72 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1addbd9dd51c1ca4d0a14922bad354fc.pdf 346c00f8785af23e28692341a74acee7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Çağrı Tuğrul Mart Ishik University tugrulbey@hotmail.com Alpaslan Toker International Burch University atoker@ibu.edu.ba M. Fatih Esen International Burch University fesen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Orient was a system of ideological fictions whose purpose was and is to legitimize Western cultural and political superiority; furthermore, the Western understanding of the East has grown out of a relationship of power, of dominance, of varying degrees of complex hegemony. The Orient signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West. Orientalism is "a manner of regularized (or Orientalized) writing, vision, and study, dominated by imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases ostensibly suited to the Orient." It is the image of the 'Orient' expressed as an entire system of thought and scholarship. The Oriental is the person represented by such thinking. The Oriental is a single image, a sweeping generalization, a stereotype that crosses countless cultural and national boundaries. The term Orient particularly included regions that used to be known as Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt. As awareness of other Asian countries grew in European consciousness, the term often came to mean South Asia, Southeast Asia or East Asia. By the late 19th century, the term usually referred to China, Japan, Korea and surrounding nations while the British colonists frequently used it when speaking of India. Key Words: Orient, Oriental, Other, Occident Introduction Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers, designers and artists. Orientalism was more widely used in art history referring mostly to the works of French artists in the 19th century, whose subject matter, color and style used elements from their travel to the Mediterranean countries of North Africa and Western Asia. Orientalism refers to the way in which non-Western specifically Asian cultures are perceived in the West, by scholars, writers, thinkers, politicians and society at large. Orientalism first appeared during the 19th century, when many scholars felt that a better knowledge of Asia was necessary to further the West's colonial aspirations. Edward Said argued in his highly influential book Orientalism (1978) that western scholars were so contaminated by their European ideas and preconceptions that they could not deal honestly and fairly with Asian topics. Said focused on the discipline of Oriental Studies in Europe, including philology, linguistics, ethnography, and the interpretation of culture through the discovery and translation of Oriental texts. Said stressed that they regarded their subjects as inferior to Westerners, and in general backward and in need of European authority and guidance. He repeatedly complained the Orientalists saw the Orient as unchanging and without an internal dynamic; it lacked internal potential for growth, unless it westernized. Edward Said 367 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo developed the notion of Orientalism and argued that this form of thought tells more about the values and biases of western society than about the far East. Said is best known for describing and critiquing "Orientalism", which he perceived as a constellation of false assumptions underlying Western attitudes toward the East. In Orientalism, Said claimed a "subtle and persistent Eurocentric prejudice against Arabo-Islamic peoples and their culture. He argued that a long tradition of false and romanticized images of Asia and the Middle East in Western culture had served as an implicit justification for Europe and the US' colonial and imperial ambitions. Just as fiercely, he denounced the practice of Arab elites who internalized the US and British Orientalists' ideas of Arabic culture. Said argued that the West had dominated the East for more than 2,000 years, since the composition of The Persians by Aeschylus. Europe had dominated Asia politically so completely for so long that even the most outwardly objective Western texts on the East were permeated with a bias that even most Western scholars could not recognize. His contention was not only that the West has conquered the East politically but also that Western scholars have appropriated the exploration and interpretation of the Orient’s languages, history and culture for themselves. They have written Asia’s past and constructed its modern identities from a perspective that takes Europe as the norm, from which the "exotic", "inscrutable" Orient deviates. Edward Said argues that the Europeans divided the world into two parts; the east and the west or the occident and the orient or the civilized and the uncivilized. This was totally an artificial boundary; and it was laid on the basis of the concept of them and us or theirs and ours. The Europeans used Orientalism to define themselves. Some particular attributes were associated with the Orientals, and whatever the Orientals weren’t the Occidents were. The Europeans defined themselves as the superior race compared to the Orientals; and they justified their colonization by this concept. They said that it was their duty towards the world to civilize the uncivilized world. The main problem, however, arose when the Europeans started generalizing the attributes they associated with Orientals, and started portraying these artificial characteristics associated with Orientals in their western world through their scientific reports, literary work, and other media sources. What happened was that it created a certain image about the Orientals in the European mind and in doing that infused a bias in the European attitude towards the Orientals. This prejudice was also found in the Orientalists (scientist studying the Orientals); and all their scientific research and reports were under the influence of this (Orientalism 1978). Said puts forward several definitions of 'Orientalism' in the introduction to Orientalism (the quotations coming directly from Said) : • • • • • • • "A way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient's special place in European Western experience." (p.1) "a style of thought based upon an ontological and epistemological distinction made between 'the Orient' and (most of the time) 'the Occident'." (p.2) "A Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient." "...particularly valuable as a sign of European-Atlantic power over the Orient than it is as a veridic discourse about the Orient." (p.3) "A distribution of geopolitical awareness into aesthetic, scholarly, economic, sociological, historical, and philological texts." (p.12) “The classical tradition of studying a region by means of its languages and writings: thus anyone who teaches, researches or writes about the Orient is an orientalist.” “A library or archive of information commonly and, in some of its aspects, unanimously held … a family of ideas and a unifying set of values … These ideas explained the behavior of Orientals; they supplied the Orientals with a mentality, a genealogy, an atmosphere; most important, they allowed Europeans to deal with and even to see Orientals as a phenomenon possessing regular characteristics.” Said summarized his work in these terms: My contention is that Orientalism is fundamentally a political doctrine willed over the Orient because the Orient was weaker than the West, which elided the Orient’s difference with its weakness. As a cultural apparatus Orientalism is all aggression, activity, judgment, will-to-truth, and knowledge. (Orientalism 1978) 368 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Orientalism is a study of the genesis, evolution, and reproduction of a specific Western tradition of knowledge concerned with the Mashreq, or the eastern part of the Arabo-Islamic world. This tradition, however, is not one of pure and objective knowledge; rather it is the elaboration of a set of fantasies and beliefs that is subsequently used as the basis for Western colonial enterprise. Thus, Said's book is about aggression both symbolic and real; it is about the politics of knowledge, or rather about knowledge as a form of politics (Rassam 1980: 505). Said's radical thesis is set: the easy and logical convergence between Orientalism and Imperialism; the Orientalists as a conscious or unconscious collaborator in the colonial takeover of the Orient (Rassam 1980: 506). Said in Orientalism never really tackles the problem of the proper approach to "other" cultures and a sense of ambiguity and unresolved dilemma persists with the reader. Said sidesteps the issue by saying that his purpose is not to displace the old system of representations with a new one but simply to describe the context for the rise and development of Orientalism and its consequences. At one point, however, Said writes that "human societies, or at least the most advanced cultures, have rarely offered the individual anything but imperialism, racism, and ethnocentrism in dealing with 'other' cultures." Now, if all "advanced cultures" (including the developing Oriental ones) share this basic tendency, why single out Europe's failure to rise above it unless one assumes that because of its intellectual superiority and cultural achievement the West should have been able to overcome this natural human tendency. Said never says so outright, but one gets the feeling that he is judging Europe not in terms of its own historical reality and intellectual development, but in terms of the claims it makes for itself as the arbitor and guardian of humanity's highest values. And that is perhaps fair enough, since within the Western intellectual tradition, modern Orientalism in a sense represents a dinosaur, an outdated, fossilized theoretical edifice using language and concepts better suited to the nineteenth century (Rassam 1980: 508). If you study a culture or group of cultures having the character of the "Oriental," your study, as Edward Said's book points out, is itself open to analysis as a manifestation of "Western" culture. A book which indicates, as his does, that "Western" representations of the East (beginning with the notion of the East itself) have purposes which relate to purely Western needs and projects can be seen in its turn as a representation of Orientalism having purposes of its own, such as the furtherance of Arab political causes. A review which points these things out is itself asking to be reviewed in terms of its own representations and purposes (Chambers 1980: 509). Said's work can be seen as coming at the end of and to a considerable degree negating an earlier body of debate and work, much of it stimulated by the war in Vietnam and the broader upheavals of the Third World at the time. Said's work both subsumed that earlier debate and started a new one because while much of the other work was framed in broadly Marxist terms and was a universalist critique, Said, eschewing materialist analysis, sought to apply literary critical methodology and to offer an analysis specific to something called 'the Orient'; the result is that the issue of Orientalism, as debated in the Anglo-Saxon world over the past decade and a half, has had relatively clear battle lines, familiar to you all. On the one hand, the book of Edward Said advanced a comprehensive critique of Western, particularly English, French and American, writing on the Middle East, ranging from the eighteenth century to the present day, and encompassing literature, history, political and other sciences. Under the influence of Said's critique a range of work has been produced, criticizing academic and other writing on the region as, in various terms, Eurocentric, imperialist, racist, essentialist, and so forth. On the other hand, a range of writers on the region, most notably Bernard Lewis, have rebutted Said's charge and argued for an approach which falls, to a greater or lesser extent, into the 'Orientalist' category (Halliday 1983: 148). Said would seem to engage in an injudicious elision namely, that treatment of texts produced within the social sciences and in related activities such as journalism or travel writing, and literature. Of course, there are similarities and mutual influences; but while one is a necessarily fictional activity, without controls in reality or direct links to the acts of administration, domination, exploitation, the former is so controlled. To assume that the same critique of discourses within literature can be made of those within social science is questionable; it may indeed reflect the hubris, rather too diffuse at the moment, of theorists deriving their validation from cultural studies. This brings an area of difficulty with the critique of Orientalism, namely its analysis, or rather absence thereof, of the ideas and ideologies of the Middle East itself. Said himself has, in his other writings, been a trenchant critic of the myths of the Middle East and of its politicians, and nowhere more so than in his critique of the poverty of the intellectual life of the Arab world: while the rulers have constructed numerous international airports, he once pointed out, they have failed to construct one good library. But the absence of such a critique in his Orientalism does allow for a more incautious silence, since it prevents us from addressing how the issues discussed by the Orientalists and the relations between East and West are presented in the region itself (Halliday 1983: 160). 