66 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee9864a1f1af8f8b60924c2ad2435d8c.pdf ff6c0dfd2f97b42d694564866aece017 PDF Text Text Hesitations in Speech Production in the Media Irena Zovko Dinković & Maja Banić Abstract Nowadays we are witnessing a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, as well as a simultaneous decline in the quality of the hosts’ speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas people may be quite tolerant of various hesitations in everyday conversations, listeners often find influences in the speech of radio hosts distracting and irritating, expecting the hosts to be skilled in controlling their output. This research paper therefore offers a contrastive analysis of hesitations in the speech production of English and Croatian radio hosts, with the aim of determining whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal training of hosts. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech may be achieved through practice. To this purpose we have analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of speech of 32 radio hosts, 16 American and 16 Croatian, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Also, half of the hosts work at public radio stations, and the other half at commercial ones. In order to obtain the most objective results possible, the analyzed samples were taken from different episodes of talk shows on various subjects, as well as from different parts of the episodes (beginning, middle and ending). The results indicate that there is no correlation between gender and fluency since there was no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted popular view that women are more fluent and verbal than men. More importantly, the results indicate that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be improved through practice and formal training. A surprisingly similar number of hesitations in the speech of American and Croatian hosts confirms the fact that speech fluency is a cognitive aspect of language, independent of language specific features. Keywords: hesitations in the speech, media, gender differences Article History: Submitted: 12.04.2014. Accepted: 17.11.2014. DOI Number: 10.14706/JFLTAL152226 �1. Introduction Although speech is often associated with images that suggest continuity in sound production1, it does not fill time continuously, especially when it is spontaneous. Thoughts are often unstructured and need to be organized into a linear stream of speech. However, one idea may shift to another without any obvious connection. Some ideas are spoken out of turn, and some need to be corrected or elaboratedupon (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999). Therefore, it is not surprising that human speech is highly dysfluent (Clark & Fox Tree, 2002; Kendall, 2009; Rose, 1998). This characteristic separates spontaneous speech from prepared discourse. We are witnesses today of a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, with an increased demand for hosts, which inevitably leads to a simultaneous decline in the quality of their speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas we as listeners can be quite tolerant of dysfluencies in everyday communication, we are less so when it comes to spontaneous speech in the media.The focus is this paper is therefore on the fluency of the speech of radio hosts. Given the fact that some hosts hesitate more than others, the aim of this paper is to see whethercertain aspects of speech, such as its fluency, can be influenced, and whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal education of the host. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech might be achieved through practice. This paper thus offers an analysis of hesitations in English and Croatian speech production on the radio, based on a research conducted on the speech of 32 American and Croatian radio hosts from private and commercial radio stations. 2. Theoretical background Spontaneous speech requires planning. More precisely, a speaker is continuously required to make three kinds of decisions while producing speech: a content decision, decisions of a syntactic nature and the selection of words (Goldman-Eisler, 1968). A content decision falls into the area of conceptualization and involves determining what to say. A speaker conceives an intention and selects relevant information either from memory or environment (Harley, 2001). The area of formulation comprises decisions about at least the broad outline of a syntactic structure, as well as the process of lexicalization. It also includes detailed phonetic and articulatory planning along with phonological encoding. Conceptualization and formulation are followed by articulation (Harley, 2001). Harley (2001) points out that a number of authors, such as Henderson, Goldman-Eisler & Skarbek (1966), stress the role of cognitive cycles in the planning of speech. According to them, phases of highly hesitant speech alternate with phases of more fluent speech. It is thought that most of the planning takes part in the hesitant phase, whereas in the fluent phase speakers merely say what they have just planned in the preceding hesitant phase. Field (2003) agrees with this assertion: ‘Research has suggested that speech proceeds in phases: a hesitant phase of about nine clauses is followed by a fluent one of about nine clauses. (…) If this is the case, it suggests that speech planning may take place on two levels. There may be short term planning, marked by relatively regular planning pauses and longer-term planning marked by a period of hesitant speech’. (p. 37) Hesitations are therefore put into direct relationship with planning (Clark & Wasow, 1998; Goldman-Eisler, 1968; Rose 1998) and theiranalysis is concerned with the distribution of a variety of dysfluent features in spontaneous speech (Harley, 2001).In this research we follow �Rose’s (1998) classification of hesitations into repairs (which include repeats, restarts and selfcorrections), false starts, lengthenings and pauses. Repairs usually consist of stopping the current flow of speech, inserting a pause or an editing expression, and providing new or modified information (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999). It is important to mention that repairs often occur even when there is nothing wrong to start with. We should also keep in mind that many repairs are not correct themselves, so they might lead to the appearance of additional repairs (Levelt, 1983). When a speaker iterates a lexical item in midsentence, it is called a repeat. Usually, just one word is repeated (Rose, 1998). According to Clark & Wasow (1998), repeated words are among the most common dysfluencies in spontaneous speech. Furthermore, in the English language function words2 are repeated far more often than content words (Clark & Wasow, 1998). If a speaker utters a few words and then suddenly returns to the beginning of the clause to iterate the same words, we are dealing with a restart (Rose, 1998). In order to make a self-correction, the speaker must notice that there is something wrong with the uttered word. The word is then followed by a replacement that is understood to constitute a retraction of that word (Rose, 1998). In other words, the speaker interrupts his own flow of speech and creates a new utterance (Levelt, 1983). Sometimes speakers discard the first attempt at lexicalization. They make a false start by uttering a few words and then stopping in mid-sentence, which may be followed either by a revised attempt to lexicalize the same idea or by silence in order to release the conversational turn (Rose, 1998). Lengthenings, on the other hand, refer to a prolongation of syllables beyond their normal or expected length (Clark & Fox Tree, 2002). Given the fact that there are various types of pauses, it is substantial to define them precisely and to determine which types of pauses will be taken into consideration for the purposes of this research. To begin with, we will distinguish four types of pauses: articulatory, respiratory, juncture and hesitation pauses. Articulatory pauses are associated with the articulatory closure of stop consonants and range, according to Rose (1998), from 50 to 250 milliseconds. At this point it should be mentioned that the duration of pauses considered to pertain to this group depends on researcher’s judgment. For example, Kendall (2009) argues that articulatory pauses are in fact shorter than 60 milliseconds. Whatever the case, articulatory pauses are short enough to pass unnoticed and not be counted as hesitations. The second type of pauses is associated with respiration. At least to a certain degree, speakers coordinate their breathing with language planning processes (Kendall, 2009). According to Goldman-Eisler (1968), breathing appears to be “a passive process fitting into given breaks in speech irrespective of whether or not these occur at grammatical junctures” (p. 98). These pauses are therefore not relevant for this research, either. Juncture pauses also do not imply hesitation. They are semantically determined and well integrated into the grammatical structure. These pauses occur at grammatical junctures, such as “natural” punctuation points (e.g. the end of a sentence, before a conjunction or relative and interrogative pronouns, when a question is indirect or implied, before all adverbial clauses of time, manner and place, and when complete parenthetical references are made (Goldman-Eisler, 1968). Pauses whose position cannot be explained by these rules are therefore non-grammatical and considered to be hesitations in speech. Such pauses are the object of our research. 