74 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78d2c9eea1fefc2931c643163907337f.pdf e05d5c19745f2625a1ff7cd6e2b68abf PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo KARAHANLI DÖNEMĠ TÜRKÇESĠNDE SÖZÜN ETKĠLĠ KULLANIMI Ramazan Çakır Mevlana Üniversitesi, Tùrkçe Eğitimi Bôlùmù Öğretim Üyesi,Konya/Tùrkiye r.cakır@yahoo.com Özet: Karahanlı dônemiTùrkçesi‗ninve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temeleserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùkdeğil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımını gôsteren ansiklopedik bir eserdir. Aynı dônem eserlerinden biri de ilk nasihatname ôrneği olan Yusuf Has Hacip‗ in Kutadgu Bilig isimli eseridir. Bu eser de Ģu ôğùtler sıralanır: Sôzù yerinde sôylemeli, sorulunca konuĢmalı, iki dinleyip bir sôylemeli, kaba sôze yumuĢak; acı sôze tatlı karĢıtlık vermeli gibi. Bôylece, toplumsal değer yargıları ve kutlu saadet bilgileri anlatılırken, sôzler inci gibi dizilerek, etkili ve kalıcı bir anlatım sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dôneme damgasını vuran ve dilin muhafazası hakkında manidar bilgiler veren ùçùncù yapıt ise; Edip Ahmet‘ in kaleme aldığı Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘tır. Her ùç eserde bilimsel olarak incelendiğinde sôzùn o dônemdeki gùcù ve etkisi ayan beyan gôrùlmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‗ l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmıĢtır. Bu bulgular gùnùmùz eğitimcileri ve eğitim dùnyası için de ônem arzetmektedir. AnahtarKelimeler: Karahanlı dônemieserleri, sôzùngùcù, dilsôziliĢkisi ON THE EFFECTIVE USAGE OF SAYINGS IN KARAHANIDS TURKISH Abstract: The works such as DivanuLùgati‘t-Tùrk, KutadguBilig and Atabetù‘l-Hakayıkmanuscripted in Karahanids Turkish are known as preIslamic Turkish books. In these works there are not only Islamic characteristics of Turks but also Turkish traditional features before Islam. DivanuLùgati‘t-Tùrk is a dictionary including examples of Turkish literature, history, traditions of Turks, many Turkish proverbs and idioms. KutadguBilig by Yusuf Has Hacip and Atabetù‘l-Hakayık by Edip Ahmed are advice books. There are many advices related with sayings and the effective usage of sayings in these works. For example, It was advised that you speak only If you are asked, listen before you talk. It was also advised that when you response someone, be kind and use soft words, use ‗siz‘ (polite version of you in Turkish) instead of ‗sen‘ (you). In these works, it is pointed out that Turkish language must be protected. In this paper, the proverbs, idioms and verses related with the effective usage of sayings will be considered. The data extracted from these works will be classified and examined. The concluding results will be examined from educational point of wiev. Key Words: Karahanidsc periods works, the power of words, that the relationship between language and word GiriĢ: 8. yùzyıldan itibaren Araplarla tanıĢmaya baĢlayan Tùrkler, Karahanlı dôneminde Ġslâmiyeti resmen kabul etmiĢlerdir. Bu nedenle tarihte varlığı bilinen ilk Mùslùman Tùrk Devleti Karahanlı Devleti (912-1212) olup, Ġslâm kùltùrù etkisinde geliĢen Tùrk edebiyatının elde bulunan en eski ôrnekleri de bu dôneme aittir. Bu dônemde kaleme alınan tefsirlerin yanı sıra, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesiyle yazılmıĢ varlıkları bilinen en meĢhur eserler; Kutadgu Bilig, Dîvânu Lùgâti`t-Tùrk ve Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi olan Hakaniye lehçesi ile yazılan bir eserdir. Karahanlı dônemi Tùrk edebiyatının kronolojik sıraya gôre ikinci ônemli eseri Dîvânu Lùgati`t-Tùrk`tùr. KaĢgarlı Mahmud tarafından 1074`te Bağdat`ta tamamlanmıĢ olan bu eser Tùrkçe-Arapça bir sôzlùktùr. 1037 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Karahanlılar dôneminin sonunda kaleme alınan, konu ve edebi nevi itibariyle Kutadgu Bilig‘in devamı olan ùçùncù bir eser ise; Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Karahanlı Devleti kısa zamanda kendi dilini ve medeniyetini oluĢturmuĢ, KaĢgar, Balasagun ve Sir- Derya boyunda kendini hissettirmiĢtir. (Hacıeminoğlu, 1996:13) 3.AraĢtırmanın Amacı Ve Bölümleri: Karahanlı Dônemi eserlerini sırasıyla tanıtan bu çalıĢmanın amacı: Karahanlı DônemiTùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmaktır. Bu bildiri dôrt ana bôlùmden oluĢmaktadır: Birinci bôlùmde, Karahanlı Tùrkçesine ve dônemine yùzeysel bir bakıĢ; Ġkinci bôlùmde, Kutadgu Bilig‘in dil ôzellikleri ve eserde geçen sôzlerin etkili kullanımı; Üçùncù bôlùmde, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk eserindeki sôz – dil etkisi ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Dôrdùncù bôlùmde ise, Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılmıĢtır. 4.Veriler Ve Yöntem: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si eserlerinden, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta geçen sôz – dil kavramları ve etkisi, farklı kaynaklardan alınan veriler ile tespit edilmiĢ ve tarama metodu kullanılarak sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve çalıĢma gerçekleĢtirilmiĢtir. 4. Karahanlı Dönemi Türkçesi Ve Eserleri 5.1.Karahanlı Dönemi Türkçesi: Ġlk Ġslâmî edebiyat dili olan Karahanlı Tùrkçesi, 11.-12. yùzyıllar arasında KaĢgar ile Doğu ve Batı Tùrkistan‘dan geliĢmiĢtir. Karahanlı Tùrkçesi aynı zamanda Karahanlı Devleti‘nin resmî dili olmuĢtur. Karahanlı Devleti 10. yùzyılda Ġslâm dinini benimsemesiyle birlikte, çevresindeki Ġslâm devletleriyle yakın iliĢkiler kurmuĢtur. Bu iliĢkiler zamanla çeĢitli toplum kurumlarında ve ôzellikle dil ùzerinde birtakım etkiler yapmıĢ ve bazı Arapça, Farsça terkip ve tamlamalar tabii olarak kullanılmaya baĢlanmıĢtır. YaklaĢık iki yùzyıllık bir zaman dilimine hakim olan Karahanlı Tùrkçesi, Uygur ve Kôktùrk Tùrkçesi‘nin devamıdır. (Hacıeminoğlu, 1996:1) Karahanlı Tùrkçesi` nin merkezini KaĢgar teĢkil eder. Karahanlı‘lar devrinden itibaren, KaĢgar Ģivesinde inkiĢaf eden Tùrkçeki, buna hem hakaniye(Karahanlı) hem de Doğu Tùrkçesi adı verilmektedir.(Caferoğlu,1984:74) Karahanlı Tùrkçesinde Arapça ve Farsça kimi dil ôgeleri (sôzcùkler, ekler vb.) yerleĢmeye ve halk dili dıĢında bir zùmre dili oluĢmaya baĢladı. Karahanlı Tùrkçesinin ôzelliklerini gôsteren yapıtlar arasında KaĢgarlı Mahmut‘un ―Divan-ı Lugat-it-Tùrk‖ ù (Tùrk Lehçeleri Sôzlùğù), Yusuf Has Hacib‘in ―Kutadgu Bilig‖ i (Saadetli Olma Bilgisi), Edip Ahmet‘in ―Atabet-ùl Hakayık‖ ı (Hakikatlerin EĢiği) ve ―Ashab-ùl-Kehf ‖ (Yedi Uyurlar) ôzellikle anılabilir. Karahanlılar dônemi eserlerinde kullanılan dil; o dônemin kùltùr ve sanat yaĢamında Ġslâm gelenek ve gôreneklerindeki etkisini kısa zamanda gôsterdi ve Karahanlı Tùrkçesinde eserler verilmeye baĢladı. (www.birdunyabilgi.net/karahanli-turkcesi-ya-dahakaniye-turkcesi, 23-03-2011, saat:10.00). Bu devirde birçok Tùrkçe eserler yazıldığı muhakkak ise de, yazık ki bize bunlardan pek azı gelebilmiĢtir.(Kôprùlù,1986:153) Ayrıca, sôz ve konuĢma âdâbı, bir milletin tecrùbe imbiğinden sùzùlerek nesilden nesile hayat gôrùĢù olarak aktarılan atasôzleri ve deyimler içinde oldukça geniĢ yer tutar. ―Sôz gùmùĢse sùkøt altındır‖, ―Tatlı dil yılanı deliğinden çıkarır‖, ―Sôz dokuz boğumludur, boğa boğa sôyle‖, ―Sôz adamın mihengidir‖ gibi atasôzleri ve ―sôz açmak, sôz geçirmek, sôz vermek, sôzùnù bilmek, sôzùnùn eri olmak‖ gibi deyimler bazılarıdır. (Tunç, 2001:162) Edebiyatımızda hemen hemen bùtùn hacimli dinî, ahlâkî ve didaktik eserlerde sôze bir bôlùm ayrılmıĢ veya yeri geldikçe konuĢma âdâbı ile ilgili hususlar dile getirilmiĢ, hatta sırf sôz âdâbı ile ilgili nasihat-nâme tùrùnde mùstakil manzumeler yazılmıĢtır .(Yeniterzi, 2001: 322-23) Sôzùn tesirli kullanıldığı eserlerin baĢında Divan-ı Lugat-it-Tùrk gelir. 5.2.Divan-ı Lugat-it-Türk‘te Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Dinî ve ahlâkî eserlerde, nasihat-nâmelerde sôz ve konuĢma âdâbına ônem verilmesi ve çoğunlukla bôlùmler ayrılmasında, Tùrk edebiyatının kôklù bir sôzlù geleneğe bağlı olmasının da payı vardır.(Tunç, 2001:183) Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi‗ nin ve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temel 1038 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo eserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùk değil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımına vurgu yapan bir eserdir. Araplar`a Tùrkçe ôğretmek ve Tùrkçenin zengin dil-sôz varlığını ortaya koymak amacıyla yazılmıĢtır. KâĢgarlıMahmut‘un; ―Derdini dinletebilmek ve Tùrklerin gônlùnù almak için onların dilleriyle konuĢmaktan baĢka çare yoktur.‖ sôzleri (Atalay, 1985:6), yabancıların Tùrk dilini vedille birlikte folklorùnù ve kùltùrùnù ôğrenmelerini, Tùrklerle iyi iliĢkiler kurmak için tek yol olarak kabul ettiğini gôsterir. (Eker, 2006:191) Dilin yaygınlaĢmasında ve tesirin artmasındaki temel etken; canlı,derin manalar ifade eden kelimelerin kullanımı, yazılı veya sôzlù dil unsurlarının anlaĢılır ve yalınlığının yanında muhatabına gôre seçilmesidir. Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk açıklamalı bir sôzlùktùr. Tùrkçe kelimeyi açıklarken bir ibare, atasôzù ya da bir manzum parçayı ôrnek olarak verir. Divan‘da yer alan edebi malzeme savlar(atasôzleri) ve koĢuklar (Ģiirler) olmak ùzere iki grupta toplanabilir. Divan‘daki 7500 madde baĢını açıklamada yararlanılan 289 atasôzù 172‘ dôrtlùklerden, 55 beyitten ibaret toplam 798 dize vardır. (Eker, 2006:193). Divan-ı Lùgat-itTùrk; bir sôzlùk olarak ele alındığında, sôzcùkten oluĢan sôz varlığıyla ve bu sôzcùklerin açıklamalarıyla ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Pek çok dil bilimsel ôzelliği içinde barındıran bu eser, aynı zamanda dônemin karĢılaĢtırılmalı Tùrk dili ansiklobedisidir.(Bayraktar,2009:139) DîvânuLùgati`t-Tùrk`te 7500 dolayındaki Tùrkçe kelimenin Arapça karĢılıkları verilmiĢ ve Tùrk boylarının dilleri tanıtılmıĢtır. KaĢgarlı Mahmut Divanında: ―Tùrk dilini ôğreniniz; çùnkù onlar için uzun sùrecek egemenlik vardır.‖(Eker, 2006:192) sahih olmayan bir hadisten bahseder. Gùnùmùzde Tùrkçe 130 ùlkede ikinci bir dil olarak ôğretilmektedir. Dilimizle birlikte bize ait değerler en veciz ifadelerle aktarılmakta vesôzùn gùcùnden yararlanılmaktadır. Sôzlù ve yazılı dil geleneğimizin temel taĢlarından birini oluĢturan Dîvânu Lùgati‘t-Tùrk‘te dilin ve sôzùn etkili kullanımını gôsteren ifadeler: 1.Erdem baĢı tıl. Erdemin,edep ve faziletin baĢı dildir.(Çùnkù gùzel sôz sôylemesini bilen Ģerefe eriĢir,onurlanır. Bir Arap atasôzù: ―Ġnsan-insanın değeri-dilinin altında saklıdır.‖) 2. Savın sagrakkategir. (Gùzel sôzle insan beylerin çanağından içme Ģerefine erer. En gùzel Ģekilde ağırlanır.) (Birtek, 1994:14) 3. Bilge eren sawların algıl ögüt./Edhgüsawığadhlese özge sinğer. (Bilgin adamların sôzlerini ôğùt olarak al, iyi sôz tesir ederse ôze siner) (Atalay, 1985: 155) 4.Tılda çıkar edhü söz ‗iyi söz dilden çıkar‘. ( Halkı hoĢnut edecek gùzel sôzleri dilinden eksik etme) (Atalay, 1985: 161) ―Kuru kaĢık ağıza yaraĢmaz, kuru sôz kulağa yaraĢmaz. Tılıntirgik ete gir. Dil ile sofraya eriĢilir. (gùzel sôzle insan nimete eriĢebilir. Bu sav insanın kendi erdemini ancak sôzleriyle tanıtabileceğini vurgular. Dil ile bağlanan diĢle çôzùlmez. (Bu sav sôzùnùn eri olan sôzùnù yerine getirmesi gerekenler için sôylenir. Sôzùn tadına dalan kimse esir olur (Lafa dalan tutsak olur). Çok sôzù anlamak olmaz, yalçın kaya yıkılmak olmaz. Ġnsan çok sôzù anlayamaz, nasıl ki dağdan yalçın kayayı yıkamaz.‖ (DîvânuLùgati‘tTùrk, 1998: I/383; 429; II/20; 150-51; III/20) 5.3.Kutadgu Bilig‘te Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemin edebi eser niteliği taĢıyan ilk ôrneğidir. 1069 yılında Balasagunlu Yusuf tarafından yazılmıĢtır. Karahanlı hùkùmdarı Tabgaç Buğra Han`a sunulmuĢ olan eser Buğra Han tarafından çok beğenilerek yazarında sarayda "Has Haciplik" gôrevi verilmiĢtir.(Kôprùlù,1986:165) Saadet veren bilgi anlamına gelen Kutadgu Bilig, adından da anlaĢılacağı gibi, insana hem dùnyada hem de ahirette mutlu olma yolunu gôstermek amacıyla yazılmıĢtır.(Arat,2006:29) Mesnevi biçiminde yazılmıĢ olan eserin sonunda 124 beyitlik ùç kaside ile mesnevi içinde yeri geldikçe sôylenmiĢ ayrıca 173 dôrtlùk bulunmaktadır. Anılan ek manzumelerle birlikte Kutadgu Bilig`in tamamı 6645 beyittir. Kutadgu Bilig, Karahanlı dônemi Tùrkçesi olan Hakaniye lehçesi ile yazılmıĢtır. Sayıları fazla olmamakla birlikte Arapça ve Farsça kelimelerin de kullanıldığı eserde, Tùrkçe aruza uydurulurken, çok sayıda imale yapılmıĢtır. Kutadgu Bilig, dùĢùnce yanı ağır basan, ôğretici bir eserdir. Tatsız mecazlarla ahlak dersi veren kuru bir ôğùtçù değildir. Bu eseriyle insan hayatının anlamını çôzùmleyen ve onun toplumun, dolayısıyla da devletin içindeki gôrevini saptayan bir hayat felsefesi sistemi kurmuĢtur.(Arat, 2006:30) Kullandığı dil Tùrk yazı dilidir ve inceliklerine vakıftır. Dilin ve sôzùn 1039 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo tesirini artırmak için seçtiği yarı hikâye yarı temsil tarzındaki açıklayıcı monologlar ve canlı betimlemelerle mùkemmel bir ùslup ve mimari oluĢturmuĢtur.(Arat,2006:31) Dil ve dùĢùnce tarihi yônùnden değerli bir belge niteliğindeki bu eser, yazıldığı dônemin insanına ve devlet adamlarına, doğru yolu gôstermek, yôneticilikle ilgili bilgi vermek amacıyla yazılmıĢtır. Karahanlı dônemi Tùrk aydınlarının dùnya gôrùĢùnù, duyuĢ ve dùĢùnùĢ tarzlarını, kùltùr dùzeylerini tanıtan bu eserde: Tùrk Dili, seçilen kelimeler, hikâye, temsiller, monolog ve betimlemelerle kullanım alanını ve etkinliğini arttırmıĢtır. Sadece Karahanlı dôneminin değil gùnùmùzùn de en etkin bir Ģaheseri olma ôzelliğine kavuĢmuĢtur. Sôzùn ve dilin etkisini ve erdemini gôsteren beyitler: AnlayıĢ ve bilgiye tercùman olan dildir; Ġnsanı aydınlatan açık dilin kıymetini bil KiĢiyi dil kıymetlendirir ve kiĢi onunla mutluluk bulur; KiĢiyi dil kıymetten dùĢùrùr ve dili yùzùnden baĢı gider. Dil arslandır, bak, eĢikte yatar; Ey ev sahibi, dikkat et, senin baĢını yer. (Arat,2006: 117) Sôzùne dikkat et ki, baĢın gitmesin; Dilini tut ki diĢin kırılmasın. Bilgili kiĢi dil için ôzlù bir sôz sôyledi; BaĢını gôzet, ey dil sahibi. Sen kendi esenliğini istiyorsan, Ağızdan yakıĢıksız sôz çıkarma. Sôz bilerek sôylenirse bilgi sayılır; Bilgisizin sôzù kendi baĢını yer. Çok sôzden bir fayda gôrmedim; Ama sôylemek de faydasız değildir. Sôzù çok sôyleme, az ve birer sôyle; Binlerce sôzùn dùğùmùnù bu bir sôzde çôz. KiĢi sôz ile yùkseldi, melik oldu. Çok sôz baĢı, gôlge gibi yere serdi. Çok konuĢma ―gevezelik etti‖ derbilgi; Ama sôylemezse de ona ―dilsiz‖ der. Mademki bôyledir, sen açık dil kullan; Dil açık olursa kiĢiyi yùkseltir. Dili iyi gôzet, baĢın gôzetmiĢ olur; Sôzùnù kısa kes ômrùn uzun olur. Dilin faydası çok olduğu gibi, zararı da çoktur Dil bazen ôvùlùr, bazen de çok sôvùlùr. Mademki bôyledir, sôzù bilerek sôyle; Sôzùn olsun gôzsùzlere kôrlere gôz. Bak, doğan ôlùr; ondan eser olarak sôz kalır; Sôzùnù iyi sôylersen ôlùmsùz olursun.(Arat,2006:119) KiĢi iki Ģey ile kendini yaĢlanmaktan kurtarır: Biri iyi iĢ, diğeri de iyi sôz Bak kiĢi doğdu, ôldù; sôzù kaldı; 1040 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ġnsanın kendisi gitti adı kaldı. Kendine ôlùmsùz bir hayat dilersen; ĠĢin ve sôzùn iyi olsun, ey hakîm. Dili bu kadar ôvmek ve arada bir sôvmekten amacım, Sana sôzùn ne olduğunu anlatmaktı. Her sôzù saklamayı da anlayıĢ hoĢ gôrmez; KiĢi gerekli sôzù sôyler, gizlemez. Ey yiğit, ben bu sôzù oğlum için sôyledim; Oğul benden aĢağıdır, bana nasıl denk olur. KiĢiden kiĢiye miras olarak sôz kalır; Vasiyet edilen sôzù tutmanın faydası çoktur..(Arat,2006:121) Sôz deve burnu gibi yularlıdır; DiĢi deveboynu gibi nereye çekilirse oraya gider.(Arat,2006:125) Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr. Ġnsan sôzùnù diliyle sôyler; Sôzù iyi olursa yùzù parlar.(Arat,2006:133) Hem yumuĢak huylu, hem tatlı dilli Hem akıllı hem bilgili olmak gerekir .(Arat,2006:141) Vùcudun nasibi hep boğazdan girer; Ruhun nasibiyse doğru sôzdùr ve kulaktan girer. Bak bilginin iki alameti vardır; Bu iki Ģey ile insan bahtiyar olur Bunlardan biri dil, biri ise boğazdır; Ġnsan bu ikisine hakim olursa çok fayda gôrùr. Bilgilinin boğazına ve diline hâkim olması gerekir; Boğazını ve dilini gôzeten bilgiler gereklidir.Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr. Ġnsan sôzùnù diliyle sôyler; Sôzù iyi olursa yùzù parlar.(Arat,2006:133) Hem yumuĢak huylu, hem tatlı dilli Hem akıllı hem bilgili olmak gerekir (Arat,2006:251) Ay- Toldı dedi ki: sôzùn faydası bùyùktùr; Sôz yerinde kullanılırsa, kulu yùkseltir. Sôz sayesinde yağız yerden mavi gôğe yùkselir Ve baĢ kôĢeye geçenlerden olur. Eğer dil sôz sôylemesini bilmezse Mavi gôkte olanı yere indirir Ay-Toldı dedi ki: Fazla sôz, sormadan Sôylenip insanı usandıran sôzdùr. 1041 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Az sôz ise sorulduğu zaman sôylenen Ve bir ihtiyacı karĢılayan sôzdùr. Dilini gùzel sôzle sùsleyen ve onun yùzùnù açan Ģair Bu vadide Ģôyle bir sôz sôylemiĢtir: (Arat,2006:253) Sôzù gùzel ve iyice dùĢùnerek sôyle; Ancak sorulduğunda sôyle ve kısa kes. Çok dinle, fakat az konuĢ; Sôzù akıl ile sôyle, bilgi ile sùsle. Çok dinlemeli fakat sôzùn birer birer sôylemeli Bilgili hakîm bana ôyle dedi Çok sôylemekle bilge olmaz kiĢi; Çok dinlemekle bilge bulur baĢkôĢeyi. Ġnsan, dilsiz de olsa bilgili olabilir Fakat sağır olursa bilgiyi elde edemez. (Arat,2006:255) Ay- Toldı dedi: Hùkùmdara arz edeyim; Dili ile sôylemezse bilgi ôylece kalır Dile yalnız sôvmek olmaz, ôvùlecek tarafı da çoktur; Sôzùn de ôvùlecek ve sôvùlecek tarafı vardır Bùtùn canlılar bùtùn bu sayısız yaratıklar; Tanrının birliğine dil ile Ģahadet getirdi Tanrı yùz binlerce mahløku yarattı Onların hepsi de Tanrı‘yı dilleriyle ôver. Vùcut sahibi kiĢiye gereken Ģeylerden Biri dil ve sôz, biri de gônùldùr. Tanrı gônlù ve dili doğru sôz için yarattı Sôzù doğru olanları zorla ateĢe atarlar. Sôz doğru sôylenirse faydası çoktur Eğri sôz daima ayıplanır. Doğru sôyleyecekse dilin kımıldasın Sôzùn eğriyse onu gizlemelisin. KonuĢmayan kiĢiye dilsiz derler Çok sôyleyenin adıysa geveze baĢıdır. KiĢinin itibarsızı geveze olanıdır; KiĢinin itibarlısı cômert olanıdır.(Arat,2006:257) Hangi iĢ olursa olsun onu tatlı dil ile karĢıla; Her iĢte tatlı dil kullanırsan, mutluluk sana bağlanır.(Arat,2006:301) Sôzùnù gôzet emniyet içinde yaĢa; Kendini gôzet esenlik ile ihtiyarla.(Arat,2006:331) BaĢını korumak istersen beylerin sôylemesi gereken sôzleri sôyle Sen sôyleme, memlekete karĢı suç iĢleyip kendi baĢını yeme 1042 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Avam memlekete karĢı suç iĢlerse baĢı gider; KonuĢurken dili suç iĢlerse diĢi kırılır. Sonra çok okudum dil ihtiyatsız konuĢurken Gônùl sırrını ifĢa etmiĢ ve o kiĢiyi yaralamıĢtır. Meliklere vakti gelince yùzùnù gôster, Sorduklarında sôyle ve ancak sorduklarına cevap ver. (Arat,2006:481) HoĢsohbet kiĢiler her yerde iyi kabul gôrùr; Sôzde usta kiĢi iĢinde de baĢarılı olur.(Arat,2006:503) Ağızdan bazen ateĢ bazen su çıkar; Bunların biri yapar biri de yıkar. Gereksiz sôz yanan ateĢ gibidir; Onu ağzından çıkarmamalısın sonra kendin yanarsın. Kızıl dil kara baĢın amansız dùĢmanıdır; Bu kôtù dùĢmanı sıkı tut ve huzur içinde yaĢa.(Arat,2006:507) Kaba sôze yumuĢak yanıt verilmeli, Acı sôzlere de tatlı sôzle karĢılık verilmeli. Ġnsanlara karĢı kaba sôz sôyleme; Kaba sôzùn acısını gônlùn uzun yıllar çeker (609) Ne ise zararı yok doğru sôylemiĢ; Doğru sôz haĢin olur o da haĢin sôylemiĢ (Arat,2006:673) Dinle akıl insan sana ne der: Sôzù dùĢùnerek sôyle ey mert yiğit. Sôzù sôylemenin faydası çoktur; Bu dilim beni sôylemekle piĢman etti. Sôzù sôylemezsen o sôz sana kul olur; Eğer sôylersen o seni kendine kul eder. Sôzù dùĢùnerek sôyle acele etme, sabırlı ol; Acele sôylenen sôzden ayrın piĢmanlık gelir.(Arat,2006:679) Sôzùn uzun olursa bıktırır; Akıllı kiĢiler sôzù kısa keser. (Arat,2006:687) Sôzù kapalı tutarsan sonu çiğlik olur; Çiğ olan her Ģeyin altında zarar vardır.(Arat,2006:703) Yanındakini kendinden uzaklaĢtırmak istersen, Ona istediğini verme, onunla biraz kaba konuĢ Kendini herkese sevdirmek istersen, Sôzùn ve fikrin birbirine uygun, dilin tatlı olsun.(Arat,2006:739) Sôz her Ģeyi altùst eden bir rùzgârdır, kalbi sızlatır; Kalbi sızlayan kimse seni mahvedebilir.(Arat,2006:741) Onlar nasıl hareket ederlerse sen de ôyle yap; Tatlı sôz sôyleyenlere sen de tatlı dil kullan 1043 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Sana siz diyenlere sen de siz tabirini kullan KarĢılık verirken daima karĢındakinden daha nazik davran Kaya yankısından daha aĢağı kalma Sana sen diyenlere sen de senle.(Arat,2006:743) Çok sôz sôyleme, kendine hâkim ol, dilini koru; Çok sôylenen sôzùn kıymeti kalmaz. Her sôzù sôz diye ağızdan çıkarma; Gerekli olan sôzù dùĢùnerek ve ihtiyatla sôyle. Akıllı bir insan gôrdùm çok az konuĢtu; Fakat çok konuĢtum diye yıllarca piĢman oldu.(Arat,2006:747) Sôzùnù dùĢùnerek sôyle, sana keder gelmez; Hayatını boĢa geçirme, piĢman olmazsın.(Arat,2006:781) Gônlùnù ve dilini doğru tut, erdemiyse yùksek tut; Gaflete dalma yolunu ĢaĢırma Beyler haĢin sôz sôylememeli, kendilerine hâkim olmalı; HaĢin sôz insanların gônlùnù çabuk soğutur.(Arat,2006:879) Bu Tùrkçe sôzù yabani geyik gibi gôrdùm; Onu yavaĢça tuttum, aldatarak kendime yaklaĢtırdım. OkĢadım ısındırdım, çabucak bana gônùl verdi; Yine de ara sıra ùrkùyor, korkuyor. Ele geçirdiğim gibi sôzù takip ettim; Onun miski gùzel kokular saçmaya baĢladı Sôzù doğru sôyledim, o sert ve acı oldu; Doğru sôze tahammùl eden akıllı insandır. (Arat,2006:1085) Sôzù çok sôyledin dikkat et tazeliğini kaybetmesin Çok sôzden insan usanır ve bıkar.(Arat,2006:1087) Dilini tut boğazına hâkim ol çok uyuma, Gôzùnù yum kulağını tıka ve bôylece huzur içinde yaĢa.(Arat,2006:1089) 5.4.Atabetü`l-Hakâyık ‘ta Sözün Etkili Kullanımı: Bu dônem eserlerinden bir baĢkası da Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`tır. Yazarı, Yùknekli Edip Ahmet olan Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`ın yazılıĢ tarihi bilinmemekle birlikte, Kutadgu Bilig`den yarım yùzyıl sonra yazıldığı sanılmaktadır. Dini-ahlâki didaktik bir eserdir. Ġslâmi Tùrk edebiyatının, Mùslùmanlık inançlarını telkin eden ilk eseridir. Tùrk dili tarihi, tarih ve edebiyat tarihi açısından da ônemli bir yapıttır. Asıl metnin dôrtlùklerle sôylenmiĢ olması yazarın milli Ģiir zevkini sùrdùrdùğùnùn gôstergesidir. Dil bakımından Kutadgu Bilig`e gôre Atabetù`l-Hakâyık`ta Arapça, Farsça kelime sayısı daha fazladır. Ancak, halka hitabeden eserde konu ve dùĢùnce kurgusu daha basittir.Edip Ahmet, ağzınve dilin ziynetinin doğru sôz olduğunu ve etkili sôz sôylemenin doğru ve sanatlı sôzle mùmkùn olacağını eserinde vurgular. Dilin muhafazası hakkındaki beyitler: Dinle bilgili ne diyor: Edeplerin baĢı dili gôzetmektir; Dilini muhafaza altında tut, diĢin kırılmasın; Eğer muhafaza altından çıkarsa, diĢini kırar. DùĢùnerek konuĢan adamın sôzù, sôzùn iyisidir; Çok gevezelik eden dil, karĢı konulmaz bir dùĢmandır. Sôzùnù baĢı- boĢ bırakma; dilini sıkı tut; 1044 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilin baĢı- boĢluğu bir gùn baĢa belâ olur. BoĢ- boğaz adam akıllı olur mu?; Bu boĢ- boğazlık ve ağız gevĢekliği çok baĢları yedi. Ġnsanı dil ile kızdırma; bil ki, ok yarası kapanır, Fakat dilin açtığı yara kapanmaz. Sefîh adamın dili kendi baĢının dùĢmanıdır; Birçok adamların kanları dilleri yùzùnden dôkùldù. Çok konuĢanlar arasında piĢman olan çoktur. Dilini muhafaza altında bulunduranlardan piĢman olan kim var? Ġnsana ne gelirse, dilinden gelir; Dili yùzùnden kimi iyi, kimi kôtù olur; Dinle ve bu sôze inan ki vùcut her sabah Kalkıp, eğilerek, dile yalvarır. Eğer bir insanda(Ģu) iki Ģey birleĢirse, O insanda mùrùvvet yolu kapanmıĢtır: Bunlardan biri, lùzumsuz yere gevezelik etmek Ġkincisi ise yalan sôylemektir. Yalan sôyleyen adamdan uzak dur, kaç; Sen ômrùnù doğruluk ile geçir. Ağzın ve dilin ziyneti doğru sôzdùr; Sôzù doğru sôyle, dilini sùsle. Dilini sıkı tut, gel, sôzùnù kısa kes; Dil korunursa kendin korunmuĢ olursun; Resøl; - ― Ġnsanı yùzùkoyun ateĢe atan dildir‖- dedi; Dilini sıkı tut, yùzùnù ateĢten kurtar Doğru ol, doğruluk yap ve adın doğruya çıksın; Ġnsanlar seni doğru olarak bilsinler; Eğriliği bırakıp doğruluk libasını giy, Elbiselerin en iyisi, doğruluk libasıdır. Sırrını iyi sakla, kimse bilmesin, Sôzùnden kendine piĢmanlık gelmesin; Bùtùn gizli iĢlerin âĢikar olup, Gôren ve duyan sana gùlmesin. En yakın ve inanılır arkadaĢına bile, sakın, ArkadaĢım diye inanıp, sırrını sôyleme; Sırrın kendinde sabretmez ve saklamazsa, ArkadaĢına sabreder mi; bunu iyi dùĢùn. (Arat,Atabet‘ùlHakayık, 2006, s.87-88) Sonuç: ―Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk bir hazinedir; onun ùzerinde ùç, beĢ kiĢinin çalıĢması yeterli değildir. Divanın ùzerinde yùzlerce kiĢi çalıĢacak ve her çalıĢan yeni bir cevher bulacaktır.― Divanın giriĢindeki bu cùmleler, bu çalıĢmaya teĢvik eden temel sebeblerden birisi oldu. Bu bildiri de dôrt ana baĢlık altında, Karahanlı dônemindeki dil ve sôzùn tesirini ôrneklerle incelemeye çalıĢtım. Karahanlı DônemiTùrkçe‘si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ıLugatIt Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yaparak, edebiyatımızda ve dilimizde sôzùn gùzelliğini, ―Aklın sùsù dil, dilin sùsù sôzdùr; / KiĢinin sùsù yùz, yùzùn sùsù gôzdùr.‖ Beyitiyle taçlandırdık. Bir sôz insanın yùzùnù ak ederken, baĢka bir sôzùyle yùzùnùn kara olabileceğini vurguladık. Sôzùn fazileti ve tesirini en veciz herhalde Ģu Ģekilde ifade edilebilir: ―Kendine ôlùmsùz bir hayat dilersen, ey hakîm, iĢin ve sôzùn iyi olsun. 1045 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Arat, R, Atebetù‘l- Hakâyık,TDK, Ankara, 2006 Arat, R. R, KutadguBilig, Kabalcı yay.Ġstanbul, 2006 Atalay, B. Divan-ı Lugat-it TùrkTercùmesi, Ankara 1985 Bayraktar, N. ―Dil Bilimci ve Dil Eğitimcisi Olarak KaĢgarlı Mahmud‖ Akademik AraĢtırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 10 sayı:39, Ġstanbul, 2009 Birtek, F., En Eski Tùrk Savları, AlahaddinKıral Basımevi, Ankara 2006 Caferoğlu, A., Tùrk Dili Tarihi, Enderun Kitabevi, Ġstanbul,1984 Eker, S., ―Erken Dônem KaĢgarlı Mahmut‖, Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Kùltùr ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yay. ,Ġstanbul2006 Hacıeminoğlu, N., Karahanlı Tùrkçesi Grameri, TDK, Ankara 1996 Kôprùlù, M.F., Tùrk Edebiyatı Tarihi, Ötùken Yayınları, Ġstanbul, 1986 Tunç S., "Dede Ömer RûĢenîDîvânı'nda Söz ve KonuĢma Âdabı ile Ġlgili Hususlar", SÜ Tùrkiyat AraĢtırmaları Enstitùsù Tùrkiyat AraĢtırmaları Dergisi, S. 10, Konya, 2001 Yeniterzi, E., ―On Altıncı Yüzyılda Konyalı Bir ġair: MeĢâmî‖ Tùrk Dili, Sayı: 591 Mart 2001 (www.birdunyabilgi.net/karahanli-turkcesi-ya-da-hakaniye-turkcesi, 23-03-2011,saat:10.00) 1046 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 576 Title A name given to the resource KARAHANLI DÖNEMĠ TÜRKÇESĠNDE SÖZÜN ETKĠLĠ KULLANIMI Author Author Çakır, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. Karahanlı dônemiTùrkçesi‗ninve Ġslami Dônem Tùrk Edebiyatının temeleserlerinden KâĢgarlı Mahmut‘un Divan-ı Lùgat-it-Tùrk‘ù sadece bir sôzlùkdeğil; edebiyat ve dil tarihini aydınlatan, sôzùn etkili gùcùnù ve kullanımını gôsteren ansiklopedik bir eserdir. Aynı dônem eserlerinden biri de ilk nasihatname ôrneği olan Yusuf Has Hacip‗ in Kutadgu Bilig isimli eseridir. Bu eser de Ģu ôğùtler sıralanır: Sôzù yerinde sôylemeli, sorulunca konuĢmalı, iki dinleyip bir sôylemeli, kaba sôze yumuĢak; acı sôze tatlı karĢıtlık vermeli gibi. Bôylece, toplumsal değer yargıları ve kutlu saadet bilgileri anlatılırken, sôzler inci gibi dizilerek, etkili ve kalıcı bir anlatım sağlanmıĢtır. Bu dôneme damgasını vuran ve dilin muhafazası hakkında manidar bilgiler veren ùçùncù yapıt ise; Edip Ahmet‘ in kaleme aldığı Atebetù‘l Hakayık‘tır. Her ùç eserde bilimsel olarak incelendiğinde sôzùn o dônemdeki gùcù ve etkisi ayan beyan gôrùlmektedir. Bu çalıĢmada: Karahanlı Dônemi Tùrkçe‘ si yapıtlarından, Divan‘ı Lugat It Tùrk, Kutadgu Bilig ve Atebetù‗ l Hakayık‘ ta sôzùn etkili kullanımı ùzerine bir inceleme ve tarama çalıĢması yapılarak, çeĢitli bulgulara ulaĢılmıĢtır. Bu bulgular gùnùmùz eğitimcileri ve eğitim dùnyası için de ônem arzetmektedir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3207b217d107f523c5906ed2149351e5.pdf a00269ef72373311bcba22018289e9e7 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde Anlam ve Bağlam Mustafa Çetin International Burch University Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Sarajevo/Bosna Hersek mcetin@ibu.edu.ba Murat Yiğit Saraybosna Yunus Emre Tùrk Kùltùr Merkezi Sarajevo/Bosna-Hersek muratyigit06@gmail.com Elçin KARLI International Burch University Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı Borna Hersek kelcin@ibu.edu.ba Özet: Anlam insan için geçmiĢten gùnùmùze ônemli gôrùlmùĢtùr. Ġnsanoğlu için anlam sadece bu dùnya ile sınırlandırılmamıĢtır. Ġnsanlık kôkleriyle geçmiĢe hayalleriyle geleceğe bağlı yaĢamaktadır. Ġnsanın bedeni Ģekil, ruhu anlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bedensiz ruh, ruhsuz beden olamayacağı dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dilde de anlam ruhla eĢ değer tutulmaktıdır. Bu çalıĢmada, dilde anlam ve bağlamın ne ifade ettiği değerlendirilecek, anlam-bağlam iliĢkisi incelenerek, bağlamın çeviriye ve dil ôğretimine etkisi ùzerinde durulacaktır. Anahtar Sözcükler: Dil, dilbilim, anlam, anlambilim, bağlam, kùltùr, çeviri, dil ôğretimi. GiriĢ Anlam, insanlık tarihi kadar eskidir. Ġnsanoğlu dùnyaya geldiğinde ôncelikle içinde yaĢadığı dùnyayı anlamlamlandırarak dile aktarmıĢtır. Çevremizdeki doğal veya kùltùr hayatıyla ilgili her çeĢit olaya anlam verme, anlamlarını araĢtırma ―signification (anlam yapma)‖insan doğasının en baĢta gelen ôzelliğidir. Ġnsan, etrafında olup bitenlere anlam veren veya onların anlamlarını soruĢturan yaratık değil midir? Bùtùn insan bilimlerinin ortak yônù anlam araĢtırmaları oluĢlarıdır (Bayrav, 1998:120). Ġlk dil incelemeleri din etkisi ile (BaĢkan, 2003:23) dilde anlamın incelenme ve araĢtırılmasına sebep olmuĢtur. Anlamı en çok merak edenler ve onu araĢtırma konusu yapanlar ôncelikle din adamları, teologlar olmuĢtur. Eski çağlardan itibaren dilde anlama ônem verilmiĢtir. Anlamın temeli durumunda olan nesne ile onun dildeki karĢılığı, adı arasında bir iliĢki bulunup bulunmadığı sorununun daha Ġ.Ö. IV. Yùzyılda Hindistan‘da Yaska tarafından, aynı yùzyılda Eski Yunan‘da Platon‘un Kratylos adlı yapıtında ele alınarak tartıĢıldığını biliyoruz (Aksan, 2006:16). KavramlaĢtırma dediğimiz, ―dùnyadaki nesne ve olayların belli bir ses bileĢimiyle simgeleĢtirilerek kavramlaĢtırılmasına anlambilimde anlamlama (signification) adı verilmektedir (Aksan, 2006:31). Gerçekten bu anlamlandırma iĢi dilin ortaya çıkıĢı, anlamın ortaya çıkıĢı olarak dùĢùnùlmektedir. KavramlaĢtırma nesneyle onların dildeki gôstergeleri arasındaki ilk temel (gôndergesel) anlamlarını ortaya çıkarmıĢtır. GeçmiĢten gùnùmùze dile ilgi duyan, bu alanda araĢtımalar yapan bilim insanlarını kavramlaĢtırma konusu dilin doğuĢtan mı, yoksa sonradan mı var olduğu konusunda tartıĢmaya itmiĢtir. Dilde kavram (anlam) dediğimiz dil gôstergelerinin bu yônù aslında gerçeklik dùnyasının insan zihnindeki değeri, anlamıdır. Dilde, anlama ve anlambilime ilgi duyan birçok dilcinin çalıĢmaları ônemli gôrùlmektedir. XVII. Yùzyılda John Locke, sôzcùklerin anlamları ùzerinde ônemle duruyor, aynı çağda Bacon, XVIII. Yùzyılda Leibniz, Herder ve daha sonraları (Wilhelm von) Humbolt dilin dùĢùnceyle ilgisine eğiliyorlardı (Aksan, 2006:17). XIX. Yùzyıl dilde anlama bakıĢın daha çok ônem kazandığı ve bilimselleĢtiği bir dônem olarak gôrùlmektedir. Dilde anlamı inceleyen, baĢlıbaĢına bir bilimsel alanın temellerini atan ônemli dilciler ortaya çıkmıĢtır. Alman dilcisi K. Reisig ―Semasiologie‖ , Fransa‘da M. Breal ―Semantique‖ adı altında dilde anlamı ve anlamla ilgili konuları incelemiĢlerdir. Bunların dıĢında dilde anlamı iĢleyen Trier, Ullmann, Greimas, Lyons, Guiraud, Chomsky, Katz-Fodor gibi dilbilimciler yetiĢmiĢtir (Aksan, 2006:17). Anlam, tarihi sùreç içierisinde bazen Ģekle feda edilmiĢtir. Oysa, dilde Ģekil ve anlam beyaz bir kağıdın iki yùzù gibidir. Anlamı Ģekilsiz dùĢùnmek, Ģekli de anlamsız dùĢùnmek neredeyse imkansızdır. Yalnız biçime kıymet verip anlamı hesaba katmadan incelemelere giriĢmek isteyen Bloomfield‘çilerin çalıĢmaları gerçekte pek netice vermemiĢ gôrùnùyor (Bayrav, 1998:129). Ancak, dilin çift eklemliliği içerisinde anlamın temelinin sesler (anlatım-Ģekil) dùzeyinde atıldığı anlaĢılmaktadır. 1368 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde anlam farklı terimler altında incelenmektedir. Gùnùmùzde bunlar ayrı birer bilim dalı halini almıĢtır. GeçmiĢten gùnùmùze batıda retorik, doğuda ise ilmù‘l belaga (Aksan, 2006:17) terimleri anlam konularını içermiĢtir. Modern anlambilim inceleme ve araĢtırmaları içerisinde Edimbilim, Sôylem Çôzùmlemesi alanları ônem kazanmıĢtır. Dilde Anlam ve Ġfadesi Dilbiliminde anlamın tanımı ve dilbilimcilerin anlama bakıĢı ùzerin durulacaktır. Anlam (meaning, sense, signification) dildeki bir birimin aktardığı ya da uyandırdığı kavram, tasarım, dùĢùnce; içerik. Anlamı, dil içi bağıntıların yanı sıra bağlam ve durum belirler (Vardar, 2002:18). Dil gôstergeleri iki yônlù anlam taĢımaktadır. Gôsteren (anlatım-somut) kısmı anlamın temelinin atıldığı daha çok dil içi bağlamın ağırlığının hissedildiği yônù, bir de gôsterilen (içerik-soyut) kısmı dil dıĢı bağlamın hakim olduğu bôlùmùdùr. Burada anlamın dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamla bùtùnlùk kazanacağı ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Anlam, bir kelimeden, bir sôzden, bir davranıĢ veya olgudan anlaĢılan Ģey; bunların hatırlattığı dùĢùnce veya nesne, mana, fehva. Bir ônermenin, bir tasarının, bir dùĢùncenin veya eserin anlatmak istediği Ģey (Komisyon, 1988:71). Tùrkçe sôzlùkte geçen anlam tarifi anlamı sadece gôsterilen (kavram) boyutunda değerlendirmiĢtir. Bir sôzcùğùn değeri, içinde yer aldığı tùmcedeki ôteki sôzcùklere gôre oluĢur. Sôzcùğùn anlamı ise, konuĢan kiĢinin durumu, alıcının bu sôzcùğe verdiği yanıtlar toplamıdır.‖(Kıran, 2006:132). Kıranın tarifi de dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamı dikkate alan bir tanım ôzelliği gôstermektedir. F. de Saussure, Kıranın tanımında yer verdiği değeri anlam olarak değerlendirmektedir. Burada değer dil içi bağlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Dağılımsal dilbilimin savunucularından Z. S. Harris: ―Dilbilimsel bir iletinin anlamı ancak bir konuĢucunun sôzcelerini sôylediği durum ve bu sôzcelerin alıcıda uyandırdığı dùrtù-tepki davranıĢlarıyla geçerli bir biçimde tanımlanabilir.