369 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Said’s thesis, shaped by both Gramscian Marxism and post-modernist French “high theory” (particularly that of Foucault), has provided the magnetic pole around which much of the recent debate about Orientalism has gravitated. Said’s argument was not altogether new but the originality and force of Orientalism derived, at least in part, from his insistent application of the Foucauldian principle that knowledge can never be “innocent” and is always deeply implicated in the operations of power. Through a wide-ranging analysis of literary texts, travel writing and a mass of European documents, Said uncovered a system of cultural description which was “deeply inscribed with the politics, the considerations, the positions, and the strategies of power.” (Oldmeadow 2004: 9). Ziauddin Sardar in his recent work “Orientalism” argues that the problem of Orientalism, what makes the dissection and display of its skeletal being a tricky matter, is the very fact of its existence. Because Orientalism exists we have a world where reality is differently perceived, expressed and experienced across a great divide of mutual misunderstanding. To discuss Orientalism one has to urge people to go beyond this misunderstanding and see what has been made invisible: to distinguish a different outline in a picture that has been distorted by centuries of myopic vision. There is nothing about Orientalism that is neutral or objective. By definition it is a partial and partisan subject. No one comes to the subject without a background and baggage. The baggage for many consists of the assumption that, given its long history, somewhere within or about this subject there is real knowledge about the Orient; and that this knowledge can be used to develop an understanding of the cultures East of the West. The task of this book is to undermine this assumption. While Orientalism is real, it is still, nevertheless, an artificial construction. It is entirely distinct and unattached to the East as understood within and by the East. There is no route map, no itinerary locked within the subject to bridge that divide (Sardar Orientalism: 75) Orientalism is a book with a thesis –that “Orientalism derives from a particular closeness experienced between Britain and France and the Orient which until the early nineteenth century had really meant only in India and the Bible lands”. To prove this point Said makes a number of very arbitrary decisions. His Orient is reduced to the Middle East, and his Middle East to a part of the Arab world. By eliminating Turkish and Persian studies on the one hand and Semitic studies on the other, he isolates Arabic studies from both their historical and philological contexts. The period and area of Orientalism are similarly restricted (Lewis 1982: 50) Said's account contains many factual, methodological and conceptual errors. Said ignores many genuine contributions to the study of Eastern cultures made by Westerners during the Enlightenment and Victorian eras. Said's theory does not explain why the French and English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, long before they had any control or hope of control in the Middle East. Critics have noted Said ignored the contributions of Italian, Dutch, and particularly the massive contribution of German scholars. Lewis claims that the scholarship of these nations was more important to European Orientalism than the French or British, but the countries in question either had no colonial projects in the Mideast (Dutch and Germans), or no connection between their Orientalist research and their colonialism (Italians). Said's theory also does not explain why much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of imperialism (Lewis 1982: 52) The critique of Orintalism raises several genuine questions. A point made by several critics is that the guiding principle of these studies is expressed in the dictum “knowledge is power” and that Orientalists were seeking knowledge of Oriental peoples in order to dominate them, most of them being directly or objectively in the service of imperialism. Another charge leveled against the Orientalists is that of bias against the peoples they study, even of a built-in hostility to them. The most important question least mentioned by the current wave of critics – is that of the scholarly merits, indeed the scholarly validity, of Orientalist findings. And Said has hardly touched on this question and has indeed given very little attention to the scholarly writings of the scholars whose putative attitudes, motives, and purposes form the theme of his book (Lewis 1982: 54) In his book Dangerous Knowledge, British historian Robert Irwin criticizes what he claims to be Said's thesis that throughout Europe’s history, “every European, in what he could say about the Orient, was a racist, an imperialist, and almost totally ethnocentric.” Irwin points out that long before notions like third-worldism and post-colonialism entered academia, many Orientalists were committed advocates for Arab and Islamic political causes. Irwin's argument is that the field of European research into Middle Eastern language, culture, and history was by no means so tightly linked to Western imperial ambitions as Orientalism suggests. He is also very skeptical of the value of analyzing Orientalist scholarship alongside Western literary texts devoted to the East— evading the distinctions between kinds of texts by treating them all as manifestations of a colonialist discourse. While acknowledging the great influence of Orientalism on postcolonial theory since its publication in 1978, George P. Landow - a professor of English and Art History at Brown University in the United States - 370 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo finds Said's scholarship lacking. He chides Said for ignoring the non-Arab Asian countries, non-Western imperialism, the Occidentalist ideas that abound in East towards the Western, and gender issues. Orientalism assumes that Western imperialism, Western psychological projection, "and its harmful political consequences are something that only the West does to the East rather than something all societies do to one another." Landow also finds Orientalism's political focus harmful to students of literature since it has led to the political study of literature at the expense of philological, literary, and rhetorical issues Landow points out that Said completely ignores China, Japan, and South East Asia, in talking of "the East," but then goes on to criticise the West’s homogenisation of the East. Furthermore, Landow states that Said failed to capture the essence of the Middle East, not least by overlooking important works by Egyptian and Arabic scholars. In addition to poor knowledge about the history of European and non-European imperialism, another of Landow’s criticisms is that Said sees only the influence of the West on the East in colonialism. Landow argues that these influences were not simply one-way, but cross-cultural, and that Said fails to take into account other societies or factors within the East. He also criticises Said’s "dramatic assertion that no European or American scholar could `know` the Orient." However, in his view what they have actually done constitutes acts of oppression. Moreover, one of the principal claims made by Landow is that Said did not allow the views of other scholars to feature in his analysis; therefore, he committed “the greatest single scholarly sin” in Orientalism. In Defending the West, Ibn Warraq demonstrates that Said is guilty of the major intellectual errors he ostentatiously decries in the twenty-fifth anniversary edition preface: obscuring the diversity and complexity of lived experience by falsely ascribing essential features to peoples and civilizations; and rendering categorical moral and political judgments without the adequate historical knowledge on which responsible judgment depends. He shows that Said routinely produces pretentious, meaningless, and contradictory speech. Most notably, in the fashion of the more glib postmodernism, Said stresses that "the Orient" does not exist but is rather the paranoid construction of Western scholars. This, however, does not prevent him from blatantly contradicting himself by positing that two centuries of study by scholars in Europe and the U.S. have produced "a growing systematic knowledge in Europe about the Orient" and "a fair amount of exact positive knowledge about the Orient." Nor does it stop Said from decrying Orientalists because contrary to his insistence that a real Orient does not exist and contrary to his acknowledgment that the Orientalists have gained substantial knowledge of it — they have "‘no interest in, much less capacity for, showing what the true Orient and Islam really are.' Said’s case against the West is seriously flawed. Warraq accuses Said of not only willfully misinterpreting the work of many scholars, but also of systematically misrepresenting Western civilization as a whole. Charles Paul Freund in his article “The end of the Orientalist critique” argues that Said in his book Orientalism was a harsh interpretation of the West's attitude toward just these matters, and the critique he established has since dominated the intellectual appraisal of the West's political and cultural relationship to the Muslim world and other peoples of the East. What was Orientalism? Said identified it in his foundational work as the political, cultural, and intellectual system by which the West has for centuries "managed" its relationship with the Islamic world. The central stratagem of this process has been reductionist misrepresentation. In brief, according to Said and the army of intellectual critics and journalists who have come in his wake, Orientalism transforms the East and its people into an alien "Other." That Other—usually a Dark Other—was in every way the inferior of the West: unenlightened, barbarous, cruel, craven, enslaved to its senses, given to despotism, and, in general, contemptible. Having established an Eastern Other in these degrading terms, the West emerged at the center of its self-serving discourse as, by obvious contrast, enlightened and progressive. 371 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Conclusion Edward Said in his study “Orientalism Reconsidered” as an answer to these criticism writes “my argument was that neither existed except as 'communities of interpretation', and that, like the Orient itself, each designation represented interests, claims, projects, ambitions and rhetorics that were not only in violent disagreement, but were in a situation open warfare. So saturated wi t h meanings, so overdetermined by history, religion and politics are labels like 'Arab' or 'Muslim' as subdivisions of 'The Orient' that no one today can use them without some a t t e n t i o n to the formidable polemical mediations that screen the objects, if they exist at all, that the labels designate.”. Said in “Orientalism Reconsidered” argues that the challenge to Orientalism, and the colonial era of which it is so organically a pail, was a challenge to the muteness imposed upon the Orient as object. Insofar as it was a science of incorporation and inclusion by virtue of which the Orient was constituted and then introduced into Europe, Orientalism was a scientific movement whose analogue in the world of politics was the Orient's colonial accumulation and acquisition by Europe. The Orient was, therefore, not Europe's interlocutor, but its silent Other. From roughly the end of the eighteenth century, when the Orient was re-discovered by Europe, its history had been a paradigm of antiquity and originality, functions that drew Europe's interests in acts of recognition or acknowledgement but from which Europe moved as its own industrial, economic and cultural development seemed to leave the Orient far behind. Oriental history for Hegel, for Marx, later for Burkhardt, Nietzsche, Spengler and other major philosophers of history was useful in portraying a region of great age, and what had to be left behind. Literary historians have further noted in all sorts of aesthetic writing and figurative portrayals that a trajectory of 'Westering', found for example in Keats and Holderlin, customarily saw the Orient as ceding its historical preeminence and importance to the world spirit moving westwards away from Asia and towards Europe. Said in the study writes The divergences between the numerous critiques of Orientalism us ideology and praxis arc very wide nonetheless. Some attack Orientalism as a prelude to assertions about the virtues of one or another native culture: these are the nalivists. Others criticize Orientalism as a defence against attacks on one or another political creed: these are the nationalists. Still others criticize Orientalism for falsifying the nature of Islam: These are, grosso modo, t h e believers. I will not adjudicate between these claims, except to say that I have avoided taking stands on such matters as the real, true or authentic Islamic or Arab world. But, in common with all the recent critics of Orientalism, I think that two things are especially important one, a methodological vigilance that construes Orientalism less as a positive than as a critical discipline and therefore makes it subject to intense scrutiny, and two, a determination not to allow the segregation and confinement of the Orient to go on without challenge. My understanding of this second point has led me entirely to refuse designations like 'Orient' and 'Occident'. (Orientalism Reconsidered 1985) 372 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Castle, Gregory. The Blackwell Guide to Literary Theory Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007 Freund, C. Paul. “The end of the <http://www.reason.com/archives.html>. Orientalist Critique” December 2001 25 Jan. 2010 Habib, M.A.R. A History of Literary Criticism From Plato to the Present Malden: Blackwell Publishing. 