2.1 Hesitation pauses Goldman-Eisler(1968) argues that the decisive factor in breaking up the linguistic groupings at non-grammatical places is hesitation. Such hesitation pauses may be silent (unfilled) or filled �(voiced).Mead (2000) claims that silent pauses are not necessarily dysfluencies, while filled pauses can almost certainly be regarded as such, according to his opinion, in the context of professional public speaking. However, Mead’s definition of silent pauses includes stops for breath and deliberate pauses for emphasis. We have already excluded these as respiratory and semantically determined pauses respectively. Therefore, non-grammatical silent pauses will be considered hesitations in this research. Harley (2001) defines an unfilled pause as a moment of silence, emphasizing that its duration shows a wide range of variance. Kendall (2009) says the minimal cut-off point for silent pauses, according to Kowal & O’Connell (1980), is 270 milliseconds, whereas Goldman-Eisler (1968) adopts various low threshold values from 100 to 250 milliseconds, depending on the experiment. Although speakers may use filled or voiced pauses in order to sound more fluent, they “generally serve as stalling acts to give speakers more time to prepare a near-future word or phrase” (Rose, 1998, p. 54). They can be unlexicalized or lexicalized. Unlexicalized pauses may be filled with any of the following phonetic combinations: /a/, /am/, /u/, /um/, /e/, /em/, /m/. By far the most common unlexicalized filled pause, according to Rose's research, was the short form of er, followed by the short form of erm (Rose, 1998). Filled (voiced) pauses may be lexicalized with expressions such as so, okay, let’s see, like, well, you know and I mean. The terminology differs when it comes to this kind of pauses. Harley (2001) calls them parenthetical remarks, whereas Fox Tree & Schrock (1999) categorize them as discourse markers. They may also be called editing expressions (Clark & Wasow, 1998). Clark & Fox Tree (2002) refer to them as part of performance additions. Their presence is one of the ways spontaneous speech differs from planned speech. Unlike spontaneous speech, prepared speech allows advance planning and extensive revision time, so the speaker does not need additional time or help in organizing and expressing ideas (Fox Tree & Schrock, 1999), which is the general purpose of filled pauses. 2.2 The speech of radio hosts Although dysfluencies frequently appear in spontaneous speech and sometimes even go unnoticed, radio hosts are expected to show no hesitation on the air. Despite the fact that hesitations do not necessarily imply poor communication skills3, listeners often find them distracting and irritating (Rose, 1998). Goffman (1981) notices that “faults we would have to be trained linguistically to hear in ordinary talk can be glaringly evident to the untrained ear when encountered in broadcast talk” (p. 240).Furthermore, he argues that the skill of radio hosts is to control output; moments of doubt or distraction are expected to stay hidden from the listeners. By using fillers, professional speakersdo exactly the opposite –they indirectly announce that they are having preparedness problems. This can seriously undermine their authority, given the fact that professional speakers are expected to be knowledgeable and competent. In Goffman's (1981) opinion, an accomplished public speaker should not exceed “acceptable limits for pauses, restarts, repetitions, redirections (…)” (p. 172), and Mead (2000) explicitly emphasizes the importance of fluency as a determinant of interpretation quality. 3. A research into hesitations in speech production This paper focuses on the frequency of hesitations in the speech of Croatian and American radio hosts. It is easy to notice that the frequency of hesitations varies substantially from host to host, especially in the past decade or so, due to a rapid growth of the number of radio stations, followed by a simultaneous decline in the quality of hosts’ speech and in particular its fluency. �Our main assumption is that the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal education of the host, which would lead us to the conclusion that this aspect of speech can be influenced by increasing one’s awareness of the dysfluencies, and by practice. Throughout this research we rely on the differences between public and commercial stations, starting from the fact that the latter tend to hire less skilled persons with little or no professional training. The main fact about these two types of stations are shown in Chart 1:4 Station ownership Tax Status Revenue Programs Public radio Independent local stations that are members of a national organization. Non-profit. Revenue from individual members, corporations, foundations, and government sources. Programmed at the local level, with national program offerings as well as local news and other programs. Commercial radio Private/corporate owned stations and affiliated stations. For profit. Revenue from advertising. Varies; some local autonomy but show tendency for centralized programming. Table 1.An overview of radio station status One of the main areas, thus, in which radio stations differ significantly is the politics of the employment of radio hosts. Alongside the higher criteria that their future hosts have to meet, public radio stations provide formal education for their employees. Croatian Radio-Television (HRT) is a Croatian public broadcasting company that comprises both Croatian Television and Croatian Radio. In 1991, the Department for Language and Speech was founded at this broadcasting company, consisting of highly professional proofreaders and phoneticians who train HRT's hosts and journalists. The employees are obligated to cooperate with the Department on a regular basis. The professionals employed at the Department arehighly qualified and experienced announcers witha college degree in the relevant field. Novice hosts are always mentored for several months by professionals at the Department, whereupon they assist in the program until their supervisors decide they can start working on their own. Given the fact that the job in question is highly demanding, the hosts’ skills are checked on a daily basis. The situation in the US is somewhat different, but the importance of formal education can also be noted. Although radio hosts are not required to have any formal education beyond a high school diploma in order to get a job at a public radio station, they should have a bachelor’s degree in a related field to be competitive for entry-level positions. Short-term on-the-job training is required upon being hired, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics5. The Bureau defines it as “additional training needed (postemployment) to attain competency in the skills needed in this occupation”. Moreover, hosts are often required to complete long-term on-the-job training: trainees usually must have several years of experience in the industry before receiving an opportunity to work on the air. When it comes to commercial radio stations, the situation is radically different. These stations are more inclined to hire beginners, andnew, inexperienced employees are immediately given host positions, so they face difficulties in hosting a show without any prior training. These systems are not as developed as public ones, so the advancement within the same station is unlikely. It usually takes place when a host relocates to a larger, public station. Furthermore, if unskilled employees continue hosting without becoming aware of their deficiencies, their �progress over the years may become questionable. Therefore, the hosts included in this research were chosen on the basis of their workplace; hosts working at public radio stations comprise one group, as opposed to those who host shows at commercial radio stations. In this way, we have divided hosts into two groups: those who have some formal training, and those who do not. 3. Method Given the fact that we listen to radio hosts without being able to see them, it is sometimes difficult to determine whether their speech is spontaneous or whether they read some previously prepared material. To make sure that the analyzed speech is indeed spontaneous, the material included in this research consists of dialogues (interviews). Unlike monologues, dialogues cannot be prepared in advance. A host may have (and usually does have) some questions prepared for their interlocutor prior to the interview. However, in live conversations linguistic decisions are made on the spot. We have therefore analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of each host’s speech. In order to obtain objective results, the analyzed samples were taken from two to five episodes, in case there were some external factors momentarily influencing spontaneous speech6, as well as from different parts of episodes (beginning, middle and ending), given the fact that the level of concentration and stage fright changes during the show. We analyzed the speech of 32 radio hosts, both at public and commercial radio stations, 16 of them American and 16 Croatian. To be as objective as possible, half in each group were female, and half were male.Moreover, 16 hosts (50 % of the total number) work at public radio stations, whereas sixteen of them work at commercial radio stations. Each recorded sample was analyzed and the dysfluencies were categorized according to Rose's (1998) classification as different types of repairs or as hesitation pauses (see sections 2 and 2.1). The results were then statistically analyzed. The overall detailed results are presented in Table 2. 