‖(Kıran, 2006:157) demektedir. Bu tanımda ise anlam dil dıĢı bağlamla iliĢkilendirilmektedir. ―Sôzcede, sôzceleme durumu, bağlam, konuĢucu ve alıcının ùzerine bir Ģeyin bilinmediği, salt sôzcùklerin kendi aralarındaki iliĢkileriyle ortaya çıkan dilbilimsel anlamdır. (Kıran, 2006:227)‖ denilmektedir. Dilbilimsel anlam sôzdiziminde dizilen sôzcùklerin birlikte oluĢturduğu anlamdır. Burada dil içi bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Ünlù dùĢùnùr Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations adlı tanınmıĢ yapıtında ‗sôzcùğùn anlamı, onun dil içindeki kullanımıdır‘ der. Aynı gôrùĢù paylaĢan ve anlamın değil, kullanımın var olduğunu ileri sùren baĢka bilginler de vardır (Aksan, 2006:46). Burada anlamla ilgil ônemli bir nokta ùzerinde durularak, anlamın kullanıma bağlı olduğu belirtilmektedir. Gerçekten hiçbir sôzcùk sôzlùkte iletiĢim amacıyla kullanılmaz. Sôzcùkler sôzlùkte belirgin olmayan temel, yan anlamlarıyla bulunur. Anlam kullanımda belirginleĢir. ―Doğan Aksan anlamı ‗Dilde birer gôsterge niteliğiyle yer alan, insanın dùnya bilgisine dayalı birtakım belirleyicileri bulunan sôzcùklerin belli bir bağlam ve belli bir konu içinde ilettikleri kavram‘ (Aksan, 2006:48; Aydın, 2007:85) Ģeklinde tanımlamaktadır.‖ Aksan ve Aydın da anlamın insan zihninde tasnif edilmesine yarayan ve anlamı yaĢantılara dayandıran anlayıĢın ùrùnù olan anlam ayırıcıları ve anlam belirleyicilerini dikkate alan bir tarife yer vermektedir. Eğer anlambilim, anlamın incelenmesi ise, onun kuĢkusuz sôzdizim gibi birleĢtirimsel bir gôrùnùmù olacaktır (Durak, 2005:62). Anlamın bildiriĢimde kesinleĢtirilmesi gerektiğini belirten bir bakıĢ açısı burada gôrùlmektedir. Roman Jakobson ―Anlamı ele almayan dilbilim anlamsızdır.‖(Aydın, 2007:83) der. KonuĢmada ya da sôylemde bize iletildiği biçimiyle anlam, sôzcùğùn aynı bağlamdaki ôbùr sôzcùklerle kurduğu iliĢkilere bağlıdır. Her kullanımda anlamı bağlam belirginleĢtirir ve her durumda ad kesin bir kavramı canlandırır. Her sôzcùk bağlamıyla sıkı sıkıya iliĢkilidir ve anlamını ondan alır (Guiraud, 1999:34). Y.M. Lotman bir yandan metin çôzùmlemesine ve metnin anlamını yine metnin içinden çıkarmaya çalıĢan bir yaklaĢıma yônelirken (metnin iç yapısını inceleyen yazın bilim) ôte yandan da, yapıtın baglamını dikkate alır. Ona gôre, metnin var olan gerçek gôrùmùnùn yanı sıra, bu gôrùnùme katılan varsayımsal bir metindısı ôzellikler bùtùnù vardır. Bôylece yazınsal bir metin içinde birbiriyle çatısma durumunda olan bircok dizge yer alır; anlam da bu dizgelerin kesiĢme noktasındadır. Bôylece metnin art alanında yer alan kurallar, uzlaĢmalar, gelenekler de metnin iç yapısı içinde ya aynen ya da degiĢerek yer alırlar.Y.M Lotman bu devingen degisimini metnin enerjisi diye tanımlar (Rifat, 2008:165). Yukarıda yapılan anlam tariflerinde genel olarak sôzcùğùn kullanımdaki anlamından sôz edilmektedir. Eski dil çalıĢmalarında sôzcùk anlamı en çok iĢlenen anlam konusu durumundadır. Sôzcùk, anlamın temelini oluĢturmaktadır. Bununla birlikte her sôzcùğùn anlamı sôzdiziminde, kullanımda kesinleĢmektedir. Sôzcùğùn anlamının sôzdiziminde gerçekleĢmesi dilin bir dizge olduğu sonucunu doğurmaktadır. Dizgede ise her unsur (sôzcùkler) birbiriyle iliĢkilidir. ĠĢte anlamın ilk belirginleĢtiği alan sôzdizim alanıdır ki, buna dilbilgisel anlam denilmektedir. Sôzdizimi dıĢındaki anlam sôzcùğùn gôndergesel (temel) anlamıdır ki, bu anlam saymaca anlamdır. Sôzlùklerdeki anlamlar saymaca anlama gôre teĢkil edilmektedir. ―Ullman‘ın da belirttiği gibi eğer sôzcùkler bağlam dıĢında var olmasaydı bir sôzlùk yazılamazdı (Aksan, 2006:46). Sôzlùk anlamları daha ônce kullanılan anlamların dilin ùst dil iĢlevi kullanılarak yapılan bir betimlemsidir. 1369 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dilde Bağlam ve Ġfadesi Bağlam dilde anlamın kaynağıdır. Dilde anlam her aĢamada bağlama ihtyaç duyar. Bağlam anlamla eĢ değer tutulmaktadır. Bağlam tanımlarına bakarak bağlamın kapsamı ve anlam açısından ônemi daha doğru tespit edilebilecektir. Bağlam (context) 1. Bir dil birimini çevreleyen, ondan once ya da sonra gelen, birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, onun anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim ya da birimler bùtùnù. (Ġç bağlam, dil içi bağlam da denir.) 2. Duruma, konuĢucu ve dinleyicinin dil dıĢı toplumsal, ekinsel, ruhsal nitelikli deneyim ve bilgilerine iliĢkin verilerin tùmù. (DıĢ bağlam, dil dıĢı bağlam da denir.)(Vardar, 2002:30). Burada dil içi ve dil dıĢı bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Bu bağlamların her dil için farklı olduğu dùĢùnùlmektedir. ―…her dil birliği, kavramları kendi algılaması ve anlatımıyla değiĢik yollardan, değiĢik kavramlarla iliĢki kurarak oluĢturur (Aksan, 2006:41).‖ Bağlamların dil içi olsun dil dıĢı olsun toplumun yaĢantılarının neticesi olan kùltùrden kaynaklandığına inanılmaktadır. KavramlaĢtırma aĢamasından baĢlayarak dile toplumun bakıĢ açısının yôn verdiği ve dili kendi kavrayıĢ, anlayıĢıyla Ģekillendirdiği gôrùlmektedir. Malinowski, kelimelerin fikirlerden ziyade tecrùbenin anlamında ortaya çıktığını ve en ônemli fonksiyonun insanın davranıĢ Ģekillerinde gôrùldùğùnù ileri sùrer. Kùltùr realitesindeki içerikte faaliyetler, ilgiler, ahlak, ve estetik değerler, kelimelerin iliĢkili olduğu anlamlar, duygular ve inançlar bulunur. …bùtùn kelime anlamlarının tecrùbeden çıkarıldığını sôyler. J.R.Firt, ―sosyal yapı ile dil devamlı iliĢkilidir.‖ Bu anlamda dil, deneyimlere ad vermektir (Karakaya, 2007:41) der. Kurgusal ôzellikler dônemden dôneme kùltùrden kùltùre değiĢiklik gôsterebilir. Metin de, aslında tek baĢına yaĢamdan ve dùnyadan kopuk bir Ģey değildir. Metni çevreleyen bir ortam, bir kùltùrel yapı, yaĢam vardır (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:129). Bağlam denince akla gelen ya da araĢtırmacıların ve dilbilimcilerin dikkate aldığı dil içi ve bir de dil dıĢı bağlamdan sôz edilmektedir. Eğer bir tùmcenin kendi sınırları içinde kalan sôzcùklerin yardımı ile anlam çıkabiliyorsa, ortada bir ―tùmce içi‖ bağlam, yani ―iç-bağlam‖ vardır. Tùmcenin kendisi, sôzkonusu anlamın çıkarılmasına yetmiyorsa, o zaman da ―tùmce-dıĢı‖ bağlam, yani ―dıĢ-bağlam‖ sôz konusudur (BaĢkan, 2003:205). Ancak bu bağlamların daha çok dilin kullanımında var olduğu belirtilmektedir. Bağlam, bir dil biriminden ônce ya da sonra gelen, baĢka bir ifadeyle bir dil birimini kuĢatan ve birçok durumda sôz konusu birimi etkileyen, onun anlamını, değerini belirleyen birim ya da birimler bùtùnù biçiminde tanımlanır (Aydın, 2007:86). Oysa asıl bağlam ad vermede kavramlaĢtımada kendini gôstermektedir. Gôstergelerin değer (anlam) kazanmaları ancak bir bağlam içinde gerçekleĢir. Bu, dùzanlam için olduğu kadar yananlam için de geçerlidir (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:128). Bağlam, kùltùr, sadece dil gôstergesinde değil, her tùr gôstergede kendini hissettirmektedir. Dilde olsun, dil dıĢı gôstergelerde olsun, gôstergelerin anlam değeri kazanmaları sôzcelem, kùltùr ve yaĢam bağlamında gerçekleĢir (Erkman-Akerson, 2005:129). Bağlamın anlam ùzerindeki etkisi ôncelikle kavramlaĢtırma (anlamlama) aĢamasında gôrùldùğù belirtilmiĢti. ―TavĢan‖ sôzcùğùnùn kavramlaĢtırılmasında farklı dillerden ôrnekler verecek olursak, Tùrkçede ―tavĢan‖ın XI. yùzyılda ―duygu ve kımıldama‖ anlamına gelen tavıĢ/tavuĢ sôzcùğùyle ve bùyùk olasılıkla, bugùn davranmak eyleminde geçen tav kôkùyle ilgili olduğu anlaĢılmakta, tavĢanın çabucak kaçan, hareket eden bir yaratık oluĢu bu adlandırmada rol oynamaktadır. Ġngilizcedeki hare (yaban tavĢanı) sôzcùklerinin ―gri, parılayan‖ anlamına gelen ve hayvanın rengiyle ilgili olan hasan kôkùne dayandırıldığı gôrùlmektedir. Farsçada ise ―tavĢan‖ sôzcùğùne ―eĢek kulaklı‖ anlamına gelen harguĢ adı verilmiĢtir. Buradan her toplumun gerçeklik nesnesine kendi penceresinden baktığı ve gerçeklik dùnyasını kendi kùltùrùne gôre kavramlaĢtırdığı anlaĢılmaktadır (Aksan, 2006:31). Sôzdiziminde ortaya çıkan dilbilgisel anlamı (dil içi bağlamın etkili olduğu) yine bağlam yani kùltùr kontrol etmektedir. ―Hırsızı fena dôvmùĢler‖, ―Hırsızı iyi dôvmùĢler.‖ altı çizili sôzcùkler aynı anlamı vermektedir. Ancak, ―Hırsızlar fena insanlardır.‖, ―Hırsızlar iyi konuĢmuĢ.‖ burada ise altı çizili sôzcùkler farklı anlamlar ifade etmektedirler. Bu cùmlelerde sôzcùklerin anlamı diğer sôzcùklerle oluĢturduğu bùtùnlùk içerisinde belirginleĢmektedir. Burada dil içi bağlam vardır. Bağlamda sôzcùklerin sôzdiziminde sıralanıĢı ve onların imge ve tasarımları ait oldukları kùltùrden kaynaklanır. Burada dilbilgisel uygunluğu sağlayan anlam ayırıcıları ve anlam belirleyicileri bir yaĢantıya dayanan kùltùrel olgulardır. ―Kedi eti yedi.‖, ―kedi evi yedi.‖ gibi cùmlelerde bunu rahatlıkla gôrebiliriz. Buradan bağlamın anlamı kontrol ettiği anlaĢılmaktadır. DildıĢı bağlamın belirginleĢtirdiği anlamlar ùzerinde kùltùrùn daha etkili olduğu anlaĢılmaktadır. Dilde argo, deyim, atasôzù ya da yan (mecaz) anlamların anlaĢılmasında dıĢ bağlama çok ihtiyaç vardır. ―Buralarda aradığını bulamadı.‖ Dùz anlam da olabilir, deyim anlamı da olabilir. ―Seninle çıkıĢta gôrùĢelim.‖ Bir tehdit anlamı mı yaksa bir sôzleĢme mi, ―Ne demek istiyorsun?‖ sıradan bir soru mu yoksa tehdit mi, ―Ayağını yorganına gôre uzat.‖ dùz anlam mı yoksa mecaz anlam mı? ĠĢte burada faklı anlamları ortaya çıkaran kùltùr olarak kabul edilmektedir. Bağlamın Çeviri Açısından Önemi Çevirilerde metnin anlamının doğru bir Ģekilde, eksiksiz olarak aktarılması için anlamların doğduğu kùltùrùn (bağlamın) iyi bilinmesi gerekliliğine inanılmaktadır. Özellikle simultane çevrilerde çevirmenin her iki dili de ana dili seviyesinde kullanması ve her iki dilin kùltùrel ôzelliklerine vakıf olması beklenir. 1370 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bir dildeki iletiyi diğerine aktarırken, anlamsal değeri yakalayabilmek için sôzcùklerin incelenmesi, yananlamsal ôzelliklerin, dolayısıyla dilbilimsel ôzelliklerin gôz ônùnde tutulması gerekebilir. Yalnız sôzcùkler ùzerinde yoğunlaĢmak çeviri yapmayı her zaman mùmkùn kılmayabilir. Bir metni çôzmek; sôzcùklerin ne demek istediklerini; yani taĢıdıkları anlamları çôzmekle; çevrilecek dùĢùnce ve anlamın diğer dilde kazanacak olduğu anlamsal ve iĢlevsel eĢdeğerde baĢka bir sôylem meydana getirmekle mùmkùn olabilir (Dikici, 2007:4). Çevirinin ônemli ôzelliklerinden biri de, iki dilin kelime servetindeki sôzcùk değerlerinin farklılığıdır. Dillerin sôzcùk değerlerinin farklı olması ait olduğu dilin bağlam farklıklarından meydana gelmektedir. Toplumların kùltùrel farklılıkları sôzcùklerin bağlamlarını da farklı kılacaktır ki bu gayet doğaldır. Örneğin; Ġngilizcedeki ―love‖ sôzcùğù, Tùrkçe‘de ―aĢk, sevgi vb.‖ anlamlara gelelebilmektedir. Bu sôzcùklerin hepsi için eĢ ya da yakın anlamlı denilebilir ama bu sôzcùkler ―eĢdeğerli‖ değildir. Çeviride bu gibi sôzcùkler iletiĢim durumları ve ait olduğu dilin bağlamlarından çıkarılmaya çalıĢılır. Örneğin, Ġngilizce, ―It‘s raining cats and dog‖ yapısını Tùrkçe‘ye ―Yağmur yağıyordu kediler ve kôpekler‖ Ģeklinde çevrilmektedir. Bu, bağlamdan yoksun bir çeviri ôrneğidir. Oysa, Ġngilizcedeki ―It‘s raining cats and dog‖ yapısı Tùrkçe‘de Ģu Ģekilde ifade edilmektedir: ―Bardaktan boĢanırcasına yağmur yağıyordu‖. Aslında iki ifadede yapı, ses, biçem, deyiĢ farklı olsa da anlam aynıdır. Bu noktada çeviri yapılırken ôzellikle kalıplaĢmıĢ sôzcùkler (deyimler, atasôzleri) baĢta olmak ùzere bağlamdan ayrı dùĢùnùlemez. Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Bağlamın Önemi Anadili edinimi ile bir yabancı dili ôğrenmek arasında birçok farklılık gôrùlmektedir. Birey anadili edinirken içinde yaĢadığı topluma da ayak uydurmaya çalıĢır. Bu sùreçte anadili edinimi bireyin topluma ayak uydurma çabasıyla beraber geliĢir. KiĢinin, hangi sôzù/sôzceyi ne zaman, nerede, nasıl kullanacağının çerçevesi bellidir. Toplumsal uzlaĢmaya dayalı bu çerçeve kiĢiyi sınırlandırır/Ģekillendirir. Anadili edinimi bu çerçeveden bağımsız dùĢùnùlemez. Oysa yabancı dil ôğrenimi sırasında bu sùreç biraz farklı iĢlemektedir. Yabancı dil ôğretilirken dôrt temel becerinin (dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma) kazandırılmasının yanında bu becerilerin hepsinin kullanımını gerektiren iletiĢim becerisinin kazandırılması zor gôrùlmektedir. Çùnkù iletiĢim becerisi ôğretilen dilin toplumsal sùreci içersinde sosyalleĢmeyle birlikte kazanılmaktadır. Bu bağlamda dil ôğretiminin bir sùreç dahilinde gerçekleĢmekte olduğu ve bu sùreçte ―toplumbilim‖, ―edimbilim‖, ―ruhbilim‖ gibi disiplinlerin etkili olduğu gôrùlmektedir. Bu disiplinlerden alınan verilerin yabancı dil ôğretimi sùrecine dahil edilmesi, amaç dilin ôğretilmesini kolaylaĢtıracaktır. Bôylelikle bireylerin dôrt temel dil becerisine (dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma) parallel olarak ―iletiĢim becerisi‖ni de kazanmaları kolaylaĢacaktır. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde iletiĢimsel yetinin kazandırılması için; ôğretim sırasında kullanılam materyallerin amaç dilin kùltùrùne ve toplumsal değerlerine uygun bir biçimde tasarlanması gerekmektedir. Bireyler ôğretilen dildeki kelimelerin anlamları bağlamları içersinde ôğretilmelidir. Yabancı dil ôğretimi için hazırlanan ders kitapları anlam ve bağlam ekseninde hazırlanmalıdır. Ders kitapları ve diğer materyaller hazırlanırken iletiĢimsel yetiyi oluĢturan toplumsal ôgeler, anlamları ve bağlamları içersinde kullanılmalıdır. Her ôlçùnlù dilin toplumun kùltùrùnden sùzùldùğù belirtilmiĢtir. Dillerde ôzellikle yan anlamlar dildeki kùltùrùn izlerini taĢımaktadır. Anlamın doğru aktarılması ve ôğretilmesi açısından ôzellikle mecazların kùltùrle (bağlam) iliĢkisi iyi bilinmelidir. Bu bağlamda, amaç dilin ôğretiminde yazınsal ùrùnlerden (Ģiir, ôykù, deneme, fıkra) ve deyimler ve atasôzlerinden faydalanılabilir. Toplumsal ve kùltùrel ôğelerin imbikten damıtılarak sùzùldùğù, az sôzle çok Ģey anlatıldığı bu ùrùnlerin engin anlamlarının, yabancı dil ôğretimi sùrecine de ônemli katkılar sağlayacağı yadsınamaz bir gerçektir. Sonuç Anlamın dildeki yeri ônemli gôrùlmektedir. Dildeki anlamı her aĢamasında bağlam kontrol etmektedir. Bağlam ise kùltùr olarak kabul edilmektedir. Yabancı dil ôğretiminde bağlamın bilinmesi anlamın doğru ôğretilmesini sağlayacaktır. Çeviri çalıĢmalarında da bağlamın (kùltùr) bilinmesi anlam kayıplarını ônleyecek ve doğması muhtemel anlam kopukluklarının ônùne geçilmiĢ olacaktır. 1371 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Refeneces Aksan, D. (2006), Anlambilim, Engin Yayınları, 4. Baskı, Ankara. Aydın, M. (2007), ―Dilbilim El Kitabı‖, 3F Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Bayrav, S. (1998), ―Dilbilim Yapısal Dilbilimi‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. BaĢkan, Ö. (2003), ―Dilbilim Lengùistik Metodu‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. BaĢkan, Ö. (2003), ―BildiriĢim Ġnsan-Dili ve Ötesi‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Budak, M. (2005), ―Terimden Anlama Dilbilim Yazıları‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul.Aydın, Dikici, Ġ.Z (2007), ―Çeviri ve Dilbilim ĠliĢkisi‖. Muğla Ünv., Sos. Bil. Ens., Y.Lisans Tezi., Muğla. Erkman-Akerson, F. (2005), ―Gôstergebilime GiriĢ‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Guiraud, P. (1999), ―Anlambilim‖, (çeviren: Berke Vardar) Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Karakaya ġ. (2007), ―Dil GeliĢimi ve Dil Politikası‖, Akçağ Yayınları, Ankara. Komisyon (1988), ―Tùrkçe Sôzlùk‖ , TDK Yayınları, cilt 1, Ankara. Rıfat, M. (2008), ―XX.Yùzyılda Dilbilim ve Gôstergebilim Kuramları‖, YKY Yayınları, 4. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Vardar, B. (2002), ―Açıklamalı Dilbilim Terimler Sôzlùğù‖, Multilingual Yayınları, Ġstanbul. 1372 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 688 Title A name given to the resource Dilde Anlam ve Bağlam Author Author ÇETİN, Mustafa Yiğit, Murat KARLI, Elçin Abstract A summary of the resource. Anlam insan için geçmiĢten gùnùmùze ônemli gôrùlmùĢtùr. Ġnsanoğlu için anlam sadece bu dùnya ile sınırlandırılmamıĢtır. Ġnsanlık kôkleriyle geçmiĢe hayalleriyle geleceğe bağlı yaĢamaktadır. Ġnsanın bedeni Ģekil, ruhu anlam olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Bedensiz ruh, ruhsuz beden olamayacağı dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dilde de anlam ruhla eĢ değer tutulmaktıdır. Bu çalıĢmada, dilde anlam ve bağlamın ne ifade ettiği değerlendirilecek, anlam-bağlam iliĢkisi incelenerek, bağlamın çeviriye ve dil ôğretimine etkisi ùzerinde durulacaktır. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1f70202babf6240f2597e3dae9a42f40.pdf 480b001bc63646c45d4dd57383c97bee PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Ġki Dilli Ortamlarda Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi (Semerkand Örneğinde) Mustafa Çetin International Burch University, Sarajevo Tùrk Dili ve Edebiyatı mcetin@ibu.edu.ba Zeynel Polat Yunus Emre Vakfı, Sarajevo ozbekturk04@hotmail.com Özet:Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çağdaĢ anlamda yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin kısa geçmiĢi olmasına rağmen bu alanda çok ciddi geliĢmeler kaydedilmiĢtir. Dùnyadaki değiĢim ve geliĢmeler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel ve bilimsel boyutta ôğretimini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretimine bu açıdan yaklaĢılmaktadır. Çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù bir ortam olan Özbekistan‘ın Semerkand Ģehrinde, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde gôzlemlenen bazı problemler ôrneklerle ortaya konulmuĢtur. Anahtar Sözcükler:Ġkidillilik, Tùrkçenin yabancı dil olarak ôğretimi, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi. GiriĢ Yabancı dil ôğretiminin giderek ônemli bir alan haline geldiği gôrùlmektedir. 21. Yùzyılla birlikte dùnyada meydana gelen siyasi değiĢim ve globalleĢme yabancı dil ôğretimini, ôğrenimini tetiklemiĢtir. Avrupa Birliği çok kùltùrlùlùğù ve çok dilliliği destekleyen projeler geliĢtirmiĢtir. Dil pasaportu tùm Avrupa ùlkelerinde geçerli olacak Ģekilde standart hale getirilmiĢtir. Avrupa‘da serbest dolaĢım hakkı ve iĢ izni alabilmek için her Avrupa vatandaĢının bu pasaportu yanında taĢıması gerekli olacaktır(Demirel, 2007:24). Bu pasaport çok dilliliği teĢvik eden bir projedir. Siyasi değiĢiklikler neticesinde dağılan Sovyetler Birliğinden bağımsızlığını ilan eden Tùrk Cumhuriyetleri dùnya devletleri arasına katılmıĢtır. Doksanlı yıllarla birlikte Tùrkiye Cumhuriyeti, kardeĢ ve akraba Tùrk Cumhuriyetleri ile diplomatik mùnasebetler kurmuĢ ve her alanda iliĢkileri geliĢtirmiĢtir. KardeĢ devletler arasındaki iletĢimin en ônemli aracını dil teĢkil etmektedir. Onun için ivedilikle karĢılıklı ôğrenci değiĢimleri, okullar açma, ortak komisyonlar kurma faaliyetlerine giriĢilmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin akraba topluluklara ôğretimi gùndeme gelmiĢtir. Bu konuda Tùrkiye Cumhuriyeti hazırlıksız yakalanmıĢtır. Tùrk Lehçelerinin hemen hepsinin kôkeni Tùrkçe olsa da farklılıklar bulunmaktadır. Farklılıklar ôzellikle sôzcùk hazinesinde, sôzdiziminde ve fonetikte hatta morfolojide de kendini gôstermektedir. Ġki Tùrk lehçesinin uzun sùren ayrılıkları, farklı dil ve kùltùrlerden etkilenmeleri iki dili birbirine yabancılaĢtırmıĢtır. Tùrk lehçelerinin farklılığına ilk defa KaĢgarlı Mahmut Dîvan ı Løgati‘t Tùrk eserinde değinmiĢtir. Tùrk dili VII. ve VIII. Yùzyıldan baĢlayarak XIII. yùzyıla kadar uzanan dônemde tek yazı dili halinde yaĢamıĢtır. Eski Tùrkçe‘de A.Von Gabain, beĢ farklı ağız tesbit etmiĢtir. Eski Tùrkçe‘den sonraki devrede Tùrkçe Farklı yazı dillerine bôlùnmùĢtùr. Tùrkistan diye adlandırdığımız Orta Asya Tùrk coğrafyası ve toplulukların parçalanarak bùyùk kitleler halinde Hazar denizinin kuzeyinden ve gùneyinden, Kuzey ve Gùney batıya doğru gitmeleri, yeni kùltùr merkezlerinin meydana gelmesi ile birlikte birçok yeni kavramın toplum hayatında yer alması ve yeni yazının kullanılması gibi dıĢ sebepler ile Tùrk‘lerin kendi iç yapılarında meydana gelen tabiî değiĢmeler farklı lehçelerin ve yazı dillerinin ortaya çıkmasına sebep olmuĢtur(Karaôs,2005:38). Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin akraba topluluklara yabancı dil yaklaĢımıyla ôğretilmesini zorunlu kılmıĢtır. Tùrk dili, coğrafi sınırları aĢmıĢ ve daha yaygın bir dil olma ôzelliğini kazanma yoluna girmiĢtir. Tùrkçe, bir dùnya dili olma yolundadır. UNESCO tarafından yapılan bir tesbite gôre, gùnùmùzde Çince 1.200 milyon, Ġngilizce 427 milyon, Ġspanyolca 266 milyon, Hintçe 182 milyon, Urduca 233 milyondur. Bunlardan sonra beĢinci dil, 200 milyon konuĢanı ile Tùrkçedir (Karaôrs, 2005:30). Özellikle dùnyanın farklı coğrafyalarında açılan Tùrk okulları sayesinde Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel bir değer kazanması onun ôğretiminin de bilimsel ve evrensel bir bakıĢ açısıyla yapılmasını zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretilmesi konusu ônemli gôrùlmektedir. Tùrk Cumhuriyetlerinden olan Özbekistan‘ın 366 366 Özbekistan, 20 Haziran 1990'da egemenliğini, 1 Eylùl 1991'de bağımsızlığını ilan etmiĢtir. 29 Aralık 1991 tarihinde dùzenlenen referandumla bağımsızlık ilanı onaylanmıĢtır. Özbekistan bağımsızlığını kazandıktan sonra geliĢmiĢ ùlkelerle ôzellikle ekonomik anlamda iliĢkiler kurmuĢtur. Özbekistan zengin yeraltı kaynaklarını dıĢ ùlkelere satma imkânı bulmuĢtur. Özbekistan çok eskiye dayanan kôklù devlet geleneği sayesinde bağımsızlığını kazandıktan kısa sùre sonra Orta Asya'nın gùçlù devleti hâline gelmiĢtir ve gùnùmùzde de Orta Asya liderliği konusunda Kazakistan ile 1373 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Semerkand367 Ģehrinde geçmiĢ yıllarda yaptığımız Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi çalıĢmaları iki dilli ortamda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimine ôrnek olarak dùĢùnùlmektedir. Ġki dilli ortamlarda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde karĢılaĢılan problemler ve çôzùm ônerileri Semerkand ôrneğinde değerlendirilecektir. Semerkand, Özbekistan‘ın zengin tarihi ve kùltùrel mirasın bulunduğu, geçmiĢte Timuriler devletinin baĢkentliğini yapmıĢ, çok dilli, çok kùltùrlù, gùzel bir Ģehridir. Semerkand‘da yaĢayanlar arasında Farsça, Rusça ve Tùrkçe (Özbek Tùrkçesi) ana dili seviyesinde bilinmekte ve konuĢulmaktadır. Ġki Dillilik ve Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi YaĢamın herhangi bir evresinde anadilinden baĢka ikinci bir dili bir ôlçùde kullanmaya baĢlayan bir kiĢi ―iki dillilik‖ dônemine girmiĢ sayılmakla birlikte, henùz iki dilliliğin tanımında bir uzlaĢma yoktur. Kimilerine gôre ikinci dilde dinleme, konuĢma, okuma, yazma becerilerinden birini en alt dùzeyde kullanabilen kiĢi; baĢkalarına gôre ise iki ayrı dili, dil iĢlemleri arasında herhangi bir giriĢim / karıĢtırma olmaksızın kullanabilen kiĢi; ya da iki ve daha çok dili, anadili ôlçùsùnde kullanabilen kiĢi iki dilli sayılmaktadır (Demircan, 2005:20). Ġki dillilik, uzun sùre bir kiĢinin ikinci dili kendi anadili kadar rahat konuĢma yetisi olarak kabul edilmiĢtir (Kıran, 2006:277). Ġki dillilik kiĢinin ana dili dıĢında baĢka bir dili de en az bir etkinlik dùzeyinde rahatlıkla kullanabilmesidir. Bu açıdan bakıldığında Semerkand‘daki halkın iki hatta çok dilli olduğu dùĢùnùlmektedir. Dil kùltùrùn taĢıyıcısı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Ġki dilli ortamlarda kùltùrùn daha zengin olduğu ifade edilmektedir. Dilsel gôrecelik açısından bakıldığında, Whorf ve Vygotsky‘ye gôre, iki dilliliğin dùĢùnce ùzerinde derin etkisi olduğunu kabul etmek gerekiyor (Demircan, 2005:27). Ancak bu durum toplumsal çok dillilikle ilgili olarak bir artı olarak gôrùlmekle birlikte; dil ôğretimi açısından dùĢùnùldùğùnde bireysel ―dilyetisi‖ ôn plana çıkmaktadır. Bireyin her yeni dili ôğrenirken bazı zorluklarla karĢılaĢtığı gôzlemlenmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin de iki dilli bir ortam olan Semerkand‘da ôğretimi karĢılaĢılan problemler açısından değerlendirilecektir. Bu yolla çok dilli ortamlarda yeni bir dilin yabancı dil mantığıyla ôğretiminin tabiatının araĢtırılmasına katkı sağlanmıĢ olunacaktır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde Semerkand‘da çok dilliliği sağlayan diller ùzerinden bazı tespitler ortaya konulacaktır. Bu çalıĢmada Semerkant Devlet Yabancı Diller Enstitùsù‘de ikinci dil olarak Tùrkiye Tùrkçesini seçen yaklaĢık 150 ôğrencinin ders içi ve ders dıĢı ôğrenme aktiviteleri gôz ônùnde tutularak bunların ôğrenmedeki ve konuĢmadaki problemleri ùzerinde duruldu. Kelime ve cùmleleri Özbek Tùrkçesi ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi olarak karĢılaĢtırıp hem benzerliği, hem de etimolojik yapı ile ilgili durumları gôsterildi. Semerkand‘da konuĢulan dillerden biri olan Özbek Tùrkçesi, zamanla meydana gelen lehçeleĢmenin etkisine girmiĢtir. Dilin kullanımı sırasında konuĢurlarında geriye ket vurma, aynı etimolojik kôkù paylaĢma, morfolojik rekabet hâlindedir. Bağımsızlığından gùnùmùze değin devlet baĢkanlığını Ġslam Kerimov yônetmektedir. Bir Tùrk devletidir. Bağımsız Özbekistan'ın 447.400 km2'lik bir yùz ôlçùmù bulunmaktadır. Özbekistan; Kazakistan, Tacikistan, Afganistan, Kırgızistan ve Tùrkmenistan'a komĢudur. BaĢkenti TaĢkent'tir. 2009 yılında nùfusu (tahminî) 27.488.000‘dir. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96zbekistan/07.04.2011, saat 11:40. 367 Özbekistan'ın gùney kesiminde kent. ZeravĢan ırmağının vadisinde, TaĢkent'in 275 km gùneybatısında yeralan Semerkand'ın nùfusu 566,000'dir. Önemli bir sanayi ve ôğretim merkezi olan kent, Timur dôneminden kalma tarihsel anıtlarıyla çok sayıda turist de çekmektedir. Semerkand sôzù eski Farsça'da asmara: "taĢ", "kaya" ve Soğdça kand: "kent", "kale" birleĢmesinden gelir. Dùnyanın en eski Ģehirlerinden biri olan Semerkand, antik Yunanlıların Marakanda (eski Yunanca: Μαράκανδα) isminde tanıdığı, M.Ö. 14. yùzyıllarında ZeravĢan'nın (Yunanca: Polytimetos) verimli ovasında bir vaha Ģehri Persler tarıfından kurulmuĢ ve uzun sùre AhameniĢ Ġmparatorluğu'nda ônemli bir rol oynamıĢtır. Eskiçağ'da Soğdlar'ın yaĢadığı, M.Ö. 329'da Bùyùk Ġskender tarafından alınmĢtır. Semerkand 6. yùzyılda bir Tùrk Yabguların etki alanları içindeydi. Ġpek Yolu'nun ônemli bir kavĢağında kurulan kent, tarih boyunca gezginlerin uğrak noktası olmuĢtur. 14-15. yy'ların Semerkand'ın altın dônemi olarak kabul edilir. 1499 yılı içinde Özbek Tùrkleri Semerkant'ı kontrolùne aldı. ġiban sùlâlesi Özbeklere burada veya yaklaĢık olarak bu zamanda liderlik yaptığı gôrùlùr. 1784 yılında Semerkand Buhara emiri'nin buyuruğuna girmiĢtir. Semerkand, 1868'de Ruslara geçerek Tùrkistan'a bağlandı. 1924'ten 1930'a kadar Özbekistan Sovyet Sosyalist Cumhuriyeti'nin baĢkenti oldu. Semerkand'ta Ġslâm Mimarisinin en gùzel ôrnekleri bulunur. ġehir UNESCO Dùnya Miras Alanları Listesine eklemiĢtir. Registan antik Semerkand'tın kalbidir. Anlamı "Kumlu yer" demektir. http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semerkand/07.04.2011, saat 12:00. 1374 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo açıdan ufak tefek farklılıklarla kullanılan bazı kelimelerin ÇağdaĢ Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde birtakım karıĢıklıklara sebep olduğu gôzlenmiĢtir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nin ôğretilmesinde hedef kitle, bu dili konuĢtuğunu zanneder, gerçekte kelime benzerliği sebebiyle Özbek Tùrkçesini kullanmakta olduğunun farkına varamamaktadır. Bu husus dil ôğretiminde tamamen farklı aileden gelen bir dili ôğrenmekten daha zordur. Ayrıca, fazla zaman isteyen bir çalıĢmayı beraberinde getirmektedir. Özbekistan‘ın ikinci bùyùk Ģehri olan Semerkant‘ta Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nin ôğretiminde etimolojik, morfolojik ortaklık ve Tùrk dilleri arasında sesteĢ sôzcùk ve sôzcùk guruplarının varlığı Tùrkiye Tùrkçesini ôğrenmeyi, konuĢmayı olumsuz etkilemektedir. Bunların bazılarına sırasıyla değinilecektir. A) Fonetik Açıdan Gözlemlenen Problemler: 1.Ses DeğiĢmeleri:“k----g”, “t----d”, “i----ı”, “o----e”, “a----e”, “o----a”, “u----o”, “q-g----k” ses değiĢmelerinin yol açtığı yanlıĢlar ôzellikle konuĢmalarda hisedilmektedir. Örneğin: ―keldi--geldi‖, ―til---dil‖, ―ilik---ılık‖ vb. 2.Kiril Alfabesi‘nden Latin Alfabesi‘ne Geçerken Harflerin OkunuĢunda ve YazılıĢında Meydana Gelen DeğiĢiklikler: Dili ôğrenen hedef kitlenin yazma çalıĢmasında en çok karĢılaĢılan sorunların baĢında gelmektedir. “ç----ch”, “Ģ---sh”, “ ö---o’ ”, “c----j,dj”, “e----e (okunuĢu (ye)”, “ı---i” 3.Ses ArtıĢı: Dilin doğal iĢleyiĢinde normal bir hadise olan ses ikilemeleri, çift ùnsùzlerin tekleĢmesi, ses değiĢimi, kelime baĢında ve sonunda ses değiĢimleri ùzerinde durulmuĢtur. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi, hem saha, hem de geçirdiği evreler sebebiyle birçok ses değiĢikliğine uğramıĢtır. Bu hadise dilin tekamùlù sùresi içinde normal bir hadisedir. 4.Sert Sessiz Harflerin BenzeĢmesi Hadisesi (Progresif Asimilasyon): Kelime içindeki bir sesin, niteliği veya boğumlanma noktası bakımından yanyana veya aralıklı duran bir baĢka sesle benzer veya eĢ duruma getirilmesi olayıdır. ―gitti---ketdi‖, ―uçtu---uçdi‖ 5.Metatez Hadisesi: Kelime içindeki komĢu veya uzak seslerin yer değiĢtirmesi olayıdır. (CoĢkun, 2000:26) ―yomg‘ır---yağmur‖, ―qo’shni < koshni < komĢi < komĢu‖ 6.Bağların düĢmesi Hadisesi: Kelimenin aslının kullanılması ile gùnùmùzdeki kullanılıĢı arasında yakın benzerlikten kaynaklanan geriye ket vurmayı gôsterir. Dili ôğrenen kiĢi ya da hedef kitle eski Tùrkçe metinleri okuduğunda bu kùçùk gibi gôrùnen hadisenin farkına varamamaktadır. ―küçücük---kichik + gina < kichikkina < kichkina”, “ aheste, yavaĢ<asta< (Farsça ohista)” B) EĢ Değerlerin Yorumlanmasına Dayalı Problemler: Tùrk lehçeleri arasında kôken birliğinden ve ses değiĢmelerinden kaynaklanan anlam ve anlatım değeri eĢ ya da çok yakın olan sôzcùkler vardır. Bu sôzcùklerle karĢılaĢan hedef kitle kendi ana diliyle benzerliğin olduğunu gôrùnce bazı ôn yargılar geliĢtirmektedir. Örneğin: Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde karĢılaĢtığı ―ana‖ ile Özbek Tùrkçesindeki ―åna‖ sôzcùklerine bakarak bu diller aynıdır. O halde; ‗Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi bir yabancı dil değildir‘ dùĢùncesi geliĢmektedir. Elbette bunun kısmen doğruluk payı vardır. Ancak, bu iki dil arasında azımsanmayacak farklılıklar da tespit edilmiĢtir. Buna bağlı olarak ôğrencilerin metin aktarmalarında ciddi hatalar yaptıkları tespit edilmiĢtir. EĢ değerlerin Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimine elbette olumlu katkıları da olmaktadır. Örneğin: Rusça ve Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde eĢ değer olan ―viĢne‖ ve benzer sôzcùklerden dolayı ôğrenci bu dillerin ve bu dilleri konuĢan halkların kùltùrel etkileĢimde bulunduklarını anlayabilmektedir. Bu da ôğretimde ilgi uyandırmaktadır. 1375 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Öğrencilerin motivasyonu dillerdeki eĢ değer sôzcùkler tespit edilip ôğrencilere verilerek sağlanmalıdır. C) SesteĢ(Yalancı EĢ Değerler) Sözcüklere Dayalı Problemler: Yalancı eĢ değerlerin bùtùn diller arasında bulunduğu ortaya konulmuĢtur. Yalancı eĢ değerler kôken birliği olan diller arasında ses değiĢmelerine, anlam değiĢmelerine bağlı olarak oluĢmaktadır. Ayrıca, yabancı dillerden ôdùnçlemeler yoluyla da yalancı eĢ değerler meydana gelmektedir. Aslında hiçbir dilde eĢ değer yoktur. Çùnkù sôzcùklerin anlatım ya da kavram dùzeyinde mutlaka dilden dile farklılıklar gôsterdikleri gôrùlmùĢtùr. O halde diller arasındaki eĢ değerlere de yalancı eĢ değerler denmesi yanlıĢ olmaz. Yalancı eĢ değerlere ôzellikle akraba diller arasında sıkça rastlanılmaktadır.Yalancı eĢ değerler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde ôğrenciler tarafından yapılan ônemli hatalara sebep olmaktadır. Öncelikle eĢ değerlere benzemeleri yanlıĢ ôn yargıların geliĢtirilmesine sebep olmaktadır. Bu da metin aktarmalarında hatalar oluĢmakta ve sôzcùklerin anlatım, kavram dùzeyinde algılama zorluklarına neden olmaktadır. Öğrenci kendi ana dili ile hedef dili eĢ değer gôrmektedir. AĢağıda yalancı eĢ değerlere bazı ôrnekler verilmiĢtir. Türkçe Dede:çocuğun babasının babası Çirkin: gùzel olmayan, gùzel gôrùnmeyen, estetik olmayan) Kol: insan vùcudunun omuzdan parmak uçlarına kadar olan kısmı TaĢlamak:taĢa tutmak, taĢ atmak Hala: babanın kız kardeĢi Zor : kolay olmayan Hafız: Kur‘an-ı Kerim‘i ezberleyen kiĢi Burçak: tahıllardan bir çeĢit HoĢ: hoĢa giden, gùzel olan, ruhu okĢayan YaĢar: geniĢ zamanda hayatına devam eder anlamında Özbekçe Dädä: Çocuğun babası, Chirkin: kirli, temiz olmayan Qo‘l: parmak ucu ve bilek arasındaki kısım, el Tashlamoq:gerekmez bir Ģeyi bir bırakmak, atmak kullanmamak Xola: annenin kız kardeĢi Z‘or: gùçlù,harikulade, mùkemmel Hofiz: Ģarkıcı Burchak: açı, kenar H‘osh: peki, evet kôĢeye Yashar: yaĢında D) Eklerden Kaynaklanan Problemler: 1.Hal Ekleri: Tùrkçe‘deki bulunma hâli olan “-de, -da, -te,- ta” eklerinin yônelme ekleri olan “-a, -e, ya, -ye” ile karıĢtırılması Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretiminde sıkıntılara sebep olmaktadır. Bu sorun genelde ana dili Tacikçe olan ôğrencilerde gôzlemlenmiĢtir. KonuĢucu hep ana diline çevirme gereksinimi duyar. Kendi ana dilinin sôzlùksel ve anlamsal yapısını ôğrendiği dile uygulamaya çalıĢır(Kıran, 2006:278). Bu yanlıĢlık ôğrencilerin dilbilgisel Ģekilleri kavramasını zorlaĢtırmaktadır. Özbekçe‘de de bulunma hali -dä eki ile yapılır. Koldä (elde) vb. bunun yapılıĢı sırasında araya ―n‖ girmez. (Ercilasun, 1991: 1077) Tacikçe‘de (–ba) eki hem ―–e hali(yönelme)”, hem de ― –de(bulunma)” hali olarak kullanıldığından ôğrenci tarafından karıĢtırılmaktadır. Türkçe Eve gidiyorum. Tacikçe xonaba merem. O evdedir. inkas xonaba. Ben Ģimdi iĢteyim. man hoz‘r korba. 2. ―mi‖ Soru Ekinin Yazımı: Burada ―mi‖ soru edatının daha çok ayrı ve bitiĢik yazılmasında gôrùlen yanlıĢlıklar yapılmaktadır. 1376 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Türkçe ―Bizim eve gelecek misiniz?‖ “Mergilan‘dan bulunmayan kurtuluĢ, TaĢkent‘ten mi bulunsun?” Özbekçe ―Bizning uyimizga kela olasızmı?” ―Marğilondan topilmagan najot Toshkanddan topilsinmi? ‖ (Qodiriy,2000:80) 3.Ġyelik ve ġahıs Eklerinin Yazımı: Burada daha çok Özbek ôğrencilerin yaptıkları hatalarla karĢılaĢılmaktadır. Tùrkçedeki b<m ses değiĢmesinden kaynaklanan yanlıĢlar gôze çarpmaktadır. ―Ben‖ yerine ―Män‖ kullanılmaktadır. ―Mendan ham siz Yahshi bilasiz.‖ (Qodiriy,2000:338) ―Siz, benden daha iyi bilirsiniz.‖ 4.ġimdiki Zaman Ekinin Ġstek Kipi ile KarıĢtırılması: Aslında ―–yäp‖, ―(ä) yátir‖, ―-mákdä‖ ekleri ve ―turmåk‖, ―otirmåk‖, ―yürmåk‖, ―yátmåk‖ yardımcı filleri ile de Ģimdiki zaman yapılır. (Ercilasun, 1991:1080) Ama burada konuĢurun en sık kullandığı ―–a‖ ile Ģimdiki zaman yapılıĢı ùzerinde duruldu. Bu kullanımın istek kipi ile karıĢtırılması gôrùlmektedir. Türkçe ―yaz-ar-ım‖, ―yaz-ıyor-um‖ Özbekçe ―yoz-a-man‖ 5.Sıfat Fiil Ekleri: Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi‘nde bulunan sıfat fiil eklerinin (-An, -AsI, mAz, -Ar, -DIk, -AcAk, -mIĢ ) kullanımında, benzerlik sebebi ile meydana gelen sorunlar. Özellikle ―-an, -en‖ ekinin kullanımında hatalar yapılmaktadır. Türkçe ―Benim yazdığım mektup‖ ―Kôtùleyen birisi olması lazım.