitnog bosanskohercegovaĦkog pisca u kanonskim odreħenjima srpske knjiņevnosti. Nov odnos prema svijetu, suprotan od okvira ideolońkih sprega, i po mnogo Ħemu drugaĦiju osjeĤajnost vjerovatno je prvi izrazio Mak Dizdar 1954. godine poemom „PlivaĦica―, „koja se s obzirom na trenutak moņe uzeti kao spontani proglas zaokreta koji je bosanskohercegovaĦka poezija doņivjela pedesetih godina.― (BegiĤ, 1987: 27) Osim toga, BegiĤ istiĦe znaĦaj pripovijetke Riste TrifkoviĤa, te romana ģamila SijariĤa (191.3-1989.) (Bihorci, 1956; Kuću kućom čine lastavice, 1962; Mojkovačka bitka, 1968.), Anħelka VuletiĤa (1933.) (Gorko sunce, 1957; Drvo s paklenih vrata, 1963; Deveto čudo na istoku, 1966.), SuńiĤa (Ja Danilo), Nedņada IbrińimoviĤa (1940.) (Ugursuz, 1968.), Vitomira LukiĤa (1929.-1991.) (Album, 1968.) i SelimoviĤa (Derviš i smrt), u sagledavanju moderne bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevne sveukupnosti. ModernistiĦka paradigma romaneskne orijentiranosti na poetsko-simboliĦku ispovijest, zaĦeta u Huminom romanu, potpuno se uobliĦila u djelu AndriĤa, 1084 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo jedinog bosanskohercegovaĦkog nobelovca (1961.). U vezi s tim, Kazaz istiĦe bitnost raskida sa ideolońkim sistemom u AndriĤevoj Prokletoj avliji kao presudni iskaz u odreħenju ukupnog diskursa bosanskohercegovaĦkog politiĦkog romana modernizma, iako Ĥe se potpuno osloboħenje od ideolońkih okova u knjiņevnom tekstu, prema njegovom mińljenju, desiti tek u antiratnoj postmodernoj poetici. On dodaje slijedeĤe: AndriĤ je, naime, otvorio put paraboličkom govoru o traumatičnom prezentu i to junakom apsurdnog iskustva koji ņivi unutar druńtva kao zvjerinjaka. Parabola je otud temeljna narativna figura bosanskohercegovaĦkog politiĦkog romana koji se metaforizacijom i parabolizacijom iskaza opire diktatu ideolońkog uma. U centru njegove priĦe je junak apsurdnog iskustva, a po prvi put u kontekstu bosanskohercegovaĦkog romana i deheroizirani junak... Figura heroja zamijenjena je figurom poraţenog čovjeka, figurom koja Ĥe postati dominantni iskaz bosanskohercegovaĦkog romana modernistiĦke paradigme. (Kazaz, 2004: 44, 46) Suprostavljanje vladajuĤem sistemu, ideologiji i dogmatizmu narativnom figurom poraņenog Ħovjeka, te propitivanje suńtine ljudske sadrņine, nakon Proklete avlije, nastavit Ĥe se u SelimoviĤevim romanima Derviš i smrti i TvrĎava. Svijest o smislu ņivota glavnih junaka ovih romana, Ahmeda Nurudina i Ahmeta Ńabe, izraņena je krikom koji se najĦeńĤe zamrzava, paralizira u unutarnjim sferama pojedinca kao zatoĦenika povijesnog bremena mraĦne moĤi druńtva, historije kao vjeĦnog vraĤanja istog zla i teńkog usuda malog Ħovjeka na putu prema posljednjem ishodińtu. SelimoviĤ na naĦin zapadnjaĦkih pisaca problematizira specifiĦni orijentalni islamski senzibilitet i dileme koje su daleko sloņenije od Ħvrsto ukorijenjenih religijskih dogmi, pa je tako lirski prostor njegovog knjiņevnog svijeta dramatiziran egzistencijalistiĦkim i kulturolońko-politiĦkim traumama bivanja u neteološkom modelu historije. Roman Derviš i smrt, preveden na nekoliko svjetskih jezika, smatra se jednim od najvrijednijih ostvarenja bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti i prvim modernim bońnjaĦkim romanom, kako ga je okvalificirala knjiņevna kritika. Kazaz naglańava da je to ustvari roman „modernističke paradigme koji svojim metatekstualnim aspektima najavljuje kasnija postmoderna romaneskna kretanja.― (Kazaz, 2004: 136) Najpreciznija odrednica bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti nekanonskog modela jeste opozicija okońtalim ņanrovima kanonskog perioda, odnosno opreka modernog izraza klasicizmu i realizmu. Moderna knjiņevna kretanja u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine karakterizira, zapravo, fluidnost, neodreħenost, neuhvatljivost i raznolikost odrednica kod razliĦitih pisaca i pjesnika, ńto se odnosi i na razvoj modernog iskaza i njegove elemente unutar djela jednog knjiņevnika. Pisci i pjesnici druge polovine XX stoljeĤa razliĦito ispoljavaju paradigmatiĦnost moderne, pa tako njihova djela grade ńaroliki mozaik modernizma i/ili u spektru: neoromantizma, neorealizma, avangarde, naturalizma, simbolizma, ekspresionizma, egzistencijalizma i drugih eksperimentalnih moguĤnosti moderne. U skladu s tim, poetiku, odnosno, poetike modernizma u knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine oblikovali su, osim pomenutih stvaralaca, i slijedeĤi knjiņevnici: Mladen OljaĦa (1926.-1994.), Feħa ŃehoviĤ (1930.), Muhamed KondņiĤ (1932.-1966.), Tvrtko KulenoviĤ (1935.), Danilo Kiń (1935.-1989.), Husein BańiĤ (1938.-2007.), Jasmina MusabegoviĤ (1941.), Zuvdija HodņiĤ (1944.), Irfan HorozoviĤ (1947.), Zilhad KljuĦanin (1960.), i drugi. Pored Dizdara i KulenoviĤa, modernizam je procvao i u poeziji: Nikole Ńopa (1904.-1982.), Dare SekuliĤ (1931.), Huseina TahmińĦiĤa (1931.-1999.), Duńka TrifunoviĤa (1933.2006.), Veselka Koromana (1934.), Bisere AlikadiĤ (1939.), Abdulaha Sidrana (1944.), Mubere PańiĤ (1945.), Marka VeńoviĤa (1945.), Stevana TontiĤa (1946.), i drugih. Sve to dokaz je plodnog i specifiĦnog tla modernizma bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti, kao i njenog cjelokupnog identiteta osobitog multinacionalnog ustrojstva na raskrńĤu izmeħu Istoka i Zapada, koji i pored rasprava o njenoj marginaliziranosti, pa Ħak i o postojanju identiteta knjiņevnosti Bosne i Hercegovine, obitava veĤ stoljeĤima. Posebna interkulturalna historija bosanskohercegovaĦke knjiņevnosti istiĦe nezanemarivu mnogostuku povezanost sa procesima i pojavama na ńirem juņnoslavenskom kulturnom prostoru, svakako ne u davno prevaziħenoj konstrukciji „jugoslavenske knjiņevnosti―, veĤ u dugotrajnim knjiņevno-historijskim procesima susretanja, doticaja i prepleta naroda, kultura i umjetnosti. Moderni umjetnici od pera Bosne i Hercegovine stvorili su magijom svoga knjiņevnog slova iskriĦav sjaj u velikom sazvijeņħu svjetske poetike modernizma, koji uvijek iznova poziva na nova Ħitanja i ińĦitavanja. 3. Modernizam u svjetskoj knjiţevnosti Posmatrano hronolońki, u odreħenom smislu prva od mnogih modernih proklamacija radikalnog raskida sa tradicijom i prońlońĤu smatra se Komunistički manifest (Comunist Manifesto, 1085 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 1848.) Karla Marxa (1818.-1883.) i Friedricha Engelsa (1820.-1895.), koji su razvili ideju o ljudskom otuħenju u kapitalistiĦkom druńtvu i potrebom za proleterskom revolucijom u cilju postizanja druńtvenih promjena. Znatnu ulogu preteĦa knjiņevnog modernizma, koji su Ħesto i asocijativno prisutni u njegovim gradbenim principima, imaju i mnoge liĦnosti, pravci i deńavanja u ostalim aspektima razvoja, promjena i manifestacija ljudske misli, u vezi s Ħim poseban znaĦaj, izmeħu ostalih, imaju: Charles Darwin (1809.-1882.), Sigmund Freud (1856.-1939.), Henri Bergson (1859.-1941.), Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844.-1900.), Ferdinand de Saussure (1857.-1913.) i, veĤ pomenuti, Albert Einstein. Tokom XIX stoljeĤa otkriĤa prirodnih nauka i racionalizam filozofije poljuljali su vjeru u validnost i kredibilitet dominantnih religioznih dogmi. S preobratom Ħvrsto ustoliĦenog starog reda najĦeńĤe se povezuje Darwinovo ime, Ħija su naĦela, izraņena u knjizi Postanak vrsta (The Origin of Species, 1859.), postala novim modelom spoznaje. Njegova teorija evolucije i socijalni darwinizam, s idejom o preņivljavanju najsposobnijih, pokrenuli su propitivanje dominacije religiozne ideologije nad naukom. Kontraverzne reakcije i efekat ńoka meħu ńirom javnosti izazvala su, takoħer, otkriĤa i djela austrijskog neurologa i tvorca psihoanalize u psihijatriji, Sigmunda Freuda. U tome prednjaĦe njegova formulacija Edipovog kompleksa (1897.), koncepta koji je razvio da bi objasnio razvoj djeĦaka kroz identifikaciju s ocem i ņelju prema majci, te djelo Tumačenje snova (Die Traumdeutung, 1900.), koje se temelji na analizi njegovih vlastitih snova. Zajedno sa osnivaĦem analitiĦke psihologije Carlom Jungom (1875.-1961.), svojim sljedbenikom s kojim se kasnije razińao, Freud je 1910. godine osnovao meħunarodno PsihoanalitiĦko udruņenje. U svojim djelima Freud je dokazivao da je Ħovjekov psihiĦki ņivot neprekidan dinamiĦki proces, u kojem se neprestano deńava sukob i izmirenje svjesnih teņnji i nesvjesnih poriva. On je prvi i ukazao na postojanje nesvjesnih podruĦja psihe, ńto je u potpunosti odudaralo od dotadańnjeg razumijevanja i tradicionalnog tumaĦenja Ħovjekovog biĤa. Prema Freudu, struktura liĦnosti sastoji se iz tri segmenta koji se, dakle, meħusobno sukobljavaju i osporavaju. To su: Ego – „Ja― kao Ħovjekova samosvijest, Id – „Ono― kao uroħena komponenta i podruĦje iz kojeg djeluje nesvjesno, i Super-ego – „Nad-Ja― kao neuroħeni dio psihiĦke formacije koji se razvija socijalizacijom i Ħijoj se strukturi Ħovjeka kao moralnog i druńtvenog biĤa njegov Ego Ħesto povinuje i protiv svoje volje. S druge strane, Ego balansira Super-ego da ne ode previńe u idealnost. Upravo takva slika Ħovjekove psihe pokazala se podsticajnom i ńiroko primjenljivom u knjiņevnom stvaralańtvu i tumaĦenju knjiņevnosti. Postulate novog razumijevanja stvarnosti, ńto je takoħer utjecalo na knjiņevnu rijeĦ, dao je i francuski filozof Henri Bergson (Time and Free Will, 1889.). On je smatrao da je subjektivni, nutarnji doņivljaj realnog vremena (Dureé) drugaĦiji od prostornog, linearnog, hronologijskog vremena historije (Temps). S obzirom da se prońlost moņe oĦuvati jedino u sjeĤanju, Bergson je isticao da nińta ne moņe biti zaboravljeno jer je sve pohranjeno u svijesti, Ħak i ako se to ne nalazi na njenoj povrńini. Mińljenje Ħuvenog ameriĦkog historiĦara religije i knjiņevnika rumunjskog porijekla Mircea Eliadea (1907.1986.) jeste da vrijeme protiĦe u zatvorenom krugu i da svaka nova godina oznaĦava poĦetak kozmosa. Prema njemu, potpuno prihvatanje linearnog, dakle historijskog vremena, jedan je od razloga modernih Ħovjekovih tjeskoba. Pored Einsteinove koncepcije vremena, nove tendencije i tumaĦenja promijenili su naĦin prikaza i recepcije vremena u modernoj knjiņevnosti, poĦevńi od Prousta, a zatim i u djelima: Forda Madox Forda (1873.-1939.), V. Woolf, J. Joycea, Windhama Lewisa (1882.-1957.), T. S. Eliota, Aldousa Huxleya (1894.-1963.), Williama Faulknera (1897.