3.1 Radio stations/networks and radio shows included in the research The American public radio stations/networks whose official websites were used in this research in order to find podcasts of American radio talk shows are WNYC, American Public Media and NPR. They produce and distribute public radio programming. WNYC 93.9 FM and AM 820 are “New York's flagship public radio stations, broadcasting the finest programs from NPR, American Public Media, Public Radio International and the BBC World Service, as well as a wide range of award-winning local programming”7. American Public Media is “the largest owner and operator of public radio stations and a premier producer and distributor of public radio programming in the nation”8, whereas NPR is described on its official website as “a thriving media organization at the forefront of digital innovation”, which creates and distributes award-winning news, information and music programming to a network of 975 independent stations9. As for the Croatian stations/networks, Croatian Radio (HR), as part of the national broadcasting corporation, runs three national, one international and eight regional stations10. We have included in this research two national (HR 1 and HR 2) and three regional stations (Radio Sljeme, Radio Rijeka and Radio Osijek). Given the fact that HRT’s official website contains podcasts of many talk shows that are broadcast on the previously mentioned stations, we have �used them as the main source for this category of radio stations. We have also recorded some of the episodes via live streaming prior to the analysis. For the purposes of this research we have used podcasts from two American commercial radio networks: TogiNet and BlogTalkRadio. TogiNet is an Internet talk radio network that streams live web radio programming and provides podcasts that can be downloaded11, whereas BlogTalkRadio is described on its official website as “the world’s largest and most influential social radio network with thousands of talented experts hosting shows on every kind of topic”, attracting “a very significant audience of more than 21 million unique visitors per month”12. The program of a great number of Croatian commercial radio stations is also available via live stream. Eight talk shows broadcast on eight commercial radio stations from different parts of Croatia were recorded and analyzed. The stations included in the research were Petrinjski radio, Radio Jaska, Radio Martin, Radio Ritam, Radio Eurostar, Radio Šibenik, Free For Radio Hvar and Pomorski Radio Bakar. The radio shows analyzed in the research are characterized by a wide range of topics. They cover sports, religion, economics and business, art, ecology, entertainment and music, as well as politics and society. 4. Results and discussion �Croatian Croatian Croatian Calcio Desetica Klub žena / Mozaik Interviews* Treće poluvrijeme Šibenski kanal Ekološke teme i dileme Eliana Čandrlić Milorad Šikanjić Jana Haluza Zlatko Turkalj Sonja Šarunić Dorotea Brljak Sunajko Alen Čemeljić Zvonimir Mandić Jasminka Erdelj Katija Vučetić Ivica Mioković Rade Kristić Alenka Denona Mustapić Nikola Urukalo Denis Bašić Vedrana Kučina Mary Cimiluca Michael E. Stern 9 10 11 12 13 18 19 20 26 Mary Beth Wells Pat Sloan 31 32 27 Bruce Beikman 28 Barry Farber 29 Andrew Woodson 30 Helen Woo 22 23 24 25 21 15 16 17 14 Susan Page 8 Sridom u sridu Drobilica Istarski prvi Talksense Radio Build a Better Photograph Education2Excellence Breakthrough The Drew Show Self Aid Success Stories The Mary Beth Wells Hour American Patchwork and Quilting Radio Platforma Talk of the Nation On Point Fresh Air Tell Me More The Diane Rehm Show: Friday News Roundup U mreži Prvog U mreži Prvog Diskografija U pola dva, glazbene minute Na Sljemenu sa Sonjom Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial Public Public Commercial Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Public Commercial Commercial Commercial Commercial 4.1 Public vs. commercial radio stations As expected, the number of hesitations made by radio hosts working at commercial radio stations was substantially larger than the number of hesitations made by hosts at public radio stations. These data are presented in Table 3 and Chart 1. American Commercial American Commercial American American American American American Commercial Croatian Croatian Croatian American Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian Croatian American American American American American American Neal Conan Tom Ashbrook Terry Gross Michel Martin On Being Krista Tippett 4 5 6 7 American American TogiNet TogiNet TogiNet BlogTalkRadio BlogTalkRadio TogiNet TogiNet Radio Rijeka Radio Osijek Radio Jaska Free For Radio Hvar Petrinjski radio Radio Šibenik Pomorski radio Bakar Radio Ritam Radio Martin Radio Eurostar TogiNet Radio Sljeme Radio Sljeme Hrvatski Radio 2 Hrvatski Radio 1 Hrvatski Radio 1 Hrvatski Radio 1 NPR WNYC WNYC American Public Media NPR NPR NPR NPR Name RADIO STATION/ RADIO NETWORK Croatian/ Public/ American Commercial 3 Money Talking Please Explain SHOW Jeff Greenfield Leonard Lopate Before presenting a detailed analysis of the results of this research, two very important conclusions must be made. First, the results have confirmed that spontaneous speech is highly dysfluent; on average, one radio host made thirteen hesitations per minute.14 Secondly, it should be noted that the number of hesitations varies substantially from host to host – they made from 41 to 209 hesitations in 480 seconds (on average, five to 26 hesitations per minute). The factors potentially influencing the frequency of hesitations are discussed in this chapter. Our research involved an equal number of male and female radio host (16 male and 16 female, 32 in total). However, although women generally tend to be considered more fluent than men, the results indicate that there is no relevant difference in fluency, i.e. in the overall number or frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts (1728 and 1640 respectively). 1 2 HOST Table 2. Detailed results13. 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 480 sec 12 13 22 9 11 10 6 3 2 0 9 0 0 4 7 3 1 0 1 2 1 2 1 1 6 1 5 8 5 9 24 6 32 43 57 17 29 7 10 1 16 0 3 15 16 8 2 1 1 0 5 1 2 1 6 21 16 11 13 23 0 3 9 13 29 1 3 4 2 0 3 0 0 5 3 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 3 2 4 3 7 4 4 4 0 3 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 4 2 1 1 1 0 7 12 4 0 1 3 7 27 24 56 6 55 21 59 9 8 25 35 22 44 0 8 3 12 2 0 8 3 3 0 14 20 17 5 0 9 15 7 10 0 7 1 0 8 1 2 2 3 5 1 9 1 10 4 7 1 6 7 9 5 40 59 52 39 83 50 38 46 50 81 53 56 145 45 112 43 9 103 26 21 17 41 29 27 19 52 20 20 11 18 49 19 55 27 10 35 21 13 15 24 26 16 38 30 2 3 0 22 5 1 7 9 16 7 9 0 4 15 9 6 HESITATION ANALYSIS (number of occurrences in the analyzed sample) Overall Repairs Pauses duration Voiced of the False Self Lengthenings Silent (filled) analyzed starts Repeats Restarts -corrections (unfilled) pauses samples unlexicalized lexicalized 480 sec 1 15 0 1 0 12 9 3 480 sec 7 4 1 2 7 2 43 12 146 135 192 137 192 126 121 109 114 163 124 130 209 169 153 69 41 166 62 71 43 63 66 55 57 80 67 69 55 65 41 78 Overall number of hesitations �Overall number of hesitations Public Commercial 982 2386 Average number of hesitations per host in one minute 7,67 18,64 Table3. The number of hesitations made by all hosts included in the research at public and commercial radio stations. Chart 1. The ratio between the number of hesitations made by hosts working at public and commercial radio stations. We have already explained that public radio stations provide formal education for their employees so that they become aware of dysfluencies, and then aim to eliminate them as much as possible. Commercial radio stations mostly do not offer this opportunity, leaving their employees to improve their skills themselves. Based on the results of this research, we can conclude that the frequency of hesitations in the speech of radio hosts depends on their formal education. Fluency is, therefore, an aspect of spontaneous speech that can be influenced by formal training and practice. When it comes to potential differences in fluency with regard to English and Croatian, the number of hesitations made by American and Croatian radio hosts was surprisingly similar – 1685 and 1683 respectively. This proves that fluency is a universal and cognitively based characteristic of human speech. 4.2 Individual types of hesitations The total number of different types of hesitations, based on Roses’s (1998) classification is given in Table4 and Chart 2. False starts Repairs Repeats Restarts Self-corrections Lengthenings Silent (unfilled) pauses Filled Phonetic (voiced) (unlexicalized) Public 54 129 35 25 145 83 405 Commercial 108 277 75 29 326 117 1,052 American 134 333 88 25 63 136 606 Croatian 28 73 22 29 408 64 851 Overall 162 406 110 54 471 200 1,457 �pauses Lexicalized 106 402 300 208 508 Table 4. The number of hesitations in the research by type. Chart 2. The ratio between the frequency of different types of hesitations. 