‖ Özbekçe ―Mening yozgan xatim‖ ―Kimdir yåmonlagan bulish kerak.‖ (Öztùrk, 1997:184) Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde “yazan” olarak kullanıldığında, asıl anlatılmak istenen “yazdığım” ifadesidir. 6.Sıra Sayı Sıfatlarının YazılıĢı ve SöyleniĢi: Asıl sayılara –(i)nçi eki getirilerek yapılır. ―bir-inçi‖ (Ercilasun,2007:316) vs. Bu konuda yapılan hatalar imla ve noktalama hatası olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Sıra sayı sıfatını gôsteren “-IncI” eki Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde (.) ile gôsterilirken, Özbekçede (-) ile gôsterilmektedir. Türkçe ―Benim oğlum 2. (ikinci)sınıfta okuyor‖ ―ġubat ayının 28. gùnù gelecekler.‖ Özbekçe ―Mening o‘ğlim 2-(ikkinçi) sinifda o‘qiydi‖ ―28-chi Fevral kùnù keledilar.‖ 7.Gün ve Ay Ġsimlerinin YazılıĢı: Bu da imla ve noktalama yanlıĢlıkları içerisinde değerlendirilmektedir. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde belli bir gùnù gôsteren tarihte ay ve gùn isimleri bùyùk yazılırken Özbekçe‘de kùçùk yazılır. Yazılı anlatımlarda Tùrkiye Tùrkçesindeki Ģeklini yerleĢtirmek zaman almaktadır. Türkçe 10 Nisan 2011 Özbekçe 10 aprel 2011 8.ĠĢaret Zamirlerinin Benzerliği ve Farklı Tarafları : Dili kullanan ya da ôğrenen hedef kitle tarafından nesnelerin gôsterimi Özbekçede yakın olan bir nesne için ―shu‖ (Ģu) zamiriyle; Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinde yakın olan nesneyi gôstermek için ―bu‖ iĢaret zamiri kullanılır. Biraz daha uzakta olan bir nesneyi gôstermek için de ―Ģu‖ zamiri kullanılmaktadır. Bu iĢletim, yazma ve konuĢmada sorunların çıkmasına neden olmaktadır. 1377 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Türkçe ―Buradayım.‖ ―Bugùn sınav var.‖ dùğùn yapmak kolay mı? ‖ Özbekçe ―shu yerdaman‖ ―shu kun egzamen bor‖ ―To‘y qilish osonmi shu zamonda‖ (Hoshimov,2008:119) ―Bu zamanda Sonuç Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin geçmiĢi çok eskiye dayanmamaktadır. Buna rağmen ôzellikle son yirmi yılda bùyùk geliĢme gôstermiĢtir. Dùnyada iki yùz civarındaki ùlkede Tùrkiye Tùrkçesi ôğretilmektedir. Bugùn yùz elliye yakın ùlkenin katılımıyla Tùrkçe Olimpiyatları yapılmaktadır. GloballeĢen dùnyada Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çok dilli toplumlarda da ôğretiminin yapılması kaçınılmaz hale gelmiĢtir. Bu çalıĢmada ortaya konulan değerlendirmelerin Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi çalıĢmalarına ıĢık tutması umulmaktadır. 19.yy‘da yapılan dil tipolojileri dùĢùnùldùğùnde bugùn dillerin çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù ortamlarda ôğretilmesi dil tipolojilerinin daha reel ve daha somut olarak ortaya çıkmasını sağladığı dùĢùnùlmektedir. References CoĢkun,V.(2000),Özbek Tùrkçesi Grameri, Ankara. Demircan, Ö.(2005), Yabancı –Dil Öğretim Yôntemleri, Der yayınları, Ġstanbul. Demirel, Ö.(2007), Yabancı Dil Öğretimi, Pegem Akademi yayınevi, Ankara. Ercilasun, A.Bican(1991), KarĢılaĢtırmalı Tùrk Lehçeleri Sôzlùğù, Kùltùr Bakanlığı, Ankara. Ercilasun, A.Bican ve diğerleri(2007), Tùrk Lehçeleri Grameri, Akçağ Yay. Ankara. Hoshimov, O‘tkir(2008), Dunyoning Ġshlari, Sharq Nashriyot-Matbaa, Aksiyodarlik Kompaniyasi, Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Kıran, Z.,Kıran A.(2006), Dilbilime GiriĢ,Seçkin yayınları, Ankara. Komisyon(1997), Özbekçe-Tùrkçe ve Tùrkçe-Özbekçe Ġzahlı Sôzlùk,TaĢkent. Komisyon(1997), O‘zbek Hikoyalari Antologiyasi, Sharq Nashriyot-Matbaa, Aksiyodarlik Kompaniyasi, Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Qodiriy, A.(2000) O‘tkan Kunlar (XX. Asr O‘zbek Romani), ġarq Nashriyot-Matbaa Kontserni Bosh Tahririyati,Toshkent. Shoabdurahmonov, Sh.,Reshadov, V.(1978), O‘zbek Dialektologiyası, Toshkent. Ubeydullayev, A.(1996), O‘zbek Tilining Asosiy Ġmlo Qoidaları, Samarqand. 1378 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 689 Title A name given to the resource İki Dilli Ortamlarda Türkiye Türkçesinin Öğretimi (Semerkand Örneğinde) Author Author ÇETİN, Mustafa POLAT, Zeynel Abstract A summary of the resource. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin çağdaĢ anlamda yabancı dil olarak ôğretiminin kısa geçmiĢi olmasına rağmen bu alanda çok ciddi geliĢmeler kaydedilmiĢtir. Dùnyadaki değiĢim ve geliĢmeler Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin evrensel ve bilimsel boyutta ôğretimini zorunlu kılmaktadır. Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin iki dilli ortamlarda ôğretimine bu açıdan yaklaĢılmaktadır. Çok dilli ve çok kùltùrlù bir ortam olan Özbekistan‘ın Semerkand Ģehrinde, Tùrkiye Tùrkçesinin ôğretimi sùrecinde gôzlemlenen bazı problemler ôrneklerle ortaya konulmuĢtur. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c70f4025f992607086d95143b802978.pdf e2c4962aa5c012ce157cab55d3dd923f PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dickens and his Memorable Characterization Dr. Hasan ÇAKIR Selcuk University, Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Teaching, 42090 Meram, Konya, Turkey. Email: hasan_cakir63@hotmail.com hasan_cakir63@yahoo.com Abstract:Charles Dickens is a distinguished novelist and an influential figure in the Victorian period. In spite of that, some superficial observation and generalization is rife in critical commentaries about his novels. Such repeated assertions are not always the case when respectively applied to the characters and the novels of the writer. One of the achievements that Dickens possesses in connection with the art of his novels is his obvious success in creating memorable characters in his substantial novels. The power that lies under his striking success is that he uses so many interesting techniques to describe characters in detail. He uses many fixed phrases, styles of clothing, parts of jewelry, typical pets, chronic diseases, handy tools, elements of decorations, positions of the body, and mannerisms in using some external organs and the manners associated in daily life. Characters are marked with such techniques and these become indispensable parts of their characterization. Based on the actions and the manners, characters seen with these objects are easily recognized and remembered by the reader to the end of a particular novel. The vivid, colorful, credible and lifelike characters and the techniques used for their creation prove the matchless mastery of the writer. INTRODUCTION The character is an indispensable element of fiction. Certain techniques are used to create and develop a character representative of an individual. In direct characterization, the writer may create a character through simple reports. The writer makes certain explanations about the personality of the character. In addition, he may have other characters speak about him. The thought of other characters about a character is an effective indication to his personality. Moreover, the character can give some information about his own personality. He may attach some attributes to his personality or he may make a confidential confession. In indirect characterization, the character reveals his personality in his actions, emotions and conduct. The author shows his characters performing some kind of action, occupation, and profession. The reader can make a definite inference about the personality of a character when put in these situations. Another way is to show his emotional reactions. Also useful in characterization is the information about a character pertinent to his faith, ideology, thought, obsession, prejudices, his norm to decide right and wrong, his beliefs concerning the relationship of man to society, to his creator, to other creatures, to his physical and psychological environment and more importantly some information about the attitude of a character toward life. The novelist often uses speech features of his characters as a different technique for characterization. The writer often describes the personal speech properties of a character: his mannerisms, gestures, or way of speaking. The author usually shows certain levels of language: his diction, choice of vocabulary from formal, informal, standard and slang words, his regional dialect or occupational register, and his pet phrases that he habitually uses. The mask is a special device of direct and indirect characterization. According to Tomashevsky (1925), ―the descriptions of the external appearance of the character, and his clothes, his decoration of his house are elements of the mask.‖ (in Lemon and Reis: 1955, 88) The imaginative writer generally describes the 565 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo appearance of a character. In fiction, physical appearance of a character is frequently described to foster the mental picture or the visualization of a character. The description of physical appearance may include the physique and facial features, his clothes, his diseases, his bodily defects, his noticeable scars and warts. The author needs to use almost every particular active and unique trait about a character. Physical details are functional in the creation of a character. In the following part of this study, a character analysis will be done on Charles Dickens‘ characterization with specific page references to some of his works and the explanation presented to the reader may prove illuminating and reasonable. For this practical purpose, some of his common characterization techniques will be explained. Dickens and his Interesting Technique in Characterization To begin with, an abstract generalization is usually observed in literary commentaries over Dickens‘s novels. These generalizations and remarks are due to the assertions of several theoretical and practical novelists. Their observations may not be equally parallel to their fame or notoriety. For instance, certain critics hold that Dickens does not give a mental life and doctrine to his characters in a theoretical sense. Collins (1964:194) makes such an observation that Dickens is generally an anti-intellectual and anti- heroic writer. The life of characters representing educated men and women is seen as satisfactory when they get a respectable position in society or a well-paid job. Doctors are respectable men if they are not bad. Lawyers and clergy man are comic creatures. Seldom are policemen portrayed. Dickens‘s characterization is susceptible to criticism in this regard. Similarly, Orwell (1965:136) says following assertions about his characterization: Dickens‘s characters have no mental life. They say perfectly the thing that they have to say, but they cannot be conceived as talking about anything else. They never learn, never speculate. Some critics hold a common observation that Dickens‘ characters seem to be types or caricatures rather than individuals. James (1981:9) takes the matter a little further and criticizes his characterization, claiming that Dickens has created nothing but figure. He suggests that Dickens has added nothing to the understanding of human character. Although the repeated sweeping assertions of some critics holds partly true for certain characters, a fastidious analysis of his characterization technique will prove to be otherwise for most characters. To illustrate the point, Dickens never overlooks the thoughts of the characters in characterization in Hard Times. Thomas Gradgrind talks about his educational philosophy in the opening chapter of Hard Times. Utilitarianism is only the philosophy on which he brings up his children. According to Leavis (1970:235), Dickens is unmistakably possessed by a comprehensive vision in Hard Times. Fostered and sanctioned by a hard philosophy, the inhumanities of Victorian civilization are described as the aggressive formulation of an inhumane spirit. The philosophy is represented by Thomas Gradgrind, Esquire, Member of Parliament for Coketown, who has brought up his children on the lines of the experiment recorded by John Stuart Mill as carried out on himself.‖ In Hard Times, Mr Gradgrind will become disappointed with the negative results of his of educational principles in the life of his children. He explains his philosophy in the class as follows: Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else. You can only form the minds of reasoning animals upon Facts; nothing else will ever be of any service to them. This is the principle on which I bring up my own children, and this is the principle on which I bring up these children. Stick to Facts, sir! (HT:3) Believing in utilitarianism, Thomas Gradgrind is a man of realities, facts, and calculations. He never accepts anything he could not measure and weigh. He thinks that any parcel of human nature is a mere question of simple arithmetic. He never finds it useful to have imagination. He never wonders about human nature, human passion, and human hopes and fears. The struggles, triumphs, defeats, the cares, joys and sorrows, the life and death of common men and women are not significant for Thomas Gradgrind. Generally speaking, Dickens‘s characters are not fully developed in a single page or in a chapter. Dickens goes on conferring new particulars and new dramatic features to them until the last chapter of the novel. His characters are akin to dramatis personae, rather than novel characters. They are individualized particularly with their speech features. Ford (1967:61) asserts a similar view about their speech properties when he says: 566 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The whole question of particulars and universals ought to be related to the context in which the characters are placed rather than be settled off hand by rigid prescription. The uniqueness of Dickens‘s most successful creation is readily apparent in their speech. Linguistic writers define idiolect as a definitive word denoting the specific and personal speech quality of an individual, which differentiates individuals from each other like finger prints. Visible in diction, pronunciation, structure and sense, an individual has a unique speech quality at different language levels. Sometimes an individual continually uses certain linguistic expressions. Aware of these language differences, a novelist pays particular attention to these features and highlights them when creating a character. As a result, characters become different in terms of language at the very beginning. They appear to the reader as unique individuals. Of the particular idiolectial characteristics, fixed phrases and expression are frequently used in characterization. Williams (1973:32) points to the same observation, claiming that Dickens‘s characters, either men or women, are heard to speak in some fixed phrases and in some fixed expressions. Almost every character reveals his own personality, background, and reality with these fixed phrases. The fixed expressions, or to use linguistic term of the idiolectial features, imply to the reader the social position, class, regional and ethnic distinctiveness, educational level of characters, and even their real personality, along with their differentiation through bold lines. Dickens pays much attention to their speech qualities and diligently forms a different language for his characters. Brook (1970:138) voices a similar view about his characters when he says: Dickens took a lot of trouble to individualize the speech of his characters, and for many of them he devised what has been called special language. What Dickens often applies in characterization as an interesting technique is to use various fixed phrases. In David Copperfield, Barkis wants David to take a message to Pegotty. The content of the massage is that ―Barkis is willin.‖ This simple coach-driver expresses his intention to marry Pegotty with such a fixed phrase. (DC:66) However, the reader hears that expression from Barkis wherever he appears in the novel. Even when he dies, the reader hears him say that ―Barkis is willin.‖ Some characters seem to be caricatures because of too much stress on such individual features of speech. Penny (1920:112) suggests a similar view about the characterization of Barkis: In David Copperfield, ― Barkis is always "willin.‖ These repeated idiosyncrasies of talk, or face or disease, of manner undoubtedly help to accentuate the individuality of the character, but if too exclusive reliance is placed upon them it is just to turn them, whether in a book or upon the stage, into caricatures. Likewise, Uriah Heep is always heard to say ―I am much too Umble‖ in David Copperfield and he is marked with such an expression with an ironic tone. Heep learns this word at a boarding school. ―I‘m umble‖ (DC:2) He repeats this sentences to mask all his mischief. As in creation of other characters, Dickens is not slow to show his repetition and intonation. At first, he makes Heep a different person from other characters and makes him a distinct though bad character. Leech and Short (1981:167) clearly explicate the relevant point when they say: The most familiar lexical contribution to characterization (combined with graphological marker) is Uriah Heep's harping on the adjective ―umble‖ in David Copperfield a good example of how even a single word may encapsulate idiolectial expression of a character. By the same token, Mr Micawber, one of Uriah Heep‘s victims in David Copperfield, always addresses to David as ―my dear Copperfield.‖ In Bleak House, Jo becomes a memorable character with his words ―I dont know nothink‖ (BH:574) This simple street sweeper, who only knows his name is Jo and simply expresses his ignorance with multiple negations in his words: ―I dont know nothink about no.‖ In Little Dorrit, Mrs Plornish, able to deceive any human being under any circumstances, has a peculiar way of taking a turn in speech with such a phrase, ―Not to deceive you‖ (LD:178) Her trick to deceive people is to use such a form of speech. Blandois conceals the awful aspect of his personality using such a phrase as ―Frankness is a part of my character.‖ (LD:394) Blandois makes a thick catalogue about his own personality: filling in the subject position of this remark, he attaches some nice attributes to his evil character. ―Fairness is a part of my character‖, and ―Chivalry towards the sex is a part of my character.‖ (LD:401) In spite of being a mean blackmailer and prison dweller, Blandois has other positive qualifications. As he usually claims, Blandois is an ardent, sensitive, conscientious, and imaginative man. (LD:408) 567 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Dickens uses a further idiolectial feature in character creation. Interjections and exclamations are frequently employed to depict a character. Mr Dorrit has difficulty finding proper words in his daily conversation during his new life after his imprisonment for his debts. He fills the pause in his speech with some strange sounds or interjections ―Ha hum.‖ (LD:531). With some sounds, he takes time to speak correctly. (LD:675). Though often unable to keep the physical property of a character in his mind, the reader can easily remember the usual fixed phrases precisely. In Hard Times, Dickens reflects the manner of articulation for Mr Sleary. His speech seems to be heard by the reader while reading. ‗Any way,‘ said Sleary, after putting his lips to his brandy and water, ‗ith fourteen month ago. Thquire, thinthe we wath at chethter. We wath getting up our children in the wood one morning, when there cometh into our ring, by the thtage door, a dog. He had travelled a long way, he wath in very bad condition, he wath lame, and pretty well blind. He went round to our children, one after another, as if he wath a teheeking for a child he know‘d: and then he come to me, and throwd hithelf up behind, and thotood on hith two fore-legth, weak ath he wath, and then he wagged with tail and died. Thquire, that dog wath Marryleght. (H.T:290) Dickens individualizes Mr Sleary with his eccentric pronunciations. That dialogue runs between Mr Sleary and Gradgrind. Dickens inserts ‗th‖ sound into his speech instead of the ―S‖ sound. Dickens records his speech features so sensitively and precisely almost as if he were a tape-recorder. Dickens employs clothing style to create a colorful character. In Great Expectations, Miss Havisham dressed in rich materials- satins, and lace, and silks- all of white. ―Her shoes were white. And she had a long white veil dependent from her hair, and she had bridal flowers in her hair, but her hair was white. Some bright jewels sparkled on her neck and on her hands, and some other jewels lay sparkling on the table. Dresses, less splendid than the dress she wore, and half-packed trunks, were scattered about. She had not quite finished dressing, for she had but one shoe on - the other was on the table near her hand - her veil was but half arranged, her watch and chain were not put on, and some lace for her bosom lay with those trinkets, and with her handkerchief, and gloves, and some flowers, and a prayer-book, all confusedly heaped about the looking-glass.‖ (GE:62) Pip infers that everything within his view which ought to be white, was white long ago, and lost its luster, and is faded and yellow. The bride within the bridal dress has withered like the dress, and like the flowers, and has no brightness except for the brightness of her sunken eyes. With words, Dickens paints the disappointment of a bride whose bridegroom did not come to the wedding ceremony. It is difficult to imagine a better way to show Miss Havisham and her disappointment than this vivid description though it may seem comic to some. Through the description of her possessions, the verbal picture of the disappointed bride becomes more long lasting and more colorful. Although Miss Havisham is statically portrayed, her conscience develops. She expresses her repentance to have nurtured Estella to wreak revenge on men without mercy. Professing her repentance to Pip, she begs his pardon before the fire has erupted in Satis House. In the same manner, Mrs Joe almost always wears a coarse apron full of pins and needles. She never takes it off during her life in Great Expectations. In addition, her meek husband, Joe Gargery puts on a leather apron in his forge, not to mention his pipe which he smokes when he needs some speculations. The leather apron is so integrated into his characterization that his Sunday suit seems strange on him when he visits Pip in Barnard‘s Inn in London. On top of that, Joe Gargery‘s black hat becomes a big problem for him during this visit. He feels at a loss as to where he should put it and keeps it in his hands just like a birds nest. His clumsy behavior makes Pip ashamed of him before his gentleman friend Herbert Pocket. (GE:266). It would be rather difficult to think of these characters without their unusual garments in the novel. Spectacles and some objects have a similar function in characterization. In Oliver Twist, Mr Brownlow is an old gentleman, with gold spectacles. He is dressed in a bottle-green coat with a black velvet collar. He wears white trousers and carries a smart bamboo cane under his arm. With such a description Mr Brownlow gains a white-haired respectable personage. (OT:114). In Bleak House, Sir Leicester reads the article in the newspaper through his double-glassed spectacles. (BH:458). In Little Dorrit, Bar waves his double eye-glasses several times while speaking with Mrs Merdle. (LD:770). From character to character, the structure of eyeglasses and the material of which they are made change. But they become indispensable parts of these characters and conspicuously complete their characterization. 568 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Symbolically making considerable contribution to their characterization, pet animals are used to create characters. In Oliver Twist, Sikes is a cruel member of Fagins‘ gang. He has a devoted dog which never leaves him. In the story, Sikes kills Nancy and runs away. Walking and running on the roofs of the houses so as not to be arrested by the police and people behind him, he loses his balance and accidentally falls down from the roof. In the accident, the murderer swings lifeless against a big wall. At the same time, his dog runs to and fro on the parapet and jumps for the dead man‘s shoulders with a dismal howl. Missing his aim, the dog falls into a ditch, striking his head against a stone, dashing out his brains. Sikes and his loyal dog are so integrated that even their destiny is the same. (OT:453) In Little Dorrit, the painter Gowan has a dog named ―Lion,‖ which begins to roar when he sees Blandois. Gowan smothers the dog, kicks him several times, and threatens to kill if it does not calm down. Gowan‘s merciless behavior towards his dog symbolically reveals his cruel personality under his artistic soul. (LD:346). In Hard Times, Mr Jupe possesses a trained dog named Merrylegs, which likes him so much. Unsuccessful in his shows, Mr Jupe runs away from the circus. Because of his recent failures, he does not want to be a disgrace for his only daughter. Nobody knows where he is. One day Merrylegs comes back to the circus in a terrible condition to find Cecilia. Too weak, lame and blind, the dog dies in front of Mr Sleary. The circus people infer that Mr Jupe has died. Otherwise, his trained dog would have never deserted him. Its loyalty to him is so strong that it will never separate from his master as long as he lives. (HT:290) In Bleak House, Mr Krook is characterized with his cap, eye-glasses, and a grey cat on his shoulder. Ada and Miss Summerson visit Mr Krook in his shop. When they leave the shop, they look back and see Mr Krook standing at his shop-door, in his spectacles looking after them, with the cat upon his shoulder, and her tail sticking out from one side of his hairy cap, like a tall feather.(BH:108) In addition, a little old lady, one of Mr Krook‘s neighbors, keeps a bird collection. When Ada, Richard Carstone, and Ester Summerson look for Mr Krook, a little old lady invites them to her simple house. This old lady is a partner in the Jarndyce inheritance case. The old lady partly draws aside the curtains of the long low garret window, and calls their attention to a number of bird cages hanging there, perhaps at least twenty. Some of the cages contain several birds. There are larks, linnets, and gold-finches in the cages. She keeps these little creatures with the intention of restoring them to liberty when the Jarndyce case has settled. She has no hope to set them free since they die one by one in cage. The life of the poor creatures is so short in comparison with the Chancery proceedings, that the whole collection has died over and over again. The little old lady thinks that it will be such a mortifying situation for her that even one of them will not live to be free though they are all young. The death of the birds is a contrastive symbol of the long Chancenery proceedings, for it takes forty years to solve this inheritance case even with the fiasco.(BH:104). Mr Boythorn is associated with a very precious canary. When he speaks with Mr Jarndyce, Mr Boythorn says that he has left an annuity for the sole support of this little canary, in case he should outlive him. The canary is so tame that he is brought down by Mr Boythorn‘s man, on his forefinger, and after taking a gentle flight round the room, alights on his master‘s head. Mr Boythorn is a happy, sincere and mild man. Quietly perching on his forehead, the tame canary is an amusing illustration of his temperament. (BH:168) As Ghent (1967:24) stated, ―things like animal pets have adopted the disposition and expression of their masters.‖ Animal pets associated with these characters symbolically reflect their personalities. Dickens successfully uses chronic diseases to create excellent characters. In Bleak House, the lawyer Mr Vholes turns down the invitation made by Mr Jarndyce to have lunch, for his digestion is impaired. The consequence might be bad for him if he is to partake of solid food at that period of the day.(BH:673) Mr Snagby, a law-stationer, displays a habit of coughing which expresses his comportments. When Mr Tulkinghorn questions him about Nemo‘s death, Mr Snagby‘s coughs assume several meanings during the inquiry. Mr Snagby replays all the questions with an apologetic cough, with a cough of general propitiation, and with his deferential cough. He continues his explanation after a cough of consideration behind.(BH:192) Mr Tulkinghorn offers wine to him. Mr Snagby drinks and murmurs with an admiring cough. (BH:360) Mr Snagby coughs as if to determine the function of his sentence. In order to make them more remarkable, Dickens assigns several interesting gestures and mimics to his characters. In Bleak House, Mr Chadband stretches his flabby hands, like a bear paw when he speaks. Fixing some members of his congregation with his eye, Mr Chadband fatly argues his points with that particular person. (BH:412) Mr Bucket also has a fat forefinger. When he has a matter under his consideration, his fat forefinger seems to rise to the dignity of a familiar demon. He put it to his ears, and it whispers information; he puts it to his lips, and it enjoins him to secrecy; he rubs it over his nose, and it sharpens his scent; he shakes it before a guilty man, and it charms him to his destruction. The Augurs of Detective Temple invariably predict that when Mr Bucket and that finger are in much conference, a terrible avenge will be heard of before long. (BH:768) Brook (1970:185) points out the character gestures and explains the following concerning Dickens‘s character: 569 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Just as many Dickensian characters use habitual phrases, by which they can be recognized, some of them have habitual gestures... Gesture language is most common among low-life characters, but it is not confined to them. As stated by Brook, some of the characters, either from high or from low class, have habitual gestures during their speech. In this way, the reader is able to tell the difference between them. Furthermore, various tools and objects are used to create unforgettable characters. In Bleak House, the reader always sees Jo with his broom. Jo is so simple and pure that he only knows that lies are lies and it is necessary to be grateful to the person who does something good for him. Jo always sweeps the marble steps of the church and those of Mr Krook‘s grave, who has given him some money in the street. As a sign of gratitude, Jo cleans the steps of his grave very often. (BH:272). The objects in Mrs Badger‘s house contribute to her characterization. Mrs Badger gets married three times. Two portraits of her diseased husbands are on the wall. The first is Swosser, a captain in the Royal Navy. The second is Professor Dino , a famous man in Europe. To keep Dickens‘s style, Mrs Badger is surrounded in the drawing-room by various objects, indicative of her painting a little, playing the piano a little, playing the guitar a little, playing the harp a little, singing a little, working a little, reading a little, writing poetry a little, and botanizing a little. She is a lady of fifty, youthfully dressed and of a very fine complexion. If the writer adds, to the little list of her accomplishments, that she roughed a little, the narrator does not mean that there is any harm in it.(BH:224). Moreover, wheel chairs are also used in the same manner. In Little Dorrit, Mrs Clennam sits in her wheel-chair because she becomes a disabled woman. Whenever someone wants to speak with her, he must push her chair towards the table in the sitting room. Mrs Clennam also keeps a stool beside the table for the person to speak with her. It becomes usual to push her chair to the table in the house. Her step son, Mr Arthur Clennam pushes her chair to the table when he wants to have a special talk with her. (LD:745). In Great Expectations, Miss Havisham holds a wheel chair in Satis house. Miss Havisham sits in her chair when Pip comes there. She first makes her exercise for her joints walking in the rooms resting on Pip‘s shoulder. When she gets tired, Miss Havisham sits in the chair and Pip pushes her wheel chair through all the dark rooms of Satis House.