2005. Halliday, Fred. “Orientalism and Its Critics” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 20.2 (1983), 145-163 Lewis, Bernard. “The Questions of Orientalism” The New York Review (1982), 49-56. Ning, Wang. “Orientalism Versus Occidentalism” New Literary History 28.1 (1997), 57-67 Oldmeadow, Harry. “The debate About Orientalism” World Wisdom (2004), 3-19 Parry, Benita. “Problems in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse” Oxford Literary Review 1.2 (1987) Rassam, Amal, and Ross Chambers. “Comments on Orientalism” Comparative Studies in Society and History 22.4 (1980), 505-512 Robert, Irwin. Dangerous Knowledge London: Penguin Group Publishing, 2006 Said Edward W. Orintalism. 1978. London: Penguin, 1985 Said, Edward. “Orientalism Reconsidered” Race Class (1985) Sardar, Ziauddin. Orientalism Buckingham: Open University Press, 1999 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Ed. Cary Nelson and Lawrance Grossberg. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988. Warraq, ibn. Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said’s Orientalism New York: Prometheus Books, 2007 373 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 720 Title A name given to the resource Criticism on Edward Said’s Orientalism Author Author Mart, Çağrı Tuğrul Toker, Alpaslan Esen, M. Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Orient was a system of ideological fictions whose purpose was and is to legitimize Western cultural and political superiority; furthermore, the Western understanding of the East has grown out of a relationship of power, of dominance, of varying degrees of complex hegemony. The Orient signifies a system of representations framed by political forces that brought the Orient into Western learning, Western consciousness, and Western empire. The Orient exists for the West, and is constructed by and in relation to the West. It is a mirror image of what is inferior and alien ("Other") to the West. Orientalism is "a manner of regularized (or Orientalized) writing, vision, and study, dominated by imperatives, perspectives, and ideological biases ostensibly suited to the Orient." It is the image of the 'Orient' expressed as an entire system of thought and scholarship. The Oriental is the person represented by such thinking. The Oriental is a single image, a sweeping generalization, a stereotype that crosses countless cultural and national boundaries. The term Orient particularly included regions that used to be known as Persia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Egypt. As awareness of other Asian countries grew in European consciousness, the term often came to mean South Asia, Southeast Asia or East Asia. By the late 19th century, the term usually referred to China, Japan, Korea and surrounding nations while the British colonists frequently used it when speaking of India. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1014 Title A name given to the resource Croatian Dialects – from Child's Reception to Methodological Context Author Author Turza-Bogdan, Tamara Abstract A summary of the resource. One on the main objectives of Croatian elementary school language teaching is to develop „respect towards the language of the Croatian people, its literature and culture“. (Elementary school curriculum, 2006, 25). It originates the tasks of continuous elementary-school learning of themes regarding the three dialects of the Croatian language: Kajkavian, Štokavian and Čakavian, as well as adopting the language standard and the language in other communication situations. A research into students' reception of the Kajkavian dialect and literature showed that the reception of speech or nonspeech dialect opens up possibilities for different interpretations in methodological context. Hence we can speak of different possibilities of access and levels of dialect understanding in terms of the speakers adopting it. Students are showing interest for the dialect either because it is a part of their mother tongue or because it is not, but rather it represents a relatively unfamiliar content. The interest shown should become a methodological incentive in teaching. The paper presents the results of a research on primary school teachers' thoughts on the dialects of the Croatian language. The circumstances influencing the dialect teaching have been examined: awareness of the value of dialect within the Croatian language, understanding the ways of adopting the standard language through dialects, the methods of preparing for classes and issues arising when encouraging language activities in dialects. The results of the research are compared in various speech communities relative to the Kajkavian dialect which is in the focus of the research. The similarities and differences in teachers' thoughts regarding the speach and nonspeech dialect are discussed. A conclusion is reached on the necessity of constant development of teachers' competences relating to this subject matter. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/42babe8dc966a3c49ea3942f9d8639d7.pdf ee247a3b506516254e12090757f2e7bc PDF Text Text International Conference on Economic and Social Studies, 10-11 May, 2013, Sarajevo Croatian Reformed Pension System Crisis and Models of Sustainable Optimization Goran Luburid Business School Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia goran.luburic@vpsz.hr Senka Zavišid Zagreb University, Zagreb, Croatia senkaza@gmail.com Croatia, as well as many western-economy based countries, is expecting longterm negative demographic trends when it comes to young and elderly ratio or natural increase ratio. Social policy objective in the context of pension system is supposed to be crucial factor in preserving social stability based on longterm sustainability, not on short-term solutions like abundant debt-funded pensions directly from national budget. Recent macroeconomic changes in Croatia, like structural unemployment because of inconsistent demand and supply on labor market as well as extinction of old and expansion of new business markets puts Croatian pension system in challenging economic surroundings. These surroundings identify a new way of approach on determining future macroeconomic projections and designing a better and more sustainable fiscal system of which pension system holds substantial part. The study presents argumented thoughts on previous and recent analyses of Croatian pension system, mainly from the period after pension reforms in Croatia that is between 2002 and 2012. Authors of this study identify fundamental problems and present a new perspective considering the direction of possible future changes in the pension system, having in mind recent demographic and public finance trends in Croatian economy. Authors also present conceptual directions towards optimization of the pension system, with emphasis on specifically applicable models of optimization considering pension pillars and other social contributions that are obligatory in calculating brutto wages. In addition, this study presents interest groups like pensioners, insured workers, obligatory pension funds and government that would be affected by proposed models of optimization. Different approaches in creating motivational factors for pension system optimization had been analyzed and presented solutions have a built-in trade-off for every analyzed interest group. Presented models are to be considered for potential implementation or new reform that would improve pension adequacy rates without affecting fiscal sustainability of public finance in Croatia. Keywords: Croatian Pension Insurance, Pension System Reforms, Demographic Changes, Sustainability, Optimization Level, PAYG. 130 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1514 Title A name given to the resource Croatian Reformed Pension System Crisis and Models of Sustainable Optimization Author Author LUBURIĆ, Goran ZAVIŠIĆ, Senka Abstract A summary of the resource. Croatia, as well as many western-economy based countries, is expecting longterm negative demographic trends when it comes to young and elderly ratio or natural increase ratio. Social policy objective in the context of pension system is supposed to be crucial factor in preserving social stability based on longterm sustainability, not on short-term solutions like abundant debt-funded pensions directly from national budget. Recent macroeconomic changes in Croatia, like structural unemployment because of inconsistent demand and supply on labor market as well as extinction of old and expansion of new business markets puts Croatian pension system in challenging economic surroundings. These surroundings identify a new way of approach on determining future macroeconomic projections and designing a better and more sustainable fiscal system of which pension system holds substantial part. The study presents argumented thoughts on previous and recent analyses of Croatian pension system, mainly from the period after pension reforms in Croatia that is between 2002 and 2012. Authors of this study identify fundamental problems and present a new perspective considering the direction of possible future changes in the pension system, having in mind recent demographic and public finance trends in Croatian economy. Authors also present conceptual directions towards optimization of the pension system, with emphasis on specifically applicable models of optimization considering pension pillars and other social contributions that are obligatory in calculating brutto wages. In addition, this study presents interest groups like pensioners, insured workers, obligatory pension funds and government that would be affected by proposed models of optimization. Different approaches in creating motivational factors for pension system optimization had been analyzed and presented solutions have a built-in trade-off for every analyzed interest group. Presented models are to be considered for potential implementation or new reform that would improve pension adequacy rates without affecting fiscal sustainability of public finance in Croatia. Keywords: Croatian Pension Insurance, Pension System Reforms, Demographic Changes, Sustainability, Optimization Level, PAYG. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d6558642186562fa9b086cafbfd77a4b.pdf 494abe295dc5d005104959b34fd304d9 PDF Text Text CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Maria Rugo & Antonia Ordulj Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt & University of Zagreb Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Article History: Submitted: 10.06.2015 Accepted: 10.08.2015 Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Abstract: The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 1. INTRODUCTION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Second language acquisition is a complex process because of many interrelated factors (age, cognition, input, educational background, motivation...) and codes of native language and target language. During this process the learner creates an interlanguage (IL) (Selinker, 1972), i.e. a dynamic linguistic system that contains variable elements and structures of both native and target language, which learners use and develop during different stages of second language acquisition. During the early stage of of this complex process, though the native language elements tend to prevail, the interlanguage system develops simultaneously with the learner’s linguistic improvement. However, incorrect target language structures often become a rooted habit and can easily fossilize in any developmental stage of language acquisition. All language elements, rules and subsystems are liable to fossilization irrespective of and the age or the length of instructions received by the learner had in the target language. The fossilized structures remain even when it seems that they have been completely removed (Selinker: 1972:215). 