4.2.1 Pauses We can see that silent pauses comprise only 6% of all hesitations in the analyzed samples. Taking into consideration the fact that filled pauses account for a relatively high 58% of the total, it can be argued that speakers consider silence to be the most inconvenient option because it implies a complete rupture in communication. As Brennan & Williams (1995) claim, when speakers use filled pauses, they create the illusion of greater continuity: a delay containing a filler is subjectively shorter than the same delay with dead silence. However, the research showed that American hosts are more prone to silent pauses than Croatian hosts, and use them around two times more often than Croatian hosts. As can be seen in Chart 2, filled unlexicalized pauses comprise 43% of all hesitations registered in the research. Without any doubt, we can claim that they are the most common type of hesitations. The research has confirmed the statement that the most common unlexicalized filled pause is, by far, the short form of er (Rose, 1998). This applies not only to the speech of American, but also of Croatian radio hosts. On the other hand, filled lexicalized pauses comprise 15% of all hesitations, occupying the second position when it comes to frequency. We can conclude that it is easier for a speaker to fill a potentially empty space in speech with an unlexicalized pause, given the fact that it requires less planning than a lexicalized one. The most frequent lexicalized pauses in the research among American hosts were filled byyou know and I mean. Well, so and like also occurred often. Croatian hosts included in the research mostly used dakle and evo. Fillers that also occurred, but were not nearly as frequent, �were ovaj, ovoga, ono, onako, zapravo, znači, recimo, eto and pa. Furthermore, filled lexicalized pauses were more frequent at commercial radio stations: they occupy the second position when it comes to the most frequent hesitations made by hosts at commercial radio stations (17% of all hesitations), and fourth position among hesitations made by hosts at public stations (11%). Moreover, the research showed that American hosts use filled lexicalized pauses more often than Croatian hosts. Pauses therefore comprise 64% of all hesitations made in the research and therefore occupy the highest position on the ladder of the most frequent hesitations of radio hosts. 4.2.2 Lengthenings Although not nearly as frequent as filled unlexicalized pauses, lengthenings occurred very often in the research as well: they comprise 14% of all registered hesitations. Women appear to be more prone to lengthenings (they make 17% of all the hesitations female hosts committed in this research, in comparison with male 11%).Furthermore, lengthenings can be considered a prominent characteristic of the spontaneous speech of Croatian radio hosts: they comprise 24% of all hesitations, occupying the second position on the ladder of the most frequent hesitations made by Croatian hosts. On the other hand, among the hesitations of American hosts they occupy the penultimate position, comprising only 4% of all hesitations. The only type of hesitations that Americans used less were self-corrections (1%). 4.2.3 Repeats As lengthenings have marked the spontaneous speech of Croatian hosts, repeats turned out to be the most prominent feature of the speech of American hosts, second to filled unlexicalized pauses, which were the most frequent type of hesitations among both American and Croatian hosts. This confirmed Clark & Wasow’s (1998) assertion that repeated words, in the English language, are one of the most common dysfluencies in spontaneous speech. Repeats thus comprised 12% of all hesitations registered in the research. Men tended to repeat words more frequently than women; repeats comprised 16% of hesitations made by male radio hosts, and only 8% of hesitations committed by female hosts. Furthermore, Clark & Wasow (1998) claim that function words in the English language are repeated far more often than content words. This research confirmed their assertion; the words that were repeated most frequently were function words such asconjunctions (and, or), prepositions (of, to, on), auxiliary verbs (has, are), pronouns (I, it, that) and articles (the, a).Function words establish a relationship between content words; they are short and easier to pronounce, so they make a perfect candidate for repetition.Repeats comprised 20% of all hesitations made by American hosts and only four percent of hesitations made by Croatian radio hosts. The explanation for such a difference may lie in the fact that English, unlike Croatian, has the category of articles, which are extremely frequent and contribute to a much higher ratio of repeats by American hosts. As we have already concluded, function words are repeated far more often than content words, so the difference in the frequency of repeats in English and Croatian may not be as surprising as it seems at first glance. 4.2.4 False starts and restarts False starts and restarts belong to hesitations that do not occur often. False starts comprised only 5% of the hesitations committed in the research. American radio hosts tended to be more �prone to making false starts than their Croatian counterparts (83% as opposed to 17% respectively). Restarts, on the other hand, comprised only 3%of all hesitations. However, there is a considerable difference in their usage between male and female radio hosts; for an unknown reason, male hosts used them three times more often than their female counterparts.This difference is even more prominent when it comes to the use of restarts in English and Croatian: American radio hosts use them four times more often than Croatian hosts. 4.2.5 Self-corrections Self-corrections occupy the lowest position on the ladder of frequency of hesitations, comprising only 2% of all hesitations made in the research. Such a low percentage may be understandable if we take into consideration the fact that, by using self-corrections, we admit in a very conspicuous way that we have made a mistake. As Goffman (1981) argues, moments of distraction are expected to stay hidden from the listeners. Otherwise, a speaker’s authority may be seriously undermined, given the fact that professional speakers are expected to be knowledgeable and competent (Goffman, 1981). 5. Conclusion This research examined the frequency of hesitation markers in the speech of American and Croatian radio hosts, starting from the assumption that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be influenced, primarily by formal training. The results showed a surprisingly similar number of overall hesitations committed by American and Croatian hosts. As for the correlation of gender and fluency that has also been examined in this paper, the results indicate that there is no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted view that women are more fluent than men. The most frequent type of hesitationwith all hosts was filled unlexicalized pauses because they require least planning and effort while bridginga potential silent gap on the air. Croatian hosts were more prone to lengthenings as the second most common type of hesitation, as opposed to American hosts who had repeatsin this position. This may be related to the fact that function words are repeated far more often than content words, and the presence of articles increases significantly the frequency of function words in English, as opposed to Croatian that doesn’t have this category. One of the major differences, however, between the radio hosts involved in our research is not related to their respective languages but to their formal training. Hosts who have had substantial training by professional phoneticians and other trained experienced announcers showed fewer hesitations and improved fluency. This speaks in favor of two of our initial claims – that fluency is acognitive rather than a language-specific aspect of speech, and that it can be improved through professional training.This indicates that such training is very important for speech production in all types of audio-visual media, and it concerns not only fluency and good articulation, but other aspects as well, ranging from the choice of appropriate vocabulary and syntactic structures, to the choice of appropriate style. 1 Goldman-Eisler (1968) mentionsthe even flow, fluency in speech, a flood of language, as well as gush, spout, stream, torrent and floodgates of speech. �2 Function words are used largely to express the relations between elements of sentences, or to indicate their discourse functions. They comprise articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs and pronouns (Clark & Wasow, 1998). 3 Some hesitations may serve a communicative purpose, for example avoiding embarassing situations or drawing the interlocutor's attention (Rose, 1998). 4 www.isu.edu/kisufm/differences.html 5 www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/announcers.html 6 For example, fatigue or illness. 7 www.wnyc.org 8 americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org 9 www.npr.org 10 radio.hrt.hr 11 toginet.com 12 www.blogtalkradio.com 13 The information about the podcasts found on the official website of the radio station Free For Radio Hvar is limited due to the closure of the station in 2013. The name of the analyzed show was therefore not available. 14 The overall number of hesitations in this research, made by 32 radio hosts, is 3,368. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the duration of each host’s speech sample was eight minutes (480 seconds). 6. References American Public Media: americanpublicmedia.publicradio.org (21/04/2013) BlogTalkRadio: www.blogtalkradio.com(07/06/2013) Brennan, S. E., & Williams, M. (1995) The feeling of another’s knowing: prosody and filled pauses as cues to listeners about the metacognitive states of speakers.Journal of Memory and Language, 34 (3), 383–398. Bureau of Labor Statistics: www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communication/announcers.htm (20/07/2013) Clark, H. & Fox Tree, J. (2002) Using uh and um in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 84, 73111. Clark, H. &Wasow, T. (1998) Repeating words in spontaneous speech. Cognitive Psychology, 37 (3), 201–242. Field, John (2003) Psycholinguistics. London and New York: Routledge. Fox Tree, J. E., & Schrock, J. C. (1999) Discourse markers in spontaneous speech: oh what a difference an oh makes. Journal of Memory and Language, 40 (2), 280–295. Free For Radio Hvar: www.ffr.hr (19/04/2013) Goffman, E. (1981) Radio talk. In E. Goffman (Ed.), Forms of talk (pp. 197–327). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Goldman-Eisler, F. (1968) Psycholinguistics: experiments in spontaneous speech. New York: Academic Press. Harley, T. (2001) The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory. Hove and New York: Psychology Press Ltd. Henderson A., Goldman-Eisler, F. & Skarbek, A. (1966) Breath rate and the selective action of chlorpromazine on speech behavior. Psychopharmacologia, 8 (6), 415-427. Hrvatska radiotelevizija: radio.hrt.hr(16/05/2013) Idaho State University: http://www.isu.edu/kisufm/differences.shtml (06/03/2013) �Kendall, T. (2009) Speech rate, pause and linguistic variation: an examination through the sociolinguistic archive and analysis project. Duke University dissertation. Kowal, S. & O’Connell, D. (1980) Pausological research at Saint Louis University. In H. Dechert & M. Raupach (Eds.), Temporal Variables in Speech. Studies in Honour of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. Den Haag: Mouton. Levelt, W. J. M. (1983) Monitoring and self-repair in speech. Cognition, 14, 41–104. Mead, P. (2000) Control of pauses by trainee interpreters in their A and B languages. The Interpreters’ Newsletter, 10, 89−102. National Public Radio: www.npr.org (07/04/2013) Petrinjski radio: www.petrinjskiradio.hr (27/04/2013) Pomorski radio Bakar: www.pomorskiradio.hr (12/05/2013) Radio Eurostar: www.radioeurostar.hr (23/04/2013) Radio Jaska: www.radio-jaska.hr (13/05/2013) Radio Martin: www.radio-martin.hr (10/06/2013) Radio Ritam: www.radioritam.hr (16/04/2013) Radio Šibenik: www.radiosibenik.hr (22/05/2013) Rose, R. (1998) The Communicative Value of Filled Pauses in Spontaneous Speech, M.A. Diss., Univ. of Birmingham. Slobodna Dalmacija: arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20030213/televizija02.asp(09/05/2013) TogiNet: toginet.com(26/05/2013) WNYC: www.wnyc.org. (16/04/2013) Irena Zovko Dinković, PhD, is Assistant professor at the Department of English, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb. She obtained her PhD in linguistics in 2007, and is currently teaching courses in English syntax and psycholinguistics. Her scientific work focuses on the interrelation of syntax and semantics, the relationship of language, mind and culture, and language in use. Ms. Zovko Dinković has collaborated on several scientific projects and attended professional training programs in France and the US. She is currently Head of the Department of English at the University of Zagreb. Maja Banić holds a Master's degree in English and Spanish languages and literatures from the University of Zagreb. She also completed a one-year education program for hosts in the electronic media at the Experta Business School in Zagreb. Ms. Banić has worked extensively as author and host of various shows on several TV channels, including Croatian National Television and the Croatian Music Channel. She has also hosted a number of live events such as concerts, ceremonies, film festivals and sporting events. Maja Banić is currently working as interpreter/translator for Sermon d.o.o. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2838 Title A name given to the resource Hesitations in Speech Production in the Media Author Author Zovko Dinković, Irena Banić, Maja Abstract A summary of the resource. Nowadays we are witnessing a substantial growth in the number of radio stations, as well as a simultaneous decline in the quality of the hosts’ speech, particularly its fluency. Whereas people may be quite tolerant of various hesitations in everyday conversations, listeners often find influences in the speech of radio hosts distracting and irritating, expecting the hosts to be skilled in controlling their output. This research paper therefore offers a contrastive analysis of hesitations in the speech production of English and Croatian radio hosts, with the aim of determining whether the frequency of hesitation markers can be related to the formal training of hosts. If so, we can suppose that greater fluency of speech may be achieved through practice. To this purpose we have analyzed eight minutes (480 seconds) of speech of 32 radio hosts, 16 American and 16 Croatian, with an equal number of males and females in each group. Also, half of the hosts work at public radio stations, and the other half at commercial ones. In order to obtain the most objective results possible, the analyzed samples were taken from different episodes of talk shows on various subjects, as well as from different parts of the episodes (beginning, middle and ending). The results indicate that there is no correlation between gender and fluency since there was no relevant difference in the frequency of hesitations produced by male and female hosts, in spite of the generally accepted popular view that women are more fluent and verbal than men. More importantly, the results indicate that fluency is an aspect of speech that can be improved through practice and formal training. A surprisingly similar number of hesitations in the speech of American and Croatian hosts confirms the fact that speech fluency is a cognitive aspect of language, independent of language specific features. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed HA Statistics,HX Socialism. Communism. Anarchism https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5efbe9269094dc33c37094851c965805.docx cca996b1f13116c15308452b0294ce5b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/58445aabc17206417d392c6910cbb5c9.pdf bacc1901f108882ba72fb9177ac41ad7 PDF Text Text The Effect of Directors’ Index on Firm Performance: Evidence from BIST100 Firms Nida Abdioglu Balikesir University Turkey nidaabdioglu@balikesir.edu.tr Recep Kilic Balikesir University Turkey krecep@balikesir.edu.tr Abstract: Following corporate scandals including those effecting Enron, Tyco, and WorldCom, the implications of corporate governance principles have played a critical role in determining the success of the companies around the world. Turkish Capital Market Board also issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in July 2003. This study shed lights on the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance of firms listed in Borsa İstanbul 100 indexes (BIST100). With accepting corporate governance as a mechanism to reduce the agency conflicts between managers and shareholders, we assume that this reduction results with increased firm performance. We differentiate this study from the existing literature by accepting directors’ index (DINDEX) as a proxy for corporate governance quality for the companies existed in Bist100. We follow Bushee et al. (2010) to create DINDEX. This index examines the strength of board characteristics for a particular firm and includes five different dimensions: CEOchairman duality, the presence of board interlocks, attendance of board meetings, board size and the percentage of independent directors. We examine the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance for the firms listed in BIST100 1999-2013. We have 328 observations of firms per year in our Paneldata set. ‘Return on Assets’ is our proxy for firm performance. We use following specific characteristics of firms: total firm assets, operating expenses, liquidity, leverage, firm age and research and development expenditures. We use ‘Fixed Effect Panel Regressions’ in our analysis so that we account for time-invariant firm-level omitted variables that could bias our results. Our findings indicate that DINDEX does not have any effect on corporate performance of BIST100 firms. As a second step, we examine the relation between firm performance and DINDEX for each industry in our dataset. We find that among the firms in electricity industry, those that have high level of corporate governance quality also have high level of firm performance. We explain this result with the quick adjustments of these firms to the changes in corporate governance. Keywords: Firm Performance, DINDEX, Corporate Governance Quality, BIST100, Panel Data. 119 �119 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2579 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Directors’ Index on Firm Performance: Evidence from BIST100 Firms Author Author ABDIOGLU, Nida KILIC, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource.   Following corporate scandals including those effecting Enron, Tyco, and WorldCom, the implications of corporate governance principles have played a critical role in determining the success of the companies around the world. Turkish Capital Market Board also issued corporate governance principles with the aim of enhancing the corporate governance regulations in July 2003. This study shed lights on the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance of firms listed in Borsa İstanbul 100 indexes (BIST100). With accepting corporate governance as a mechanism to reduce the agency conflicts between managers and shareholders, we assume that this reduction results with increased firm performance. We differentiate this study from the existing literature by accepting directors’ index (DINDEX) as a proxy for corporate governance quality for the companies existed in Bist100. We follow Bushee et al. (2010) to create DINDEX. This index examines the strength of board characteristics for a particular firm and includes five different dimensions: CEO-chairman duality, the presence of board interlocks, attendance of board meetings, board size and the percentage of independent directors. We examine the relation between corporate governance quality and firm performance for the firms listed in BIST100 1999-2013. We have 328 observations of firms per year in our Panel-data set. ‘Return on Assets’ is our proxy for firm performance. We use following specific characteristics of firms: total firm assets, operating expenses, liquidity, leverage, firm age and research and development expenditures. We use ‘Fixed Effect Panel Regressions’ in our analysis so that we account for time-invariant firm-level omitted variables that could bias our results. Our findings indicate that DINDEX does not have any effect on corporate performance of BIST100 firms. As a second step, we examine the relation between firm performance and DINDEX for each industry in our dataset. We find that among the firms in electricity industry, those that have high level of corporate governance quality also have high level of firm performance. We explain this result with the quick adjustments of these firms to the changes in corporate governance. Keywords: Firm Performance, DINDEX, Corporate Governance Quality, BIST100, Panel Data.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9c7861f24af41b0ae69a812afe099235.docx eb7ef65e1d384fd3c7f8dec0e242c604 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/61627eb253b8dcb93b43901a71700ccd.pdf 36bae520150fb2f8926e6ecac16b7a05 PDF Text Text Gamification Apps in the Business Life and the Research of Business Firm’s Opinion towards Games Application Orhan Adigüzel Süleyman Demirel University Turkey orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Adeviye Erdoğan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey adeviyester@gmail.com Döndü Sönmez Özkan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey sumeyyeozkan81@gmail.com Hikmet Zeynep Batur Süleyman Demirel University Turkey hzeynepbatur@gmail.com Nisa Ekşili Akdeniz University Turkey Abstract: Except the area of the production of the game, gamification refers that basic elements and concepts are used in the process of game design and development. Business processes, which may sound boring, may become more enjoyable by the help of gamification. Moreover, feedbacks collected from individuals may accelerate thanks to such an approach. The purpose of gamification method is applying such approaches to business processes and improving the process quality and human interactions. This study also aim what priorities can be awarded, what type of behavior expected from individuals and most importantly what type of options can offer the connection between individuals and targeted systems to sustain health. This study targets to evaluate how the gamification apps influence the performance of personnels. The research method used in this study is action research approach. This method consists of two stages. At first, the performance level of individuals in firm can be fixed with the help of a survey. Then gamification apps were carried out for two months. After that time, the same survey was repeated. In the light of the findings, this study tries to fix how gamification impacts individuals and their performance. This study can be thought very helpful because of lack of research in the literature area in this context, and this study will also help the interested researchers in this area and managers who want to improve the performance of employees. Keywords: Gamification, game design, design patterns, business, performance. 158 �158 �158 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2619 Title A name given to the resource Gamification Apps in the Business Life and the Research of Business Firm’s Opinion towards Games Application Author Author ADIGUZEL, Orhan BATUR, Kimet Zejnep OZKAN, Dondu Sonmez ERDOGAN, Adeviye Eksili, Nisa Abstract A summary of the resource. Except the area of the production of the game, gamification refers that basic elements and concepts are used in the process of game design and development. Business processes, which may sound boring, may become more enjoyable by the help of gamification. Moreover, feedbacks collected from individuals may accelerate thanks to such an approach. The purpose of gamification method is applying such approaches to business processes and improving the process quality and human interactions. This study also aim what priorities can be awarded, what type of behavior expected from individuals and most importantly what type of options can offer the connection between individuals and targeted systems to sustain health. This study targets to evaluate how the gamification apps influence the performance of personnels. The research method used in this study is action research approach. This method consists of two stages. At first, the performance level of individuals in firm can be fixed with the help of a survey. Then gamification apps were carried out for two months. After that time, the same survey was repeated. In the light of the findings, this study tries to fix how gamification impacts individuals and their performance. This study can be thought very helpful because of lack of research in the literature area in this context, and this study will also help the interested researchers in this area and managers who want to improve the performance of employees. Keywords: Gamification, game design, design patterns, business, performance. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individual-environment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/32f419913bbd2bbecfce6f41bd56e60a.docx b2b215af21cb495c1d93ebb16dd0a799 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0183698b712bb8a67ef8a64b6a59bfc7.pdf 4abcac8ad3e19192dc381f5d8b0b3ece PDF Text Text Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice Orhan Adigüzel Süleyman Demirel University Turkey orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Hikmet Zeynep Batur Süleyman Demirel University Turkey hzeynepbatur@gmail.com Döndü Sönmez Özkan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey sumeyyeozkan81@gmail.com Adeviye Erdoğan Süleyman Demirel University Turkey adeviyester@gmail.com Nisa Ekşili Akdeniz University Turkey Abstract: The career development of individuals is a long and complex process. In this process, an individual may be affected by many factors. An individual's social environment, psychophysical dynamics, and factors such as the economic and cultural structure of the environment may shape (direct) the career choices and professions of the people. For this reason, the basis on which we decide and build our career path and profession, which may affect our entire life, is significant. Many theorists in this field have attempted to bring quite complex solutions to the question that on which basis and according to what criterion do we decide our career path. Among the most efficient theories comes John Holland's Theory of Career Choice. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individualenvironment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types. 157 �157 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2618 Title A name given to the resource Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice Author Author ADIGUZEL, Orhan BATUR, Kimet Zejnep OZKAN, Dondu Sonmez ERDOGAN, Adeviye Eksili, Nisa Abstract A summary of the resource. The career development of individuals is a long and complex process. In this process, an individual may be affected by many factors. An individual's social environment, psycho-physical dynamics, and factors such as the economic and cultural structure of the environment may shape (direct) the career choices and professions of the people. For this reason, the basis on which we decide and build our career path and profession, which may affect our entire life, is significant. Many theorists in this field have attempted to bring quite complex solutions to the question that on which basis and according to what criterion do we decide our career path. Among the most efficient theories comes John Holland's Theory of Career Choice. The present study aims to examine Holland's Theory of Career Choice in all aspects and determine its impact on career choice. In this respect, the personality types and individual-environment interaction have been analyzed. The code map of the data related to the personality types and characteristics present in Holland's Occupational Personality Types has been created using MAXQDA 11. The significance of the study lays in that it puts forwards other studies, results and findings from these studies and it also contributes to the employees and researchers. Keywords: Career, Career Selection, Holland's Theory of Careers and Vocational Choice, Personality Types.   Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9e0c91b85bf61a9f0f7ec711d98ca63d.docx fa6d26f8319b99684a60eac66a01852b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5448e1c797e85c05644cb4dd884f5d0e.pdf c28a78ff704165751e493f5e7b2f2fb9 PDF Text Text A National Quality Infrastructure Alma Aganović Institute of metrology of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia And Herzegovina alma.aganovic@hotmail.com Abstract: Quality is the result of the integration and coordination of a series of activities in several interrelated subjects: metrology, standardization, testing, accreditation, and certification. The state is obliged to regulate aspects related to the valid system of measures, regulations and standards related to certain aspects of the environment, health and safety, as well as the responsibility of government authorities and private organizations on these issues. States with effective public structures within which are included many institutions dealing with infrastructure quality are in a better position to express the interests of their populations in terms of global policy and implementation of international regulations. Keywords: quality infrastructure, accreditation, standardization, certification, metrology. 