(GE:104) While creating a particular character, Dickens maintains a striking perspective naturally attaching importance to the obvious typical details. A close relationship is obtained between perspective and typology. According to Lukas (1969:64), it is not a coincidence that such writers as Balzac, Stendhal, and especially Tolstoy and Dickens have created typical and universal characters. Only great realist novelists are able to comprehend different actions and new directions in a historical process and reflect them precisely. Great writers recognize new directions in which human behavior forms, existing types develop and newer types emerge. In addition, Lukas (1969:108) also discusses the novel techniques which reflect society within and without. Many realist writers use these techniques and both of them may be put into practice in the same work. As said by Lukas, Dickens sets the best example for these methods. Dickens examines aristocratic and noble people from the outside, common people from inside. Dickens is an illuminative writer in the social background of these events. Every novelist tends to reflect from inside the life of the society in which he lives. He will work on the characterization of a representative character for the other social classes from outside. On the other hand, Dickens creates hundreds of characters to populate a small town. The characters in his novels are so crowded that it is rather difficult to count all of them. Unforgettable men and women in literature, most characters diffuse into the daily routines and language of English people with their specific vivacity. They are diverse and comic but equally entertaining creatures. According to Zweig (1949:235), Dickens creates many kinds of individuals with traits as if he took their photographs. They have unusual occupations, and plunge into unusual adventures. No matter how crowded they are, none of them are similar to one another. The personality of each character is described from the obvious traits to the utmost details. Almost each of them represent an existing and living individuality, rather than remaining a human outline and rough draft. Seen though the comic perspective of an exceptional novelist, the characters are depicted as they are in reality, rather than in isolation. More importantly, Dickens has his character act in accordance with the expected persona in the situation into which he was placed. In psychology, persona is defined as the mask that an individual ought to wear in compliance with the social expectations. An individual frequently possesses some tendencies to behave in a proper way as is expected of him, to meet the educational and social expectations in life, to develop certain behaviors suitable to the established social traditions and norms. G. C. Jung is the first to use the concept of persona. According to Jung, individuals come into interaction and keep the external relations with the society through ‗persona‘. Dickens places most of the characters in different situations in his novels and reflects their 570 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo personas in various actions and occupations. Through their personas, characters inevitably reveal their inner world and deeper personalities. Sucksmith (1970:46) stresses this point: Often Dickens represents the inner life of a character through the activity of the persona, a process which is not only psychologically accurate but typical of the way most people do express an inner life of which they are unconscious. Action is a sound and safe way to reveal and develop a character. Dickens therefore shows the actions of his characters. He describes their mannerisms, their reactions, and their behaviors towards other characters. Full and round characters are those that develop with their actions. In Hard Times, almost all characters are round since they develop with their actions. Mr Gradgrind is a serious utilitarian character. However, a great change is observed in his character when he gets the result of his philosophy. After Lousia has explained her unhappiness in her marriage, Mr Gradgrind changes drastically; he makes himself responsible for her sorrow. His suspicion about his system grows comprehensive to include the past, the present, and the future. He feels overwhelmed. Mr Gradgrind thinks that the grounds on which he stands have ceased to be solid under his feet. He is stunned by the discovery that his daughter is not pleased with her matrimony and his well-educated son is a disgraceful burglar. With a freezing frustration, he later realizes the truth. He has administered his hard system to his children. He bears the responsibility for their failures though he meant to bring them up properly. Mr Gradgrind‘s sympathetic action in Sissy‘s case makes his well wishing personality by far clearer. Together with Mr Bounderby, he goes to the circus to meet Mr Jupe. Sissy will not be admitted at his school any more. Mr Gradgrind learns that Mr Jupe has gone away lest he should be a disgrace to his daughter because of the recent failures in his job. Circus people have no expectation about his return. In the new circumstances, Mr Gradgrind makes a different proposal regarding her education. He expresses his new decision to take charge of Sissy at his private school again. Accepting his suggestion, Cecilia goes to Stone Lodge to get some practical education. Mr Gradgrind makes an effective effort to send Tom, his son, abroad as he has learned about the theft in the bank. As a result, Tom will not be punished for his crime. In the circus scene, Mr Gradgrind implores Bitzer, his graduate student, to let his son go. But for the change in his personality, he would have no mercy for his son and let him suffer for his crime in prison. All these well-meaning actions and conduct make Mr Gradgrind a round and full character. Dickens creates Cecilia Jupe as a symbol of goodness. Showing her grateful action, Dickens depicts her as a compassionate and considerate girl. Always assistant to Mrs Gradgrind in the housework, Cecilia tenderly looks after her little daughter Jane. Cecilia changes the atmosphere of this hard-disciplined house into a loving and affectionate home. Helpless and miserable with her marriage, Lousia comes back to the stone lodge. Cecilia always supports Lousia. Sucksmith (1970:125) asserts that ―without a full appreciation of the sympathetic link between Sissy and Lousia, we cannot grasp either Lousia‘s character or the function of Sissy in the novel.‖ Cecilia always protects Louisa when she is in trouble. Cecilia also goes to the hotel and tells Mr James Harthouse to leave the town. In addition, Cecilia becomes a consoling and comforting friend for Racheal when Stephen disappears. Stephen is not the culprit responsible for the bank robbery, which is clear from his last words to Mr Gradgrind. Tom is the only person responsible for the robbery. Making a plan, Cecilia advises Tom to go to the circus people, who will be willing to harbor him for her sake. But for her simple plan, Tom would be arrested. Her thoughtful action saves Tom from being punished for the robbery. Racheal is also characterized with her actions. Anxious about his problems, Racheal sends Stephen a message and tells him to return Coketown. The workers begin to suspect Stephen of the bank robbery. She strives to prove that Stephen is an honest and respectable man. She requests that Lousia should make an explanation about her visit to Stephen‘s house. During her visit, Lousia offers Stephen Blackpool a large sum of money to help him. Stephen accepts her offer only as a debt and takes two pounds for his fare. Moreover, Mr Bounderby is developed with his rough and practical manners. He is a self-made humbug. Dragging by the collar, Mrs Sparsit brings his real mother, Mrs Pegler to his mansion. A group of curious people gathers in his dining room. At the sight of this uninvited party, Mr Bounderby becomes confounded rather than hospitable. He shouts at Mrs Sparsit for her meddling into his private life. He shows the door to the people, and orders them to go away immediately. There follows a conversation about the cruelty to her son between Mr Gradgrind and Mrs Pegler, Mr Bounderby‘s real mother. Her responses to all the questions clarify her son‘s deceptive conduct. Additionally, Mr Bounderby is always characterized with his rough and arrogant behavior. His conduct is also violent and careless when he looks for Lousia, his young wife in Stone Lodge. Such are his manners in the circus, where he and Mr Gradgrind have paid a quick visit to inform them that they do not want Cecilia at the school. 571 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Mrs Sparsit‘s actions are not different from those of her boss, Mr Bounderby. She drags Mrs Pegler to make an explanation about Stephen‘s whereabouts, for Mrs Pegler was seen with Stephen Blackpool in front of Mr Bounderby‘s house. Mrs Sparsit is jealous of Lousia. Sparsit imagines a staircase, from the steps of which Lousia goes lower and lower in her friendship with Mr James Harthouse. For this reason, Mrs Sparsit always wishes Lousia to make a scandalous mistake and bring disgrace to the reputation of her husband. Watching her relationship with Mr Harthouse, she always pursues Lousia. Mrs Sparsit keeps an unrelenting watch on her in the country house. She chases Lousia across the entire road dividing Coketown from the country house. Mrs Sparsit maintains a cat-like observation of Lousia, through her husband, through her brother, through James Harthouse, and through the outside of letter and packets. Mrs Sparsit also uses Bitzer as a spy in the bank. Often seated with her iron needlework at the window, Mrs Sparsit acts as a guardian over the bank. To reveal and develop their persona in most cases, Dickens uses the idiosyncratic actions and conduct of all these characters in Hard Times. CONCLUSION Charles Dickens is a successful novelist in characterization. In spite of the sweeping assertions over his characters, many memorable characters are created through his excellent genius and warm heart in English literature. Because he has unique talent with characterization, many readers all over the world believe that his characters are interesting enough. They can easily count several of his characters when questioned. It is not a sheer coincidence that various readers still know his characters very well. Many readers are able to remember them due to his interesting creation. In contrast to some views of the critics, Dickens must have an unusual characterization technique. Otherwise, most readers would have already forgotten all of his characters. A number of his characters seem so flat and simple as to be explained in a few words. However, an unnoticed aspect of his mastery may emerge when his characters are thoroughly examined. The suggestion of some critics is partly true that Dickens‘s characters have no inner life. Many of them do not have inner life because they do not need to in the general artistic structure of the novels. For my part, critics must have a clearer conscience and a truer perception. Dickens is simply a novelist, not God. They had better be more merciful, more reliable, and more precise in their criticism. One of the things they often overlook is that Dickens creates character through their action, where they are seen in interaction, transaction, and not simply with a physical description in a flash. Proper or improper by the norms of Victorian society, most characters come alive with their usual actions, reflecting their inner world. Dickens creates many memorable characters in his novels and makes them equally credible. In this regard, the reader should decide on the credibility and the vitality of his characterization on safer grounds. When postulating a fictional world, Dickens bestows such compound personal traits as may be missed at first glance to stress the individuality of a character. Dickens especially shows the choices, habits, inclinations, consciousness, intelligence, and sentimentality of almost each significant character in the story. Precise information about these points is frequently influential to understand accurately the identity and social image of a character. Furthermore, Dickens uses the thoughts of a character on specific subjects. The thoughts such characters intensify the depth and dimension. Without some thought, these characters would seem like a dummy model. They have certain thoughts, ideology, and prejudices. Their thoughts are revealed in discussions, in materials and in flashbacks. To give his due rights, Dickens shows the thought and the reasoning processes of his characters when dictated by the structure of the novel. 572 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo REFERENCES Brook, G. L. (1970). The Language of Dickens. London: Andre Deutsch. Collins, Phillip. (1962). Dickens and Crime. London: Macmillan. (Ref:1964) Dickens, Charles. Bleak House, London: Penguin. (ref:1971 and abbreviated as BH) _____________. David Copperfield, London: Longman. (ref:1966 and abbreviated as DC) _____________. Great Expectations, London: Longman. (ref:1975 and abbreviated as GE) _____________. Hard Times, London: Longman. (ref:1973 and abbreviated as HT) _____________. Little Dorrit, London: Penguin Books. (ref:1985 and abbreviated as GE) _____________. Oliver Twist , London: Penguin Books. (ref:1985 and abbreviated as OT) Ford, George H. (1967). The Poet and the Critics of Probability. Dickens: a Collection of Critical Essays. Martin Price. (Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Ghent, Dorothy Van. (1967). The Dickens World: a View from Todger‘s Dickens. Dickens: a Collection of Critical Essays. Martin Price. (Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. James, Henry. (1981). Selected Literary Criticism. Morris Saphira. (Ed.) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leavis, F. R. and Q. D. Leavis. (1970). Dickens the Novelist. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Leech, N. Geoffrey and Michael Short. (1981). Style in Fiction. London: Longman. Lucas, Gyôrgy. (1969). The Meaning of Contemporary Realism. (ÇağdaĢ Gerçekçiliğin Anlamı. Cevat Çapan. (trans.). Ġstanbul: Payel Yayınevi.) Orwell, George. (1953). Decline of English Murder and Other Essays. London: Penguin Books. Perry, Bliss. (1920). A Study of Prose Fiction. Cambridge: the Riverside Press. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company. Sucksmith, Harvey Peter. (1970). The Narrative Art of Charles Dickens. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Thomashevsky, Boris. (1955). Thematics. Russian Formalist Criticism Four Essays. Lee T. Lemon and Marion J. Reis. (trans.) Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. William, Raymond. (1973). The English Novel. London: Chatto and Windus. Zweig, Stefan. (1979) Three Great Men: Dostoyevsky, Balzac and Dickens. (Üç Bùyùk Adam: Dostoyevsky, Balzac and Dickens Ayda Yùrùkan. Ankara: Tur yayınları.) 573 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 86 Title A name given to the resource Dickens and his Memorable Characterization Author Author ÇAKIR, Dr. Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Charles Dickens is a distinguished novelist and an influential figure in the Victorian period. In spite of that, some superficial observation and generalization is rife in critical commentaries about his novels. Such repeated assertions are not always the case when respectively applied to the characters and the novels of the writer. One of the achievements that Dickens possesses in connection with the art of his novels is his obvious success in creating memorable characters in his substantial novels. The power that lies under his striking success is that he uses so many interesting techniques to describe characters in detail. He uses many fixed phrases, styles of clothing, parts of jewelry, typical pets, chronic diseases, handy tools, elements of decorations, positions of the body, and mannerisms in using some external organs and the manners associated in daily life. Characters are marked with such techniques and these become indispensable parts of their characterization. Based on the actions and the manners, characters seen with these objects are easily recognized and remembered by the reader to the end of a particular novel. The vivid, colorful, credible and lifelike characters and the techniques used for their creation prove the matchless mastery of the writer. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b91839d3b8d30174b521127fc5f4b0a4.pdf 23facdf2ee03c4d08bdf5a1f382c4cae PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Improving Reading Comprehension Skills in ESL Classes through Newspaper Articles Abdülhamit ÇAKIR Selçuk University, Turkey Faculty of Education abdulhamitcakir@yahoo.com.tr Abstract: Newspapers offer good chances of reading practice for ESL learners of different proficiency levels.Since newspaper articles are authentic in terms of language they use,experiences they report,and culture they reflect they may attract ESL learners‘ attention with their headlines,content areas,and pictures.On the other hand, they are difficult to handle for exactly the same reasons. To start with, we had beter take a close look into the nature of reading comprehension. Traditionally, in the study of second language comprehension, it has been the text (language to be comprehended)to blame for failures to comprehend not the reader or listener.Failures to comprehend a well-formed text passage have been attributed to some unknown language elements like words and gramatical rules.But today it is believed that it is not the text but the previously acquired knowledge that makes the comprehension possible.Immenual Kant claimed as long ago as 1781 that ‘new information,new concepts,new ideas can have meaning only when they can be related to something the individual already knows‘(Rumelhart:1980). One of the obvious reasons why a reader fails to understand a text is that the schema involved is culturally specific and does not exist for the reader.If the implicit culture content knowledge presupposed by a text interacts with the reader‘s own background knowledge of content, that text is easier to read and understand than rhetorically and syntactically equivalent text based on a less familiar and more distant culture (Anderson: 1979). Key Words: Newspaper, reading comprehension skills Introduction Newspapers offer good chances of reading practice for ESL learners of different proficiency levels.Since newspaper articles are authentic in terms of language they use,experiences they report,and culture they reflect they may attract ESL learners‘ attention with their headlines,content areas,and pictures.On the other hand,they are difficult to handle for exactly the same reasons. To start with, we had beter take a close look into the nature of reading comprehension. Traditionally, in the study of second language comprehension, it has been the text(language to be comprehended)to blame for failures to comprehend not the reader or listener.Failures to comprehend a well-formed text passage have been attributed to some unknown language elements like words and gramatical rules.But today it is believed that it is not the text but the previously acquired knowledge that makes the comprehension possible.Immenual Kant claimed as long ago as 1781 that ‘new information,new concepts,new ideas can have meaning only when they can be related to something the individual already knows‘(Rumelhart:1980). This previously acquired world knowledge is often called background knowledge ,and knowledge structures as schemata.Comprehending a text involves and interactive process between the text and the reader‘s background knowledge about that topic.When we read we try to map the information input in the text against our existing schema or schemata concerning that piece of information.If there is a missmatch the reader is forced to revise his/her interpretation to make this new information compatible with the previous information to make the whole text cohere (Carell:1983). The background knowledge involved in reading comprehension is of 2 types: a) Formal schema b) Content schema Formal schema is genre knowledge, background knowledge of the formal, textual organizational structures of various discourse types such as, differences in genre, structure of recepie, tales, arbituaries etc. Content schema 1 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo is the background knowledge of content area of a text such as history of needle making, nuclear centers in Iran, Turkey‘s Cyprus policy etc. (Widdowson: 2007). A succesful reader is usually equipped with both of these knowledge sturctures and thus can constitute and efficient interaction between linguistic knowledge and worl knowledge.One of the obvious reasons why a reader fails to understand a text is taht the schema involved is culturally specific and does not exist for the reader.If the implicit culture content knowledge presupposed by a text interacts with the reader‘s own background knowledge of content, that text is easier to read and understand than rhetorically and syntactically equivalent text based on a less familiar and more distant culture(Anderson:1999). Examples: Would you please have a quick look at these four articles. The Tylenol Tragedy The Tylenol tragedy has touched off a wave of renewed concern this October about pint-size Smurfs, E.T‗s, and Wonder women accepting candy from strangers. As the 31st approaches, city officiasl in dozens of towns across the country have banned trick-or-treating altogether, or restircted it to daylight hours. -Can you put these four articles in order from the easiest to the most difficult? It is clear that Turkish readers lack the neccessary background knowledge to be able to understand the Tylenol Tragedy. What background information do we need to be able to understand this article?Halloween is celebrated on the night of October 31.On that night ghosts and witches walk the earth.Children dressed in costumes may do the spirits‘ ―tricks‖ for them.To protect their homes,neighbors must give the chilren ―treats‖ of cookies or candy. From these examples we can draw this conclusion:Some background knowledge about British and American Culture in general and their newspapers and magazines in particular will be of great help to understand and appriciate what we read.First off all, our students should know that there are two types of newspapers, i.e., quality and tabloid.Quality newspapers are also known as broadsheets or heavies and they are considered to be informative and objective.They present the reader with serious news with details and comment on political and economic issues and social and world events.Tabloids, on the other hand, are considered to be more entertaining than informative and they contain many photographs,attention grabbing headlines, sensational stories and scandals(Sanderson:1999). Here is a list of British and American newspapers British newspapers The Daily Telegraph, Financial Times, The Guardian and newspapers,appealing mainly to the upper and middle classes. The Times are known as the quality The Daily Telegraph is right-of-centre in its views and contains reports on national and international news. Financial Times contains a comprehensive coverage of industry, commerce and public affairs and is read mainly by proffecional and bussiness people. The Guardian is the only ‗quality‘ newspaper with liberal/left -of-centre politics.As well as a wide coverage of news events, it also reports on social issues, the arts education etc. The times takes a middle-of-the-road-view, claiming to represent the views of the establishment and is especially well-known for its correspondence column. Daily Express, Daily Mail, Daily Mirror, Daily Star and The Sun are popular,tabloid newspapers-they are smaller in size and contain more photographs and appeal mainly to the working and middle classes. Daily Mail and Daily Express take a right-of-centre viewpoint on most issues. Daily Mirror usually supports the Labour party. 2 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The Sun and Daily Star are well-known for their pin-ups.The Sun has a larger circulation than any other daily newspaper. The Observer is a serious national Sunday newspaper and is read mainly by the professional middle classes. American Newspapers The Newyork Times is a serious daily newspaper read on a national scale covering national and international news. The Wall Street Journal is a business/investment daily newspaper but it also carries news of national importance. The Washington Post is a serious daily newspaper with full coverage of Congress. International Herald Tribune is a daily newspaper produced in Paris and sold in most countries of the world.It covers American and international news and contains advertisements and reviews. Magazines Newsweek is a weekly American news magazine which covers American and international news and a wide range of topics.There is also an international addition. Punch is a weekly British satirical magazine which is well-known for its cartoons. Time is sold all over the world and contains articles on US and world news as well as general articles on culture, medicene etc. Newspapers especially tabloids use some tabloidese/journalese e.i. some short sensational and often exaggerated and ambiguous words in their headlines.Here is a list of words of this kind. A) The Vocabulary of Tabloids Headline word ACCORD AID AXE BACK BAN BAR BID BLAST BLASE BLOW BOOST CLASH COUP CURB CUT DEAL DRIVE ENVOY EXIT GEMS GO-AHEAD GUNMAN Meaning agreement help cut, destroy, take away support prohibition exclude, prohibit attempt explosion fire injury help, incentive dispute revolution restraint, limit reduction aggreement campaign, effort diplomat leave jewels approval man with gun 3 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo HALT HAUL HEAD HELD HIT JET JOBLESS KEY LINK MAN NET ORDEAL OUST OUTPUT PACT PAY PIT PLEA PLEDGE PLUNGE POLL PRESS FOR PROBE QUIT RAID RIDDLE ROW SCARE SPLIT SQUEEZE STORM STRIFE SWITCH SWOOP TALK TOP VOW WALKOUT WED stop large quantity first stolen and later discovered lead, direct retained, kept in custody affect badly aeroplane unemployed essential, vital connection representative total painful experience, drama push out, drive out, replace production agreement, treaty wages, salary coal mine request for help promise step fall election, public opinion survey demand, ask for investigate leave, resign attack, robbery mystery argument, dispute public alarm divide shortage, scarcity angry reaction, dispute conflict change, deviation sudden attact or raid discussion exceed promise strike marry Newspaper headlines also use different grammaticl structures. B) The structure of headlines 1-Articles and verb ‗to be‘ are frequently omitted, e.g. PET PLAN APPROVED, MAN HELD. 2-Simple Present Tense is used for present and past events,e.g.WOMEN DRIVE BETTER THAN MEN CLAIMS REPORT; DYNAMITE KILLS 52(meaning killed),US VISIT TESTS THE POPE AS POTENTIAL WORLD LEADER. 3-Present Continuous Tense is used to describe something that is developing, e.g. RAIL CHAOS GETTING WORSE. 4-The infinitive is used to refer to future, e.g. POPE TO VISIT US. 5-In passive sentences the auxiliary is omitted and past participle is used,e.g. HIJACKER ARRESTED. 6-A series of nouns are blocked together and used as adjectives, e.g. SOCCER BOY RAIL VICTIM. 4 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo How to Use them in the Classroom. Teachers can use headlines and articles in several different ways: abcde- matching the articles and headlines Finding the synonyms of some headline words in the article. Making appropriate headlines for articles. Putting sentences into headline forms. Finding out different meanings in the ambiguous headlines, etc. A- Explain two different meanings of the following ambiguous headlines. 1-Kids make nutritious snacks 2-Squad helps dog bite victim 3- Miners refuse to work after death 4- Hospitals are used by 7 foot doctors 5- Panda mating fails; veterinarian takes over 6- Lung cancer in women mushrooms 7- Eye drops off shelf 8- Teacher strikes idle kids 9- Juvenile court to try shooting defendant 10- Stolen painting found by tree 11- Drunken drivers paid $1000 12- Local high school dropouts cut in half. 13- Include your chilren when baking cookies. B- Find the word(s) in the article which have the same meaning as the underlined word in the headline. C- Match the following headlines and articles. 1-Actress weds 2-Mother‘s plea for son fails 3-Job row may hit chilren‘s hospital 4- Bush ban on pupils after attack on crew 5- £1 million heroin haul 6- Crime profit tops £166m 7-Young wife‘s bid to beat fear 5 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Newspaper articles As for articles, newswpapers make use of various articles in different genres such as News in Brief,Home News,Business News,Technology and Science,Comment, Editorials,Letters to the Editor, Motoring News, Televisition, The Arts, Sport, Advertisements,Features, Travel Plitics, Movies, Theatre, Arbituaries, Health, Books, Education, Home-Garden, Real Estate, Fashion-Style, Automobiles Magazine, etc. Teachers may bring these genres in to the clssroom for the students to develop various reading strategies, for different genres require different strategies. For small adds, for instance, students can be asked to match the headlines and the adds or to answer some skimming and scanning questions. For comments and editorials they may be asked to make inferences or to discuss the writer‘s view, etc.( Sharma: 2007, Bakhshandah: 2009). Now, let‘s do a sample reading lesson using a newspaper article. Could you please take a look at the article in yor hands? A12345- Which newspaper is it taken from? What kind of article is it? What is its genre? How are editorals differrent from other types of articles? Are all priests men? Do you know any women priests? In Turkey, do we have any women imams? B- 6- What is the passage about? Look very quickly through the article. Do not worry about the detail or vocabulary you don‘t know.You only need to get a very general idea of the contents C- Now read these questions and find the answers 7- According to the editorial why did some women demand for priesthood? What was the real incentive? 8- How would ordination of women put off Christian re-unification? D- A follow up activity 9- Could this article be published in a left-of-center nespaper? In Turkey? If so would meaning change? --- Questions in (A) are pre-reading questions and aim to activate students‘background knowledge about this topic and thus help them make predictions about the content of the text. --- By the question in (B) it is intended to develop readers‘ skimming skills by finding the gist of the article. --- Questions in (D) aim to make the students comment on the topic and may be used as a follow-up activity. --- Furthermore questions in (B) and (C) have been used to spesify a purpose for reading. 6 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References: Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring Second Language Learning:Issues and Strategies. Boston: Heinle&Heinle. Bakhshandch, E. and et all. (2009). Listening, Vocabulary and Translation Skills through News and Media. Tahran: Rahmana Press. Carrell, P. L. (1983a). Background Knowledge in Second Language Comprehension. Language Learning and Communication 2. Carrell, P. L. (1983b). Some issues in studying the role of schemata, or background knowledge, in second language comprehension. Paper presented at the 17th Annual TESOL Convention, Toronto Canada, March, 1983. Grabe, W. and F. Stoller. (2002). Teaching and Researching Reading. New York: Longman Rumelhart, David E. (1980). Schemata: The building blocks of cognition in theoretical issues in reading comprehension, Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce, and William E. Brewer (Eds.) Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrance Erlbaum Associates. Sanderson, P. (1999). Using Newspapers in the Classroom. Cambridge University Press. Sharma, P. (2007). Reading the news.Thomson ELT. Swales, B and John M. (2007). Genre Analysis English in Academic and Research Setting. Cambridge University Press. Widdowson, H.G. (2007). Discourse Analysis. New York: Oxford University Press. 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 541 Title A name given to the resource Improving Reading Comprehension Skills in ESL Classes through Newspaper Articles Author Author ÇAKIR, Abdülhamit Abstract A summary of the resource. Newspapers offer good chances of reading practice for ESL learners of different proficiency levels.Since newspaper articles are authentic in terms of language they use,experiences they report,and culture they reflect they may attract ESL learners‘ attention with their headlines,content areas,and pictures.On the other hand, they are difficult to handle for exactly the same reasons. To start with, we had beter take a close look into the nature of reading comprehension. Traditionally, in the study of second language comprehension, it has been the text (language to be comprehended)to blame for failures to comprehend not the reader or listener.Failures to comprehend a well-formed text passage have been attributed to some unknown language elements like words and gramatical rules.But today it is believed that it is not the text but the previously acquired knowledge that makes the comprehension possible.Immenual Kant claimed as long ago as 1781 that ‘new information,new concepts,new ideas can have meaning only when they can be related to something the individual already knows‘(Rumelhart:1980). One of the obvious reasons why a reader fails to understand a text is that the schema involved is culturally specific and does not exist for the reader.If the implicit culture content knowledge presupposed by a text interacts with the reader‘s own background knowledge of content, that text is easier to read and understand than rhetorically and syntactically equivalent text based on a less familiar and more distant culture (Anderson: 1979). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/46444f0d99b3b0edc254c86d077586c4.pdf ebe0d1338b872e5639356df58fa86990 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Two-Level Description of Kazakh Morphology Harun ReĢit Zafer Department of Computer Eng. Fatih University hrzafer@fatih.edu.tr Birol Tilki Department of Computer Programming Vocational School, Fatih University birolt@fatih.edu.tr Atakan Kurt Department of Computer Eng. Fatih University akurt@fatih.edu.tr Mehmet Kara Deparment of Contemporary Turkic Lang. Istanbul University mehkara@yahoo.com Abstract: Koskemnieni‘s two-level model has received a lot attention in modeling morphology. In this paper we present an ongoing study on a comprehensive two-level description of Kazakh morphology. Our description is implemented using the morphological parser in the Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework. A lexicon containing the root words of contemporary Kazakh is used in the testing. Phonological and morphological special cases and exceptions have been considered in nominal, and verbal conjugations. To out knowledge this is the first time Kazakh phonological rules and morphotactics are computationally described which makes it possible to implement other linguistics applications such as machine translation systems. Keywords: Kazakh, two-level morphology, orthographic rules, finite state machines. Introduction Two-level morphology [ 182] has been applied to many languages. Tools to implement two-level morphology such as PC-KIMMO [183] is publicly available. It was originally applied to describe finite state Finnish morphology by Koskenniemi. A detailed description with an application to English is given by Antwort [ 184]. Two-level or finite state models later were applied to many languages such as Japanese [185], Korean [186], Turkish [187], Arabic [188], and Mongolian [189]. All these languages except Arabic are related linguistically. They are Altaic languages. Like Ural languages of Finnish and Hungarian they are agglutinative. There is a group of languages called Turkic Languages including Turkish, Turkmen, Kazakh, Uzbek, Kyrgyz, Azerbaijani. There are more than 20 languages in this group. These languages share a lot in common from phonological, morphological and syntactic aspects. However they are not intelligible for the most part. 182 Koskenniemi, K., 1983, Two-Level Morphology: A General Computational Model of word-form recognition and production, Tech. Rep. Publication No. 11, Department of General Linguistics, University of Helsinky. 