2. THEORETICAL ISSUES ON NEGATIVE TRANSFER Any interlanguage presents several characteristics: fluctuation, fragmentation, as well as simplicity in form and function (Vrhovac, 2001). Simplicity of IL refers to the use of less complex grammatical rules and limited vocabulary, which means that IL is the system with its own language rules (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Since an IL is a dynamic linguistic system, it is liable to changes caused by development of learner language knowledge. According to Selinker (1972) there are five different processes that are involved in developing of learners IL: language transfer, overgeneralization of TL linguistic elements, transfer of training, strategies of second language learning, and strategies of second language communication. According to Richards (1974), errors could be classified into two categories: interlingual errors, and intralingual and developmental errors. Interlingual errors are influenced by native languages, which interfere with the target language learning process. Intralingual and developmental errors are caused by the target language itself, and they occur during the learning process. Actually, the language transfer is the one that causes a large number of errors from the target language. According to Odlin (1993:27), transfer can be defined as “influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired.” It refers to transfer from one language to another, and this transfer can be either positive or negative. If the elements common to both the learner’s mother and target languages are similar, then a positive transfer occurs. On the other hand, if there are differences between both languages, and some elements proper of the mother language obstruct the acquisition of the target language structures, then the transfer is negative (Medved Krajnović, 2010; Odlin, 1993). During the Fifties and Sixties, under the influence of contrastive analyses, most language errors among learners’ IL were thought to be triggered by the influence of the mother tongue. Although many researches belie this claim, it is a retained opinion that mother tongue indeed is a contributing factor in the acquisition of the foreign language (PrebegVilke, 1991). Odlin (1993) states that negative transfer is relatively easy to identify and that, Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Not Highlight Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �according to cross-linguistic similarities and differences, we can differentiate four consequences stemming from a given negative transfer: underproduction, overproduction, production errors (substitutions, calques, alternations of structures) and misinterpretations. If a learner is able to produce a small number of examples when using a target language, then underproduction occurs. This may be caused by either the inability to produce examples of target language, or by a mechanism of avoidance, i.e. when the structures in the target language appear to be significantly different from those in the target language. Practical analyses of Chinese learners’ essays have confirmed that simple sentences in written English are used because there are no complex sentence patterns in Chinese (Wang& Liu, 2013). On the other hand, if learners tend to excessively use the structures of a target language in a wrong way (e.g. they use many simple sentences instead of adopting more complex ones), this results in an overproduction. According to Wang and Liu (2013), Chinese learners of ESL often overproduce patterns when using paragraph introductory structures, e.g. firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally or with the development of. When observing the mechanisms of error production, Odlin (1993) differentiates substitutions, calques and alternations of structures. Substitutions refer to the choice of replacing one language element with another, usually a use of native language form in the target language (e.g. serioso → serious, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Calques represent given elements of syntactic structures that usually get literally translated from a native language (e.g. He tenido mi pelo cortado → I have had my hair cut, Calvo Cortés, 2005). Alternations of structures very often occur in case of a cross-linguistic influence, and may be observed in hypercorrections. According to Odlin (1993:38), hypercorrections are “overreactions to particular influence from the native language.” Particularly, Odlin (1993) refers to spelling errors that involve substitutions of the letter b for the letter p (e.g. blaying VS playing), made by Arabic learners of ESL. Finally, misinterpretations refer to any wrong interpretation of the messages expressed in the target language. In this study we will focus on the lexical errors of Croatian learners of Italian as foreign language. Since IL is a separate transitional linguistic system that involves linguistic elements of both native and target language, changes could be observed in the IL used by Croatian learners of Italian as a foreign language at all levels, i.e. phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics (Jelaska, 2005). According to previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013), the most frequent phonological errors encompass the pronunciation of vocals, the use of double consonants or the insertion of sounds in accordance with the phonology of Croatian words (e.g. Croatian learners will often pronounce Italian words such as meccanico or psicologo by uttering them according to the Croatian phonological system, i.e. mehaničar; psiholog). Errors at the morphological level usually occur with the highest frequency, e.g. omission of definite and indefinite articles before a noun, wrong choice of prepositions, wrong grammatical gender, word order, using of Italian verbs giocare, tornare, ridere as reflexive verbal forms due to the influence of Croatian verbs igrati se, vratiti se, smijati se etc. Both the choice of word order as well as the discrepancy in noun’s number and gender may be seen as among the most problematic errors at the syntactic level. Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear (White) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Italic, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom), Pattern: Clear Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �3. AIM OF THE STUDY Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The aim of this study was to determine the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian, by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners. 4. METHODOLOGY Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.1 Subjects Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) The study was conducted among a sample of 40 learners attending ABC, a foreign language school based in Zagreb, Croatia, which specifically deals with courses of Italian language and culture. All of the participants are native Croatian speakers and have studied Italian as a foreign language at intermediate levels (B1 and B2). Lessons take place in a stimulating working atmosphere, in which an emphasis is put on developing communicative competence. The average age of the participants is between 19 and 60 years old, and the majority of them has had a formal education in Italian language for 4 to 6 years, though some of them have learned the language for 1 to 3 years. For all of them, Italian is the second (or third) foreign language acquired in an educational context, with English always being the first foreign language studied. In this project, we focus on the negative transfer in lexical context and how it is reflected in practical examples. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 4.2 Data Collection The errors caused by negative transfer have been collected during regular classes of Italian as a foreign language. Teacher has created a record encompassing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral performances of a group of intermediate (B1-B2) Croatianspeaking learners. Their oral production has been partly recorded, but mostly transcribed or written down by the students or by the teachers. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) According to collected examples, the authors have decided to divide the lexical errors in five categories: 1) Calques occurred under the influence of mother tongue (L1) Calques are errors that closely represent native language structure and they are usually the most frequent. According to Vinay (1995), calques are defined as “special kind of borrowing whereby a language borrows an expression form or another, but then translates literally each of its elements”. A given L2 word is the result of a literal translation from the L1. We refer here to what has been observed by Ringbom (2001), according to whom the calque is a type of lexical transfer of meaning occurring when there is awareness of the existing target language form, but not of Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �the semantic/collocational restrictions. It is very important to remove calques at an early stage, because later on they tend to fossilize. It is, for instance, quite hard to eliminate calques from a student’s language usage if he or she have learned Italian in Italy without attending any relevant language course. In this case, his or her oral performances present many calques consisting in literal translations from Croatian language. Their fossilization makes the errors’ removal very slow and sometimes almost impossible. Furthermore, when using Italian words and phrases such as ‘commenti’, ‘fare una domanda’, ‘stravagante’, and ‘non vedo l’ora’, Croatian learners tend to rather adopt the literal translation from their native language, as summarised in the following table: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian commenti fare una domanda stravagante non vedo l'ora Wrong production in Italian commentari chiedere una domanda estravagante non posso aspettare Form in Croatian komentari pitati pitanje ekstravagantan ne mogu čekati / jedva čekam Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 2) Calques occurred under the influence of English language Though our main aim here is to focus on the mistakes that Croatian learners of Italian as L2 tend to make under the influence of their native language, it must be pointed out that this issue is also often influenced by a series of errors produced under the influence of English language. As already mentioned, for all participants English is the first foreign language, thus it is reasonable to expect that previously acquired foreign language may cause a number of interferences between languages. Lexical errors under the influence of English language are usually deceptive cognates, as illustrated by the following examples: Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Correct form in Italian istruito stampare capire sostenere qualcuno ti porto a casa siamo molto legati Wrong production in Italian educato printare realizzare supportare qualcuno ti prendo a casa siamo molto collegati Form in English educated to print to realize to support someone I'll take you home we are very connected Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) 3) Wrong usage of target structures Some target structures are differently used in both Croatian and Italian languages; for example, among students there is a tendency to confuse the adjective bravo, which is used when someone is good at doing something, with the adjective buono, which in Italian identifies something that is good to eat (good), or of good quality (e.g. a good movie). In Italian, the sentence sono bravi a correre cannot be transformed as sono buoni a correre. Furthermore, the adverb bene/male can only be used with a verb, but not with the verb to be in this kind of sentence: it is not correct to say il suo comportamento è male, but il suo Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �comportamento non va bene. Also some words can have different usages, e.g. there is a difference between the Italian verbs rubare and derubare, since rubare means to rob something, while derubare means to rob someone of something. In Croatian both actions are rendered as rubare, thus resulting in a misusage of the Italian correct semantics attached to each verb. Another common error occurs with the verb viaggiare (to travel): when in Italian this verb refers to the action of starting a journey, it should be translated as partire; e.g. siamo partiti alle 3 di mattina, and not abbiamo viaggiato alle 3 di mattina. 4) Underproduction Analyses of oral production have also revealed that Croatian learners tent to avoid the target language not using structures that are not familiar with in the L1. For example, in Italian the passive form is normally used also in oral speech, however learners tend to avoid using it because it is not a common structure in their mother tongue. Moreover, the structure fare+infinito doesn't exist in Croatian language, so for example, they simplify their syntax by using some other form, or by literally translating from Croatian (e.g. Mi ha arrabbiato instead of Mi ha fatto arrabbiare; Do che riparano il computer instead of Faccio riparare il computer). Another underproduction occurs with the simplified use of gerund by Croatian learners, who prefer to use the explicit form rather than a gerund because they find it hard to express orally: e.g. instead of saying aggiungendo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente, they use the explicit Se aggiungessimo un po' di colore, la stanza sarebbe più accogliente). 5) Overproduction Croatian learners of Italian as L2 often overproduce the demonstrative pronoun questo instead of the direct pronoun lo and this can lead to redundancy (e.g. avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e ho ordinato questo. The correct Italian sentence would rather be: Avevo voglia di frittura mista, sono andato al ristorante e l’ho ordinata. The excessive use of demonstrative pronoun questo is usually caused by learners’ fear, as well as by the tendency to simplify unfamiliar structures in the target language. 6. CONCLUSION The present study has confirmed the influence of negative transfer of Croatian L2 learners. Croatian learners of Italian as L2 refer constantly to their mother tongue in oral production which is also confirmed in previous research (Sironić Bonefačić, 1990; Županović Filipin & Mardešić, 2013; Letica& Mardešić, 2007). According to collected examples, the errors were divided in five groups: calques from Croatian and English language, overproduction, underproduction and wrong usage of target language structures. The most common type of errors are calques from Croatian (L1), which are mainly caused by the students’ choice of avoiding the use of target language whenever they do not feel sure or don't know the words or the correct structure of a sentence. Calques are not helping the development of target language, because mother tongue concepts, words and Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... �structures often works in a different way than those in the target language, so learner should be aware of and familiarize themselves with the relevant differences between languages. In addition, our analysis has revealed that Croatian learners of Italian often use calques from English, this being a previously acquired language that learners master since a very young age. Not only have our examples confirmed that these types of interferences very frequently occur at a lexical level, but they also have demonstrated that learners avoid and simplify those structures that appear to be not so common or significantly different between Croatian and Italian languages; this can result in a mechanism of underproduction of given target language structures, as well as in the opposite process of overproduction, which appears to be often a consequence of underproduction (Wang& Liu, 2013). In order to overcome errors in the target language, the teacher should prepare a set of different activities, such as contrastive demonstrations of the errors in both languages, cloze tests, and presentations of the texts that are being studied during the lesson. Indeed, teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures that have already been acquired by the students. Teachers should further encourage Croatian learners to use those elements and structures of Italian language that are not so common in oral production of Croatian (e.g. passive sentences). It is important to make learners aware of the recurrent errors, by adopting authentic texts that feature given problematic structures and elements, as well as by recurring to role plays in which learners are pushed to pay attention to specific elements of the target language. Finally, learners should also develop their own strategies for learning new and problematic elements and structures of target language. In this framework, a teacher’s key action consists in making the students aware of the differences between linguistic structures, as well as always pointing out at the words used in both languages. If learners are able to notice those differences from the very beginning of their educational process, it may then be easier for them to adopt the correct structures of the target language. Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted ... References Formatted: Font: Bold, English (United Kingdom) 1. Alujević Jukić, M. i Brešan,T. (2010). Prijenosne pogreške kod talijanskih izvornih govornika tijekom pisane produkcije na hrvatskom kao stranom jeziku. XXIII. Međunarodni znanstveni skup „Prostor i vrijeme u jeziku: jezik i vrijeme u prostoru. Osijek, 1-14. 2. Calvo Cortés, N. (2005). Negative language transfer when learning Spanish as a foreign language. Interlingüística, 16 (1), 237-248. 3. Cattana Nesci (2004). Analizzare e correggere gli errori, Guerra edizioni, Perugia. 4. Guglielmi L. (2008). Studenti serbofoni e croatofoni: lingue ‘gemelle’ e diversi fenomeni di tranfer nell’apprendimento dell’italiano LS. http://www.itals.it/studenti-serbofoni-e-croatofoni-lingue-gemelle-e-diversi-fenomenidi-transfer-nellapprendimento (last consultation 09.06.2015) 5. Jelaska, Z. i sur., (2005). Hrvatski kao drugi i strani jezik. Zagreb: Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted ... Formatted ... Formatted: Font color: Auto, English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) �6. Letica, S. & Mardešić, S. (2007). Cross-Linguistic Transfer in L2 and L3 Production. In J. Horvath & M. Nikolov (Eds.), UPRT 2007: Empirical Studies in English applied linguistics (pp. 307-318). Pecs: Lingua Franca Csoport. 7. Medved Krajnović, M. (2010). Od jednojezičnosti do višejezičnosti. Uvod u istraživanja procesa ovladavanja inim jezikom. Zagreb: Leykam international. 8. Odlin, T. (1993). Language transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge, CUP. 9. Prebeg Vilke, M. (1991).Vaše dijete i jezik. Zagreb: Školska knjiga. 10. Richards, J.C. (1974). Error Analyses. Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition. Longman. 11. Ringbom, H. (2001). Lexical Transfer in L3 Production. In Cenoz, J. et al., (eds) Crosslinguistic influence in Third Language Acquisition: Psycholinguistic Perspectives. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 12. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10, 209-231. 13. Sironić Bonefačić, N. (1990). Anali degli errori nell’espressione orale dell’italiano come lingua straniera. SRAZ XXXV. 173-181. 14. Vinay , J.P. (1995). Comparative Stylistics of French and English A methodology for translation, John Benjamins Publishing Co. 15. Vrhovac, Y. (2001). Govorna komunikacija i interakcija na satu stranog jezika. Zagreb: Naklada Ljevak. 16. Wang, S. & Liu, C. (2013). Negative language transfer reflected in ESL learners’ English writing. ICT for Language learning. 17. Županović Filipin, N. & Mardešić, S. (2013). Analisi dell’interlingua nell’apprendimento dell’italiano a livello universitario. SRAZ LVII, 201-219. Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Not Italic, Font color: Auto, English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) Formatted: English (United Kingdom) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2958 Title A name given to the resource CROSS-LINGUISTIC TRANSFER IN ORAL L2 PRODUCTION OF CROATIAN L1 SPEAKERS LEARNING ITALIAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE Author Author Rugo, Maria Ordulj, Antonia Abstract A summary of the resource. The acquisition process of the target language is characterized by the complexity of linguistic rules in learner’s L1 and linguistic purposes of that particular language. This process accomplishes a system called interlanguage (Selinker, 1972). In this system the linguistic transfer, especially a negative one, often causes a large number of cross-linguistic deviations in the target language. (Medved Krajnović, 2010). Previous research on L1 interference in the acquisition and production of Italian as a foreign language has shown that many different linguistic transfers take place at lexical, phonological, grammatical and morphological levels (Alujević Jukić & Brešan, 2010; Sironić Bonefačić, 1990). In this paper we focus on the negative transfer of lexical elements from L1 Croatian to L2 Italian by analyzing the most frequent errors occurred in the oral productions of a group of intermediate (CEFR levels B1-B2) Croatian-speaking learners (approximately 40 students). Our analysis shows that the Croatian L1 significantly affects the choice of lexical structures and words in Italian L2. Indeed, during the oral production in L2 language, we noticed that errors are mostly calques, substitutions and use of lexical structures based on L1 linguistic model. The examination of the negative transfer reveals useful to draw both didactic and learning suggestions, which can be beneficial for the whole language learning process. For learners, the implication is the possibility of developing and strengthening a strategy to memorize lexical words and structures. In doing so, they can be helped by different activities during the lesson, such as contrastive demonstrations of errors in both the languages involved, cloze tests, as well as presentations of the texts that are being studied. We therefore suggest that teachers should model their didactic approach by focusing more on systemic errors related to the structures already learnt by the student (Cattana Nesci, 2004). Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-12 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PG Slavic, Baltic, Albanian languages and literature,PQ Romance literatures Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 962 Title A name given to the resource Cultural Diplomacy in Foreign Language Teaching: Some Evidences from the Teaching of Portuguese as a Foreign Language Author Author Moutinho, Ricardo Carlos Paes de Almeida Filho, Jose Abstract A summary of the resource. In an increasingly multi-territorialized and interdependent world, where technology plays an important role through many mass media services, people are getting more in touch with one another than ever before. This provides the possibility to overcome geographical boarders in order to build new relationships that foster mutual interests in economical and socio-cultural aspects from different countries. However, not only official diplomats are in charge of this exchange. As many language instructors are hired to teach in partner countries, they can all be considered independent, public or cultural diplomats who mediate interaction between cultures (or countries) through the teaching of a target language. Therefore, instructors will have to provide the students with information about socio-cultural aspects, rather than only linguistic ones, related to the people who speak the target language. This means that the instructor’s task is not teaching language itself, but teaching beyond language, incorporating topics related to the students’ interests. Besides that, as any good diplomat, instructors also have to know how to act in the culture they are in. For this reason, they must also be determined to learn about the other culture and language so that they can promote a fair positioning of the language sought. This study focuses on this topic illustrating real life situations experienced by how instructors of Portuguese as a Foreign Language (PFL) act as cultural diplomats of their language in an international setting. Considering that Portuguese has been growing in China due to bilateral agreements this country has with some Portuguese speaking nations (specially Brazil, Angola, Mozambique and Portugal), we intend to discuss which actions the PFL instructors (native and non-native ones) must perform to be considered cultural diplomats of this language in a setting like Macau, where Portuguese is starting to be seen as a global rather than a local language. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/24a10cb6aa76fe27fc8ae1a25e0ec209.pdf 1b4c79872389aca646f54006e9ec84c4 PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cultural diversity as a key factor in planning foreign language teaching policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina Mejra SoftiĤ Islamic Pedagogical Faculty University in Zenica mejra1967@gmail.com Abstract:Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multiethnic and multicultural community which has traditionally displayed deep sensitivity to the need for appreciation, promotion, learning, connecting, and preservation of the different cultures. The aim of the paper is to indicate the multilayered nature of the cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the fact that cultural, traditional, and religious diversity, as well as the civilisation imbuement with the elements of the European and Oriental-Islamic culture have strongly affected the planning of foreign language teaching policy in this country for centuries. Having been subjected to strong political and cultural influences both from the East and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina opens up possibilities for combining European and Oriental languages by applying modern curricula at primary schools. The primary goal is for the students to encounter cultures of entirely different regions and to be taught tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and their native culture. The paper also addresses a close relationship between a foreign language and culture of the people using that language and indicates the necessity to teach a foreign language by teaching elements of foreign culture. Such a method introduces a student to the process of intercultural learning of a foreign language and produces a positive effect on the development of the student's cultural communication competences. BiH has shown strong tendencies towards harmonising the foreign language curricula with modern European concepts of foreign language teaching and learning. Key words: cultural diversity, foreign language policy, curricula, interaction, tolerance, appreciation and coexistence Introduction Cultural diversity is one of the most significant attributes of the human population in general. It is mankind's centuries-long fact conditioned by numerous differences. It is primarily related to the use of different verbal and non-verbal communication codes within social communities and their relationship to other social communities. Additionally, it is