182 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2661 Title A name given to the resource A National Quality Infrastructure Author Author AGANOVIĆ, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. Quality is the result of the integration and coordination of a series of activities in several interrelated subjects: metrology, standardization, testing, accreditation, and certification. The state is obliged to regulate aspects related to the valid system of measures, regulations and standards related to certain aspects of the environment, health and safety, as well as the responsibility of government authorities and private organizations on these issues. States with effective public structures within which are included many institutions dealing with infrastructure quality are in a better position to express the interests of their populations in terms of global policy and implementation of international regulations. Keywords: quality infrastructure, accreditation, standardization, certification, metrology. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d2ad00991f6bceb1e1a6dd009b852f1a.docx ef3982ab8da72bdb8a33151330fdacad https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6b230b639ddf357dc6e0222bb9a1eaf2.pdf 53b0034d613c6fea5e63fc39108507a6 PDF Text Text A National Quality Infrastructure Alma Aganović Institute of metrology of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia And Herzegovina alma.aganovic@hotmail.com Abstract: Quality is the result of the integration and coordination of a series of activities in several interrelated subjects: metrology, standardization, testing, accreditation, and certification.The state is obliged to regulate aspects related to the valid system of measures, regulations and standards related to certain aspects of the environment, health and safety, as well as the responsibility of government authorities and private organizations on these issues.States with effective public structures within which are included many institutions dealing with infrastructure quality are in a better position to express the interests of their populations in terms of global policy and implementation of international regulations. Keywords: quality infrastructure, accreditation, standardization, certification, metrology. 182 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2669 Title A name given to the resource A National Quality Infrastructure Author Author AGANOVIĆ, Alma Abstract A summary of the resource. Quality is the result of the integration and coordination of a series of activities in several interrelated subjects: metrology, standardization, testing, accreditation, and certification. The state is obliged to regulate aspects related to the valid system of measures, regulations and standards related to certain aspects of the environment, health and safety, as well as the responsibility of government authorities and private organizations on these issues. States with effective public structures within which are included many institutions dealing with infrastructure quality are in a better position to express the interests of their populations in terms of global policy and implementation of international regulations. Keywords: quality infrastructure, accreditation, standardization, certification, metrology. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1d8a815d3c8dc4a072eb87865dee0804.docx fb0e2d4e67d63fcd0055d2e56b42b59b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/637b02b16ae6f3d4f62fe1626c9b7d8b.pdf de1ddcac03cc308c9892e6ffe7219476 PDF Text Text WHAT Is XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language)? Use of XBRL in Balkan Countries and Turkey Ensar Ağirman Ataturk University Turkey ensaragirman@gmail.com Murat Serçemeli Ataturk University Turkey muratsercemeli@gmail.com Muhammet Özcan Ataturk University Turkey mhmmtozcan@gmail.com Abstract: XBRL (extensible Business Reporting Language) is a freely available, digital data encoding language and global standard for exchanging business information electronically between financial data producers and users. The purpose of XBRL is to standardize the automation of business intelligence (BI). Therefore, organizations, companies, firms, government agencies etc., could prepare and exchange their financial statements via XBRL instead of using pdf, html, doc, xls which might create some problems and consumes more and more time. In this study, there was given an overview, historical development of XBRL, benefits and uses of XBRL. Also it is exemplified the usage of XBRL in the World, with special focus on Balkan countries and Turkey. At the end, some suggestions about XBRL usage are made for Balkan countries and Turkey. Keywords: XBRL, Electronic Financial Reporting, XML. 116 �116 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2576 Title A name given to the resource WHAT Is XBRL (Extensible Business Reporting Language)? Use of XBRL in Balkan Countries and Turkey Author Author AGIRMAN, Ensar SERCEMELI, Murat OZCAN, Muhammet Abstract A summary of the resource. XBRL (extensible Business Reporting Language) is a freely available, digital data encoding language and global standard for exchanging business information electronically between financial data producers and users. The purpose of XBRL is to standardize the automation of business intelligence (BI). Therefore, organizations, companies, firms, government agencies etc., could prepare and exchange their financial statements via XBRL instead of using pdf, html, doc, xls which might create some problems and consumes more and more time. In this study, there was given an overview, historical development of XBRL, benefits and uses of XBRL. Also it is exemplified the usage of XBRL in the World, with special focus on Balkan countries and Turkey. At the end, some suggestions about XBRL usage are made for Balkan countries and Turkey. Keywords: XBRL, Electronic Financial Reporting, XML. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4d98977c96d16b84571697682d327d4c.docx a9fe5e31bebea9ee26740911442e41ec https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/21684c9dac84459c72aaf6ee2c6a0e29.pdf dd01eaf36834abd3e1849020fc3ea078 PDF Text Text The Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Self Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intentions: An Application of Business Students Ülke Hilal Ağırman Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey ulkecelik@hotmail.com Seda Tüysüz Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey sedatuysuz@hotmail.com Atılhan Naktiyok Erzurum Atatürk University Turkey anakti@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Entrepreneurship is linked with value creation and, as such, is thought to have a significant impact on economic growth, continuous business renewal, and employment (Tang and Koveos, 2004). Therefore, entrepreneurship has a great importance in today's economic system and is considered as the main driving force of economic development. It is essential for individuals to have entrepreneurial self efficacy and intentions of entrepreneurship to identify the opportunities in their environment and create value from these opportunities. Self-efficacy is an individual’s cognitive estimate of his or her ‘‘capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to exercise control over events in their lives’’ (Wood and Bandura, 1989). Entrepreneurial self efficacy reflects an individual's capability to successfully fulfill his/her tasks of entrepreneurship (Chan et al., 1998:301). An entrepreneurial intention is defined as the conscious state of mind that directs personal attention, experience, and behavior toward planned entrepreneurial behavior (Bird, 1988). This study focuses on the emotional intelligence factor which is thought to affect individuals' entrepreneurial self efficacy and intention of entrepreneurship. Emotional intelligence which is the ability of people in coping and adapting with life events depends on cooperation of intellectual and emotional capacities (Salovey and Mayer, 1993) so it is an important construct of entrepreneurship’s development. To test research hypotheses, data will be gathered from students at the Business Program of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in a university in Turkey. The data obtained will be analyzed using appropriate statistical methods and in accordance with this analysis it will be determined whether level of individuals' emotional intelligence affects self efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial self efficacy, intention of entrepreneurship, emotional intelligence. 