183 Karttunen L, 1983, PC-KIMMO: A General Morphological Processor. In Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp.165-186. 184 Antworth, E.L., 1990, PC-KIMMO: A Two-level Processor of Morphological Analysis, Summer Instıtute of Linguistics, Dallas, TX. 185 Alam, Y.S., 1983, Two-level Morphological Analysis of Japanese, Texas Linguistics Forum 22, pp. 229-252. 186 Kim, D. B., Lee S. J., Choi, K.S., and Kim, G.C., 1994. A two-level morphological analysis of Korean. In Proceedings of the 15th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 1 (COLING '94), pp. 535-539. 187 Oflazer, K. 1994, Two-level description of Turkish morphology, Literary and Linguistic Computing, Literary and Linguistic Computing Volume9, Issue2 pp. 137-148. 188 Arabic Finite State Morphological Analysis and Generation, In COLING-96, Cophenagen, pp. 89-94. 189 Jaimai, P., Zundui, T., Chagnaa, A., and Ock, C.Y., PC-KIMMO-based Description of Mongolian Morphology, International Journal of Information Processing Systems Vol.1, No.1, 2005 pp. 41-48. 560 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo They are mostly spoken in Turkey, Turkic states, in Central Asia and in various parts of Russia and other parts of the world. These languages are except Turkish are usually resource poor from computational linguistics point of view. Although recently there are some work on the Turkmen [190 191], Azerbaijani, Uyghur and others. It can be said that we are only at the beginning of research considering the many languages in this group. Kazakh is one of the important languages in this group considering the number of people speaking this language. Kazakh (also Qazaq) language is a Turkic language and belongs to Kypchak branch. It is the official language of Kazakhstan. It is spoken about 12 million people all over the world. Like other Turkic Languages Kazakh is also agglutinative and employs vowel harmony [ 192]. This paper is organized as follows: In Section 2 Kazakh orthography is described using two-level rules of Koskenniemi. Kazakh alphabet and phonological rules are defined here. In Section 3 we briefly discuss Kazakh morphotactics using Finite State Machines with a few examples. Conclusions and future work is given in the last section. Kazakh Orthography Kazakh is officially written in the Cyrillic alphabet. We will use a latin transcription of Cyrill version for convenience. There is a transliteration system converting from Kazakh Cyrill to Latin [193]. Kazakh alphabet is given in Table 1 shows current Kazakh Alphabet and its transliteration to Latin Alphabet. Cyrillic Аа Әə Бб Вв Гг Ғғ Дд Ее Ёѐ Жж Зз Ии Й Кк Table 1: Cyrillic Kazakh alphabet and its transliteration to Latin alphabet. Latin Cyrillic Latin Cyrillic Latin Aa Ққ Qq Фф Ff ä Лл Ll Һ H Bb Мм Mm Хх Xx Vv Нн Nn Цц Tsts Gg ң Ñ Чч Çç Ğğ Оо Oo Шш ġĢ Dd Өө Öô Щщ ġçĢç Eye Пп Pp Ыы Iı Yoyo Рр Rr Іі Ġi Jj Сс Ss Ээ Ee Zz Тт Tt Юю Yuyu Ġyiy Уу Uwuw Яя Yaya Y Ҧҧ Uw Kk Ҥҥ Üù Two-level morphology is a language-independent method to model morphologic rules of natural languages. In this model words are represented in two forms; lexical and surface. Two-level rules define transformation between the two forms. Phonological rules in this model can be expressed in one the following formulations: a:b => LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, corresponds to a surface b only if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence only occurs under this condition but not always. a:b <= LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, always corresponds to a surface b if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence always occurs with this condition but can also occur with different conditions. 190 M. Shylov, ―Dilmaç: Turkish and Turkmen Morphological Analyzer and Machine Translation Program,‖ Master‘s thesis, Fatih University, Ġstanbul Turkey, 2008. 191 Tantuğ, A. Cùneyd and Adalı, EĢref and Oflazer, Kemal (2006) Computer analysis of the Turkmen language morphology. Advances in natural language processing, proceedings (Lecture notes in artificial intelligence), 4139 . pp. 186193. 192 Dzhubanov, A., Khasanov, B.. 1973. Computational description of the Kazakh language. In Proceedings of the 5th conference on Computational linguistics - Volume 2(COLING '73), Vol. 2. Stroudsburg, PA, USA, 75-77. 193 Buran, A., Alkaya, E. (in Turkish) ―ÇağdaĢ Tùrk lehçeleri,‖ ANKARA: Akçağ, 2009, pp. 273-312. 561 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo a:b <=> LC__RC This states that a lexical a, corresponds to a surface b always and only if it follows the left context (LC) and/or precedes the right context (RC). This correspondence never occurs with any other condition. a:b \<= LC__RC This rule states that a lexical a, never corresponds to a surface b in given the environment of left context (LC) and right context (RC). This correspondence never occurs under this condition. Below we present a set of meta-phonems used in expressing rules. The Latin Kazakh alphabet consists of 30 letters. There are 9 vowels and 21 consonants in this alphabet. The letter groups that used in rules are defined below: Consonants: C= {b, g, ğ, d, j, z, y, k, q, l, m, n, ð, p, r, s, t, w, x, h, Ģ } Vowels: V= {a, ä, e, ı, i, o, ô, u, ù} Back Vowels: Vb = {a, ı, o, u } Front Vowels: Vf = {e, ä, i, ô, ù} I = {ı, i} A = {a, e} L = {l, d, t} Q = {ğ, q} G = {k, g} K = {k, q} M = {m, b, p} N = {n, d, t} D = {d, t} S = {s}. There are two different lexical s in Kazakh. The S is used for the one that is never deleted on the surface form. And letter s is used for the one that can be deleted on the surface form under some conditions. 2.2 Two Level Orthographic Rules Kazakh has the most strong vowel harmony among Turkic languages [ 194]. Vowels in a suffix have to agree with the preceding morpheme‘s vowels. Consonant harmony or assimilation is also strong in Kazakh. [ 195] Voiced consonants are converted into voiceless ones or vice versa. Consonants can be assimilated by preceding consonants or vowels. Under certain circumstances sound dissimilation can occur. When concatenating a morpheme to a stem, consonants or vowels can be deleted. The deleted letters can belong to either stem or suffix. Below are some of the two-level morphologic rules of Kazakh language. We consulted the following language resources on morphology [194, 195, 193] in creating these rules. We give only a portion of the rules because of space limitation. 1. k:g <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V 2. q:ğ <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V 3. p:b <=> V __ +:0 (@:0)V The consonants k, q and p at the end of stem are converted to g, ğ and b respectively when the preceding letter and the first letter of affixed morpheme are vowels. 194 195 Lexical: jùrek+sI Surface: jùreg0i N(heart)+Poss3PS jùregi (his heart) Lexical: ayaq+sI+nDA Surface: ayağ0ında N(foot)+Poss3PS+Loc ayağında (on his leg) Tamir, F., (in Turkish) "Kazak Tùrkçesi," Tùrk Lehçeleri Grameri, ANKARA: 2007, pp. 430-480. Koç, K., Doğan, O., (in Turkish) Kazak Tùrkçesi Grameri, ANKARA: Gazi Kitabevi, 2004. 562 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Lexical: kitap+sI Surface: kitab0ı N(book)+Poss3PS kitabı (his book) 4. L:d <=> [l | m | n | ð | z | j] +:0__ The lexical L at the beginning of affixed morpheme is converted to d when the last letter of stem is one of consonants l, m, n, ð, z and j. Lexical: jol+LAr Surface: jol0dar N(road)+PLU joldar (roads) Lexical: beyne+LA Surface: beyne0le Lexical: sôz+Lik Surface: sôz0dik N(shape)+NtoV beynele V(shape) N(word)+NtoN sôzdik (dictionary) 5. L:t <=> [k | q | p | s | t | Ģ | ç] +:0 __ The lexical L at the beginning of affixed morpheme is converted to t when the last letter of stem is one of voiceless consonants k, q, p, s, t, Ģ, ç. Otherwise L is converted to l by default. Lexical: ädep+LI Surface: ädep0ti N(manners)+NtoADJ ädepti (well-mannered) Lexical: tas+LAr Surface: tas0tar N(stone)+PLU tastar (stones) Lexical: Qazaq+LAr Surface: Qazaq0tar N(Qazaq)+PLU Qazaqtar (Qazaqs) 7. V:0 => V+:0__ If both last letter of the word and first letter of the suffix are vowels then the first letter of suffix is deleted. Lexical: bala + Im Surface: bala0m Lexical: caqında + Ip Surface: caqında0p N(çocuk) + Poss1PS balam (my child) V(get closer) + VtoADJ caqındap (by getting closer) 8. s:0 <=> C +:0__ An s at the beginning of the suffix is deleted when the word end with a consonant. Lexical: jùrek+sI Surface: jùreg0i N(heart)+Poss3PS jùregi (his/her/its heard) Finite State Morphotactics In agglutinative languages morphemes are affixed to the root successively. This affixation is dependent on the morphotactic rules of the language. Morphotactic rules define the suffixes that can be added to a word in a certain state. Each suffix changes the state of word that it is affixed. Morphotactic rules can be represented by a finite state machine. A finite state machine, which in principal is a directed graph, consists of a set of states and a set of transitions among these states. Transitions are the edges of graph labeled with inflectional or derivational morphemes defining in what order those morphemes can be affixed to a word. The immediate states, in a way, represent partial words and their part of speech tagging. The initial states represent the roots words from a lexicon and their part of speech such as noun, verb, adverb, adjective, etc. The final states represent full words 563 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo created by starting with a root word in an initial state and affixing morphemes on the transitions to the partial words in each intermediate state. We define the nominal, verbal and adverbial morphotactics of the language using this FSM model. The initial states such as noun or verb are represented by rectangles. Each state is shown by rounded rectangles. The end states are defined by double bordered circles. The states represented by dotted rounded rectangles can not be a solution for words. But all other states can be a solution. Here is an example inflection of the noun üy (house). house +N +PL +P3Sg +LOC +REL üy +0 +LAr +sI +ndA +Gi üy +0 +ler +i +nde +gi ùylerindeginið (of the thing in their house - evlerindekinin) +GEN +NIñ +niñ In this nominal analysis the following nodes are visited in FSA: Noun, Plural, Possesive 3rd Person Single, Locative case, Relative,Genitive. Here is a verbal inflection example in Kazakh: bar +Ma +Qan +Min arrive +NEG +PAST +P1s bar +ma +ğan +mın barmağanmın ((I was told) I hadn‘t arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Negative, Indefinite Past, 1 st Person Single. bar +AtIn +0 MA +0 edi +m arrive +FUTR +QUE +PAST +P1s bar +atın +0 ba +0 edi +m baratın ba edim (Was I going to arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Future tense, Question, Past Continuous, 1 st person single. bar +UwIm kerek +0 emes +0 bolsa arrive +NECS P1s +NEG +COND bar +uwım kerek +0 emes +0 bolsa baruwım kerek emes bolsa (If I shouldn‘t arrive) The following nodes in FSA are visited in this analysis: Verb, Necessity for 1 st person, Negative, Condition. Conclusions A comprehensive description of Kazakh Language is given using Koskemnieni two level morphology for the first time. We described the Kazakh phonological system using 27 two level rules which describes the mapping between lexical level and surface level of a word. Then we use the finite state machines to define nominal and verbal morphotactics. We implemented both orthographic rules and the finite state morphotactics on Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework [190]. Dilmaç is a language independent framework. Language specifications are represented in XML files in Dilmaç. No programming is required. System is web based and our implementation can be found on the Internet. Currently we are implementing a Kazakh-Turkish Machine Translation System on Dilmac. Since both languages in the same language family, they have a lot in common from phonological, morphological and syntactic aspect. Phonological and syntactic differences generally do not pose any significant problems and can be handled easily. However two languages have different morpheme sets and lexicons. A morphological word by word translation requires a morphological parsing in source language (Kazakh), a bilingual translation dictionary to translate word stems into target language (Turkish), and a morphological generator to generate the translation by affixing the morphemes the word stem in the proper order. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr. Kalmamat Kulamshaev for his valuable insight in this study. 564 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 85 Title A name given to the resource Two-Level Description of Kazakh Morphology Author Author Zafer, Harun Rešit Tilki, Birol Kurt, Atakan Kara, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Koskemnieni‘s two-level model has received a lot attention in modeling morphology. In this paper we present an ongoing study on a comprehensive two-level description of Kazakh morphology. Our description is implemented using the morphological parser in the Dilmaç Machine Translation Framework. A lexicon containing the root words of contemporary Kazakh is used in the testing. Phonological and morphological special cases and exceptions have been considered in nominal, and verbal conjugations. To out knowledge this is the first time Kazakh phonological rules and morphotactics are computationally described which makes it possible to implement other linguistics applications such as machine translation systems. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a53dc16dd59dbf835a08e6d8a9a79571.pdf 515b7d41cfceae466884fbb9c4fc4172 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH CONTENT Alice Ying Nie New York City Teaching Fellows 2008 Fordham University alice.nie@gmail.com Abstract:Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and is not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful and applicable allowing for greater retention of the language. Past research has also shown that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar. In order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing are taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Introduction What we do with language varies context-to-context and task-to-task because language is largely a socio-cultural phenomenon. However, current English language instruction, both at the national as well as international realm, focuses mainly grammar using repetitive grammar exercises as means of instruction. Current curricula in English as a Second Language classroom are designed to teach English as a separate subject focusing on grammar. Most English language classrooms are designed in such a way where there is no link between English and the authentic language used in content classes or for academic purposes. Because of this, academic language is a serious problem for many international students when they begin college (Shi and Beckett, 2002). Many students graduate from secondary school having completed their English language exam yet possess little knowledge of the English language aside from what is required of them from repetitive grammar drills. As with the case in Hungary, many English Language students pass their English language exams but still lack the ability to accomplish English language tasks required for university courses. The teaching methodology employed in Hungary, focuses on teaching English grammar and students are seldom given the opportunity to practice conversation nor are they exposed to authentic English language. Past research have shown that ―teaching ESL students advanced literacy and discipline appropriate language is better done through authentic subject matter content rather than ‗dry run‘ practice‖ (164). Repetitive grammar reviews lacks authentic application and often, students will memorize grammar tenses without really understanding them and without practical application, the retention rate is much lower. There is also a lack of exposure to advanced literature in most English language classrooms causing a rift between what students are taught and what they are expected to know on an university level. When students participate in English courses at the university level, the content dramatically differs from what they were exposed to on the secondary educational level. As in the case of Hungary, English language exams at the secondary educational level consists mainly of grammatical multiple-choice questions. On the contrary, at the university level, students are immediately required to read, analyze and translate advanced university level text. Most students feel inadequately prepared and overwhelmed. Students are never taught cognitive language skills so instead of being able to decode and break down the text for comprehension, students look up individual words in the dictionary, which often gives them the incorrect definition of the word, and they are left with incoherent, isolated words. 84 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo This discrepancy between what is taught in the classrooms and the practical application of the English language is what will be addressed in this paper. The content integrated approach to English language education has its roots in Systemic Functional Grammar first made popular in the 1960s by Michael Holliday. Contentbased language teaching was afterwards introduced in 1986 by Bernard Mohan‘s ―Language and Content.‖ While content integrated language education is slowly finding roots in the United States, using content to teach English is still a very foreign concept in most of the rest of the world. Language is a social phenomenon and is influenced largely by our environment and because of this, language should be taught pragmatically for social functions through content integrated curriculum. The goal of content integrated language education is to make meaning available to all students and it is key to both develop academic language as well as valuing the prior knowledge students bring with them into the classrooms. As Halliday (1989) points out, Language is a political institution: those who are wise in its ways, capable of using it to shape and serve important personal and social goals, will be the ones who are ―empowered‖ (to use a fashionable word): able, that is, not merely to participate effectively in the world, but able also to act upon it, in the sense that they can strive for significant social change (p. x). Content integrated English language education is the means to which students can be empowered. When instructors utilize prior knowledge, they are able to facilitate language comprehension by helping students derive meaning through the process of placing text within a framework of what the students are familiar with. The integration of content into English language lessons allows for students to connect language to its practical applications in their subject classes, which helps to both infuse meaning into language as well as provide scaffolding for their other classes. Theoretical Framework: Content integrated English language developed from Functional linguistics as opposed to rational linguistics, which governs much of Chomsky‘s theories on innate language knowledge. For the purpose of this paper, we will focus on Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) or Systemic Functional Grammar, which was first introduced by JR Firth, a British Linguists and then later developed by Michael Holliday in ―An Introduction to Functional Grammar‖ in the 1960s. The SFL approach to language education focuses on the practical uses of language rather than the analysis of grammatical language and is mainly concerned with how meaning is construed through spoken conversations and written texts. SFL sees language in a social context where the function of language is central to language development and calls for insightful analysis of text and discourse from a social perspective. Method of Studying: The method of study employed for this paper is a qualitative study. The qualitative study allows me to explore in depth the responses of the participants to provide an analytical perspective on the issue. This study does not provide any general quantitative results, only to gain a deeper understanding of the educational system in Hungary from the perspectives of university students in the country. Sampling: This study first started with two groups of English language students in a high school in Queens, New York. There were 20 students in one class and 24 students in the other class and both classes functioned under the newly developed, content integrated curriculum. The second half of this study focuses on twenty English language students at the University level in Hungary. Data Analysis Processes: The first half of the study focuses on the content integrated English language approach as a new method of instruction at Grover Cleveland High School in Queens, New York. Three different classes of students in the ninth and tenth grade participated in this program. Twenty to twenty five students were assigned to each class with two teachers per class, a content specialist and an English language specialist. The study follows the progress of these students for two years. The idea of the content integrated method is that ESL specialists work in collaboration with the content teacher. While the content teacher focuses on the specific academic objectives that need to be met, the ESL teacher identifies the language support needed in order for the students to comprehend the content information. At Grover Cleveland, the program was modeled after theories developed by Lilly Wong Filmore in which ESL teachers teach with Social Studies teacher in a small classroom setting of no more than twenty students during a two period block. In this classroom setting, students are encouraged to work in small groups. This allows for differentiation of instruction where students are grouped in accordance to their language ability. At the end of the two years, the students take the Social Studies High School Regents 85 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo exam and results of the ESL students in the content integrated classes were compared with results from students in regular ESL classrooms. There was a sixty percent increase in the regents passing rate for these students. The second half of this study analyses the survey results of twenty English language students living in Hungary. While the students surveyed are all University level students, participants all attended different middle and high school and the survey results include both private and public schools in Hungary. For the first half of the survey, students were asked to give a rating, from strongly disagree to strongly agree, to statements. When asked if students had opportunities to practice speaking in class, 80 percent of the students disagreed and the same was true for the statement: ―I felt that my English classes in high school prepared me for University level English reading and writing.‖ For the statement: ―Grammar was the main focus in my English classes in school,‖ 100 percent of the students agreed. When asked if teachers used history, science, and math to teach English, 100 percent of the students answered no. Two of the twenty students answered yes to the questions: ―Did teachers use real life situations to teach English?‖ and ―Did teachers teach using real literature or real newspaper stories?‖ The same two students who answered yes to these two questions also had an overall positive experience in their English classes and felt that they were prepared for University level English. For the second half of the survey, students were asked opened ended questions for a more in depth qualitative analysis. Students were asked questions such as: 1. What usually was the focus of each class? 2. Do you feel that your English language education prepared you for University level courses in English or for applying for jobs in the United States? 3. What do you feel are the strengths and weaknesses of English language education in Hungary? 4. In your English classes, what did you feel you always wanted more practice in? For question number 1, most students answered that grammar was the primary focus of their English classes and students also agreed that their English classes did not provide them with many opportunities to speak and ask questions. Students also agreed that the English they learned was not too useful because there was ―too much weight on grammar.‖ For question number 2, one student‘s response was: ―Not much. Ive learned English in the Hungarian School system for 8 years, from which I had 4 years of intensive course in High School. But my 80% of my English knowledge arouse from the Internet, jobs, films and series etc. Only 20% of it came from the school system.‖ Another student reflected on their overall language education while in secondary school and wrote: ―Practical and useful language knowledge can't be taught and learnt based on purely (or mostly purely) memorizing scientific grammar rules. Human cognitive behavior doesn't work that way. Expression and practice based learning is much more effective than this. On the other hand it‘s also a bad habit in Hungary that everything is about the paper. In this case, no one really cares about the real English knowledge, only about passing the state language exam. And the education is based around this only goal.‖ Students all felt that while grammar was taught strongly, the rest of English language education was weak. As for the question; ―In your English classes, what did you feel you always wanted more practice in?‖ Most students answered speaking and independent thinking. After ten years of English language education, one student wrote, ―When we were children and young, we were so shy and it was so easy just learning grammar and reading. But after, at university, when you meet with for example Erasmus student and you want speak with them…you can‘t, because your speaking skill is so low, end you feel you need more speaking practice.‖ The overemphasis on grammar in the Hungarian Language system has for the most part, inadequately prepared students for high level, academic English language tasks. Some students had answered that they had been learning English for over ten years but felt overwhelmed and inadequately prepared for university level English courses; ―At university the level is higher and more specific, the text are so difficult.‖ The discrepancy between what is taught at the secondary level and what is expected of students at the University level is a major problem in the Hungarian English language education. Students are not exposed to authentic English language while in secondary school and feel unprepared when they enter university classes where they are suddenly expected to read, analyze, and translate university level text. A Socio-Psycholinguistic Approach: The meaning within text is the creation of both the reader and the writer. Letters and words on a blank page itself do not hold any meaning, rather, it is the reader‘s interaction with the test that gives it meaning. In the transactional socio-psycholinguistic approach proposed by Goodman, he write; ―texts are constructed by authors to be comprehended by readers. The meaning is in the author and the reader. The text has a potential to evoke meaning but has no meaning in itself‖ (Goodman, 1994). The reader plays a highly active role in the process of comprehending text where the significance that the reader brings to the text is as important as the text itself. The cultural backgrounds that each student brings into the text aids in his or her comprehension of the text. Acknowledgement of this prior knowledge not only helps facilitate the comprehension of the text but also empowers students by valuing what they are able to contribute. 86 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo With a focus on the holistic approach to teaching English as a second language, the transitional sociopsycholinguistic approach encourages students to find meaning in text rather than solely focusing on what each individual word means within a text. In other words, it‘s a top-down and whole-to-part approach, rather than a bottom-up, part-to-whole approach. According to Constance Weaver, author of Reading Process and Practice, this approach enables meaning to emerge ―as readers transact with a text in a specific situational context‖ (Weaver, 2002). Students are able to derive meaning from text by placing words, phrases, or sentences, within a particular context that they are already familiar with. This context, however, needs to be activated prior to the reading of the text as well as during the reading of the text by the educator. The activation of prior knowledge is necessary in order for students to make personal connections with the text to ensure comprehension. If there is no prior knowledge or schemas in place, it must be built. Once the schemas are in place, meaning will become a transaction between the reader and the words in the text (Weaver, 2002). Along with developing schemas, students need to be explicitly taught how to extrapolate meaning from text via context clues, how to make predictions and inferences about and within the text, and how to make text-to-self connections. Within the curriculum and the transactional socio-psycholinguistic approach to literacy, a comprehensive literacy program must be developed. Drawing from Constance Weaver‘s thoughts on literacy, the socio-psycholinguistic approach encourages a curriculum that incorporates a number of different reading and writing strategies that would aid in literacy development such as: read/write aloud, shared reading/writing, the guided reading/writing, sustained readings, and writing workshop. The reading and writing segments would incorporate the more holistic approach to literacy that Weaver argues for and would enable students to become more motivated, independent readers. Under the principles of the socio-psycholinguistic approach, students are taught to learn the parts of a language while immersed in the whole. Students are able to learn skills such as phonics and decoding while reading in context. In the article: ―Quality of Children‘s Recall under Two Classroom Testing Tasks: Towards a SocioPsycholinguistic Model of Reading Comprehension‖ by Mosenthal, research testing was done on various groups of students to understand the involvement of the socio-psycholinguistic model in reading comprehension. Children use four types of meaning while decoding reading material. One type is referential meaning, which is the literal interpretation of an external discourse. The second type of meaning is a text-structured meaning, which includes both logical inferences and enabling inferences. The text-structured meaning of reading comprehension states that students draw meaning from readings through logical inferences and reasoning to make the literature coherent. The third type of meaning is pragmatic inference meaning, which is based on understanding of the literature through world knowledge and not necessarily from the interpretation of the actual text. The last type of meaning is social meaning, which involves the comprehension of the text through the process of communication. Students will use different meanings within the classroom when decoding the reading material because children understand social meaning differently. The first reason why children understand social meaning differently is because of the different expectations placed on the students by the teachers. The second reason is due to the fact that students themselves have different expectations for themselves. Testing results in informal situations shows that; ―in informal testing tasks, the manner in which children relate new knowledge and schema knowledge depends upon how children comprehend social meaning and interact with their teacher.‖ (Mosenthal, 1980) Language, therefore, rather than being something that can be taught in isolation, is instead something that is interdependent upon the society, culture and educational contexts. In the article, the World Outside and Inside Schools: Language and Immigrant Children, Guadalupe Valdes argues that the social context in which language is taught plays a critical role. At Garden School where Valdes‘ conducted her study, students were given very little time to practice their oral communication skills and were not taught basic expressions for functioning in the classroom (Valdés, 1998). They were also given tasks inappropriate for their age, dumbed-down material and activities void of any academic language and content. For example, ―students would examine a picture, fill in the blank in each sentence, and color the picture of the boy‖ (Valdés, 1998). Students were also given worksheets to complete but were not given explicit instruction. The teachers at Garden School did not provide native language support or acknowledgement of the students‘ cultural background in their curriculum. As a result, students became frustrated, unmotivated and restless. If Garden School had a curriculum in place that acknowledged the cultural and linguistic background of the students, that incorporated meaningful activities and engaging literature and texts, gave ample instruction time for teaching the specific skills needed for academic growth, and had sufficient non-standard assessments in place; the students would thrive, would develop the necessary literacy and academic skills to succeed in school, and would be more motivated. In addition, there also needs to be open communication between ESL teachers and the content-area teachers so that the ESL teachers can provide the necessary instructional support to keep students academically up-to-par with their contemporaries. 87 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student to grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and are not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but simultaneously develops the students‘ Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful allowing for greater retention of the language. Classroom Applications and the Role of the ESL teacher: Critical pedagogy that empowers rather than disable students utilizes the transactional sociopsycholinguistic literacy approaches through comprehensive reading programs and engaging curriculum to create a better educational environment for students. Assessing prior knowledge and choosing text connected to content are two essential elements to foster an empowering environment for comprehension of reading assignments. To access prior knowledge, teachers can utilize a range of activities. A quick activity can be writing down a question related to the text on the board and asking students to think about and respond to it. As the students are writing down their answers, the teacher should walk around the class reading the responses and selecting students to share allowed. Students are given the opportunity to first think about the topic and write down their thoughts before having to speak out loud allowing for the quiet and shy students to participate. The teacher is given the chance to select the answers to be shared out loud, guiding the students to the text. Another way that teachers can help access prior knowledge is with a more involved activity such as a KWL (what do you Know, what do you Want to know, and what have you Learned) chart. Students are asked to complete the first two parts, what do you know and what do you want to know, prior to the reading. Students will share their answers and then complete the last part, what have you learned, after reading the text. In the process of accessing prior knowledge, the teacher is first of all, validating the student‘s knowledge and cultural background. Students not only become invested and engaged in the lesson but also empowered to voice their thoughts and opinions. Motivating students to tap into prior knowledge also enables students to better understand the text. Students make connection between what they know and what they are expected to learn filling the text with meaning. Questions and vocabulary will often arise during this phase providing instructors the opportunity to further scaffold the text. The second crucial classroom practice is selecting content infused text to teach literacy skills. Content rich lessons provide students with meaningful text to exposure academic language that is applicable in their other subject classes. Past research also show that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar and struggle in mainstream classes because the academic language is too challenging. This is why ESL teachers must expose students to academic language in ESL classrooms so that the students can excel when they are in mainstream classes. However, in order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing must be taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Well-developed ESL-content lessons must incorporate both English language goals, as well as content goals. Each lesson must have a content objective and a language objective that matches the content objective. For example, if the content objective is teaching the role of Gandhi in India, then the language objective can be the use of cause and effect phrases to write complex sentences. It would not be effective to teach the future tense during a history lesson on what happened in World War II. Taking the example: ―The dog walks down the street,‖ if the language objective is to teach the simple present tense, then a better means of achieving this objective could be through a social studies lesson on the current political parties in the United States. The grammar objective of the simple present tense would be taught through sentences such as: ―Even though the current president is from the Democratic party, the Republicans holds the majority of the seats in the congress.‖ A content focused English language lesson serves to meet three purposes. First of all, students are able to access prior knowledge to better understand the text. In the example above on political parties, if the student has any prior knowledge about politics and political parties, then they are able to use that knowledge and apply it to the lesson. Secondly, students are taught academic language helping them succeed in their content classes. English language classes can provide the vocabulary to help scaffold comprehension in their regular social studies or science classes. Lastly, content focused English language lessons utilize age appropriate material to teach the language. Rather than dumbing-down the material, which makes students feel stupid, content focused lessons 88 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo uses grade appropriate material using the same text and vocabulary as their peers in regular, mainstream classrooms. In developing content related ESL lessons, it is essential for ESL teachers to work alongside content area teachers to define the content objectives and figure out how language can be used to help achieve the content objective. The ideal arrangement for a Content English Language classroom would be a co-teaching environment where the content teacher and the English language teacher are both in the classroom teaching together. Curriculum, lesson plans, assessments and evaluation of the students‘ progress are all discussed and planned together so that both content objectives and language objectives are being met. Conclusion: It is through education and knowledge that a person can be empowered and it is the job of the teacher to empower our students to think critically on their own, to understand, analyze and evaluate the world they live in. To be effective teachers, one must first learn to understand where our students are coming from, their culture and backgrounds. Teachers must first learn about the students, to appreciate and value the knowledge that each student brings to class in order to effectively utilize our students‘ knowledge to teach them. Too often, students are not given the chance to access their prior knowledge. The knowledge that students hold in their experiences in life are not valued nor utilized in classrooms. Instead, we teach them to study and memorize obscure facts that are not related to their understanding of the world. Without making the connection between what they know and what they are learning, students are not able to see the importance and the value of the lesson. Learning is a process of understanding and interpreting the information presented to us, which cannot happen if students are taught to just regurgitate the information teachers give them. The process of knowledge acquisition therefore requires tremendous scaffolding so that students are not receiving the information superficially but understanding it in depth. Students must see the relevance of the information to their personal lives, which happens when teachers access prior knowledge to help students connect the lesson with what they already know. Bridging the gap between language acquisition and content information allows students to see the relevance of the language in practice. As ESL teachers, it is our duty to both value our students‘ diverse backgrounds as well as guide them towards success in their subject area classes. References Cummins, J. (1995). Empowering Minority Students: A Framework for Intervention. In O. Garcia & C. Baker (Eds). Policy and Practice in Bilingual Education: Extending the Foundations. Great Britain: Multilingual Matters. Goodman, Y., & K. (1990). Vygotsky in a whole language perspective. In L. Moll (Ed.), Vygotsky and education (pp. 223-250). London: Cambridge University Press. Goodman, Y., & K. (1994). To err is human: Learning about language processes by analyzing miscues. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th vol, pp. 104-23). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Mosenthal, P. (1980). Quality of Children‘s Recall under Two Classroom Testing Tasks: Towards a Socio-Psycholinguistic Model of Reading Comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 4, 504528. Shi, L., & Beckett, G. H. (2002). Japanese exchange students‘ writing experiences in a Canadian university. TESL Canada Journal, 20(1), 38-56. Valdés, G., (1998). The World Outside and Inside Schools: Language and Immigrant Children. Educational Researcher, Vol. 27, No.6, 4-18. Wang, S. (2006). A socio-psycholinguistic study on L2 Chinese readers‘ behavior while reading orally. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 67, 01. 89 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Weaver, Constance. (1994). Reading Process and Practice: From SocioPsycholinguistics to Whole Language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Weaver, C. (2002). Reading Process and Practice: From SocioPsycholinguistics to Whole Language (3rd ed). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. 90 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 16 Title A name given to the resource ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING THROUGH CONTENT Author Author Ying Nie, Alice Abstract A summary of the resource. :Most linguists will agree that the natural process of language development does not happen in isolation but through a process of understanding the socio-cultural surroundings. Traditionally, second language education is taught in isolation where the focus was on grammar. Research has since found that language is learned most effectively for communication and purposeful social interactions. The merging of purposeful meaning with language allows for the student grasp onto a tangible topic not only helping to further language development but also cognitive development. Cummins discusses this idea of content language learning by separating language tasks as either context reduced or context embedded. Context reduced tasks lacks meaning for communication and is not cognitively challenging. On the other hand, context embedded tasks provides meaning for communication and requires in depth analysis. Merging content with language education requires students to not only learn the content information but to develop Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The academic application of the language being learned makes the language useful and applicable allowing for greater retention of the language. Past research has also shown that English Language Learners lack native like proficiencies due to the over emphases on grammar. In order for content language education to work, content cannot supersede language goals. Language functions such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing are taught alongside content in a way that makes sense for that topic. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/06b0dcc4ca58f8821c49fa82adad8550.pdf 48a52b9fdaf8dd6790b59ba951389318 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Revision books in ESP: Myths and Reality Halina Wisniewska Kozminski University, Warsaw e-mail: halinannawu@gmail.com The term LSP is commonly used when referring to teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative needs of speakers of a second or foreign language used in a particular workplace, academic, or professional context thus LSP courses usually focus on the specific language needs of relatively homogeneous groups of learners. They may be addressed to students at, most often, tertiary level of education or to people who already completed formal education but need to use a foreign language to communicate in professional target situations. The starting point of every ESP course design is a detailed needs analysis which allows to define linguistic requirements of learners, competence gaps in relevant areas, set the required level of knowledge and specify the ways of achieving it. Therefore courses of languages for specific purposes may vary in the choice of language skills, functions and topics taught. The need for individualization of the teaching process requires also decisions regarding teaching materials to be used. McGrath (2002:4) notices that ‗ when experienced teachers teach using a course book that they know well, they will have a sense of what to use and what not to use, what to adapt and where to supplement‘. But how important for such decisions are the preferences of learners? The aim of the article is to present revision books - didactic material highly valued by learners but not so much by teachers - and to outline some of the reasons for this discrepancy. 1. Needs analysis in ESP There are various definitions of ESP in literature as the term covers various aspects of ELT and there is still some disagreement over the criteria for classification. Barnard and Zemach (2003:306) argue that ―English for Specific Purposes is an umbrella term that refers to teaching of English to students who are learning the language for a particular work or study-related reason and therefore attempts to position ESP on ‗by implication, superior position in EFL are groundless. According to them ― ESP is not an approach, a method or a technique (although simulation and role-play activities are often identified with business ESP courses). The only feature common to all types of ESP course is a selection of the content and teaching approach according to the perceived needs of the learner‖. Dudley-Evans and St John (1988:i), however, claim that the teaching of English for Specific Purposes has generally been regarded as a separate activity within ELT which the main concerns ―have always been, and remain, with needs analysis, text analysis, and preparing learners to communicate effectively in the tasks prescribed by their study or work situation‖. Every ESP course, aiming at satisfying learners‘ real-world professional demands as effectively as possible, must be based on specific situations which the learner will be involved in. The starting point of every ESP course design is a detailed needs analysis which allows to define competence gaps in relevant areas, set the required level of knowledge and specify the ways of achieving it. Therefore courses of languages for specific purposes may vary in the choice of language skills, functions and topics taught. As the dynamics of the labour market make it impossible to predict the future linguistic needs of the learner, a very important part of EFL methodology is developing learners‘ skill of self- directed learning. The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR, 2001:6) defines self-directed learning as a process including: • raising the learner‘s awareness of his or her present state of knowledge; • self-setting of feasible and worthwhile objectives; • selection of materials; • self-assessment. Self-directing learning is becoming more and more common among adult learners as it gives a lot of freedom in choosing the time of learning, learning style, strategies and materials. Yet, needs-oriented, learnercentred education requires a new approach to the problem of evaluation. It has become obvious that more autonomous learners should take responsibility for the final result of the learning process. To be able to do so they must have a possibility of unassisted self-evaluation of either their general language knowledge or particular language skills. Not all learners need formal assessment. 541 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Very often adult learners decide to either start learning a language or improve foreign language competence for a particular reason e.g. a new job opportunity, their own satisfaction. Not all of them attend language courses because they need an official proof of their language skills. They may just want to ensure that they are making progress and / or pursuing their language learning goals. They do not intend to enter for any more or less formal examination. In a traditional teacher-directed process it is the responsibility of the teacher to choose the most appropriate form of assessment. In self-directed learning the learner chooses what needs to be checked depending on the purpose of assessment. There may be a need to assess the progress made over a certain period of time or the present level of language fluency. CEFR (2001) distinguishes two types of assessment: • Achievement assessment - assessment of the achievement of specific objectives. It is oriented to the course – what has been taught. • Proficiency assessment - assessment of what someone can do / knows in relation to the application of the subject in the real world. Achievement assessment is usually used by teachers who need to get feedback on teaching while employers, educational administrators and adult learners are more interested in what the person can now do, therefore they find proficiency assessment as more useful. ― A proficiency test aims to measure how well the students will perform in their target language task and so fits within the ESP principles‖ (DudleyEvans and St John, 1998: 213). There are some readily available assessment tools though only very few are suitable for self-evaluation. Self-assessment in self-directed learning process requires tools designed in such a way that the learner can use them and review the achieved results himself/herself without help of e.g. a teacher. An option for self-directed learners is to use didactic materials suitable for language skills assessment which main goal is to facilitate ● revision and/or consolidation of learner‘s knowledge in a certain discipline or area; ● identification of gaps in learner‘s knowledge and filling them in; ● expansion of the learner‘s existing knowledge ● testing particular language knowledge or skills. 2. Revision books in ESP One of the main assumptions of English for Specific Purposes is that teaching materials should enable learners to acquire the variety of language and skills they will need in typical situations met in their professional life. There is specific vocabulary and language situations which are likely to appear in occupational contexts, therefore much greater emphasis must be put on developing lexical repertoire. Subject specialists need these lexical items that will enable them to communicate freely within the discipline represent. Checking this very specific vocabulary knowledge requires special tools. Unfortunately, readily available materials used for such a purpose are scarce. Most of commonly known and used vocabulary tests cover general language lexical items chosen on the basis of their position on frequency lists. They are not an effective tool for checking specific vocabulary needed by e.g. a stockbroker. Neither are ESP textbooks. The primary role of a textbook, designed mainly for teacher - directed learning, is to develop language competences. ESP textbooks do not provide enough opportunities to revise professional vocabulary or job related language skills learnt from other materials, at various stages of language education . New vocabulary is often introduced in clearly written explanatory texts or exercises in which key terms are bolded. Exercises and revision units cover only the lexical items that appear in the units. Checking knowledge gained at earlier stages requires a different tool. Additionally, some professionals need to have very clearly defined skills. Not always developing all language skills is necessary. ESP learners, particularly autonomous ones, should be given an opportunity not only to gain but also to evaluate the language knowledge according to their needs. Language revision books can be one of the instruments serving this purpose. According to Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1996) “to revise‖ means: 1. To look at again for the detection of errors; to re["e]xamine; to review; to look over with care for correction; as, to revise a writing; to revise a translation. 2. (Print.) To compare (a proof) with a previous proof of the same matter, and mark again such errors as have not been corrected in the type. 3. To review, alter, and amend; as, to revise statutes; to revise an agreement; to revise a dictionary. Drawing on this definition it can be said that a revision guide is a type of didactic material which, on the one hand, allows identification of gaps in learner‘s knowledge and, on the other hand, creates an opportunity for the learner to practise the possessed knowledge. Most such books concentrate on vocabulary, professional skills or grammar. Yet, the need for this type of material among learners does not raise enough interest among publishers, textbook writers and teachers. 542 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo 3.Empirical research results In 2008 an empirical research was undertaken in order to describe the role of revision books in the didactic process of ESP. As didactic materials can be evaluated from both learner‘s and teacher‘s point of view the research was carried in two stages. The first stage was a questionnaire run among learners. A group of 150 respondents included undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate students of business. They represented various levels of language fluency - from intermediate to advanced. The lowest level (B2) was predominant among undergraduates, advanced (C2) was mainly among postgraduate students. The purpose of such a composition of the group was to get as wide perspective on the issue as possible. The next stage was to get opinions from experienced ESP teachers. The answers varied in length and scope. Due to the length constraints of this article only the most relevant (for this paper) conclusions will be addressed. 3.1. Popularity of revision books among learners The results of the research show that revision books are popular among learners. As Fig. 1` shows almost ¾ of the respondents have used this type of material in language learning process. It is worth mentioning that difference between the scores of the three groups of respondents was statistically non-significant what may suggest that the popularity of revision books does not depend on the general language proficiency. Figure 1. Popularity of revision books When asked about usefulness of this type of learning material over 60% of those surveyed state that revision books are very useful. For 30% it is useful and only 1 respondent finds it not useful. Those who used this type of material used it for various reasons- from gaining new knowledge, consolidating the knowledge they possess or assessing their knowledge relating to a particular language skill. Figure 2. Reasons for using revision books 3.2. Popularity of revision books among teachers Revision books are designed primarily for learners who develop their language skills in form of selfstudy. However, some authors and publishers recommend them also for use in teacher-directed learning. In such cases revision books can be used for textbooks supplementation. To evaluate the popularity and usefulness of revision books as teaching material the second stage of research was carried among teachers. 75 experienced ESP teachers were selected to give their opinions on this type of didactic material. This stage of the research was carried by means of a personal interview. The respondents were asked two questions: - Do you think revision books are useful in ESP teaching? - Why yes?/no? 543 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo The answers given by the respondents can be divided into two groups: positive opinions and negative opinions. There was not even one respondent who would have any doubts about which answer to choose. This allows to draw a conclusion that teachers have a very clear opinion on the usefulness of this type of material. It was interesting to notice that more of them are sceptical about the potentials of revision books. Figure 3. Teachers‘ opinions on usefulness of revision books . The main arguments in support of the negative opinions are: • topics in revision guides are not correlated with topics in textbooks, • coursebook packages offer enough teaching material, • revision books offer exercises on too few levels of difficulty, • exercises in revision books are too mechanical, do not involve cognitive skills of learners, • revision books make the learning process very easy what demotivates learners. Figure 4. Teachers‘ arguments against On the other hand, teachers who use revision books notice that: • revision books help learners revise for exams, • revision books allow to consolidate the material taught ; as a result all students have the same material to learn, • revision books make teacher‘s work easier as they can be used as an additional source of exercises. 4. Conclusion Didactic materials should be evaluated for their potential to engage both the learners‘ and teacher‘s attention and effort (Rubdy, 2003:38). ‗By asking the students to assess their own learning, the teacher promotes autonomy by training them to become aware of their learning processes. This helps the students internalise the required criteria for acceptable performance both with regard to the curriculum and real life situations, and leads to a more realistic view of their actual skills‘. In fact, formal or traditional language testing is seldom used outside the educational bodies as the only tool to measure the level of particular skill or language competence. In case of revision books learners‘ and teachers‘ preferences regarding teaching/learning materials do not match. The analysis of the research results indicates that revision books are found as useful and effective in the process of learning but only by learners. Language teachers do not regard them as a valuable tool. 544 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Quantative and qualitative analysis of this type of didactic material (conducted in another empirical research on self-assessment tools) confirms some of the arguments given by teachers, mainly that the choice of topics is random or based on the author‘s intuition rather than learners‘ needs and that mechanical exercises are cognitively unchallenging for learners. If revision books are to be really valuable in language learning/teaching they must be designed with special attention paid to the content and structure. In some cases, however, the teachers‘ perceptions of the value of revision books represent more their preferred teaching style than reflect the potential value of this type of material. As Tomlinson (2003:18) notices ‗ language teachers tend to teach most successfully if they enjoy their role and if they can gain some enjoyment themselves from the materials they are using‘. The popularity of revision books among learners seems to be big enough to challenge another Tomlinson‘s reflections that ‗learning materials lose credibility for learners if they suspect that the teacher does not value them. References: Barnard, R., Zemach, D., 2003, Materials for Specific Purposes, [w:] Tomlinson, B., Developing Materials for Language Teaching, Continuum, New York. Block, D. 1991, Some thoughts on DIY materials design , ―ELT Journal‖ 45.3, s. 211-217. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR), 2001, ec.europa.eu/education/languages). Dudley-Evans T., St John M.,1998,Developments in English for Specific Purposes. A Multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. McGrath, I., 2002, Materials Evaluation and design for Language Teaching, Edinburgh University press, Edinburgh. Rubdy, R., 2003, Selection of materials, in B. Tomlinson (ed) Developing Materials for Language Teaching, Cromwell Press Trowbridge. Tomlinson, B., 2003, Developing Materials for Language Teaching, Continuum, New York. Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, 1996, Random House. 545 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 82 Title A name given to the resource Revision books in ESP: Myths and Reality Author Author Wisniewska, Halina Abstract A summary of the resource. The term LSP is commonly used when referring to teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative needs of speakers of a second or foreign language used in a particular workplace, academic, or professional context thus LSP courses usually focus on the specific language needs of relatively homogeneous groups of learners. They may be addressed to students at, most often, tertiary level of education or to people who already completed formal education but need to use a foreign language to communicate in professional target situations. The starting point of every ESP course design is a detailed needs analysis which allows to define linguistic requirements of learners, competence gaps in relevant areas, set the required level of knowledge and specify the ways of achieving it. Therefore courses of languages for specific purposes may vary in the choice of language skills, functions and topics taught. The need for individualization of the teaching process requires also decisions regarding teaching materials to be used. McGrath (2002:4) notices that ‗ when experienced teachers teach using a course book that they know well, they will have a sense of what to use and what not to use, what to adapt and where to supplement‘. But how important for such decisions are the preferences of learners? The aim of the article is to present revision books - didactic material highly valued by learners but not so much by teachers - and to outline some of the reasons for this discrepancy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/26bfbfaa5fc92cad1b14a7d151d04719.pdf 18e96d04196f3fb518754372e97ae754 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Politics of English in the Arabian Gulf Alan S. Weber Pre-medical Department Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar, Doha, Qatar alw2010@qatar-med.cornell.edu Abstract: The number of American, English and Australian branch campuses in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region almost doubled between 2000–2007 from 140 to 260, and Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) alone have established over 40 branch campuses during this period. The language of instruction at these institutions is primarily English, which is creating some tensions in the region related also to the rapid influx of other expatriate language groups including Urdu, Nepali, and Tagalog. Not only do native Arabic speakers fear the loss of cultural and linguistic heritage, as Gulf governments begin heavily investing in biotechnology, ITC capacity and research output (patents and peer-reviewed scientific papers) educated elites in the GCC countries are confronting the widespread use of English on the internet and the international science community. Policy makers, particularly in Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia, are responding to the growing use of English by sponsoring cultural heritage museums and libraries, programs in digitization of Arabic heritage books, and funding research into real-time Arabic-English and English-Arabic machine translation. This contribution outlines the debates found both in scholarly journals as well as popular regional newspapers in English and Arabic on the use of the English language, and analyzes the cultural, political, and social context of these arguments. Key Words: English language–political dimensions, English instruction–Arabian Gulf (GCC) Introduction Although surpassed by Chinese and Spanish in numbers of native speakers, English may be one of the most influential languages both today and historically since the mid-19th century, primarily due to the industrial and military power of Great Britain and the United States and their Diaspora. The issues of world English and linguistic imperialism have been discussed extensively recently, no less so in the Arabian Gulf where Arabic is still the official and dominant language, even though in some Gulf Cooperation Country (GCC) countries with large southeast Asian expatriate labor forces, it may be becoming a minority language in terms of numbers of users. English has become a symbol of the westernization and modernization that has resulted from hydrocarbon revenues that fuel most of the Gulf economies. As these nations strive to diversify their economies, lower the rates of brain drain, and equip their citizens for participation in the global economy, English has taken center stage in many debates about religion, politics, and culture and the language has frequently been blamed directly for the erosion of Islamic values. In spite of the visible negative impacts that English may have on local cultures, many younger students entering the workforce appear to recognize the economic benefits of English and are resigned to its use in international business, law, and science. In response to the phenomena of expatriates supplanting Gulf nationals in the private sector workforce, primarily because expatriates command lower wages, GCC governments have launched national preferential hiring programs called variously Qatarization, Emiratization, Omanization and Saudization. Ironically the acquisition of English may be beneficial in these programs in helping to shift the national Arabic-speaking workforce out of the large public sector which is sometimes blamed for economic and developmental stagnation (over-inflated wages; rentier state model). Two studies on Emiratization, for example, by Al-Ali in 2006 and 2008 reported that low levels of English fluency present barriers to private sector workforce growth in the Emirates (Al-Ali, 2006, 2008; Mashood, 2009). Historical Background The linguistic and political influence of English on the Middle East region can be roughly divided into 3 broad historical periods: 1) Colonial period – beginning in the early 19th century, the United Kingdom cemented its power over India and many regions of the East, including Egypt, and direct contact with English speakers occurred through military, legal, and social linkages (colonization); after WWI and the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, England and France divided the Levant into mandates such as Transjordan, Palestine and Mesopotamia where English continued as an administrative language; 2) the rise of World English as a lingua franca – by the 60 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo mid-20th century, the United States had emerged as a dominant world power as Europe lay in ruins from two world wars; this rise paralleled the growing use of English in science, technology, and professional discourse. Sporadic attempts to establish English secondary schools and universities in the region also began in the 19th century, with the establishment such institutions as the American University of Beirut (founded 1866) and the American University in Cairo (founded 1919). As oil wealth increased dramatically in the Gulf nations circa 1960-80, countries increasingly sent nationals abroad for higher education degrees as they themselves began to acquire higher education infrastructure; 3) knowledge economy era (mid-1990s): based on a series of UNDP, IMF, and World Bank reports citing low knowledge production in the region, an explosive growth in western branch campuses and western-style educational models occurred in which the language of instruction is primarily English; after 9/11, student visas to western higher education institutes were increasingly difficult to obtain for Muslims, particularly from regions of suspected Al-Qaeda activity (Al-Zubaidi, 2010: 109). Specifically in the Arabian / Persian Gulf, England became involved in this region in the 19 th century due to its interest in protecting trade routes originating in British India and controlling piracy, as well as checking Ottoman Empire influence in the region. Trucial agreements were signed with Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait and Qatar between 1820 and 1916 and during this period these Sheikhdoms with loosely defined borders and tribal structures were known as the Trucial States or the Trucial Coast. There was only a small Christian missionary presence in the region and even after the discovery of oil in the 1930s and 1940s, there were no overt attempts to supplant the religion, culture, or language of Arabic-speaking peoples, and local Emirs ran their governments in a traditional manner, albeit with British advisors (Political Resident) and restrictions on alienating lands without British approval. However, during the early oil era when large transnational AngloAmerican corporations almost completely controlled the exploitation of petroleum reservoirs and simply paid out royalties to the ruling families, the power differential between English and Arabic can be seen clearly in this oil concession contract signed in 1934: ―This Agreement is written in English and translated into Arabic. If there should at any time be disagreement as to the meaning or interpretation of any clause in this Agreement the English text shall prevail (Oil Concession Agreement 1934)‖ (Frade, 2007:55). Cultural linguistics is important because historical language influences can powerfully impact the current attitudinal orientation of a society towards a former linguistic group, especially in the case of colonization. For example, Farrell, drawing on the study of El-Sayed, explains why the British model of education, now being rivaled by American institutions in the Gulf, has been so prevalent in Qatar. Farrell points out that ―El-Sayed (1991) maintains that British Standard English may be an appropriate choice for the target of instruction in some schools in Western Asia, such as the Doha English Speaking School (DESS) in Doha, Qatar. This school follows the British curriculum and hires teachers with UK-recognized qualifications. Furthermore, due to a history of British colonization, Qataris value British Standard English and are exposed to it through British media. They have greater access to British books and materials, and are probably more likely to visit the United Kingdom than other English speaking countries. Thus, teaching British Standard English would be the optimal choice for a teacher at DESS‖ (Farrell, 1991: 4). Interestingly, all of the institutions in Qatar Foundation‘s (founded 1995) newly established Education City are based in the United States, since the government now has stronger political links to that country, as Qatar hosts several U.S. CENTCOM bases. Qatar also makes use of the U.S. Liquefied Natural Gas technology which has led to the current economic boom in that country. In a perceptive and controversial article entitled ―Petro-Linguistics: The Emerging Nexus Between Oil, English, and Islam,‖ based on his Doctor of Education thesis on English-medium education in the UAE, Sohail Karmani has posited an oil-language-power nexus which he sees operating in the Arabian Gulf (Karmani, 2005, 2010). His general thesis argues that ―the decisions to initiate and facilitate the expansion of English [in the Gulf] were ultimately politically driven and wholly caught up in the global and regional struggle for greater control of the region‘s vital energy reserves‖ (Karmani, 2005:9-10). Karmani‘s work has charted the influx of the English language learning industry, as both an economic and cultural force, into Arabic speaking nations. He further argues that these forces, arising from the 1950s to 70s, are enmeshed in the political sphere and are mutually reinforcing: ―In their brief historical introduction on the origins of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that the oil crises of the 1970s vastly accelerated the development of the ELT profession and helped usher in a new unchartered era in the teaching of English as an international language. English, they observe, suddenly became big business and commercial pressures began to exert an extraordinary influence (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). No longer simply a foreign language for casual study or a pastime to satisfy a personal linguistic curiosity, English was now destined to become a highly lucrative international commodity with an annual turnover of over $9.6 billion (Language Travel Magazine, 2004)‖ (Karmani, 2005:6). Another long quote from Karmani is introduced here since he has cogently summarized a phenomenon (the tremendous growth of English language teaching in the Gulf following the oil boom) that can be readily witnessed at conferences, book fairs, bookstores, career fairs, and secondary and tertiary institutions in most of the GCC countries: ―Predictably, an extraordinary influx of ESL instructors, teacher trainers, ELT textbook publishers, and language course providers shortly followed while also thousands of Gulf Arab students were 61 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo awarded lavish scholarships to study English in Britain, Australia, and the United States. And as the phenomenal expansion of English translated into huge windfalls for the ELT industry, it all of a sudden became evident to the key players (e.g., British Council, AMIDEAST, Longman, Cambridge University Press, Heinle & Heinle, etc.) that ―English‖ had now truly usurped an unwittingly powerful stake in the future development of the entire region‖ (Karmani, 2005:7). Critics have disagreed with Karmani‘s analysis of the motivations and impact of this development, but his approach is valuable in looking frankly at the economics of educational trends which are too often couched in terms of idealistic and misleading rhetoric. In response and contradistinction to Karmani‘s work, in particular his article entitled ‗English, ―terror‖ and Islam‘, Moroccan scholar Ahmed Kabel drew attention to the productive power of post-colonial English as a discourse of creativity, resistance and appropriativity: ―instead of considering English and its putative hegemonic discourses as an inhibitive and imposed encumbrance, we need to take into account how the language is constantly and unpredictably appropriated and creatively reshaped and expropriated to give voice to emerging agencies and subjectivities…. I suggest that appropriation, far from being drenched in a confrontational idiom, is a move towards new sites of collaboration and contestation, towards much wider human possibilities‖ (Kabel, 2007: 136). The English Language as Symbolic of Western Culture: Linguistic Imperialism and the ―Less Islam and More English‖ Debate Discussed at length by Robert Phillipson in 1992 in his influential monograph Linguistic Imperialism, Phillipson has demonstrated how English Language Teaching (ELT) has been implicated in ‗neocolonialist reconstruction‘ and imperialist aims. Numerous arguments for English as the best of all possible languages have been advanced in recent years in a wide variety of contexts – pragmatic arguments look at the sheer number of speakers, therefore laud English as the greatest facilitator of linguistic exchange. In addition, the internet was originally developed from United States networked military computers (ARPANET) and the structures of English and its semantic logic are embedded in computer codes and protocols; thus English has expanded its milieu to the international online ecosystem. A related Functionalist viewpoint argues that facility with English allows greater access to employment and the international business community. The arguments that English is ‗simpler‘, ‗more transparent,‘ ‗more logical,‘ or ‗lacks complicated grammar,‘ (the opposite is probably true due to numerous idiosyncratic variations and exceptions to rules) would be met with incredulity by anyone who has studied it as a foreign language. As Crystal points out about the rise in prominence of English in the 20th century, and global languages in general: ―A language has traditionally become an international language for one chief reason: the power of its people – especially their political and military power. The explanation is the same throughout history. Why did Greek become a language of international communication in the Middle East over 2,000 years ago? Not because of the intellects of Plato and Aristotle: the answer lies in the swords and spears wielded by the armies of Alexander the Great. Why did Latin become known throughout Europe? Ask the legions of the Roman Empire‖ (Crystal, 2003: 9). Imperialism can take numerous forms, such as cultural and linguistic, and both academic and popular discussions have arisen in the Gulf that English in the region has an underlying proselytizing, missionary and value laden subtext that may be at variance with or even contrary to Islamic values. As Ahmed notes, ―in the UAE, for example, the language issue has caused heated debates and controversies in the academic and political arenas. It is believed that the Arabic language and ‗national identities‘ are being ‗sidelined‘ (Hellyer, 2008). English is beginning to be seen as a threat, dominating all aspects of life in these countries‖ (Ahmed, 2010: 13). Elyas believes that Karmani, for example, has been explicitly arguing that English language dissemination has an ultimate goal of de-Islamization: ―As a consequence, Karmani believes that the teaching of English in this modern DNA age, as it has been practised in British Empire, serves as a tool for linguistic imperialism, cultural alienation, and in the case of Muslim countries a de-Islamization of a targeted nation‖ (Elyas, 2008: 36). The British Council (founded 1934), which has been heavily involved in the teaching, testing, and awareness of English language and culture internationally, has been active in the Gulf (since 1959, a British Council office has opened an office in each of the GGC countries). The Council itself admits that the ―cultural propaganda‘ issued by it is designed to promote English values and achievements, not excluding parliamentary democracy. One of the first areas targeted by the Council was the Middle East (Charise, 2007; Pennycook, 1994). Pennycook has examined the role that governments played in supporting EFL and ELT groups such as the British Council. One conservative Sheikh in Saudi Arabia has gone as far as to equate English with the language of the devil, etymologically linking the English word ―blease‖ [‗please,‘ Arabic has only one bilabial plosive] with ―Iblis,‖ the Arabic word for Satan. However, a study by Elyas in 2008 at King Abdul Aziz University found that studying another language does not necessarily diminish one‘s heritage and concluded that ―Saudi students agree (for the most part) that both the study of the English language and its culture are necessary in order to develop 62 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo their English comprehension. Thus, for these students, English does not appear to be an indication of an imperialistic purpose of Westernization of their Arabic identity‖ (Elyas, 2008: 45). The Rentier state model (a state which derives a large proportion of its GDP from renting resources to foreign companies) has created a situation in which oil-rich Gulf nations feel compelled by the pressures of modernity and the not so subtle hints from the IMF and UNDP reports to modernize, resulting in the belief that foreign expertise must be imported to solve these problems of development – but this results in underdevelopment of local resources, local talent and local problem solving skills. Thus Moody, drawing on the work of Coffman, believes that the growth and interest in English language teaching (ELT) in the region as well as the American model of education is part of a larger pattern endemic to consumption-based rentier economies: ―Similarly, Coffman (2003) places ELT in the context of a general tendency of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries to ‗import … foreign experts to perform the necessary technical and managerial functions‘ rather than to focus on issues and problems from a local perspective; this fact in his view accounts for the misguided assumption that ‗any quality university program of study must be as thoroughly American as possible‘ and the resulting ‗headlong rush toward adoption of the American education model‘‖ (Moody, 2009:100). On February 2, 2003, the Washington Post published Susan B. Glasser‘s article ―Qatar Reshapes Its Schools, Putting English Over Islam: Conservatives See Reform as Extension of U.S. Influence in Gulf‖ (Glasser, 2003:A20). The article, which described Qatar‘s K-12 educational reform entitled ―Education for a New Era,‖ sparked a number of debates. After the 9/11 attacks, both western countries, Gulf educators and intellectuals and reformers throughout the Gulf began to scrutinize Arabic-language textbooks and teaching methods, particularly in Saudi Arabia. The nations themselves viewed this interest and the subsequent suggestions for reform as intrusions into their cultural sovereignty. As Glasser writes, ―Elsewhere in the Middle East, the role of the United States in promoting such change has at times overshadowed the post-Sept. 11 education debate. ‗American occupation,‘ complained a Jordanian writer last week of a State Department initiative to promote education and other reforms. ‗American interference,‘ declared a Kuwaiti religious leader, Abdul Razak Shuyji, referring to curriculum-reform efforts. ‗A curriculum should present our own identity, our own history, our own religion,‘ Shuyji declared. ‗It's not for others to come and try to change it‘" (Glasser, 2003:A20). This article sparked critiques by Karmani and others, partially due to the superficial analysis of complex issues which is typical of journalistic writing. The uneasy tension between indigenous culture and expatriate workforces has been exacerbated by the recent building boom in the Gulf from high oil prices, especially in the Emirates where Emiratis now only make up approximately 15% of the entire population. As early as 2004, the GCC general secretariat (GCCGS) noted in the report The Comprehensive Development of Education at the GCC States that a growing educational concern was the ―Absence of cultural dimension in the educational process‖ (Abouammoh, 2009: 8). Gulf leaders have clearly recognized the role that education can play in maintaining cultural and linguistic heritage. Accomodationism and Bilingualism Many laborers in the Gulf hail from former English colonies (Pakistan and India) where English still exists as an important language. English therefore acts as a key lingua franca among different expatriate nationalities and between Arabs and expatriates (in particular Sino-Tibetan, Hindustani, and Austronesian language family speakers). In some Gulf countries, the expatriate population makes up over 81% (CIA, 2011). A common fear throughout the Gulf is the loss and degradation of Arabic as a written and spoken language: ―There are many within the Emirati and Arabic communities who are deeply concerned with the effect that such a language shift [to English] is having on the quality of the Arabic language used in the UAE. There is a lively debate in the press at the national level about the necessity to preserve and improve the Arabic language. It is a prime goal of the government in the UAE to preserve and protect Arabic culture and language and the federal government makes every effort through legislation to do so…. in Dubai, the National Strategic Plan for 2016 specifically emphasizes the need to enhance Arabic language and local culture in society. 2008 was named as the year of national identity by Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed, President of the UAE, and Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid, Vice President of the UAE, organized a national identity conference, the major theme of which was the degradation of the Arabic language‖ (Randall, 2010: 45). As Syed notes, many instructors from Western English-speaking countries who come to work in the Gulf do indeed lack the requisite cultural and linguistic knowledge necessary to bridge the sometimes wide gap in the teacher-student relationship. Cultural sensitivity training is rarely, if ever, provided by educational institutions in the region. When the author, a non-Arabic speaker who has since gained a functional proficiency in the language, began working in the Gulf six years ago at an American medical college branch campus, he was handed a one-page photocopied sheet of ‗do‘s and don‘ts‘ and was also pulled aside in the hallway by colleagues and given some informal advice on local Islamic sensitivities. This was the extent of cultural training that the institution offered. Syed writes: ―most teachers at the tertiary level [in the Gulf] are North Americans, Britons, 63 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo and Australians, with some Arab nationals. Although foreign teachers bring diversity into the classroom, and although some use contextually situated pedagogy, there are wide gaps in the expatriate educators' (especially non-Arabs') knowledge of local sociocultural communities and languages. Linguistic and cultural distance between learners and teachers is a serious factor in the Gulf EFL classroom. Reliance on foreign teachers has also limited the necessary work of training and developing local teachers. Only Saudi Arabia has made any significant inroads in training nationals as teachers‖ (Syed, 2003:338). Karmani has further alerted us to the power structure of English language training in the Gulf, and some of the disadvantages of using pedagogical materials produced in another country, even though English is a world language with well developed regional dialects that could encompass the lived experience of their populations in locally produced educational media. Large multi-national educational publishers, in a bid to make their products as flexible and neutral as possible for use in diverse language markets have been reluctant to make ELT materials as culturally specific as they should be. Karmani writes: ―The use, for instance, of culturally alienating and Islamically inappropriate instructional materials, methods, and approaches is still very much the order of the day [in the Arabian Gulf]. The other factor, and closely linked, is the sombre fact that the upper echelons of major regional ELT bodies like TESOL Arabia (www.tesolarabia.org) continue to be conspicuously filled by an exclusive corps of Anglo-Western TESOL practitioners, most of whom—to be fair—lack the most rudimentary knowledge about ―Islam‖ or even say a smattering of the most basic structures of the Arabic language.....‖ (Karmani, 2005:9). The often repeated notion that English is supplanting Arabic and carrying embedded hegemonic and imperialist messages, however, has been challenged in a number of studies. Charise in her 2007 survey of Gulf education writes: ―Despite the endorsement of English and its utilization in several functions in the Gulf, for the most part, English is not perceived as a threat to the prominence of Arabic. In these Islamic nations, political and cultural practices are based upon varying degrees of Shari'a law drawn from the teachings of the Qur'an. Because the sacred text of the Qur‘an is only formally recognized via the Arabic language, the influence of Qur‘anic teachings on political policy-making practically ensures the primacy of Arabic language in Muslim societies‖ (Charise, 2007). Likewise, Schaub in an article on the status of English in Egypt strongly doubts that English will ever replace Arabic as the everyday language of interaction among Egyptians (Schaub, 2000). A cross-sectional study of 1,176 Saudis by Al Haq in 1996 showed that using English did not make them more Westernized nor interfere with either their religious commitment or patriotism. In fact, learning English was viewed as a national duty in order to serve the state better and teach Islam internationally to nonArabic speakers (Al Haq, 1996:307). This language dualism – English as a functional global language necessary for modernization and Arabic as a sacred language, the language of the Qur‘an, which embodies Islamic identity, social values and spiritual commitment – has been noted in other Gulf nations also, such as the UAE. Clark observes, for example: ―The UAE has accommodated globalization by embracing global English within a policy of linguistic dualism whereby English is associated with business, modernity, and internationalism, and Arabic is associated with religion, tradition, and localism‖ (Clarke, 2007:584). A small number of Muslim educators believe that an "Islamic English" should be developed with its own rules and adaptations, such as spellings and religious terms. These same educators, according to Dhabi, ―are warning against the harmful consequences of exposing young minds to ‗English as a cultural language,‘ and some are working on eliminating all sorts of ‗offensive‘ cultural material from English Language Teaching textbooks…..‖ (Dhabi, 2004: 629). In a study of Pakistani English, Mahboob believes that this form of English does not implicitly transmit underlying messages of non-Western peoples‘ inferiority, and Pakistani English can evolve and adapt to the Pakistani worldview: ―while the Core varieties of English may indeed be intertwined with such messages, the new Englishes (of which Pakistani English is a good example) are rich new varieties which reflect and incorporate local – and in this case Islamic – philosophies, idioms, and cultures‖ (Mahboob, 2009:181). Another reasonable solution for balancing Arabic and English language needs is simply bilingualism. However, in some regions Arabic language education and education in general is underdeveloped, particularly in North Africa where the general public has been burdened by corrupt government, and educational development has been grossly neglected except for the elite. The authors of the United Nations Human Development Reports (such as Building a Knowledge Society, 2003), although of primarily Arabic heritage, have criticized current Arabic language teaching methods and aims, calling for a focus on a more practical functionalist Arabic for use in science, technology and business. However, many Gulf educators would strongly disagree with this approach, pointing to the role that Arabic plays in developing individuals who appreciate the richness of Arabic art, literature, poetry and the beauties of the Qur‘an. According to Dhabi, ―The United Nations Development Program reports on human development in the Arab world for 2002 and 2003 have pointed out with great emphasis the handicap that the Arabic language constitutes for Arab development. Important reforms are needed to make Arabic language pedagogy more function-oriented, more focused on the language arts, and on the skills 64 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo of reading and writing, rather than on aspects of formal aesthetics and on the rhetoric of display‖ (Dhabi, 2004:31). What the UNDP authors have not explained is why Arabic was flexible enough during the golden age of Islamic science to capture scientific ideas, including almost the entire body of Greek learning, and transmit it to a global scholarly audience stretching from Al Andalus to Cairo to Damascus to Baghdad. The answer probably has little to do with the Arabic language per se or how it is taught, but various political, economic and social factors (for example, modern Arabic states‘ low investment in knowledge producing activities and the negative impact of colonial forces on local knowledge production). What has developed in some Gulf nations can be best described as a bifurcated, rather than a bilingual, model of education and medium of instruction. The term bilingual implies some sort of exchange and accommodation between L1 and L2. Findlow‘s studies in the UAE revealed the existence of two parallel educational systems in the UAE. At one end stands the Egyptian-based UAEU, founded in 1976, in which a religious foundation was preserved, and at the other end the US-Canadian style Higher Colleges of Technology (HCT) founded 12 years later. ―The system became broadly bifurcated, until the exponential growth in numbers of [Higher Education Institutes] in the 1990s: UAEU (1977) following a traditional Egyptian model in which the link between religious and academic authority was to some extent preserved, and the Higher Colleges of Technology (1988) following a North American one‖ (Findlow, 2008: 9). Mouhanna has examined the issue of bilingualism extensively in his study of Math and IT courses at UAEU. Since science and math topics are increasingly only being offered in English across the Gulf, instead of Arabic, this development may limit student options and erode the ideal of producing bilingual graduates fully fluent in two languages: ―The university language policy based on the drive to produce bilingual graduates often means that students find it challenging to complete their degrees in a non-native language. To further exacerbate their difficulties, the tertiary institution‘s policy requires that courses be taught in the medium of English to the exclusion of the L1‖ (Mouhanna, 2010: 2). Conclusion Every aspect of the rise and dissemination of the English language in the Arabian Gulf has many more facets and subtleties than can be delineated in this short contribution. The issues are not academic or trivial – questions of national identity, heritage, knowledge production and culture are at stake. Both English speaking and Arabic speaking intellectuals are fully cognizant of the implications of English in the Gulf: some of the recent developments in this area may be unstoppable global forces that have been set in motion by historical circumstance. However, continuing debate and exchange may arrive at equitable and satisfying solutions for both native Arabic speakers and English and non-English speaking expatriates. References Abouammoh, A.M. (2009). The Role of Education: Trends of Reforms and EU-GCC Understanding. Riyadh: Center for Higher Education Research and Studies (CHERS). Ahmed, K. (2010). English in the Arab Gulf. Asian Journal of University Education, 6.1, 1-12. Al-Ali, J. (2006). 'Emiratisation in the local labor force of the UAE: a review of the obstacles and identification of potential strategies', Proceedings of the 20th ANZAM (Australian New Zealand Academy of Management) Conference on "Management: Pragmatism, Philosophy, Priorities", 6-9 December 2006, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton. Al-Ali, J. (2008). Emiratisation: drawing UAE nationals into their surging economy, International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 28.9/10, 365-379. Al Haq, F.A., Smadi, O. Spread of English and Westernization in Saudi Arabia, World Englishes, 15.3, 307-17. Al-Zubaidi, O. (2010). Arab Postgraduate Students in Malaysia: Identifying and overcoming the cultural and language barriers, Arab World English Journal, 1.1, 107-129. Charise, A. (2007). More English, Less Islam? An Overview of English Language Functions in the Arabian/Persian Gulf. 15 April 2011. Web. http://homes.chass.utoronto.ca/~cpercy/courses/eng6365charise.htm. 65 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo CIA Factbook. (2011). United Arab Emirates. 6 April. Web. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/ae.html Clarke, M. (2007). Language Policy and Language Teacher Education in the United Arab Emirates, TESOL Quarterly, 41.3, 583-91. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Dahbi, M. (2004). English and Arabic after 9/11, The Modern Language Journal, 88.4, 628-631. Elyas, T. (2008). The Attitude and the Impact of the American English as a Global Language Within the Saudi Education System. Novitas-ROYAL, 2.1, 28-48. Farrell, T.S.C., Martin, S. (2009). To Teach Standard English or World Englishes? A Balanced Approach to Instruction, World Englishes, 2, 2-7. Findlow, S. (2006). Higher Education and Linguistic Dualism in the Arab Gulf, British Journal of Sociology of Education, 27.1, 19-36. Findlow, S. (2008). Islam, modernity and education in the Arab States, Intercultural Education, 19.4, 337-52. Frade, C. (2007). Power dynamics and legal English, World Englishes, 26.1, 48-61. Glasser, S.B. (2003, February 2). Qatar reshapes its schools, putting English over Islam, Washington Post, A20. Kabel, A. (2005). The Discourses of Appropriation: A Response to Karmani (2005), Applied Linguistics, 28.1, 136-142. Karmani, S. (2005). Petro-Linguistics: The Emerging Nexus Between Oil, English, and Islam. Journal of Language, Identity and Education, 4.2, 87-102. Karmani, S. (2010). On Perceptions of the Socialising Effects of English-Medium Education on Students at a Gulf Arab University with Particular Reference to the United Arab Emirates. D.Ed Thesis. University of Exeter. Mahboob, A. (2009). English as an Islamic language: a case study of Pakistani English, World Englishes, 28.2, 175–189. Moody, J. (2009). A Neglected Aspect of ELT in the Arabian Gulf: Who Is Communication between? In Zhang, L. J., R. Rubdy, & Alsagoff, L. (Eds.). (2009). Englishes and Literatures-in-English in a Globalised World: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on English in Southeast Asia, 99-119. Mouhanna, M. (2010). The Medium of Instruction Debate in Foundation Math and IT: What‘s the Role of L1?, UGRU Journal, Fall, 1-15. Mashood, N., Verhoeven, H., Chansarker, B. (2009). Emiratisation, Omanisation, Saudisation: common causes common solutions? The 10th International Business Research Conference, Dubai, U.A.E, 16th-17th April. Pennycook, A. (1994). The Cultural Politics of English as an International Language. Harlow, Essex, UK: Longman Group Limited. Phillipson, R.H.L. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford UP. Randall, M., Samimi, M.A. (2010). The status of English in Dubai, English Today, 26.1, 43-50. Schaub, M. (2000). English in the Arab Republic of Egypt, World Englishes, 19.2, 225-238. Syed, Z. (2003). The Sociocultural Context of English Language Teaching in the Gulf, TESOL Quarterly, 37.2, 337-341. Watson, D.T. (2004). The Role of English in the Provision of High Quality Education in the United Arab Emirates. M.A. Thesis. University of South Africa. 66 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 13 Title A name given to the resource Politics of English in the Arabian Gulf Author Author Weber, Alan S. Abstract A summary of the resource. The number of American, English and Australian branch campuses in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region almost doubled between 2000–2007 from 140 to 260, and Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) alone have established over 40 branch campuses during this period. The language of instruction at these institutions is primarily English, which is creating some tensions in the region related also to the rapid influx of other expatriate language groups including Urdu, Nepali, and Tagalog. Not only do native Arabic speakers fear the loss of cultural and linguistic heritage, as Gulf governments begin heavily investing in biotechnology, ITC capacity and research output (patents and peer-reviewed scientific papers) educated elites in the GCC countries are confronting the widespread use of English on the internet and the international science community. Policy makers, particularly in Qatar, UAE, and Saudi Arabia, are responding to the growing use of English by sponsoring cultural heritage museums and libraries, programs in digitization of Arabic heritage books, and funding research into real-time Arabic-English and English-Arabic machine translation. This contribution outlines the debates found both in scholarly journals as well as popular regional newspapers in English and Arabic on the use of the English language, and analyzes the cultural, political, and social context of these arguments. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/32e4d640f81059683de42c30c0ad893a.pdf edd59913de49e54e66a0245f85fa906c PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Bilingual education: the road to multilingualism Julijana VuĦo University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology julivuco@gmail.com Katarina Zavišin University of Belgrade Faculty of Philology katarina.zavisin@gmail.com Globalisation emphasizes the importance of foreign languages by influencing the development of national strategies for learning languages, thus contributing to conservation or harmonization of language ecological balance in the world. The increasing attention given to language issues in Europe resulted from the intention to overcome numerous problems related to language, communication, interaction and multilayered international cooperation and understanding in the context of ethnic, religious and cultural differences on global level, but also to promote the integration processes enhanced by various forms of mobility. What also contributes to this is an overall democratization of public life and raising awareness in different minority groups, as well as parallel processes of globalization, localization and glocalization: comparison, permeation, survival and adaptation of local environment to global context. At the same time, there are concerns based on the prejudice that globalization trends could endanger citizens' needs at individual and local level of identification with their people, country, religion, cultural specificities and so on. In the area of foreign language teaching policy there have been inappropriate reactions to the "danger" threatening the dominant language and culture that are allegedly jeopardized by the presence of other cultures and languages in a formal education system and environment. Bilingual education (in Serbia since 2004) promotes multilingualism, with the belief that it contributes to overcoming linguistic, cultural and communication barriers and develops tolerance. This paper, as an appendix to the introduction of bilingual teaching, interprets the results of research on the importance of learning foreign languages, cultural and linguistic bias in students of bilingual and regular classes. The aim of the paper is to identify similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students . Key Words: Bilingual education, multilingualism, multiculturalism, foreign languages, attitudes, bilingual and regular students. Introduction To speak more than one language is a rule rather than an exception because two thirds of the world's population are bilingual. During the eighties and nineties attention began to be paid at national levels in Europe to formative possibilities offered by bilingual education seen as a unique curriculum in two vehicular languages, one of which is not native. By publishing the White Paper (1996) titled Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society, the European Commission emphasized the need to improve the quality of foreign language learning. One of the proposals in the document is about the possibility that several high school subjects can be taught in the first foreign language. Tendencies which are related to the foreign language learning policy in Europe are presented in detail in the Common European Framework of Reference for learning, teaching and assessment of the languages of the Council of Europe. They also contain a proposal of possible scenarios of the curricula presented to the Ministerial Council of the Council of Europe in 1998. New impetus to such education was the signing of the Maastricht Treaty, Article 126, which opened the borders of Europe to the effect of large movements, shifts, increased mobility of people and business relationships between countries. Contemporary attitudes and trends of foreign language learning policy in Europe include multilingualism as a basic principle of the European unity policy, defining it as an individual's ability to take part in intercultural interaction in two, three or more languages, at different levels. Such knowledge of a language offers the possibility of learning about multiple cultural communities, exchange of experiences and wider opportunities for work and 713 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo contacts within the European Union. Advantages of the implementation of the multilingualism principle in school systems lead to expansion of students‘ linguistic competence in a foreign language, development of creativity and sense of communication, greater abilities of analysis and problem solving, dissemination of knowledge in the foreign language as a vehicular language and in the mother tongue, development of self-confidence in the person who speaks the languages, greater respect for themselves, flexibility and adaptability, confidence in social interactions, developed capacity for interpersonal relations, closer ties with some environments and with the European social and cultural environment in general, and the creation of a multicultural attitude, possession of "the experience of two language worlds" (Baker, 2000). In pragmatic terms, education in two languages in a multilingual environment enables easier mobility and exchange of information in the broadest sense, including family, community, employment and international contacts in European and world context, permeation of educational systems of countries participating in bilingual education, transfer of academic knowledge from one language to another, the spirit of mutual cooperation in learning, education of a ready, open citizen of Europe with expressed tolerance and need for social harmony (VuĦo, 2006). Bilingual instruction uses two languages as a tool in teaching process, it is one of the aspects of bilingual education and ways to develop students' bilingualism. In bilingual classes in monolingual environments there is a risk that the second language might threaten the first one and replace it, which is known as subtractive bilingualism, a common phenomenon in language heterogeneous environment, where students whose first language is socially less important in their community, are taught some subjects in the language that is socially more relevant, thus endangering the development of the mother (family) tongue. The use of family language is limited only to home, school, and it is not used in the environment. This phenomenon occurs with immigrants, particularly those from socially less developed areas. When it comes to the bilingual education in Serbia227, its nature is additive, because it produces the mentioned positive effects (FilipoviĤ, VuĦo, ĐuriĤ, 2007). Europe and multiculturalism - from a political desire to political reality The views on multilingualism and intercultural relations on which the European Union bases its policy of equality among member states, encouraging foreign language learning and condemning any kind of linguistic and other discrimination in the areas of formal and informal education are well known. Active political support sends a clear message that there is a need to strengthen the knowledge of foreign languages and define specific language needs by maintaining the diversity of languages as a factor of strengthening European unity. Expressing fear or conciliation with the so-called imperialism of the English language, or with English as a language with the power of lingua franca of the modern world (Seidlhofer, 2005: 340), a valid recommendation (European Commission, 2008) is that a European citizen should speak at least three languages 228. The idea of European multiculturalism is experiencing longer and longer moments of crisis, a social environment is increasingly hostile to the challenges of integrating poor immigrant population into the European context. This is clearly expressed by the statements of the British 229 and German230 Prime Minister, affirming that "the attempts of creating a multicultural society in Germany have completely failed." Up to a few years ago clear messages contained unbelievably politically incorrect opinions addressed to immigrants, "those who don‘t speak the German language are not welcome," despite the fact that "in Frankfurt am Main, two out of three children under the age of 5 years are of immigrant origin" . Multiculturalism and multilingualism were the main pillars on which Europe rested. The threat that these pillars might collapse, for example in Germany and Britain, where as an alternative to unsuccessful multicultural utopia a clear expression of national identity that would contribute to preventing various extremism is evoked, speaks about the danger that hangs over the entire European Union and idea of European equality of nations and languages. 227 Bilingual education in Serbia, started in 2004-2005 in French and Italian, and since 2006 it is held in English and German in some primary schools. The model of bilingual education can be regarded as original and modified according to the CLIL procedure. In contrast to this model, where a sole requirement is not the knowledge of a language, and due to Serbian legal regulations a teacher must be both proficient in the language and have a university degree of the non-linguistic subject he teaches. An anticipated level of language proficiency for teachers is C1 of the CEF. Depending on the availability of teachers, bilingual education is held for a number of subjects: history, geography, art, sociology, biology, philosophy, computer science, etc.. as a percentage of 30 to 45% of the total number of classes. 228 Language for identification, native; language of global/continental communication (English or French, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, or other language), and a personal acquired language that should be developed to the full potential as a second language (represented in the education system at all levels) (European Union, 2008). 229 http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/Svet/115356/Nacionalizam-zamena-za-multikulturalnost-u-Britaniji, the site was accessed on February 10 at 00.15h 230 http://www.vesti-online.com/Vesti/Svet/90060/Merkel-Multikulturna-Nemacka-je-propala the site was accessed on February 10 at 00.14h 714 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Interculturalism and foreign language teaching Modern foreign language teaching means that the view of indivisibility of learning, acquisition and teaching of a language and culture of a country, nation, area of the language is accepted and adopted. The awareness of another‘s culture and knowledge about it was a popular concept in the anglophone educational systems of the eighties and nineties. This is brought in connection with foreign languages and with a broader perspective of the cultural turn in other social sciences of the post-modern society (Byram, 2004:159). This issue, which, among other things deals with cultural differences and relationship to "others," regardless of their national, ethnic, social, regional, institutional or other differences, was dealt with in the works of various authors, including Tomalin & Stempelski, (1993) , Byram, (1997), (2004), Kramish, (1993), Spolsky & Hult (2008), Spolsky (2009). Based on cultural differences, but also involving the development of thought in the direction away from ethnocentrism towards relativity, as Byram says (2004:159), this concept is widely used not only in relation to foreign languages but also to other school subjects, geography, history and social sciences and mother tongue. However, it is the most obvious in foreign language learning 231 and can be monitored at all ages. Knowledge of another‘s culture is considered very important in communicative teaching since it is understood that topics of culture and civilization are the frame and the content about which you need to communicate and around which communication is being developed. Attitudes of young people The attitudes of young people who are just going through the educational system in the contemporary social moment in Serbia are vividly expressed by the results of the research conducted by the Center for Children's Rights232 and surveys of 2007233 depicting the attitude of young people in Serbia to their mother tongue, foreign languages, cultures and speakers (VuĦo, 2007). The vast majority of respondents agree with the affirmative attitude in relation to the knowledge of another culture, without seeking for two-way cooperation as a condition for learning about the culture. There are divided opinions on the impact of other cultures on their own: 38% of the boys are concerned about the impact of other nations believing they significantly threaten national identity of their nation, as much as 35% has a very negative opinion and 25% was undecided in these estimates. Girls are slightly less xenophobic: 29% fears foreign influence, the same number was undecided and 41% does not consider the influences of other nations as a threat to national identity. The fact that nearly half of high school students in Serbia feel bigger or less distrust towards foreign cultural influences is a cause for concern. Clear animosity towards foreign language in general, used even in the field of entertainment is shown by the following disturbing information: 17% of the girls and boys as much as 28% are not sure how patriotic it is to listen to music in a foreign language, or are even convinced that it is very unpatriotic behavior. The fact that the concept of ethnically clean country is opposed only by a little more than half of respondents is a cause for concern, 59% of the boys and 57% of the girls, while 21% of the girls and 22% of the boys believe that every nation should live alone in its state, which is one in five young citizen. Others have no clear view on this issue, which makes space for the development of intolerance. Intolerance in relation to other nations (for example, the Chinese) is shown by 31% of the boys and 30% of the girls, who would deny them hospitality in our country even if they fully obeyed our laws, and only 46% of the girls and 43% of the boys would accept them. 231 Foreign language appears as an instrument of learning different types of content, the CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) not only focuses on the acquisition but it also deals with the problem of the relation between vehicular language and non-language subject. It is necessary to promote integrated, simultaneous learning of language and content, one through another. CLIL teacher implements a number of methodological and didactic methods such as strategies of functional understanding of the text, functional memorising and activation of vocabulary, which are already in the possession of foreign language teachers and for which the measurement with the linguistic problems is a daily challenge. 232 During September and October of 2005, Youth Network "Living Together", made up of youth clubs from Belgrade, Nis, Kraljevo, Uzice, Zajecar, Novi Pazar, Vrbas and Subotica, with the support of the Pestalozzi Foundation from Switzerland, conducted a survey on youth attitudes towards minorities and cultural diversity in their environment. The study included 468 high school students of both sexes aged 16-17. 233 The survey was conducted with the students of the Faculty of Philology of Belgrade University and the Third Belgrade High School students aged 16 to 20 years. The selected sample is not representative for Serbia, because it involved students of foreign philologies, and students of the Belgrade elite school, who were believed to have expressed views on the importance of languages in the contemporary world. 715 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo In a research conducted with Belgrade high school students and first year university students (VuĦo, 2008) which aimed to obtain information about the attitude of the respondents to their mother tongue and foreign languages in their own and global environment, the young people felt not only patriotic enthusiasm about the knowledge and use of their mother tongue, but they also brought it in connection with the economic development of the country, while they linked a foreign language to the importance of language as a universal category, but also awareness of the limited use of Serbian as a small language. This shows raised awareness of the necessity of the knowledgde of foreign languages for a prosperous life in the modern world. Survey: sample and instruments The specificity of bilingual teaching leads to an assumption about the usefulness and benefits of bilingual education in school, social environment and the wider environment, and in this respect the research was conducted on the views of final year students of bilingual classes and those who attend conventional (regular) classes in the Third Belgrade High School. The research is primarily concerned with students' attitudes towards foreign languages and cultures in order to gain insight on possible differences between the two classes. The research was carried out during February of academic year 2010-2011. The research includes the following dependent variables: social-cultural elements of foreign language learning, attitude to native language and attitude towards foreign languages and cultures, while the independent variables are gender and age. The aim and hypothesis of the research The aim of the research is to determine the similarities and differences in the views of bilingual and regular students of the importance of learning foreign languages and the existence of some cultural and linguistic bias. Our hypothesis was that bilingual students are more open to foreign cultures and languages and have a more tolerant attitude towards ethnic minorities in their country, and are more interested and willing to learn about other cultures. Description of the survey The conducted survey was anonymous. The survey includes general information about the students‘ sex and mother tongue, records of foreign languages that the student has learned during school as well as institutions where the student attended classes of foreign languages. This is followed by questions about respondents‘ interest for learning foreign languages and specific circumstances that would encourage students to learn foreign languages, the importance of foreign cultures for student personality development and its impact on the enrichment or impoverishment of the student's personality. The survey ends with questions about the views of students of the inclusion of national minorities in the environment where they live, the attitude towards foreigners and foreign residence. Most of the questions are a combination of open and closed questions. Statistical analysis of the data included a descriptive analysis of the results. Results of the research The research included two fourth-grade234 classes in the Third Belgrade High School: a regular class of science and mathematics course and a bilingual class that has certain subjects in Italian and French. In connection with the sex distribution of the respondents we can see that in the bilingual class there are more female than male students (18 female students vs. 12 male students, while in the regular class 12 female students compared to 15 male students). Most students in both classes marked Serbian as their mother tongue, while the low percentage of students marked another language (one student per regular class listed Macedonian, Russian and German, and one student per bilingual class listed English and French). The students of both classes have mostly been taught the same foreign language as part of formal education (English and French). The difference, however, is reflected in the learning of German and Italian for the benefit of bilingual classes. As with the experience of learning foreign languages that are not present in the Serbian school system, students from bilingual classes have more diverse experience in relation to their peers in regular classes: they mentioned languages such as Romanian, Portuguese, Greek, Latin and Hungarian. 234 The fourth grade is the final year in the secondary school system in Serbia. Students graduate from secondary school with 18 years of age, which corresponds to the age when majority is attained. 716 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Besides, bilingual students are interested in learning more languages in comparison to students of regular classes (Figure 1). Figure 1. Languages that students would learn, and are not offered in the survey. The need for openness and language tolerance, communication and the desire for cultural integration is shown by the answer given by all the students (of both classes) that if they lived in a foreign country, they would try to learn the language of that country. The students expressed their opinion on the advantages of knowledge of mother tongue in the modern world (Figure 2). Most bilingual students see the benefits of knowing their own mother tongue, while most students of regular classes do not recognize this advantage in the modern world. Figure 2. Students‘ answers about the usefulness of their mother tongue in the modern world. In connection with an assessment of how knowledge of the culture of other nations enriches personality, students of both classes mostly recognized positive effect on personality development, although the bilingual students' had a more positive attitude (Figure 3). 717 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 3. Students‘ answers on the impact of the knowledge of other nations‘ culture on the personality enrichment. Namely, all bilingual students said that knowledge of other cultures enriches a person to a large extent (except for a student who had no position on this issue). Also, we note that bilingual students made greater and more detailed feedback than the regular students in which one recognizes the willingness to intercultural exchange and clearly expressed awareness of how beneficial it is for building your own personality: "knowledge of other cultures has a profound effect on my personality, has forced me to challenge attitudes and has enriched me"; "each culture brings its wealth, history, significance, and each new language opens up more chances for a successful life", "knowledge of others' viewpoints and opinions help us to build a proper personality"; "when you learn about how others live you can easier see advantages and disadvantages of your own way of life"; and that "a man with more knowledge is richer in every sense of the word." The students‘ responses on the degree of their interest to learn about the culture of other nations are shown in Figure 4 where we can see that all bilingual students, but one, are very much interested to learn about the culture of other nations, while the regular students show greater reluctance. Figure 4. Students‘ views on how interested they are to learn about other nations‘ culture. The answers on the negative impact of other cultures on their own are shown in Figure 5 718 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 5. Students‘ views on the negative impact of other cultures on their own. We can see that more regular than bilingual students believe that culture of other nations may have a negative impact on their own culture. Regular students often explain their negative attitude towards other cultures, relating them to the current political context as, for example: "Kosovo is an illustration", "our country is in a mess and it accepts and gradually incorporates into its tradition the negative things from others", or "because the elements of other cultures can replace the elements of our culture and thus we lose our identity." Unlike them, bilingual students are much more tolerant as indicated by the comments like: "if you adjust to other cultures, it does not mean you forget your own culture", "if we properly understand our identity, we will learn to live peacefully with other cultures"; "it can not affect, it can only be positive, because it enriches our culture" or "absolutely not, everyone chooses their way, knowledge of something can only be beneficial." On the other hand, bilingual students show greater caution about the negative impact of modern technologies (listening to foreign music, surfing the Internet, etc.) on their identity, which is somewhat in conflict with their tolerant attitude to foreign cultures (Figure 6). However, this attitude can be explained by their frequent contact with foreign culture resources, and therefore greater capacity for critical attitude towards them. 719 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 6. Students‘ views on the negative impact of foreign music, films and the Internet on their identitety. The answers of bilingual students indicate to a great extent a more tolerant attitude regarding the equal inclusion of ethnic minorities in their environment (Figure 7). In this regard, we highlight some feedback of the bilingual students, "national minorities were disadvantaged under the regime of the nineties and this needs to be to put in order", "everything should be done to enable every citizen of our country feels the same and equal, regardless of the nationality"; "each national minority is entitled to their culture and right for this culture to be recognized (legally accepted)"; "in a democratic country people should be the most important and minorities are part of the people"; "because they are all equal regardless of their race or national origin." Figure 7. Students' views on the degree of justification of equal inclusion of ethnic minorities In this regard, we would like to emphasize the fact that in the survey of bilingual classes there were no negative comments on this issue, while some students of regular classes, explaining their opinion that only to a small extent do they justify the concern for the equitable inclusion of ethnic minorities, expressed the following opinions showing clearly their animosity and xenophobia: "because there are too many of them already, and the minority becomes the majority, as already seen in Serbia (Kosovo)"; "I do not want them to be involved if they do damage to my country"; "as if they sought to have more rights than Serbs"; "I am worried because people are volatile, you give them a finger, they want the whole arm", "there are fewer and fewer Serbs in Serbia, and therefore Serbian culture is weaker, the culture of minorities has a greater impact on the Serbs" and the like. However, among students of regular classes there is a positive attitude towards this issue such as: "Serbia is a beautiful country, and others should enjoy its beauty", "It is vital that everyone has equal rights" and the like. 720 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Figure 8. Students' views of how justified is openness of the country towards foreigners. In relation to the increasing openness of the domestic environment towards strangers, (Figure 8), it is possible to see a more open attitude of bilingual students to foreigners as expressed in the following comments: "yes, and I hope to become more open because it can only have a positive effect" , "the world should learn about our culture and try to correct the opinion people have about us, which is mostly negative"; "the more open we are, the closer we are to European qualities, ie. better quality of life, and it is beneficial for the economy, too" and the like. Besides, the students of regular classes mainly gave positive comments about this question that we should be open to other countries for tourism, and they would like to see more foreigners in Belgrade as it is the case with other capitals and the like. However, some students of regular classes believe that this openness to foreigners is not mutual: "I think our country has always been open to foreigners, only they were not very open to us"; while others justify an open attitude towards foreigners solely for economic reasons: "only for foreign investment"; "for investment, capital, trade, and making the rest of the world aware that we exist on the map" and the like. In connection with going abroad, all students of both classes say they gladly travel and learn about other cultures. It is still possible to see the bilingual students give more diverse reasons such as: "I like to travel, it allows me to look at the world from multiple perspectives and to hear of new experiences"; "It is my pleasure to get to know other people, cultures and countries, and it fulfills me as a person ", or" when you get to know how other people live you will more easily notice the advantages and disadvantages of your way of life and more easily change yourself.― Conclusion The results of the research whose aim was to establish similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students on the importance of learning foreign languages and the existence of some cultural and linguistic bias, have confirmed the hypothesis that bilingual students are more open to foreign cultures and languages, and have a more tolerant attitude towards ethnic minorities in their country, and are more interested and willing to learn about other cultures. Attitudes of regular and bilingual students are substantially similar in terms of students' attitudes towards learning foreign languages and the importance of mother tongue, but the difference in their views is clearly evident in relation to tolerance towards ethnic minorities, equality of all citizens of Serbia and openness to foreigners. A more tolerant attitude toward foreign cultures is associated with greater exposure and contact with second cultures and languages, which is a direct result of bilingual education, teaching and extracurricular content, greater opportunities to travel abroad and beyond the narrow environment. In particular, as proof of openness, we highlight a positive attitude toward the equal inclusion of ethnic minorities in the region, in contrast to the negative attitudes and fear of the impact of foreign culture on the Serbian culture. Bilingual students explain their positive attitude towards foreigners mostly by opportunities to gain knowledge of cultures, while regular students often look at it from the perspective of economic, lucrative interests and prosperity. Culturally mature and motivated attitude is expressed by bilingual students who see time spent abroad as a gain related to the enrichment of their personality, a more rational understanding "of their life" as well as awareness of a possible change in their own attitudes. Bilingual teaching brings major novelties and a number of advantages in the school systems of countries applying it. In addition to new strategies and new spirit of modular teaching, expressed teamwork, modern methods that involve active teaching adapted to specific students needs, bilingual education provides many benefits to students, teachers, school and community as a whole. 721 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Establishment of bilingual classes in Serbia is in line with modern European attitudes toward the principles of multilingualism, mobility, and with contemporary trends in language learning, and includes a number of advantages: the expansion of language competence of students in a foreign language, development of creativity and sense of communication, the greater ability of analyzing and solving problems, expanding other forms of knowledge equally in foreign language as vehicular and Serbian language; developing self-confidence of a person who speaks languages, greater respect for themselves, flexibility and adaptability, confidence in social interactions, more developed capacity for interpersonal relations; establishing closer ties with the Italian, French and European social and cultural environment in general, and the creation of a multicultural attitude, possessing "the experience of two language worlds" (Baker, 2000); facilitated mobility and exchange of information in the broadest sense, from family, community, employment and international contacts in European and world context; permeation of education systems of participating countries, transfer of academic knowledge from one language to another, the spirit of mutual cooperation and cooperation at all levels of human activities; education of a ready, open citizen of Europe with expressed tolerance and the need for social harmony. The project of bilingual education brings globally an undoubted benefit as a road to multilingualism and multiculturalism. Bibliography Baker, Philip, Eversley, John. (2000) Multilingual Capital, Battlebridge Publications, London. 722 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Byram, Michael (1997) Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Byram, Michael, (2004) Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning, Routldge, London, New York European Commission, (1996) Teaching and Learning--Towards the Learning Society. White Paper on Education and Training, Brussels. European Commission, (2008) A Rewarding Challenge How the Multiplicity of Languages Could Strengthen Europe, Bruxelles, http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/pdf/doc1646_en.pdf, the site was accessed on April 30, 2009 FilipoviĤ, J. ,VuĦo, J. and DjuriĤ, Lj. (2007) Critical Review of Language Education Policies in Compulsory Primary and Secondary Education in Serbia. Current Issues in Language Planning, Vol. 8:2, str.: 222-242. VuĦo Julijana (2006): U potrazi za sopstvenim modelom dvojeziĦne nastave , Inovacije u nastavi stranih jezika, UĦiteljski fakultet, Beograd. VuĦo, Julijana (2008) Srpski meħu stranim jezicima, Zbornik radova sa meħunarodnog nauĦnog skupa, Srpski jezik u (kon)tekstu, Filium, Kragujevac, str.45 – 53. Kramish, C. (1993) Context and culture in language teaching, Oxford: Oxford University Pres Seidlhofer, Barbara, Key concepts in elt. English as a lingua franca, ELT Journal, Volume 59/4 October 2005; doi:10.1093/elt/cci064, Oxford University Press. Spolsky, Bernard (2009) Language Management, Cambridge University Press. Spolsky, Bernard, Hult, Francis M. (2008) The Handbook of Educational Linguistics, Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics. Tomalin, B. and Stempelski, S. (1993) Cultural awareness, Oxford: Oxford University press. 723 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 106 Title A name given to the resource Bilingual education: the road to multilingualism Author Author Vučo, Julijana Zavišin, Katarina Abstract A summary of the resource. Globalisation emphasizes the importance of foreign languages by influencing the development of national strategies for learning languages, thus contributing to conservation or harmonization of language ecological balance in the world. The increasing attention given to language issues in Europe resulted from the intention to overcome numerous problems related to language, communication, interaction and multilayered international cooperation and understanding in the context of ethnic, religious and cultural differences on global level, but also to promote the integration processes enhanced by various forms of mobility. What also contributes to this is an overall democratization of public life and raising awareness in different minority groups, as well as parallel processes of globalization, localization and glocalization: comparison, permeation, survival and adaptation of local environment to global context. At the same time, there are concerns based on the prejudice that globalization trends could endanger citizens' needs at individual and local level of identification with their people, country, religion, cultural specificities and so on. In the area of foreign language teaching policy there have been inappropriate reactions to the "danger" threatening the dominant language and culture that are allegedly jeopardized by the presence of other cultures and languages in a formal education system and environment. Bilingual education (in Serbia since 2004) promotes multilingualism, with the belief that it contributes to overcoming linguistic, cultural and communication barriers and develops tolerance. This paper, as an appendix to the introduction of bilingual teaching, interprets the results of research on the importance of learning foreign languages, cultural and linguistic bias in students of bilingual and regular classes. The aim of the paper is to identify similarities and differences in the attitudes of bilingual and regular students. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics