75 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8204001999486e3ffb09073578666ce8.docx 0c00bcd4366f31349b8fe15551dbf1e0 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c485ff3bf3e85ec6a07994d5082068e9.pdf 3157e0f6f120537b1d9b41bc3bcef3a2 PDF Text Text Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Feedback Generator for Learners of Persian Grammar Vahid-Reza Mirzaeian & Shahram Afrougheh Arak Industrial University, Islamic Azad University/Boroujerd, Iran Key words:CALL, ICALL, Grammar, Persian, Intelligent ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to report on attempt to design, and implement an intelligent feedback generator (IFG) aiming at helping learners of Persian. In order to design the system correctly, some preliminary data have been collected to see what areas are most probletic for such learners. Later a feedback generator based on two natural language processing engines for both Persian and English has been developed. The system works by comparing logical forms generated from English and Persian sentences. These logical forms are compared and anomalies are reported. With some modifications, the system can also be used with Persian learners of English since it can parse input from both languages. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1960 Title A name given to the resource Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Feedback Generator for Learners of Persian Grammar Author Author MIRZAEIAN, Vahid-Reza AFROUGHEH, Shahram Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words:CALL, ICALL, Grammar, Persian, Intelligent ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to report on attempt to design, and implement an intelligent feedback generator (IFG) aiming at helping learners of Persian. In order to design the system correctly, some preliminary data have been collected to see what areas are most probletic for such learners. Later a feedback generator based on two natural language processing engines for both Persian and English has been developed. The system works by comparing logical forms generated from English and Persian sentences. These logical forms are compared and anomalies are reported. With some modifications, the system can also be used with Persian learners of English since it can parse input from both languages. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0fbcadeb57f422e19f2b7fa78047fd46.pdf b5413b7aa42c91e6eb91e36d92d67d33 PDF Text Text Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Murat ÇAKIROGLU Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey muratc@sakarya.edu.tr Mustafa KUŞ Department of Electronics and Computer Education, Faculty of Technical Education, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey mustafa_kus@hotmail.com Abstract:WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Keywords: WEB-based, Interface, Remote Monitoring, Wireless Sensor Network Introduction WSNs (Wireless Sensor Networks) consist of sensor nodes with limited data storage / processing capacity, low-cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate (Akyildiz, 2002). The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties (Akyildiz, 2002). For example WSNs are used for remote monitoring of bird life with the 32 sensor nodes in Great Duck Island Project (Mainwaring, 2002, Szewczyk, 2004). The temperature, humidity, pressure, and light parameters have been observed in nesting environment of the birds. WSNs are used to observe the growth of the trees in Redwood forest. The temperature, humidity, and solar radiation parameters are sensed (Tolle, 2005). Welsh, 2005 and Werner-Allen, 2006 has realized to remote monitoring of the active volcano in Ecuador. The processing and delivering to the remote users in real time manner, graphical representation, and storage of sensed data are so important in such as application areas. Various data processing and visualization tools have been developed in the literature. For examples, Mote-View software was developed by Crossbow can set node configuration and allow to monitoring, plotting and storing of real-time sensed data (Crossbow). But this software is able to support to plotting and visualization service in local manner. Spyglass is java-based and modular WSN visualization software (Buschmann, 2005). jWebDust is also java-based and general-purpose visualization tool (Chatzigiannakis, 2005). However, good Java knowledge is needed to configure them in accordance with the requirements of different applications. Cao, 2009 were designed the general-purpose web interface for WSNs. This interface focuses on data processing capability and congestion avoidance. In this study, we have designed the PHP and FLASH-based web interface for remote monitoring and controlling of WSNs. The most important difference of this interface than others focuses on flexibility, visuality, and ease of use. Therefore PHP, FLASH and the PostgreSQL database server are used in this web-based interface for receiving, analyzing, processing, visualizing, and showing the data in a web browser. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The hardware and software tools used to design of the proposed web interface are introduced in Section 2. In Section 3 are described the design criteria and features of proposed PHP and FLASH based web interface. The paper is concluded by Section 4. 394 �Preliminaries MicaZ WSN Mote and Sensor Kit The MICAz (Figure 1) which is a widely used sensor node in WSNs, has an integrated ATMEGA128L microcontroller from AVR family having 128KB code memory and 4KB data memory with the clock speed of 16 MHZ (MICAz, 2009). It can communicate at 250 Kbit / second data transmission speed using Chipcon CC2420 IEEE 802.15.4 compliant wireless transceiver (Crossbow, 2010). In this study, it is also used MTS400 sensor board, which can sense the light, temperature, pressure, humidity and acceleration, together with MICAz nodes. Figure 1. MicaZ motes PHP PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor is a widely used, general-purpose scripting language that was originally designed for web development to produce dynamic web pages. For this purpose, PHP code is embedded into the HTML source document and interpreted by a web server with a PHP processor module, which generates the web page document. PHP is available as a processor for most modern web servers and as standalone interpreter on most operating systems and computing platforms. (Wikipedia, 2010). PHP has widespread use in recent since it is an open source language, has rich document support and ease of use. Therefore in this paper PHP language is used. Design Stages of WEB-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks System Architecture The system architecture, which consists of WSN, server, and users, are shown in Figure 2. WNS is consisting of more than one wireless sensor nodes, which sense the phenomenon, and a base station, which ensure communication of the nodes with the server. The nodes regularly collect the information such as temperature, humidity, light and forward them to the server through base station. Server is responsible to evaluate, process, and visualize the data coming from the base station. For this purpose PostgreSQL database, Apache server and PHP language are used. First server record data coming from base station to the PostgreSQL database, then it process the data in the database depending on user requests, and last it display the processed data with the help of Apache Web server and PHP. User can examine the processed data by means of any device connected to the internet. Client Wireless Sensor Network Client internet N BS N: WSN node Server BS: Base Station Sensor Layer Client Server Layer Client Layer Figure 2. System architecture 395 �Designed WEB-based Interface In this subsection the properties and usage of proposed general-purpose and web based interface are described. In figure 3, introduction page is shown. This page allows to user securely accessing the web based interface. After the password is approved the general view of the designed web based interface is shown as Figure 4. This page allows monitoring the wireless sensor nodes, examining sensed data of nodes, creating the graphs of sensed data and observing the topology of network. The main purpose of the proposed interface is providing flexibility to the user. Therefore the interface is divided into five main sections. Figure 3. Introduction page Data Section In data section, the momentary value of the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage level information coming from sensor nodes are shown as Figure 4. Figure 4. Data section. 396 �Chart Section In chart section, the temperature, humidity, pressure, light and voltage values coming from sensor nodes can be converted the various graphical forms as Figure 5. Moreover, these graphs can be saved by the user. Figure 5. Chart section It is shown different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node in Fig. 6. Moreover, the proposed interface allows plotting different data (humidity, pressure) belonging to more than one nodes in a single page as shown Fig.7 Figure 6. Chart of the different physical data (humidity, pressure) belonging to a single node 397 �Figure 7. Chart of the different physical data belonging to multiple nodes Health Section This section allow monitoring the parameters belonging to the sensor nodes such as number of dropped packets, number of retries, number of received packets as shown Fig. 8 Figure 8. Health section Topology Section This section allows observing logical connection of the sensor nodes deployed in the environment. Further, sensed data of the nodes can be easily seen as a summary. 398 �Figure 9. Topology section Summary and Final Remarks In this paper, the design of general purpose and PHP based web interface for wireless sensor networks are presented. Proposed web interface allow monitoring sensed data, creating the graphs, and observing the topology of network. The main advantage of the proposed interface is user friendly. Depending on the user's request it can be plotted and saved the graph of different physical values. Designed web based interface can be acceptable as a prototype for WSNs, and can be easily used in various application areas such as environment monitoring, military surveillance systems, habitat monitoring. References Akyildiz I F, Su W, Sankarasubramaniam Y, Cayirci E.(2002). Wireless Sensor Networks: Survey. Comput Networks, (pp. 38:393–422). Buschmann C, Psterer D, Fischer S, Fekete S P, Kroler A.(2005) Spyglass: A Wireless Sensor Network Visualizer, ACM SIGBED Review (pp. 2 (1):1-6). Cao X, Chen J, Sun Y.(2009) An interface designed for networked monitoring and control in wireless sensor networks, Comput Stand Interface, (pp. 31:579-585). Chatzigiannakis I, Mylonas G, Nikoletseas S E.(2005) jWebdust: a javabased generic application environment for wireless sensor networks, In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Networks (DCOSS), (pp. 376–386). Crossbow Technology Inc. URL: http://www.xbow.com Juang P, Oki H, Wang Y, Martonosi M, Peh L S, and Rubenstein D.(2002) Energy-efficient computing for wildlife tracking: design tradeoffs and early experiences with zebranet. In: Proc. of ASPLOS-X,(pp. 96–107). Mainwaring A, Culler D, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Anderson J.(2002) Wireless sensor networks for habitat monitoring. In: Proc. of WSNA, (pp. 88–97). MicaZ Data Sheet, Last visited: December 2009, Available: www.xbow.com/Products/Product_pdf_files/Wireless_pdf/MICAZ_Datasheet.pdf PHP, URL: http://www.php.net 399 �PostgreSQL, URL: http://www.postgresql.org Szewczyk R, Mainwaring A, Polastre J, Anderson J, Culler D.(2004) An analysis of a large scale habitat monitoring application. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 214–226). Tolle G, Polastre J, Szewczyk R, Culler D, Turner N, Tu K, Burgess S, Dawson T, Buonadonna P, Gay D, and Hong W. (2005) A Macroscope In The Redwoods. In: Proc. of SenSys, (pp. 51–63). Welsh M, Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2005) Sensor Networks for highresolution monitoring of volcanic activity. In: Proc. of SOSP, (pp. 1–13). Werner-Allen G, Lorincz K, Welsh M, Marcillo O, Johnson J, Ruiz M, and Lees J.(2006) Deploying a wireless sensor network on an active volcano. IEEE Internet Computing, (pp. 10(2):18–25). Wikipedia PHP: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP 400 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 534 Title A name given to the resource Design of Web-based Interface for Wireless Sensor Networks Author Author ÇAKIROGLU, Murat KUS, Mustafa Abstract A summary of the resource. WSNs consist of sensor nodes with limited capacity, low cost and communicating with each other in short distances using considerably low power rate. The nodes can be dispersed randomly into intended region in which they are used for measurement and monitoring purposes within the frame of a common scenario. They are used in many areas ranging from military fields to public health services because of their wide range properties. In this application fields, there are some requirements to appear that the wireless sensor nodes can be monitoring by remote-controlled and the data which are picked up from where the system is placed can be processed. This paper describes the design of web based interface for wireless sensor networks. The proposed web-based interface provide configuration of the network and access to real-time and archived temperature, humidity, light data through any Internet-capable device. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3469 Title A name given to the resource DESIGNING A TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION DIPLOMA COURSE Author Author Villalobos Nájera, Luis Armando Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this paper is to share the experiences regarding the design and implementation of a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) in a public university located in central Mexico. The main point of designing and implementing the diploma course was to start a new generation of translators and interpreters since a number of BA in ELT graduates from local universities and many other translators from the region wish to grow professionally in both translation and Interpretation areas. Besides, the implementation of this diploma course became a necessity since no institutions in this region offer a course of this kind. Moreover, the TIDC was designed taking into account the demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial growth in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a0d32274e9842b6e4a87ccb2d2b57987.pdf 0efe7a3fe9e186c688017a4cb7cef379 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Luis Armando Villalobos Nájera Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 12.11.2014. Abstract The objective of this paper is to share the experiences regarding the design and implementation of a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) in a public university located in central Mexico.The main point of designing and implementing the diploma course was to produce a new generation of translators and interpreters, since a number of BA in ELT graduates from local universities,as well as many other translators from the region, wish to grow professionally in both translation and interpretation areas.Moreover, the implementation of this diploma course was necessarybecause no institutions in this region offer a course of this kind. The TIDCwas designed taking into account the demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial growth in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The curriculum for the TIDCconsists of 14 modulescentered on thetheoretical aspects of translation and thetranslation practice of financial, scientific, technical and legal texts. Spanish writing, terminology, and CAT tools training are also part of the curriculum.The students are also introduced to Consecutive and Simultaneous Interpretation using theappropriate interpretation equipment.Allacademic staffinvited to collaborate in this program hold an MA in Translation and Interpretation. They are also certified translators and currently teach translation and interpretation in various universities. Most of them belong to translators and interpreters associations. Key words: translation theory, translation training, interpretation, syllabus, design, implementation. The idea of designing theTranslation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) emerged from the increasing demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial boom in the state of Aguascalientesthat started a few decades ago. Numerous national and international companies established in Aguascalientes, mostly related to the automotive industry, demand translation and interpretation services in order to succeed in today’s global economy. 157 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course In addition to the business and industry sectors, academic institutions also need professional translation and interpretation services in their diverse activities. Moreover, consecutive interpreting and simultaneous interpreting have become a necessity for the different congresses, seminars, and meetings that continuously take place in the state of Aguascalientes. The Current Situation of Translation and Interpretation Studies in Mexico Translation and interpretation studieshave evolved along with globalization in Mexico, the fifth-largest country in the Americas. However, this evolution does not seem sufficient to cover the demand for translation and interpretation services of a country with an estimated population of 118 million. According to a research conducted by the author, a total of nine Master’sdegree programs in Translation and Interpretation are offered in only six of Mexico’s 32 states, while only10 institutionsin states including Mexico Cityoffer degrees in Translation and Interpretation.Finally, only seven institutionsconcentrated in Mexico City offer diploma courses in translation and/or interpretation. As a consequence,mainly due to the lack of availability in their place of residence, a number of students interested in Translation and Interpretation studies find it difficult to enroll in translation and/or interpretationcourses. The situation is quite similarin Aguascalientes, since no academic institutions offer programsor courses related to Translation studies. The Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Curriculum In this paper, the term “curriculum” refers to the academic content taught in a specific course or program that also includes learning objectives, materials and assessment methods.It is important to mention that according to Nunan (1988), all elements contained in a given curriculummust be integrated in order to avoid conflicts when making decisions at different levels of such curriculum. In this particular case, the author attempted to interconnect the elements of the curriculum for the purpose of integrating and applyingthe students’ technical, professional, and ethical skills acquired throughout the development of the diploma course. On the other hand, Li(2006) claims that there is a “gap between translation training and the real world of professional translation” (p. 615). In other words, students who graduate from translation courses are not really prepared to face the challenges of professional translation as most translation-course contents do not provide students with enough translation practiceby employing authentic materials. Moreover, sometimes translation teachers do not have enough professional experience in certain specialized areas of translation. In light of the above, the author considered it necessary to adopt amore suitable approach in order to meet students’ expectations. 158 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The main idea was to develop a curriculum that provided students with translation practice in the technical, scientific, financial and legal areas, as well as to includesome Terminology management and CAT tool training. Furthermore, Beeby (2004) and Mackenzie (2004) suggest that since new technologies have revolutionized translation, it is of great importance to provide the students with translation-memory tools and terminology software in order to develop the future professional translators’ competencies. Moreover, the correct use of such tools is essential to guarantee quality in translation work, as asserted by Esmaieli (2009)and Savelová (n.d.). In view of the above, the contents of the TIDCcurriculum include authentic translation tasks and simulated interpreting activities in an effort to integrate both the process-oriented approach suggested by Gile (1995) and the practice-oriented approach proposed byWilss(1996). This combination of approaches has been suggested by Li (2006), who argued thatteachers currently focusmainlyon a productand/or practice-oriented approach because such approaches provide students with many different types of translation tasks aimed at preparing them to face the real world of professional translation.In addition to practice in translation skills, one of theTIDC’s main objectives is to develop translation competencies in students, taking into account the premise expressed by Mackenzie (2004) “Learning by doing, knowing-how rather than knowing” (p. 33),which refers to using translation skills in real or simulated situations as an essential part of translation training. Translation and Interpretation Diploma courses in Mexico However, it was necessary to make a comparison among other translation and interpretation diploma courses offered in Mexicowith respect to their curricula structure and contents in favor of obtaining more ideas for designing a practical translation and interpretation diploma course. After having conducted an Internet search, the author gathered information from six translation diploma courses and two translation and interpretation diploma courses offered by various higher education institutions in the country (see Table 1). The main purpose was to find out the types of learning objectives established, the methodologies used, and the assessment criteria employed. It was also important to know about tuition costs, thelength of the courses and thenumber of modules. The results showed that the translation and interpretation diploma courses offered by private institutions were not affordable tomiddle-class students due to the high cost of tuition, whereassimilar diploma courses offered by public universities were more affordable. It was also found that the criteria followed in the admission requirements varied a lot, but it was evident that prospective students needed to have a good command of English andalso had to beproficient in their mother tongue. 159 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Another objective of this research was to find out if CAT-tool subjects and terminology subjects formed partof the Diploma Courses’ curricula (see Table 2). Contrary to what the author expected, only twoprivate universities included CATtool training in their courses. This is probably due to the fact that CAT-tool training implies the purchase of licenses and,equally importantly,the availability of translation teachers withCAT-tool knowledge. By contrast, seven institutions include at least one Terminology subject in their course programs. This indicates that such institutions are aware of the importance that Terminology management plays in the translation process. In this respect, Palou (2012) supports the idea that the management of terminological databases helps the translator to render translations with language quality, accuracy, and consistency. The Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Subjects It is important to point out that the TIDC consists of introductory subjects aimed at providing students with the basic skills and knowledge of different areas of Translation and Interpretation. The TIDC also aims to broaden students’ perspectives and encourage them to become skilled translators and interpreters through their own continuing professional development. Another aspect of the TIDC that needs to be highlighted is that the teachers were asked to apply translation theory to translation practice and to help the students integrate and transfer the skills and knowledge theygained in one subject into the subsequent subject in order to improve their translation and interpretation competencies. TIDC DeliveryMode The author chose the Face-to-Face delivery method for the TIDC subjects with the purpose of creating a positive classroom environment as a way to foster cooperative learning. According to the author’s own teaching experience, Face-to-Face instruction promotes a more effective interaction between the teacher and the students, which makeslearning more effective. Another advantage of having the students physically together is that they can make use of Language Department facilities such as classrooms equipped with Internet access and LCD interactive screens, the Lecture Hall for Simultaneous Interpreting practices, and the Language Lab. Considering that most of the prospective students are translators and English teachers and in order to facilitate their attendance at the TIDC, classes will take place on weekends: Friday afternoons from 4 to 8 pm and Saturdays from 8 am to 1 pm. 160 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics TIDC Evaluation The instruments for evaluating the TIDC are currently in the design process. The evaluation instruments will consist of questionnaires and interviews for both teachers and students. The feedback obtained will serve for further improvement of the TIDC. Academic Staff Anumber of studieshave shown that there is a strong relationship between teacher quality andstudent achievement. For example, Buddin and Zamarro (2009),affirm that“Teacher quality is a key element of student academic success” (p. 1). Likewise, King (2003)states that “Teacher quality matters. In fact, it is the most important school-related factor influencing student achievement”(v).Taking into account the previous considerations, the author contactedqualified teachers in translation and interpretation studies and invited themto participate in the TIDC.Five of the teachers have the following profile:    Currently working as certified translators and interpreters. Hold a Master´s degree in Translation and Interpretation Currently teaching translation and interpretation at higher academic institutions. The rest of the academic staff consists of a PhD in Law teacher, an MA in Education teacher, an MA in Philosophy teacher, an MA in Translation and CAT tools teacher, and a BA in Hispanic Letters teacher. The author considered that the quality of teaching offered in the TIDC was a more effective way of attracting prospective students since quality in teaching may improve the quality-of-learning outcome. The Approval of the Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course The proposal for the TIDCwas submitted, in accordance with the regulations of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes, to the University Executive Board and wasapproved on November 13, 2013. Implementation Afteritsapproval, it was really important to develop a plan of action to promote the TIDC with the purpose of attracting prospective students. The staff from the 161 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Continuous Education Department at the university designed a flyer announcing the TIDCand a number of copies were distributed in the main commercial areas of the city. Additionally, the Communication Department also designed a poster announcing the TIDCand copies were posted throughout the Central Campus. In addition, the Communication Department also invited the author to participate in a university radio program to give general information about the TIDC.TheTIDCwas also promoted ata Language Department meeting attended by approximately 100 teachers in December 2013. The poster announcing the TIDCappearedon the Language Department’sFacebook page. Finally, the author sent e-mail messages to local certified translators. Before the end of the second semester of 2013, the Department of Continuous Education set the dates for the Registration period. A total of 20 students, mostly English teachers and translators, signed up for the TIDC. The staff from the Continuous Education Department was in charge ofarranging travel expenses, accommodation, and transportation for the external teachers. The Language Department also organized the assignment of classrooms and labs for the TIDCclasses. Finally, the TIDC was inaugurated by the Humanities and Social Sciences authorities. The ceremonywas held at the Lecture Hall of the Language Department on February 7, 2014. Conclusion The author is aware that theTIDC will not fully satisfy the increasing demand for translation and interpretation services in the state of Aguascalientessince it differs from a Bachelor’s or Master’s degree in Translation and Interpretation. However, it will probably mark the beginning of a new generation of translators and interpreters in this region.Furthermore, the authorities of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes are considering using the TIDC as a starting point for a Master’s Degreeprogram in Translation and Interpretation. 162 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics References Beeby, A. (2004). Language learning for translators. Designing a syllabus. In Malmkjaer, K. Editor (2004).Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programs. (p. 41). Amsterdam/Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. DIPLOMADO EN TRADUCCIÓN INGLÉS-ESPAÑOL. ORGANIZACIÓN MEXICANA DE TRADUCTORES, A.C. Retrieved from http://www.omt.org.mx/diplomado1.htm Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados (DTTE). Universidad Autónoma de México. Retrieved from http://cele.unam.mx/index.php?categoria=3&subcategoria=22&contenido=7 9 Diplomados: Traducción. Metodología. Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua. Retrieved from http://www.uacj.mx/sa/asc/CELE/Paginas/Diplomados.aspx Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados. Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México. Retrieved from http://desarrolloejecutivo.itam.mx/extension/files%5CTemarios%5CProgram a%2000002794%5CP_2794_TEM_953.PDF Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación. Universidad Iberoamericana. Retrieved from http://www.uia.mx/diplomados/default.html Diplomado en Traducción. Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. Retrieved from http://www.ujat.mx/interioradentro.aspx?NODO=123&ID=3491 Diplomado Intérprete – Traductor. Berlitz Mexico. Retrieved from http://www.berlitz.com.mx/cursos-idiomas/Diplomado-Int-rpreteTraductor/Caracter-sticas-del-programa/146/guiseid--2/ 163 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Doherty, S. (2013) The Value of Effective Training in Translation and Localization.Galaxy Newsletter Q3 2013.Retrieved from https://www.gala-global.org/node/84770 Esmaieli, S. (2009).Necessity of tech integration into translation training programs.Translation Directory.Com. Retrieved from http://www.translationdirectory.com/articles/article2043.php King, J. (2003) Teacher Quality. Understanding the Effectiveness of Teacher Attributes. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from http://www.epi.org/publication/books_teacher_quality_execsum_intro/ Li, D. (2006) “Translators as Well as Thinkers: Teaching of Journalistic Translation in Hong Kong” Meta : journal des traducteurs / Meta: translators’ Journal, vol. 51, nº 3, 2006, p. 611-619. Mackenzie, R. (2004). The competencies required by the translator´s roles as a professional. InMalmkjaer, K. (Ed.)Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programs. (p. 32-33). Amsterdam/Philadelphia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. National Research Council.(2014) Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2000. (p. 44) Nord, Ch. (1991). Text Analysis in Translation.Theory, Method, and Didactic Application of a Model for TranslationOriented Text Analysis. Translated from the German by Christiane Nord and Penelope Sparrow. Amsterdam/Atlanta GA, Rodopi, 250 p. ISBN : 9051833113. Nunan, D. (1988) Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Palou, M. (2012) Managing Terminology for Translation Using Translation Environment Tools: Towards a Definition of Best Practices. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Ottowa. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/en/handle/10393/22837 164 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Appendix A Table 1. Translation and Interpretation Diploma Courses in Mexico Diplomado Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados Diplomado Traducción Textos Especializados Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción Diplomado Traducción (InglésEspañol) Berlitz Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua, Mexico Organización Mexicana de Traductores Jalisco, Mexico Universidad Autónoma de México CELE Mexico City Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Mexico Universidad Intercontinental Mexico City Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico Universidad Iberoamericana Mexico City Tuition Admission Requirements Duration (months) Hours/ Credits Diplomado enTraducción Institution Modules Name 4 576 $58,500.00 MX (4,300.00 USD) High School 80% English 12 7 280 $11.550.00 MX (850.00 USD) 500 pts. TOEFL ITP 16 10 160 30,000.00 MX (2,200.00 USD) Entrance Examination 12 11 544/68 - BA or BS degree (4 semesters minimum) Advanced English Level 12 6 180 $56,750.00 MX (4,200.00 USD) Good command of English and Spanish 10 14 300/30 $16,000.00 MX (1,185.00 USD) 79 pts. TOEFL iBT or 550 pts. TOEFL ITP - 10 8 60 $27,680.00 MX (2,050.00 USD) 2 120 $6,000.00 MX (440.00 USD) 10 300 $51,100.00 MX (3,785.00 USD) 8 Intermediate English Level Advanced English Level/Advanced Reading and Writing Skills in Spanish 5 5 165 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Note. Data contained in this table was collected in 2014 and may change due to updates. Diplomado IntérpreteTraductor Diplomado Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-español Diplomado en Traducción de Textos Especializados Diplomado Traducción Textos Especializados Diplomado en Traducción e Interpretación Diplomado en Traducción Inglés-Español Diplomado Traducción Diplomado Traducción 166 en Berlitz Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua, Mexico Organización Mexicana de Traductores Jalisco, Mexico Universidad Autónoma de México CELE Mexico City Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México Mexico City Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes Aguascalientes, Mexico Universidad Intercontinental Campus Sur Mexico City Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco Tabasco, Mexico Universidad Iberoamericana Totalof Subjects CAT Tools Subjects Terminology Subjects Practical Subjects Institution Theoretical Subjects Name Modules/Subjects Table 2. Characteristics of Translation and Interpretation Diploma Courses in Mexico 4 5 11 - - 16 7 3 4 - - 7 10 - - 1 - - 11 9 2 1 - 11 6 3 3 3 - 6 14 5 9 1 1 14 8 3 5 1 1 8 2 - - 2 - 2 (T/P) 10 2 8 1 1 10 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (InglésEspañol) Mexico City Note. Although recently created, the Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course of the Autonomous University of Aguascalientes is included in this table for comparison purposes. Table 3. Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Schedule 2014 Credits 1. INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY TRANSLATION THEORIES 2. INTRODUCCIÓN TO TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES 3. INTRODUCCIÓN TO CONSECUTIVE INTERPRETATION 4. INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH-SPANISH CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS 5. SPANISH WRITING WORKSHOP 6. INTRODUCTION TO TERMINOLOGY 7. INTRODUCTION TO CAT TOOLS 8. INTRODUCTION TO TECHNICAL TRANSLATION 9. INTRODUCTION TO FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC TRANSLATION 10. INTRODUCTION TO LEGAL TRANSLATION 11. INTRODUCTION TO SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETATION 12. INTRODUCTIOON TO SCIENTIFIC TRANSLATION 13. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETATION COPYRIGHT 14. PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Teaching Dates Hours Professors M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 20 2 February 7, 8, 14 y 15 M. en C. E. Karla Valdez 20 2 February 21, 22 y 28 de ; March 1 M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 30 3 March 7, 8, 14, 15, 21 and 22 M. en T. I. Annie Smyrna Hernández Zárate 20 2 March 28 and ; April 4 and 5 L. en L.H. José Alberto García Ventura M. en T. I. Annie Smyrna Hernández Zárate M. en C. E. Laurent Slowack R. 20 2 20 2 20 2 M. en C. E. Laurent Slowack R. 20 2 M. en T. MezaCuervo Elena 20 2 April 11 and ;May 9 and 16 May 17, 24, 30 and 31 June 6, 7, 13 and 14 June 20, 21, 27 and 28 July 4, 5, 25 and 26 M. en T. I. Karen Bibiana Camarena Gutiérrez M. en T. I. Michelle Cecilia Arriola de la Mora 20 2 30 3 M. en T. I. Katina Fernández Cedi Dr. en D. Miguel A. Marmolejo Cervantes 20 2 20 2 Mtra. Ma. Bautista 20 2 I.Beatriz Teresa De Lira August 1, 2, 8 and 9 August 16, 22, 23, 29 and 30; September 5 September 6, 12, 13 and 19 September 20, 26, 27; October 3 October 4, 10, 11 and 17 167 �Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Note. Some teaching dates are not consecutive due to holidaydates and holiday periods. 168 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2792 Title A name given to the resource Designing a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course Author Author Villalobos Nájera, Luis Armando Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this paper is to share the experiences regarding the design and implementation of a Translation and Interpretation Diploma Course (TIDC) in a public university located in central Mexico.The main point of designing and implementing the diploma course was to produce a new generation of translators and interpreters, since a number of BA in ELT graduates from local universities,as well as many other translators from the region, wish to grow professionally in both translation and interpretation areas.Moreover, the implementation of this diploma course was necessarybecause no institutions in this region offer a course of this kind. The TIDCwas designed taking into account the demand for professional translators and interpreters derived from the industrial and commercial growth in the state of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The curriculum for the TIDCconsists of 14 modulescentered on thetheoretical aspects of translation and thetranslation practice of financial, scientific, technical and legal texts. Spanish writing, terminology, and CAT tools training are also part of the curriculum.The students are also introduced to Consecutive and Simultaneous Interpretation using theappropriate interpretation equipment.Allacademic staffinvited to collaborate in this program hold an MA in Translation and Interpretation. They are also certified translators and currently teach translation and interpretation in various universities. Most of them belong to translators and interpreters associations. Key words: translation theory, translation training, interpretation, syllabus, design, implementation. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LE Individual institutions (America except United States) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/90df7f1149c763e4be97a2da3ec773af.pdf 46465edb21b013a889171da69a82d3f9 PDF Text Text Designing teaching materials – necessity or luxury? Dragana Gak & Dubravka Pleše University of Novi Sad, Serbia and University of Zagreb, Croatia Abstract: This paper examines designing language teaching materials as an integral segment of language courses taught at tertiary level. Firstly, it defines teaching materials and considers them both as anything that can be used to facilitate the language learning and as authentic materials specially designed for development of specific skills. Secondly, it discusses reasons for designing materials as supplement to the materials teachers are provided with. Thirdly, the authors attempt to present the advantages of the process of producing materials. Material designing enables teachers to have a control over selection of topic, situations, functions and skills to be developed. Moreover, it takes into account particular learning environment, students’ learning needs and their learning experiences, cross-cultural issues and their influence on development of students’ communication competence. This is followed by a comparison of experiences in material designing at two faculties, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, and Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad. The language teaching material development starts at both faculties with identification of the main requirements set by the departments and the detailed needs analysis of students’ needs which is the foundation of all language courses preparing students for using language in working environment. This initial stage helps teachers to select the textbooks and decide on additional material they need. Although material designing contributes greatly to the relevancy and productivity of language courses, it goes together with numerous obstacles ranging from technological to financial ones. To conclude the authors will elaborate on actual examples of materials produced for the courses they teach. Keywords: language teaching, materials, design, textbooks, development. 1. Introduction As the globalization of trade and economy intensifies, English for Specific Purposes is becoming ever more popular the world over. However, this increase in awarenss regarding the importance of ESP is set against another tradition, that of the ‘Use of English’ type courses. Also, as ESP teachers, we are all faced with students with different knowledge levels and we are expected to cater to their needs as well. Therefore, contents of a tertiary level English Language course are the subject of some contention. 