156 �156 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2617 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Self Efficacy and Entrepreneurial Intentions: An Application of Business Students Author Author AGIRMAN, Ulke Hilal NAKTIYOK, Atilhan TUYSUZ, Seda Abstract A summary of the resource. Entrepreneurship is linked with value creation and, as such, is thought to have a significant impact on economic growth, continuous business renewal, and employment (Tang and Koveos, 2004). Therefore, entrepreneurship has a great importance in today's economic system and is considered as the main driving force of economic development. It is essential for individuals to have entrepreneurial self efficacy and intentions of entrepreneurship to identify the opportunities in their environment and create value from these opportunities. Self-efficacy is an individual’s cognitive estimate of his or her ‘‘capabilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to exercise control over events in their lives’’ (Wood and Bandura, 1989). Entrepreneurial self efficacy reflects an individual's capability to successfully fulfill his/her tasks of entrepreneurship (Chan et al., 1998:301). An entrepreneurial intention is defined as the conscious state of mind that directs personal attention, experience, and behavior toward planned entrepreneurial behavior (Bird, 1988). This study focuses on the emotional intelligence factor which is thought to affect individuals' entrepreneurial self efficacy and intention of entrepreneurship. Emotional intelligence which is the ability of people in coping and adapting with life events depends on cooperation of intellectual and emotional capacities (Salovey and Mayer, 1993) so it is an important construct of entrepreneurship’s development. To test research hypotheses, data will be gathered from students at the Business Program of Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences in a university in Turkey. The data obtained will be analyzed using appropriate statistical methods and in accordance with this analysis it will be determined whether level of individuals' emotional intelligence affects self efficacy and entrepreneurial intentions. Keywords: Entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial self efficacy, intention of entrepreneurship, emotional intelligence. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f5db0891f7b20bba887f9cecc3f8d6f0.docx fcd85ada83366be7754c3618c5266289 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4d599495aaea457f82a3043d92c76c1e.pdf 1f4247e7c2a73591ed64ee347dc5e82a PDF Text Text Latest Developments on the International Standards on Auditing (ISAS); Use on Auditing Financial Statements in the Public Sector. The Case of Albania Greta Angjeli Mediterranean University of Albania Albania gretaangjeli@umsh.edu.al Kriton Kuci Mediterranean University of Albania Albania kritonkuci@umsh.edu.al Abstract: International Standards on Auditing have changed quite a lot over the last decade. These standards are today not only more clarified, and more understandable, but also more helpful and more useful by both the auditors and users of financial statements. Their wider use has increased considerably the trust and confidence to International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), where its’ independent boards, follow carefully latest developments and draft those standards that contribute directly to the improvement of the audit quality, thus contributing directly to improving the quality of the financial reporting. In all auditing standards, guidelines and directives of practices are issued by the IAASB, regardless the fact that their orientation is mainly for financial reporting in the private sector. There are always given considerations and developed approaches on how to use them for public sector. International organizations, national and local governments, and also public sector entities in all levels, today tend to use similar standards of reporting. This tendency is seen from the modifications they are implementing from cash basis to the cash modified bases of accounting targeting the full use of accrual basis of accounting. Experiences in this regard vary quite a lot. The more progress in this process is made by some international organizations, as well as governments in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, but also France, Germany, etc. The main purpose of this paper is to try to analyze the latest developments in the field of international auditing standards, to briefly present the main developments, and especially to emphasize the need for drafting appropriate procedures and tools to be applicable for the public sector as well. The second part of the paper will deal with the specific model of practices regarding Albania and will try to point out the specifics of this model, and will compare it to the international standards in order to give adequate recommendations. Keywords: International Standards on Auditing, ISAS, financial statements, public sector, Albania. 122 �122 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2582 Title A name given to the resource Latest Developments on the International Standards on Auditing (ISAS); Use on Auditing Financial Statements in the Public Sector. The Case of Albania Author Author AGJELI, Greta KUCI, Kriton Abstract A summary of the resource. International Standards on Auditing have changed quite a lot over the last decade. These standards are today not only more clarified, and more understandable, but also more helpful and more useful by both the auditors and users of financial statements. Their wider use has increased considerably the trust and confidence to International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), where its’ independent boards, follow carefully latest developments and draft those standards that contribute directly to the improvement of the audit quality, thus contributing directly to improving the quality of the financial reporting. In all auditing standards, guidelines and directives of practices are issued by the IAASB, regardless the fact that their orientation is mainly for financial reporting in the private sector. There are always given considerations and developed approaches on how to use them for public sector. International organizations, national and local governments, and also public sector entities in all levels, today tend to use similar standards of reporting. This tendency is seen from the modifications they are implementing from cash basis to the cash modified bases of accounting targeting the full use of accrual basis of accounting. Experiences in this regard vary quite a lot. The more progress in this process is made by some international organizations, as well as governments in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, but also France, Germany, etc. The main purpose of this paper is to try to analyze the latest developments in the field of international auditing standards, to briefly present the main developments, and especially to emphasize the need for drafting appropriate procedures and tools to be applicable for the public sector as well. The second part of the paper will deal with the specific model of practices regarding Albania and will try to point out the specifics of this model, and will compare it to the international standards in order to give adequate recommendations. Keywords: International Standards on Auditing, ISAS, financial statements, public sector, Albania. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a48b16bf334cc6207f2137161949780f.docx dded5c7634a7874343d332e375a01870 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ed9423f7a3fa40a3fd801270eafec1b.pdf 8de76eb6d325f13d6d660a1386a3d07f PDF Text Text Factors Affecting Sustainable Competitive Advantage in the Wood industry in B&H Jasminka Ahmetasević International Burch University Bosnia And Herzegovina sppajalica@yahoo.com Erkan Ilgun International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina erkan.ilguen@gmail.com Abstract: This paper examines fundamental elements of competitive advantage in the wood industry. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate core factors that affect the sustainable competitive advantage in the wood industry in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the first phase of this research study, an importance-performance analysis was performed based on components of the sustainable competitive advantage. In the second phase, the relationships between competitive strategy, innovation, leadership and sources of competitive advantage for sustainable competitive advantage in the market were determined. What makes the profitability of the company and success? How these variables interact with each other? Their interaction was determined in the study. Additionally, in the third phase of our master's thesis, based on the above factors, we showed what makes profitability of the company. It means how a company could be successful and profitable in the long- term. Keywords: wood industry, competitive advantage, innovation, competitive strategy, success, sustainability, sources of competitive advantage, leadership, advertising, profitability. 164 �164 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2644 Title A name given to the resource Factors Affecting Sustainable Competitive Advantage in the Wood industry in B&H Author Author AHMETASEVIĆ, Jasminka ILGUN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper examines fundamental elements of competitive advantage in the wood industry. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate core factors that affect the sustainable competitive advantage in the wood industry in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In the first phase of this research study, an importance-performance analysis was performed based on components of the sustainable competitive advantage. In the second phase, the relationships between competitive strategy, innovation, leadership and sources of competitive advantage for sustainable competitive advantage in the market were determined. What makes the profitability of the company and success? How these variables interact with each other? Their interaction was determined in the study. Additionally, in the third phase of our master's thesis, based on the above factors, we showed what makes profitability of the company. It means how a company could be successful and profitable in the long- term. Keywords: wood industry, competitive advantage, innovation, competitive strategy, success, sustainability, sources of competitive advantage, leadership, advertising, profitability. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-4564 H Social Sciences (General)