related to different norms of behaviour, different beliefs, religions, opinions and values. Identification of individuals with a group that has a common system of symbols, meanings and norms of behaviour represents their cultural identity, and ―(...) knowing another's cultural identity (...) does help you to understand the opportunities and challenges that each individual in that culture had to deal with‖ (Jandt, 2010:15). The familiarity with cultural diversity has become a part of our daily lives, having in mind that meeting others has been alleviated by globalisation processes worldwide and a resulting wider opening-up of some societies towards others. A consequence of the globalisation processes is the strengthening of migration processes, which leads to an increased number of various multicultural contacts and formation of multicultural communities. On the other hand, we must bear in mind the fact that the diversity of cultures, i.e. multiculturalism, may be historically rooted in a social community thus constituting its distinguishable constant feature, not a product of migration processes. Education policies have always had profound influence both in terms of developing and the weakening of cultural diversity. Therefore, the task of contemporary educational process, viewed through the prism of the transfer of knowledge and acquisition of competences, is to facilitate the acquisition of intercultural competences which enable coexistence with others, together with their cultural diversity (Byram, 1997). Within the framework of UNESCO report on Education for Twenty-first Century, under the leadership of Jacques Delors, another report was presented entitled Learning – The Treasure Within, which emphasises that education relies on four principles: ―learning to be‖, ―learning to know‖ ―learning to work‖ and ―learning to live together‖. The Commission has singled out the ―learning to live together‖ principle as the most important one as it entails ―(...) the development of people's understanding for other people, their histories, traditions, and spiritual values (...)‖ (Report, 1996:20-21), thus implying the conclusion that these principles can be applied successfully only if they are established on appreciation of cultural diversity. Language is most frequently referred to as one of the basic criteria of cultural diversity and its fundamental element. Language is considered a product of spiritual culture of a people and its transmitter at the same time. This is why, from the point of view of cultural diversity, languages are not considered only a means of communication. In 877 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo fact, being the media of our experiences, our systems of value, our encounters with other people and our sense of belonging, languages are also a combination of our cultural expressions, the strongholds of our identity, our values, and our views of the world (Risager, 2006). Hence, in growing political and economic integration of European countries, whose level of future unity will depend on the level of mutual familiarity, understanding, and tolerance towards others and the different, the Council of Europe has defined the foreign language learning, promotion of significance of language and cultural diversity, and the need for their preservation as the priority tasks of education in the 21st century. In view of the above, this paper is focused on three main areas. First, it analyses the elements of cultural diversity in Bosnia and Herzegovina, its understanding in both broad and narrow terms, the effect these elements have on the planning of foreign language teaching policy in BiH, and their status and position in our contemporary education concept. Secondly, the paper attempts briefly to show that there is a close correlation between foreign language learning and its culture and that it is paramount to teach elements of the culture as it leads to developing intercultural communication. The final section of the paper points out the elements of harmonisation of the curricula in our schools with the European concept of curricula, which bring to the fore the development of students' cultural communicative competence. Cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina and its influence on planning foreign language teaching Historical background A culture of a people is inseparable from its history. The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina has witnessed centuries-long interactions and blending of several civilizations. Nowadays, three religions coexist there with an enviable degree of tolerance and respect, without assimilation pretexts for integration and creation of a unique cultural pattern which would annul the diversity and the specific quality of each cultural individuality. BiH has thus ―widely opened a door to another and different, so becoming a home to what is domiciliary and foreign, (...), to what is here and what is there, to what is altogether an ideal to which Europe itself is steered― (Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH, 2008:7). Due to its rather sensitive geopolitical position between the East and the West and its incorporation into the transitional zone of European culture, the cultural and historic heritage in BiH is heterogeneous, formed in a broad time span from the pre-historic and antic to the mediaeval, Ottoman, and modern times. Owing to such a geographic position, its culture has been shaped under the influence of four cultural and civilisation heritages: Mediterranean, Central European, Byzantine, and Oriental-Islamic, which is one of the decisive facts that has affected the course and content of the education and cultural development of BiH, as well as the abundance of forms of its culturalhistoric legacy. In the world that is becoming increasingly globalised, imposing its own system of values, which does not show too much understanding for traditional culture, which is, nevertheless, increasingly becoming aware of the need to preserve cultural values created for centuries, this abundance of cultural-historic heritage can become one of the comparative advantages of our country, ―(...) and our culture an important product with which BiH of today can in fact be competitive in Europe and the world‖ (Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH, 2008:12). In addition to the three constitutive peoples – Croats, Serbs, Bosniaks - BiH is a home to representatives of 17 ethnic minorities: the Romani, Slovenians, Ukrainians, Czechs, Albanians, Poles, Macedonians, Bulgarians, Austrians, Germans, Turks, Arabs, Italians, Hungarians, Russians, Slovaks and others, who present through their activities the most significant proof of the affirmation of cultures of diversity at a time of globalisation, which is invaluable for the development of intercultural dialogue and the strengthening of social cohesion. From the point of view of language diversity, Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are the three official languages of BiH, which show a high degree of mutual appreciation, clearly manifested towards the languages of minorities which are extensively used. Therefore, historically established multiculturalism, diversity of religions and traditions, and the language diversity lie at the heart of cultural identity of BiH. Hence, in defining priorities, the Strategy for Cultural Policy in BiH states as one of the fundamental goals and tasks: ―(...) further affirmation of multiculturalism and cultural unity, constantly bearing in mind the cultural wealth and specific cultural feature of BiH which incorporates numerous influences from the East, West and the Mediterranean, which represents its peculiar advantage, the factor of unifying and not of separation and a step more on the road to European integrations and, particularly, the nurturing of the cultural specificities of each of its peoples and ethnic minorities, with a full support to the activities of the (...) national, cultural, and educational associations and their contribution to the promotion of culture, protection of cultural-artistic heritage and language‖ (ibid., 34). Having experienced encounters with powerful European and Oriental cultures and civilisations, from which it inherited the spirit of cultural, traditional, and religious distinctiveness, long existing as an integral part of the globally known multicultural community – former Yugoslavia, having been taught painful experiences carried from the recent wartime events, Bosnia and Herzegovina understands the term and meaning of multiculturalism in its broadest terms, not only within its own borders. This is a result of the fact that multiculturalism in BiH, viewed in 878 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo the historical and geographic context, has always had its cultural forms which had its common institutions, which, by nurturing cultural diversity, did not advocate intolerance, isolation, and self-containment but openness, communication, and unity. Even nowadays, being a member of the Council of Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina actively participates in the work of the Council of Europe Committees dealing with the issues in the field of culture. Its capitol was the organiser of the first pilot project entitled the First Intercultural City of the Council of Europe 2003/04, and the first forum on intercultural and interreligious dialogue organised in cooperation with the Council of Europe and the Japanese foundation. Innovating the foreign language learning programmes Although in the transitional process and divided into two entities, and the entity of the Federation of BiH itself into ten cantons, although still in a state of an institutional and political chaos, in the past ten years BiH has invested a great deal into the education system reform. In the Federation of BiH and the Republic of Srpska the New Concept of Nine-year Education and Upbringing has been produced. Harmonisation with modern primary school concepts and compatibility of education standards with those of the European Union is referred to as one of the fundamental principles the Concept rest on. Following the recommendations of the Council of Europe, the BiH education system has implemented the projects of early foreign language learning, Common European Framework of Reference for Languages has been adopted, new upgraded foreign language curricula have been implemented, particularly at the primary school level as the key factor in developing students' capacities for successfully mastering the elements of a foreign language and culture (Prebeg-Vilke, 1991), the goals and objectives of the foreign language teaching have been redefined, and the foreign language teachers' role has been reviewed and corrected. In order for the students to master at least two foreign languages by the end of their schooling, under the innovated Framework Primary School Curriculum in both entities, the first compulsory foreign language, English, is being taught in the third grade. The second compulsory foreign language is now taught in the sixth grade; however, the students choose one among several optional foreign languages. The number of languages and the language selection itself differs in the Federation of BiH and the Republic of Srpska, and among the cantons themselves. They are mostly dictated by the interests of the majority population in a canton. In addition to the English language, the languages offered in the Republic of Srpska are: German, French, Russian, Italian, and in some schools, Spanish. Apart from English, the Federation Ministry of Science and Education has proposed German, French and Arabic, however, the cantonal ministries have been granted the autonomy to amend the list of languages offered based on the interest of students and their parents. The continuity of learning these languages has been ensured throughout the secondary schools and universities. Numerous private educational institutions, religious ones too, actively promote the learning of Turkish and Persian in addition to some of the above-mentioned languages. Our education system selected those European foreign languages under the influence of several key factors. The first factor, the leading one in planning foreign language policy worldwide, is the overall political and economic power of the country where the language is spoken and its global influence. Based on this criterion, English has stood out among other languages, becoming a global language of today and achieving the status of a lingua franca of the contemporary multilingual Europe and the first foreign language taught at all schools. An analysis and forecast of the labour market needs, current foreign language hierarchy in the world, and overall socio-political circumstances in a country, the political, economic, and cultural in particular, relations with the countries whose languages are taught are also rather important factors that have affected the selection of the dominant European, and non-European – Oriental languages, too. Oriental languages are an inseparable part of the cultural-historic heritage in BiH. As a result, they have been present in our education system for centuries. During the Ottoman Empire rule in these areas, literacy, education, and literature was developed in Arabic as the language of science, law, theology, Turkish, as the language of administration and fine literature, and Persian as the language of poetry (ŃabanoviĤ, 1973). In addition to having been studied at religious schools in continuity, in the mid 19th century they began to be taught at classical grammar schools in all the major centres of BiH (RamiĤ, 1999). With certain discontinuance and amendments, they remained an integral part of the secondary and university level curricula in our country, and the literary heritage created in these languages holds an exceptional cultural value of BiH. At the time when the issues under discussion are conflict of civilisations, conflict between the East and the West, the need for a closer cooperation and intercultural understanding, Oriental languages have increasingly been taught in the modern world. The growing strategic, economic, political, cultural and military potentials of the countries where these languages are spoken also represent significant causes of interest in these languages. By implementing the projects of early foreign language learning, whose goal is to promote the importance of multilingualism and cultural diversity at the earliest school age, the BiH education system has intentionally and purposely opened a possibility to combine the European and Oriental languages at primary schools. Bearing in mind the fact that ―(...) teaching a foreign language can in no way be separate from teaching a culture (...)