-1962.), i drugih. OpĤenito promijenjeni ili prońireni svjetonazor uzrokovao je, u naĦelu, degradaciju starih i razvoj novih tehnika u umjetnosti, pa time i u knjiņevnosti. U modernom romanu tako se prevazilazi stara pripovijedna tehnika i ostvaruje personalna perspektiva u tehnikama unutarnjeg monologa ili slobodnog neupravnog govora. U oba sluĦaja, kako to naglańava Viktor ŅmegaĦ, „roman nastoji pronaĤi stilski primjeren izraz za svoju najupadljiviju inovaciju u tom razdoblju: oblikovanje 'struje svijesti', dakle iregularnosti svakodnevnih psihiĦkih, tj. opaņajnih i refleksivnih, procesa – dakako, u onoj mjeri u kojoj narav knjiņevnosti takvo oblikovanje dopuńta.― (ŅmegaĦ, 2004: 316-317) Naziv „struja svijesti― potiĦe od ameriĦkog psihologa i filozofa Williama Jamesa (1842.-1910.), inaĦe brata poznatog romanopisca Henryja Jamesa (1843.-1916.). U djelu Načela psihologije (The Principles of Psychology, 1890.), W. James je konstatovao da je svijest poput rijeke ili strujanja, te ju je nazvao strujom misli ili svijesti. Vjerovatno najosobitije oblikovanje struje svijesti pomoĤu unutarnjeg monologa knjiņevnog lika predoĦavaju romani V. Woolf, J. Joycea i W. Faulknera. Woolfova je svoje shvaĤanje o moguĤnostima modernog romana, novom i nekonvencionalnom pristupu svakidańnjim ņivotnim pojavama izrekla u eseju „Moderna proza― (―Modern Fiction―, 1919.). Osim toga, u eseju „Gospodin Bennett i gospoħa Brown― (―Mr. Bennett and Mrs. Brown―, 1924), Woolfova pińe da je sklona vjerovanju, teńko dokazivom, kako dodaje, da se oko 1910. godine ljudska narav poĦela mijenjati. Ona istiĦe da su prijelomna razdoblja, kakvim poima i vrijeme prije Prvog svjetskog rata, obiljeņila duboke promjene u ljudskom shvaĤanju ņivota, pa tako i u knjiņevnosti, ńto se posebno 1086 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo odrazilo na romanu. Prema spisateljicinom mińljenju, ņiņa modernog romana treba da bude usmjerena na predoĦavanje lika ńto je, ponovo, radikalna suprotnost starim konvencijama. Jedna od krilatica modernizma u smislu osobene renovacije velike literature prońlosti koja postaje inovacija postala je fraza „Obnovi(te)!― (―Make it New!―, 1934.) Ezre Pounda (1885.-1972.), a koja je potekla iz KonfuĦijevog teksta o „zlatnoj sredini―. Krajem XIX, poĦetkom XX stoljeĤa, Ħovjek kao jedinka postajao je sve nezadovoljniji svrsihovitońĤu univerzalnog postojanja, ńto je razvilo i sumnje u Boņije prisustvo, kako u intelektualnoj sferi, tako i u graħanskoj masi. Sve je to utjecalo na razvoj misaonih supstrata modernizma, Ħemu je uveliko pridonijela i filozofija Friedricha Nietzschea, iako se on podjednako moņe shvatiti i kao snaņno dimenzionirani antimodernist. Prema Nietzscheu, ņivot je bjesomuĦna borba u kojoj je „umro Bog―, i gdje pobjeħuju sposobniji i jaĦi. Njegova filozofija poziva da se promijene sve okamenjene vrijednosti, kao i da se teņi novom idealu natčovjeka (prema njem. Übermensch) koji je iznad druńtvenog morala, ţelje za moći i vječnog ponavljanja. Nietzsche mijenja dotadańnje znaĦenje mita o vječnom vraćanju, i obrazlaņe koncept vječnog ponavljanja istoga kao dionizijsko i ontolońko naĦelo o vrtloņnom kretanju ņivota i bitka. Takvo naĦelo ne odnosi se na kozmiĦki dogaħaj izvan Ħovjeka, veĤ na onaj unutar samog njegovog biĤa. S obzirom da se na taj naĦin bitak nikada ne spoznaje, Nietzsche ovu filozofsku misao smatra zastrańujuĤom i paralizirajuĤom. Glasovite tvrdnje, aspekte i postavke njegove filozofije razjańnjavaju autorova kapitalna djela: S onu stranu dobra i zla (Jenseits von Gut und Böse, 1886.), Uz genealogiju morala (Zur Genealogie der Moral, 1887.), Tako je govorio Zaratustra (Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883.-1892.). Na razmeħu epoha, ne samo temporalnom, veĤ i knjiņevnom, revolucionarne inovacije desile su se i u jeziku. U poeziji se tako javlja slobodni stih; izraņavanje emocionalnog ņivota se individualizira, pri Ħemu se od Baudelairea pa nadalje nastoji postiĤi savrńenstvo jeziĦkog izraza, mada za to, u duhu modernizma, nisu ustanovljena nikakva opĤa pravila. Savremena lingvistika jeziĦnim pojavama pristupa na nov naĦin, a pod njenim utjecajem knjiņevno djelo u svojoj osobitosti poĦinje se razmatrati, prije svega, kao jeziĦka tvorevina. Utemeljitelj strukturalne lingvistike, Ferdinand de Saussure, formulira i definira pojmove bitne za razumijevanje i analizu, kako jezika, tako i knjiņevnosti. Njegovo razlikovanje jezika i govora, označitelja i označenog (ńto u najńirem smislu, ali ne i u odreħenim lingvistiĦkim teorijama, odgovara planu izraza i planu sadrţaja u teoretskom sagledavanju knjiņevnog djela), te dijahronije i sinhronije, kljuĦno je u razvoju teorije strukturalizma i tzv. poststrukturalizma, ali prvenstveno u shvatanju jezika kao sredstva sporazumijevanja u ńirokom prouĦavanju i raznovrsnoj analizi njegove specifiĦne strukture. 4. Nova knjiţevna epoha postmodernizma? Ono ńto je dominantno od sredine ńezdesetih godina XX stoljeĤa, u veĤ opĤeprihvaĤeno nazvanoj, mada diskutabilnoj – postmodernoj knjiņevnosti, u kojoj se iskuńava sve i svańta, i gdje sve prolazi (anything goes338), jeste da se jezik doņivljava kao igra, koja se igra prema sopstvenim odreħenim pravilima.U literarnu igru ukljuĦuje se i tradicija i knjiņevna prońlost, koje se doņivljavaju kao muzej znakova, a kojima se postmodernisti slobodno koriste. Jedno od osnovnih obiljeņja postmodernizma je ono ńto Jean Baudrillard (Simulacra and Simulation, 1998.) oznaĦava kao simulacrum, odnosno gubitak realnog, ńto predstavlja ińĦezavanje realnosti i suńtine iza prezentacije i povrńine. Dakle, slika dominira nad stvarnońĤu. Prema njegovom tumaĦenju, na taj naĦin brińu se granice izmeħu realnog i njegove slike, u Ħemu se izjednaĦava vrijednost izmeħu reprezentacije realnog i njene simulacije, gdje je simulacra, zapravo, kopija kopije (a copy of a copy). Na taj naĦin nastaje kultura hiper-realnosti. Baudrillard u objańnjenju simulacruma predoĦava Disneyland kao arhetipski primjer novog neautentiĦnog ameriĦkog krajolika. Uklanjanje znaĦenja iz knjiņevnog teksta, odnosno semiolońki skepticizam postmodernizma, kako to objańnjava Zdenko LeńiĤ (Teorija knjiţevnosti, 2005.), s jedne strane je posljedica nepovjerenja u jezik i njegovu sposobnost da ińta pouzdano oznaĦava, a s druge strane je izraz sumnje da se svijet uopĤe moņe razumjeti, pa Ħak i da on ima bilo kakvo znaĦenje. Postmoderna umjetnost, nadalje, brińe granice izmeħu „elitne― i „popularne― kulture, ima blagonaklon stav prema kiĦu, artificijelnosti, komercijalizaciji i elektronskom druńtvu kojoj i sama pripada. Ńtovińe, ona sama tako poprima obiljeņja neĦega ńto se uvjetno moņe nazvati komercijalnom umjetnosti ili proizvodom masovne kulture. Prema parafraziranim Levinovim rijeĦima iz njegovog 338 „... jedna od sredińnjih krilatica postmoderne... rijeĦi iz glavnog djela Popperova uĦenika Paula Feyerabenda, austrijskog teoretiĦara znanosti, koji je kao nastavnik na ameriĦkim sveuĦilińtima objavljivao i na engleskom jeziku. RijeĦ je o knjizi Against method. Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (1975), koju autor naziva 'anarhistiĦnom' jer se suprotstavlja uvjerenju da posvoje posve pouzdani, logiĦki i racionalno neprijeporni metodolońki sustavi.― (ŅmegaĦ, 2004: 449) 1087 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo glasovitog eseja, Ħak iz 1962. godine, pod nazivom „Ńta je bio modernizam?― (―What Was Modernism?―), u umjetnosti epohe napredne tehnologije produkcija je zapravo reprodukcija, a njeni su stvaraoci uglavnom konzumatori umjetnosti. U knjiņevnosti postmodernizam karakterińu i autoreferencijalnost, hibridnost i intertekstualnost, pluralnost kao afirmacija razliĦitosti, te skepticizam, dekonstrukcija i konstrukcija unutar dekonstrukcije s beskrajnim nizom tekstualnih moguĤnosti unutar jeziĦke igre. Vjerovatno najtemeljitiji, ńiroko citirani prikaz karakteristika postmodernizma, posebno u njegovim odnosu prema modernizmu, dao je ameriĦki knjiņevni kritiĦar i pisac arapskog porijekla Ihab Hassan u „Pristupu pojmu postmodernizma― (―Toward a Concept of Postmodernism―, 1987.). Izmeħu ostalog, po njemu, razlike su sljedeĤe: ↨ Modernizam Forma (povezana, zatvorena) Namjera Plan Hijerarhija UmijeĤe/Logos UmjetniĦki predmet/Zavrńeno djelo Distanca Ņanr/Granice Semantika OznaĦeno ↔ Postmodernizam Antiforma (nepovezana, otvorena) Igra SluĦajnost Anarhija Iscrpljenost/Tińina Proces/Izvedba/Dogaħanje Participacija Tekst/Interkest Retorika OznaĦitelj (LeńiĤ, 2005: 507) Postmodernizam dijeli mnoge tehniĦke postupke i umijeĤe konstruiranja sa avangardom, ali se od nje razilazi u odnosu prema tradiciji, koju on ne osporava. Historija je samo joń jedna vrsta naracije sa kojom postmoderni tekst komunicira, bilo da je rekonstruira, prońiruje i uvaņava ili dekonstruira, ironizira i osporava. Dakle, postmodernizam realnost tumaĦi na posve osobit i nov naĦin, potpuno drugaĦiji od onoga svojstvenog knjiņevnoj epohi realizma, pri Ħemu se koristi i elementima masovne kulture, odnosno savremene tehnike i tehnologije. U tom smislu postoji tendencija za karakterizacijom ove osobenosti savremene knjiņevnosti u prikazu nove realnosti, ńto god da ona podrazumijeva, uvjetnom odrednicom „novi realizam―. Nadalje, u postmodernizmu se desila i smrt autora. To je fraza Rolanda Barthesa (1926.-1984.) i Michaela Focaulta (1915.-1980.) kojom se opisuje postmoderni tekst kao vińedimenzionalni prostor u kojem se stapaju i/ili sukobljavaju razna pisana djela, od kojih niti jedno nije originalno, a u kojem znaĦenja postaju posjed i dio igre tumaĦa, odnosno Ħitaoca. Zbog svega toga, a prvenstveno pod dojmom da roman u knjiņevnosti ne moņe ponuditi vińe nińta novo, povele su se duge rasprave, ponajvińe o tzv. „smrti romana―, a zatim i o globalnijem i apokaliptiĦnijem predskazanju o tzv. smrti knjiņevnosti. Izmeħu ostalih, tako je i svjetski renomirani knjiņevni kritiĦar Hugh Kenner (1923.-2003.) napisao esej „Posljednji romanopisac― (―The Last Novelist―, 1989.) u kojem se pita da li je veliki ameriĦki pisac William Faulkner zapravo i posljednji romanopisac. Mnogi knjiņevni historiĦari i teoretiĦari knjiņevnosti argumentirali su tvrdnje i mińljenja da je „roman umro― nakon Joycea i Faulknera, a nastankom lingvistiĦke igre Vladimira Nabokova (1899.-1977.), Johna Bartha (1930.) i Thomasa Pynchona (1937.), koji se smatraju utemeljiteljima postmodernizma. „Smrt romana― opsjedala je i ameriĦkog nobelovca kanadskog porijekla, Saula Bellowa (1915.