2. ESP Since ESP has been around for quite a long time (from the early 1960's), one would expect the ESP community to have a clear idea about what ESP actually should be. But, that isn’t so. �Some describe ESP as simply being the teaching of English for any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, describe it more precisely as the teaching of English used in academic studies, or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes. According to Dudley-Evans (1998), ESP can be described as having some absolute and some variable characteristics: Absolute Characteristics: 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners, 2. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, 3. ESP uses the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. Variable Characteristics: 1. ESP is usually designed for adult learners, 2. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students, 3. ESP may use a different methodology from that of General English, 4. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems, 5. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines. From this, a logical question arises: 'What is the difference between the ESP and 'General English' approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer the question: "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". At the end of the 20th century, this statement was true and 'General English' teachers recognized that students had a specific purpose for studying English. Still, only rarely would a needs analysis be conducted to find out what was necessary to actually achieve their goals. Today, however, teachers are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis. Also, the quality and content of teaching materials improved dramatically, allowing the teacher to select materials which will best satisfy the needs of the students. Teaching langages at tertiary level is no simple task for a general English teacher. A great majority of ESP teachers are in no way professionally related to the discipline they teach, so they are first obliged to familiarize themselves with a whole new set of phrases, terms and vocabulary. Many ESP teachers readily accept the available textbooks, which might not suit their purpose fully. If there are no textbooks available for a particular discipline, some ESP teachers decide to use textbooks, which may be unsuitable for their students. Dudley-Evans describes the roles a true ESP teacher (Swales, 1998) needs to perform. These are: 1) ESP Teacher, 2) Collaborator, 3) Course designer and materials provider, 4) Researcher and 5) Evaluator. The first role as 'ESP teacher' is synonymous with that of the 'General English' teacher. In order to meet the specific needs of the learners, the ESP teacher must work closely with field specialists. This collaboration, however, does not have to end at the development stage and can extend as far as team teaching (Johns et al. (1988)). Both 'General English' and ESP teachers are often required to design courses and provide materials. Hutchinson et al. (1987) support materials that cover a wide range of fields, �arguing that the grammatical structures and strategies of different disciplines are identical. More recent research, however, has shown that this is not so. Many ESP practitioners are therefore left with no alternative than to develop original materials. The process of materials’ design enables teachers to have control over topics selection, functions and skills to be developed. It also takes into account students’ learning needs and learning experiences and addresses cross-cultural issues and communication compentence. As far as the disadvantages are concerned, the whole process is time-consuming, mentally and physically taxing and the results are quite uncertain. The materials designing teacher is also at mercy of his/her colleagues and frequently left to his/her own devices. 3. Authentic teaching materials Most language teachers recognize the value of using authentic materials. There are two major applications of authentic materials: developing learners' language skills and helping learners apply these skills in various activities in the outside world. Since ESP is finaly differentiated from the general English teaching, new resources, discipline specific texts and other teaching materials have become neccessary. Thus, teachers today are expected to design and develop their own in-house materials that can cater to the specific needs of the students. This is a complicated and complex task although it is, at the same time, interesting, creative and very satisfying. Teachers are expected to handle many different tasks in the process of creating materials: conduct needs analysis, formulate goals and objectives, find input materials, or create activities. There are different methods of developing new teaching resources. Tomlinson (2003) reports that many of them describe processes which are ad hoc and spontaneous and rely on an intuitive feel for activities which are likely to “work”. The process of the development of any EAP course usually starts with the needs analysis, defined by Hyland (2006, p. 73) as “the techniques for collecting and assessing information relevant to course design: it is the means of establishing the how and what of a course”. These techniques can involve surveying students about their goals and backgrounds; consulting faculty about course requirements and academic tasks; collecting and analysing students’ assignments as well as authentic target texts and so on (Hyland, 2006, p. 78). Learning needs should also be considered when creating materials. The emphasis, to use Hutchinson and Waters’s (1987) words, should be on “what the learner needs to do in order to learn”. In other words, it is essential that materials writers consider the findings of learning research, decide which of its findings are most relevant and applicable to particular contexts, and then develop a set of criteria and use them as a basis for developing context-specific materials. This, according to Tomlinson (2003), can help materials designers clarify their own principles of language learning and teaching and create more effective and efficient materials. 4. Authentic materials in English for specific purposes Authentic texts have been defined as “…real-life texts, not written for pedagogic purposes” (Wallace, 1992). They were written for native speakers and contain “real” language. The sources of authentic materials used in the classroom are infinite, but the most common are newspapers, magazines, movies, songs and literature. One of the most useful is the Internet. Newspapers and any other printed material date very quickly, but the Internet is �continuously updated, more visually stimulating, interactive and promotes a more active approach to reading. One of the main ideas of using authentic materials in the classroom is to “expose” the learner to as much real language as possible. It has been said that by taking a text out of its original context, it loses it authenticity: “As soon as texts, whatever their original purpose, are brought into classrooms for pedagogic purposes they have, arguably, lost authenticity.” (Wallace, 1992) Even if this is true, the learner is still exposed to real discourse and not the artificial language of course textbooks, which tend not to contain any incidental or improper examples. They also produce a sense of achievement. Extracting real information from a real text in a new/different language can be extremely motivating, therefore increasing students' motivation for learning by exposing them to 'real' language (Guariento and Morley, 2001). Such texts also reflect the changes in language use, as well as giving the learner the proof that the language is real and not only studied in the classroom: “Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for reallife purposes by real people.” (Nuttall 1996:172) One of the aims of authentic materials is to help the student react in the same way L1 speakers react in their first language (L1). The main advantages of using authentic materials in the classroom therefore include: - having a positive effect on student motivation; - giving authentic cultural information; - exposing students to real language; - relating more closely to students’ needs; - supporting a more creative approach to teaching. The negative aspects of authentic materials are that they can be too culturally biased, often a good knowledge of cultural background is required. Also, many structures are mixed, causing lower levels problems when decoding the texts (Martinez 2002). The use of authentic materials is recommended at advanced levels and with students dealing with materials from their subject areas (Day & Bamford, 1998; Jordan, 1997; Singhal, 2006). This is because authentic materials relate more closely to students’ specific needs, exposing them to “the target language as it is used by the community, which speaks it” (Guariento & Morley, 2001, p. 347). 5. Needs analysis – central for teaching material designing According to Brindley (1989), needs do not have of themselves an objective reality rather, what is finally established as a “need” is a matter of agreement and judgment not discovery (Lawson, 1979). The needs established for a particular group of students will be an outcome of a needs analysis project and the perspective of the definition of needs. In order to conduct a reliable needs analysis, ‘a triangulation of questionnaires, informal discussions with learners and other lecturers, interviews with ex-students and lecturers, and observation of former students‘ actual workplace experiences is conducted before the course‘ (Gao, 2007). Learner performance and assignments are appraised during the course and tests results are analyzed after the course. This amalgamation of pre-course, mid-course and post-course analyses helps the teacher understand what the students are like at the start, middle and end of �the course. The combined feedback then serves to inform the teacher as to how the course should be improved or revised. 6. Comparison of experiences 1. Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering Coming to the Faculty some13 years ago, the only textbook that was available to me was from 1972, and although interesting and good at giving basic information about the three professions, it was completely outdated regarding new methods and techniques. In the beginning, I made do with texts I downloaded from the Internet, adapted or paraphrased from various other textbooks, professional articles and other sources. I conducted a sort of needs analysis, going from one teacher to another and interviewing them about the topics they viewed as necessary to be covered by my English class. Getting the materials, which could help in the writing of the textbook, was the next difficult step. Most publishers of professional and scientific papers, which were supposed to form the basis of the textbook, do not allow free access to their databases but charge for the downloading of the papers they publish. Luckily, some of my colleagues were very forthcoming and allowed me to use the materials they themselves purchased. The writing itself lasted for almost a year and when the textbooks were finally completed, I asked several colleagues, experts in their fields, to take a close look at the books and provide feedback. Then the books were tested on two generations of students who provided additional and invaluable feedback. Only then were the books presented to the Faculty’s scientific committee for evaluation. The whole process lasted for more than four years. 2. Faculty of Technical Sciences The Faculty of Technical Sciences in Novi Sad consists of 13 different departments, each deciding individually on the type of the English courses and the number of classes per week. Depending on the department, students may have one to nine semesters of English during their academic studies, which, in itself presents a foreign language teacher with a huge problem when deciding on the amount and content of materials his/her students are going to deal with per semester. Also, the Faculty caters to various scientific fields (power engineering, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, traffic engineering, architecture), all demanding different kinds of topics and materials. Such diversity poses quite a challenge for the teachers of English at the Faculty. However, one of the main challenges is the question of appropriate textbooks and teaching materials. This is the issue, which has been left to individual teachers to resolve. Different teachers tackle the problem differently - some use what materals are available or what they inherited from the previous teachers, others try to design their own courses and write their own teaching materials and textbooks. Still, the majority combine parts of the existing ESP textbooks with the teaching materials designed for specific groups of students in accordance with the future jobs for which the students are preparing. 7. Conclusion The design of teaching materials is quite a rewarding, satisfying and enlightening experience but, at the same time a difficult and long-lasting task, demanding in-depth �knowledge of both the English language and the scientific field for which the materals are beign designed. It also presupposes the familiarity with basic pedagogical and methodical principles as well as a good deal of patience and interpersonal and “people skills”, since collaboration with colleagues is the key to obtaining valid needs analysis results and materials needed for the writing of the materials. The process itself should follow several predetermined steps and take into accout numerous variables. The materials produced should be examined and checked by experts in the ESP field for which they were designed before they are tested on students to avoid possible mistakes. The next step is to try them out on several generations of students and geet their feedback because only such feedback provides the opportunity to make necessary changes and adjustments, leading to better and more appropriate teaching materials. References: [1] Brindley, G. P. (1989). The role of needs analysis in adult ESL programme design. In R. K. Johnson (Ed.), The Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [2] Day, R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [3] Dudley-Evans, Tony (1998). Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multidisciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press. [4] Gao, J. (2007). Designing an ESP course for Chinese University Students of Business. The Asian ESP Journal, 3(1), 97-106. [5] Guariento, W. & Morley, J. (2001) Text and Task Authenticity in the EFL Classroom in ELT Journal 55(4), pp 347-353 [6] Hutchison, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for Specific Purposes: A learner-centered approach. Cambridge University Press. [7] Hutchison, T., Waters, A., & Breen, M. P. (1979). An English language curriculum for technical students. Unpublished manuscript, Lancaster. [8] Hyland, K. (2006). English for academic purposes: An advanced resource book. London and New York: Routledge. [9] Johns, T. F. & Dudley-Evans, T. (1988). An experiment in team teaching overseas postgraduate students of transportation and plant biology. In J. Swales (Ed.), Episodes in ESP. Prentice Hall. [10] Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes: A guide and resource for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [11] Lawson, K. H. (1979). Philosophical Concepts and Values in Adult Education. Milton Keynes: Open University Press. [12] Martinez, A.G. (2002) Authentic Materials: An Overview on Karen's Linguistic Issues, Retrieved from: http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html [13] Nuttall, C. (1996) Teaching Reading Skills in a foreign language (New Edition) Oxford, Heinemann �[14] Singhal, M. (2006). Teaching reading to adult second language learners: Theoretical foundations, pedagogical applications, and current issues. SA: The Reading Matrix. [15] Swales, J. (1988). Episodes in ESP. Prentice Hall. [16] Swales, J. (1998). Other floors, other voices: A textography of a small university building. Mahwah, NL: Erlbaum. [17] Tomlinson, B. (2003). Developing materials for language teaching. London: Continuum. [18] Wallace, C. (1992) Reading Oxford, O.U.P. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3257 Title A name given to the resource Designing teaching materials – necessity or luxury? Author Author Gak, Dragana Pleše, Dubravka Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper examines designing language teaching materials as an integral segment of language courses taught at tertiary level. Firstly, it defines teaching materials and considers them both as anything that can be used to facilitate the language learning and as authentic materials specially designed for development of specific skills. Secondly, it discusses reasons for designing materials as supplement to the materials teachers are provided with. Thirdly, the authors attempt to present the advantages of the process of producing materials. Material designing enables teachers to have a control over selection of topic, situations, functions and skills to be developed. Moreover, it takes into account particular learning environment, students’ learning needs and their learning experiences, cross-cultural issues and their influence on development of students’ communication competence. This is followed by a comparison of experiences in material designing at two faculties, Faculty of Mining, Geology and Petroleum Engineering, University of Zagreb, and Faculty of Technical Sciences, University of Novi Sad. The language teaching material development starts at both faculties with identification of the main requirements set by the departments and the detailed needs analysis of students’ needs which is the foundation of all language courses preparing students for using language in working environment. This initial stage helps teachers to select the textbooks and decide on additional material they need. Although material designing contributes greatly to the relevancy and productivity of language courses, it goes together with numerous obstacles ranging from technological to financial ones. To conclude the authors will elaborate on actual examples of materials produced for the courses they teach. Keywords: language teaching, materials, design, textbooks, development. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-03-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ec302add4cba457154ef4c3106824a73.pdf 4d1f5a815ba73aa25528d7e8402fd74e PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Destination Marketing Organizations’ Social Medıa Usage: A Resarch on Balkan Countries Murat Bayram Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey mbayram@pau.edu.tr Semih Arıcı Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey semiharici@yalova.edu.tr Social media has fundamentally reshaped the way tourism related information is distributed and the way people plan for and consume travel. Since social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter and TripAdvisor began allowing businesses to create profiles and become active members, businesses have started incorporating these strategies into their marketing efforts. For Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) have used these sites to promote special offers, for customer service and strengthen their existing brands; however, little is known about how DMOs are taking advantage of the social media marketing popularity. The aim of this study is to explore the usage of social media among the DMOs of Balkan countries through a content analysis of Balkan countries’ official web site profiles. Also this study examines how social media is being used by the DMOs to enhance their brands and to reach potential visitors. This study confirms the growing importance of social media in the online tourism domain and mostly DMOs use only Facebook and Twitter as a social media tools. Solely having a profile will not in itself increase awareness. DMOs should use more social networking sites to communicate with their consumers and give them the ability to broadcast opinions about services. Keywords: Social Media Marketing, DMOs, Balkans. 