‖ (Serrano, 2002:124), the combinations such as these are aimed at exposing the students to cultures of entirely different regions – European and Oriental - from a very early age and teaching them tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for 879 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and the native culture. Bosnia and Herzegovina has practically lived the cultural diversity for centuries and is aware of the need for its further preservation within its own borders and its promotion and understanding in a broader European context. Therefore, planning foreign language teaching as the most important medium of foreign culture has traditionally been addressed with full responsibility and willingness to implement modern teaching methods which nowadays emphasise the acquisition of (inter)cultural communicative competence. The dependence of foreign language and culture and development of intercultural learning The objective of the foreign language learning is to achieve successful communication in all the language domains. Starting from the etymology of the term communication, Fred E. Jandt (2010:37) points out that communication and culture are inseparable. A derivative of the Latin word communicare, it means:―(...) to share with or make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes and knowledge‖. On the other hand, he believes that culture, being a product of human social activity, is a code we learn and share, and learning and sharing requires communication. Therefore, in order for us to understand each other, communication and culture must be learned together. Taking the fundamental communicative function of language as a starting point, we can reach the conclusion that learning a foreign language means learning about a foreign culture. Therefore, in order to successfully participate in communication in a foreign language, we must, at least to a certain degree, learn and understand the cultural background of the language, know the customs and habits, and how to behave and act in a variety of situations in life, as close as possible to how speakers of a foreign language would (TanoviĤ, 1978). This implies that foreign language should be acquired within its cultural context. Namely, in the process of its learning and teaching it may not be separated from its natural environment and general cultural heritage it originates from. Contemporary linguistic theories of foreign language learning and teaching are based on such principles bearing in mind that they bring us closer to the community that uses it and that they change our preconceptions, notions and prejudices with regard to that community. The principles emphasise that foreign language teaching without the elements of foreign culture is incomplete, imprecise, and nonsensical even if learners know nothing about the native speakers or the native country. (Genc & Bada, 2005). These theories have also indicated the incompleteness of a widely accepted communicative approach whose goal is to develop the learners' communicative competences focusing on the functional and structural aspect of a language and their mutual combination in fuller communicative sense. With an approach like this, a learner masters the ability to choose the most suitable linguistic form for the execution of certain language functions and to use the language in accordance with the situation environment or social context, which means that, depending on when, where, why, who with and what they talk about, learners know which lexicon and models of expression to use (Littlewood, 1981). The fundamental disadvantage of this approach is that, in essence, it does not encourage the development of cultural awareness in learners, which is embedded in one of the chief goals of the modern language learning, and that is ―the development in learners of sensitivity to the culture (in the widest sense) of the communities whose languages are being studied‖ (Byram, 1993:26). In building communication competence, the language and cultural component are complementary as communication attains its full meaning only in relation to the fundamental socio-cultural signs. Communication cannot be reduced to transfering solely linguistic message as its essential features are composed of extra-linguistic and paralinguistic aspects of communication – mimicking, gesture, body movements, special intonation and rhythm used in specific situations. Not knowing those can lead to misunderstanding the message. Foreign language acquisition by teaching elements of foreign culture should primarily serve to developing cross-cultural communication, which introduces the learner to the process of intercultural language learning defined as ―(...) a process where the learner's picture of culture grows wider, with the help of new information about foreign culture and language, increasing in the same time the consciousness of the special features of one's own culture and language‖ (Kaikkonen, 1997:47). Therefore, for so oriented foreign language learning to be successful, it is necessary to develop in learners a positive attitude towards the foreign phenomena. After that, learners are focused on observing the elements of foreign culture and their comparison with their own culture, which further leads them to learning and acquiring the standards and norms of the foreign culture. Acquisition of new codes and meanings helps develop students' linguistic and cultural skills in communication. Curricula and developing cultural communicative competence Contemporary curricula in BiH are focused on developing learners' communicative competence from their very first encounter with a foreign language, indicating at the same time, the necessity of acquiring a language in a broader social context based on the culture of the people speaking it. Therefore, the primary goals of foreign language teaching referred to in the literature are to teach learners how to communicate in a foreign language, in 880 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo writing and orally, about various aspects of every-day life, to develop the learners' general culture by teaching them about the life and tradition of the countries where the language is spoken, and to attempt to develop in learners through the foreign language teaching an awareness of the importance of multilingualism, the spirit of tolerance, cosmopolitanism, humanism and internationalism. Further, one of the fundamental goals of the foreign language instruction referred to in the literature is to develop intercultural skills that help learners learn about the culture of the foreign language speaking countries, compare it with their own culture and tradition, and develop a positive, tolerant attitude towards diversities, all of which serves the purpose of enhancing their cultural communicative competence. Contemporary foreign language teaching methodologies in our schools support and promote European inter-cultural approach to foreign language teaching. By displaying how cultures are intertwined, this approach contributes to shaping learners' personality in terms of tolerance and respect for what is different, setting aside the ethnic differences, and explaining the importance of preserving social diversities and cultural pluralism within a nation (Vrhovec, 1999). The techniques applied in developing learners' (inter)cultural awareness in class and beyond are varied and mainly start with the strategies of observation, reflection, and conclusion about the cultural signs from every-day lives related to food, refreshments, sports, celebrities, and items used daily. Role-plays and simulation of daily situations in communication, comparisons, and contrasting with the elements of one's own culture, use of different audio-visual aids and authentic materials, trips to and living in the country where the foreign language is spoken etc. develop at the same time learners' communication skills and change their attitudes and relationship towards members of other cultures and nations in a positive way. Naturally, the selection of the technique and strategy depends on the learners' age and success and their efficiency primarily on the knowledge, skills, creativity, and motivation of the teachers themselves. Although education institutions in BiH are in a rather poor financial situation, and although primary and secondary schools are to a great extent divided based on the ethnicity of the students, as a result of which we have a unique phenomenon of two schools under one roof, the entity ministries of science and education keep abreast with contemporary trends in the foreign language teaching in Europe and make efforts in implementing them in their own curricula. Approaches that develop in learners sensitivity to cultures of others and different are not entirely new in our traditionally culturally aware society. However, in this rather sensitive post-war period it is essential to emphasise their importance in order to raise new generations which will be aware in the overall globalisation process of the significance of preserving their own cultural identity and which will have a developed sense of general unity and collectiveness in the cultural diversity of the united Europe. Conclusion Cultural diversity is considered the most valuable legacy of human civilization, though simultaneously a cause for frequent conflicts, lack of mutual understanding and intolerance. Rapid globalisation processes in the world lead to more common multicultural encounters which, as a result, call for development of positive attitudes and tolerance to others and those different from us. Viewed through the prism of the transfer of knowledge and acquisition of competences, modern education systems, particularly the processes of foreign language teaching and learning, have a task to help the acquisition of intercultural competences that enable coexistence with others and their cultural diversity. This is why one of the fundamental objectives of the foreign language classes is teaching elements of foreign culture, primarily serving the purpose of developing intercultural understanding and communication. Shaped under the influence of the Mediterranean, Mediaeval, Byzantine, and Oriental-Islamic culture, BiH has existed for centuries as a multicultural community with a developed sense of respect, appreciation, and understanding of the cultural diversity in its broadest terms. BiH is a place where the cultures of the East and West come together. Therefore, the possibility for combining the European and Oriental languages at the earliest school age is a proof of its attempts to build a bridge of understanding and tolerance between these two different cultures and support and promote them equally in a student's consciousness applying modern foreign language learning programmes. Contemporary approaches to the foreign language teaching suggest that foreign language learning has to take place in its broader socio-cultural context and in a direction opposite from the usual one. In fact, instead of the traditional practice of having the most important elements of a culture of the people speaking a language adopted through that foreign language, these approaches endeavour to put at the forefront learning about cultural and civilisation contents intended to stimulate and strengthen a student's personal motivation to further master the foreign language itself. An approach like this simultaneously develops students' communication and cultural competences, which guarantee accuracy and precision in communicating in a foreign language only in correlation. References: 881 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assesing Intercultural Communicative Competence, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Counsil of Ministres in B&H, (2008). Strategy of Cultural Politics in B&H, Sarajevo: Ministry of Civil Affairs. Delors, J. (1996). Learnin The Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commision on Education for the Twenty- firs century. UNESCO Publishing. Genc, B. & Bada, E. (2005). Culture in language learning and teaching. The Reading Matrix, No. 1, 73- 84. Jandt, F. E. (2010). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community, London:SAGE Publications, Ltd. Kaikkonen, P. (1997). Learning a culture and a foreign language at school – aspects of intercultural learning. Language Learning Journal, No. 15, 47-51. Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prebeg – Vilke, M. (1991). Vańe dijete i jezik, Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga. RamiĤ, J. (1999). Obzorja arapsko-islamske knjiņevnosti, Sarajevo: El-Kalem. Risager, K. (2006). Language and Culture, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Serrano, N. (2002). Teaching culture in foreign language programmes at third level education. CAUCE, Revista de Filologia y su Didactica, No. 25, 121-145. ŃabanoviĤ, H. (1978). Knjiņevnost Muslimana BiH na orijentalnim jezicima, Sarajevo: Svjetlost. Ńkiljan, D. (1988). JeziĦna politika, Zagreb: ITRO „Naprijed―. TanoviĤ, M. (1978). Savremena nastava stranih jezika u teoriji i praksi II, Sarajevo: IGKRO „Svjetlost―. Vrhovec, I. & suradnici (1999). Strani jezik u osnovnoj ńkoli. PoduĦavanje elemenata strane kulture, Zagreb: Ńkolska knjiga, 235-241. 882 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 549 Title A name given to the resource Cultural diversity as a key factor in planning foreign language teaching policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author Softić, Mejra Abstract A summary of the resource. Bosnia and Herzegovina is a multiethnic and multicultural community which has traditionally displayed deep sensitivity to the need for appreciation, promotion, learning, connecting, and preservation of the different cultures. The aim of the paper is to indicate the multilayered nature of the cultural identity of Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the fact that cultural, traditional, and religious diversity, as well as the civilisation imbuement with the elements of the European and Oriental-Islamic culture have strongly affected the planning of foreign language teaching policy in this country for centuries. Having been subjected to strong political and cultural influences both from the East and the West, Bosnia and Herzegovina opens up possibilities for combining European and Oriental languages by applying modern curricula at primary schools. The primary goal is for the students to encounter cultures of entirely different regions and to be taught tolerance, understanding, and appreciation for what is foreign and different by establishing a correlation among those cultures themselves and a correlation between those and their native culture. The paper also addresses a close relationship between a foreign language and culture of the people using that language and indicates the necessity to teach a foreign language by teaching elements of foreign culture. Such a method introduces a student to the process of intercultural learning of a foreign language and produces a positive effect on the development of the student's cultural communication competences. BiH has shown strong tendencies towards harmonising the foreign language curricula with modern European concepts of foreign language teaching and learning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 868 Title A name given to the resource Cultural mediation and scientific mission of the Tokugawa interpreters Author Author Giovanni, Borriello Abstract A summary of the resource. With the arrival of English and Dutch ships, European culture began to flow in Japan from the first years of the 17th century through other means respect to those already established by the Iberian mercantilism and the Catholic missionarism. Since the arrival of the first Westerners, the Japanese received a great quantity of new knowledge, mainly through Nagasaki, and it derived from the same members of the Dutch East India Company, the officers and the crews of the ships. Since the beginnings, and increasingly from the first decades of the 18th century, a high number of intellectuals and artists, not only merchants, frequented Nagasaki and they got in touch with the Europeans and the Japanese interpreters. The number of the interpreters was more than 120 already at the end of 17th century and their number became constant (about 150) during the 18th century: a significant number to spread the various aspects of the European culture. Furthermore, the interpreters approached the agency and the Dutch ships, but also the guardians, officials and workers of Deshima/Nagasaki, in contact every day with European people and things. So, the increasing curiosity for Europe became more and more diffused in the population and opened to new interests that concerned the most different fields. Sciences, arts, techniques, started to be object of the investigations of the scholars called rangakusha (experts of Dutch studies) and they promoted a vast presentation of the European scientific and humanistic culture. But above all it was the command of the Dutch language or at least the ability to read those texts that allowed realizing and spreading the principal knowledge. In this, as we will see in this paper, the Japanese interpreters play the most important role with the realization of the first dictionaries, glossaries and grammars of the Western languages. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/181f70aad01948b24ff4196c9e8269a5.docx 685982c69244787bd3c287c21f213225 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2448d930f750d71b4bc51ead0750215a.pdf 0d3e7c62e6165c46e2870c60f560f88a PDF Text Text Cultural Perception as a Part of Cultural Competence Alma Čović-Filipović Universitiy of Sarajevo / Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: topoi, argumentation, discourse analysis, Austrio-Hungarian monarchy, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT Intercultural competence has become very prominent after the occurrence of the EU and globalization in general. However, one should not forget that intercultural competence is formed not only by contacts that are modern, but also by those that occurred much earlier among cultures, so that its roots must be also investigated from the historical perspective. This paper wants to show the acquisition of intercultural competence at its very onset, ie, from a historical perspective. Views that are created during the cultural contact have shaped the attitudes and determined perceptions which are an important part of intercultural competence. Cultures involved in the investigation are the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In order to investigate this contact, the paper analyzes articles in daily press at the time of the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The method used in this paper is based on the analyse of the argumentative forms or patterns, ie topoi by which expressions that implicitly or explicitly refer to the contact of these two cultures can be extracted from the text. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1696 Title A name given to the resource Cultural Perception as a Part of Cultural Competence Author Author ČOVIĆ-FILIPOVIĆ, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: topoi, argumentation, discourse analysis, Austrio-Hungarian monarchy, Bosnia and Herzegovina ABSTRACT Intercultural competence has become very prominent after the occurrence of the EU and globalization in general. However, one should not forget that intercultural competence is formed not only by contacts that are modern, but also by those that occurred much earlier among cultures, so that its roots must be also investigated from the historical perspective. This paper wants to show the acquisition of intercultural competence at its very onset, ie, from a historical perspective. Views that are created during the cultural contact have shaped the attitudes and determined perceptions which are an important part of intercultural competence. Cultures involved in the investigation are the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and Bosnia and Herzegovina. In order to investigate this contact, the paper analyzes articles in daily press at the time of the Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The method used in this paper is based on the analyse of the argumentative forms or patterns, ie topoi by which expressions that implicitly or explicitly refer to the contact of these two cultures can be extracted from the text. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3558 Title A name given to the resource CULTURE OF DOMINATION AND DISCRIMINATION IN SHAKESPEARE’S PLAY THE MERCHANT OF VENICE Author Author Simović, Zlata Abstract A summary of the resource. Mainly, the paper will show how a Christian virtue of mercy is perverted. The play The Merchant of Venice is a criticism of the hypocritical betrayal of Christianity’s original concepts. The original ideas have been betrayed. What used to be a promise of universal love became a kind of gang love. It all comes down to ‘us’ against ‘them’. Christians tend to hate those who are not Christians, just because they do not believe in their Christian god. In the beginning of the paper, a short general text on human psyche will be given making it clear why human beings behave aggressively and choose to serve Thanatos instead of Eros. Is aggressiveness situated in our innate nature or something else makes us cruel according to Edward Bond? More importantly, why do we tend to discriminate other human beings just because they happen to be different from us in any way? The paper also deals with the question of whether there is such a concept as ‘universal religion’ according to Carl Gustav Jung, who claims that man is a spiritual human being who can stand the most incredible hardships when he is convinced that they make sense; otherwise, he is just taking part in a “tale told by an idiot”. Furthermore, one of the main protagonists of the play, Shylock, is portrayed as a common villain, and the paper will explain the causes of his aggressive beahaviour, whether he was born aggressive or his behaviour is just a natural reaction to what has already happened to him. Finally, the paper will give answers to all the question mentioned above, and will also make some general conclusions. Keywords: culture, domination, discrimination, a Christian virtue of mercy, religion Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c25016de50e8912bf75368e1a033855a.docx ccf62526a2b9f67f061555185c6f8fd8 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c14a312ffcc35cf4a9967cbdb704ecb6.pdf 37f9faa6e3e198fc945de6a0fac943aa PDF Text Text CULTURE TECHNIQUES OF TILAPIA FOR SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE Yusuf Güner Ege University, Izmir, Turkey yusuf.guner@ege.edu.tr Müge Aliye Hekimoğlu Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Gülçin Akcan Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Sırma Yavuz Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Fatih Güleç Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Keywords:Tilapia, reproduction, aquaculture, aquaponics. ABSTRACT In order to close the food gap resulting from population growth, cheaper and more quality producible species gain importance in the world. Since tilapia has a lot of positive characteristics desired for culture, they are among the significant species and have a rising value. Tilapia is known to have about 100 species and its culture began in Africa and spread to many other countries. There may be some problems in tilapia culture including the tropical regions to which they are indigenous. Tilapia species are not found in Turkey’s natural waters but studies towards their culture began in 1970s. Although a lot of scientific research has been conducted, required levels have not been reached yet. In this study, information regarding the general characteristics of tilapia, reproduction biology, production techniques, and problems in aquaculture and their use in aquaponic system has been presented. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2077 Title A name given to the resource CULTURE TECHNIQUES OF TILAPIA FOR SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE Author Author GUNER, Yusuf HEKIMOGLU, Muge Aliye AKCAN, Gulcin YAVUZ, Sirma GULEC, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords:Tilapia, reproduction, aquaculture, aquaponics. ABSTRACT In order to close the food gap resulting from population growth, cheaper and more quality producible species gain importance in the world. Since tilapia has a lot of positive characteristics desired for culture, they are among the significant species and have a rising value. Tilapia is known to have about 100 species and its culture began in Africa and spread to many other countries. There may be some problems in tilapia culture including the tropical regions to which they are indigenous. Tilapia species are not found in Turkey’s natural waters but studies towards their culture began in 1970s. Although a lot of scientific research has been conducted, required levels have not been reached yet. In this study, information regarding the general characteristics of tilapia, reproduction biology, production techniques, and problems in aquaculture and their use in aquaponic system has been presented. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565