-2005.). T. S. Eliot je Ħak iznio mińljenje da se kraj romana usljed gubitka forme desio sa Flaubertom i Jamesom (―Ulysses, Order and Myth―, 1923.). 5. ZakljuĦak UnatoĦ predviħanjima, proklamacijama i tvrdnjama o kraju ili smrti knjiņevnosti, njen opseņni krajolik iz dana u dan postaje sve ńiri. U njemu modernizam zauzima jedno od najplodnijih podruĦja nevjerovatne ljudske genijalnosti, koje su svojim djelima, osim dugog niza pomenutih knjiņevnih stvaralaca, obogatili i sljedeĤi pisci: Joseph Conrad (Teodor Joseph Konrad Korzeniowski, 1857.1924.), André Gide (1869.-1951.), Henri Barbusse (1873.-1935.), Thomas Mann (1875.-1955.), Mihail Bulgakov (1881.-1940.), Franz Kafka (1883.-1924.), Hermann Broch (1886.-1951.), Miroslav Krleņa (1893.-1981.), Francis Scott Fitzgerald (1896.-1940.), John Dos Passos (1896.-1970.), Erich Maria Remarque (1898.-1970.), Ernest Hemingway (1899.-1961.), Thomas Wolfe (1900.-1938.) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905.-1980.), Eudora Welty (1909.-2001.), Albert Camus (1913.-1960.), Carson McCullers (1917.-1967.), Truman Capote (1924.-1984.), te Flannery O'Connor (1925.-1964.). U sazvijeņħu 1088 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo modernizma zaiskrili su i pjesnici: Robert Frost (1874.-1963.), Wallace Stevens (1879.-1955.), Boris LeonidoviĦ Pasternak (1890.-1960.), Tin UjeviĤ (1891.-1955.), Paul Éluard (1895.-1952.), Federico Garcìa Lorca (1898.-1936.), Pablo Neruda (1904.-1979.), i drugi. Dramsko stvaralańtvo modernizma, izmeħu ostalih, obiljeņili su: Luigi Pirandello (1867.-1936.), Eugene O'Neil, Samuel Beckett (1906.1991.), Eugene Ionesco (1912.-1994.). Ńtovińe, bez obzira na objave o smrti knjiņevnosti, knjiņevna djela neĤe se naĤi u osmrtnicama nekih dnevnih novina, niti Ĥe to oznaĦiti kraj Ħitanja. ĥinjenica jeste da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, kao i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu, u Ħemu sve ne moņe biti samo lońe, niti samo dobro. Zasigurno samo moņemo ustvrditi ono ńto je kontraverzni ameriĦki pjesnik Walt Whitman (1819.-1892.) konstatovao u jednoj od svojih poema: „Niko ne zna ńto Ĥe se sljedeĤe dogoditi.― (―No one knows what will happen next.―) (Whitman, 1892: 598) 1089 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References BegiĤ, Midhat, (1987) Raskršća IV, bosanskohercegovačke knjiţevne teme, Sarajevo: „Veselin Masleńa― – „Svjetlost―, str. 27. Kazaz, Enver, (2004) Bošnjački roman XX vijeka, Zagreb – Sarajevo: Naklada ZORO, str. 44, 46, 136. LeńiĤ, Zdenko, (2005) Teorija knjiţevnosti, Sarajevo: Sarejevo Publishing, str. 507. RadeljkoviĤ, Zvonimir, (2004) T. S. Eliot: Pusta zemlja, Sarajevo: Buybook, str. 99. Whitman, Walt, ―Years of Modern‖, (1892) Complete Poetry and Prose, New York: The Library of America, str. 598. ŅmegaĦ, Viktor, (2004) Povijesna poetika romana, Zagreb: Matica hrvatska, str. 316-317, 449. rns, national and global identities. In that context, the special focus theme proposed for the conference this time is universal vs. culture specific in the teaching foreign language and applied linguistics. 1090 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 584 Title A name given to the resource Modernizam nasuprot postmodernizma – Čitanje, razumijevanje, poučavanje Author Author Raljević, Selma Abstract A summary of the resource. Namjera autorice jeste da ovim radom neposredno uporedi univerzalne i kulturalne specifiĦnosti u Ħitanju, razumijevanju i pouĦavanju knjiņevnog modernizma i postmodernizma s meħukulturalnog aspekta. U radu Ĥe se nastojati pobliņe osmotriti bogatstvo velikog knjiņevnog sazvijeņħa modernizma, kao i njegov diskutabilni zavrńetak u razmatranju nastanka sljedeĤe, joń uvijek prijeporno neprihvaĤene, nove knjiņevne epohe, uvjetno nazvane „postmodernizam―. S obzirom da su se ĦitalaĦke navike promijenile, i da se joń uvijek mijenjaju u postmodernom, a onda, recimo, i u post-postmodernom druńtvu kako u Zapadnom, tako i u cijelom svijetu, te pobliņe i u Bosni i Hercegovini, posebna paņnja posvetit Ĥe se knjiņevnom svijetu XX i tendencijama XXI stoljeĤa, kao i njegovom razumijevanju od globalne prema nacionalnoj perspektivi. , Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b0347cd965f0e123927680b2ae96f04d.pdf a00421de9e2fabff2a29e664bbc7e075 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Iranian English Major vs. Subject-matter ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs and Instructional Practices in ESP Classes: A Comparative Study Peyman Rajabi Ph.D Student in TEFL, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Campus, Tehran, Iran paymanrajabi2002@yahoo.com Gholam Reza Kiany Ph.D in TEFL,Tarbiat Modaress University, Tehran, Iran Parviz Maftoon Ph.D in TEFL, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Campus, Tehran, Iran Abstract: Since the advent of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), plenty of controversial issues have been raised in the academic circles all over the world. As we know, one controversial aspects of ESP domain deals with the significant role of the teacher variable. In the present study, the investigators intended to compare and contrast Iranian English major ESP instructors with their subject-matter counterparts in terms of their beliefs and classroom practices in ESP classes. A total of 423 Iranian English major (ELT) and subject-matter ESP teachers participated in the study. The results revealed that theoretically a large and wide gap exists between English major and subject-matter ESP teachers while practically this difference is very slight. Key words: ESP, Classroom activities, Teachers‘ beliefs Introduction Teaching English for Specific Purposes (TESP) has been considered a separate undertaking from English language teaching. Dudley-Evans and ST John (1998) coined the term ―practitioner‖ for ESP teachers since, they believe, many pivotal roles such as course designers, materials developers, researchers, evaluators, and classroom teachers should be taken on by an ESP instructor. Bell (1981) believes that every language teaching program comprises three stages of input, process, and output; therefore, it is essential for an ESP teacher to have several roles which require both content and formal schema knowledge in a particular field of science. Since its infancy, many controversial issues have been raised to maintain whether the EFL teacher or the subject-matter in the field has the right to teach an ESP course. Some argue that ESP teachers are expected to have sufficient knowledge in content areas as well and be able to elicit knowledge from students. Generally, ELT teachers are linguistically superior over content or subject matter ESP teachers, but they may not be efficiently equipped with specific background knowledge of their learners' specialist academic disciplines. Moreover, there are other scholars who claim that ESP teaching is part and parcel of an English language teacher‘s career and that it is therefore their responsibility to design or teach such courses. However, we cannot neglect the fact that ESP teaching should focus on procedures appropriate for learners whose main goal is learning English for a purpose other than just learning the language system itself. Therefore, it is believed that for some basic aspects of its teaching, ESP has developed its own specific methodology and its research draws on research from various disciplines in addition to applied linguistics-- this may be the key feature which clearly characterizes ESP. Undoubtedly, the recent development in nations‘ political, cultural, social, athletic, business, touristic, and economic ties as well as the recent increase in ESP publications (textbooks or papers), conference presentations, professional and academic gatherings, invited lectures, and on-line workshops highlight the fact that ESP has gained a significant place not only among academic circles but also it has gained the shape of a ―New Industry‖ in the 21st century. Unfortunately, ESP programs in Iranian academic settings do not seem to sufficiently help the students acquire the kind of knowledge and skill they need whether inside or outside the class. Lack of sufficient ability to utilize their ESP knowledge efficiently, to communicate with their foreign counterparts, to participate in international 1017 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo conferences, or to utilize ESP for target situations all manifest the inappropriateness of ESP instruction in Iranian academic circles. In other words, despite the amount of time and energy spent, the learners fail to achieve the desired goals in ESP classes in Iran. This might be the output of a number of influential factors such as poor methodology, needs analysis, materials, curriculum, goal settings, beliefs and attitudes, policy making, and so forth. Despite the fact that materials and methodology are extremely important in any instructional program, it seems that the focal point in the teaching context is the teacher variable. Much have been said in the literature about the concept of authenticity in ESP programs, i.e. authentic texts, tasks, tests, or authentic materials, but , we believe, another type of authenticity has to be seriously taken into account and that is the ―individual authenticity‖- the reliable and competent ESP teacher. Most of us would assume that teachers are well qualified, dedicated, and willing to implement all the findings of research in the field, because they are simply "teachers" but little attention has been paid to the real and influential role of the ESP instructors in Iran. The scope of the present study is not focused on evaluating ―the ESP instructors‖, rather it aims at investigating any uniformity among Iranian ESP instructors in terms of their beliefs and methods of ESP instruction in their classes. To achieve such a goal the following questions were formulated: 1. 2. 3. Is there any significant difference between the pedagogical beliefs of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP teachers about ESP? Is there any significant difference between the instructional practices of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP teachers? What factors were mostly influential in shaping ESP beliefs among these instructors? Participants A population of 423 Iranian ESP teachers was selected to respond to a questionnaire which determined their personal beliefs as well as instructional practices in ESP classes. Geographically speaking, the respondents were from western, central, and northern provinces of Iran. The general profiles of these ESP instructors are shown in the following table: These ESP teachers are either TEFL or non-TEFL majors with university degrees of MA/Ms or Ph.D. Table 1: General Profiles of the Participants of the Study General Profile Age range Index 20-30 years 5% 31-40 years 80.4% 41-50 years 13.2% 51-60 years 1.4% Sex Male Female Degree MA/Msc. Field Frequency 83.7% 16.3% 82% PhD 18% English major 37.11% 1018 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Non-English major 62.89% 0-5 years 73.3% 6-10 years 23.2% 11-15 years 3.5% Little 3.3% Average Much 83.5% 13.2% Field 37.1% Studying Abroad 3.5% English classes 5.2% Self study 54.1% ESP teaching experience Satisfaction with ESP teaching Familiarity with English Instrumentation The instrument selected as measure in this study included a Survey Questionnaire. It targets close-ended sections that require teachers to respond to statements on a five point Likert scale. Firstly, it attempted to identify the beliefs ESP teachers have regarding ESP and its role in language learning and teaching in Iranian academic settings. Secondly, the questionnaire aimed to obtain information about teachers' reported classroom practices regarding the teaching of ESP courses. Results The first part of the second section of the questionnaire dealt with investigating the frequency of classroom activities carried out in Iranian ESP classes. To do this, we followed Farhady (2007). The results of ESP needs analysis project by Farhady (2007) revealed the most quoted real academic tasks included: general and technical listening, reading, speaking, and writing activities, note-taking, internet search, reading graphs and summarizing, translating, writing paper, submitting proposals, presenting papers in conferences, writing reports, writing CVs, writing research reports, and giving and receiving feedbacks from each other. Therefore, 16 highlighted classroom activities were chosen and given to a total of 423 Iranian ESP teachers. A 5-point-scale ranging from always (5 points) to never (1 point) was used to determine the frequency of 16 highlighted classroom activities in the ESP classes. The following table reveals the descriptive as well as inferential statistics for implementing instructional activities by Iranian ELT and subject-matter ESP teachers. Table 2: Iranian English Major vs Subject-Matter ESP Teachers‘ Classroom Practices Field Classroom Activity 1.Explaining technical words in Persian 2. Explaining grammar ELT never 0 seldom 1 Frequency sometimes 9 Chi-Square Test Results often 93 always 54 .000 S.M ELT 1 1 3 49 101 7 69 187 10 68 0 193 0 0 0 .314 S.M 1019 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3. Translating ESP texts into Persian ELT 0 0 1 23 133 S.M 0 0 2 27 234 ELT 0 2 20 102 33 S.M 3 1 29 207 26 5. Asking and answering questions in English ELT S.M 50 217 89 46 7 3 9 0 2 0 .000 6. Classroom presentations in English ELT 132 21 4 0 0 .065 S.M ELT S.M ELT 209 108 196 127 57 49 67 29 0 10 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S.M 195 68 3 0 0 9. Providing chances for students‘ classroom discussions in English ELT 38 86 32 1 0 S.M 171 92 3 0 0 10. Listening to audio files 11. Developing study skills activities ELT S.M ELT S.M ELT 41 177 7 102 102 53 84 44 72 51 40 5 83 92 4 23 0 20 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 S.M 181 82 3 0 0 13. Answering essay type quizzes in English ELT S.M 30 74 40 178 51 13 36 1 0 0 .000 14. Writing letters or articles in English ELT 120 22 15 0 0 .090 S.M ELT 217 52 36 71 13 26 0 8 0 0 .000 S.M 161 100 5 0 0 ELT 43 90 18 4 2 4. Doing reading comprehension exercises 7. Note-taking from classroom lectures 8. Writing classroom reports in English 12. Summarizing textbooks or pamphlets in English 15. Watching films or other video files 16. Conducting collaborative and cooperative activities in the classroom .680 .133 .113 .125 .000 .000 .000 .381 .062 S.M 64 197 5 0 0 The results of Chi-square test indicate that there are statistically significant differences between ELT and subject-matter ESP instructors in terms of 7 classroom activities while no significant difference between the two groups is reported concerning the rest 9 classroom activities (p<.05). Now let‘s look at each activity in brief. 1020 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With regard to determining the frequency of the first classroom activity, explaining technical words in Persian, the results indicated that 34% of the ELT instructors and 72.5% of the non-ELT teachers ―always‖ did such a kind of activity in their ESP classes. About 59% of the English majors claimed that they ―often‖ do the first activity in their classes while 25.6% of subject matter ESP teachers followed the same trend. The Chi-square results indicate that since the Sig. value of .000 is smaller than .05, we can conclude that the proportion of English major ESP teachers who explain technical words in Persian is significantly different from those non-English majors. Moreover, subjectmatter ESP tend to use more Persian equivalents in describing technical words. Majority of the instructors in both groups claimed that they ―seldom‖ explained grammar to the ESP students. This approximately approves the fact that grammar is overlooked in most ESP classes. The Chi-square results indicate a value of 0.314 which is higher than the alpha value of 0.05. So, it can be concluded that there is not any significant difference between the two groups in terms of teaching grammar to ESP students. The third activity, translating the ESP texts into Persian, favored the common consensus of both groups. Among ESP instructors, 84.7% of the English majors as well as 87.6% of the subjectmatter teachers ―always‖ translate the ESP texts into Persian. The Chi-square test outputs reveal no differences between the two groups as well. This strongly supports the fact that Iranian ELT or subjectmatter ESP teachers have always viewed translation as the safest and most dominant classroom activity which seemed to meet the immediate needs of the ESP students. However, the poor English background of Iranian ESP students might have proliferated the application of translation in ESP classes. Naturally, the outputs of Table 1 show that English major instructors as well as their non-ELT counterparts predominantly ―often‖ do class activity 4, i.e. doing reading comprehension exercises. So, it seems reading comprehension has favored considerable superiority among language skills in Iranian ESP classes. The value of 0.133, which is larger than 0.05, testifies the fact that there is no significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in doing reading comprehension activities. Among non-English major ESP teachers, 81.6% claimed that they ―never‖ practice classroom activity 5 while only 31.8% of the ELT instructors overlooked the application of ―asking and answering questions in English‖ in their classes. The Chi-square results indicate a significance difference between the two groups in implementing classroom activity five. This signifies the fact that there is little interest among subject-matter ESP teachers to make use of verbal interactions as the facilitators of learning in their classes. However, we conservatively propose that this might have also been rooted in insufficient general English proficiency of subject-matter teachers as well. Classroom activity 6 deals with ESP students‘ classroom presentations in English. The majority of English and non-English ESP instructors clearly stated that they ―never‖ implement such a task in their classes. The inferential statistics approves the fact that there is no significant difference between these two groups of teachers in implementing such activity in ESP classrooms. The teachers were asked to determine the frequency of students‘ note taking from ESP classroom lectures. It seems that since few or no lecture may be presented in Iranian ESP classrooms, students are not accustomed to such an activity. Writing classroom reports in English comprised the eighth activity. The results of descriptive statistics show that 80.9% of the ELT instructors as well as 74.4% of their non-ELT counterparts ―never‖ ask their students to write classroom reports in English whereas only 0.6% of the English majors and 1.1% of the subject matter ESP teachers claim that they ―sometimes‖ ask their students to write classroom reports in English. The Chi-square results reveal that there is not any significant difference between both groups. Providing opportunities for students to hold classroom discussions in English comprise classroom activity 9. More than 64% of the non-English major ESP instructors ―never‖ favored the application of such a task while the same frequency was reported by only 24% of the ELT instructors. This gap may extensively be due to instructors‘ fields of study and interests. The Chi-square results reveal that there is a significant difference between these two groups in terms of doing classroom activity 9. The ESP teachers were asked to determine the frequency of activity 10 which dealt with listening activities of the students in ESP classrooms. The story of activity 9 is repeated here. Only 26% of the ELT teachers claimed that they ―never‖ do listening comprehension tasks in their ESP classes while this was strictly true for 66.5% of the subject matter teachers. Table 1 proves our claim by showing the significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors. 1021 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With regard to determining the frequency of study skill activities in ESP classes, majority of non-ELT teachers (38.3%) ―never‖ assigned study skills activities while approximately 53% of the English majors claimed that they ―sometimes‖ utilize them in their classes. The Chi-square test results show the significant difference between the two groups. The ESP instructors claimed that they predominantly ―never‖ use summarizing texts or articles in English