212 � https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7a45d640a158e0fab9b1168bcb80563e.docx 3895fbc63a7ccbf183b7174f1feb2c77 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d34bc3fcd5dd0e967143746a7816df21.pdf 8587124f58dcd5c46a572091b202a88e PDF Text Text International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Destination Marketing Organizations’ Social Media Usage: A Research on Balkan Countries Murat Bayram Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey mbayram@pau.edu.tr SemihArıcı Yalova University, Yalova, Turkey semiharici@yalova.edu.tr Abstract Social media has fundamentally reshaped the way tourism related information is distributed and the way people plan for and consume travel. Since social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter and Trip Advisor began allowing businesses to create profiles and become active members, businesses have started incorporating these strategies into their marketing efforts. For Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) have used these sites to promote special offers, for customer service and strengthen their existing brands; however, little is known about how DMOs are taking advantage of the social media marketing popularity. The aim of this study is to explore the usage of social media among the DMOs of Balkan countries through a content analysis of Balkan countries’ official web site profiles,. Also this study examines how social media is being used by the DMOs to enhance their brands and to reach potential visitf1ors. This study confirms the growing importance of social media in the online tourism domain and mostly DMOs use only Facebook and Twitter as a social media tools. Solely having a profile will not in itself increase awareness. DMOs should use more social networking sites to communicate with their consumers and give them the ability to broadcast opinions about services. Key words: Social Media Marketing, DMOs, Balkans Introduction Social media has reshaped the way tourism related information is distributed and the way people plan for and consume travel (Buhalis& Law, 2008). Social Media is a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Social media exist in a variety of forms and serve numerous purposes. This includes a variety of applications in the technical sense which allow consumers to ‘‘post’’, ‘‘tag’’, ‘‘digg’’, or ‘‘blog’’, and so forth, on the Internet (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). Social media are changing the way society consumes and contributes to the creation of information. Technology now allows individuals to easily contribute their thoughts, opinions and creations to the Internet (Hays, Page and Buhalis, 2012) Social media is one of the fastest growing segments on the web, and it includes social sharing of opinions through blogs and micro blogs (i.e. Blogger and Twitter), social photo and video sharing (i.e. Flickr and YouTube), social sharing of knowledge (i.e. Wikipedia), social bookmarking (i.e. Delicious) and many other forms of user-generated content. These 1 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo social media tools allow users to search, organize, share, annotate and contribute to contents in a collaborative way. It is of vital importance that tourism organization managers and destination policy makers understand the antecedents of the tourists’ use and adoption of social media before, during and after their trips due to the impact of these collaborative behaviors on tourists’ decisions about the choice of all the elements of the trip (destination, accommodation, activities, restaurants) (Parra-López et al., 2011). Social media websites, facilitate consumer-generated content, and are widely used by online travellers’ (Gretzel, 2006). According to Forrester (2009), 86 percent of marketers surveyed believed social media was the most popular emerging channel and would increase more than any other marketing tool over the next three years. Further supporting that claim, the research company predicts that social media will generate $935 million in 2010, and by 2014, that number will soar to over $3.1 billion.Recommendations from personal acquaintances or opinions posted by consumers online are the most trusted forms of advertising, according to the latest Nielsen Global Online Consumer Survey of over 25,000 Internet consumers from 50 countries. Ninety percent of consumers surveyed noted that they trust recommendations from people they know, while 70 percent trusted consumer opinions posted online (Nielsen, 2009). Social media is becoming the primary medium by which travel information is shared (Xiang and Gretzel, 2010). Hence travellers engage in social media to satisfy any number of needs – from functional, social, hedonic, to psychological – it stands to reason that DMOs must be prepared to engage travellers (Parra-Lopez et al., 2011). Common social media applications include Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, Pinterest, and Youtube. There are key social media networks that DMO need to consider as they could help DMO Successfully market their business online and distinguish them from their competitors. Some of the powerful social media sites have been provided below (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Powerful Social Media Networks Name Facebook Twitter Google + YouTube TripAdvisor Blogging Flickr Pinterest Medium Mixed (text, images, video etc) www.facebook.com 140 character text & images www.twitter.com Mixed (text, images, video etc) plus.google.com Videos www.youtube.com Text reviews &rlated images www.tripadvisor.com Mixed (text, images, video etc) Images www.flickr.com Images Audience 1 billion + worldwide. Not restricted to clients or connections 500 million + worldwide. Not restricted to clients or connections 250 million + worldwide. Not restricted to clients or connections Required Account Type Business page 800 million +each month. Not restricted to clients or connections 60 million +monthly Visitors worldwide Standard account with business profile Any internet user 6 billion + images worldwide Not restricted to clients or connections 100 million visits in February 2012 Standard account Standard account Standard business account Can upgrade to paid account if preferred Part of your website or via a platform such as Blogger or Word Press Standard account Standard account www.pinterest.com Source:http://www.atdw.com.au/media/1514/Tutorial_40__Social_Media_For_Tourism.pdf 2 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo (DMOs) use many different approaches for promoting their areas. With the growing popularity of the Internet, it is important for DMOs to understand the travel behaviors of Web site users (Siu-ian and Alastair, 2003). The integration of information technologies into the organizational fabric of the DMO is an important key to success (Gretzel, Yuan and Fesenmaier,2000). Destination marketing practices are greatly influenced by advances in information technology due to the fragmented and information intensive nature of destination products (Buhalis, 1998). The most significant trend is the accelerating speed of technological development. The consequence of this rapid change is the emergence of innovative Web-based technologies that lead to a reconfiguration of the environment in which tourism business is conducted. Understanding these changes is crucial for creating a vision in the tourism organization that things are going to evolve (Gretzel, Yuan and Fesenmaier,2000). Beside this, the effective use of Web-based marketing activities is pivotal not only for marketing and promoting destinations but also for creating a competitive advantage for them (Buhalis, 2000). People who use social media do so not only to find pertinent information, but also as a means of socializing with others and for enjoyment purposes. One of the benefits of social media from the supplier side is that DMOs can collaborate and streamline their information, adding value for consumers, while building their brand through direct interaction with the consumer, and immediate response to consumer queries and concerns. Consumers, on the other hand, benefit by receiving what they perceive as more authentic information based on the experience of other travellers, and can design their trips to reflect more closely what they are looking for by interacting with both experienced travellers and residents of a destination (Lange-Faria and Eliot, 2012). The social media tools offer travel reviews and discussion forums and facilitates tourists’ decision-making process. Consequently, internet and social media sites are getting more important for marketing of tourism destinations and organizations. Thus, the aim of this study is seeks to understand the usage of social media among the national marketing organizations of Balkan tourism countries. Methodology The Balkans, often referred to as the Balkan Peninsula, and recently also as "Southeast Europe", although none of the three exactly share borders, is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains in Bulgaria and Serbia. The term "Balkan" is generally believed to come from Turkish balkan, meaning "a chain of wooded mountains. “The name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Mountains and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. The Balkans comprise the following territories; Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Turkey and Slovenia (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans). Although there are many prior studies on tourism website analysis, only a few of them focused on social media tools on web site of DMOs. In the present study, information was gathered from official web sites of national DMOs which are in Balkans. The reason of choosing Balkan countries is prior studies on some Balkan countries’ tourism websites were only attempted by a few researchers. This research makes an attempt to establish a checklist of social media sites for assessing DMOs website. Each homepage was reviewed and recorded first, and then each social media sites’ link on the homepage was clicked to review and the information was recorded. In order to keep the items current, the list was revised based on careful observations of Balkan DMOs’ websites at different levels by the research team. To understand the usage of social media of Balkan DMOs’ websites, this study includes all 3 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo their websites. Addresses of the DMOs’ websites were obtained through several searches of the İnternet using keyword searches including the names of each country (e.g. Croatia or Albania official tourism board etc.). Twelve DMOs websites were selected for all countries in Balkans. The evaluators were requested to evaluate DMO websites based on a rating scale. The scale used in this research included exists (1) and absent (0). Websites has been visited once, between 10 – 16 April 2013, as for their dynamic structure. Findings This research assesses the usage of social media tools of Balkan countries DMOs’ websites. The objective of the research is achieved by content analysis of all twelve official country tourism websites regarding the selected social media sites. Table 1. Official DMOs Web Sites of Balkan Countries No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Countries Official Web Site www.albaniantourism.com www.bhtourism.ba www.bulgariatravel.org www.croatia.hr www.visitgreece.gr www.visitkosovo.org www.exploringmacedonia.com www.montenegro.travel/en www.romaniatourism.com www.serbia.travel www.slovenia.info www.goturkey.com Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Greece Kosovo Macedonia Montenegro Romania Serbia Slovenia Turkey Balkan countries DMOs’ web sites are presented in Table 1. According to Table 1, all of twelve countries have an official national web site. The majority of DMOs are already at abeginning stage in their use of the social media for customer relationship management and marketing. Based on the detailed evaluation of DMOs web sites, the key research findings are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Social Media Sites Usage of DMOs Social Media Sites Facebook Twitter Youtube / Vimeo Pinterest Foursquare Google + Tripadvisor Instagram Flickr Blog Exists Absent F % f % F % 9 9 8 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 75 75 67 25 25 25 25 17 17 8 3 3 4 9 9 9 9 10 10 11 25 25 33 75 75 75 75 83 83 92 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 4 Total �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Table 2 shows a breakdown usage of social media sites. Accordingly, DMOs represent themselves by creating a profile in social networks, mainly 75 % (9) on Facebook and 75 % (9) Twitter and then in the order of YouTube (67 %). In connection with this it is seen that DMOs prefer using Facebook and twitter mostly. Three of DMOs used Pinterst, Foursquare and Google Plus of the all social media applications. Only two of DMOs used Instagram and Flickr as photo sharing networks. However, Volo (2010) stated that blogs are frequently shared with friends and family and do influence how a travel destination is perceived, the social media sites ranged from the highest score of 9 in Facebook usage to the lowest score of 1 in blog usage. Only one of the DMOs studied were using a blog- Greece. The majority of the DMOs used their websites mainly for information-oriented features related to activities, accommodations and attractions, but offered limited social media activities through their websites. The social media linkage was the weakest. The results indicated that Balkan DMOs were making limited use of social media in their official web sites. While some countries are really good at promoting themselves with social media tool, others need some serious work. Table 3. Top Three Social Media Sites Usage of DMOs Countries Twitter Facebook Youtebe Followers Tweets Likes Talking About Subscribers Views Video A B C 21.799 * 301 14.909 745 78.642 6.042 16.045 698 3.094 634 4.284.231 376.314 125 525 D E 6.411 1768 1.443 535 813.744 113 29.282 5 1.491 - 1.315.536 - 74 - F - - - - - - - G H 527 6.611 95 146 1475 - 44 - 25 234 0 92.874 6 12 I J 875 6.003 319 6.917 2.186 33.081 49 2.756 734 521 166.463 52.206 44 25 K 260 211 3.947 2.088 - - - L - - - - - - - As can be seen, Table 3 shows breakdown of top three social media sites usage of Balkan countries national DMOs’ web sites. Beside this Table 3 summarizes the statistics of DMOs’ tweets, likes and views. One measure of a Twitter user’s effectiveness is the number of followers it has attracted. DMOs have followers between 260 and 21.799. When considering Facebook usage of DMOs, it can be seen that they have likes between 113 and 813.744. DMOs have average 6 and 525 videos on YouTube. The results indicated that national DMOs have made little progress in their adoption of social media applications and technologies. Conclusion On a global scale, social media use is growing, and the challenge is for destination marketing organizations to effectively choose not only which applications to use, but also 5 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo to identify what consumers want from their sites and what elements to include in the site that will most effectively influence the traveller decision making process, socially, virtually, and authentically (Lange-Faria and Eliot, 2012). The main conclusion of this paper is that the official web sites of Balcan countries DMOs have been slow to respond to the social media marketing opportunities. DMOs use only a few common social media tools at the basic, experimental level. This research shows a high level of awareness concerning the customer engagement potential of social media. However, major barriers to social media adoption exist, especially in effective usage. The results supported the argument and suggested that DMOs should pay more attention to the quality of their social media marketing features. Thus, it is vital for DMOs to move to more sophisticated level of social media use to provide a deeper engagement in their websites to satisfy exist and potential visitors. This study should be of interest to researchers as well as industry professionals by applying social media tools to DMOs’ websites. The findings of the research enable managers of DMOs to understand how effective their websites from the social media usage perspective. Also the results will assist DMOs managers in assessing their website performance so that they have useful information to facilitate continuous improvement. While this study has provided important results, some of the limitations for future research are stressed. The important limitation of this study is limited to only Balkan countries. Also, data can be collected and analyzed over different time periods to understand the changing patterns of usage of social media marketing activities. However, in spite of these limitations, we hope that the present study has provided an interesting way of understanding the social media approach of DMOs. References Balkans, (2013). Retrieved May 1, 2013, fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans. Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism Management, 21(1), 97−116. Buhalis, D. (1998). Strategic use of information technologies in the tourism industry. Tourism Management, 19(5), 409–421. Buhalis, D. & Law, R. (2008). Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 years on and 10 years after the internet: The state of e Tourism research. Tourism Management, 29(4), 609−623 Forrester Research, Inc. (2009). US Interactive Marketing Forecast, 2009 To 2014. http://www.forrester.com/US+Interactive+Marketing+Forecast+2009+To+2014/ful ltext/-/E-RES47730?docid=47730 Gretzel, U. (2006). Consumer generated content – trends and implications for branding. Ereview of Tourism Research, 4(3), 9–11. Gretzel, U., Yuan, Y. L., &Fesenmaier, D. R. (2000). Preparing for the new economy: advertising strategies and change in destination marketing organizations. Journal of travel Research, 39(2), 146-156. 6 �International Conference on EconomicandSocialStudies (ICESoS’13), 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Hays, S., Page, S. J., &Buhalis, D. (2012). Social media as a destination marketing tool: its use by national tourism organisations. Current Issues in Tourism, , 1-29. Kaplan, A.M., &Haenlein, M. (2010). Users of the world, unite The challenges and opportunities of social media. Business Horizons, 53, 59–68. Lange-Faria, W & Eliot, S. (2012). Understanding The Role of Social Media in Destination Marketing. Tourismos: an International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism. 7(1), 193-211. Nielsen Company (2009). Global Advertising: Consumers Trust Real Friends and Virtual Strangers the Most. http://www.nielsen.com/content/dam/corporate/us/en/newswire/uploads/2009/07/pr _global-study_07709.pdf Parra-López, E., Bulchand-Gidumal, J., Gutiérrez-Taño, D., &Díaz-Armas, R. (2011). Intentions to use social media in organizing and taking vacation trips. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(2), 640-654. Siu-Ian, A. S., & Alastair, M. M. (2003). Destination Marketing Organizations Web Site Users and Nonusers: A Comparison of Actual Visits and Revisit Intentions. Information Technology & Tourism, 6(2), 129-139. Social Media For Tourism. (2013). Retrieved http://www.atdw.com.au/media/1514/Tutorial_40__Social_Media_For_Tourism.pdf May 1, 2013, from Volo, S. (2010). Bloggers’ reported tourist experiences: Their utility as a tourism data source and their effect on prospective tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing, Vol. 16, No.4, pp.297-311. Xiang, Z., &Gretzel, U. (2010). Role of social media in online travel information search. Tourism management, 31(2), 179-188. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1596 Title A name given to the resource Destination Marketing Organizations’ Social Medıa Usage: A Resarch on Balkan Countries Author Author BAYRAM, Murat ARICI, Semih Abstract A summary of the resource. Social media has fundamentally reshaped the way tourism related information is distributed and the way people plan for and consume travel. Since social media sites, such as Facebook, Twitter and TripAdvisor began allowing businesses to create profiles and become active members, businesses have started incorporating these strategies into their marketing efforts. For Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) have used these sites to promote special offers, for customer service and strengthen their existing brands; however, little is known about how DMOs are taking advantage of the social media marketing popularity. The aim of this study is to explore the usage of social media among the DMOs of Balkan countries through a content analysis of Balkan countries’ official web site profiles. Also this study examines how social media is being used by the DMOs to enhance their brands and to reach potential visitors. This study confirms the growing importance of social media in the online tourism domain and mostly DMOs use only Facebook and Twitter as a social media tools. Solely having a profile will not in itself increase awareness. DMOs should use more social networking sites to communicate with their consumers and give them the ability to broadcast opinions about services. Keywords: Social Media Marketing, DMOs, Balkans. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-23-3 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b83c0e8137dd2913ced8ee535689ba65.docx e2d5e6126d9723238778ce1779b8cdc9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/adcfc65ce2f88c8d5f59676d9f1d44d2.pdf b751d3e6cfe14d3c934868089433fd0a PDF Text Text Desuggestopedia – Mozart vs. Britten Radmila Paunovic-Stajn State University of Novi Pazar / Novi Pazar, Serbia Key words: desuggestopedia, first and second concert, music, non-native teacher, acquisition, activation of subconscious potentials ABSTRACT Should a humanistic approach to teaching be adopted, Suggestopedia as a method has to be taken into consideration, even more so in teaching foreign language when numerous motivational barriers may prevent learners from acquisition. Created by Georgi Lozanov and supported by Stevick the method was renamed Desuggestopedia, which means that it involves unloading the memory banks, or reserves of unwanted or blocking memories. This is achieved by creating classroom/environmental setting, relaxed atmosphere and especially stimulating students’ mental reserves through integration of fine arts. The effect of music on mental processes has long been recognized. In music therapy, it helps to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations, bring about increased self-esteem, energize and bring order using the unique potential of rhythm. This last function of music is especially emphasized in this method. According to promoters of Desuggestopedia, classical music is widely used in the presentation of linguistic material. Most often, the employed pieces are by Mozart, sometimes Beethoven or other famous Western European composers. This paper deals with the choice of music that might be used, suggesting that the priority should be given to authentic composers. This approach to the selection of music material would also fit into the target culture that is being studied. The problem of ‘first concert’ and ‘second concert’ techniques when performed by a non-native teacher is especially discussed. In the context of BBC English (RP), these techniques may result in incorrect interpretation and comprehension of intonation - a significant feature of spoken language. Bearing in mind the fact that the selection of music material requires the establishment of criteria for selection, the teacher should be aware of the semantics of music and its effect on limbic system which might help the students’ acquisition and activation of subconscious potentials. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1914 Title A name given to the resource Desuggestopedia – Mozart vs. Britten Author Author STAJN, Radmila Paunovic Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: desuggestopedia, first and second concert, music, non-native teacher, acquisition, activation of subconscious potentials ABSTRACT Should a humanistic approach to teaching be adopted, Suggestopedia as a method has to be taken into consideration, even more so in teaching foreign language when numerous motivational barriers may prevent learners from acquisition. Created by Georgi Lozanov and supported by Stevick the method was renamed Desuggestopedia, which means that it involves unloading the memory banks, or reserves of unwanted or blocking memories. This is achieved by creating classroom/environmental setting, relaxed atmosphere and especially stimulating students’ mental reserves through integration of fine arts. The effect of music on mental processes has long been recognized. In music therapy, it helps to facilitate the establishment and maintenance of personal relations, bring about increased self-esteem, energize and bring order using the unique potential of rhythm. This last function of music is especially emphasized in this method. According to promoters of Desuggestopedia, classical music is widely used in the presentation of linguistic material. Most often, the employed pieces are by Mozart, sometimes Beethoven or other famous Western European composers. This paper deals with the choice of music that might be used, suggesting that the priority should be given to authentic composers. This approach to the selection of music material would also fit into the target culture that is being studied. The problem of ‘first concert’ and ‘second concert’ techniques when performed by a non-native teacher is especially discussed. In the context of BBC English (RP), these techniques may result in incorrect interpretation and comprehension of intonation - a significant feature of spoken language. Bearing in mind the fact that the selection of music material requires the establishment of criteria for selection, the teacher should be aware of the semantics of music and its effect on limbic system which might help the students’ acquisition and activation of subconscious potentials. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d3c152a7ec4a9279ed51a3ed1cd71e2b.pdf 9f2be475b32f479dd135ff90ded2dd36 PDF Text Text Detection of Financial Statement Fraud Using Beneish Model Elvisa Buljubasic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina elvisa.buljubasic@ibu.edu.ba Sanel Halilbegovic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina sanel.halilbegovic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: One of the greatest challenges faced by auditors is to detect anomalies in financial statement reporting. Once the anomalies are detected they have to be further investigated by forensic accountants. However, the practice of forensic accounting has not yet become a reality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. So the main purpose of the study is to analyze to which degree BH companies are exposed to the financial statement fraud and with respect to that the need for forensic accountants. The financial statement data will be collected from BH companies and it will be analyzed using Beneish model. The Beneish model is the mathematical model that identifies the manipulation of earnings through financial ratios. These analytical techniques should reveal the unconventional variations in financial statement reporting, indicating that there is possibility of fraudulent transactions. Key words: Beneish model, fraudulent reporting, forensic accounting Introduction One of the greatest challenges in 21st century faced by companies, institutions and organizations is financial statement fraud, which is increasing in number and size, what significantly affected the people’s trust in credibility of financial statements and corporate reports. As stated in the Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud and Abuse (2016), published by ACFE, compared to the other types of occupational fraud (corruption and asset misappropriation), financial statement fraud is the least frequent (9.6%), however, it is the largest in terms of size of median loss ($975 000). The financial statement fraud become a global concern, affecting not only large, multinational companies and organizations, but also small and medium sized enterprises. However, the wellknown corporate scandal cases such as Enron, WorldCom, Tyco and few others are the most known examples of not only financial statement fraud, but also other types of occupational fraud. After these corporate scandal cases the issue of auditor’s failure to detect fraud signs or 252 �symptoms was brought to the attention and the role of forensic accountant become irreplaceable in fraud investigation. In order to be a forensic accountant one has to possess a broad spectrum of knowledge and skills in different fields such as accounting, auditing, law, psychology, criminology, etc. Also, the forensic accountant needs to possess outstanding moral and ethical principles and values. Technology advancements significantly improved the detection process of frauds and embezzlements, so today auditors have access to many tools, programs and software that save time, produces more relevant findings and point out the critical areas that should be further investigated by forensic accountants. Some of the common tools used in the audit of financial statements are: Benford’s Law, Beneish Model, ratio analysis, data mining. This study will focus on the Beneish Model financial statement fraud detection tool as one cost-effective and efficient tool that should be utilized by auditors. Beneish (Beneish M-Score) Model extracts the necessary data from the balance sheet, income statement and statement of cash flow, and uses eight variables (days sales in receivables, gross margin index, asset quality index, sales growth index, depreciation index, sales, general and administrative expenses index, total accruals to total assets index, and leverage index) as indicators of companies prone to manipulate financial statements. Companies with the higher Beneish score are more probable to manipulate financial statements. Fraud Triangle The first step in fraud investigation is to understand the motives behind the fraud commitment. The forensic accountant has to investigate why fraudster commits the fraud, under which circumstances and what is used as fraud justification or rationalization. These three elements are perfectly depicted in so-called fraud triangle which was developed by Donald Cressey in 1973, what is shown in the figure below. Figure 1: Fraud Triangle Source: Singleton T.W. & Signleton A.J. (2010). Fraud Auditing and Forensic Accounting. Wiley. 253 �The fraud triangle was created after Donald Cressay had interviewed 200 people accused for embezzlement. Cressay had discovered that each fraud had three elements in common: pressure (motivation or need), knowledge or opportunity and rationalization (Singleton and Singleton, 2010). Pressure, incentive or motivation is related to the something that is happening or has happened in the fraudster’s personal life what forces him or her to commit the fraud, for example: financial difficulties, bad habits such as gambling, or incentive such as bonus payments based on the performance (Singleton and Singleton, 2010). Opportunity is related to the knowledge and experience with respect to the fraudster working environment. Fraudster will utilize the weaknesses of internal control, familiarity with the environment and trust given to him to commit the fraud (Singleton and Singleton, 2010). Rationalization is related to the way in which fraudster justifies his or her fraudulent actions. It is interesting that, according to the ACFE Report to the Nation from 2008, 93% of fraudsters did not have criminal record, and it is not rare situation that fraudsters are religious people (Singleton and Singleton, 2010). Types of financial statement fraud According to the ACFE Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse (2016) the financial statement fraud occurs in 9.6% of cases, with the median loss of $ 975,000. The intention of fraudster is to misstate the financial statement entries or disclosures to trick the users of financial statements. The financial statement fraud is classified into two groups: financial and non-financial. Within financial group there is further classification on asset/revenue overstatement and asset/revenue understatement. Since the focus of this research paper is on the financial aspect of the financial statement fraud the following common types of fraud will be further explored: timing differences, fictitious revenues, concealed liabilities and expenses, improper disclosures and improper asset valuations. Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2017) describes the types of the financial statement fraud in the following way: Timing differences refers to the incorrect treatment of sales where the revenues and expenses are shifted from one period to the another, affecting the earnings in a desired way. For example, the inventory is recorded as a sale, knowing very well that part of it will be returned back or twoyear service contract is treated as the revenue of the current year what leaves the consequences on the future period earnings. 254 �Fictitious revenues are related to the sales that are never realized, which not rarely include fake customers, what leaves the impact on the revenues, profits and assets. The common sign of fictitious revenues are obscure accounts receivable that are overdue for a long period of time. The companies in a financial problems are prone to record fictitious revenues. Concealed liabilities and expenses refer to the incorrect treatment of liabilities what usually happens at the end of the accounting period where liabilities are moved to the first month of the consequent period or when the company is large enough, liabilities are moved to the subsidiary companies, which are either not being audited or they are audited, but by a different audit company. Improper disclosures refer to the obligation of the management to disclose all relevant information in the financial statements. Improper disclosures related to the financial statement fraud usually include the following: omission of liabilities, subsequent event, related-party transactions and management fraud. Improper asset valuation refers to the incorrect statement of asset amounts (accounts receivable, inventory, business combinations, long-lived or fixed assets), capitalization of expenses, or deflating the contra-asset amounts (allowance for doubtful accounts, accumulated depreciation). Through improper statement of the assets, contra-assets and expenses the financial indicators will show a better than a true equity and profit values. Figure 2: Part of Fraud Tree Source: ACFE (2017) 255 �Schilit’s seven shenanigans Schilit and Perler (2010) in their book Financial Shenanigans, have identified seven financial “sins” related to the earnings manipulation, which are:  recording revenue too soon  recording bogus or fictitious revenues  boosting income with one-time gains  shifting current expenses to later period  failing to disclose all liabilities  shifting current income to later period  shifting future expenses to current period. According to the research done by Isakovic-Kaplan and Delalic (2013), the comparison is made regarding the frequency of seven financial shenanigans in the world and in the Bosnia and Herzegovina, what is summarized in the table below: Table 1: Comparison of seven financial shenanigans between the world and Bosnia and Hezegovina WORLD BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Recording revenues too soon Recording revenues too soon Recording bogus revenue Recording bogus revenues Boosting income with one-time gains Shifting future expenses into the current period Shifting current expenses to a later or earlier period Shifting current expenses to a later or earlier period Failing to disclose all liabilities Shifting current income to a later period Shifting current income to a later period Recording bogus expenses Shifting future expenses into the current period Failing to disclose actual revenues Source: Adjusted from Isakovic-Kaplan and Delalic (2013). Creative accounting in companies in B&H By looking at the table above, the first two fraudulent practices are common to the B&H and the world. However, the four out of five remaining financial shenanigans show that companies in B&H are prone to demonstrate lower net income through increase in expenses or by moving future expenses to the current period. The possible reason behind this kind of situation is the fact that BH companies usually do not have established reward system based on the performance, so there is no incentive to increase revenues. So the top management of BH companies is usually motivated to commit the fraud against the government through showing lower net income what implies lower income taxes to be paid to the government. 256 �Red Flags of Financial Statement Fraud Almost every fraud has warning signals detected in its financial statements, which are commonly called red flags. According to the ACFE (2017) the red flags that are usually detected in financial statements are anomalies in profitability, cash flow, assets, liabilities, equity accounts, anomalies in relationships between financial statement items. Warshavsky (2012) argues that accruals are very often used as the basic component in the earnings manipulation. The purpose and size of accruals should serve as one of the important instruments that should assist the forensic accountant in detection of financial statement fraud, or earnings manipulation. Methodology Beneish M-Score Model Beneish M-score is the mathematical model developed by Messod Beneish which uses eight variables derived from the company’s financial statements (balance sheet, income statement and statement of cash flow) with the aim of detecting the companies prone to manipulate its financial reports (Beneish, 1999). The variables that are included in the Beneish model are financial ratios computed from the financial statements for two consecutive years. The formulas for variable computations are shown in the table below: DSRI – days sales in receivables index – increase in receivables that is not proportionate to the sales may be sign of revenue inflation (Beneish, 1999). GMI – gross margin index – if the GMI index is greater than 1, it means that gross margin have declined and Lev and Thiagarajan (1993) argue that it is negative sign regarding company's performance. So there should be a positive relation between increase in GMI and probability of manipulated earnings (Beneish, 1999). AQI – asset quality index – if AQI is greater than 1, it is the indication of company's potential involvement in cost defferal. So, as in the case of GMI index, there is positive relation between increase in AQI and manipulated earnings (Beneish, 1999). SGI – sales growth index – growth does not necessiraly indicate manipulation, but when large companies are exposed to pressure, there is greated probability that their earnings will be manipulated. The positive relation is expected between SGI and manipulated earnings (Beneish, 1999). 257 �DEPI – depreciation index – if DEPI index is greater than 1, it means that the rate at which assets depreciate have slowed down, indicating that the company has examined its estimates of assets useful life. The positive relation between DEPI index and earnings manipulation is expected (Beneish, 1999). SGAI – sales general and administrative expenses index – the increase in SGAI is positively related to the manipulation of earnings (Beneish, 1999). LVGI – leverage index – if LVGI is greater than 1, than it represents an indication of increase in leverage. This variable is included in the model with the aim of analyzing debt agreements incentives for manipulatation of earnings (Beneish, 1999). TATA – total accruals to total assets – the variable is used in the model with the aim of analyzing the extent to which cash corresponds to the reported earnings. It is expected that greater positive accruals are related to the increased likelihood of earnings manipulation (Beneish, 1999). Study hypothesis H1 – The companies in Bosnia and Herzegovina are prone to manipulate financial statements. 258 �Table 2: Variables used in Beneish Model Source: Anh and Lihn (2016) 259 �The study examines 31 randomly selected company from the Tron Systems database for the period 2013-2014. The company’s financial statement data is analyzed using Beneish M-Score model. 5 variables model: M = -6.065+ .823 DSRI + .906 GMI + .593 AQI + .717 SGI + .107 DEPI 8 variables model: M = -4.84 + .920 DSRI + .528 GMI + .404 AQI + .892 SGI + .115 DEPI -.172 SGAI + 4.679 Accrual to TA - .327 Leverage If the M-score is greater than -2.22, there is an indication that company is a potential manipulator of financial statements data. Otherwise, the M-score lower than -2.22 indicates that the company is not prone to manipulate its financial statements. Out of 31 companies, 21 had the M-score lower then -2.22, indicating that there is no potential manipulation of financial statements data. Six companies had the M-score greater then -2.22, what points out that they have manipulated their financial statements. Four companies were classified as non-manipulators according to the 5-variable model, however, after adding three more variables to the model (accruals to total assets, sales general and administrative expenses, and leverage index), they were classified as manipulators. Table 3: Descriptive statistics of sample (n=31 company) Variable Mean Median Stan.dev. Min Max DSRI 0,98 0,95 0,57 0,16 3,05 GMI 0,87 0,99 1,11 -4,31 3,00 AQI 0,93 0,80 1,55 -0,14 8,61 SGI 1,47 1,03 1,71 0,32 7,69 DEPI 1,04 0,97 0,28 0,59 2,12 SGAI 1,20 0,90 1,28 0,17 7,50 TATA 0,04 0,02 0,10 -0,05 0,57 LVGI 5-variable model 8-variable model 1,28 1,05 0,89 0,60 4,32 -2,75 -3,11 1,81 -7,02 2,08 -2,10 -2,37 1,50 -4,11 1,96 260 �The analysis showed that the common variables that were manipulated are gross margin, days sales in receivable, sales growth, and asset quality. When gross margin decreases from year to year, there is greater possibility that the company will manipulate the sales and cost of goods sold. The increase in day sales in receivable signals that the company’s policy regarding accounts receivable has weakened, so when DSRI is greater than 1, there is greater likelihood that the receivables will be manipulated, leading to the conclusion that revenues will be inflated. Also, the increase in asset quality index could be related to the cost deferral or capitalization of expenses. The findings indicate, that consistent with the Schilit’s seven shenanigans, Bosnian companies prone to commit financial statement fraud, are manipulating usually with the sales revenue and expense capitalization in order to improve the financial statements performance. Furthermore, the R square for the GMI, AQI and SGI was 45.8%, 21.0% and 26.8%, respectively, with the level of significance lower than 0.05, what leads to the conclusion that there is a significant relationship between GMI, AQI, SGI and financial statement fraud. Conclusion The purpose of the study was to analyze the current situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina related to the degree to which companies are exposed to the financial statement fraud. For that purpose, the financial statements data was obtained from the Tron Systems for 31 company. The obtained data was analyzed using Beneish M-score model, which is eight variables model that was developed by professor Messod Beneish in 1999. Findings revealed that 16% of the analyzed companies are prone to manipulate their financial statements data, where sales revenues and capitalization of expenses were two main areas where manipulations were done. The regression analysis showed that gross margin index, asset quality index and sales growth index significantly influence the Beneish M-score. This research is a first step in the more detailed investigation of financial statement fraud among BH companies, since the audit and forensic accounting profession is not yet fully developed in the country. Also, the Beneish M-score model could be utilized by the auditors in BiH as a time and cost efficient tool in the financial statement audit. In that way the attention would be drawn to the areas, accounts or items that should be further explored by forensic accountants, providing in that way space for development of forensic accounting profession. 261 �References Anh, N.H., & Lihn, N.H. (2016). Using the M-score model in detecting earnings management: evidence from non-financial Vietnamese listed companies. Journal of Science: Economics and Business, Vol. 32. Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2016). Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse. Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (2008). Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse. Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE) (May 2017). Financial Transactions and Fraud Schemes. Retrieved from ACFE website: http://www.acfe.com/uploadedFiles/ACFE_Website/Content/review/examreview/12accoutning-concepts.pdf Beneish, M. (1999). The detection of earnings manipulation. Financial Analyst Journal. Isaković-Kaplan, Š., & Delalić, A. (2014). Kreativno računovodstvo u privrednim društvima u BiH, Međunarodna naučno stručna konferencija: Borba protiv prevara i korupcije 2014, Forenzika i prevencija Beograd. Schilit, M.H., & Perler, J. (2010). Financial Shenanigans: How to detect accounting gimmicks & fraud in financial reports. McGraw Hill. Singleton, T.W. & Signleton, A.J. (2010). Fraud Auditing and Forensic Accounting. Wiley. Warshavsky, M. (2012). Analyzing earnings quality as a financial forensic tool. Financial Valuation and Litigation Expert, issue 39. 262 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3645 Title A name given to the resource Detection of Financial Statement Fraud Using Beneish Model (doi: 10.14706/icesos178) Author Author BULJUBASIC, Elvisa Halilbegovic, Sanel Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: One of the greatest challenges faced by auditors is to detect anomalies in financial statement reporting. Once the anomalies are detected they have to be further investigated by forensic accountants. However, the practice of forensic accounting has not yet become a reality in Bosnia and Herzegovina. So the main purpose of the study is to analyze to which degree BH companies are exposed to the financial statement fraud and with respect to that the need for forensic accountants. The financial statement data will be collected from BH companies and it will be analyzed using Beneish model. The Beneish model is the mathematical model that identifies the manipulation of earnings through financial ratios. These analytical techniques should reveal the unconventional variations in financial statement reporting, indicating that there is possibility of fraudulent transactions. Key words: Beneish model, fraudulent reporting, forensic accounting Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0190a6e31f5695219094eb0d79f5bf9a.docx 7401f8f3dd3e3e646188088daa528322 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/22009cac72b563cc7c4922e95bb3e932.pdf 56cc3c2f9e742ea72f414e9445d783a8 PDF Text Text ��   Sud Tužilaštvo Policija 0 20 40 60 80 �Sud Policija 0 20 40 60 80 �Ne znam Ne Da 0 10 20 30 40 50 �2000 1500 1000 500 0 MUP Federacije BiH MUP RS 2007 Policija BD BiH 2008 UKUPNO BIH 2009 ���10.3 Terorizam i finansiranje terorizma 33.9 Kompjuterski kriminal Pranje novca Razbojništva 2.2 0.4 7.1 3.1 8.8 13.9 Krivotvorenje novca 3.4 Ilegalne migracije 2.6 26.8 Ilegalna trgovina oružjem 27.9 27.8 58.4 Ekonomski kriminal i poreske utaje 43.8 ���� Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3137 Title A name given to the resource Determinante povjerenja u institucije zadužene za borbu protiv organizovanog kriminala u Bosni i Hercegovini Author Author KRŽALIĆ, Armin HADŽOVIĆ, Denis Abstract A summary of the resource. Analiza procjene ključnih aktera je pionirska analiza koja donosi determinante povjerenja građana o akterima koji su zaduženi za borbu protiv organizovanog kriminala kao i akterima koji doprinose organizovanom kriminalu u Bosni i Hercegovini. Analiza daje osnove za zaključke o generalnom povjerenju u rad policije, tužilaštva i suda u borbi protiv organizovanog kriminala. Posebno treba naglasiti da analiza potvrđuje testiranu hipotezu da pojedinci i grupe koji se dovode u vezu sa organizovanim kriminalom imaju najveću spregu i podršku u predstavnicima vlast i predstavnicima političkih stranaka. Rezultati ovog rada ukazuju da prioriteti budućeg djelovanja u borbi protiv organizovanog kriminala treba da budu borba protiv nedozvoljenog prometa opojnim drogama, borba protiv ekonomskog kriminala i poreskih utaja i borba protiv korupcije javnih službenika. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Bihaću i Centar za društvena istraživanja Internacionalnog Burč univerziteta Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed K Law (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2a51560d7b7d3fd4d267565b42201314.pdf 3279fe689dfbbff139ac026b6e098cc6 PDF Text Text     Journal of Economic and Social Studies Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015. Joel I. Deichmann Bentley University Massachusetts, USA jdeichmann@bentley.edu Danyang Liu Bentley University Massachusetts, USA liu_dany@bentley.edu Abstract:   This paper examines origin-effects of tourist flows into Croatia from 1993-2015, a time period that features several important events: the fragmentation of Yugoslavia, the European recession, and Croatia’s accession to the European Union. Applying the seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) approach to a large panel data set with the number of annual arrivals from each origin country as the dependent variable, we identify and analyze the determinants of tourism flows to Croatia. A series of augmented gravity model specifications reveals that inflows can be explained by geographic proximity, GDP per capita, origin country population, and openness. The role of the real exchange rate variable is inconclusive, and in fact problematic for years 1993-95 when hyperinflation plagued the region in the wake of Yugoslavia’s dissolution. The results confirm the validity of the models, both for the subset of origin countries and for the subset of non-origin countries for which otherwise complete data are available. Given the importance of tourism to Croatia’s national accounts position, implications for tourism policy are discussed, as are suggestions for future research. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | Keywords:  Tourism OriginEffects, Gravity Model, Croatia JEL Classification: C33, O52, Z3 Article History Submitted: 21 November, 2016 Resubmitted: 27 March 2017 Accepted: 29 May 2017 http://dx.doi.org/10.14706/JECO SS17711 5 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   Introduction International tourism is a mainstay of Croatia’s economy, currently representing 12.5% of the country’s GDP (WTTC, 2015). Such a heavy reliance on this single industry leaves the country susceptible during times of recession in other European Union economies, which collectively comprise about three quarters of Croatia’s tourism exports (Škuflić and Štoković, 2011; WTTC, 2015). Given the importance of tourism revenues for Croatia’s balance of payments, it is essential that policymakers understand the drivers of demand for international tourism and hospitality (Baldigara, 2013; Tica and Kožić, 2015). This paper assesses origineffects of tourist flows into Croatia from 1993-2015, a time period during which several events have impacted Croatia, the Balkan region, and the broader European Union. These include the aftermath of Croatia’s independence from Yugoslavia, regional political instability throughout the 1990s, the European recession (from 2007 onward), and Croatia’s 2013 accession to the European Union. Tourism is hailed as one of the world’s most important economic sectors, with the value of international tourism ranking as the third largest category of exports after fuels and chemicals (UNWTOa, 2016; 2). Officially, the World Tourism Organization defines tourism as “the activity of visitors taking a trip to a main destination outside their usual environment for less than a year, for leisure, business or other personal purpose other than to be employed by a resident entity in the place visited.” As such, the industry is expansive, and global international tourism alone resulted in receipts of $1.5 trillion in 2015 (UNWTOa, 2016). For some small countries like Croatia, the industry is even more important as an economic sector and as a means of obtaining foreign revenue that ultimately raises GDP (Pavlic, Svilokos, and Tolic, 2015). Thanks in large part to deliberate and successful policy efforts, Croatia ranks thirty-third globally in the World Economic Forum’s (2015) Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index. Croatia’s Ministry of Tourism (2013) provides a thorough analysis of the industry from a policy perspective, and sets forth goals to be targeted for the year 2020, including a toptwenty competitiveness ranking. A cursory examination of Figure 1 yields the observation that several events have impacted the otherwise steady acceleration of international arrivals to Croatia. See, for example, the falloffs in arrivals approximating 1995, 1999, and additional general languishing from 2007-2010. In an effort to capture the most important facilitators of tourism during this time period, the present research requires the assembly and 6 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     assessment of a large data set from sources including the World Bank and Croatia’s Ministry of Tourism. Figure 1: International Arrivals from Leading Origins (in thousands) Data Source: Ministry of Tourism (2016) This project employs regression modeling of a panel set of new data through 2015 to advance the existing body of research on international tourism in Croatia. In so doing, it builds upon an array of variables identified by other scholars. For example, Mervar and Payne (2007) note that during the first decade after Croatia’s independence, tourism was highly elastic with respect to income fluctuations of origin countries, and that political conflict in the region impacted the industry severely, although at that time they found no evidence of a significant role for exchange rates and transportation costs. As another example, Škuflić and Štoković (2011) discover that income, marketing, quantity, price, and age of hotels are significant drivers for explaining the length of stay nights. It is plausible that the scene depicted in Figure 1 can be explained in part by the differential effects of the European recession (note the increase in German and Austrian arrivals, and decline in those from Italy). Based upon overnights, Galičić (2015, 93) points out that overall, Croatia’s tourism sector was protected from the recession, unlike other industries. This may be attributable to the wealthier characteristics of northern European tourists who tend to travel to Croatia, combined with worse economic conditions in other southern European destinations such as Portugal, Italy, Greece, and Spain. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 7 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   The present paper examines variables such as these by employing data beginning in 1993, during Yugoslavia’s war of dissolution, and extending through the global economic crisis as called for by Panagiotou (2010), and Croatia’s 2013 accession to the European Union. The results should enlighten scholars and policymakers and enable them to better prepare for and respond to such events in the future. These findings will also have considerable relevance for other tourism-dependent countries. It is quite straightforward to conceptualize this research approach in terms of the gravity model, borrowed from Newton’s Law of Gravity, and pioneered in economics by Tinbergen (1962). Since then, the approach has been widely used to explain flows of migrants (Lewer and Van den Berg, 2008), trade (Ok, 2010), and foreign direct investment (Deichmann, 2013), as well as international tourism (Khadaroo and Seetanah, 2008; Eryiğit, Kotil, and Eryiğit, 2010; Keum, 2010), setting the groundwork for the present research. The basic gravity model can be presented as follows: Arrivalsij= α (MiMj/Dij) Where: Arrivals= number of international tourists from each country (in thousands) α = constant M = mass (GDP or population) D = resistance (geographical or cultural distance) Quite simply, with trans-national interactions being defined as “tourist arrivals,” ceteris paribus, we would expect more interaction between large countries and less between smaller ones. Similarly, countries that are near to each other (either geographically or culturally) would be more likely to experience greater flows of tourists than those that are farther away. In order to contribute to a more robust understanding of contemporary demand issues by stakeholders, the simple model above can be augmented with other variables that have emerged in the scholarly literature, including income at origin (Eilat and Einav, 2005), visa-requirements (Cole and Hall, 2005), transportation costs (Mervar and Payne, 2007), and exchange rates (Tica and Kožić, 2015), all of which have been shown to play a role in explaining “origin-effects”, or flows of tourists from different origins. 8 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     Literature Review A large literature focuses upon the international tourism industry in Croatia, highlighting the national economic importance of the industry as well as the necessity of effective forecasting models (Baldigara, 2013; Tica and Kožić, 2015). Research on the topic is expansive due to the commanding and increasing presence of Croatia’s tourism industry, especially in coastal areas (Ballinger, 2003). The portion of literature that relates to the war’s crippling results of physical destruction and hyperinflation is descriptive (Currie, Skare, and Loncar, 2004; Schőnfelder 2005, Ateljevic and Čorak, 2006), but nevertheless provides an essential backdrop for more recent scholarship on international tourism. Radnić and Ivandić (1999) embrace Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a starting point to explain the deterioration of overnights and total beds used by foreign tourists during the war years of 1990-1995, focusing specifically on human safety needs as being fundamentally more important than those of self-actualization. The authors employ a combination of quantitative and qualitative data from Croatia’s Institute for Tourism to provide an excellent summary of the impacts of conflict, and a very slow recovery in Croatia, comparing a lagging perceived value for money vis-à-vis other destinations in Italy, Spain, and Greece; one that was comparable to Turkey at the time of data collection (1997). They conclude with a series of insightful principles highlighting the need to understand crisis and its impacts on tourism, among other considerations that might inform future crisis-management measures. Similarly, Hall (2002) calls for brand development and re-imaging throughout former Yugoslavia as a means of helping the region’s post-war tourism industry recover. He compares and addresses issues in several countries in the region, and identifies examples of national tourism “straplines” for marketing purposes. In the case of Croatia, the strapline he identifies is “small country for a great holiday” (p. 327). In order for Croatia to both bring back tourists from traditional markets and attract high-income-generating groups, Hall argues that marketing programs should differentiate Croatia as “not Balkan”, and reassure tourists that its attractions’ traditional quality and value have been restored to pre-war levels. McKercher and Lew (2003) identify what they designate as an Effective Tourism Exclusion Zone (ETEZ) based upon telephone survey of 952 Hong Kong residents conducted in the year 2000. They argue that this type of zone exists for every tourist market, although it varies according to the nature and size of the voids that exist near the source market. ETEZs might be oceans, unpopulated areas, or product voids. For example, Switzerland has many competing land neighbors, while New Zealand’s Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 9 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   nearest destination is between 2000 and 3000km away, representing the latter country’s expansive ETEZ. Currie et al. (2004) examine the effects of Yugoslavia’s war of dissolution that took place from 1991-1995 paying special attention to international tourism. They underscore the country’s dependence upon tourism with official state statistics showing 5.4% annual growth in arrivals, with a 19.1% yearly acceleration of spending. The authors use ordinary least squares regression to compare models of the Croatian economy during the war with two peaceful time periods: 1960-1990 and 1996-2000. Their model estimates a cumulative economic loss of $5.139 billion in tourism revenues during the war (approximately five percent of national revenue), and they note that tourism actually started to increase toward the end of the war, drawing on earlier work by Weaver (2000) that suggests that conflict can eventually have a positive impact on international arrivals as battle sites are transformed into attractions. Subsequently, the body of literature on “dark tourism” has been extensively and critically reviewed by Stone (2013). Eilat and Einav (2004) employ a three-dimensional panel data set to survey the determinants of international tourism. They examine flows between all pairs of countries in the years 1985 and 1998. Defining their dependent variable as flows relative to population of the origin country, they find evidence that political risk is a major inhibitor of tourism, while exchange rates are important especially for tourism to developed countries, which exhibit exchange rate elasticity of approximately one. Schőnfelder (2005) focuses more theoretically and broadly on the war’s economic impacts related to run-away inflation, arguing that “the most obvious economic victim of the war was tourism” (page 10). The Croatian dinar was introduced in December 1991, and experienced monthly inflation rates between 21.5% and 31.2% for more than a year. In response, in 1994 the dinar was replaced by the kuna, which was redenominated with the removal of three zeros. Among the comprehensive historical overviews of the industry is a descriptive chapter by Ateljevic and Čorak (2006) that highlights the evolution of tourism in the region. The authors trace tourism’s growth over the past century, during which, as part of Yugoslavia, the Adriatic coast represented a tourist magnet of continental magnitude. Yugoslavia was particularly accessible to travelers because visas were not required for visitors from Western or Eastern Europe. The authors focus upon the social, cultural, and psychological conditions of tourism in the country, which they argue tend to be overshadowed in the regional transition literature by political and 10 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     economic considerations. As part of this discussion, the chapter highlights the endurance of gender division in tourism occupations over time. Jordan (2006) examines the impact of EU Enlargement on tourism in Central Europe, including Croatia. His assertion that 2004 is merely a symbolic date for the gradual integration of much of Central Europe can be extended to Croatia in 2013, when the new republic formally joined the EU. Effectively, the expansion of the EU is a gradual socio-economic process that has occurred over the past quarter century, and one that will continue to unfold as time passes. The author maps and explains tourist flows between the Central European states for 1910, 1937, and 2003, then highlights the major types of tourism that characterize the region. He concludes by speculating on the outlook for the industry in Central Europe, arguing that it depends largely upon improvement in accommodations, infrastructure, and marketing, particularly with regard to negative images of the political and security environment of competing countries. The legacy of war is a consideration particularly relevant to Croatia and its Balkan neighbors. Colonial ties are explored as a facilitator of tourism flows by McKercher and Decosta (2007). The authors note that lingering effects of colonization can remain strong, especially in the case of French and Dutch tourists. Colonial legacies appear even more important where multiple colonizers had been present, for example in Namibia, where South Africa, Germany, and the UK remain the most important origins of tourists. Moreover, they find evidence that an absence of colonial ties represents an equally strong inhibitor to travel. Although this study is largely descriptive, the authors conduct some rudimentary correlations, and discover that the ties they identify tend to deteriorate with time after destinations become independent. Moreover, markets that are large and diversified tend to rely less on their colonial ties. Building upon McKercher and Lew’s (2003) work on distance decay and ETEZs, the impact of distance on tourism movements is further examined by McKercher, Chan, and Lam (2008). Reporting on 2002 data from 41 source markets to 146 destinations, they find that a classic decay curve is most typical for origin markets, whereby demand peaks at adjacent land neighbors, and declines rapidly as distance to destinations increases. They acknowledge that other variables such as pairwise relationship characteristics might also be at work. The authors note that 80% of all international tourism takes place within 1000km of the origin, whereas negligible tourism takes place between extremely distant countries. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 11 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   Khadaroo and Seetanah (2008) examine bilateral tourism flows between 28 countries from 1990-2000 using a GMM panel analysis, arguing that transportation infrastructure is a significant determinant of international tourism that is sensitive to other characteristics of origins and destinations. The authors measure several aspects of infrastructure, including roads, ports, airports, and distance itself in a global gravity model. In conclusion, based on their findings, Khadaroo and Seetanah (2008) make the case that governments should refrain from spending cuts that lead to the neglect of infrastructure. Moreover, countries should take advantage of developmental loans and private investment alike to improve accessibility that will lead to greater tourism flows. Keum (2008) argues that economists have come to value the gravity model not just as an empirical tool but also as a theoretical one. Using a panel data set with tourist flows to Korea, he confirms the gravity model’s robustness when applied to international tourism as a form of trade, citing an array of mainstream international trade theories. Highlighting evidence of the importance of geographical distance and GDP measures, he concludes that the gravity model is “indispensable for analyzing the flows of spatial interactions” (2008, 545). Eryiğit et al. (2010) specify an eight-factor model for explaining the number of tourists to Turkey from the time period 1995-2005. Their expanded gravity model reveals that the most important explanatory variables for Turkey include geographic distance and tourism climate index. In addition, the authors report that GDP per capita, population of the origin country, earthquakes, adjacency, and the September 11th attacks have impacted the magnitude of inflows. Notably, they find no evidence that safety concerns surrounding the nearby Iraq War deterred tourists away from Turkey. Baldigara (2013) compares five time-series forecasting methods to determine their relative accuracy for predicting international tourism demand in Croatia. Her investigation is based upon the number of tourist nights from five European countries between 2009 and 2012. She concludes that although all of the methods are useful, her double moving average (3x3) method is superior because it yields the smallest mean absolute percentage error. She concludes by calling for additional quantitative analysis of determinants of Croatia’s tourism demand. Employing an expansive list of variables, Tica and Kožić (2015) evaluate drivers of inbound tourism demand in Croatia. The authors find that Polish real GDP and Czech wages are the most important determinants of international tourism overnight stays, and that their impact is realized in a lead time of one year. Some evidence is 12 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     also found that favorable exchange rates attract tourists to stay longer at a destination. Finally, Pavlic et al. (2015) examine the impact of tourism on GDP using a set of mainstream variables, including the independent variable of international arrivals in an interesting twist. They also confirm the importance of an economy’s openness (imports plus exports) and real effective exchange rate as drivers of Croatian GDP from 1996-2013. Although their dependent variable is different from the present study, this work by Pavlic et al. (2015) is relevant here because of its examination of causality between variables and the resulting evidence underscoring the role of tourism in the host economy. Table 1: Summary of Variables in the Literature for Explaining Tourism Flows Variable Author(s) Valence Sign Population of origin Eryiğit et al. (2010) + Income at origin Eilat and Einav (2005), Mervar and + Payne (2007), Keum (2008), Khaderoo and Seetanah (2008), Škuflić and Štoković (2011), Tica and Kožić (2015) Historical Rule McKercher and DeCosta (2007) + Geographical distance McKercher and Lew (2003), Eilat and Einav (2005), Keum (2008), McKercher, Chan, and Lam (2008), Eryiğit et al. (2010) Transportation Khaderoo and Seetanah (2008) + infrastructure European Union Coles and Hall (2005) + membership Political Instability or Hall (2002), Currie et al. (2004), Terrorism Schőnfelder (2005), Mervar and Payne (2007), Eryiğit et al. (2010) Price index or exchange rates Eryiğit et al. (2010), Tica and Kožić + of origin to destination (2015) Visa Requirements McKercher, Chan, and Lam (2008), Deichmann and Frempong (2016) Taken together, these mainstream variables can provide an elaborate explanation of tourism flows. It is important to remember that these and other variables can have differential impact over time. During the twenty-three years under investigation here, the region has been impacted by war (Hall, 2002), economic recession (Panagiotou, 2010), and most recently the European Union accession process (Coles and Hall, 2005). In the present study, due to data constraints and in an effort to Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 13 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   specify a parsimonious explanation of tourism flows, it is prudent to limit the number of variables included in the models. Data and Methodology This section discusses our data set, imputation technique, and methodology. Following supplications from Eilat and Einav (2004), we seek rigorous results by using a large and carefully constructed panel data set. Our data cover 142 countries spanning the years 1993-2015, with a one year lag for the response variable and employing a missing value treatment as explained below. We analyze the results with the approach of seemingly unrelated regression (SUR). The data set has been constructed and employed to assess the impact of an array of origin country determinants collected from an extensive literature review. The variables include population (POP), gross national product per capita (GDPC), geographic proximity to Zagreb in kilometers (DIST), real exchange rates (EXR), and a binary variable for whether an origin is visa-free (OPEN) i . Because the relationship between the independent variables and the response variable is nonlinear, a logarithmic transformation is applied to the dependent variable to correct skewness in its distribution. Population (POP), income (GDPC), and geographical distance (DIST) are scaled in order to standardize their weights in the models. The variables are assembled in an enhanced gravity framework as follows: ln(Tourists)= α + β1POPi + β2GDPCi - β2DISTij- β4EXRi + β5 OPENij With the following notations: α = constant for fitting the equation β1- β5 = coefficients for each independent variable explained above The dependent variable “Tourists” is defined here as the number of tourist arrivals (in thousands) from each origin country each year between 1993 and 2015, reported by Croatia’s Ministry of Tourism (2016). As a global authority on the industry, the World Tourism Organization (“UNWTO”) defines tourism as “the activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year” (UNWTO 2016b). Although the dependent variable of tourist arrivals tends to dominate the mainstream literature reviewed above, it is true that the intensity of tourism flows can alternatively be measured using overnight stays (Radnić and Ivandić (1999), Škuflić and Štoković (2011), 14 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     Galičić (2015), and Tica and Kožić (2015). In the present gravity approach, arrivals represent the preferred measure because we seek to answer to the question “why did you go to Croatia?” rather than “why did you stay as long as you did?” Moreover, it is possible to work with a more complete dataset for arrivals than for overnight stays; even with arrival data, entries for some origins and years could only be acquired through direct correspondence with Croatia’s Ministry of Tourism. The rationale for the specific timeframe examined here is to perform an analysis that is as thorough as possible, covering inflows of tourists throughout the entire history of the Republic of Croatia. The dataset includes arrivals by most modes of transportation. According to the Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2016) in 2014, the approximate breakdown is road (64.5 million), air (2.84 million), sea (1.33 million), rail (392 thousand) and river (33 thousand). It should be acknowledged that some “arrivals”, especially at surface border crossings, were made by individuals such as regular commuters who are not formally counted as tourists according to the UNWTO’s (2016b) aforementioned definition. The sample under investigation includes 142 country observations. There are 62 countries with complete data for the independent variables that are origins of tourists to Croatia. In addition, 80 additional countries with independent variable data that are otherwise complete had no reported visitors to Croatia. Admittedly, the fact that many countries with missing data throughout the years in question tend to be poor and/or unstable (Afghanistan and Iraq, for example) can introduce a bias into the models. Notwithstanding this concession, models will be generated using both sets of data (“origins only” and “full data”) in order to capture insights that are as complete as possible. In other words, while we are interested in factors explaining what attracts tourists from each origin to Croatia, we are also concerned with originspecific factors that inhibit tourism. The independent variables used here relate to the origin countries alone, and most of them are available from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators. As pointed out by Eilat and Einav (2004), exchange rates are an excellent proxy for tourism prices, distances capture transportation costs, and income is considered a plausible enabler because tourism is a luxury good rather than a necessity. Other variables found elsewhere in the literature (such as transportation connectivity as per Khaderoo and Seetanah [2008]) are excluded from the analysis in order to reduce redundancies and or prevent data problemsii. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 15 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   Table 2: List of Variables Selected for the Models Variable Unit of Measure Expected Valence Tourists Number of arrivals (dependent) (thousands) POP GDPC DIST EXR OPEN Population (persons) Gross Domestic Product per Capita (in 2005 US$) Air distance between capitals (km) Real exchange rate index (2010= 100) Visa-free? (1= yes 0=no) Data Source(s) + + Ministry of Tourism (2016), Croatian Bureau of Statistics (2016) World Bank (2016) World Bank (2016) - www.worldatlas.com + World Bank (2016), European Union (2016). www.justlanded.com + The data set required considerable cleaning, and several observations are complicated by changing borders during the time period under consideration. For example, the country that had been Yugoslavia at the beginning of the time period under investigation has gradually devolved into seven distinct political entities: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. These and other events introduce a great deal of complexity into the construction of a useful database, and dealing with the issues will itself require examining work by other scholars. Countries converted to the Euro at different dates, so it was useful to consult the European Commission’s web site for specific conversion rates (European Union, 2016). There were considerable missing values for both EXR and GDPC in 1992 and 1993, and this resulted in the omission of several country observations. Missing data treatment is particularly necessary for the years of the Yugoslav civil war (through 1995). The empty cells are missing at random (MAR), and the pattern is monotone (vis-à-vis arbitrary). Specifically, missing cell values for GDP and exchange rate are consistent for certain countries during the years 1993, 1994, and in some cases 1995. Based on this condition, it is appropriate to use multiple imputation where only a few values are missing. Some exchange rates in the Balkan region- including those of Croatia itself- remained extremely unstable through 1995. The research plan is therefore to run alternate models comparing the complete time period with the period beginning in 1995, when currencies generally regained stability. In all, the data set includes 22 years, with 62 countries as tourist origins, and another 80 with complete data but without touristsiii. 16 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     The Lagrange multiplier (LM) test, developed by Breusch and Pagan (1980) should be used before applying a panel regression model (Keum, 2008). Using the LM test, this data set shows a high level of cross-sectional dependence as indicated by a pvalue of <2.2e-16. As a result, the present methodology employs seemingly unrelated regression (“SUR”). This approach was pioneered by Zellner (1962) for data that are characterized by cross-sectional dependence, and it is used widely in econometric modeling (Egger and Pfaffermayr, 2001). In the present panel data set the number of years under consideration (“T”= 23) is significantly larger than the number of variables (5), and therefore SUR is an appropriate method. The models are run using the R languageiv. Our analysis covers five models as follows: Model 1: all years since 1993, only those countries with tourists traveling to Croatia. Model 2: 1996-2015 only those countries with tourists traveling to Croatia. Model 3: all years since 1993, all countries with independent variable availability. Model 4: 1996-2015, all countries with independent variable availability. Model 5: all years since 1993, all countries with independent variables except EXR. Models 1 and 2 consider only those countries listed as origins (n=62). These models could have a bias because they leave out the countries from which few tourists originate. As a result, we run Models 3 and 4 for all countries with complete data (n= 107). In an effort to assess the impact of missing values for EXR during the period 1993- 1995, we remove these years in Models 2 and 4. Model 5 includes all years but without the exchange rate, the variable that turns out to be the least effective in explaining arrivals. Analysis and Results In this section we discuss the results of the models and compare them to one another, as well as previous findings. Five models are specified in order to make the best use of our large database using seemingly unrelated regression (SUR). The results are summarized in Table 3, with R2 values ranging from .346-.565. In each case, the conventional gravity variables of population and distance are significant, with the expected valence signs. The results confirm that the larger the population of the origin country is, the greater its tourist flows to Croatia. Conversely, the farther an origin country is from Croatia, the fewer the number of arrivals from that origin. The gravity variables confirm and extend previous findings by Eryiğit et al. (2010) on the importance of population size and the role of geographical distance as highlighted by McKercher and Lew (2003), Eilat and Einav (2005), Keum (2008), Eryiğit et al. (2010). Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 17 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   Table 3: Results from the Five Models Intercept scale (POP) scale (GDPC) scale (DIST) scale (EXR) OPEN R2 DF Model 1 Only Origins 1993-2015 2.59843*** .53768*** .26178* Model 2 Only Origins 1996-2015 2.85299*** .58473*** .10129 Model 3 Full Data 1993-2015 1.046e+00*** 5.8914e+01*** 7.1928e+01*** Model 4 Full Data, 1996-2015 1.086e+00*** 6.327e-01*** 6.935e-01*** Model 5 Full w/o EXR 1993-2015 1.04581*** .58917*** .71942*** -1.45916*** -.07320** 5.94032*** .346 1420 -1.40637*** -.14795* 6.15694*** .336 1234 -1.6616e+00*** -2.7936e-08 4.7300e+00 .552 3237 -1.71e+00*** -7.35883e-05 4.97e+00*** .565 2814 -1.66155*** 4.73067*** .552 3238 Significance levels: ***=.001, **=.01, *=.05 Table 3 summarizes the results of all five models. The goal of the changing model specifications is to improve the R2 values through increasingly parsimonious specifications. Moreover, as discussed earlier, the fact that the “non-participant” countries are omitted from Models 1 and 2 subjects the results not only to a sampling bias, but also relatively low R2 indicators. Because the significance results are similar across most models, it makes sense to discuss each variable generally rather than model-by-model. Geographical distance, a standard gravity variable, is significant (p=.001) in each generated model, moreover with the expected negative valence sign, reinforcing the notion of distance representing a barrier to spatial interaction. This outcome is in agreement with findings by McKercher and Lew (2003), Eilat and Einav (2005), McKercher, Chan, and Lam (2008), and Eryiğit et al. (2010). The observation that geographic distance inhibits tourism as a form of spatial interaction confirms Keum’s (2008) assertion that the gravity model characterizes a robust approach in tourism studies. As an explanatory variable, geographical distance is arguably superior to transportation costs, which Mervar and Payne (2007) argue to be less than significant determinants in Croatia. Origin country population size, another conventional gravity variable, is positive and significant at the .001 level in all five models, supporting previous findings on this standard gravity variable (Tinbergen, 1962; Eryiğit et al., 2010; Ok, 2010). Intuitively, larger populations are more likely to interact more than smaller ones. Many of the world’s largest populations (China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, and Bangladesh) do not rank among the leaders of tourists to Croatia. However, the relatively large European countries such as Germany, Italy, France, and the UK, as well as other large countries such as the USA and Russia that are relatively important 18 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     sources of inflows, undoubtedly impact the regression line favorably. The performance of geographical distance and population together provides abundant evidence that the gravity approach is applicable here, even though it is more commonly invoked as framework for understanding trade (Tinbergen, 1962) or foreign direct investment (Deichmann, 2013). Openness (or lack of visa requirements) is a third significant variable in Models 1, 2, 4 and 5 (p=.001) that has a positive impact on tourism flows to Croatia. Research elsewhere has also unveiled the importance of a liberal visa regime toward origins in facilitating tourism from those countries (McKercher, Chan, and Lam, 2008; Deichmann and Frempong, 2016). One explanation for the lack of significance in Model 3 is that this time period included the years of war within the Balkans, and Model 3 features all 122 countries in the full dataset. In other words, a lack of visa requirements during the war years was not enough to make tourists forget about the dangers of that conflict. In this study, GDP is divided by population in order to capture the relative wealth of travelers from origin countries. This income level, measured by GDP per capita, is an indication of the ability to afford luxury goods such as international travel. It is therefore unsurprising that the variable appears as a positive and significant determinant in three of the five models. Notably, the variable is only significant at the .05 level in Model 1, which examines only origin countries (not the full data set) from 1993-95, and in Model 2 it lacks significance during the time period starting in 1996. This means that income is less of a determinant for the countries that do provide tourists, especially since Yugoslavia’s war of dissolution ended and conditions returned to normal. This distinction also underscores the importance of using the full data set to support conclusions. A cursory examination of the dataset yields the observation that many of the countries that do not supply tourists to Croatia tend to be lower income (as measured by per capita GDP). This lack of personal resources is evidently a deterrent to travel, an activity that Eilat and Einay (2005) rightly consider to be a luxury good. The importance of income mimics results of earlier research by Khaderoo and Seetanah (2008), Škuflić and Štoković (2011), and Tica and Kožic (2015). The effect of the exchange rate variable is inconclusive based upon evidence found here. Although unexpected, this finding is in harmony with earlier work by Mervar and Payne (2007). In search of a plausible explanation, this result leads to the following observation with regard to real exchange rates (EXR): tourism to Croatia has increased dramatically over the time period under investigation, while the strength of origin currencies has remained stable or increased only moderately. This Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 19 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   absence of a statistically significant relationship does not dismiss observations by Eryiğit et al. (2010) in the context of Turkey, and in Croatia by Tica and Kožic (2015), that exchange rates can be influential at specific times and in certain contexts. However, given the methodology applied here and the strength of other variables, their importance is impossible to confirm. When we use the full data set of 142 countries, the R2 improves dramatically, with or without EXR. Model 5 is generated as in an effort to obtain a parsimonious explanation of tourism flows to Croatia without the problematic variable of EXR. We are aware from previous research (Currie et al., 2004; Schőnfelder, 2005; Ateljevic and Čorak, 2006) that hyperinflation during the war clearly distorted the impact of exchange rates. We also note that Eryiğit et al. (2010) removed Belgium and Bulgaria from their 1994-2005 origins analysis due to “chaotic” exchange rate movements. In the present case of Croatia, we believe that the impact of this variable requires further consideration. Conclusions The findings of this research on origins of international tourist flows to Croatia are based upon an unprecedented depth and breadth of study. The data base features 16,330 cells, including 142 countries over 23 years, assembled to scrutinize the role of five independent variables. In an SUR application of the gravity model, we find that international tourism is facilitated by geographic proximity and origin country population size, as well as visa openness and income level of the origin country. Our examination of exchange rates is inconclusive. The findings can be useful for scholars and policymakers alike. Scholars may wish to extend this broad-based research into more specific directions such as exchange rates, or replicate the study in other contexts. Policy makers may wish to reconsider a heavy dependency upon this single sometimes-volatile industry. They may also want to consider introducing more liberal visa regimes toward targeted tourist markets, and safeguard against the dubious role of exchange rates as a determinant of holidays in Croatia. Recognizing the factors that govern flows by origin countries should help stakeholders forecast demand based upon changes in other variables. Moreover, the results reported here are certainly relevant for other countries that are similarly tourism-dependent. The limitations of this study should be also acknowledged. First, the necessity to omit countries with incomplete or problematic data introduces a bias because the excluded observations tend to be poor and/or unstable countries. Arguably, length of stay (rather than tourist arrivals) represents another valid way to capture the appeal of Croatia to tourists. In the present study, however, length of stay data would 20 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     prevent construction of a data set as large as the one used here because reported values for that variable are less complete. In addition, the inclusion of Croatia within multi-destination trips would be worthwhile to investigate, but as acknowledged by Eilat and Einav (2005), such complexity would be impossible to track with this sort of quantitative approach. The study plan set out to capture the role of EU membership in tourism flows, but because Croatia joined the EU only in 2013, and unrestricted cross-border movement is not yet permitted, this question remains unanswered. Arguably, the visa requirement variable does capture the role of free movement, but it is not parallel to EU membership. Finally, the direction of causality between transportation infrastructure and tourism remains to be fully understood, and despite infrastructure’s existence in the literature (Khaderoo and Seetanah, 2008), we were unable to interrogate it here due to lack of arrival data by origin that are also specific to each mode of transportation. Many of these questions could be better addressed with a qualitative approach to complement the present findings, perhaps by surveying travelers across origin countries about the rationale underlying their complete travel programs and how Croatia fits into the picture in as a destination. Notwithstanding the contributions enumerated above, the conclusion of this research points to several additional questions. Most of these items can be addressed only as new data become available, following supplications by Baldigara and Mamula (2012), and Galičić (2015). First, this study could be replicated with sub-samples based on the purpose of visit. The World Bank offers such data at http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/6.14, but at the time of writing these are not available for the time period and multitude of countries examined in the present research. It would also be worthwhile to focus upon the impact of cultural linkages between Croatia and its neighbors (as historical provinces of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Yugoslavia, etc.). This research would certainly benefit from a more regionally-focused approach with greater historical depth. A better understanding of the impact of Croatia’s 2013 EU accession will also be possible to glean in the nottoo-distant future, given the near-certainty of the country entering the Schengen zone after the year 2018 v . In the near future, it will also be possible to reflect critically upon the Ministry of Tourism’s (2013) Development Strategy for 2020, and whether Croatia was successful at achieving its goal of a top 20 global ranking. Finally, lest this paper end on the negative note of its finite scope and work that remains to be done, it is worth reiterating the contributions presented herein. This analysis of international tourism origin effects is unprecedented in the combination of time duration under investigation and the large number of 142 countries included, and the extensive degrees of freedom underscore the validity of the Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 21 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   findings. The result is a comprehensive model based upon the past two-plus decades, revealing that the origins of tourism in Croatia are governed by traditional gravity variables of distance and population, as well as Croatia’s generally liberal visa regime and income in origin countries. According to the results generated in this paper, the role of exchange rate fluctuations varies with each model specification, but falls short of statistical significance in the context of Croatia. References Ateljevic, I., and Čorak, S. (2006). Croatia in the New Europe: Culture Versus Conformity. In Hall, Derek. Melanie Smith, and Barbara Marciszweska. Tourism in the New Europe: The Challenges and Opportunities of EU Enlargement. Wallingford: CABI, 288-301. Baldigara, T. (2013). Forecasting Tourism Demand in Croatia: a Comparison of Different Extrapolative Methods. Journal of Business Administration Research. 2 (1), 84-92. Baldigara, T., and Mamula, M. (2012). Tourism Statistics in Croatia: Present Status and Future Challenges. Procedia- Social and Behavioral Sciences. 44, 53-61. Ballinger, P. (2003). Selling Croatia or Selling Out Croatia? Tourism, Privatization, and Coastal Development Issues in a “New” Democracy. National Council for Eurasian and East European Research. Unpublished report available at: https://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2003-817-01f-Ballinger.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2016. Bechev, D. (2012). The Periphery of the Periphery: The Western Balkans and the Euro Crisis. European Council on Foreign Relations Paper. http://ecfr.eu/page//ECFR60_WESTERN_BALKANS_BRIEF_AW.pdf, accessed 13 November 2015. Breusch, S. and Pagan, A. (1980). The Lagrange Multiplier Test and Its Applications to Model Specification in Econometrics. Review of Economic Studies. 7(1), 239-253. Coles, T., and Hall, D. (2005). Tourism and European Union enlargement: Plus ça Change? International Journal of Tourism Research. 7, 51-61. Croatian Bureau of Statistics. (2016). http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/Publication/subjects.htm. Statistical Yearbook of Croatia. 2015. Tourism Reports. 22 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     Croissant, Y. and Millo, G. (2008). Panel Data Econometrics in R: The plm Package. Journal of Statistical Software. 27 (2), 1-48. https://www.jstatsoft.org/article/view/v027i02. Accessed 12 August 2016. Currie, D., Skare, M., and Loncar, J. (2004). The Impact of War on Tourism: the Case of Croatia. Unpublished article presented at the Conference on Tourism Economics. Palma de Mallorca, Spain. 28-29 May. Cviić, C. and Sanfey, P. (2010). In Search of the Balkan Recovery: The Political and Economic Reemergence of South-Eastern Europe. New York: Columbia University Press. Deichmann, J. I. (2013). Origins of Foreign Direct Investment in Croatia: Application of an Expanded Gravity Model. Chapter 1 in Karasavvoglou, A. and Persefoni Polychronidou (eds.) Balkan and Eastern European Countries in the Midst of the Global Economic Crisis. Heidelberg: Springer, 3-21. Deichmann, J. I., and Frempong, F. (2016). International Tourism in Ghana: A Survey Analysis of Traveller Motivations and Perceptions. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management. 29, 176-183. DOI 10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.08.002. Egger, P., and Pfaffermayr, M. (2004). Distance, Trade, and FDI: A HausmanTaylor SUR Approach. Journal of Applied Econometrics. 19 (2), 227-246. Eilat, Y., and Einav, L. (2004). Determinants of International Tourism: a ThreeDimensional Panel Data Analysis. Applied Economics. 36, 1315-1327. European Union. (2016). European Commission: Converting to the Euro. http://ec.ouropa.eu/economy_finance/euro/adoption/conversion/index_en.html. Accessed 10 July 2016. Eryiğit, M., Kotil, E., & Eryiğit, R. (2010). Factors affecting international tourism flows to Turkey: a gravity model approach. Tourism Economics, 16(3), 585-595. Galičić, V. (2015). Tourism in Croatia: Truths and Misconceptions. Infomatol. 48 (1-2), 78-94. Hall, D. (2002). Brand Development, Tourism and National Identity: The ReImaging of Former Yugoslavia. Brand Management. 9 (4), 323-334. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 23 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   Jordan, P., (2006). Tourism and EU Enlargement: A Central European Perspective. In Hall, Derek, Melanie Smith, and Barbara Marciszewska (eds): Tourism in the New Europe: The Challenges and Opportunities of EU Enlargement. Oxfordshire: CABI, 65-80. Keum, K. (2010). Tourism Flows and Trade Theory: a Panel Data Analysis with the Gravity Model. Annals of Regional Science. 44. 541-557. Khaderoo, J., and Seetanah, B. (2008). The role of transport infrastructure in international tourism development: a gravity model approach. Tourism Management. 29, 831-840. Lewer, J,, and Van den Berg, H. (2008). A gravity model of immigration. Economics Letters. 99 (1), 164-167. McKercher, B., and Lew, A. (2003). Distance Decay and the Impact of Effective Tourism Exclusion Zones on International Travel Flows. Journal of Travel Research. 42. 159-165. McKercher, B., and Chan, A. and Lam, C. (2008). The Impact of Distance on International Travel Movements. Journal of Travel Research. 47, 208-224. McKercher, B, and Decosta, P. (2007). Research Report: the Lingering Effects of Colonialism on Tourism Movements. Tourism Economics. 13 (3) 453-474. Mervar, A., and Payne, J. E., (2007). An Analysis of Foreign Tourism Demand for Croatian Destinations: Long-Run Elasticity Estimates. EIZ Working Paper 0701. Available at: http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=106590. Accessed 20 December 2015. Ministry of Tourism. (2013). Tourism Development Strategy for the Republic of Croatia until 2020. Available at: http://www.mint.hr/UserDocsImages/Tourism_development_strategy_2020.pdf. Accessed 6 June 2016. Ministry of Tourism. (2016). Statistics and Data. Available at: http://www.mint.hr/default.aspx?id=363. Accessed 10 May 2016. Ok, S. T. (2010). What Determines Intra-EU Trade? The Gravity Model Revisited. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. 39. 244-250. . 24 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.     Panagiotou, R. (2010). Effects of the Global Economic Crisis on South-East Europe. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 12 (2), 187-194. Pavlic, I., Svilokos, T. and Tolic, M. S. (2015). Tourism, Real Effective Exchange Rate and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence for Croatia. International Journal of Tourism Research. 17, 282-291. DOI: 10.1002/jtr.1986 Radnić, A., and Ivandić, N. (1999). War and Tourism in Croatia- Consequences and the Road to Recovery. Turizam. 47 (1), 43-54. Rupnik, J. (ed.) (2011). The Western Balkans and the EU: ‘The Hour of Europe’. European Union Institute for Security Studies. Chaillot Papers. June. Available at http://www.iss.europa.eu/publications/detail/article/the-western-balkans-and-the-euthe-hour-of-europe/ Accessed 10 December 2015. Schőnfelder, B. (2005). The Impact of the War 1991-1995 on the Croatian Economy – A Contribution to the Analysis of War Economies. Freiberg Working Papers #14. Available at http://tu-freiberg.de/sites/default/files/media/fakultaet-63307/fileadmin/Arbeitspapiere/2005/schoenfelder_14_2005.pdf. Accessed 20 June 2016. Škuflić, L. and Štoković, I. (2011). Demand Function for Croatian Tourist Product: A Panel Data Approach. Modern Economy 2 (1): 48-52. Statista. (2016). http://www.statista.com/statistics/412794/euro-to-u-s-dollarannual-average-exchange-rate/. Accessed 15 June 2016. Stone, P. (2013). Dark Tourism Scholarship: A Critical Review. International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospitality Research. 3 (7), 307-318. Tica, J., and Kožič, I. (2015). Forecasting Croatian Inbound Tourism Demand. Economic Research- Ekonomska Istraživanja. 28 (1), 1046-1062. Tinbergen, J. (1962). Shaping the World Economy: Suggestions for an International Economic Policy. New York: Twentieth Century Fund. UNWTO (United Nations World Tourism Organization) (2016a). World Tourism Highlights 2016. http://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284418145 Accessed 15 August 2016. Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 25 �Joel I. Deichmann, Danyang Liu   UNWTO. (2016b). Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism Statistics. Technical Manual No. 1 (English version) http://www.eunwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/ 9789284401031. Accessed 1 September 2016. Weaver, D. B. (2000). The Exploratory War-distorted Destination Life Cycle. International Journal of Tourism Research. 2(3), 151-161. World Economic Forum. (2015). Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report. Index Results. Available at: http://reports.weforum.org/travel-and-tourismcompetitiveness-report-2015/. Accessed 22 June 2016. WTTC (World Travel and Tourism Council). (2015). Economic Impact 2015: Croatia. https://www.wttc.org/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/countri es%202015/croatia2015.pdf. Accessed 28 December. Zellner, A. (1962). An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regressions, and Tests for Aggregation Bias. Journal of the American Statistical Association. 57. 348-368.                                                                                                                         i Although it was anticipated that variables for proximity to Croatia (DIST) and visa requirements (OPEN) would be overly similar, the simple correlation of .025 allays any concerns. ii Direct flights to Croatia are intuitively an enabler of inbound tourism flows, but the direction of causality is spurious (i.e., do people travel because direct flights exists, or are flights scheduled in order to meet travel demand?). In addition, long distance travelers normally connect in another (non-Croatian) European city. Overall, during 2013-14, less than five percent of passenger border crossings to Croatia were by plane (Croatian Bureau of Statistics 2016, 43). iii In order to complete the data set, several cell entries were imputed, and this was particularly challenging in the case of the exchange rate variable (EXR). Euro exchange rates were first available in the year 1999, three years before the currency emerged in physical form. Prior to 2002, exchange rates were based upon individual currencies and their fixed conversion rates to the euro. Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain joined the euro zone in 1999, followed by Greece (2001), Slovenia (2007), Cyprus and Malta (2008), Slovakia (2009), Estonia (2011), Latvia (2014), and Lithuania (2015). Additionally, Montenegro used the German mark (DM) from 1996 until 2002, and then adopted the euro. Similarly although not a Eurozone member, Kosovo adopted the euro in 2002, abandoning Serbia’s dinar. Figures for Montenegro and Kosovo were obtained for years 1992-95 by imputation using the Serbian dinar. Belarus and Ukraine used the Russian ruble until 1997. Russia redenominated its ruble in 1997. Liechtenstein 26 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             used to use the Swiss Franc. For further explanation of how missing values were calculated, please contact the authors. iv The R language is a well-established environment for statistical computing, and is widely used among statisticians and data miners for developing statistical software and data analysis. R has been publicly available for over 20 years, and most of its developers are senior academics with expertise in statistical computing. v http://www.schengenvisainfo.com/croatia-could-join-schengen-area-after-2018/ Volume 7 | Issue 1 | 27 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3663 Title A name given to the resource Determinants of International Tourism Flows to the Republic of Croatia: An SUR Analysis of Panel Data from 1993-2015 Author Author Deichman, Joel Danyang, Liu Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: This paper examines origin-effects of tourist flows into Croatia from 1993-2015, a time period that features several important events: the fragmentation of Yugoslavia, the European recession, and Croatia’s accession to the European Union. Applying the seemingly unrelated regression (SUR) approach to a large panel data set with the number of annual arrivals from each origin country as the dependent variable, we identify and analyze the determinants of tourism flows to Croatia. A series of augmented gravity model specifications reveals that inflows can be explained by geographic proximity, GDP per capita, origin country population, and openness. The role of the real exchange rate variable is inconclusive, and in fact problematic for years 1993-95 when hyperinflation plagued the region in the wake of Yugoslavia’s dissolution. The results confirm the validity of the models, both for the subset of origin countries and for the subset of non-origin countries for which otherwise complete data are available. Given the importance of tourism to Croatia’s national accounts position, implications for tourism policy are discussed, as are suggestions for future research. Keywords: Tourism Origin-Effects, Gravity Model, Croatia JEL Classification: C33, O52, Z3 Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2017 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)