in their ESP classrooms. That‘s why writing is the most neglected and sacrificed skill among language skills in Iranian academic settings. The value of 0.381 strongly approves the fact that there is not any significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in implementing classroom activity 12. The frequencies of classroom activity 13, answering to essay type classroom quizzes, are shown in Table 1. Subject matter ESP teachers maintained that they ―seldom‖ have their students answer essay type classroom quizzes in English while the majority of ELT instructors ―sometimes‖ made use of such an activity in their classes. The inferential statistics testifies that there is a significant difference between the English and non-English major ESP teachers. The ESP instructors were supposed to determine the frequency of classroom activity 14 which dealt with students‘ article or letter writing in their specific fields. Over 76% of the ELT teachers as well as 81% of the subject matter ESP instructors ―never‖ utilized such an activity in their classrooms. This is mainly due to the fact that the whole objectives of ESP programs have not been clearly specified for our teachers. The value of 0.09 evidentially approves our claim that there is not any significant difference between the two groups in terms of implementing this classroom activity. The responses of the ESP teachers in terms of specifying the frequency of activity 15, watching films or video programs in specific fields, are presented in Table 2. The outcomes reveal that more than 60% of the subject matter instructors ―never‖ made use of technological aids in their ESP classrooms while only 33% of the ELT teachers did the same. The Chi-square test results show that there is a significant difference between the two groups regarding the manipulation of video aids. Majority of the instructors in both groups reported that they ―seldom‖ make use of students‘ cooperative activities in conducting their ESP classes, activity 16. This might be due to lack of sufficient time or insufficiencies in establishing student-centered atmosphere in ESP classes. The inferential statistics show that there is no significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in implementing such an activity in ESP environments. As noted earlier, the second part of the second section of the questionnaire deals with identifying Iranian teachers‘ beliefs about ESP and methods of instruction. Since it was too much difficult to include a large number of widespread beliefs in a very limited pool, the researcher decided to merely focus on some common and highlighted beliefs. Therefore, based on the present literature (Basturkmen, 2006; Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchison & Waters, 1987; Jordan, 1997; Robinson, 1991; Strevens, 1988) and the outcomes of the EAP needs analysis project carried out by Farhady (2007), we specified 21 types of pedagogical beliefs on ESP domain. Three underlying constructs namely teaching ESP, students‘ needs, and beliefs about students‘ practice were explored for the aforementioned beliefs. Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the First Factor Item Field Frequency SA 1. content teaching ELT A 83 ChiSquare Test Results N D SD 10 3 1 .000 60 1022 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 2.content familiar 3.sufficient English for others 4. content problems 5.technical word matching 6.non-English teacher better 7.multidiscipline 8.Persian language 9.language application 10.performting needs analysis Non-ELT 204 41 16 4 1 ELT 9 62 71 8 7 Non-ELT 2 3 201 38 22 ELT 120 32 5 0 0 Non-ELT 157 83 34 1 1 ELT .000 .000 1 3 10 51 92 Non-ELT 177 67 17 4 1 ELT 85 54 12 5 1 Non-ELT 160 80 24 1 1 ELT 0 0 0 0 157 Non-ELT 188 60 13 4 1 ELT 0 47 82 15 13 Non-ELT 0 7 189 35 35 ELT 97 55 4 1 0 Non-ELT 166 74 24 1 1 ELT 0 71 27 58 1 Non-ELT 2 26 69 167 2 ELT 89 55 11 2 0 Non-ELT 6 52 203 5 0 .000 .143 .000 .000 .333 .000 .000 As Table 3 shows, the difference between English major and subject matter ESP teachers is not significant in terms of the items 5 and 8. In other words, both groups had consensus on applying Persian as the medium language in Iranian ESP classes. Moreover, matching technical words with their Persian equivalents received the general agreement of both groups. The rest ten items demonstrate the significant difference between two traditions. The following table generally shows the frequency of ELT and non-ELT instructors‘ beliefs about the items which constituted factor 2, ESP teachers‘ beliefs about students‘ practices. The table also reveals the summarized inferential statistics to highlight the differences between these two groups. 1023 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Table 4: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the Second Factor Item Field Frequency/Percentage SA 1. utw ELT A 3.8% N D SD 15.9% 43.3% 12.1% ChiSquare Test Results .000 24.8% 2. future needs 3. lg evaluation NonELT ELT NonELT ELT 0% 1.1% 6% 75.5% 17.3% 14.6 % 4.5 % 36.9% 16.9 % 47.1% 76.7% 1.3% 1.9% 0% 0% 25.5% 31.2% 42% 1.3% 0% NonELT 2.3% 16.9 % 78.9 % 1.9 % ELT 1.9 % 14% 57.3 % 26.8 % .000 .000 4. developing lg activities 0% 0% .001 5. study skills NonELT ELT 2.3 % 16.9 % 71.8 % 9% 0% 1.3 % 27.4% 61.1 % 10.2% 0% NonELT 2.3% 19.5% 69.5% .476 8.6% 0% The results of Table 4 clearly show the significant differences between the beliefs of English major and non-English major ESP teachers in terms of the first four items. As it can be seen from the table, except one item, the respondents predominantly had ―neutral‖ beliefs about the proposed ideas. This may be a reflection of conservatism among ESP teachers who did not take the risk of frankly stating their ideas. With regard to the last item which focused on developing study skills activities among students in ESP classes, the Chi-square test did not show any statistically significant difference between both groups. The following table generally shows the frequency of ELT and non-ELT instructors‘ beliefs about the items which constituted factor 3, beliefs about students‘ language needs. The table also reveals the summarized inferential statistics to highlight the differences between these two groups. Table 5: Descriptive Statistics for ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs about the Third Factor Item Field Frequency/Percentage SA 1. translation ELT A 54.1% N D SD 2.5% 1.9% 2.5% 4.5% 1.5% 0.4% 31.2% 43.2% ChiSquare Test Results .052 38.9% 2.independent speaking NonELT ELT 63.5% 30.1% 0.6 % 0.6% .001 23.6% 3. no listening speaking NonELT ELT Non- 0.8 % 0% 22.2% 6.4% 70.7% 0% 0.4% 37.6% 64.7% 24.2 % 34.6 % 34.4% 0.4 % 3.8 % 0% .000 1024 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 4. grammar ELT ELT 5.languageskills NonELT ELT 6. memorizing words NonELT ELT NonELT 6.4 % 12.7% 56.7 % 24.2 % 5.3% 19.9 % 72.9 % 1.9 % 0% 1.9 % 35% 58 % 5.11% 0% 2.3% 16.9% 72.2% 8.6% 0% 38.2 % 24.1 % 5.1 % 6% 1.3 % 1.5% 0.6 % 0.4 % 54.8 % 68% 0% .000 .000 .077 Table 5 represents the ESP teachers‘ beliefs about the third factor, students‘ language needs in ESP classes. There was not any statistically significant difference between ELT and non-ELT instructors in terms of the first and the last items (the Sig. value are 0.52 & 0.77 respectively). The first item emphasizes the utilization of ―translation‖ as the foundation of ESP classroom activities. This is mainly seen through the frequency of considerable positive attitudes of both groups. Moreover, majority of both groups strongly agreed on the memorization of technical words as a necessary practice in ESP classes. No congruence was seen between English major and non-English major ESP instructors in terms of language skills such as listening- speaking activities and grammar teaching. The outcomes clearly show the gap between the two traditions. However, it is difficult to strongly claim that the main reason for such a difference lies on insufficient ESP knowledge of the nonELT group. In order to determine factors that affect teachers‘ decisions, the teachers were presented with a list of eight factors and asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 3, how important each of these factors were to them personally in deciding how to view ESP and the type of activities to use. Their responses to this question are shown in Table 6 below. Table 6: Factors Influencing ELT and non-ELT Teachers‘ Beliefs about ESP Factor 1.ESP teaching experience 2. Feedback from students 3. Dominant educational system 4. The current ESP textbooks 5. Teacher‘s personal information about ESP 6. Studying journal articles in ESP field 7. The way other ESP Level of importance Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important Not important Percentage ELT non-ELT 57.3% 27.4% 15.3% 41.4% 33.8% 24.8% 8.9% 6.4% 84.7% 14% 28.7% 57.3% 25.5% 35% 39.5% 87.3% 6.4% 6.4% 49% 47.4% 32% 20.3% 37.3% 18.8% 7.5% 15% 13.2% 71.8% 7.5% 23.3% 69.2% 52.6% 20.3% 27.1% 71.8% 25.9% 2.3% 36.5% 1025 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo instructors operate 8. Carrying out research projects in the field Fairly important Very Important Not important Fairly important Very Important 32.5% 18.5% 62.4% 20.4% 17.2% 40.2% 23.3% 65.1% 25.9% 9% Since the results of in Table 6 show, ―the dominant educational system in Iranian academic circles‖, ―the current ESP materials and textbooks‖, and ―ELT instructors‘ personal information about ESP‖ were the main influential factors which helped the formation of ESP beliefs and methods of instruction among the ELT instructors. ―Carrying out research projects in ESP field‖ and ―studying journal articles about ESP‖, factors 8 and 6 respectively, have received the last priority among English major instructors. This seems that ESP is still an intact field in Iranian academic circles. However, few research projects and/or dissertations have triggered ESP. Non-English major ESP instructors were asked to determine the most influential factors which shaped their beliefs about ESP and its methods of instruction. The results also reveal that ―the current ESP materials and textbooks‖, ―the dominant educational system in Iranian academic circles‖, and ―the way other ESP instructors operate‖ gained much priority among non-ELT instructors in shaping their beliefs about ESP. The first two factors mentioned by non-ELT instructors were similar to those highlighted by their ELT counterparts. This might reflect a kind of commonality among ESP teachers in terms of influential factors. But the third factor which focused our attention is somehow deliberative. It seems that non-ELT instructors follow the ways and patterns their fellow colleagues do in ESP classes. It is not clear whether these styles and patters follow any specific and logical principle in ESP field. Conclusions The first aim of the present study was to determine whether there was any meaningful difference between the beliefs of Iranian English major and subject matter ESP instructors about ESP courses and methods of classroom instructions. The results of the present study strongly highlight considerable difference between the beliefs of ELT instructors and their non-ELT counterparts. The main causes of such a gap lie in the fact that the non-ELT instructors may not be aware of integrating language and content instruction, since there is limited attention to language needs in the preparation of content teachers, and limited attention to either the specific discourse of academic disciplines or to the practical concerns of needs analysis, text adaptation, curriculum development, or collaborative teaching in most language teacher training programs (Crandall, 1998). The overriding belief of the 423 teachers who participated in this study was that ―translation‖ is a pivotal component of the language classroom. This appeared to be a ―resilient or core belief‖ (Clark & Peterson, 1986) that the teachers shared and showed that teachers generally favor translation. However, both groups had consensus on some items such as ―application of Persian language as a medium in ESP classes‖, ―technical word matching with their Persian equivalents‖, ―the emphasis on applying study skills‖, and ―memorizing English words‖. Moreover, the study aimed at finding out whether there is any significant difference between classroom practices of ELT and non-ELT instructors. The outcomes extracted from 423 ESP teachers revealed that ELT and content teachers differed greatly in frequency of doing a number of classroom activities such as ―explaining technical words in students‘ mother tongue‖, ―providing the students with speaking opportunities‖, ―listening to audio files‖, ―watching films‖, and ―asking students to answer essay type questions in classroom quizzes‖. The main reason for such a gap is insufficient knowledge or familiarity of non-ELT instructors with applying and integrating language skills in ESP classes. Language learning and content of subject matter could be brought together because a foreign language is most successfully acquired when learners are engaged in its meaningful and purposeful use. The integration of language and content involves the incorporation of content material into language classes. Content can provide a motivational and cognitive basis for language learning since it is interesting and of some value to the learner (Brewster, 1999). ESP programs are content-based, task-based, interactive programs which provide cooperative learning. Small groups of students work together to accomplish meaningful tasks in this approach to L2 learning so both cognitive and socio-cultural processes are at work together (Mitchell & Myles, 2004). Some believe in reading as the only skill to be developed: some others, however, take the four skills (reading, listening, speaking, writing) into account, dividing them into micro- and macro-skills. An initial and continuing focus in ESP has been on the skill of reading. This 1026 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo was for practical and international reasons, for example, many contexts throughout the world required the ability to read English passages. However, subsequent research and practice have taken the other three skills into account. For example, listening is crucial for lecture comprehension in English for Specific Purposes contexts, and speaking is considered important in English for Business Purposes as well as in ESP. Finally, writing is thought of as a necessary skill for non-native students in academic contexts. The results also highlighted no statistically significant difference between English and nonEnglish major ESP teachers in terms of the frequency of doing a number of classroom activities such as ― grammar teaching‖, ―translation‖, ―reading comprehension activities‖, ―classroom lectures in English by students‖, ―note-taking activities‖, ―writing classroom reports in English‖, ―developing study skills‖, ―summarizing text-books or articles in English‖, ―writing essays or letters in students‘ specific fields‖, and ―cooperative activities by the students‖. Cooperative Learning (CL) is the most widely used approach to ESP teaching because it is potentially beneficial for second language learners in a number of ways especially when performed through content. First of all, CL can provide more opportunities for L2 interaction and improve L2 proficiency (Swain, 2001). It can also help students draw on their first language (L1) while developing L2 skills (Cohen, 1986). But none of them was seriously taken into account by Iranian ELT and non-ELT instructors in ESP classes. The ESP instructors were asked to determine the influential factors responsible for shaping their beliefs about ESP and its method(s) of instruction. Among the suggested influential factors, ELT instructors referred to ―Iran‘s educational system‖, ―the present ESP textbooks‖, and ―teachers‘ personal information about ESP‖ as the most effective factors for shaping their beliefs. The non-ELT tradition, on the other hand, reported ―the present ESP text-books‖, ―Iran‘s educational system‖, and ―the way other ESP instructors operate‖ respectively determined the formation of such beliefs among them. Since ESP has been an ever-growing branch of EFL instruction in Iranian academic settings in the last three decades, there has been a great deal of improvement in curriculum development in this field. Presently, ESP courses form a remarkable part of the curriculums for almost all academic disciplines at university level. Since its infancy, materials development has seriously been the focus of interest and attention in the ESP domain. Specifically, the Iranian Ministry of Science, Research, and Technology has undertaken the responsibility of compiling ESP academic textbooks since 1980s. Meeting the learners‘ needs and enhancing the students‘ level of interest and motivation were two main factors which led the authorities of the Ministry to take the proliferation policy of publishing more than 230 ESP textbooks so far. However, the textbooks follow a rigid distribution of instructional exercises and activities for all academic disciplines with the emphasis on practicing microlinguistic aspects of reading skill. Therefore, it seems natural for us to see that both traditions select factors such as ―current educational system in Iran‖ and ―available text-books‖ as the dominant reasons for shaping ESP beliefs. The ELT and non-ELT groups only differed in terms of the third determining factor. English major instructors heavily determined ―their relevant knowledge about ESP‖ as the third priority in shaping their beliefs about ESP and its method(s) of instruction while non-ELT group reported that ―the way other ESP instructors operate in the field‖ constituted the third factor. Since non-ELT instructors predominantly did not have any prior and formal training in language science, they did believe that the way other ESP teachers operate has become a ―model‖ for them in conducting ESP courses. 1027 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Basturkmen, H. (2006). Ideas and options in English for specific purposes. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Bell, T. (1981). An introduction to applied linguistics: Approaches and methods in language teaching. London: Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. Brewster, J. (1999). Teaching English through content: Supporting good practice in innovation and best practice. London: Longman. Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers' thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan. Crandall, J. (1998). Collaborate and cooperate: Teacher education for integrating language and content instruction. FORUM. 36(1), 2. Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M.J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Farhady, H. (2007). Needs analysis project (unpublished document). SAMT Organization. Hutchison, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607-610. Mitchell, R., & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories (2nd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. Robinson, P. C. (1991). ESP today: A practitioner's guide. London: Prentice Hall International Ltd. Strevens, P. (1988) ESP after twenty years: A real-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (ed.) ESP: State of the art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Swain, M. (2001). Integrating language and content teaching through collaborative tasks. The Canadian Modern Language Review,58, 44–63. 1028 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 573 Title A name given to the resource Iranian English Major vs. Subject-matter ESP Teachers‘ Beliefs and Instructional Practices in ESP Classes: A Comparative Study Author Author Rajabi, Peyman Kiany, Gholam Reza Maftoon, Parviz Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the advent of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), plenty of controversial issues have been raised in the academic circles all over the world. As we know, one controversial aspects of ESP domain deals with the significant role of the teacher variable. In the present study, the investigators intended to compare and contrast Iranian English major ESP instructors with their subject-matter counterparts in terms of their beliefs and classroom practices in ESP classes. A total of 423 Iranian English major (ELT) and subject-matter ESP teachers participated in the study. The results revealed that theoretically a large and wide gap exists between English major and subject-matter ESP teachers while practically this difference is very slight. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ab28b9daf7964bb83f6191cc0e3d9eb7.pdf 1f367623c7b003e3d709671ddd6b4c0d PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo John Ashbery‘s Poetry: A Postmodern approach Masoumeh Rahimi Scientific society of English Language, Islamic Azad University, Bushehr Branch, Bushehr, Iran. Rahimimasoumeh20@gmail.com Abstract:Postmodernism has had its influences on different literary genres such as fiction, drama, and poetry. Truly, fiction has been the center of attention in many critical studies. But the manifestations of the movement can also be traced in poetry. John Ashbery is one of the contemporary poets whose poetry is best regarded as the postmodernist poetry. His works have been characterized by a free-moving and disjunctive syntax, experiments with linguistic elements, integrated humor and prosaic features. In his poems, the human mind and its workings are evident. He experimented radically with different elements of poetry such as linguistic and semantic aspects. Nowadays he appears to have been to the second half of twentieth century what Eliot was to the first: the most universally acknowledged of poets writing in English. The present essay elaborates on Ashbery looking back at poetic tradition while absorbing current techniques of combining present and past, centrality and marginality, and placing reader and writer side by side. Key Words: Postmodernism, poetry, John Ashbery, experimentation, centrality, Marginality Ashbery rank among the excellent postmodernist poets. His creative record of publication, beginning in 1956 and include twenty volumes of poetry, strongly corresponds with the arrival, rise, and climax of the postmodernist mode in North America. In addition, the moves in that long poetic occupation seem to parallel, when they do not actually predict, shifts in postmodernism across a range of cultural practices. Ashbery‘s early poetry, peaking in The Tennis Court Oath (1962), shows the first stage of postmodernism. Ashbery as an avant-garde writer and a key member of the so-called ‗New York School‘ of poetry occupy a controversial status in American poetry. Once he was a part of a marginalized opposition to the central poetic mode, and later turned into one of the most respected contemporary American poets, and he has influenced many other writers. His poetry is often felt to be meaningless. John Ashbery‘s works successfully display the poets‘ approaches to contemporary literature. A postmodern approach is mainly exemplified in Ashbery‘s poetry he has reworked past ideas and traditions of the former modernist period, resulting in his contemporary styles of writing that he is famous for. He historically attributed to the early appearance of postmodernism with the introduction of the New York School of Poets. Ashbery has borrowed from much of modern theory, often challenge these ideals, such as the rejection of subjectivity for an objective poetic voice. Professor Jeffrey T. Nealon in his analysis of postmodern literature, states, ‗Postmodern text destroys the language of the past to allow others to feed on its innovations and further open up the system to the possibility of thinking differently.‘ In fact modernist works of art and literature put emphasis to a subjective approach that demonstrates deeper meanings; a new postmodernist approach saw a contradicting method that was both objective and disloyal of the formerly established and traditional conventions. However, the postmodern movement demonstrated that it borrowed elements from modernism. For example, when an objective view was introduced in literature, it should be noted that this development could not have occurred without the influence of subjectivity as explored throughout the modernist period. This suggests that the existence of postmodernism lies in its ability to ‗work within the framework of the past,‘ but by doing so, ‗it must use the same language and acknowledge its tradition as representation.‘ Consequently, it can be argued that postmodernism is basically a representation of the old ideas demonstrated during the modernist period. John Ashbery employs the form of the dramatic monologue in his poem, Ashbery‘s poem is much like one continuous stream of thought with primarily long and complex lines. In order to lighten the tone of the poem ‗to escape the solemnity of the time, Ashbery noticed a need to ‗embrace popular culture.‘ He achieved this through his use of the ‗pop-cultural‘ character, Daffy Duck. This decision effectively enabled him to undertake the subject of historical and social change, but in a exclusively comedic manner. The first line of Daffy Duck in Hollywood illustrates Ashbery‘s ‗ability to be simultaneously silly and suggestive‘ when the narrative voice of Daffy Duck reveals, ‗Something strange is creeping across me‘ (1). This dramatic opening line immediately engages the reader and draws them in with such poetic force, encouraging them to continue reading. However, lines such as ‗He promised he‘d get me out of this one, / That mean old cartoonist!‘ (1011) remind the reader that when reading Ashbery‘s work, one must take him ‗both seriously and ironically at once.‘ 849 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ashbery‘s Late Echo represents the idea of a ambiguous title. Laughing Gravy is another title that provides no insight into the central theme of the poem, and appears to perhaps have no relation to the poem at all. A poem usually helps the reader to understand the title, it means usually summarizes the poem and reveal the poet‘s intentions in using this particular title. Of course, there is no such thing as a late echo, for as an echo is a repetition of a sound, it is essentially already late. Late Echo, which in fact, does not appear to display a key theme, nor does it reflect a particular thought. Some of Ashbery‘s poetry for example Late Echo illustrates the concept of referential uncertainty. Paul Hoover‘s in his introduction summarize the whole of postmodern poetry by listing its common and important issues he states: ―Postmodernism decenters authority and embraces pluralism. It encourages a ‗panoptic‘ or many-sided point of view. Postmodernism prefers ‗empty words‘ to the ‗transcendental signified,‘the actual to the metaphysical. In general, it follows a constructionist rather than an expressionist theory of composition. Method and intuition replace intention.‖ The readers see the repetition of words or sounds throughout the poem, but this idea does not hold any truth. Ashbery‘s opening lines, ‗Alone with our madness and favourite flower / We see that there is nothing left to write about‘ (1-2) also characterize referential uncertainty, for the reader, are left thinking whose ‗madness‘ (1) is being referred to here. Ashbery employs disorderly and unpredictable number of lines in his stanzas for example in Laughing Gravy which emphasizes the postmodern idea that poetry should not submit to any rules, but should undermine the concept of order. While the first stanza has three lines, the second has four, and the third and final one features just two lines. The poem presents itself as a stream of consciousness with apparently casual thoughts spread together to form a poem. To from the insight, ‗All these people coming in…‘ (4) to the next immediate thought, ‗The last time we necked / I noticed this lobe on your ear‘ (5-6), only highlights that the piece is contemporary. The uncertainty of the poet‘s thoughts constructs the narrative of Laughing Gravy and support the postmodern approach in its rejection to stick to specific or deeper meaning/interpretations. The use of parody, another poetic device, creates a satirical sense of foreboding early on in the first stanza when ‗the air sang Johnny, / Remember Me‘ (7-8). The lyrics to this love song demonstrate a comic warning to the reader of the tragedy that will occur in the seventh stanza: the woman‘s death. This reference to popular culture and the title of a pop song from the 1960s more illustrates the increasing regularity of popular culture in contemporary writing, which effectively combined high culture with popular culture, influencing and creating an updated pop culture. When Ashbery‘s publishing career began in the 1950s, his poetry was marginalized. At the beginning of the 1960s, a poem was generally expected to appear ―self-contained, coherent, and unified: that it present, indirectly to be sure, a paradox, oblique truth, or special insight‖, and in such a poem the speaker had to be someone separate from the author, but still a particular ―persona‖ (Perloff 1996: 107). The separation of the author and the speaker, in particular, is a New Critical principle. Many Poets were famous practitioners of this style of writing that was connected to Modernism in ―economy, wit, irony, impersonality, scrupulous handling of form‖, but hardly made use of such characteristics as ―extreme ellipsis, fragmentation, and discontinuity‖ Ashbery‘s work was characterized by avant-gardism and experimentation from the beginning. This was the atmosphere in which such works as Some Trees (1956) and The Tennis Court Oath (1962) were written, and the early work also established Ashbery‘s reputation as a ‗difficult‘ poet. The late 1950s also saw the rise of another mode of poetry which took its motivation from the New Critical rule of separating the speaker and the poet. This mode has been termed ‗confessional‘ poetry, which has its premise the poet‘s direct speech and naturalness of emotions. The convention is that the poet is the speaker. The poet becomes, in Breslin‘s words, ―a representative victim‖ who reflects on his or her self and predominantly negative feelings and experiences, and the reader‘s role is to empathize and to begin a reflection of his or her own experience (Breslin 1987: 42-43). A confessional poem is, then, meaningful in terms of one person‘s self, past and present, and the poem ultimately aims at revealing something about this one person. Breslin (1987: 218) states, Ashbery‘s poetry resists the ―earnestness about ‗experience‘‖ that succeeds in most of the poetry up until the 1980s, which partly explains why Ashbery‘s work became so highly praised at the time. This is also related to the confessional poetry of the 1960s, which was discussed earlier. While confessional poetry was partly a reaction to the New Critical mode of reading, it soon became established, and as Terrell Scott Herring (2002: 415) comments, it ―exemplified the irony and paradox structuring the ideal New Critical poem‖ because the relationship between ―public and private‖ was so clearly an issue. Therefore, confessional poetry provided good material for New Critical study (Herring 2002: 415). The practice was, then, ultimately close to New Criticism, even though a confessional poem might have been more open in terms of structure than earlier New Critical poems. Both of these poetic tendencies emphasize the centrality of the single voice and one identity or person whose presence provides the meaning of the insights or emotions presented in the poem. One feature of Language poetry is the challenge their work present to the idea of a unified voice and how that relates to Ashbery, but the centrality of experimentation for their poetics is useful to remember, as one approaches their work. Confessional poetry reduces in importance after that decade, but the centrality of ―earnestness‖ goes beyond it. A poem like ‗Litany‘, on the other 850 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo hand, foregrounds the nature of the self as a pronominal position, as a linguistically created starting point, rather than attempting to posit an illusion of a sincere subjective presence, and forces readers to consider the judgments they make on the basis of the pronouns for example about who is speaking and about the attitudes and tones of an utterance. The experiences and statements that are presented are thus placed not as essentially authentic and ‗earnest‘, but rather as examinations of how such experiences and points of view are expressed. Subjectivity is related to how ideas originate from a certain perspective or a mind that provides their organization and meaning. Identity and personality, on the other hand, are the property of ‗person‘. An identity entails characteristics that distinguish the person from all other persons. Personality and identity can be related to ‗characters‘ in a literary text, whereas subjectivity can simply be understood as a ―vantage point‖. In any case, pronominal relations like the centrality of the I in a poem encourage readers to perceive poems as the expression of a single speaker or subjectivity. Ashbery‘s poetry bears a relation to postmodernism because of the fragmentariness and the spreading of a unified subject. In postmodernist literature, single identities and particular personalities are no longer understood to be central, as Charles Russell sees, because ―individual subjects, voices, texts, or codes‖ always function within ―collective discourse‖ and larger societal structures (Russell 1985: 246-247). According to Russell (1985: 247) in postmodernism ―we are found to be constructs of discrete elements of social discourse‖. The languages and discourses that we use are central rather than individual personality, as the language that a person speaks is finally what defines him/her. Ashbery‘s poetry has always concerned with the chance of multiple voices and the spreading of a subjective position. However, because there is in most poems and I, his poems may come out subjective or private. Ashbery is often called a ‗solipsist‘, and his texts are repeatedly described as ‗meditations‘ on or around vague subjects. For example Harold Bloom ([1982] 1983: 271-273) says that Ashbery‘s poetry is essentially concerned with ―solitude‖. All in all, there are multiple meanings, polyphony of voices, and the poems also take the reader‘s position into account. In order to understand a ―vantage point‖ for a poem, several related concepts can be found: voice and speaker, self, subject and subjectivity, identity and personality. The reader try to create a voice or a speaker that brings together the totality of the text and charges the language with his or her presence and meaning, thus it serves as a point of reference. As observed in relation to ‗No Way of Knowing‘, normally upon encountering the pronoun I in a poem, one would expect to be able to create a regular voice that is obvious in the pronoun, but Ashbery‘s poetry presents a challenge to this expectation. His own, oft-cited account of his use of pronouns that he presented in an interview with the New York Quarterly is revealing: The personal pronouns in my work very often seem to be like variables in an equation.―You‖ can be myself or it can be another person, someone whom I‘m addressing, and so can ―he‖ and ―she‖ for that matter and ―we;‖… we are somehow all aspects of a consciousness giving rise to the poem and the fact of addressing someone, myself or someone else, is what‘s the important thing at that particular moment rather than the particular person involved. I guess I don‘t have a very strong sense of my own identity and I find it very easy to move from one person in the sense of a pronoun to another and this again helps to produce a kind of polyphony in my poetry which I again feel is a means toward greater naturalism. (Ashbery in Packard (ed.) 1987: 8990; my ellipsis) Ashbery‘s poems present steady interaction between unclearly defined and vague positions they are mostly clear only through pronouns. Usually the poems include the pronoun I, which marks a speaker, but a continuous presence or a persona is difficult to identify on the level of the whole text. Both the I and you are unclear and changing. ‗Person‘ in Ashbery‘s poems is evident only in fragments of different discourses and present only in ―the fact of addressing someone‖. Address is, then, also important for Ashbery‘s polyphony. The Tennis Court Oath has sometimes been rejected by critics as a point in Ashbery‘s career where he is merely experimenting while trying to develop a more ―mature‖ style. Mona van Duyn wrote that the ―state of continuous expectation, a continuous frustration of expectation‖ that the poems create does not really even correspond to her understanding of the kinds of effects poetry should offer (van Duyn 1962: 394).While this is also a matter of personal taste, van Duyn‘s comment illustrates a unwillingness to even consider what this different conception of poetry requires, and confirms to how a certain conception of poetry may prevail in the mind of one person or a group of people. It is, then, easy to understand why in the beginning of his career Ashbery was a marginal poet. In conclusion, the works of John Ashbery successfully demonstrate the poets‘ approaches to contemporary literature. He employs past ideas and traditions of the previous modernist period, the result is his contemporary styles of writing that he is famous for. He employs postmodern approach on his poetries. In facrt, Ashbery has borrowed from much of modern theory, often challenges these ideals, such as the rejection of subjectivity for an objective poetic voice. 851 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Ashbery, John. ―Laughing Gravy,‖ Wakefulness: Poems.New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1998. ----------. ―Some Trees‖. New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. Press, 1956. ----------. ―The Tennis Court Oath‖. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan Univ. Press, 1962. ASHTON, JENNIFER. From Modernism to postmodernism , American Poetry and Theory in the Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Breslin, Paul. The Psycho-Political Muse: American Poetry since the Fifties. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987. BLASING, MUTLU KONUK .Politics and Form in Postmodern Poetry O'Hara, Bishop, Ashbery, and Merrill. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Brian, McHale. How (Not) to Read Postmodernist Long Poems: The Case of Ashbery‘s ―The Skaters‖. Volume 21. Duke University Press: 2000. Goring, Paul, Hawthorn, Jeremy, Mitchell, Domhnall. Studying Literature: The Essential Companion. London: Hodder Arnold, 2001. Bloom, Harold. Agon: Towards a Theory of Revisionism. New York: Oxford University Press, [1982] 1983. Herd, David. John Ashbery and American Poetry, Manchester: University Press, 2000. Herring, Terrell Scott. Frank O‘Hara‘s open closet. PMLA, 2002 117: 414-427. Hoover, Paul. Introduction, Postmodern American Poetry: A Norton Anthology. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. Perloff, Marjorie. Whose new American poetry? Anthologizing in the nineties. Diacritics 26 (3-4): 1996. 104-123 Perkins , David. A History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987. Siltanen, Elina. Forms of polyphonic communication in John Ashbery‘s poetry. Pro Gradu Thesis, English philology Department of English University of Turku, 2008. Russell, Charles. Poets, Prophets, and Revolutionaries: The Literary Avantgarde from Rimbaud through Postmodernism. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1985. : 246-247 Van, Duyn Mona. Ways to meaning. Poetry. 1962.100: 390-395. 852 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 123 Title A name given to the resource John Ashbery‘s Poetry: A Postmodern approach Author Author Rahimi, Masoumeh Abstract A summary of the resource. Postmodernism has had its influences on different literary genres such as fiction, drama, and poetry. Truly, fiction has been the center of attention in many critical studies. But the manifestations of the movement can also be traced in poetry. John Ashbery is one of the contemporary poets whose poetry is best regarded as the postmodernist poetry. His works have been characterized by a free-moving and disjunctive syntax, experiments with linguistic elements, integrated humor and prosaic features. In his poems, the human mind and its workings are evident. He experimented radically with different elements of poetry such as linguistic and semantic aspects. Nowadays he appears to have been to the second half of twentieth century what Eliot was to the first: the most universally acknowledged of poets writing in English. The present essay elaborates on Ashbery looking back at poetic tradition while absorbing current techniques of combining present and past, centrality and marginality, and placing reader and writer side by side. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics