65 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/279a24885cbcd11e8fd010610b6efba6.docx b2cbaff153e4523bff6f636b78445213 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f21c725b40f22aea6a37d2d53ef282d2.pdf bda2747975ca46075d0bfb779ed4f438 PDF Text Text Conceptual Scenarios in Contemporary American Political Discourse: (Not) Going It Alone Emir Muhic University of Banja Luka/ Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina Key words: conceptual scenarios, political discourse, conceptualization, hope, morality, polymorphous theoretical platform ABSTRACT American political discourse is oft-held up as the genuine article of the conceptualization of metaphorically structured discursive scenarios. The interplay of hope and morality is a prevalent lexical constituent giving rise to imperceptibly inculcated pan-societal mores and normative benchmarks within the bounds of which conventionalized patterns of semanto-pragmatic behavioural tendencies emerge and institute a desired constellation of values and mindsets emblematic of the American political arena. This micro-level study aims to identify and conceptually analyse the conspicuous and prominent discursive strategies employed to construct, restructure and deconstruct multilayered perceptions and embodiments from the standpoint of hope and morality scenario-predicated textual samples. Weight will be primarily attached to Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff, 2008 and Kovecses, 2005) in conjunction with purposefully selected facets of Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1989) in the hope that this polymorphous orchestra echoes a present-day U.S. metaphorical portrait and sheds light as to how to combine the aforementioned theoretical platforms and morph them into analytically workable sync. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1753 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Scenarios in Contemporary American Political Discourse: (Not) Going It Alone Author Author MUHIC, Emir Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: conceptual scenarios, political discourse, conceptualization, hope, morality, polymorphous theoretical platform ABSTRACT American political discourse is oft-held up as the genuine article of the conceptualization of metaphorically structured discursive scenarios. The interplay of hope and morality is a prevalent lexical constituent giving rise to imperceptibly inculcated pan-societal mores and normative benchmarks within the bounds of which conventionalized patterns of semanto-pragmatic behavioural tendencies emerge and institute a desired constellation of values and mindsets emblematic of the American political arena. This micro-level study aims to identify and conceptually analyse the conspicuous and prominent discursive strategies employed to construct, restructure and deconstruct multilayered perceptions and embodiments from the standpoint of hope and morality scenario-predicated textual samples. Weight will be primarily attached to Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff, 2008 and Kovecses, 2005) in conjunction with purposefully selected facets of Critical Discourse Analysis (Fairclough, 1989) in the hope that this polymorphous orchestra echoes a present-day U.S. metaphorical portrait and sheds light as to how to combine the aforementioned theoretical platforms and morph them into analytically workable sync. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7ddead26038654065181856ab84ba4fe.pdf be010fee6487bae9252386b7eb311249 PDF Text Text Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3 (2), pp. 48-63, Winter 2020 Original research paper ISSN 2566-4638 © International Burch University Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich, M.A FH Burgenland, Austria 1819001202@fh-burgenland.at Abstract: The nascent field of news literacy is often described as a subset of media literacy. A review of international scholarship with regard to news literacy conceptualizations confirms that there are diverse and competing notions of its definition and purpose: while the civic component of news literacy clearly distinguishes it from media literacy and other new literacies, there is a noticeable divide between journalism-driven and media literacy-derived approaches. Qualitative data analysis was used to identify patterns in a subset of approximately 120 examples of current English-language international scholarship. By proposing three preliminary taxonomic classifications of news literacy – protectionist versus empowerment; skills versus knowledge; and levels of abstraction – this conceptual paper provides orientation in the field. Keywords: Literacy, media literacy, news literacy, taxonomy. Article History Submitted: 10 December 2020 Accepted: 10 January 2021 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich 1. INTRODUCTION Defining “news literacy” is a challenge when the definitions of both news and literacy are in flux. Where “news” was once a valuable commodity gathered by professional journalists and distributed regularly to mass audiences, it is now ubiquitous, available 24-7, often free, and increasingly customized (Ashley, 2020). Today’s news consumers must be able to navigate an increasingly complicated news ecosystem in order to find news they can trust. Similarly, the meaning of “literacy” has also evolved. Since the 1970s, the scope of literacy began to expand in education from the ability to read and write to become a meaning-making activity that requires different skills for different types of media messages: “Literacy today [...] is inevitably and necessarily multimedia literacy; and to this extent, traditional forms of literacy teaching are no longer adequate” (Buckingham, 2003, p. 35). Multiple new literacies have emerged in lockstep with the development of digital technologies (Stordy, 2015), including not only media and news literacy, but also computer, data, digital, economic, health, historical, information, MIL (media and information literacy), new, scientific, and visual literacy. The term news literacy first emerged among journalism educators around 2006 (Fleming, 2017). News literacy has been characterized as a subset and “crucial emerging field” of scholarship and education within the larger field of media literacy (Mihailidis, 2012, xii-2). As a subfield of media literacy (Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2013; Kendrick & Fullerton, 2019; Mihailidis, 2012; Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015; Tully, Vraga, & Smithson, 2018) it has inherited to an extent the same fruitless debate on definitions, scope, and aims that has plagued media literacy since the early 1990s (Maksl, Craft, Ashley, & Miller, 2017). There is to date no universally accepted formulation of news literacy. Its various permutations include news literacy, news media literacy, critical news media literacy, and critical news literacy. A recent paper co-published by a constellation of news literacy scholars went so far as to claim that the “[current] state of the field is chaotic ” (Vraga, Tully, Maksl, Craft, & Ashley, 2020, p. 13). Yet even though “chaos” may be overstating the status quo, navigating today’s news information environment has indeed become an increasingly complex task. The key goals of media literacy education, such as enhancing critical thinking skills (Silverblatt, 2004, 2014); analysis and evaluation (Aufderheide, 1993; Hobbs, 2010); conscious processing of media messages (Potter, 2004); and promoting civic agency (Mihailidis, 2019) may be applied specifically to news content and news products. Whether such application allows news literacy to emerge as a full-fledged, independent discipline may be beside the point. Allowing for a degree of “semantic interoperability” with respect to news literacy definitions would better reflect the diversity of news and news consumers, as Malik et al. argue (2013, p. 9). The more important goal must surely be to produce savvy and empowered readers and disseminators of various kinds of media messages, including news. 49 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 The purpose of this paper is to address the question of whether meaningful classifications of news literacy definitions can be established at all. Doing so may help clarify the current state of this cross-disciplinary field, but also provide a framework for future scholarly work in this domain. 2. METHODOLOGY This paper draws on a systematic literature review of news literacy which was carried out in 2019. The literature review describes the current state of research and identifies both scholarly and non-academic organizations and institutions active in the field. While its theoretical focus lies on English-language scholarship originating primarily in the US and UK, the review encompasses Englishlanguage scientific papers published by international scholars. Due to the nature of the topic itself – news literacy –material published by non-academics such as journalists, media commentators, educational outreach organizations and programs has also been included in the literature review. Searches were carried out on ERIC, SSCI, Google Scholar, ProQuest and commercial search engines as well as on the theses and dissertation databases OATD, BASE, and NDLTD. The literature review has been continually augmented with works published since 2019, with particular effort devoted to identifying new papers by scholars or practitioners already included in the original literature review. Using the full literature review as a base, an electronic search was carried out during the months of August and September 2020 to identify whether, and how often, the terms news literacy, news media literacy, critical news media literacy and/or critical news literacy were used in the body of papers or published materials. This step yielded approximately 120 peer-reviewed papers that used one of the terms at least once. Several monographs and encyclopedia entries published by scholars in the field were also identified. Occurrences of the terms that were limited to citations or bibliographies were excluded for the purpose of this study. Backward and forward searches of citations were carried out selectively to ensure the completeness of the set. In a next step, qualitative data analysis software tools were used to extract a collection of relevant terms and concepts. These key operative words, including “skills,” “knowledge,” “civic,” “democracy,” “act,” and “produce” (see also Table 1.) were counted, analyzed, and used to identify possible relationships. 3. RESULTS Of the approximately 120 works identified that use the term news literacy (or variants thereof) in the body of the work, only 37 offer any type of specific definition of the term itself. The rest – around 80 – use the term, but do not define or otherwise elaborate on it. Instead, these papers often situate news literacy 50 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich within the existing media literacy landscape; it is characterized as one “strand” in the “big tent” of media literacy education which embraces critical media literacy as well as digital, information and visual literacies (RobbGrieco & Hobbs, 2013, p. 22). It is often described as a subset or outgrowth of media literacy which applies the general media literacy principles of act, access, analyze, and create to news-based texts (Ashley et al., 2013; Jones-Jang, Mortensen, & Liu, 2019; Kamerer, 2013; Kartal, Yazgan, & Kincal, 2017; Kendrick & Fullerton, 2019; Mihailidis, 2012; Notley & Dezuanni, 2019; Sivek, 2018). Toepfl (2014) characterizes critical news literacy as part of the media literacy tradition, yet emphasizes that its facets vary according to whether it is applied in countries with democratic or non-democratic regimes. Others situate news literacy within other related literacies such as digital media literacy (Dezuanni, Notley, & Corser, 2020) or information and digital literacies (CIVIX, 2020). Kendrick & Fullerton (2019) point to the intersection of news literacy with civic literacy. Finally, news literacy is occasionally offered as just one of many in a long list of literacies (Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015; Stordy, 2015). Of the 37 works that define news literacy, 21 propose original or own definitions. The remainder cite previously published definitions forwarded by other scholars or organizations. Twelve of the 21 original definitions are offered by one or more scholars in the loose collective of Ashley, Craft, Maksl, Tully and Vraga. Four definitions originate with or are directly associated with the Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University (Center for News Literacy, 2019), and an additional five definitions are proposed by journalists, practitioners, or educational organizations. Malik et al. underscore that what sets news literacy apart from other literacies is its “connection to civic engagement” (2013, p. 7). The US-based News Literacy Project cites the promotion of “engaged participation in civic life” as the ultimate aim of news literacy (2020, p. 5). The 21 original definitions and/or statements of purpose located in this study tend to confirm this clear differentiating characteristic: eighteen refer expressly to the civic and/or democratic aspects. Table 1. Occurrences of operative words in news literacy definitions and statements of purpose Term Total number of mentions Ability, abilities 13 Act, active, action 9 Analyze, analysis 6 Assess 4 Attitude(s) 3 Civic 7 51 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 Citizen, citizenry, citizenship Create, creation Credible, credibility Critical, critically Democracy, democratic Empower, empowered Engage, engaged, engagement Evaluate Fact, fact-based Information Informed Knowledge, knowledgeable Meaningful Mindful Navigate News consumer(s) News consumption News production Productive Skill, skills, skillset Understand, understanding Verify, verification 13 5 4 20 11 8 16 6 3 18 7 13 1 2 1 3 9 15 1 16 16 2 Note: Key operative words counted in the group of 21 works proposing original or own news literacy definitions and/or statements of purpose. Due to the small number of units of analysis, permutations of the same word are grouped together. Only the first mention of the term is included in the count. 4. DISCUSSION News literacy is still a young discipline with a relatively small yet rapidly growing body of scholarly research. As its definition and purpose evolve, there will likely be more material with which to create truly meaningful taxonomies. Before delineating three possible modes of classification, it is useful to track the evolution of definitions offered by one or more of the scholars who have coauthored multiple papers in the discipline since 2010: those belonging to the aforementioned loose constellation of Ashley, Maksl, Craft, Tully and Vraga. In 2010, Ashley, Poepsel and Willis employ the term media literacy in their exploration of the ways in which knowledge of media ownership influences opinions on print news credibility (2010). In “Developing a News Media Literacy Scale” (2013), Ashley, Maksl and Craft describe news media literacy as a “subset of 52 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich the broader field of media literacy” without providing an explicit definition of the term. Two years later, Maksl, Ashley and Craft again use news media literacy (2015), describing it as an “emerging subfield” of media literacy. Ashley later writes (2020, p. 50) that the authors deliberately used news media literacy in the 2015 study to underline their allegiance to the discipline’s roots in media literacy, as opposed to journalism. The same authors employed news media literacy again in “News Media Literacy and Political Engagement: What’s The connection?” (Ashley, Maksl, & Craft, 2017). Yet in another paper published in the same year, news literacy was the main term used in their evaluation of the Stony Brook University curriculum (Maksl et al., 2017). They describe the overlap and competition among different literacies, and describe news literacy in spatial terms: “If a definition of news literacy is the destination, then the journey to reach it passes through several other literacy neighborhoods” (2017, p. 229). Ashley offers an autonomous definition for news literacy in the International Encyclopedia of Journalism (2019b): “Starting from the premise that an informed citizenry is central to democratic self‐governance, news literacy is comprised of the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that news audiences need to successfully engage with news media. [. . . ].” The most recent collective effort of the scholars Vraga, Tully, Maksl, Craft and Ashley employs the term news literacy, which they define as “Knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news is produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control over these processes” (2020, p. 15). In his 2020 monograph News Literacy and Democracy, Ashley claims that news literacy “has emerged as a domain of its own” and while distinct from media literacy, still belongs to its overarching realm (2020, p. 17). In addition to identifying how the term has developed thus far, patterns may also be discerned in the 37 instances located for this study. These may be elaborated in three preliminary modes of classification. The first is based on the general protectionist and empowerment paradigms in the media literacy education tradition (RobbGrieco & Hobbs, 2013, p. 2). A second draws on the skills and knowledge-based framework developed by Potter (2004). A third presents news literacy as one level of abstraction in a framework proposed by Palsa & Ruokamo (2015). Each of the four permutations of the term (news literacy, news media literacy, critical news media literacy, and critical news literacy) have been merged in the creation of these classifications. 5. NEWS LITERACY PARADIGMS The varying approaches to defining news literacy may be generally categorized as fundamentally protectionist, or empowering (Mihailidis, 2012; RobbGrieco & Hobbs, 2013). The protectionist paradigm presupposes a more “correct” way to consume news and aims to cultivate appreciation of it (Fleming, 2014). It encourages news consumers to think like journalists, and to employ the traditional tools and techniques of the journalism trade (e.g. verification, 53 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 consulting multiple sources, using an accuracy checklist etc.). In contrast, the empowerment paradigm stems from the critical/cultural tradition in which the individual not only interprets and deconstructs (news) media messages, but can also actively contribute to message creation and dissemination. In news literacy, the protectionist approach drills down on concrete news products and messages, while the empowerment approach encourages contemplation of the wider socioeconomic, cultural and institutional contexts. The protectionist paradigm is most closely associated with proponents based in the United States, while the empowerment paradigm is more global in scope (Fleming, 2017). Origins General stance vis-à-vis media Orientation Desired actions Geographic sphere Proponents Table 2. News Literacy Paradigms Protectionist Paradigm Empowerment Paradigm Journalism, journalists, J-school Critical/cultural approach (“think like a journalist”) approach (based on media literacy in US, media education in UK) Aims to mitigate potentially harmful Encourages individual media effects by cultivating construction and appreciation for certain media forms negotiation of meaning and messages in all media forms Content-oriented: examines and Context-oriented: evaluates specific news texts or news considers the larger products socioeconomic, cultural, institutional contexts Skill cultivation: journalistic tools of Ability to access, fact-checking, verification, accuracy analyze, create, reflect, checklists, sourcing practices act in all media “American” Global Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University; News Literacy Project (US); Poynter Institute; Radio Television Digital News Association (US); Howard Schneider (founder of Stony Brook program) Seth Ashley; Renee Hobbs; Malik, Cortesi & Gasser (2013); Paul Mihailidis; Stephen D. Reese 6. SKILLS VERSUS KNOWLEDGE-BASED APPROACH The skills versus knowledge-based taxonomy follows Potter’s (2004) classification of media literacy definitions. After counting explicit mentions of an operative set of terms across all 37 definitions, four main areas of focus were delineated: 1) “skills” (the related terms “abilities,” “competencies” were also counted in this category); 2) “knowledge” (including “understanding,” 54 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich “comprehension”); 3) the combination of both “skills” and “knowledge.” This study adds a fourth and crucial aspect, the “civic” component. Table 3 classifies the original definitions according to the four areas. The modest number of definitions (units of analysis) hinders the creation of substantive classifications, yet a heightened emphasis on “skills” can be discerned among the journalism-centric authors and organizations based in the US (e.g. Center for News Literacy and its founder Schneider, the News Literacy Project, Radio Television Digital News Association). Variations of “civic” (“citizen,” “citizenship,” etc.) were included in eight definitions, thus underscoring its centrality to the discipline. This aligns with Mihailidis, who locates news literacy at the intersection of journalism, technology, and citizenship (2012); and Malik et al., who stress that it is the “connection to civic engagement” that sets news literacy apart from the other literacies (2013, p. 7). Appendix 1 offers verbatim excerpts of wording within each definitional focus area. Table 3. News Literacy Definitional Focus Definitional focus Author(s)/Year (listed in alphabetical order by author) Focus on skills Ashley et al. 2017 Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University (US) Kajimoto & Fleming 2019 News Literacy Project (US) Radio Television Digital News Association (US) Schneider, Howard (Stony Brook University) Focus on knowledge Maksl et al. 2015 Reese 2012 RobbGrieco & Hobbs 2013 Focus on both skills Ashley 2019 and knowledge Ashley 2019a Ashley 2020 Malik et al. 2013 Tully et al. 2018 Vraga et al. 2020 Mention of civic Ashley 2019 component Ashley 2019a Ashley 2020 Kajimoto & Fleming 2019 Malik et al. 2013 Mihailidis 2012 News Literacy Project (US) RobbGrieco & Hobbs 2013 55 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 7. LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION FRAMEWORK One thread identified in this study is a reluctance among scholars to insist on the universality of any one news literacy definition. In their preference for semantic flexibility, Malik et al. emphasize the importance of understanding the building blocks of news literacy: what people need news for, how and why they seek out news, and identifying how to help news consumers hone their skills in evaluating and disseminating news (2013, pp. 8–9). Mihailidis has alluded to the lack of clear definitional boundaries between news and media literacy. Yet rather than limiting the concept from the outset, he suggests a more flexible approach that enables “definitional rigor and fluency” to arise naturally in the course of scholarship and pedagogy (2012, p. 3). Palsa & Ruokamo (2015) eschew altogether any attempt to establish a global definition of media literacy, proposing instead to recognize the legitimacy of multiliteracies and arrange these on the basis of high, medium, and low levels of abstraction. This more holistic view of literacies may indeed be of use when considering news literacy. Adapting the Palsa & Ruokamo framework to this end, media literacy – in this instance, the overall desired outcome of education – is thus the highest level of abstraction. News literacy is situated in the middle, and is employed as a targeted application of media literacy concepts to newsbased texts. At the lowest level of abstraction are literacies that feed into both news and media literacy, such as headline literacy (Johnson, Paal, Waggoner, & Bleier, 2020), which involves the ways in which news consumers identify and evaluate the reliability of news headlines, particularly in social media-rich information environments. Table 4. Framework of abstraction for literacies (based on Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015) High level of abstraction Media literacy as desired outcome of educational efforts Medium level of abstraction News literacy as targeted application of media literacy concepts Low level of abstraction Headline literacy as highly specific and contextualized application of news literacy concepts 8. CONCLUSION This study underscores the current lack of any single, universally accepted definition of news literacy in the English-language literature. Most scholarly works included in this study apply the foundational definition of media literacy to news-based texts instead of providing a new or original definition of news literacy. Moreover, as a stand-alone discipline, news literacy competes not only with media literacy, but with a range of other new or newish literacies, in particular digital and information literacy. Yet news literacy is consistently 56 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich distinguished from other literacies by way of its civic component. This study suggests that among the relatively small group of scholars and practitioners that employs the term, classification of conceptualizations may follow the protectionist versus empowerment paradigm; a skills versus knowledge-based approach; or within a framework of levels of abstraction. This classification could serve as an initial taxonomic foundation which may be built upon as the discipline develops. A clear limitation of this study is the small number of extant original definitions of news literacy. However, as the field matures and the corpus of scholarly research expands, future researchers will have more material to draw on in order to create more substantive classifications. The overall scope of evaluation could be enlarged to include news literacy scholarship originating in non-Anglo countries and explore the dimensions of the term in other languages. The present rapid pace of publication in the field will likely continue as researchers explore how news literacy is helping – or not helping – news consumers navigate the complexities of news ecospheres, and whether news literacy functions as a corrective to the scourge of “fake news” and misinformation. 57 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 REFERENCES Ashley, S. (2019a). News Literacies. In R. Hobbs & P. Mihailidis (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell-ICA international encyclopedias of communication. The international encyclopedia of media literacy (Vol. 2, pp. 1–11). Hoboken NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118978238.ieml0173 Ashley, S. (2019b). News literacy. In T. P. Vos & F. 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Santa Barbara California: Praeger An Imprint of ABC-CLIO LLC. Sivek, S. C. (2018). Both Facts and Feelings: Emotion and News Literacy. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 10(2), 123–138. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1355&context=jm le Stordy, P. (2015). Taxonomy of literacies. Journal of Documentation, 71(3), 456–476. https://doi.org/10.1108/JD-10-2013-0128 Toepfl, F. (2014). Four facets of critical news literacy in a non-democratic regime: How young Russians navigate their news. European Journal of Communication, 29(1), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323113511183 Tully, M., Vraga, E. K., & Smithson, A.‑B. (2018). News media literacy, perceptions of bias, and interpretation of news. Journalism, 39(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884918805262 Vraga, E. K., Tully, M., Maksl, A., Craft, S., & Ashley, S. (2020). Theorizing News Literacy Behaviors. Communication Theory. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1093/ct/qtaa005 60 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich APPENDIX 1. News Literacy Definitional Focus as described in Table 3. In alphabetical/chronological order for each category. SKILL-BASED DEFINITIONS Ashley et al. "News media literacy takes the broad goals of media literacy—the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media [...] —and applies them to news content specifically with a focus on the contexts of news production." (2017, p. 81) Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University “News Literacy is the ability to use critical thinking skills to judge the reliability and credibility of news reports, whether they come via print, television, radio, the internet or social media.” (2019) Kajimoto & Fleming “News literacy is an emerging field within the disciplines of media literacy, journalism education, information technology, and other related areas, although there is no unified definition or consensus among researchers as to what exactly the news literacy curriculum should entail. Its core mission is broadly recognized as ‘citizen empowerment’ in that the critical-thinking skills necessary to the evaluation of news reports and the ability to identify fact-based, quality information encourage active participation and engagement among wellinformed citizens.” (2019) News Literacy Project (US) “News literacy is the ability to determine the credibility of news and other content, to identify different types of information and to use the standards of authoritative, fact-based journalism to discern credible sources and content from misinformation and unreliable sources. Being more news-literate also means recognizing the critical role of the First Amendment and a free press in a democracy and interacting with news and other information in ways that promote engaged participation in civic life.” (2020, p. 5) Radio Television Digital News Association (US) “News literacy is the acquisition of 21st-century, critical-thinking skills for analyzing and judging the reliability of news and information, differentiating among facts, opinions and assertions in the media we consume, create and distribute.” (2020) Schneider, Howard (Center for News Literacy at Stony Brook University) “News literacy is the ability to decide for yourself whether the news reports you receive, whether they come from television, the Internet, newspapers, or magazines, whether those reports are reliable. And by reliable I mean whether you can act on the information. Can you take an action? Can you reach a conclusion? Can you make a judgment? Or is the information suspect or insufficient – and how do you know?” (2019) 61 �Journal of Education and Humanities Volume 3, Issue 2, Winter 2020 KNOWLEDGE-BASED DEFINITIONS Maksl et al. “News media literacy is oriented toward understanding how and why people engage with news media, how they make sense of what they consume, and how individuals are affected by their own news consumption.” (2015, p. 29) Reese, Stephen D. “By news literacy I essentially mean an understanding of how news ‘works,’ including the underlying media and technological systems that support certain meanings embedded in media ‘texts’ and the creative process that yields them [. . . ]; [global] news literacy, then, means the ability to understand, ‘decode,’ and create media with particular awareness of one’s social location within an international context.” (2012, p. 65) RobbGrieco & Hobbs "This strand [of media literacy] helps learners understand and participate in the roles and responsibilities that newsmakers, news consumers, news texts, and news organizations play in a healthy society. Practitioners focus on key questions of representation and reality, and of techniques used to construct messages in the news.” (2013, p. 22) BOTH SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE Ashley (International Encyclopedia of Journalism Studies) “Starting from the premise that an informed citizenry is central to democratic self‐governance, news literacy is comprised of the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that news audiences need to successfully engage with news media [. . . ].” (2019b) Ashley (International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy) “[The] emerging field of news literacy includes the knowledge and skills necessary for empowered audiences to engage with news media and civic life in meaningful and productive ways.” (2019a) Ashley "News literacy is the critical evaluation of information content as well as the contexts where it is produced and consumed. We can think of news literacy as the set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that a person brings to their personal consumption of information and to their understanding of the structure of the news media landscape.” (2020, p. 9) Malik et al. “News literacy is at the intersection of [media and information literacies], as news is a type of information which can be delivered through the media. However, its connection to civic engagement is what conceptually distinguishes it from other information or media.” (2013, p. 7) Tully et al. "NML [news media literacy] [. . .] emphasizes the development of knowledge, skills and a personal sense of control about media choices”; “[. . . ] NML, then, 62 �Conceptualizing News Literacy Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich focuses on the necessary abilities relevant to becoming a critical news consumer." (2018, 3-4) Vraga et al. News literacy is “knowledge of the personal and social processes by which news is produced, distributed, and consumed, and skills that allow users some control over these processes.” (2020, p. 15) CIVIC COMPONENT (WHERE NOT ALREADY INCLUDED ABOVE) Mihailidis “The news literacy educational movement is premised on exploring how to best prepare journalists and citizens for lives of active inquiry and participatory citizenship in information societies worldwide.” (2012, p. 8) 63 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Journal of Education and Humanities Subject The topic of the resource Education and Humanities Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Title A name given to the resource Conceptualizing News Literacy Author Author Kimberly Callecod-Weinrich Abstract A summary of the resource. The nascent field of news literacy is often described as a subset of media literacy. A review of international scholarship with regard to news literacy conceptualizations confirms that there are diverse and competing notions of its definition and purpose: while the civic component of news literacy clearly distinguishes it from media literacy and other new literacies, there is a noticeable divide between journalism-driven and media literacy-derived approaches. Qualitative data analysis was used to identify patterns in a subset of approximately 120 examples of current English-language international scholarship. By proposing three preliminary taxonomic classifications of news literacy – protectionist versus empowerment; skills versus knowledge; and levels of abstraction – this conceptual paper provides orientation in the field. Keywords Keywords. iteracy, media literacy, news literacy, taxonomy. Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context 2566-4638 DOI Digital object identifier 10.14706/JEH2021324 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1a2e31136c575fce1eef8c541f556a9e.pdf 483d48d892292b8f93f25af7943e1caa https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cdae919ff6bb6b828a68ac51dc93a183.pdf 8509d7ae6ab2386b6bd97b2c1639e521 PDF Text Text CONCRETE STUDIES 2017 CONCRETE STUDIES 2017 SANIN DŽIDIĆ | ILDA KOVAČEVIĆ | SABINA KOZLICA DŽIDIĆ | KOVAČEVIĆ | KOZLICA SARAJEVO, 2018 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3731 Title A name given to the resource Concrete Studies 2017 Author Author DŽIDIĆ, Sanin KOVAČEVIĆ, Ilda Kozlica, Sabina Causevic, Amir Sahinagic Isovic, Merima Abstract A summary of the resource. The first study is “Comparison of Fire Resistance of RC Slabs Determined according to Different Methods“. We construct our buildings and facilities to last 50, 100 or even 200 years. There is a high probability that fire will eventually occur during the service life of practically every structure. Fire can happen anytime and anywhere. This study explores fire resistance of RC slabs that are the most sensitive concrete elements in fire situation. We compared the results of determination of fire resistance according to four different methods. We got some conclusions, but also opened an area for new research on fire resistance of some other concrete elements. Concrete is principal construction material in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is very common. However, concrete of high compression strength is almost unknown in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study of “High-Strength Concrete (HSC) and Possibilities for Production in Bosnia and Herzegovina“ discusses the recent history, advantages and disadvantages, application and benefits of it, as well as the constituent materials, mix design and proportioning and properties of high strength concrete. Experimental part of this study proves that it is feasible to produce highstrength concrete of slightly modified ordinary concrete mix improved by domestic admixtures and additives at minimal cost. This study aims to encourage concrete factories to produce it and engineers to apply it in their designs and actual construction. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Keywords Keywords. Book PeerReviewed TA Engineering (General). Civil engineering (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/615f8b4038e76bfd8159ff65dc0a5c45.pdf 4111745c7351fa7364c87bdf60ba2688 Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3733 Title A name given to the resource Concrete studies 2018 Author Author DŽIDIĆ, Sanin KOVAČEVIĆ, Ilda Kozlica, Sabina Abstract A summary of the resource. We love concrete! We love it because it is concrete. We love it because it is reliable. We love it for it is steady and durable. We love it because it is mysterious. We would like to discover some of its mysteries and share them with you! That is why the “Concrete Studies“! Actually, this is a continuation of “Concrete Studies 2015-2016“ and hopefully predecessor of some other future concrete studies. Again, we present you with the additional three studies conducted at the International BURCH University Sarajevo and University of Bihać in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The first study is “Comparison of Fire Resistance of RC Slabs Determined according to Different Methods“. We construct our buildings and facilities to last 50, 100 or even 200 years. There is a high probability that fire will eventually occur during the service life of practically every structure. Fire can happen anytime and anywhere. This study explores fire resistance of RC slabs that are the most sensitive concrete elements in fire situation. We compared the results of determination of fire resistance according to four different methods. We got some conclusions, but also opened an area for new research on fire resistance of some other concrete elements. Concrete is principal construction material in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is very common. However, concrete of high compression strength is almost unknown in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study of “High-Strength Concrete (HSC) and Possibilities for Production in Bosnia and Herzegovina“ discusses the recent history, advantages and disadvantages, application and benefits of it, as well as the constituent materials, mix design and proportioning and properties of high strength concrete. Experimental part of this study proves that it is feasible to produce highstrength concrete of slightly modified ordinary concrete mix improved by domestic admixtures and additives at minimal cost. This study aims to encourage concrete factories to produce it and engineers to apply it in their designs and actual construction. In his book “Advanced Concrete Technology“1 , Dr. Zongjin Li said: “Fresh concrete requires considerable care, just like a baby.” With 28 days of age, we consider concrete to be mature. However, to get concrete quality as required by design after 28 days, the curing procedure requires a whole set of steps, controls and tests. Unfortunately, concrete quality control in Bosnia and Herzegovina is usually related just to testing of concrete compression strength. The study of “Concrete Quality 1 Li, Zongjin, 2011, “Advanced Concrete Technology“, (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA ISBN 978-0-470-90239-4 (ebk), 8 Control according to European Standards –Case Study– Construction of the Waste Treatment Plant in Bihać“ presents a unique example of Quality Assurance Program for construction project in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but with particular attention to concrete works in details. Testing of fresh concrete, testing of hardened concrete, and testing of steel reinforcement were integral parts of the QA Program during the implementation of the project. The approach presented in this study and implemented in the actual project could serve as a model, or at least for concrete quality control according to European Standards for other large construction projects in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Lessons learned from this project are important and experiences are tremendous. We believe that engineers, architects, designers, construction and project managers, contractors, clients and students can gain and find useful some of our experiences based upon the critical approach and thinking, and also keeping in mind that knowledge, same as seed, cannot be just transplanted anywhere without a detailed analysis of each piece of the land, climate, and many other factors - and in this case any individual project. We do hope that findings from these studies can serve as a reference for your future endeavors. We use this opportunity to thank our reviewers for their remarks, recommendations and suggestions. We’d also like to thank Ms. Dijana Misaljević for English proofreading that made this text better and Mr. Elmir Halebić for the design of the book cover. We also appreciate any effort and support by everyone who has in any way contributed to the process of publishing this book. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2018 Keywords Keywords. Book PeerReviewed TA Engineering (General). Civil engineering (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/51e3553dcfd1e2bc534c1725dd5fc425.pdf a52b502341316ca56b9704c2f0628bf3 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies CONFERENCE NOTES AND REPORTS Symposium Notes on Ethics and Social Responsibility, 14th and 15th of April 2011 ISCTE – Lisbon University Institute Maja SAVEVSKA Université Libre de Bruxelles Institut d’Études Européennes Maja.Savevska@ulb.ac.be This much awaited symposium brought together practitioners and scholars involved in some aspect of the broad concept of social responsibility. Although not necessarily limited to, the symposium mainly focused on the individual and corporate responsibility in different organizational settings. The symposium was roughly divided in panel and poster sessions covering a wide range of topics, such as: corporate misconduct, individual ethics in organizations, ethical decision making, business ethics, ethics and organizational performance etc. The symposium was opened and closed by two key note speakers, Prof. Daniel Arenas Vives and Prof. Jan Jonker respectively. Both professors delivered inspiring reflections on the need for a sustainable business practices. Overwhelming number of researchers coming from Portugal, UK, Turkey, Brasil, USA, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Italy, Belgium, Denmark, Netherlands, Spain, presented their findings at the symposium. We witnessed a lot of collaborative efforts among researchers with the aim of providing a large scale analysis of across sectoral and industry specific socially responsible initiatives. The reappearing theme that deserves further explanation was Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR herein), understood in its widest terms. Originating from the business and management literature in the 1970s, the concept of CSR has recently gained impetus thanks to globalization. Although we lack a scientific consensus on the exact Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 155 �Maja SAVEVSKA definition of the concept of CSR, we can agree at least on three essential constituents that define the membership boundary of the CSR concept: (i) its voluntary nature, (ii) its multi-stakeholder participation, (iii) its objective to balance between profit orientation and social concerns. The symposium styled itself as a forum where both practitioners and researchers explore empirical and theoretical aspects of the CSR regime. The numerous research projects presented at the symposium were significantly skewed in favor of eclectic case studies as opposed to theoretical exploration of the state of art or meta-CSR empirical analysis. Notwithstanding the variations, once could discern three major research streams at this symposium: one focused on consumer attitudes, another on corporate mis/conduct and employee’s perception of it, and the third on the impact of the CSR strategies, be it internal or external. For the purpose of this report, I would have to single out presentations that captured my attention and would illustrate the diversity of case studies. Within the first research stream Selin Türkel and Burcu Öksüz from Izmir University of Economics and Ana Patrícia Duarte and Carla Mouro from ISCTE presented innovative ways of measuring consumer attitudes towards CSR in Turkey and Portugal respectively. In their ongoing study, Türkel and Öksüz constructed experiments where they control for different communication platforms in order to explore their effects on the consumer attitudes. While the completed survey of Duarte and Mouro demonstrated that the external CSR initiatives have significantly greater effect on consumer behavior than the internal initiatives. The second stream that emerged at the symposium was focusing on the corporate conduct and the perception of the employees. The joint effort of Ana Patrícia Duarte and José Conçalves des Naves explored the effects of employees’ perception of the company’s socially responsible behavior on the employees’ commitment. Susana Leal, Arménio Rego and Arnaldo Coelho gave special contribution in that they provided a psychological twist to the research by looking at the way the employees’ perceptions mediated through the psychological capital influence the Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OSB).1 In similar lines, Raquel Matos and Eduardo Simões explored the effects of the ethical climate on the OCB. It is worthwhile mentioning the research of Chiara Mio and Alvise Favotto from University of Venice who looked at the differences in perceptions along the hierarchy line of a company. The third stream of analysis was exploring the effects of the CSR initiatives. Particularly interesting was the study of Maria Vieira de Melo and Diego César de Vasconcelos 1 The employees conduct, apart from their specific job description that influences the operation within the company. 156 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �CONFERENCE NOTES AND REPORTS / Symposium Notes on Ethics and Social Responsibility who explored the effects of the CSR practices in the construction industry on the industrialization and the environment in Brazil. Valuable conclusion was also reached by Ana Patrícia Duarte and Sónia Conçalves who controlled for the internal and the external CSR strategies. In turn, they detected a positive impact of the internal CSR strategies on the employees’ conduct. It was especially rewarding seeing how the concept of CSR has left its European hearthland and gained sufficient impetus in other regions. Mohammet Sait Dinc and Teoman Duman study on the employees’ perception of the marketing strategies in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a case in point from the Balkans. Pelin Baytekin and Deniz Maden analysis of the nexus of CSR and education where they investigated Turkcell’s CSR initiative was yet another promising example. It has been rewarding to learn that many companies have realized the need to reassert their competitive position by improving their Corporate Citizenship role within the communities. One presentation that deserves mention in this report was that of Robson Sø Rocha who challenged some of the tenets of Varieties of Capitalism scholarship. In his study, Rocha was exploring the survival strategies of liberal market economic actors that operate within a coordinated market economy setting. Namely, his case study of an equity firm that bought the Danish TDC represents a valuable contribution to the neo-institutional theories. To the great pleasure of those who put more emphasis on theory, myself included, the symposium offered a theoretical panel where Rosa Slegers and me provided Aristotelian and constructivist twist to the debate. Slegers put forward the idea of a virtue-based approach to business ethics by using insights from evolutionary biology. Myself, I tried to provide a critical reading of the existing theoretical interpretations of CRS and argued for a constructivist understanding of the CSR potential to foster good corporate behavior. This report, by singling out papers, cannot do justice to the tremendous effort put by all the scholars whose attendance was highly appreciated. The vast number of undertaken studies is indicative of the importance that both the academic and the practitioner communities place in the concept of social responsibility. Although we lack a meta-CSR analysis and the jury is still out there to judge the impact of the CSR regime, the symposium brought us a step further in our understanding of the CSR regime. One can only hope that the critical theorists would be proven wrong in their assessment of CSR as an oxymoronic concept that cannot replace the good old regulations’ approach. Volume 1 Number 2 July 2011 157 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1076 Title A name given to the resource CONFERENCE NOTES AND REPORTS Symposium Notes on Ethics and Social Responsibility, 14th and 15th of April 2011 ISCTE – Lisbon University Institute Author Author SAVEVSKA, Maja Abstract A summary of the resource. This much awaited symposium brought together practitioners and scholars involved in some aspect of the broad concept of social responsibility. Although not necessarily limited to, the symposium mainly focused on the individual and corporate responsibility in different organizational settings. The symposium was roughly divided in panel and poster sessions covering a wide range of topics, such as: corporate misconduct, individual ethics in organizations, ethical decision making, business ethics, ethics and organizational performance etc. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-01 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b3a4c23e3c75bd8d079abd4a3a226c81.pdf 6ea6aa2e07e1a844f635e9d1d31db0c6 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Jayoti Das The Love School of Business Elon University Elon, NC 27244 dastina@elon.edu Cassandra E. DiRienzo The Love School of Business Elon University Elon, NC 27244 cdirienzo@elon.edu Abstract: Using data from 146 countries, this study empirically tests the relationship between conflict and press freedom. Holding all else constant, the results indicate that the relationship between conflict and press freedom is best described as nonlinear such that the greatest conflict is observed at an intermediate level of press freedom. It is theorized that while past research has found that greater press freedom serves to reduce conflict, governments with a tightly controlled press can also observe lower levels of conflict as these government can use their control to censored information, images, and messaging to minimize conflict and unrest. Keywords: Conflict, Press Freedom, Nonlinear, CrossCountry JEL Classification: O57, F50 Article History Submitted: 15 December 2012 Resubmitted: 17 December 2012 Resubmitted: 2 July 2013 Accepted: 24 July 2013 91 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo Introduction Conflict borne from ideological, economic, political, or religious differences and disagreements has plagued societies for as long as records have been kept. Today, those with access to the internet, television, radio, or newspapers, can seek regular updates from a variety of news media regarding the status of local, national, and/or international conflicts as it is unfolding. The updates provided by news media can portray a sense of continued suffering and loss, or perhaps offer hope that a resolution and ceasefire is near. As Puddephatt (2006) discusses, attitudes and opinions toward a particular conflict, as well as its likely outcome, can be strongly influenced by the news media. In other words, the approach and perspectives a news media outlet takes in sharing and disseminating information on a conflict can shape public opinion and, in extreme cases, influence the outcome. History offers several examples of news media influencing public opinion and inciting violent conflict as well as pleading for conflict resolution. As Puddephatt (2006) describes, media sources served as agents for extreme nationalism during the wars in the Balkans that continually fueled tensions, resulting in the collapse of former Yugoslavia. Further, Puddephatt (2006) notes the role of some Rwandan media sources in directly inciting genocide as well as offering other examples such as the Soviet Union and the Nazis who used their control over the media to create weaker societies that they could more easily manipulate. Recently, according to the, the Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK), the Turkish government radio and television regulating body, fined a number of Turkish news channels for "harming the physical, moral and mental development of children and young people" by broadcasting coverage of the Gezi Parki Uprisings in Taksim Square, Istanbul, Turkey (Hürriyet Daily News, June 12, 2013). Sixty-two Turkish journalists were later imprisoned for ignoring government warnings to cease broadcasting and publishing information regarding the uprisings. Alternatively, several international media outlets have recently called upon the global community to act to resolve the conflict in Syria. Over the past several decades, international media has become increasingly involved in exposing the conflicts and suffering in several Sub-Saharan countries and have continually pressed for international aid and support. Given the power of media to influence public opinion by either fueling tensions or calling for resolution and peace, the question arises as to how this power is affected by press freedom. In other words, what is the relationship between freedom of the press and conflict? 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Pal (2011) finds empirical evidence that unregulated media can reduce different forms of socio-political instability, suggesting that a free media can serve to promote peace. Pal (2011) theorizes that unregulated national media has a greater ability to share news on an international stage and this international exposure can lead to external pressure on governments to act in the best interest of their citizens, which includes resolving conflicts. Fish and Kroenig (2006) offer evidence that conflict is negatively associated with more democratic nations; considering that greater freedom of the press is generally found in more democratic nations, this study offers further evidence that greater press freedom is associated with a more peaceful nation. Nonetheless, it should be noted that in some countries where media is highly regulated, such as China, Singapore, Qatar, North Korea, and United Arab Emirates, there is also relatively low levels of conflict. While past research has generally found that greater press freedom is associated with a more peaceful state, one can also point to several examples of countries with highly regulated press freedom that experience relatively low levels of conflict. It is suggested here that while a free media can serve to reduce conflict by calling on the international community and external forces to resolve conflicts, a government that controls the media can also manage the message and control public opinion in an effort to minimize or even prevent uprisings. The primary objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that the relationship between press freedom and conflict is not linear; rather it takes an inverted U-shape such that the least conflict is observed when press freedom is both highly unregulated and regulated, but peaks at some intermediate level of freedom. It is theorized that while greater press freedom can lead to less conflict as the media is free to expose the sources of the conflict and call upon domestic and international leaders to resolve issues, a government that regulates the media also controls the information that is disseminated and the messaging, which can prevent conflict from initiating. Thus, it is when the press freedom is at some intermediate level and the media cannot fully reach out to external sources, nor can the government fully control the message, that nations observe the greatest conflict. This hypothesis is tested using a crosscountry data set of 146 countries, while controlling for other factors known to affect conflict. Conflict and Media Freedom Puddephatt (2006) states that role the media takes in a given conflict depends on a multitude of complex factors, including the degree of independence the media has relative to those in power. In regards to an 93 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo unregulated press, the benefits of a free media are widely recognized. As Norris and Zinnbauer (2002) discuss, societies with widespread access to an independent free press tend to also enjoy governments with greater administrative efficiency, improved social and economic conditions, and less corruption. Bhathangar (2000) also notes that with greater access to unrestricted information such as the Internet there is also greater transparency and accountability throughout all facets of the government. It is widely accepted that nations with a free, unregulated media tend to be more economically and politically stable, enjoy greater efficiency and transparency, and experience lower levels of corruption (Ades and Di Tella, 1999; Treisman, 2000; and Wei, 2000). Further, as Pal (2011) finds, through its ability to share news on an international stage, an unregulated media has the ability to expose corruption and sources of contentious issues, putting pressure on governments to act in the best interest of their citizens, which includes working to prevent conflicts from occurring as well as resolving conflicts that do arise. Thus, an additional benefit of a free media is that is serves to reduce conflict. Nevertheless, it cannot be overlooked that some countries with highly regulated media also experience low levels of conflict. As noted above, countries such as China, Singapore, Qatar, North Korea, and United Arab Emirates, among others, have comparatively restricted media, but also enjoy relatively fewer uprisings and conflict. It is argued here that governments with control over the media can regulate the messages and images to mask potential sources of contention, thereby reducing the need or desire for uprisings. Further, through the use of propaganda, a regulated press can be used to promote national identity and image to dissuade internal uprisings against the government. In other words, if the government has control of the images, messages, and actual content of the news shared with its citizens, it has the ability to minimize uprisings and other sources of conflict. Given the theoretical arguments presented for both highly unregulated and regulated media to be able to reduce conflict, it is hypothesized that, after accounting for the other factors known to affect conflict, the greatest conflict will be observed at some intermediate level of press freedom. At this intermediate level, the media is not fully able to expose, nor disseminate information on potential sources of contention, nor fully exercise its ability to call on external sources for assistance. Further, without tighter controls, the government is not able to regulate all messaging and imaging. In other words, in regards to minimizing conflict, the benefits of an unregulated media as well as a highly regulated media cannot be observed. Thus, it is hypothesized that: 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press H1: Controlling for other factors known to affect conflict, press freedom has an inverted U-shape relationship with conflict such that countries with an intermediate level of press freedom experience the greatest levels of conflict. Data Measures and a Preliminary Analysis Conflict Conflict is a broad term that can be used to describe a wide range of disagreement and contention that may or may not include violent acts. In this study we use the 2012 Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger data (PCI), published by the Center for International Development and Conflict Management in the 2012 Peace and Conflict report created by Hewitt et al. (2012), to define and measure conflict at the country level. The PCI data is based on an analysis of the drivers of internal war and regime collapse and provides the estimated risk of a country experiencing major bouts of political instability or armed conflict in the three year period from 2010 to 2012. As discussed in the 2012 Peace and Conflict report, the risk estimates are obtained from a forecasting statistical model that uses the most current data for several variables that have been identified as strongly correlating with the onset of political instability and armed conflict. To define political instability within each country, Hewitt et al. (2012) considers events such as revolutionary wars, ethnic wars, adverse regime changes, and genocides over the period 1955 to 2006. Hewitt et al. (2012) state that while this set of events is notably heterogeneous, the onset of any one of these events has been identified as being a precursor to a period of time in which the government’s ability to deliver critical services and exercise meaningful authority is hampered. To identify the underlying factors that lead to wars, adverse regime changes, and genocides and create the PCI data, Hewitt et al. (2012) used approximately 60 years of data over the period 1955 to 2006 and performed a series of empirical studies. The results of these analyses indicated that instability can emerge from a combination of five factors; institutional consistency, economic openness, infant mortality rates, militarization, and neighborhood security. Institutional consistency captures the degree to which political institutions are mixed in regards to democratic and autocratic features and, all else equal, countries with a greater mix are more likely to experience political instability. Economic openness considers the extent to which a country is integrated into the global economy and countries that are more economically open and 95 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo globally connected have been found to experience less instability. Infant mortality rates serve as a measure of a country’s overall level of economic development, social welfare, and its ability to deliver critical services to its citizens. As noted in Hewitt et al. (2012), there is significant research to suggest a strong relationship between a high infant mortality rate and the likelihood of future instability. Further, militarization, or access to weapons stock and military skill and training, is also accounted for as Hewitt et al. (2012) state that instability is most likely in countries where the opportunities for armed conflict are the greatest. Finally, neighborhood security is included as Hewitt et al. (2012) note that the likelihood of political instability within a country increases when a neighboring country is currently experiencing instability. Thus, the PCI data is based on these five factors as indicators of future conflict, which is defined as internal war and regime collapse, or political instability. The PCI data is available for 163 countries and provides a risk score for each country. The risk score represents the relative risk, compared to the average member of the OECD, of experiencing instability over the next three years. From the 2012 dataset, the countries with the highest PCI data, or greatest risk of instability, are Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, and Djibouti with risk scores of 36.4, 29.8, 24.5, 23.9, and 23.5, respectively. On the other end of the spectrum, the countries with the smallest PCI values, or least risk, are Austria, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Netherlands, Norway, Slovenia, and Sweden, which all have risk scores of 0.2. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Niger have risk scores that are near the average of the PCI data with values of 5.2, 5.2, and 5.3, respectively. Press Freedom The 2009 Freedom of the Press (FP) index published by Freedom House is used to measure the media and press freedoms that are afforded by a country. A free and unregulated press represents an unrestricted and uncensored flow of information through all forms of press and news media. According to Freedom House (2009), a free press plays an important role in supporting a healthy democracy and stable government, all of which serves to minimize conflict. The FP index is used in this study rather than other measures of quality of government or personal freedoms, as the focus of this analysis is on press freedom, or the degree to which the news media is unrestricted to disseminate information. Past research such as Brunetti and Weder (2003), Chowdhury (2004), and Serra (2006) have also used the FP index to proxy press freedom and freedom of information. 96 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Published annually, the FP index is based on a set of 23 survey questions completed by overseas correspondents, international visitors, reports from human rights and press freedom organizations, governments and multilateral bodies, as well as experts in geographic and geopolitical areas, domestic and international news media, among others (Freedom House, 2009). According to Freedom House 2009, the survey questions are designed to assess the legal, political, and economic environments in which the media operates and considers issues such as the legal and constitutional guarantees of press freedom, penalties for libel, penal codes, editorial independence of the media, intimidation and threats to journalists, the existence of competitive pressures leading to biased press reports and investigations, among many others factors deemed to affect the freedom of the press. Each country receives an FP value, which represents the overall quality of the legal, political, and economic environment in which the media operates, and the index ranges from 0, most free, to 100, least free. From the 2009 FP data, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Belgium were recognized as having the greatest levels of press freedom with FP values of 10, 11, 11, and 12, respectively, while Eritrea, Libya, Myanmar, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and North Korea were ranked as least free with FP values of 94, 94, 94, 94, 96, and 97, respectively. Preliminary Analysis In order to explore the possible non-linear relationship between conflict and freedom of the press, a scatter plot with a fitted polynomial line between the two indices is shown in Figure 1. As shown in Table 1, the coefficients in the fitted polynomial model are statistically significant at 99% confidence and the model has an Adjusted R2 value of 0.164. A linear model was also estimated and, while the coefficient on FP is statistically significant, the Adjusted R2 value was notably lower at 0.073. These results offer some preliminary evidence that a non-linear, U-shaped relationship between conflict and press freedom may exist. However, before this relationship can be tested and more thoroughly explored, the other factors known to affect conflict need to be accounted for and the following section describes the control variables employed. 97 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo Figure 1. Conflict and Freedom of the Press 40 35 Conflict (PCI) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Freedom of the Press (FP) Table 1. Conflict and Freedom of the Press Estimated Linear and Polynomial Models Coefficient Estimate Std Err Intercept FP FP FP2 p-value 1.43 1.156 1.24 0.2175 0.08** 0.020 3.71 0.0003 t Stat p-value Coefficient Estimate Std Err Intercept t Stat -6.25** 2.1000 -2.978 0.0033 0.450** 0.0900 5.037 <0.0001 -0.004** 0.0008 -4.291 <0.0001 Adj. R2 0.073 Adj. R2 0.164 *p<0.05; **p<0.01 98 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Control Variables and Descriptive Statistics Democracy While the PCI data does consider the degree to which a country’s political institutions are mixed in terms of democratic and autocratic features, the data does not include the overall level of democracy within a country, which is commonly controlled for in conflict studies. Specifically, in a cross-sectional analysis of 140 conflict-stricken and non-conflict stricken developing countries, Kim (2006) finds that nondemocratic political systems with little to no political freedoms were less capable of managing and resolving events of crisis and conflict. In a panel data analysis of 179 countries over the period 1968 to 2003, Bloomberg and Hess (2005) also find that the level of violent terrorist activities generated within a country is negatively related to the degree of democracy. In a comprehensive study exploring the robustness of previous findings on the determinants of terrorism, Gassebner and Luechinger (2011) find that a strong and impartial judicial system and respect of physical integrity rights, which are common characteristics of a more democratic society, are associated with lower levels of terrorism. Further, in a study exploring the determinants of socio-political instability, Pal (2011) uses a panel data from 98 countries over the period 1994 to 2005 and controls for the level of democracy. Given these findings and the general consensus within the literature that greater democracy is generally associated with less conflict and violence and greater stability, democracy is controlled for in this analysis. The 2010 Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU)Index of Democracy is used to proxy the level of democracy within a country and has been used in many studies, such as Sung (2004) and Kaufmann et al. (2009), to approximate country democracy. The EIU is a broad measure of democracy and is based on five categories; electoral process and pluralism, civil liberties, the functioning of the government, political participation, and political culture. On each of these five categories, countries are scored on a scale of zero to ten and the EIU index is the unweighted average of the five scores. Thus, the EIU data ranges from zero to ten and countries with scores closer to ten represent the highest levels of democracy. Diversity Ethnic and linguistic diversity has also been linked to various measures of conflict, violence, and unrest as past research has generally found that greater ethnic and linguistic diversity measures tend to be associated with 99 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo greater conflict and civil disturbance. Specifically, Kim (2006) finds that more ethnically homogeneous countries were less likely to experience internal conflict and Buhaug et al. (2008) find that politicized ethnicity is a major determinant of internal conflict. In a cross-country study exploring the determinants of terrorism, Abadie (2005) finds that greater levels of linguistic diversity increased the likelihood that a country will experience terrorist attack. The 1985 Ethnolinguistic Fragmentation (ELF) Index, originally developed by Taylor and Hudson (1972), is used to measure country ethnic and linguistic diversity. The index measures the probability that two randomly selected individuals from a particular country will belong to different ethno-linguistic groups. Thus, the index ranges from zero to one such that countries with values close to zero are very homogeneous in regard to ethnic and linguistic diversity. While other measures of diversity are available, the ELF index has been used in many studies, such as Easterly and Levine (1997), Mauro (1995), La Porta et al. (1999), and Alesina et al. (2003), which have explored the impact of diversity on a variety of country factors. Education The level of education has also been found to significantly affect conflict and violence associated with terrorism. In regard to terrorism, Azam and Thelen (2008) use a panel data set of 176 countries from 1990 to 2004 and find that terrorist attacks are negatively related to the level of education. Further, in a cross-country study over the period 1997 to 2004, Bravo and Dias (2006) conclude that terrorism is more likely to occur in countries with lower levels of education, which coincides with Krueger and Laitin's (2008) findings that education levels are linked, albeit weakly, to terrorism. Further, in his study exploring the determinants of socio-political instability, Pal (2011) also controls for the level of education. The 2009 Education Index (EDI), one of the three sub-indices that makeup the Human Development Index that is published by the International Human Development Program, is used to measure the average level of education in a country. The EDI is based on the mean years of schooling of adults and the expected number of years of schooling for children. The data is normalized and is scaled on a zero to one range such that values closest to one represent countries with the greatest education attainment. 100 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Geographical Characteristics Country geographic characteristics such as the geographical size of the country, its average elevation, and the proportion of the country in a tropical climate have also been identified as significant conditions that can contribute to the likelihood of civil unrest, violence, terrorism, and other forms of conflict. When countries are more difficult to traverse; for example, they have large tropical forests or mountainous terrains, these regions can provide terrorist and other rebel groups with secluded areas to operate and train. Further, geographically large countries tend to have more dispersed populations, which can lead less societal cohesiveness and unity. Considering that conflict will be more predominate in less unified societies, by extension, larger geographical countries can then be more likely to experience conflict. Further, previous empirical research supports these relationships. In a cross-country study using data over the period 1960 to 1999, Collier and Hoeffler (2004) find that the risk of civil war is higher in more mountainous countries and countries with more unequally distributed populations. Further, Abadie (2005), Buhaug et al. (2008) and Fearon and Laitin (2003) also find that rough terrain is a significant determinant of internal and external country conflict. Finally, Pal (2011) also controls for geographical characteristics in his analysis exploring the determinants of socio-political instability. The geographical characteristics of country land area, average elevation, and the percentage of the tropical area are controlled for in this analysis. These data are provided by the World Bank and country area (Area) represents the size of country measured in square kilometers (in millions), elevation (Elev) represents the average elevation of the county above sea level in meters, and tropical area (Trop) measures the proportion of the country land area that experiences tropical weather. Economic Development The level of economic development is commonly controlled for in studies exploring conflict, terrorism, or other forms of violence and civil unrest as Tures (2003) states that developed countries are less likely to experience conflict as they have achieved a level of wealth to satisfy their domestic population. In regards to civil wars and unrest, Collier and Hoeffler (2004) and Fearon and Laitin (2003) find that less economically developed countries are more likely to experience civil war and unrest. Further, in an analysis exploring the relationship between democracy and civil war and violence, Gleditsch and Ruggeri (2010) control for the level of economic development as does Pal (2011). 101 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo The level of economic development is measured by the natural log of 2009 GDP per capita (LnGDPPC), which is available through the World Bank. Descriptive Statistics The data described above is available for 146 countries and this sample is used explore the relationship between conflict and press freedom, as measured by the PCI and FP data, respectively, as well as test H1. Table 2 provides a summary of the data used as well as the descriptive statistics. The most recent 2012 PCI data is used and, given that the effect of the control variables cannot be expected to occur immediately, the control variables are lagged by approximately two years with the one exception of the 1985 ELF data. The 1985 data is the most recent data available for ELF; however, this data is still considered accurate as ethno-linguistic diversity is relatively constant through time. Further, through a series of preliminary analyses, the relationship between the PCI data and the other variables is best described as linear in the log of PCI. Thus, the descriptive statistics reflect the natural log of the PCI data, LnPCI. 102 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Table 2. Variable Summary and Descriptive Statistics Variable Proxy (Name, Year Reported) Mean St. Deviation N Conflict Peace and Conflict Instability (LnPCI, 2012) 0.89 1.40 163 Press Freedom Freedom of the Press (FP, 2009) 51.48 23.56 162 Democracy Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU, 2010) 5.38 2.21 161 Diversity Ethno-linguistic Fragmentation Index (ELF, 1985) 0.47 0.27 161 Education Education Index (EDI, 2009) 0.63 0.21 158 Land Area World Bank (Area, NA) 829,760 2,062,539 154 Avg. Elevation World Bank (Elev, NA) 629.38 565.03 154 Tropical Area World Bank (Trop, NA) 0.47 0.48 154 GDP per Capita, World Bank (LnGDPPC, 2009) 7.67 1.56 157 Economic Development A Pearson correlation matrix of all of the variables used in the analysis is presented in Table 3. Considering that greater LnPCI values are associated with higher levels of conflict, the correlations have the expected signs. Specifically, LnPCI is negatively and significantly correlated with EIU, EDI, and LnGDPPC. The negative and significant correlation values indicate that, on average, less conflict stricken countries tend to be more democratic and have higher levels of education and economic development. The LnPCI is also positively and significantly correlated with FP, ELF, Elev, and Trop. These correlations suggest that, on average, less conflict stricken countries tend to have greater press freedoms, are 103 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo more ethno-linguistically homogeneous, and have higher average elevations and a greater proportion of land area that experience tropical weather. While conflict as proxied by LnPCI is significantly correlated with the geographical characteristics of average elevation and tropical weather, it is not significantly correlated with country land area. Table 3.Correlation Matrix LnPCI FP EIU LnPCI FP EIU ELF 1 0.43** -0.49** 0.45** 1 -0.89** 0.10 1 -0.22** EDI -0.76** -0.48** 0.63** Area Elev -0.02 0.32** 0.04 0.21** 0.05 -0.17* 1 0.43** 0.05 0.09 Trop 0.56** 0.26** -0.30** 0.47** LnGDPPC -0.84** -0.51** 0.61** 0.45** *p ELF EDI Area Elev Trop LnGDPPC 1 0.11 -0.12 0.65** 0.81** 1 0.04 1 -0.09 -0.12 1 0.13 0.26** 0.55** 1 <0.05; **p<0.01 Regression Analysis To explore the relationship between conflict and press freedom, the following preliminary regression model (Model 1) using FP and the control variables is first estimated: LnPCI  o  1FP   2 EIU  3 ELF   4 EDI  5 Area  6 Elev  7Trop  8 LnGDPPC   (1) As shown in Table 4, the Adjusted R2 of 0.7572 and significant F test statistical offer statistical support for this preliminary model. All of the coefficients on the control variables are significant and have the expected signs with the exception of the coefficients on EIU and Area. Interestingly, the coefficient on FP is not significant, indicating that when country democracy, ethno-linguistic diversity, education, economic development, and geographical characteristics are accounted for, a linear relationship between press freedom and conflict is not statistically significant. 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Table 4. Regression Results Model 1 Dependent LnPCI Coefficient Std Err t Stat Estimate Intercept 4.266** 0.76 5.58 FP 0.004 0.006 0.80 EIU 0.096 0.070 1.38 ELF 0.526* 0.265 1.98 EDI -1.683** 0.583 -2.89 Area 0.00000005 0.00000003 1.80 Elev 0.00032** 0.00011 2.84 Trop 0.378** 0.180 2.10 ** LnGDPPC -0.490 0.069 -7.07 Adj. R2 = 0.7572 F stat = 57.33***p <0.05; **p<0.01 p-value <0.0001 0.4247 0.1710 0.0494 0.0045 0.0746 0.0052 0.0038 <0.0001 To test the hypothesis that the relationship between conflict and press freedom is nonlinear such that the relationship between LnPCI and FP has an inverted U-shape, Model 2 is estimated, which includes the squared FP term: LnPCI   o  1 FP   2 FP 2   3 EIU   4 ELF   5 EDI   6 Area   7 Elev   8Trop   9 LnGDPPC   (2) As shown in Table 5, the Adjusted R2 increases to 0.8019. Further, a partial F test indicates that the addition of the squared FP term offers statistically significant explanatory power to the model. The coefficients on the control variables are significant and have the expected sign with the one exception of EIU, which remains insignificant. Perhaps the most interesting result from Model 2 is that the coefficient on FP is positive and significant and the coefficient on FP2 is negative and significant. These results suggest that, after controlling for democracy, ethno-linguistic diversity, education, economic development, and country geographical characteristics, there is a nonlinear relationship between conflict and press freedom. The nonlinear relationship indicates that, after controlling for other factors known to affect conflict and instability, conflict is minimized when the press is highly free and tightly controlled, but peaks at an intermediate level of press freedom, which supports H1. Previous research suggests that an unrestricted press is able to expose issues that could potentially result in conflict and call upon the global community to resolve conflict. It is theorized here that a highly restricted press allows government official to regulate all messaging and imaging, which can be managed such that conflict is minimized. Thus, it is at an intermediate 105 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo level of press freedom, when the media is not able to disseminate fully unrestricted information and the government is not able to fully control all messaging and imaging, that the greatest levels of conflict and instability are observed. Using the estimated results, LnPCI is maximized when FP is approximately equal to 54.6, which is found by solving for the first order condition and using the estimated results from Model 2. Table 5. Regression Results Model 2 Dependent LnPCI Coefficient Std Err t Stat Estimate Intercept 2.330** 0.771 3.02 FP 0.072** 0.013 5.52 FP2 -0.00066** 0.00012 -5.65 EIU 0.040 0.064 0.63 ELF 0.492* 0.240 2.06 EDI -1.346* 0.530 -2.54 Area 0.000000057* 0.000000026 2.23 Elev 0.00027* 0.0001 2.59 Trop 0.330* 0.163 2.03 LnGDPPC -0.394** 0.065 -6.09 2 Adj. R = 0.8019 F stat = 66.23***p <0.05; **p<0.01 p-value 0.0030 <0.0001 <0.0001 0.5327 0.0418 0.0122 0.0274 0.0105 0.0445 <0.0001 To further explore the nonlinear relationship, the estimated PCI values are calculated using the estimated regression results from Model 2 and evaluating all of the independent variables at their means with the exception of FP. Figure 2 illustrates the estimated values of PCI against the FP values that range from zero, completely free press, to 100, completely restricted press. 106 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Figure 2. Estimated PCI values and FP 4 Estimated PCI 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 As noted above, conflict is estimated to peak when FP is approximately 54.6 when all other control variables are held at their mean values. Examples of countries with FP values close to 54.6 are Bangladesh, Republic of Congo, Kenya, Senegal, Turkey, and Uganda, which all have an FP value of 54 and PCI values of 12, 2.7, 11.5, 8, 6.1, and 10.7, respectively. With the exception of the Republic of Congo, each of these countries has an above average PCI value. It is important to note; however, that a country with an FP value close to 54.6 will not necessarily also have a high PCI value as the other control variables, diversity, education, economic development, and geographical characteristics also play an important role in determining the level of conflict and instability a country faces. Keeping this caveat in mind, Guinea Bissau, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone are examples of countries that have an intermediate level of press freedom with FP values of 52, 53, and 57, respectively, but high PCI values of 20.7, 17.8, and 23.9, respectively. Further, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Denmark, and Switzerland are examples of countries with some of the highest levels of press freedom (10, 11, 11, 12, 13, and 13, respectively) that also have some of the lowest levels of conflict with PCI values of 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.7., 0.2, and 0.3, respectively. On the other end of the spectrum, Belarus, Libya, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan represent the countries in the data set with the most restricted press with FP values of 93, 94, 94, and 96, respectively that also have relatively lower levels of conflict with PCI values of 0.6, 0.9, 1.1, and 1.3. 107 �Jayoti Das, Cassandra E. DiRienzo Summary and Discussion Using data from 146 countries, this study empirically tested the relationship between conflict and press freedom, as proxied by the PCI and FP data, respectively. After controlling for other factors known to affect conflict within a country, the results indicate that the relationship between conflict and press freedom is best described as nonlinear. Holding all else constant, the estimated equations suggest that conflict is minimized at both the unrestricted and restricted ends of the press freedom spectrum and reaches a maximum at an intermediate level of press freedom. If the control variables are held at their mean values, conflict is estimated to peak when FP is approximately 54.6. Past research has argued that greater press freedom allows the media to freely disseminate information and expose corruption or other issues that may incite conflict; thereby creating a disincentive for officials or other parties to partake in such activities, which minimizes the potential for conflict. Further, past research has argued that a free press is able to call upon the global community to assist when conflicts do arise and this external pressure can encourage government officials to address and resolve contentious issues before conflict and unrest occurs. Nonetheless, it is theorized here that a highly restricted press could also serve to reduce conflict as a government can use its control over the media to send censored information, images, and messaging that prevents conflict and unrest. The censored media could be used to bolster national pride and create positive public opinions; all of which could serve to reduce conflict. This study offers empirical support for this hypothesis. Nonetheless, it is not suggested here that media freedom should be restricted in an effort to reduce conflict, rather it is the authors’ intention to bring awareness to the literature that governments with tight control over the media can use this power to prevent conflict and uprisings by preventing its citizens to fully understand and be aware of issues that can cause conflict and unrest. It should also be noted that a government with strong control of the media can also use this power to incite anger and provoke attacks against groups with anti-government agendas; however, the data used in this analysis suggests that the majority of governments with tight media controls do not exploit their power in this way. In terms of policy implications, it is suggested here that efforts to increase the level of education attainment and economic development as well as improve the communication between different ethno-linguistic groups as well as enhance press freedoms will all have the added benefit of reducing conflict. 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Conflict and the Freedom of the Press It should also be noted that the results are limited to the data measures used in this analysis. While the data measures such as FP and PCI are widely used and respected, all such quantitative measures of qualitative issues cannot be expected to capture these factors perfectly and at least some measurement error will occur in all such studies. Thus, the results presented here need to be reviewed and considered in this light. Finally, as an avenue for future research, one should consider the role that social media plays in either inciting or mitigating conflict. While access to social media and press freedom are likely to be highly correlated, social media is by definition an open exchange of information and ideas between individuals in virtual networks. In other words, social media allows for unregulated exchanges between individuals and groups while the traditional broadcast news is one-directional in nature and, even when the media is highly free, it typically must still adhere to broadcast rules and regulations. The power of social media has recently been observed in countries such as Turkey and Syria and the role of social media above and beyond media freedom is an interesting area for future research. References Abadie, A. (2005). Poverty, Political Freedom, and The Roots Of Terrorism. American Economic Review, 95, 50-56. Ades, A.& Di Tella, R. (1999). Rents, Competition and Corruption. American Economic Review, 89, 982-93. Alesina, A.F., Easterly, W., Devleeschauwer, A., Kurlat, S.& Wacziarg, R.T. (2003). Fractionalization. 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Review of Economics and Statistics, 82, 1-11. 112 Journal of Economic and Social Studies � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2398 Title A name given to the resource Conflict and the Freedom of the Press Author Author Das, Jayoti DiRienzo, Cassandra E. Abstract A summary of the resource. Using data from 146 countries, this study empirically tests the relationship between conflict and press freedom. Holding all else constant, the results indicate that the relationship between conflict and press freedom is best described as nonlinear such that the greatest conflict is observed at an intermediate level of press freedom. It is theorized that while past research has found that greater press freedom serves to reduce conflict, governments with a tightly controlled press can also observe lower levels of conflict as these government can use their control to censored information, images, and messaging to minimize conflict and unrest. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-03-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/18074c76058fa6024ba1edde23a0ab8d.pdf 5ed8d687115f098a100ccd10651089d4 PDF Text Text PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 CONNECTION OF NEW GENERATORS IN THE ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM OF KOSOVO Rexhep Shaqiri1, Bogdanov Dimitar2 1 Technical University - Sofia, E-mail: rexhep_shaqiri@hotmail.com). 2 Technical University - Sofia, 8 st. Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria E-mail: dbogdanov@tu-sofia.bg Abstract The power system of Kosovo is a compact and integrated structure in hierarchical aspect. It plays an important role in the process of transmission and distribution energy to the consumers. Based on this importance analysis is necessary in order to estimate the medium and long term plans of production of electric energy and development of the power generation plants. Object of study in this article is the project for connection of generators to the substation in Decani. This article describes the simulations of the power system of Kosovo (on date 21.01.2014 at 19.00h when the load in the system is 996.978 MW) in order to emphasize the importance of the connections of generators in Decani substation. Decani substation is an important node point with specifics of the power flow distribution. The analysis of the Kosovo electric power system by means of ETAP software and using as a reference the standards applied in Kosovo, the created models aim to justify if the plans for improvement of Kosovo grid are appropriate and what kind of changes in the voltage levels and short circuits values can be expected. Keywords: Connection, Hydro Power Plant, Voltage profile, Synchronous generator, Improvement, Power System, Operation 241 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS 1. Introduction The task of the electric power system is to supply the customers with qualitative electric power, with a high degree of reliability, but economically accepted. The generation, transmission and distribution are three main components of the electric power system. Kosovo power system consists of power plants, the main grid, regional networks, distribution networks, and consumers of electricity. The main grid serves power producers and consumers, enabling electricity trade throughout Kosovo and also across Kosovo borders. Electrical power system of Kosovo mainly operates power plants using coal resources for electricity production, thus has lack of energy of renewable resources. In result of this there is increased interest of investment in the field of the alternative resource, such as hydro power plants. The impact of the connection of generators to the distribution system, respectively in the substation Decani, substation will be studied in details. In the distribution system different cases may appear when new generators are connected, because the system in this particular case was not designed as transmission structure, but aimed for energy distribution to consumers. The connection of the new generators can affect the stability of the system, quality of the energy and the reliability of the system. 2. Effects of new generators connected to the existing network The connection of a generation to an electricity network has impact on the operation and performance of that network. The connection of a generator to the system will result in some changes to the characteristics of the network. There are some cases when generators can enhance the performance of the network. New and existing generators connected to the network have to fulfil the requirements: frequency stability, voltage deviation, voltage waveform, voltage symmetry, power factor, operational and earthing and insulation level of detail defined in Kosovo network (www.kostt.com). The Kosovo companies (Transmission system and market operator) are responsible for the operational planning and supervision of the main grid, for grid maintenance and grid development. The main grid in Kosovo includes approximately 188,49 km of 400kV transmission lines, 231,88 km of 220kV transmission lines, 803 km of 110kV transmission/distribution lines, 400/220 kV -1 substation, 400/110 kV –2 substations, 220/110 kV – 3 substations, and 110/35 kV, 110/10 kV - 29 substations. The Kosovo system is connected to the Macedonia, Serbia and Albania transmission systems on 400kV, 220 kV and 110 kV by overhead power lines. In the electric power system of Kosovo the generation units are: Thermo power plant in Kosovo A (A3-150 MW, A4-150 MW, and A5- 150 MW) is in total 450 MW and Kosovo B (B1-300 MW and B2- 300 MW) is in total 600 MW, generator A1 and A2 are not in operation. While hydro power plants in electric power system are: Ujman (U1, U2) is 32 MW, Lumbardh (B1 and B2) is 8 MW. There are also several sources of small hydro power plants with capacities such as: Burim (G1 and G2) 0.47 MW, Dikance (G1 and G2) -1, 32 MW, Radavc (G1 and G2) - 0.28 MW. In electrical power system of Kosovo, substation Kosovo B 400/220 kV has three transformers with tap changers, where the tap changers are in middle position and they do not change position with load, so are static, in other substations, the transformers have tap changers that working on the load. 242 | P a g e �th PROCEEDINGS ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Presented below is a part of electrical power system when load in system is 996.978.MW (Figure 1). Figure 1. Voltage profile at some busbars in electrical power system of Kosovo when load is 996.978 MW. Profile voltage at busbars in electrical power system of Kosovo 1 sh tr i 2 Vu tr r i sh Vi tia Vu ep ça da Tr an er Th de ra j c ve Sk en 1 i 2 ho ja Ra Pe ja Pe an pj Ly Kl in a 2 va ko ja G G ja ko va ni ça i De rim Bu 1 111 110 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 Figure 2.Voltage profile at some busbars in electrical power system of Kosovo. According to code of the electrical equipment in Kosovo system voltage limits are permitted according to the table shown below (Transmission , system and market of operator of Kosovo) (www.kostt.com). 400 kV 220 kV 110 kV Voltage in normal conditions Min. Max. Voltage voltage 380 kV 420 kV 209 kV 231 kV 99 kV 121 kV Voltage in extreme conditions Min. Max. voltage voltage 360 kV 440 kV 198 kV 242 kV 88 kV 130 kV Table1. Voltage tolerances in Kosovo system. 243 | P a g e �th ISSD 2014 The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS In the electrical power system of Kosovo there are some important substations which do not fulfil criteria N-1 such as Peja 3-400/110 kV and Ferizaji 2-400/110 kV, these two substations have a transformer with power 300 MVA. In the development plan for electrical power system of Kosovo for these two substations shall be provided with additional transformers with power 300 MVA. Greater impact in Decani substation has any change in Peja 3 substation, because is close to Decani substation. In the current situation, when the line 164/1 is out of operation, busbar voltage profile of the system is presented (Figure 3). Figure 3. Voltage profile in electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 164/1 is out of operation. Profile voltage in electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 164/1 is out of operation sh tr i 2 1 Vu tr r i sh Vi ti a Vu da ça ep Tr an j ra de er Th c en Sk ho ve ja 2 Ra Pe ja 1 Pe ni p ja Ly in a Kl ak ov ça ov a1 Gj ni ak Gj i De ri m Bu a2 115 110 105 100 95 90 85 Figure 4. Voltage profile in electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 164/1 is out of operation. The chart shows that the profile of voltage in every substation is in the permissible range for the value of 110kV except substation Gjakova 1, which is considered according to the grid network of Kosovo, as substation that not allowed being in operation, except in extreme conditions. 244 | P a g e �th PROCEEDINGS ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Figure 5. Voltage profile at electrical power system of Kosovo when the transformer is out of operation. In the current situation, when the transformer is out of operation in Peja 3 substation, busbar voltage profile of the system is presented (Figure 5). Profile voltage in electrical power system of Kosovo when the transformer is out operation in Peja 3 substation i1 r iz aj tr i 2 Fe 1 sh Vu tr r i tia sh Vi Vu ep an ça da Tr j er Th de ra c ve en Sk 1 i 2 ja ho Ra Pe ja Pe an in a pj Ly Kl 2 va G ja ko va ni G ja ko ça i De ri m Bu 1 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 Figure 6. Voltage profile in electrical power system of Kosovo when the transformer is out of operation. The chart shows that the profile of voltage in every substation is in the permissible range for the value of 110kV except substations as: Peja 1, which is considered according to the grid network of Kosovo, as substations that are not allowed to be in operation. 245 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS 2.1. New energy sources The connection of new generation sources in the power system changes the power flow, customer’s voltage conditions and the requirements of the utility equipment. In a fault situation, distributed generators modify the current contribution to fault, and therefore it influences the behaviour of network protection. The influence will depend on the number, type, location and size of generators. The distributed generators are mainly designed to be connected directly to the distribution network near load centers. Regarding the utilization of alternative renewable energy sources, Kosovo is not in the appropriate levels. Approximately only 3% of the electricity produced in Kosovo is from renewable energy sources. As Kosovo has signed the treaty for electricity and according to Directive 2009/28/EC1 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources (the "Renewable Energy Directive") established mandatory targets to be achieved by 2020 for a 20% overall share of renewable energy in the EU and a 10% share for renewable energy in the transport sector. Based on this, as well as the duty of fulfilment the standards of EU for the renewable energy, hydro power plants are under construction, such as the Decani river cascade with installed power about 35 MW. Other small HPP along Decani river are: HPP Lumbardhi (8.3 MW, 22 GWh annual production), HPP Decani (14.3 MW annual productions 41.9 GWh), HPP Belaja (8.1 MW annual productions 24.8 GWh), HPP Lumbardhi 2 (4.8 MW annual 17 GWh). Presented below is the configuration of the connection of these generators in the power system of Kosovo (Decani substation) (Figure 7). Figure 7. Connection of new generators in electrical power system of Kosovo (Substation Decani). It is known that connection of the generators affects the voltage profile, the power flow and the losses in power system, the stability of the system and the short circuit currents. 246 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 2.2. Voltage profile of electrical power system of Kosovo Profile of the load in 24 h profile in Decani substation is present the following chart (Figure 8). Load in Decani substation (MW ) 25 Load in Decani substation (MW) 20 15 10 5 21:00 22:00: 23:00 23:30: 20:00 19:00 18:00 15:00 16:00 17:00: 14:00 13 :00 12:00 11:00 10:00 08:00 09:00 07:00 06:00 04:00 05:00 03:00 02:00 00:00: 01:00 0 Figure 8. Depending on the time, loads in Decani substation. Graphically are presented the bus bar voltage changes that occur when generators are connected to the power system. In this case, when the generators are connected, the voltage level is increased at the nodes which are part of the analysis. The expected values of voltage approach the nominal value. Figure 9. Voltage profile at some busbars when are connected generators (35 MW) in Decani substation. 115 114 113 112 111 110 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 100 Profile voltage at some busbars when are connected generators (35 MW ) in Decani substation. tr i 2 i1 sh tr r Vu sh Vi ti a Vu ça ep Tr da er an j de en Th ra c ve Sk ho Ra ja 2 Pe ja 1 Pe ni p ja Ly in a Kl a2 ov ak Gj Gj ak ov ni De ça i rim Bu a1 Profile voltage at busbars in electrical power system of Kosovo Figure 10. Variation of the voltage at busbars in the substations in Kosovo 247 | P a g e �th ISSD 2014 The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS Therefore, when the generators are connected the voltage level is increased at all bus bar system in Kosovo. In case, when transformer in Peja 3 substation is out of operation, the voltage profile at the substation buses of the electrical power system of Kosovo is presented (Figure 11). Figure 11. Transformer while out of operation in Peja 3 substation, but generators are connected (35 MW) in Decani substation. Profile voltage in some busbars when transformer is out of operation in Peja 3 substation, but generators are connected (35 MW) in Decani substation. tr i 2 1 sh Vu tr r i tia sh Vi Vu da ça Tr ep Th er an ra j c Sk en de 2 i 1 ve ja ho Ra Pe ja Pe an in a pj Ly 2 va G ja ko ko Kl 1 i va ça n G ja rim Bu De i 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 Figure 12. Voltage profile in some busbars when transformer is out of operation in Peja 3 substation, but generators are connected (35 MW) in Decani substation. The chart shows that the profile of voltage in every substation is in the permissible range for the value of 110kV according to the grid network of Kosovo. In case when line 164/1 is out of operation, profile voltage at the substation buses of the electrical power system of Kosovo is presented (Figure 13). 248 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Figure 13. Voltage profile at some busbars when line 110 kV - 164/1 is out of operation. Profile voltage at some busbars when line 110 kV - 164/1 is out operation V itia Vu sh tr r i1 Vu sh tr i 2 Ra ho ve c Sk en de ra j Th er an da Tr ep ça Pe ja 2 Pe ja 1 Ly pj an i in a Kl Bu rim i De ça ni G ja ko va 1 G ja ko va 2 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 Figure 14. Profile of voltage at electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 164/1 is out of operation. 249 | P a g e �th ISSD 2014 The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS Presented below is the case when line 126/5 is out of operation (Figure 15). Figure 15. Profile of voltage at some busbars when line 110 kV- 126/5 is out of operation. Profile voltage at some busbars when line 110 kV - 126/5 is out operation Vi tia Vu sh trr i1 Vu sh tr i 2 Ra ho ve c Sk en de ra j Th er an da Tr ep ça Pe ja 2 Ly pj an i Pe ja 1 Kl in a Bu rim i De ça ni G ja ko va 1 G ja ko va 2 111 110 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 Figure 16. Profile of voltage at electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 126/5 is out of operation. The worst case is when lines 126/5 and 164/1 are out of operation (Figure 17). 250 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Figure 17. Profile of voltage at some busbars when lines 126/5 and 164/1 are out of operation. Profile voltage at some busbars when lines 110 kV - 164/1 and 126-5 are out operation 1 tr r i sh tr i 2 Vu tia sh Vu Vi ça Tr ep da Th er an ra j c de ve Sk en 1 i 2 ho ja Ra Pe ja Pe an pj Ly in a Kl ko ja G ja ko va va 2 1 i ça n G De Bu rim i 112 110 108 106 104 102 100 98 96 94 92 90 Figure 18. Profile of voltage at electrical power system of Kosovo when the line 164/1 and 125/5 are out of operation In this case substation Decani, Peja 2 and Gjakova 1 are not allowed to be in operation. The chart shows that the profile of voltage in every substation is in the permissible range for the value of 110kV except substations as: Peja 1, Peja 2, Decani and Gjakova 1, which are considered according to the grid network of Kosovo, as substations that are allowed to be in operation just for short time. 251 | P a g e �ISSD 2014 th The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ PROCEEDINGS 3. Conclusions In this paper the impact of the distributed generators connected to the electrical network system of Kosovo was analysed. From the presented simulation results a conclusion can be made that the distributed generators can greatly influence the node voltages. The results show that new generators to be connected to substation Decani will have a great impact on network voltages. Voltage profile problem in the presence of distributed generation is much prominent than in the case without them. Based on the current energy situation in Kosovo, the installation of hydro generators plays a significant role in increased security besides the supply of customers, as well as to meet the criteria for the share of alternative (renewable) energy in the energy mix of Kosovo. Connection of new generators in Decani substation has impact on the voltage profile of the electrical power system of Kosovo, especially in substations Decani, Gjakova 1, Peja 1 and Peja 2. Also, if any of the elements of the electrical power system such as lines 126/5,164/1, 1805, 164/2 or transformer in Peja 3 substation are out of operation, connection of new generators in Decani substation has impact that the profile of voltage in every substation is in the permissible range for the value of 110kV according to the grid network of Kosovo. The construction of the particular new plants with hydro generators will play a significant role, including security of the power system, the quality of voltage, increase generating capacity, as well as more secure in the supplying of customers. Also, the connection of generators is important as an option as grid reserve and grid restoration generation in cases of commutations, outage of grid components and as well as in case of planned outages of other generation facilities in the power system. 4. References Government of Kosovo. (2014). Transmission system and market operator of Kosovo Power Network Analysis for Wind. Power Integration Publication, April 2014, (page 17). Li, Kam W.& A. Paul Priddey. 1985. Power Plant System Design. New York. Lausterer, G. K., H. Weber, and E. Welfonder. 1993. Control of Power Plants and Power Systems. New York and London. Wood, Allen J.& Bruce Wollenberg. 1996. Power Generation, Operation and Control. New York. P.M. Anderson & A.A. Fouad, 2003 Power System Control and Stability. 252 | P a g e �PROCEEDINGS th ______ The 5 International Symposium on Sustainable Development_______ ISSD 2014 Rexhep Shaqiri was born in Gjilan, Kosovo. He received the engineer electrical from the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer, Prishtina, and received Master degree from the same university in 2009. His field of interest includes electrical networks, planning, renewable energy sources of energy to grid, evaluation of grid short circuit levels. He has excellent experience on coordination engineering feasibility studies, developing alternatives for proposed capital projects, developing and updating facilities and system master plans. Rexhep Shaqiri is PhD Student in the Technical University - Sofia, also assistant in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer, Prishtina (rexhep_shaqiri@hotmail.com). Dimitar Bogdanov was born in Sofia, Bulgaria. He graduated from the Technical University - Sofia, and received Master degree from the same university in 1998. He has received a PhD degree from Technical University - Sofia in 2009 in Electrical Power Engineering. His field of interest includes electrical relay protections and automation, electrical networks, nuclear power plants (electrical systems, control and safety aspects), renewable energy sources. Currently he is associate professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering of the Technical University – Sofia, dpt. head of chair “Electrical power engineering”. He works on studies related to improvement of the protection schemes for connection of renewable sources of energy to the grid, evaluation of grid short circuit levels and grid control. Dimitar Bogdanov is with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Technical University of Sofia, 8, st. Kliment Ohridski Blvd., 1756 Sofia, Bulgaria (e-mail: dbogdanov@tu-sofia.bg). 253 | P a g e � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2532 Title A name given to the resource CONNECTION OF NEW GENERATORS IN THE ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM OF KOSOVO Author Author SHAQIRI, Rexhep BOGDANOV, Dimitar Abstract A summary of the resource. The power system of Kosovo is a compact and integrated structure in hierarchical aspect. It plays an important role in the process of transmission and distribution energy to the consumers. Based on this importance analysis is necessary in order to estimate the medium and long term plans of production of electric energy and development of the power generation plants. Object of study in this article is the project for connection of generators to the substation in Decani. This article describes the simulations of the power system of Kosovo (on date 21.01.2014 at 19.00h when the load in the system is 996.978 MW) in order to emphasize the importance of the connections of generators in Decani substation. Decani substation is an important node point with specifics of the power flow distribution. The analysis of the Kosovo electric power system by means of ETAP software and using as a reference the standards applied in Kosovo, the created models aim to justify if the plans for improvement of Kosovo grid are appropriate and what kind of changes in the voltage levels and short circuits values can be expected. Keywords: Connection, Hydro Power Plant, Voltage profile, Synchronous generator, Improvement, Power System, Operation Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-05-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 978-9958-834-36-3 Q Science (General),QH301 Biology,QH426 Genetics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/92f602b7251cd0df0f81445fe7f82b00.pdf ebb7aaca71475fab4e8ff383ad15843a PDF Text Text 1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Consciousness of Environment in Turkey M urat Cankurt Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey murat.cankurt@ege.edu.tr Bulent Miran Ege University, Agricultural Faculty, Dept of Agricultural Economics,Đzmir, Turkey Harun Hurma Namık Kemal University, Agricultural Faculty Dept of Agricultural Economics, Tekirdağ, Turkey Abstract: Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Keywords: Environmental issues, environmental conscious, Turkey. Introduction Environment,they alllivelives of continuing and their mutualinteraction as physical,biological,social, economic and cultural surroundings are defined as. (Anonymous 2007). Lives to survive, the environment is necessary to have the appropriate conditions. Environment is bring together, such as chaos and balance of two elements opposite to each other, a perfect system. Impairment of this system leads to the emergence of environmental problems. Although many sources of this environmental problem, unfortunately, people is the mostimportant one. After the industrial revolution, environmental problems are directly or indirectly have increased with the technologic development. While, developing industry was leading to air and water pollution, intensive agriculture led to pollution of soil and food, urbanization led to soil,air,rivers and sea pollutions. The pollution brought many importantissues. The environment which is living space of mankind has become threat for them more and more. W hen pollution issues occurred, human noticed that have to be more sensitivetothe environment. Then some methods has been identified for elimination of environmental pollution. The methods used for elimination of environmental pollution are high technological and quite expensive (Đleri 1998). As for the solution of environmental problems of the society to be educated is both high-efficiency and low cost method. Environmental awareness is the most important step to solve environmental pollution problems. Individuals alone can have environmental awareness. However, this is not enough. For radical solutions, individual sensitivity must be converted into social sensitivity. Then sensitivities must be converted actions. Thus, the developed solutions can be more effective for environmental pollution (Cankurt et al. 2008). If people have had environmentalsensitivitylong before,expensive methods would not have be needed. "Never, It is not too late" with the principle, thinking aboutthe future, it will be necessary to begin work for social environmental sensitivity. In this context,the first step, should be to determine the current situation. We have two questions. "What is our level of social sensitivity for environment?" and "How can we move to this sensitivity?". Answers to the questions are the mostimportantstarting point of environmental solutions. This study deals withthe firststage ofthe solution model of environmentalissues.Inthe resolution of a problem is very important to determine of the current situation. Thus, the source of the problem and solution methods can be determined. The second phase isto provide environmental education to society with appropriate training techniques for the purpose. Now then, environmental sensitivity and environmental awareness will be provided. Finally, environmentalissues will be solved with society that has environmentalawareness.(Fig. 1). 280 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Figure 1. Stages of solving environmental problems As known that society consists ofindividuals.Ifindividual's environmental awareness is improved, the community's environmental awareness is improved. With reduce environmental pollution, ifthe environmental balance is rightto establish their own facilities can renew itself again (Doğan 2003). Otherwise,the results may ocur as natural structure and composition corruption and negatively affected people (Kızılaslan and Kızılaslan 2005). The main objectives ofthis study; • To reveal awareness and consciousness level of environmental pollution, • To determine people behavior of the environmental pollution, • To put forward to whatthey are doing in orderto solve environmentalissues, • To examine that how we can improve the environmental consciousness, In additionalthattryto find to cooperation with associations,foundations and corporations,the decision makers in state government for solving the environmentalissues. Inthe frame ofthe study,it was researched thatindividual consciousness and the level of consciousness into behaviortaken accountinto water, air,soil, noise and general environmental pollution criteria (Fig. 2). Figure 2. Environmental pollution criteria In this context,it was try to find the answers to the following questions. • W hat are the factorsthatlead to environmental pollution? • W hat are responsible from the environmental pollution? • W hat are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Material And Methods The main material ofthis study was the original data that obtained from the survey in 25 urban centers (Table 1). Atleasttwo provinces of each region were chosen in orderto represent all of Turkey.Itis shown that frequency and percentages ofthe citiesin Table 1. City Adana Ağrı Ankara Antalya Frequency 76 74 144 44 % 3.55 3.46 6.74 2.06 City Eskişehir Gaziantep Đçel Đstanbul Frequency 107 51 63 92 % 5.00 2.39 2.95 4.30 City Nevşehir Niğde Samsun Tekirdağ Frequency 106 77 90 114 % 4.96 3.60 4.21 5.33 281 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Balıkesir Bursa Denizli Diyarbakır Erzurum 95 63 44 32 39 4.44 Đzmir 445 20.81 Van 2.95 Kayseri 47 2.20 Zonguldak 2.06 Kocaeli 69 3.23 Batman 1.50 Konya 48 2.25 1.82 Manisa 42 1.96 Toplam Table 1. Frequency and Percentages ofthe Cities 43 79 54 2.01 3.70 2.53 2138 100.00 Questionnaire that prepared in relevant to the purpose was filled by volunteers. Questionnaire consists of socio-economic, yes-no, ranking and scale questions totally 58 questions. We used the five pointlikert scale inthe survey form (1: strongly disagree, …, 5: strongly agree). Descriptive statistics, frequency distributions, percentage distributions, grouping methods are used for analysis ofthe data. Findings Analysis of data for the individuals’ awareness of environmental issues and behaviors in terms of environmental pollution has been done in terms ofthe survey participants’ gender, age, education and revenue. 64.3% of the survey participantsis men and their average age is 20.74 and 74.0% of them are under 20 years of age. 1/3 of the participants have monthly salary under 1000 YTL. High school graduates have the largest share by 43.6 %.( Table 2) Variables Age Education Groups Freq. % Variables Groups <20 yaş 1427 74.0 Gender W o man 21-50 yaş 340 17.5 Man 50 < yaş 162 8.5 Salary Student Primry school 605 35.0 <1000 TL High school 757 43.6 1001-5000 TL Vocational school 372 21.4 >5000'TL Table 2. Descriptive statisticsfor socio-economic variables Freq. 716 1289 794 636 362 137 % 35.7 64.3 41.2 33.0 18.8 7.1 For resolution of an issue,firstitshould be seen as a problem. From this perspective itshould be useful to know whether the individuals are aware of environmental pollution or not and if they are the degree of the awareness. To do this,the participants were asked to evaluate environmental pollution generally then water, air and noise pollution respectively. This assessment and analysis has been made with five agreement scales (Table 3). The survey participants answered to the questions “There is pollution in general” with an average of 4.14 and “There is air pollution” with 4.02 averages which means “I agree”. “There are water, noise and soil pollutions” opinions have followed them. "There is soil pollution" question is answered an average of 3.40 meaning that they are not sure. Accordingly we can easily say that, the individuals in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Average 4.14 3.74 4.02 3.40 3.93 There is pollution in general There is water pollution There is air pollution There is soil pollution There is noise pollution Table 3.Individuals’ environmental pollution perceptions (5 Agreement Scales) What are the factors thatlead to environmental pollution? Individuals’ opinions are taken for what factors lead to the environmental pollution. In this context, agriculture and industry as sectors, coal as energy resource,nuclear energy and effects of petroleum were asked. The individuals were asked fortheiragreement scale on the factorsthatlead to pollution and the resultsare given on Table 4. 282 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Factor Average Agriculture 2.32 Industry 4.06 Coal energy 3.84 Nuclear energy 3.54 Petroleum energy 3.60 Table 4. Factorsthatlead to environmental pollution (5 Agreement Scales) According to the results,industry sector is much more polluter than agriculture sector. Individuals do not believe enough that energy resources lead to pollution.However,they stated thatthe energy resource of coal is more polluter then nuclear energy and petroleum energy. The survey participants expressed that the lowest polluter of the energy resources is nuclear energy. Accordingly, industry is the main factor of pollution. In addition,they pointed outthatcoal power causes environmental pollution. What are responsiblefrom the environmental pollution? It will be useful to look at the environmental polluters from the individuals’ eyes to find out the roadmap. For this purpose, individuals were asked to evaluate the major environmental polluters with five agreement scales (Table 5). Polluter Average Unawareness 4.1 Remissness 4.1 The ignorance ofindustrial organization 4.1 Lack of education 4.0 The ignorance of governments 3.7 Lack ofinternational action 3.6 Ignorance of advanced countries 3.5 Ignorance of politicians 3.5 Lack of newspapers and TV broadcasts 3.4 Table 5. Environmental polluters (5 Agreement Scales) Individuals stressed that primary polluters of the environment are again they are. In this context, the individuals highlighted their own personal ignorance, carelessness, lack of education. Individuals blame that industrial organizations are as guilty as they are. It is a very interesting self-criticism that the individuals are blaming themselves. It is obvious that the individuals that can make self-criticism will also easily contribute to the measurements to decrease pollution. The individuals accuse that industry organizations causing environmental pollution include the solution to who they are going to work with.Individuals are not sure thatthe media sector does well for their responsibilities. It points out that the media should improve their environmental awareness. However itisinteresting thatthe individuals do not blame the newspapers and TV’s like the other factors. What are we doing individually on environmental pollution? Until now, itis described thatthe individuals are aware of environmental pollution and the problems that it causes. However, how much of this awareness is reflected to the individuals’ behavior has a special importance. The scale of positive response or efforts to protect the environment that will be developed is affected by how much ofthe knowledge istaken to the action. Things to do againstthe environmental pollution can be analyzed in two groups as personal and social activities. Personal activity means working to eliminate the environmental problems individually. Social activities are the commitments to protect the environment by the institutions, foundations and clubs. Participation to the co-operative activities like this is a good indicator of environmental consciousness. This shows thatthe individuals realize thatthere is a problem and need to getrid ofit. Similarly,individuals who share similar thoughts to enter into joint action with other individuals, is a significantindicatorthat he/sheisin charge of solving the environmental problems. Forthis purpose, participants were asked whether they have memberships to the institutions and foundations and their attendance to the environmental activities (Table 6). 283 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Actions % I am a member of Environmental associations or foundations 23.2 I’m participating the environmental awareness activities 31.6 I’m participating the protest actions against polluting the environment 23.8 I’m participating the trash/waste collection activities. 33.2 Table 6. Rate of participantsto the social activitiesto avoid environmental pollution (%) It’s seen that participation rate of the individuals to co-operative social activities against the environmental pollution is very low. The most important social activity against the environmental pollution is garbage / waste collection by 33%. This percentage is more than expected because some of the survey participants are students. Personal behaviors ofthe individualsto protectthe environment have shown on Table 7. Actions Average I always throw the garbage/wastetothe trashcan 4.0 I do notthrow solid mattertothe toilets 3.8 I use unleaded gasoline in my vehicle. 3.6 I do regular checks to exhaust 3.6 I do not use solid fuelthat has too much smoke 3.6 I do not speak loudly at home, at work and in the streets. 3.5 I check my vehicles exhaust volume regularly. 3.4 Generally ilisten to the music inlow volume. 3.4 W hen buying deodorant and sprays,itake care ofthe ozone layer. 3.4 I avoid sounding the horn 3.4 I do nottrade with street vendors with annoying noise. 3.4 I considerthe amount of detergent while using. 3.3 I buy organic (ecological) products 3.3 W hen buying detergent,icare aboutits environmental side effects. 3.2 Itry to reduce my consumption level. 3.2 I often participatein tree planting campaign. 3.2 I'm againstthe celebrations such as wedding, engagement etc.In the streets 3.1 I demand less nylon bag while shopping 3.1 Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center 3.0 I preferto use the paper or cloth bags in shopping. 2.9 I sortthe organic and inorganic garbages. 2.9 I never use deodorant, and spray 2.9 I never collecttrash in plasticbags. 2.8 Table 7. Personal activitiesto avoid environment pollution (5 Agreement Scales) The participants have expressed they agree to the question “I always throw the garbage/waste to the trashcan”. This statement with an average of 4.0 hasthe highest valueinthe question. This resultalso means that not all of the garbage/wastes are thrown into the trashcan by the participants.Itis engrossing thatthe statement although is one ofthe simplest actions to protectthe environment, has only 4 in 5 agreement scales. The participants agree to the statement “I do not throw solid matter to the toilets” with an average of 3.8.Itshows thattheindividuals do not care enough to environmentthat can harm their own houses. Similarlyit is engrossing thatthe participants are not sure on simple actions like “Ithrow used batteriesto special gathering center” (3.0), “I demand less nylon bag while shopping” (3.1). The results show that things that can easily be done could not be done. The best example of thisis “I avoid sounding the horn”(3.4) meaning thatthey are not sure. If we consider the agreement scale average beyond 3.5 or higher, 6 out of 23 personal efforts can be selected as remarkable. Accordingly the individuals are extremely inadequate to avoid environmental pollution. As much as the awareness of the environmental problems itis also very important that how much the individuals feel themselves adequate in solving these problems. Undoubtedly, even if the individual feels himself/herself adequatein this situation,it will not be possible to take action in case ofinadequate personal and 284 �1st International Syposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo socialactivities.Inthis contextthe participants were asked “Do you think that you are doing what you have to do avoid environmental pollution?”(Table 8) I believe thatI did what I have to do I believe thatI did what I have to do with co-operation. Average 3.45 3.29 Table 8.Individuals’ satisfaction leveltotheir activities on avoiding environmental pollution.(5 Scales) As you see, individuals are not sure about their personal and social activities to avoid environmental pollution. Thisis a good result.Ifthey felttheireffortssufficient,it would be extremely difficultto have positive resultsin increasing community awareness. However,the study shows it will be easy to get positive results for accommodating community awareness. Discussion And Results In this Turkey-wide study, the participants strongly agreed to the statement “Generally there is environmental pollution.” They expressed that airis more polluted than water.Individuals are not sure about soil pollution. In a research about environmental pollution in Helsinki, Moscow and Talin with 13-18 age groups,the participantsthink that air and water pollution isthe most significantthreatto plant and animal species.(Hokka at all,1999).In a research done with the medicalstudents of Finland,itisfound that most ofthe students are aware of environments; more than half of them indicate that water pollution is the biggest problem of all other environmental pollutions.( Kasma Ronkainen and Virokannas, 1996). The participants have answered the question "Isthere environmental pollution?" with an average of 4.20 from 5 agreement scales meaning “I agree”. To the question “What are you doing to avoid the environmental pollution?” they answered with 3.30 meaning “I’m not sure”.So thereis a difference in whatis being considered and whatis being done. In other words, we are having difficultiesin our environmental awareness to putin real life. This points that, the work for developing environmental consciousness has to focus on transforming our thoughtsto action. Itis obvious that the people, living in Turkey are aware of environmental pollution. Individuals’ selfcriticism to their inadequate effort on avoiding environmental pollution will have positive effect on thoughtaction. Turkey has a vision that with small efforts, it can give social solutions to avoid the environmental problems. Underthese circumstances it will not be wrong to say “The solution of environmental problems is not too far”. References Anonymous (2007) Ministry of Environment and Forestry, the official web page (www.cevreorman.gov.tr/ et: 16.02.2007) (in Turkish) Cankurt, M., Miran, B., Günden, C., Şahin, A., (2008). Awareness to environmental pollution in turkey , Southern Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, February 2-6, Dallas, TX. Doğan M (2003) Industrialization and Environmental Issues. (http://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~dogan/4.html et:05.11.2006) (in Turkish) Hokka P, Palosuo H, Zhuravleva I, Parna K, Mussalo-Rauhamaa H, Lakomova N, (1999) Anxiety about environmental hazards among teenagers ın Helsinki, Moscow and Tallinn. The Science of the total environment, 234, 95-107. Đleri R (1998) Environmental Education And Supplement, Journal of Ecology 28, 3-9. (in Turkish) Kasma Ronkainen L, Virokannas H, (1996) Concern about the environment among medical students. Scand Journal of Soc Med. 24, 121-123. Kızılaslan, H. ve N. Kızılaslan (2005) Çevre konularında kırsal halkın bilinç düzeyi ve davranışları (Tokat Đli Artova Đlçesi örneği), Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 1, 67-89. (in Turkish) 285 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 483 Title A name given to the resource Consciousness of Environment in Turkey Author Author Cankurt, Murat Miran, Bulent Hurma, Harun Abstract A summary of the resource. Environmental issue has attracted attentions as one of the most important issues of the last century. This problem is a phenomena that threat to sustainable life. Effective solution of this issue depends on conscious and awareness of people about environmental matters. The main purpose of this study is to determine the level of awareness and attitudes to environmental issues in Turkey. The analysis was made to see the effects of age, gender, education and revenue on the awareness and attitudes to environmental pollution. Data were collected from 7 regions and 25 cities via personal interview. Water, air, soil, image and general pollution are the criteria on which awareness and attitudes were evaluated in the study. Air and water pollutions appear more significant than the others. It is determined that the media is the best way of disseminating the information regarding environmental education more efficiently. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/189594e51d50b181348a1e10bde8cb39.pdf 8c259664892b5f7d6f53d5a5ace596bc PDF Text Text 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo Pamukçu, T. and Yeldan, E. (2005) “Country Profile: Turkey, Macroeconomic Policy and Recent Economic Performance” Report prepared for Economic Research Forum, http://www.bilkent.edu.tr/~yeldane/FEMISE_Macro2005.pdf. Spilimbergo, A., Symansky, S., Blanchard, O. and Cottarelli, C. (2008) “Fiscal Policy for the Crisis” IMF Research Department Position Note, http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/spn/2008/spn0801.pdf, Date Accessed: 10.04.2010. Şenses, F. and Taymaz, E. (2003) “Unutulan Bir Toplumsal Amaç: Sanayileşme Ne oluyor? Ne olmalı?”, in İktisat Üzerine Yazılar II, İktisadi Kalkınma, Kriz ve İstikrar, Oktar Türel’e Armağan, (ed. A.H.Köse, F.Şenses and E. Yeldan), İletişim Publishing, İstanbul, 429-461. Türel, O. (2007) “Türkiye’de Sanayileşme ve Kalkınma Planları Dönemsel Uygulamalar” TMMOB Industry Congress, Ankara. Consequences of financial crisis in Bosnia and Herzegovina Fiscal and Monetary Policy Nađa Dreca International University of Sarajevo,Faculty of Business and Administration 71000, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina E-mails: nadja.dreca@students.ius.edu.ba, nadja_n88@hotmail.com Abstract Aim of this paper is to analyze effects did global financial crisis have on BiH’s economy and society in general. After examination of effects, it will be researched what are the policies that government has implemented in order to decrease negative effects. Both, fiscal and monetary policies will be examined, with special emphasize will on the stand by arrangement with IMF because it was often debated whether this arrangement was good or wrong movement of the government. Moreover, this paper will provide information about have did these measures affect society and especially certain interest groups, such as demobilized military. Finally when all of these above mentioned are analyzed and discussed, conclusions about efficiency of implemented policies will be made and proposals of what could be done will be developed. Keywords: global crisis, Monetary policy, Fiscal Policy, Central Bank 1. INTRODUCTION Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina introduced some measures aimed in cutting public administration costs and urge state-owned enterprise to devise saving plans. Bosnian government encourages public spending, new capital investments, building roads, open new projects. To conclude, BiH was doing pretty well until 2008, registering decent levels of 391 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo economic growth. As the crisis hit Europe, economic growth substantially slowed down, huge public deficit took place and the only solution to prevent absolute collapse was to get the loan from the International Monetary Fund. All of the fiscal policies had some effect, but they created social problems. On the other side, since Central Bank has only limited tools and thus, monetary policy could not do much. 2. EFFECTS OF FINANCIAL CRISIS ON BIH ECONOMY Previous to the 2008 and global financial crisis, BiH was considered as the most stable economy in the Western Balkans. Of the great importance for macroeconomic stability at that time was that the currency has been pegged to the euro, which ultimately protected it form the fluctuations and created stability. Furthermore, economy was performing better and country was experiencing slow but continuous growth in GDP. Since BiH is approaching EU integration, much faster economic growth with higher GDP increase is required in order to catch up with EU member countries. However, when crisis hit BiH this ambition for caching up complicated further because GDP growth has immediately slowed down, due to the reduced exports, remittances and credit. Finally, in 2010 some signals of slow recovery have shown. When talking about this crisis, inflation is usually perceived as one of the greatest problems. Year % change in CPI 2007 2008 2009 2010 1.5 7.4 -0.4 2.1 Table 1. Inflation From the table above it can be concluded that crisis created high inflation, especially in the 2008 when retail prices increased by 7.4%. This big increase of price level was caused by extraordinary rise in energy and food prices on world markets in the first months of 2008. Regarding financial inflows before the crisis, the highest percentage of these inflows were in the form of foreign direct investment (FDI). In 2007 FDI grow but in the following years it started decreasing and currently FDI represents approximately around 1% of GDP. It is important to emphasize that beside the financial crisis, the second highest problem why FDI has drastically decreased is complex political situation and insecurity. Since the war ended unemployment is constantly high. Business cycle is very slow, not many jobs are being created, so the unemployment persists to be one of the leading problems. Existing economic crisis, as previously mentioned, had slowed business cycle further, production decreased and consequently unemployment rose. Regarding sectors that were first to feel the effects of global financial crisis, these are the strongest export sectors, metal industry and also building and industry of construction. Some of the most successful companies in the metal industry, such as Arcelor Mittal Zenica and ASA Prevent have already in 2008 decreased their production by 20-50%. In some Cantors there is need for approximately million KM per month to cover only the basic contribution for the new unemployed persons. So, number of unemployed is continuously increasing, while government is trying to implement austerity measures of cutting social expenditures. Increasing demand for social benefits and reduction in government spending created atmosphere of general dissatisfaction, strikes and social unrest. 392 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The movements of public revenues and expenditures indicates that significant further worsening of the country’s fiscal position occurred and that fisical deficite increased further. It is evident that revenues were gradually decreasing and this was mainly due to the decrease in colection from taxes and lower collection came as a result of decreased consumption. On the other side austerity measueres that were enforced as an effect had decrease in government expenditures Further more, economic shocks have also caused an increase in the grey economy which represented significant problem even before the economic crisis. In the research about crisis and grey economy in the BiH, PhD Rajko Tomas showed that actual portion of grey economy in 2008 was approximately 60%. It can be argued that this percentage has increased even more in past two years because of the crisis and because of introduction of fiscal cash machine . Introduction of fiscal cash machine hurt small business the most and caused high percentage of these to exit from the market. 3. MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICY As the negative impacts of the global crisis make their way across Bosnia and Herzegovina, governments are employing different mechanism to improve their competitiveness and encourage economic activities. As a first step, improving competitiveness can come through currency depreciation, but in the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina it cannot be adopted because Bosnian currency is pegged to the euro through a Currency Board. Beyond currency depreciation, the Bosnia could employ other monetary and fiscal policy instruments to ease adjustment and encourage economic activity, including financial spending programs o encourage aggregate demand or loosening of lending controls to increase liquidity in the banking system. Central Banks in the region of Bosnia cut their policy rates, but for Bosnia and Herzegovina the only available macroeconomic policy was reduction of minimum reserve requirements and requirements for funds borrowed from abroad. Also Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina exempted funds in foreign currency from reserve requirements. In 2008, it cut reserve ratio for all deposits from 18% to 14% by increasing the liquidity and free credit potential, is aimed at stimulating banks to keep the growth rate of the lending activity which was considerably slowed down. The tendency of slow-down of growth of bank lending to private sector started. As the tendency of decrease of activities in the local credit market continued, the Governing Board of the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina in November 2008, passed a decision according to which all the new credit lines withdrawn by commercial banks from foreign countries should be excluded from the base for required reserve calculation. This measure was aimed at stimulating the inflow of capital from foreign countries in the local banking sector and providing additional incentives to the credit activity of commercial banks. In December 2008, the Governing Board also passed a decision on introducing a differentiated rate of required reserve on commercial bank deposits. The purpose of this decision is to release additional liquid funds from the required reserve for commercial banks, in order to stimulate larger credit activity in attempts to make a positive influence on the level of economic activity in the country. Also new decision about deposit insurance limit is brought, new amount increased from 7.500 to 20.000 KM, and Deposit Insurance Agency provides insurance of deposits in commercial banks in the amount of 35.000KM per person. 393 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo The influence of the financial crisis in 2008 was indirectly felt in BH economy as well, particularly in its financial sector. Slowing of capital inflows from abroad and withdrawal of deposits from domestic commercial banks, which partly contributed to the negative balance of sales and purchases of KM, as well as a reduced pace of growth of credit activities of banks resulted in a considerably slower growth of money supply relative to previous years. In 2009, the banking sector in BH, despite strong effects of the world economic crisis, managed to maintain stability and responds successfully to clients’ demands, which served to safeguard the confidence in the banking system. In order to mitigate negative effects of the global financial crisis, around the middle of the year the banking agencies adopted the Decision on Temporary Measures for Reprogramming of Credit Liabilities of Physical Persons in Banks, which allowed banks to reprogram all obligations of a debtor’s at his request. The slow-down of capital inflows from foreign countries and the withdrawal of deposits from the local commercial banks, which partly contributed to the negative balance of KM sale and purchase, and also the decline of the growth rate of bank lending activities resulted in a significantly slower growth of money supply. 3.1 Fiscal Policy Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina introduced some measures aimed in cutting public administration costs and urge state-owned enterprise to devise saving plans. Bosnian government encourages public spending, new capital investments, building roads, open new projects. Letter of Intent In early May 2009, members of the Fiscal Council of BH and delegation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) harmonized a Letter of Intent that was forwarded to the Governing and Executive Board of IMF, in which a three-year Stand by arrangement was agreed for Bosnia and Herzegovina in the amount of EUR 1.2 billion with annual installments of EUR 400 million each In the Letter of Intent they proposed many policies in order to decrease budget deficit. One of them was end 2009, we intend to: (i) eliminate special unemployment benefits granted to demobilized soldiers by allowing the sunset clause to expire; (ii) introduce a maximum income threshold for eligibility for civilian and veterans benefits; (iii) reduce all civilian and veterans’ benefits by 10 percent and eliminate indexation; and (iv) reform war veterans’ pensions. These reforms will entail the revision of existing legislation, including: (i) Decree on eligibility for pension under more favorable conditions of the military insurees of the Army of FBiH; (ii) Decree on eligibility for age pension under more favorable conditions of the military insurees of the Army of FBiH; and (iii) Decree on eligibility for age pension under more favorable conditions of the members of the former Army of FBiH and civil servants and employees of the former Ministry of Defense of FBiH. IMF Stand-By Arrangement Faced with increasing financing pressures in early 2009, the authorities put together a comprehensive program supported by an IMF Stand-By Arrangement. The program was designed to safeguard the currency board and cushion the effects of the deteriorating external environment, while adopting policies to correct fiscal imbalances and strengthen the financial sector. The authorities’ approach included: (i) gradual fiscal consolidation accompanied by 394 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo structural fiscal reforms to bring public finances on a sustainable path; (ii) steps to strengthen the resilience of the financial sector alongside commitments by foreign parent banks to maintain their external exposures to BiH and keep their subsidiaries capitalized; and (iii) substantial financing from the Fund along with funds from the World Bank and the EU. The program helped mitigate the impact of the crisis on the economy. Private investment and spending on consumer durables collapsed, while private current consumption softened to a lesser extent, on the back of moderate growth of wages and social benefits. The drop in domestic demand appears to be leveling off, aided by stabilizing credit conditions. Private investment, however, continues to lose ground as a result of weak FDI inflows. Results of Stand – By Arrangement The program helped mitigate the impact of the crisis on the economy. Inflation has decelerated. The Federation government approved with a delay the pension reform strategy in June 2010, and parliament adopted the public wage legislation in July 2010 (both end-March structural benchmarks). Eligibility audits of war benefit recipients started only in July and are yet to produce any tangible results (continuous benchmark from start of year). The end-March structural benchmark on the reform of privileged pensions, which was missed by the Federation, was also redesigned .In Republika of Srpska, all end-March 2010 benchmarks related to eligibility audits, the reform of privileged pensions, and the pension reform have been met. By the end of the Stand by Arrangements, the level of Fund credit outstanding is projected to reach 8.5 percent of GDP, and Fund repurchases and charges would peak at 63 percent of total debt service in 2014. The country’s excellent record of meeting Fund financial obligations, the expectation that the program would lay the foundations for the return to a sustainable medium-term growth path, and a strong political commitment to the program provide assurances that B&H should be able to meet its financial obligations at defined time. Fiscal coordination was improved. Since its establishment in 2008, the role of the Fiscal Council in coordinating fiscal policy across the country has been limited. It is important that the authorities take steps to improve the Council’s operational framework and involve it in the design of medium-term fiscal policy and fiscal targets. The establishment of the Fiscal Council in 2008 represents an important step in advancing national fiscal policy coordination. Recently, there have been increases of excises to align tax rates with EU levels, but discretionary revenue gains were partly offset by declining customs collections owing to EU accession. Direct taxes were lowered and exemptions re-defined. Tax administration has also improved and, contrary to the experience in many countries, collection does not seem to have suffered during the recent crisis. On the expenditure side, progressive increases in wages and social benefits have occurred since 2006 in a pro-cyclical fashion, dampening the effect of the automatic stabilizers. Unemployment benefits, which generally act as a counter-cyclical force on the expenditure side, have increased during good times with the rights awarded to demobilized soldiers in the Federation. During the period of crisis Bosnian government propose some discretionary revenue measures. In 2008 Association Agreement with EU (lowered import tariffs on EU goods) was made. In 2009 Increase in the road fee (+0.10 KM/l), excises on coffee and progressive increase in excises on tobacco. 395 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo With monetary policy assigned to maintain the currency board arrangement, fiscal policy was the only available instrument to soften the economic downturn. However, given the starting unsustainable fiscal position, a discretionary fiscal stimulus was not a policy option. During these period in Bosnia and Herzegovina some reforms were adopted, such as Rightsbased benefits reform. Much of the spending pressure affecting the fiscal accounts over the past few years stems from poorly targeted and inefficient rights-based benefits. There was agreement on the need to press ahead with the implementation of the reform of the system of rights-based benefits according to the action plan prepared in consultation with the World Bank. Faced with increasing demographic pressures, the authorities have initiated reforms of the pension systems. The Federation approved a pension reform strategy, which still needs to be fleshed out in greater detail and to incorporate an overhaul of privileged pensions. In the RS, with the pension reform strategy already approved by parliament, the authorities need to follow through with the preparation and adoption of pertinent legislation. Reforms to rein in the wage bill was also implemented. BiH’s government payroll has grown substantially in recent years and is very high compared with other countries. There is still a need for deeper reform of public administration. 4. CONCLUSION AND PROPOSALS OF MEASURES To conclude, BiH was doing pretty well until 2008, registering decent levels of economic growth. As the crisis hit Europe, economic growth substantially slowed down, huge public deficit took place and the only solution to prevent absolute collapse was to get the loan from the International Monetary Fund. All of the fiscal policies had some effect, but they created social problems. On the other side, since Central Bank has only limited tools and thus, monetary policy could not do much. In the case of Bosnia and Herzegovina the best way to correct consequences of crisis is to change policy of public finance, to decrease the budget deficit and decrease of public deficit. Main problem and weakness for Bosnian financial system is so high level of the benefits provided to special groups of citizens and thus it is absolutely necessary to make reforms regarding spending on these benefits. Further more, it would be good if more flexible mechanism of the use of required reserves of the Central Bank through use of the securities would be introduced and if Central Banks would get the right to set the interest rate of the commercial banks. Of especially help would be establishment of domestic bank which would than help development and support new investments and development of the Bosnian financial sector. Government should provide help to the domestic companies in order to keep their status on the market, to keep stable unemployment rate and increase their competitiveness. One of the measures that could be is the increase in the level of the public sector works that will create jobs. Sector of economy that should be supported the most heavily is agricultural sector, to encourage the production of the agricultural goods that are currently being imported and increase consumption of domestically produced goods. These will lead also to the increase in GDP of the country and help export expansion. Finally, introduction of progressive taxation could create some positive results, but detailed cost-benefit analysis should be done in order to evaluate whether this type of taxation would increase government revenues. 396 �3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, May 31 - June 01 2012, Sarajevo REFERENCES Agency of Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina www.bhas.ba “Bosnia and Herzegovina: Letter of Intent and Technical Memorandum of Understanding“, Published:June 16, 2009, Available at IMF officaila page www.imf.org, “Bosnia and Herzegovina: Letter of Intent and Technical Memorandum of Understanding“, Published:June 16, 2009, Available at IMF offical page www.imf.org Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Various Issues, www.cbbh.ba Consequences of the global financial crisis on BiH economy“, Source: FENA, Published: December 30, 2008., http://www.emportal.rs/en/news/region/74519.html International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2010/pr10111.htm , . http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2010/cr10348.pdf “The Western Balkans: Between the Economic Crisis and the European Perspective”, Institute for Regional and International Studies, Sofia, September 2010, page.52 http://www.iris-bg.org/files/The%20Western%20Balkans.pdf, 2008 Global Crisis, The Case Struggle Turkey “You are the Privileged, give us lessons”* Bulut Şahin1, Göçer İsmet1, Dam M. Metin1, Mercan Mehmet2 Martin Wolf, Financal Times' chief economic commentator. 1Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Aydin, Turkey 2Lec. Hakkari University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Aydin, Turkey E-mails: sbulut@adu.edu.tr, igocer@adu.edu.tr, mdam@adu.edu.tr, sbulut@adu.edu.tr Abstract In this survey, how Turkey overcame the 2008 crisis was studied using 2002:1-2011:12 period data through co-integration test. Within the scope of Empiric analysis, the influence of 397 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1347 Title A name given to the resource Consequences of financial crisis in Bosnia and Herzegovina Fiscal and Monetary Policy Author Author Nađa , Dreca Abstract A summary of the resource. Aim of this paper is to analyze effects did global financial crisis have on BiH’s economy and society in general. After examination of effects, it will be researched what are the policies that government has implemented in order to decrease negative effects. Both, fiscal and monetary policies will be examined, with special emphasize will on the stand by arrangement with IMF because it was often debated whether this arrangement was good or wrong movement of the government. Moreover, this paper will provide information about have did these measures affect society and especially certain interest groups, such as demobilized military. Finally when all of these above mentioned are analyzed and discussed, conclusions about efficiency of implemented policies will be made and proposals of what could be done will be developed. Keywords: global crisis, Monetary policy, Fiscal Policy, Central Bank Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-31 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General),HB Economic Theory,HG Finance,HJ Public Finance https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e0ab942a549fcb6c3b97ac6e1b826b72.pdf 2c06e34ad4684c1627835209b8651966 PDF Text Text IZVORNI NAUČNI RAD Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo Constitutional Principle of the Rule of Law and the Right to Private Entrepreneurship Mr. sc. Sedad Dedić 1 sedad.dedic@gmail.com Doc. dr. sc. Šukrija Bakšić 2 drsukrija@gmail.com Sažetak: Postojanje ustava koji se ostvaruje u praksi, odnosno normi sa ustavnom snagom i funkcijom, u formi karakterističnoj za određeni pravni prostor i pravnu tradiciju, kojim se jasno definišu akteri političkog života i pravila političkih procesa i ostvarivanje prava i interesa građana na temeljima ustavnog principa vladavine prava, postojanja pravne države i pravne sigurnosti predstavlja jedan od preduslova za funkcionisanje i razvoj privrede u savremenom svijetu. Adekvatno stimulisanje privatne inicijative i privatnog poduzetništva je usko povezano sa postojanjem slobodnog tržišta i zaštite prava vlasništva i ekonomskih sloboda. Ekonomski ciljevi vladavine prava ogledaju se u uspješnom djelovanju ekonomskih sila i zakonitosti, a samim tim i kvalitetnog ostvarivanja prava na privatno poduzetništvo i postizanje višeg standarda života građana. Vladavina prava, zamišljena i definisana, u svom suštinskom dijelu, kao kontrolor arbitrarne državne vlasti i samovolje pojedinaca koje narušavaju ostvarivanje prava drugih ljudi omogućava pravnu izvjesnost i veću efikasnost u privrednim aktivnostima. U tom smislu vladavina prava se može smatrati jednom od neophodnih pretpostavki koje građanima omogućava da slijede svoje ekonomske ciljeve, s tim što su glavni kriteriji odlučivanja realni ekonomski odnosi na slobodnom tržištu. Jedan od rezultata ovakvog koncepta treba biti i eliminisanje pravnih i privrednih konsekvenci koje negativno utiču na pravnu sigurnost i privredni razvoj. Ključne riječi: Ustav, ustavni principi, vladavina prava, pravna sigurnost, pravo na privatno poduzetništvo Historija članka Dostavljen: 30.08.2013. Revidiran: 04.12.2013. Prihvaćen: 10.12.2013. Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici, magistar pravnih nauka, (Sekretar Fakulteta). Docent na predmetima Ustavno pravo I i Ustavno pravo II na Pravnom fakultetu Univerziteta u Zenici. 57 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 1 2 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić Abstract: The existance of a constitution which is realised in practical life, or rules with constitutional power and function in the form which is compatible with a concrete law space and the law tradition, that clearly define the the political actors and the rules of the political process and the realization of the rights and interests of citizens on the basis of constitutional principles of the rule of law, the existence of a legal state and legal certainty, presents one of most significant conditions for successful functioning and development of entrepreneurship in a contemporary society. The existence of private initiatives and private enterprises is closely connected to existence of the free market and protection of private property and economic freedom. The economic goals of the rule of law are reflected in the successful functioning of economic powers and economic rules, and therefore quality realization of the right to private enterprises and the ability to achieve a higher standard of living. The rule of law conceived and defined as arbitrary state power and arbitrary personal acts controller, which violate human rights, provide legal certainty and greater efficiency in economic activities. Nevertheless, the rule of law allows citizens to pursue their own economic goals, with the main criteria for making economical costs comparable and realistic to expected profits in the free market. In addition, the results of this kind of attitude should be eliminating legal and economic consequences which have negative influence on law certainty and economic development. 58 Keywords: Constitution, constitutional principles, the rule of law, legal certainty, the right to private entrepreneurship JEL Classification: K10, K20, K23, K40 Article History Submitted: 30.08.2013. Resubmitted: 04.12.2013. Accepted: 10.12.2013. Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo UVOD Pravna sigurnost, podjela vlasti, zabrana retroaktivnog dejstva i efektivna pravna zaštita kao neka od najvažnijih načela pravne države, 3 predstavljaju osnovni ambijent za privredni razvoj, privlačenje stranih investicija i uspješno ostvarivanje ustavnog principa vladavine prava i prava na privatno poduzetništvo. Izvori prava 4 u svakom pravnom sistemu i za svaki pravni institut svoj smisao i konačni cilj ostvaruju kroz ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravnu državu, 5 a zaštita i ostvarivanje prava privatnog vlasništva i prava na privatno poduzetništvo uz slobodno tržište svakako se nalaze u potpuno zavisnom odnosu prema vladavini prava i pravnoj sigurnosti kao elementima pravne države. Pravna sigurnost, 6 pored ostalih značenja, znači i da svi pravni akti koji regulišu našu pravnu poziciju i odnose u društvu moraju biti napisani na pristupačan, predvidiv, procjenljiv i razumljiv način. 7 Z. Meškić/D.Samardžić, Pravo Evropske unije I, TDP Sarajevo - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH – Otvoreni Regionalni Fond za jugoistočnu Evropu-Pravna reforma, Sarajevo 2012., 54. 4 Termin „izvor prava“ označava tri različita pojma: 1. izvor donošenja prava, 2. izvor saznanja prava i 3. izvor nastanka prava što nam ukazuje na tri elementa pravnog akta: donosioca, formu i postupak. N. Pobrić, Ustavno pravo, „Slovo“ Mostar, Mostar 2000., 13. 5 Pod pravnom državom podrazumijevamo sklad između normativnog i stvarnog. Tako da razliku između normativnog i stvarnog smatramo porporcionalnom udaljenosti od ostvarenja pojma pravne države. 6 Pravna sigurnost je sastavljena od smjernica i standarda koji imaju vrlo konkretno značenje. Tako da u neodvojive i kumulativne karakteristike pravne sigurnosti ubrajamo: jasnoću i transparentnost prava, osiguranje što većeg kontinuiteta prava, određen stepen postojanosti prava, konstatnost u pravosudnom sistemu uprkos činjenici da ne postoji formalna obaveza sudova da se veže za prijašnje odluke, princip zabrane retroaktivne primjene krivičnog zakona i drugih propisa koji retroaktivno prdviđaju određene posljedice za radnje koje se poduzete u prošlosti u trenutku čijeg preuzimanja za oštećeno lice nije bilo moguće predvidjeti takve posljedice, djelotvorna pravna zaštita i kao posljednji princip navodimo obavezu da se obrazloži odluka koju donese nadležni organ., Više o tome: N. Ademović/J. Marko/G. Marković, Ustavno pravo Bosne i Hercegovine, Fondacija Konrad Adenauer e.V. Predstavništvo u Bosni i Hercegovini, Sarajevo 2012., 68-71. 7 Ibid., 69. 3 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 59 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić Također, princip pravne države prisiljava izvršne organe na postupanje po unaprijed definisanim procedurama koje uključuju pravo na žalbu i daju mogučnost adekvatnog nadzora unutar sistema demokratske države. Dodatni efekat se postiže obavezom organa (upravnih i sudskih) da detaljno obrazlože svoje odluke, a čime ih se dodatno prisiljava na donošenje na pravu i ustavu zasnovanih odluka. 8 Ustav, u demokratskom smislu, trebao bi predstavljati akt na kojem se zasniva legitimitet državne vlasti, kojim se štiti društveni mir i napredak, štite ljudska i građanska prava i slobode, unapređuje blagostanje pojedinca i zajednice. Riječ je aktu koji bi trebao biti, poput državnih simbola, integrirajući faktor. 9 Pri tome je princip vladavine prava 10 bitan sastojak demokratskih ustava što, u konačnom vodi stvaranju i održavanju efikasnog privrednog sistema unutar stabilnog državnog okvira. Ustav 11 po mjeri načela vladavine prava prvi je korak u stvaranju pravnog okvira i ambijenta efikasnog ekonomskog sistema i uslova za ostvarivanje prava na privatno poduzetništvo. 12 Pojam ustavne vladavine, od svog nastanka do danas, podrazumijeva ograničavanje svih nosilaca državne vlasti ustavom kao i nametanja obaveze i odgovornosti svim nosiocima državne vlasti da djeluju u smjeru ostvarivanja prava i sloboda zagarantovanih ustavom. 13 Uz postojanje normi koje imaju ustavnu snagu i funkciju u formi karakterističnoj za konkretan pravni prostor, slijedeći korak bez kojeg postoji samo tehničko usklađivanje i normiranje jeste dosljednost u primjeni, odnosno postojanje „ostvarivanja“ ustava čije norme bivaju oživotvorene u praksi koja znači svakodnevni ljudski život i svakodnevne međuljudske odnose što bi i trebao biti jedan od ciljeva svakog pravnog sistema. Naime kako bi sistem prevazišao, na žalost vrlo čestu, razliku između normativnog i stvarnog neophodno je imati vrlo precizno definisane i dosljedno primjenjivane pravne institute kako bi se osigurale lične slobode pojedinaca, garantovala prava vlasništva, stvorili podsticaji za smanjenje troškova poslovanja i racionalnu upotrebu resursa, kao uslova za stvaranje i održavanje Ibid., 71. N. Pobrić, 92. 10 Ideja i koncept vladavine prava nastali su na anglosaksonskim pravnim tradicijama, posebno u Engleskoj. Iako se vladavina prava shvata i kao vladavina pozitivnog zakona, u svojoj osnovi, teorija vladavine prava je antipozitivistička, u njoj je vrlo teško razgraničiti pozitivnopravni, moralni i prirodnopravni normativitet. Više o tome: Ibid., 452-453. 11 Jedna od osnovnih funkcija ustava je , također, da onemugući samovolju državne vlasti i da uspostavi načelo vladavine objektivnog prava. Ibid., 91. 12 Đ. Krstić, “Vladavina prava i ekonomska delotvornost”, Pravni Život 12/11, Udruženje pravnika Srbije, Beograd 2011., 560. 13 K. Trnka, Ustavno pravo, Fakultet za javnu upravu Sarajevo, Sarajevo 2006., 355. 8 9 60 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo konkurentnog slobodnog tržišta neophodnog za adekvatno ostvarivanje prava na privatno poduzetništvo. 14 Kao što možemo zaključiti, sam termin ustavna vladavina je uži pojam u odnosu na vladavinu prava koja podrazumijeva i ostvarivanje i vladavinu i svih ostalih legalno donesenih pravnih normi, ali ipak postojanje konsekventno sprovedene ustavne vladavine obezbjeđuje i ostvarivanja najviših pravnih principa na području na koje se odnosi određeni ustav što je jedan osnova za ostvarenje vladavine prava. Važnost pojma pravne države odnosno istoznačan pojam „pravne zajednice“ kada govorimo o Evropskoj Uniji, kao bitnom pravnom okviru kojem stremi i Bosna i Hercegovina, ogleda se i u činjenici da je 1993. godine navedeni princip uvršten u Kopenhaške kriterije prema kojima je pristup novih članica dozvoljen samo ukoliko poštuju načela pravne države, što je potvrđeno Ugovorom iz Mastrihta 1993. godine i sa Lisabonskim ugovorom kao zajedničko načelo svim pravnim sistemima država članica EU. 15 Navedena činjenica za Bosnu i Hercegovinu kao državu u tranziciji koja teži članstvu u EU svakako ima jasnu poruku, a posebno kada je u pitanju ostvarivanje prava vlasništva i slobodnog tržišta garantovanih Ustavom Bosne i Hercegovine i Evropskom konvencijom o ljudskim pravima iz 1952. godine. Odnos ustavnog prava i prava na privatno poduzetništvo Ustav je najviši pravni i politički akt jedne države koji se donosi po posebnoj proceduri i od strane najvišeg predstavničkog tijela. Kao takav predstavlja glavni pravni osnov za donošenje zakona i svih drugih pravnih propisa kojima se konstituiše pravni sistem jedne zemlje. U tom sklopu Ustav je i pravni izvor prava na privatno poduzetništvo. Savremeni ustavi garantuju pravo vlasništva i striktno propisuju, da se nikom ne može ograničiti pravo vlasništva, osim kad to zahtijeva javni interes utvrđen zakonom ili na osnovu zakona, uz naknadu koja ne može biti niža od tržišne, u skladu sa evropskim standardima. 16 Također se ustavima savremenih Đ. Krstić, 561. Z. Meškić/D.Samardžić, 54. 16 Protokolom uz Europsku konvenciju o ljudskim pravima od 20.03.1952. godine pripisana je zaštita imovine u čl. 1. „Svako fizičko i pravno lice ima pravo na neometano uživanje svoje imovine. Niko ne može biti lišen svoje imovine, osim u javnom interesu i pod uslovima predviđenim zakonom i opštim načelima međunarodnog prava". Evropska konvencija o ljudskim pravima, http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/o%20nama/Evropska%20konvencija%20o%20lj udskim%20pravima%20i%20osnovnim%20slobodama.pdf (15. 07. 2011.) 14 15 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 61 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić demokratskih zemalja garantuje sloboda privređivanja i sloboda poduzetništva, pa se zabranjuje svaka radnja i svaki akt kojima se stvara ili podstiče monopolski položaj i sprečava, odnosno ograničava tržišno privređivanje. U tom kontekstu valja pomenuti i ustavne garancije slobode stvaranja i objavljivanja naučnih i umjetničkih djela, naučnih otkrića i tehničkih izuma, a njihovim stvaraocima moralna i imovinska prava. Ustavima se takođe obezbjeđuje pravo na rad i zaradu, kao i na zaštitu na radu, zatim pravo na štrajk radi zaštite svojih profesionalnih i ekonomskih interesa. 17 Zakon je opće, apstraktno i obavezujuće pravilo koje nije donijeto za jedan određen slučaj ili grupu slučajeva već za neodređeni broj slučajeva iz oblasti koju zakon normira. Postoje brojni zakon, ali i podzakonski akti 18 koji treiraju društvene procese vezane za oblast i ostvarivanje ustavnog prava na privatno poduzetništvo. To su zakoni iz oblasti spoljnotrgovinskog prometa, carina, telekomunikacija, vazdušnog, kopnenog i pomorskog transporta, osiguranja imovine i lica, privrednih društava, banaka, obligacionih odnosa, fiducijarnog prenosa vlasništva, hipoteke, zaloge, hartija od vrijednosti, autorstva itd. 19 Odnos prava na privatno poduzetništvo i ustavnog prava možemo posmatrati kao odnos posebnog i općeg. Naime, ustavno pravo propisuje osnove političkog sistema, osnove ekonomskog sistema, sastav organa vlasti, njihovu organizaciju i ovlaštenja, pa samim tim daje okvire za konsekventno implemetniranje prava na privatno poduzetništvo. Kakav će biti status poslovnih subjekata, njihov međusobni odnos, te posebno njihov odnos sa državom zavisi u punoj mjeri od karaktera vlasničkopravnih odnosa i političkog sistema jedne zemlje što također predstavlja predmet regulative ustavnog prava. Negdje će ti odnosi biti liberalniji, sadržajniji i brojniji, a negdje znatno drugačiji, pa će zavisno od toga i položaj prava na privatno poduzetništvo odražavati njihov karakter. 20 Pravo na privatno poduzetništvo i njegovo konsekventno ostvarenje u značajnoj mjeri zavisi i od regulative koja se tiče procesnih pravila u postupcima sudske zaštite povodom poštivanja ovog prava, te rješavanja sporova koji mogu nastati povodom njegovog uživanja. Dakle, odnos prava na privatno poduzetništvo i sudske prakse je bitan zbog činjenice da se zaštita ustavom garantovanih prava, 17 S. Međedović, Osnovi prava biznisa, Forum univerzitetskih nastavnika, Novi Pazar 2005., 46. U ove akte spadaju: uredbe, pravilnici upustva, i naredbe. Podzakonske akte donose organi uprave različitog nivoa. Najčešće ih donose ministarstva, ali i organi lokalne uprave. 19 Ibid., 46. 20 Ibid., 42. 18 62 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo odnosno zaštita ustavnosti ostvaruje upravo putem sudske kontrole ustavnosti i zakonitosti. Pravo na privatno poduzetništvo ima tijesne veze sa sudskom praksom, jer brojni poslovni odnosi dobijaju svoj epilog u sudskim sporovima, pa je na taj način sudska praksa mjera primenljivosti normi koje tretiraju pravo na privatno poduzetništvo. Brojni su sporovi iz prava na privatno poduzetništvo koji se rešavaju u parničnom, vanparničnom i izvršnom postupku, dok se krivičnopravna zaštita ostvaruje u krivičnom postupku. To se prije svega odnosi na upis poslovnih subjekata u sudski registar sa svim promjenama od značaja na pravni status poslovnih subjekata, što se rješava po pravilima vanparničnog postupka. Zatim najrazličitiji sporovi iz poslovanja privrednih subjekata rješavaju se kod redovnih i privrednih, odnosno trgovačkih sudova. 21 Protokolom uz Evropsku konvenciju o ljudskim pravima 22 od 20. 03. 1952. godine propisana je zaštita imovine u čl. 1: „Svako fizičko i pravno lice ima pravo na neometano uživanje svoje imovine. Niko ne može biti lišen svoje imovine, osim u javnom interesu i pod uslovima predviđenim zakonom i opštim načelima međunarodnog prava“. Također, Poveljom o osnovnim pravima EU (POP) 23 pitanja koja imaju posebno značajan uticaj na položaj prava na privatno poduzetništvo su definisana u članovima 12. (Sloboda okupljanja i udruživanja), 15. (Sloboda izbora zanimanja i pravo da se uključi u rad), 16. (Sloboda za obavljanje posla), 17. (Pravo na imovinu), 20. (Jednakost pred zakonom), 21. (Nediskriminacija), 36. (Pristup uslugama od općeg privrednog interesa), 38. (Zaštita potrošača), 41. (Pravo na dobru administraciju), 45. (Sloboda kretanja i stanovanja). 24 Posebno je pozitivan pristup osnovnim ljudskim pravima koja se sistematizuju u poseban dokument, uz činjenicu da se POP kao pravnoobavezujući akt definiše kao akt koji ima istu snagu kao i Ibid., 44-45. Evropska konvencija o ljudskim pravima, http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/o%20nama/Evropska%20 konvencija%20o%20ljudskim%20pravima%20i%20osnovnim%20slobodama.pdf (15. 07. 2011.) 23 Sa Lisabonskim Ugovorom, prema čl. 6. st. 1. UEU, POP u hijerarhiji normi stoji u rangu primarnog prava. Z. Meškić/D.Samardžić, 54. 24 Official Journal of the European Union, C 83/389-403, 30. 03. 2010. 21 22 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 63 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić Ugovor EU – kao osnivački ugovor, 25 simbolički u političkom i moralnom smislu POP ne samo da se stavlja pored nego i iznad ostalih odredbi osnivačkih ugovora. 26 Iz navedenog uočavamo kvalitet odnosa prema poziciji privatnog poduzetništva kao okosnici privrednog razvoja i ekonomskog blagostanja. Dakle, ovdje se ne radi o deklarativnim klauzulama nego o aktu primarnog prava EU koji ima jasno definisanu institucionalnu zaštitu putem Suda EU i sudova država članica EU što značajno doprinosi pojačanju intenziteta pravne sigurnosti i ostalih činilaca pravne države, odnosno „pravne zajednice“. Značaj ustavnog principa vladavine prava za ostvarivanje prava na privatno oduzetništvo Danas ne postoji nikakva dilema da je ostvarenje i zaštita osnovnih ljudskih prava i sloboda temelj pravne države ne samo u njenom formalnom, veći u njenom materijalnom i aksiološkom značenju. Za Bosnu i Hercegovinu je posebno značajno da uspostavi zaštitu i ostvarenje ljudskih prava i sloboda svih generacija jer bez toga nema demokratske države koja počiva na vladavini prava. 27 Raskorak između ustava i stvarnosti je uvijek veći nego između zakona i stvarnosti, 28 a jedan od razloga je svakako što neke ustavne odredbe predstavljaju načela i principe kojima treba stremiti, odnosno ideale čije potpuno ostvarenje vjerovatno nikad neće biti realno moguće, ali svoj smisao ostvaruju usmjeravanjem normativnog sistema ka usavršavanju. Član 6 (1) Ugovora o EU status Povelje izjednačio je sa statusom samog Ugovora EU. S. Đorđević, “Pravni status Povelje o osnovnim pravima Evropske unije”, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu LVIII, Niš 2011., 233. 26 Ibid., 227. 27 D. Jovičić, „Lična prava i slobode građana i njihovo ostvarivanje“, Srpska pravna misao, 14/2004-2005, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 2005., 183199. 28 M. Jovičić, Ustav i ustavnost, Javno preduzeće „Službeni glasnik“- Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd 2006., 292. 25 64 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo Vladavina prava, između ostalog, obezbjeđuje zaštitu vlasničkih prava. 29 Naime, sa stanovišta investitora, odnosno poduzetnika, kao i svih drugih privrednih subjekata, vladavina prava, odnosno pravna država, očituje se kao efikasna zaštita privatnih vlasničkih prava, kao i efikasna kontrola poštovanja ugovora (ispunjavanja ugovornih obaveza), odnosno efikasno prinudno izvršenje ugovora, ukoliko je to potrebno. Vladavina prava, kao preduslov ekonomske efikasnosti i privrednog rasta poznata je odavno, još od Adama Smitha, budući da upravo vladavina prava omogućava da se sebični interesi ljudi i njihove aktivnosti na realizaciji tih interesa dovedu do maksimizacije društvenog blagostanja. Ovaj nalaz tokom više od dva stoljeća nije osporavao ni jedan ozbiljan ekonomista, niti mislilac iz neke druge relevantne oblasti. 30 Pri tome, vlasnička i ugovorna prava mogu se ugroziti, odnosno oduzeti na dva načina: može da ih eksproprijatiše država 31 koja raspolaže silom, ili drugi pojedinci, koji su ravnopravni po statusu, ali bolje opremljeni za takvo oduzimanje - efikasniji su u pogledu primjene fizičke sile ili prevare. 32 Ontološki posmatrano, smatra se da pravo postoji samo ako se primjenjuje, jer u suprotnom, takvo neaktivno, „mrtvo“ pravo ne treba ni da postoji. 33 Svi pravni akti se donose da bi bili primjenjivani. Da nije te svrhe, donošenje opštih pravnih akata, odnosno samo njihovo postojanje bilo bi lišeno svakog smisla. 34 U prilog prethodno navedenom ide i stav Hansa Kelzena da norma postoji samo ako pripada izvjesnom sistemu normi, jednom poretku, jer u krajnjem slučaju bez poretka, koji garantuje ostvarivanje normi, nema ni norme. 35 Vlasništvo se pojavljuje kao apsolutno u smislu stanja pravne ravnoteže koje garantuje u pogledu pravne situacije dobara. Vlasništvo ima apsolutni karakter u tom smislu što je opšti, globalni pojam. Njegova definicija ne zavisi od okolnosti. Ono se primjenju na svakog i sve, ne razlikuje se od osobe ili od vlasnika do vlasnika. Vidjeti više o tome: I. Sferdian, „The absolutism of the property right“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu, Pravni fakultet u Nišu, Niš 2007., 42-43. 30 B. Begović et al., Od siromaštva ka prosperitetu: Tržišna rješenja za privredni rast, JP Službeni glasnik, CLDS, Beograd 2009., 121-122. 31 O “legalnom” djelovanju države govorimo onda kada je djelovanje države u skladu sa važećim pravnim normama. S. Moeckli, Politički sistem Švajcarske – Kako funkcioniše, ko učestvuje, čime rezultira, University Press-Magistrat izdanja-Politička kultura, Sarajevo-Zagreb 2010., 33. 32 B. Begović et al., 122. 33 D. Čorić, „(Stvarna) Primena prava kao imperativ savremene države (sa osvrtom na tranzicione procese u Srbiji)“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu, Niš 2007., 306. 34 M. Jovičić, 281. 35 M. Simović, “Ustav kao osnovna norma u teoriji prava Hansa Kelzena”, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu XLVI/2005, Pravni fakultet u Nišu, Niš 2005., 232. 29 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 65 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić Postoje dva osnovna načina kojima vladavina prava štiti privatna vlasnička prava, odnosno ugovorna prava. Jedna je odvraćanje, odnosno generalna prevencija, koja se svodi na stvaranje podsticaja svim privrednim subjektima da ne krše tuđa privatna vlasnička prava i da izvršavaju obaveze iz ugovora onako kako one glase. Vladavina prava u smislu generalne prevencije može da se posmatra kao javno dobro, možda i najvažnije javno dobro koje država može da pruži. Dvije osnovne karakteristike obilježavaju svako javno dobro, pa time i vladavinu prava. Prvo, ne postoji rivalitet između „korisnika" vladavine prava u smislu generalne prevencije: to što jedan privredni subjekat uživa zaštitu svojih vlasničkih prava ne dovodi do toga da je bilo koji drugi privredni subjekt lišen te zaštite. Drugo, ne postoji realna mogućnost isključenja korisnika koji ne plati uslugu vladavine prava u smislu generalne prevencije - ekonomskim žargonom rečeno, nego su troškovi isključenja svakog korisnika javnog dobra prohibitivno visoki. Drugim riječima, vladavina prava u smislu generalne prevencije javno je dobro koje uživaju svi privredni subjekti (fizička i pravna lica) koji se nalaze na području određene države. Upravo je to, sa stanovišta privrednog rasta, odnosno prosperiteta, ključno javno dobro koje treba da pruži jedna država. 36 Vladavina prava znači vladavinu jednog, od strane države kontrolisanog, izvora i pravnu sigurnost, a odsustvo vladavine prava vodi ka neorganiziranoj vladavini i pravnoj nesigurnosti što dovodi u pitanje cjelokupan sistem jedne države gdje ni privatno poduzetništvo koje predstavlja stvaranje, akumulaciju i distribuciju kapitala nema šanse za uspjeh jer kapital bježi od nesigurnosti. Također, vladavina prava znači i zaštitu čovjeka od samovolje drugih ljudi kao i od samovolje same države jer je pravo kroz ustav i zakone iznad svih fizičkih i pravnih lica, dok odsustvo vladavine prava u praktičnom smislu znači potencijalnu mogućnost od strane države nekontrolisanog i nesankcionisanog sprovođenja samovolja raznih izvora moći. Sa procesnog stanovišta, za vladavinu prava potrebne su institucije koje će sprovoditi pravo, a pod tim se podrazumjeva kompetentno, efikasno, nezavisno i nepristrasno pravosuđe. Kako se dolazi do takvog pravosuđa, pogotovo što se veoma često događa da izvršna i zakonodavna vlast potkopavaju nezavisnost pravosuđa (a pogrešnim politikama često i njegovu efikasnost), stranke u sporovima ga potkupljuju, a interesne grupe prijete i ucjenjuju. Sve se to može preduprediti jedino ukoliko postoji snažna politička volja, odnosno riješenost da se stvori i održi nezavisno i snažno pravosuđe. Ta politička volja nije egzogena već, kako je pokazao Stephenson (2003), zavisi od faktora koji su dio političkog procesa u jednoj zemlji: stepen političke 36 B. Begović et al., 125-126. 66 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo konkurencije, politička stabilnost, averzija prema riziku političke elite i vremenski horizont u kome političari donose odluke. 37 Dakle, pored vladavine prava u smislu generalne prevencije kao jednog od primarnih principa, jedan od mehanizama zaštite privatnih vlasničkih i ugovornih prava jeste sudska zaštita koja predstavlja jedan od bitnih sredstava za ostvarenje principa vladavine prava u konkretnim slučajevima, na primjer u formi građanskog spora koji pokreće jedna zainteresovana strana. Presuda u korist one stane kojoj su narušena vlasničkih prava, podrazumijeva obavezu da druga strana prestane sa narušavanjem tih prava i da se šteta koja je usljed toga nastala u najmanju ruku u potpunosti kompenzuje. Drugim riječima, sudska zaštita, u ovom primjeru, putem parnice omogućava ex post zaštitu vlasničkih prava, za razliku od generalne prevencije, koja tu zaštitu omogućava ex ante. Štaviše, parnice u kojima su uspješno zaštićena vlasnička prava, odnosno koje su dovele do prinudnog izvršenja ugovornih obaveza, pokazuju na djelu djelovanje vladavine prava i generišu veliki preventivni efekat. Opravdano je pretpostaviti da se bez njih ne može postići generalna prevencija kao oblik vladavine prava, odnosno zaštite privatnih vlasničkih prava. Sve navedeno pokazuje da postoji i određeni komplementarni efekat na vladavinu prava koji generišu generalna prevencija i sudska zaštita. Drugim riječima, vladavina prava ne može da se ostvari isključivo generalnom prevencijom, odnosno isključivo sudskom zaštitom. 38 Zbog prosperiteta i izvjesnosti privrednih odnosa potrebno je da postoji pravna sigurnost kako kod stvaranja prava tako i kod primjene prava. 39 Državna prinuda, kao što se koristi za zaštitu, isto tako može da se koristi i za narušavanje privatnih vlasničkih prava. Stoga je zaštita vlasničkih prava koja se narušavaju od strane države, ključni element vladavine prava - upravo vladavina prava treba da sputa državu u narušavanju privatnih vlasničkih prava. U tom smislu, mogu se identifikovati dvije osnovne komponente vladavine prava. Prva komponenta se odnosi na procesni aspekt te vladavine - aktivnosti države, odnosno državna intervencija ne smije da bude, odnosno treba da bude u što manjoj meri arbitrarna i u što manjoj mjeri zasnovana na diskreciji državnih zvaničnika. Što je veća arbitrarnost državne intervencije, odnosno diskrecija onih koji je sprovode, uvećava se rizik od narušavanja privatnih vlasničkih prava i raste neizvjesnost sa kojom se suočavaju privredni subjekti, pa se time obara stopa privrednog rasta i ugrožava ustavno-pravni položaj i ostvarivanje prava na privatno poduzetništvo. 40 Druga komponenta vladavine prava, odnosno Ibid, 133. Ibid., 126. 39 D. Čorić, 307. 40 B. Begović et al., 127-128. 37 38 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 67 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić zaštite privatnih vlasničkih prava od narušavanja koje dolazi od strane države, odnosi se na materijalnu, odnosno sadržinsku komponentu te vladavine - koja su to pravila koja treba da se sprovedu bez arbitrarnosti i diskrecije. Da li su ta pravila ona kojima se ugrožavaju ekonomske slobode privrednih subjekata? Na primjer, oporezivanje visokim poreskim stopama predstavlja narušavanje privatnih vlasničkih prava, poput prava uživanja prihoda od imovine. Isto tako, opšta regulacija poslovnih aktivnosti sputava vlasnike u njihovim akcijama, tako da predstavlja ograničenje u pogledu prava korištenja vlastite imovine. 41 U tom pogledu državne politike, iako nisu zasnovane na arbitrarnosti i diskreciji, mogu da dovedu do drastičnog narušavanja privatnih vlasničkih prava. Zaštita od državne arbitrarnosti i diskrecije leži u razvoju mehanizama kontrole države i njene intervencije, odnosno polaganja računa državnih zvaničnika za obavljanje njihove javne funkcije. Zaštita od narušavanja pojedinih vlasničkih prava, poput navedenog narušavanja visokim poreskim opterećenjem i snažnom regulacijom, predstavljaju državne politike zasnovane na ekonomskim slobodama. 42 U tom smislu, ekonomske slobode i zaštita privatnih vlasničkih prava predstavljaju fenomene, odnosno koncepcije koje se ne mogu razdvojiti. 43 Ne samo da, kao što se pokazalo, ekonomske slobode predstavljaju mehanizam kojim se ostvaruje zaštita privatnih vlasničkih prava (u slučaju kada ih narušava država), nego se i ekonomske slobode ne mogu realizovati ukoliko nema zaštite privatnih vlasničkih prava. Naime, sloboda da se trguje, odnosno da se slobodnom razmjenom uvećava ekonomska efikasnost i prosperitet, neće biti iskorištena budući da niko nema podsticaj da trguje, a taj podsticaj neće postojati ukoliko u takvoj razmjeni nisu zaštićena njegova privatna vlasničkih prava. 44 Ova dva ograničenja koja nameće država ne moraju da budu podjednakog intenziteta. Na primjer, skandinavske zemlje su zemlje visokog poreskog opterećenja (mjerenog marginalnom poreskom stopom), ali i velikih ekonomskih sloboda u pogledu opšte regulacije poslovnih aktivnosti. Nasuprot tome, mnoge zemlje u razvoju, pogotovo afričke, nemaju visoko poresko opterećenje, ali imaju veoma rasprostranjenu snažnu opštu regulaciju poslovnih aktivnosti. Više o tome: Ibid., 128. fn. 6. 42 Ibid., 128. 43 Empirijska istraživanja pokazuju vezu između nivoa ekonomskih sloboda i rasta. Međutim, ta veza nije direktna. Kako su pokazali Haan i Stuem (2000), zemlje koji imaju viši stepen ekonomskih sloboda brže će doći u stacionarno stanje (steady state) privrednog rasta, ali stopa rasta u tom stacionarnom stanju neće biti uslovljena stepenom ekonomskih sloboda. Ovaj empirijski nalaz svakako da zaslužuje dalje istraživanje koje može da baci više svetla na relacije između zaštite privatnih svojinskih prava, ekonomskih sloboda i privrednog rasta. O tome: Ibid., 128 fn. 6. 44 Ibid., 128-129. 41 68 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo Također, Kant građanski poredak maksimalno promovira budući da su u građanskom društvu svi pod postojećima javnim zakonima slobodni i jednaki. 45 Posredstvom državnih činidbi osnovna prava bi garantovala realnu slobodu. Time se državi namjenjuje uloga svojevrsnog garanta za pretvaranje prava slobode u ustavnu stvarnost. 46 Razumije se da uticajem Kanta i po Hegelu, izvan građanskog društva (koje pretpostavlja egzistenciju pravne države) nema slobode, pošto je ona djelo Francuske buržoaske revolucije 1789, za koju je umni Hegel jednom prilikom rekao da je „veliko rađanje sunca“(slobode). 47 Također bez vladavine prava na prethodno definisan način nema ni, svakoj privredi, neophodnih stranih investicija koje dolaze samo na područja gdje postoji pravna sigurnost na temelju vladavine prava kao jednog od osnovnih preduslova za ostvarivanje i prava na privatno poduzetništvo. U teoriji postoje i drugačija mišljenja kao što je mišljenje francuskog politologa Morisa Diveržea da je građanska demokratija „demokratija bez naroda“ jer u njoj slobodna volja ne dolazi do izražaja zato što predstavnici naroda u vlasti po preuzimanju vlasti počinju sprovoditi svoju, a ne volju naroda koji ga je izabrao. Ono što možemo primijetiti kao zajedničku nit prethodnih stavova i mišljenja poznatih mislilaca jeste grčevita borba za zaštitu slobode koja je uslov svih uslova za egzistenciju svih naprednih društvenih procesa, a posebno za ustavnopravni položaj prava na privatno poduzetništvo. Naime uspješna realizacija prava na privatno poduzetništvo je nemoguća bez slobode, a u ovom slučaju bez konkretne slobode, sloboda tržišta. Sloboda tržišta uz slobodu uživanja prava vlasništva predstavlja temelj ostvarivanja prava na privatno poduzetništvo. Možemo reći da je za pravnu sigurnost bitno propisi budu 1) jasni, razumljivi i pregledni, da sadrže pravne standarde prihvaćene u razvijenim zemljama tržišne ekonomije, što ih čini prepoznatljivim i inozemnim osobama; 2) da svojim velikim brojem ne opterećuju pravni sistem, a što ih čini nepodesnijim ili u najmanju ruku teško podesnim za primjenu, ali da se strogo poštuju; 3) da ne budu Ibid. J. Nedić, “Određivanje osnovnih prava u pravnoj teoriji”, Srpska pravna misao, 2-4/94, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 1994., 202. 47 B. Tramošljanin, 421. 45 46 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 69 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić opterećeni nepotrebnim sadržajem, posebno da se ista pitanja ne uređuju na više mjesta, jer to izaziva protivrječnosti, da jasno oblikuju konzistentni pravni sistem; 4) da budu stalni, tako da poduzetnik za sve vrijeme trajanja poduhvata može računati s onim pravnim režimom koji je vrijedio pri započinjanju poduhvata; 5) da priznaju stečena prava i kontinuitet u pravu; 6) da omogućuju autonomiju ugovornih strana, uz najmanju moguću mjeru zaista samo prijeko potrebnih prisilnopravnih odredaba i uz dispozitivna rješenja koja se primjenjuju ako se ugovorom drukčije ne odredi; 7) da prihvaćaju načelo po kojemu je dopušteno sve ono što nije zabranjeno; 8) da osiguravaju poštovanje ugovora, uz jasno izražene sankcije za učinjene povrede i propisana prava kojima se druga strana štiti od takvih povreda; 9) da pružaju sigurnost vlasništva i štite vjerovnike. 48 Među propisima za poduzetništvo posebno mjesto imaju zakoni o trgovačkim društvima i zakoni o obrtu. Njima se uređuju organizacijski oblici poduzetništva tako da poduzetnik može slobodno izabrati samo neki od propisani oblika, odlučujući se pri tome na temelju interesa koji žele ostvariti. Pravna sigurnost zahtjeva da se ti oblici razrade propisima koji daju supsidijarna rješenja u slučaju da to poduzetnik sam drukčije ne uredi. Primjena navedenih zakona iziskuje postojanje prikladnih propisa kojima je regulirana materija o notarima, trgovačkim registrima, računovodstvu, o radnim odnosima, o suzbijanju nelojalne utakmice i iskorištavanju dominantnog položaja na tržištu, zaštiti potrošača, o bankama koje djeluju samostalno na načelima prihvaćenima u tržišnim ekonomijama i potpuno odvojeno od države. Pravni okvir mora biti jednak i za domaće i za inozemne poduzetnike, s time da se u konkretnom slučaju uzima u obzir načelo uzajamnosti (reciprociteta). Države u tranziciji i time se moraju otvoriti prema svijetu, pa ne smiju u pogledu pravnog okvira za poduzetništvo biti pod iznimkom nego moraju slijediti ono što se u tržišnim ekonomijama smatra pravilom. 49 Sasvim jasno možemo iščitati da se ekonomija i pravo susreću na zajedničkom putu ka ostvarenju što boljeg društvenog uređenja i što većeg društvenog blagostanja. 50 I. Vajić (ur.), Menadžment i poduzetništvo, 1000 programa ulaganja za mala i srednja poduzeća, Centar za poduzetništvo, Mladost Zagreb, Zagreb 1994., 18. 49 Ibid., 18-19. 50 A. Nikolajev, “Ekonomska analiza prava – nastanak, pojam i značaj”, Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta u Sarajevu, LV - 2012., Sarajevo 2012., 327. 48 70 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo No pravo ne čine samo propisi, nego i preostali dio pravne infrastrukture kao cjelina. Propisi žive onako kako se primjenjuju. Tek u primjeni može se ocijeniti djeluje li vladavina prava, pa tako i pogoduje li pravni sistem poduzetništvu ili ga koči. Zato uporedo sa izradom propisa valja stvarati i institucionalne pretpostavke za njihovu primjenu. To znači pouzdano i nesmetano djelovanje neovisnog pravosuđa na načelima zakonitosti, pravne sigurnosti, pravednosti i pravičnosti. Nezavisnost i samostalnost sudaca osnova je nezavisnog pravosuđa. Odvojenost pravosuđa od zakonodavne i izršne vlasti omogućuje uzajamnu kontrolu tih dijelova pravnog sistema. Za poduzetništvo je važno da uz državne sudove djeluju i arbitraže čije su odluke izvršive, a posebno da se sklapanjem međunarodnih konvencija ili pristupanjem međunarodnim konvencijama osigura izvršenje odluka inozemnih sudova te inozemnih i međunarodnih arbitraža, ali i izvršenje odluka domaćih sudova i arbitraža u inozemstvu. Ustaljena praksa sudova i arbitraža koje sude na navedenim osnovama tumači i dopunjuje propise i čini s njima nerazdvojnu cjelinu. Pravo treba razviti sve mogućnosti koje su u njemu sadržane u službi vrijednosti pravednosti, pravne sigurnosti i ekonomičnosti u primjeni i postupanju. 51 Pravna država predstavlja jedini prihvaljivi oblik državnog uređenja u modernim demokratskim društvima. Kako je naglasio još Monteskje u svojoj čuvenoj raspravi „O duhu zakona“, vlast treba podjeliti, ali tako da bi se osigurala umjerena vladavina i da bi svaka vlast bila dovoljno jaka da odoli drugoj. 52 Za pravo na privatno poduzetništvo je bitno da dobro djeluje ustavni princip vladavine prava u sistemu državne uprave. Da bi se to postiglo, djelokrug i ovlasti uprave smiju se odrediti samo zakonom, a upravne organizacije i službenici u svom djelovanju moraju strogo poštovati načelo zakonitosti: upravi je dopušteno samo ono na što je zakonom izričito upućena. Takvo ponašanje izvršne vlasti trebaju kontrolirati nezavisni, a u isti mah nadležni stručni sudovi. 53 S obzirom na sadržaj I. Vajić (ur.), 19. T. Crnkić, “Ravnopravan položaj sudske vlasti kao preduslov vladavine prava”, Pravna misao, god. XLII br.9-10., Federalno ministarstvo pravde, Zavod za javnu upravu, Sarajevo 2011., 87. 53 Iako uprava predstavlja samo profesionalni aparat države koji je u suštini odgovoran izvršno-političkoj vlasti koja „upravlja“ upravom ipak nosioci poduzetničkih procesa formalno dolaze u kontakt pretežno sa organima uprave. Izvršna i upravna vlast jesu formalno odvojene, ali se se često međusobno prepliću. Također efikasnost i kvalitet rada upravne vlasti kao servisa građana, u demokratskim društvima, je jedan od najmjerljivijih pokazatelja kvalitete rada izvršno-političe vlasti. Dakle, bez obzira što bazičnu odgovornost možemo staviti na izvršno-političku vlast zbog preovlađujućeg formalnog i službenog direktnog 51 52 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 71 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić upravnog djelokruga, treba sužavati djelokrug vlasti u vezi s građanima i privrednim poduzećima, mogućnosti izravnih upravnih intervencija u poslovanje, a proširivati odgovornost za čuvanje i sankciju okoliša, prostorno planiranje i uredno funkcioniranje javnih službi. Sistem oporezivanja izuzetno je važan za uspješno funkcioniranje i razvoj poduzetništva. Propisi kojima je regulisana materija oporezivanja moraju biti jasni, postupak njihove primjene što ugodniji za porezne obveznike (misli se na relativnu ugodnost jer niko nije “sagorio od želje” da plaća poreze), a troškovi razreda i naplate poreza te kontrola oporezivanjem ubranih sredstava što manja. Česte izmjene i dopune poreznih propisa, postojanje brojnih propisa (zakona, uredbi, pravilnika, naredbi, odluka, tumačenja i dr.) kojima je regulisana porezna materija, nejasnoće i praznine u tim propisima otežavaju snalaženje poreznih obveznika u njima, negativno utiču na pravnu sigurnost i pridonose stvaranju nepovjerenja poreznih obveznika u poreznu vlast i državu. 54 Pri regulisanju i primjeni porezne materije treba uzeti u obzir dostojanstvo poreznih obveznika. Porezni se službenici u obavljanju poslova iz svoje nadležnosti moraju korektno ponašati i ne smiju ometati porezne obveznike u njihovu radu. Potrebno je da nadležni organi državne uprave kojima su povjereni poslovi razreza i naplate poreza, kao i porezne kontrole, imaju stalno pred očima činjenicu da plaćanje poreza nije kazna, a porezni obveznici nisu “sumnjiva lica”, nego da poduzetnici plaćanjem poreza ispunjavaju svoju građansku obavezu izdvajanjem dijela dohotka koji su ostvarili svojom aktivnošću – dohotka iz kojeg, među ostalim, primaju svoje plaće. 55 U skladu sa iskustvima zemalja tržišne ekonomije, za poduzetništvo je važno da dobro djeluju i one javne službe koje ne obavljaju državni organi. Riječ je o notarima. Njihov doprinos pravnoj sigurnosti je vrlo bitan. Zato treba uložiti posebne napore da sistem notara bude efikasan i pouzdan, posebno da se stručno osposobe oni koji će obavljati taj posao. Notarski sistem unosi dodatnu vrijednost i kvalitet u eliminisanju neželjenih pravnih i privrednih konsekvenci koje negativno utiču na pravnu sigurnost u Bosni i Hercegovini, jer i pored činjenice što notari uglavnom ne preuzimaju punu odgovornost u obradi isprava, ipak, u najmanju ruku, upozore stranke na eventualne posljedice nesigurnih ugovornih i drugih pravnih odnosa. Uz to, važno mjesto pripada i komercijalnoj reviziji. Notari i komercijalni kontakta nosioca privatnog poduzetništva sa organima uprave na svim nivoima vlasti ovdje govorimo o odgovornosti uprave, a svaki sudski proces ili kritika bilo koje vrste prema upravnoj vlasti kao servisu građana u stvarnom okruženju predstavlja vrlo jasnu poruku o odgovornosti izvršno-političke vlasti. 54 I. Vajić (ur.), 19. 55 Ibid., 19-20. 72 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo revizori isključuju ulogu kompleksnosti i sporosti državnog aparata u poduzetnikovu poduzeću, oslobađaju ga njezina tutorstva i olakšavaju ulazak kapitala. Tome pridonose i propisi o računovodstvu, koji omogućavaju primjenu međunarodnih računovodstvenih standarda, čime se obračunski sistem čini prepoznatljivim i inozemnim poduzetnicima. U području organizacije i načina djelovanja uprave treba, tamo gdje to još nije izvršeno, praksu “demokratskog centralizma” i “dvostruke podređenosti” zamjeniti većom nezavisnošću upravnih organizacija u sklopu zakona, i to nezavisnošću u dijelu detaljnih uputa viših upravnih ureda, ali i u pogledu miješanja političkih tijela i njihovih članova u svakidašnje obavljanje upravnih poslova. Samo nezavisna uprava može biti odgovorna. Uprava prestaje biti transmisija volje bilo koje političke stranke; ona mora djelovati u sklopu pravnog sistema sa strogo razgraničenim ovlastima. U finansijskom smislu treba uspostaviti disciplinu u budžetu i punu računsko-sudsku kontrolu trošenja javnih sredstava. Raspoloživi novac mora biti efektivna granica mogućih upravnih akcija. Pažnju treba pridati elastičnom regulisanju upravnog postupka i učinkovitoj upravno-sudskoj kontroli. Najvažniji korak prema uspostavi učinkovite i odgovorne uprave svakako je obezbjeđivanje sistema nomenklature u popunjavanju ključnih položaja u upravi i sudstvu načelom odabira prema sposobnostima i rezultatima rada. Stoga je neophodno početi stvarati malobrojne i visokokvalitetne jezgre ključnih kadrova koji će popuniti vodeće položaje u budućem upravnom timu. 56 Također, bez ravnopravne i dovoljno jake pozicije sudske vlasti apsolutno je nemoguće uspostaviti osnovne principe vladavine prava. 57 Postojanje privatne inicijative i privatnog poduzetništva je usko povezano sa postojanjem slobodnog tržišta i zaštite prava vlasništva. Ukoliko u sveopštoj raspravi na temu preduslova privrednom rastu ipak postoji konsenzus u savremenoj ekonomskoj i pravnoj nauci, to se vjerovatno jedino odnosi na potrebu zaštite privatnih vlasničkih prava. 58 Suština subjektiviteta moderne države je, dakle, u tome što se ona pretvara od nespornog, razmaženog i nekontrolisanog subjekta potrošnje, koji je večinu budžeta trošio na potrebe svoje administracije u čemu se iscrpljivao smisao postojanja države jer ta administracija nije adekvatno ispunjavala svrhu efikasnog i kvalitetnog servisa građana, u odgovornog partnera u upravljanju privrednim procesom koji ostvaruje svoju funkciju doprinosu društvu kroz povećanje efikasnosti, kvalitete i odgovornosti državne administracije uz istovremeno optimiziranje troškova administracije i povećavanje investiranja država u Ibid., 18-20. T. Crnkić, 88. 58 B. Begović et al., 121. 56 57 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 73 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić ambijent za kvalitetniji život građana kroz veću pravnu sigurnost, efikasnost i poboljšavanje infrastrukture (saobraćaja, svih vrsta komunikacija i drugih usluga države). Doprinos države kroz makroorganizacionu dimenziju privrede direktno podstiče ekonomiju rada i racionalno korištenje osnovnih faktora, pa se sam može shvatiti kao posredno proizvodni faktor. 59 Prethodno navedeno je vrlo bitno i zbog činjenice da se države, u uslovima globalizacije, nalaze na tržištu koje znači odlazak kapitala tamo gdje postoji veća pravna sigurnost i bolji infrastrukturni ambijent što između ostalog pojeftinjuje i procese pokretanja i funkcionisanja privatnog poduzetništva. Kao što je bujanje monopolizma, a zatim i ekspanzija državnog intervencionizma od kraja prošlog vijeka, predstavljalo definitivni prelomni trenutak za napuštanje iluzije o samoregulirajućem mehanizmu tržišta i apoteoze rimskog shvatanja privatnog vlasništva, tako je i shvatanje društvene prirode državne vlasti moralo da doživi logičku transformaciju. Naime, dok je u XIX vijeku još dominiralo shvatanje da je država instrument kojim vladajuća klasa štiti svoje privilegije (što je doživjelo dogmatizaciju kroz marksističku pravnu nauku 60), u drugoj polovini dvadesetog vijeka postaje jasno da ekonomska moć države, a prije svega njena faktička participacija u donošenju privrednih odluka na svim nivoima, ne dozvoljava zadržavanje tako pojednostavljenog koncepta. Država nije puki instrument kojim se objezbjeđuje kolektivno prisvajanje privrednog bogatstva od strane jedne klase, nego društveni subjekt koji svoja, pravom utvrđena sredstva, koristi za povećanje društvenog proizvoda i postizanje drugih ekonomskih ciljeva. 61 Vladavina prava, međutim, pored svog procesnog aspekta (kako se određena pravila primenjuju), ima i svoj sadržajni, odnosno materijalni aspekt (koja su to pravila koja se primenjuju). Prema već prihvaćenoj definiciji vladavine prava, njen sadržaj predstavljaju sva ona pravila koja omogućavaju zaštitu privatnih vlasničkih prava. Drugim riječima, to su ona pravila, odnosno državne politike iz kojih ta pravila proizlaze, koja vode ka uvećanju ekonomskih sloboda, odnosno sloboda koje će privrednim subjektima omogućiti da koriste svoja svojinska prava, ne ugrožavajući svojinska prava drugih privrednih subjekata. U tom smislu opšta regulacija poslovnih S. Taboroši, 113. Pogledati bilo koji udžbenik Teorije prava prema programima koji su izvođeni u svim socijalističkim zemljama sve do početka 90-tih godina prošlog vijeka. Više o tome: Ibid., 113 fn. 41. 61 Ibid., 113. 59 60 74 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo aktivnosti je nešto što sputava ekonomske slobode, odnosno nameće ograničenja privrednim subjektima u korištenju. Takva opšta regulacija poslovnih djelatnosti odnosi se na regulisanje početka bavljenja poslovnom djelatnošću dobijanja potrebnih dozvola, zapošljavanja radnika, registracije nekretnina, dobijanja zajma, zaštite investitora, plaćanja poreza, spoljne trgovine, prinudnog izvršenja ugovora i prestanka sa radom (izlaska iz grane). 62 Naravno, što su veća sputavanja ekonomskih sloboda, manji su podsticaji za investiranje resursa u djelatnosti koje stvaraju vrijednost, odnosno manji su podsticaji za efikasno korištenje tih resursa, pa se stoga gubi na ekonomskoj efikasnosti i na privrednom razvoju. 63 Zakonska regulativa u sferi prava na privatno poduzetništvo treba da sve više mjesta ustupa autonomnoj regulativi samoregulatornih organizacija ili regulativi koja nastaje iz same poslovne prakse (lex mercatoria: običaji, uzanse, poslovni običaji, poslovni moral, opšti uslovi poslovanja) kao i regulativi koja umjesto da uniformiše, nastoji da pruži okvire, upute, instrukcije (modeli, zakoni, vodići) – „mehko pravo (soft law)“. 64 Na primjer, rad na tu temu Djankova iz 2006. godine pokazao je statistički značajnu vezu kojom obaranje nivoa opšte regulacije poslovnih aktivnosti dovodi do uvećanja stope ekonomskog rasta. 65 Na ovakav način pravo podstiče inicijativnost, inovativnost, posebnost, konkretnost, odnosno ovim se pravo stavlja u službu logike privrednog života i privatnog poduzetništva, umjesto da se kreira i podvrgava od života često otuđenoj vokaciji. 66 Kelzen je, potpuno ispravno, smatrao da, s obzirom na hijerarhiju normi, pravnonormativno (ne pravnosociološki) posmatrano, svaka niža norma, nastaje na osnovu odgovarajuće više norme koja joj daje pravni karakter određujući postupak njenog donošenja i time njeno mjesto u hijerarhiji normi, 67 a uzimajući u obzir činjenicu da su pravni izvori međunarodno-pravnog karaktera značajan izvor ustavnog Svjetska banka već godinama prati kretanje ovih ograničenja, odnosno nivo i promjene opšte poslovne regulacije privrednih delatnosti po zemljama. Podaci o tome dostupni su na web stranici www.doingbusiness.org. 63 B. Begović et al., 133-134. 64 M. Vasiljević, „Prilog raspravi o karakteru regulative kompanijskog prava“, Pravna riječ broj 16/2008, Udruženje pravnika Republike Srpske, Banja Luka 2008., 12. 65 B. Begović et al., 134. 66 M. Vasiljević, 13. 67 M. Trajković, „O normativnosti prava Hansa Kelzena“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu XLV/2004, Pravni fakultet, Niš 2004., 237-238. 62 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 75 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić prava u Bosni i Hercegovini 68 po principu pacta sunt servanda međunarodnim ugovorom o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima, koji ima ustavnu snagu u Bosni i Hercegovini garantira se pravo na rad, odnosno adekvatne uslove rada. Što je smisao prava na rad, ako to nije pravo na radno mjesto, odnosno zaposlenje? To u krajnjem slučaju nije niti obveza države da osigura svakom radno sposobnom građaninu zaposlenje, a niti je subjektivno pravo na zaposlenje takve osobe. Smisao i ovog prava, kao i većine socijalnih i ekonomskih prava, kao što smo već istakli, svodi se na obavezu države da stvara uslove za njegovo ostvarenje u što je moguće većem opsegu, i to je u nekim slučajevima temelj za zakonsko reguliranje određenih prava u slučaju neskrivljene (neželjene) nezaposlenosti (kao što su prava iz socijalnog osiguranja i određena minimalna primanja). 69 Dakle pravo na privatno poduzetništvo takođe indirektno crpi svoj osnov iz jasno definisanog smisla „prava na rad“ koje je garantovano Međunarodnim ugovorom o ekonomskim, socijalnim i kulturnim pravima. Naime obaveza države da stvara uslove za ostvarivanja prava na rad svoje ostvarenje nalazi upravo u pružanju svih potrebnih uslova i potpora osnivanju i razvoju privatnog poduzetništva koje predstavlja jedini stvaran i realan izvor radnih mjesta te ekonomskog i socijalnog blagostanja. Odluke državnih vlasti su ključne za uspostavljanje poslovnog okruženja, odnosno klime u jednoj zemlji - to okruženje se zasniva na zakonima i načinu na koji se oni primenjuju. Poslovno okruženje, koje obezbeđuje zaštitu privatnih svojinskih prava i niske troškove obavljanja poslovnih aktivnosti, stvara podsticaje za poduzetnike da se angažuju u aktivnostima koje stvaraju vrijednost. Nasuprot tome, slaba zaštita privatnih vlasničkih prava i visoki troškovi obavljanja poslovnih aktivnosti, prisiljavaju poduzetnike i kapital da se sklone iz takvog poslovnog okruženja i da se presele u neku drugu zemlju. Otuda će, umjesto zemalja koje karakterišu loša vladavina, odnosno odsustvo vladavine prava, otjelotvorena u korupciji, slaboj zaštiti vlasničkih prava i visokim troškovima obavljanja poslovnih aktivnosti, neke druge zemlje uživati plodove privrednog rasta. Na kraju, oni koji su stvorili lošu vladavinu će, slabljenjem poreske osnovice i umanjenjem poreskih prihoda, platiti njenu cijenu. Dobra vladavina prava treba da se usredsredi na striktnu zaštitu privatnih vlasničkih prava, efikasno pravosuđe Z. Begić, “Opšta načela međunarodnog prava u ustavnom sistemu Bosne i Hercegovine”, ANALI Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Zenici br. 9, god. 5., Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici, Zenica 2011, 55. 69 Z. Miljko, Ustavno uređenje Bosne i Hercegovine, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada Zagreb, Zagreb 2006., 167. 68 76 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo kao jedan od najznačajnijih načina da se obezbijedi takva zaštita, nisku i neprogresivnu poresku stopu efikasno pružanje drugih usluga koje pruža javni sektor i liberalnu regulaciju poslovnih aktivnosti. 70 Vladavinu prava bi možda trebalo potpunije definisati tako što terminima kao što su pravda, pravičnost, jednakost, ljudska prava, i sličnim, treba dodati i određenje da je njena glavna funkcija, kada je riječ o ekonomiji i pravu na privatno poduzetništvo, zaštita prava vlasništva, zaštita konkurencije i zaštita slobode razmjene dobara i usluga, što podrazumijeva svođenje na najmanju mjeru diskreciono odlučivanje države u sferi ekonomije, a što kao postupak najčešće ne vodi dovoljno računa o motivacijama, ličnom interesu i ličnoj koristi slobodnih pojedinaca, poduzetnika – velikih, srednjih i malih. 71 ZAKLJUČAK Ustav Bosne i Hercegovine u članu II. st. 1. propisuje da će Bosna i Hercegovina i oba entiteta osigurati najveći nivo međunarodno priznatih ljudskih prava i temeljnih sloboda. Nažalost, evidentan je raskorak između normativnog i zbiljskog. Kao što smo naprijed istakli, jasno je vidljiva velika razlika između proklamovanih prava i njihovog ostvarivanja. Na normativnom planu skoro da nije preostalo ništa što bi se moglo odnositi na zaštitu brojnih prava i sloboda. Ide se korak dalje, pa se štite životinje i biljke. Pokazatelj toga je prisustvo, u Anexu I Ustava BiH, međunarodnih konvencija koje se po slovu ustava neposredno primjenjuju u Bosni i Hercegovine. To je također nužno i znak je humanosti. Ali, ne možemo lahko preći preko činjenice da se danas mnoga ljudska prava krše i više nego prije. Masovno se krše elementarna lična i politička prava, a u pogledu ekonomskih, socijalnih ili kulturnih prava danas u svijetu ima oko deset miliona djece u ropskom položaju ili sličnom statusu, a mnogi i umiru od gladi. Rat kao najveća negacija ljudskih prava prisutan je i danas. Ovaj raskorak normativnog i zbiljskog najočitiji je na globalnom nivou, gdje možemo govoriti o krizi međunarodne zajednice i međunarodnog prava; i u malim i nerazvijenim državama u kojima postojeći oblik globalizacije državnu suverenost čini upitnom. S druge strane, najvišu razinu poštivanja ljudskih prava pokazuju suverene razvijene demokratije i na regionalnom planu takve države u okviru sistema Vijeća Evrope, odnosno Evropske Konvencije. 72 Narušavanje principa ustavnosti 73 i B. Begović et al., 196. Đ. Krstić, 564. 72 Z. Miljko, 173. 73 Princip ustavnosti, u užem, pravnom značenju podrazumijeva: 1. da zakone, u skladu sa principom podjele vlasti, utvrđene ustavom, donosi nadležni organ (zakonodavni organ), 2. 70 71 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 77 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić zakonitosti dovodi do poremećaja, ne samo u pravnom sistemu, već i u cjelokupnom društveno-političkom sistemu. U konkretnim odnosima to dovodi do nepovjerenja u vlast, u ustav i zakone što kao rezultat proizvodi moralnu krizu i haotične odnose u privrednom i političkom sistemu, odnosno dolazi do pravne nesigurnosti i vrlo nepovoljnih uslova za kvalitetno ostvarivanje prava na privatno poduzetništvo. 74 U oblasti ljudskih prava, kao i u pravu općenito, bitna je djelotvornost pravnog sistema. Vrlo važno je na normativnom planu zajamčiti ovu široku skalu do sada priznatih prava, ali još važnije je da se ta prava i ostvaruju u životu. Idealna situacija, vezana uz vladavinu prava, bila bi da je ponašanje svih subjekata u državi u skladu s ustavom i zakonom. Zbog činjenice da pravo tretira i normativni poredak koji kreira pravila ponašanja ljudi, pravo predviđa i njihova kršenja. To je neizbježni nesklad između normativnog i zbiljskog. 75 Koristeći iskustva razvijenih država možemo postaviti pitanje kako rješiti problem stalnog nastojanja pravnih subjekata, nosioca prava na privatno poduzetništvo, da na svaki mogući način „izbjegnu“ postupanje u skladu sa normativnim rješenjima. Naime, neki autori smatraju da je finansijsko kažnjavanje najbolji način „disciplinovanja“ privatnih poduzetnika u smjeru poštivanja postojećih normativnih okvira i poslovne etike. U smjeru ovakvog razumijevanja uvode se dva načina razumijevanja suštine i smisla zakona: zakon kao sankcija, zakon kao cijena 76. 77 Razmatrajući pitanje vladavine prava i pravne sigurnosti kao osnova za uspješan razvoj prava na privatno poduzetništvo ne smije se zapostaviti niti odgovornost privatnih poduzetnika koji također predstavljaju jednako važan faktor u optimalnom ostvarivanju postojećih normativnih rješenja što svima donosi benefite pravne sigurnosti i visokog poslovnog povjerenja kao vrlo bitnih uslova za ekonomski razvoj. Pristup izgradnji državnog i pravnog sistema sa stajališta uspješnog menadžmenta i poduzetništva zahtjeva praktičnu primjenu načela prema kojem da zakonodavni organ pri donošenju zakona poštuje ustavom predviđeni zakonodavni postupak i 3. da zakoni i drugi propisi sadržajno budu u skladu sa odrebama ustava. N. Pobrić, 454. 74 R. Kuzmanović, “Sudska kontrola ustavnosti i zakonitosti”, Srpska pravna misao, 2-4/94, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 1994., 13-14. 75 Z. Miljko, 173. 76 Vidjeti više o tome: K. Greenfield, The Failure of Corporate Law, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago&London 2006. 77 Ibid., 98. 78 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo država ne smije biti samo organizacija za provođenje vlasti nad građanima, već prije svega sistem koji im služi za uspješnije poslovanje i potpunije ostvarivanje interesa građana. Na temelju provjerenih iskustava razvijenih zapadnoevropskih zemalja, države u tranziciji moraju odrediti institucionalne okvire poduzetničkog ponašanja. Države u tranziciji trebaju osigurati pravne uslove za slobodu poduzetništva, za djelovanje vlasnički transformiranih poduzeća, i općenito, za obavljanje privrednih aktivnosti oslobođene sveregulirajuće uloge države, političkih stranaka i plana. Postojanje vladavine prava u državi temeljni je uslov uspješnog razvoja poduzetništva. Samo takva država može svojim građanima pružiti pravnu sigurnost potrebnu za uspješno poslovanje. Pravni sistem mora svakome osigurati jednake pravne uslove djelovanja, ali i spriječiti nelojalno ponašanje u tržišnoj utakmici kojim bi se ugrozilo pravo na privatno poduzetništvo. 78 Da bi vladavina prava svoju ulogu uspješno ostvarila, potrebno je zadovoljiti tri ključna zahtjeva: onemugućenje svakog arbitrarnog ponašanja vladajuće elite, što podrazumijeva da se zakoni ne smiju donositi ni u korist ni na štetu pojedinaca ili grupa; to dalje znači da su pred zakonom svi jednaki i da zakon garantuje jednak postupak prema svim građanima, dok sprovođenje zakona vrše nezavisni sudovi; i na kraju, potreban je precizno definisan postupak za smjenu vladajuće grupe putem demokratskih izbora. 79 Najvažniji ekonomski efekat ovako zamišljene vladavine prava predstavlja uspješno djelovanje ekonomskih sila i zakonitosti, a samim tim i postizanje višeg standarda života. Vladavina prava, zamišljena i definisana kao ukrotitelj arbitrarne državne vlasti omogućuje pojedincima da slijede sopstvene ciljeve koje sami sebi postavljaju, s tim što je glavni kriterij odlučivanja ekonomičnost troškova u odnosu na očekivanu dobit na slobodnom tržištu (što predstavlja glavno načelo i prednost individualističkog nad kolektivističkim pristupom). Nasuprot tome vladavina pojedinca, fizičkog ili pravnog lica, a ne vladavina zakona, znači nesputanu diskrecionu moć pojedinaca ili grupa da svoje ciljeve ostvaruju kroz mehanizam države, koristeći politiku kao postupak u kome su cijene i troškovi manje bitni jer se prebacuju na sve građane, na kolektiv, i ne snose ih sami inicijatori. Takav sistem članove društva lišava podsticaja i interesa da samostalno i na svoju odgovornost za eventualni neuspjeh učestvuju u prometu dobara i usluga. Ovakav pristup inicira i zahtijeva i neracionalno korištenje resursa i češće izmjene pravila ponašanja u ekonomskoj sferi 80 što nosi pravnu nestabilnost i I. Vajić (ur.), 18. Đ. Krstić, 561. 80 Ibid., 561-562. 78 79 Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 79 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić nesigurnost, uz nepoštivanja ekonomskih zakonitosti zbog čega u takvim uslovima pravo na privatno poduzetništvo nema odgovarajuće pravne uslove. Propisi su po svojoj prirodi apstraktni dok svaka praksa po svojoj vokaciji predstavlja konkretizaciju propisa tako da za vladavinu prava i pravnu sigurnost u jednoj zemlji nisu, poznata je istina, dovoljni samo dobri propisi, već je potrebna i njihova dobra primjena u sudskoj (arbitražnoj) i poslovnoj praksi. Zakon je dobar onoliko koliko se primjenjuje. 81 Sudska praksa ima izuzetno važnu ulogu u uklanjanju nesklada između normativnog i stvarnog. LITERATURA Knjige: B. Begović et al., Od siromaštva ka prosperitetu: Tržišna rješenja za privredni rast, JP Službeni glasnik, CLDS, Beograd 2009. I. Vajić (ur.), Menadžment i poduzetništvo, 1000 programa ulaganja za mala i srednja poduzeća, Centar za poduzetništvo, Mladost Zagreb, Zagreb 1994. K. Greenfield, The Failure of Corporate Law, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago&London 2006. K. Trnka, Ustavno pravo, Fakultet za javnu upravu Sarajevo, Sarajevo 2006. M. Jovičić, Ustav i ustavnost, Javno preduzeće „Službeni glasnik“- Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Beogradu, Beograd 2006. N. Ademović/J. Marko/G. Marković, Ustavno pravo Bosne i Hercegovine, Fondacija Konrad Adenauer e.V. Predstavništvo u Bosni i Hercegovini, Sarajevo 2012. N. Pobrić, Ustavno pravo, „Slovo“ Mostar, Mostar 2000. S. Međedović, Osnovi prava biznisa, Forum univerzitetskih nastavnika, Novi Pazar 2005. 81 M. Vasiljević, 22. 80 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu �Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo S. Moeckli, Politički sistem Švajcarske – Kako funkcioniše, ko učestvuje, čime rezultira, University Press-Magistrat izdanja-Politička kultura, Sarajevo-Zagreb 2010. Z. Meškić/D.Samardžić, Pravo Evropske unije I, TDP Sarajevo - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH – Otvoreni Regionalni Fond za jugoistočnu Evropu-Pravna reforma, Sarajevo 2012. Z. Miljko, Ustavno uređenje Bosne i Hercegovine, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada Zagreb, Zagreb 2006. Članci: A. Nikolajev, “Ekonomska analiza prava – nastanak, pojam i značaj”, Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta u Sarajevu, LV - 2012., Sarajevo 2012. B. Tramošljanin, „Pravna džava, principi i aspekti pravne države“, Godišnjak Pravnog fakulteta u Banjoj Luci, god.31. br.30, Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 2007. D. Čorić, „(Stvarna) Primena prava kao imperativ savremene države (sa osvrtom na tranzicione procese u Srbiji)“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu, Niš 2007. D. Jovičić, „Lična prava i slobode građana i njihovo ostvarivanje“, Srpska pravna misao, 1-4/2004-2005, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 2005. Đ. Krstić, “Vladavina prava i ekonomska delotvornost”, Pravni Život 12/11, Udruženje pravnika Srbije, Beograd 2011. I. Sferdian, „The absolutism of the property right“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu, Pravni fakultet u Nišu, Niš 2007. J. Nedić, “Određivanje osnovnih prava u pravnoj teoriji”, Srpska pravna misao, 24/94, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 1994. M. Simović, “Ustav kao osnovna norma u teoriji prava Hansa Kelzena”, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu XLVI/2005, Pravni fakultet u Nišu, Niš 2005. Centar za društvena istraživanja | Godina 1 | Broj1 81 �Sedad Dedić, Šukrija Bakšić M. Trajković, „O normativnosti prava Hansa Kelzena“, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu XLV/2004, Pravni fakultet, Niš 2004. M. Vasiljević, „Prilog raspravi o karakteru regulative kompanijskog prava“, Pravna riječ broj 16/2008, Udruženje pravnika Republike Srpske, Banja Luka 2008. R. Kuzmanović, “Sudska kontrola ustavnosti i zakonitosti”, Srpska pravna misao, 24/94, Pravni fakultet u Banja Luci, Centar za publikacije, Banja Luka 1994. S. Đorđević, “Pravni status Povelje o osnovnim pravima Evropske unije”, Zbornik radova Pravnog fakulteta u Nišu LVIII, Niš 2011. T. Crnkić, “Ravnopravan položaj sudske vlasti kao preduslov vladavine prava”, Pravna misao, god. XLII br.9-10., Federalno ministarstvo pravde, Zavod za javnu upravu, Sarajevo 2011. Z. Begić, “Opšta načela međunarodnog prava u ustavnom sistemu Bosne i Hercegovine”, ANALI Pravnog fakulteta Univerziteta u Zenici br. 9, god. 5., Pravni fakultet Univerziteta u Zenici, Zenica 2011. Internet-izvori: Evropska konvencija o ljudskim pravima, http://www.ombudsmen.gov.ba/materijali/o%20nama/Evropska%20konvencija%20 o%20ljudskim%20pravima%20i%20osnovnim%20slobodama.pdf (15. 07. 2011.) Pravni izvori: Official Journal of the European Union, C 83/389-403, 30. 03. 2010. 82 Društveni ogledi - Časopis za pravnu teoriju i praksu � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2365 Title A name given to the resource Constitutional Principle of the Rule of Law and the Right to Private Entrepreneurship Ustavni princip vladavine prava i pravo na privatno poduzetništvo Author Author DEDIĆ, Sedad BAKŠIĆ, Šukrija Abstract A summary of the resource. Abstract: The existance of a constitution which is realised in practical life, or rules with constitutional power and function in the form which is compatible with a concrete law space and the law tradition, that clearly define the the political actors and the rules of the political process and the realization of the rights and interests of citizens on the basis of constitutional principles of the rule of law, the existence of a legal state and legal certainty, presents one of most significant conditions for successful functioning and development of entrepreneurship in a contemporary society. The existence of private initiatives and private enterprises is closely connected to existence of the free market and protection of private property and economic freedom. The economic goals of the rule of law are reflected in the successful functioning of economic powers and economic rules, and therefore quality realization of the right to private enterprises and the ability to achieve a higher standard of living. The rule of law conceived and defined as arbitrary state power and arbitrary personal acts controller, which violate human rights, provide legal certainty and greater efficiency in economic activities. Nevertheless, the rule of law allows citizens to pursue their own economic goals, with the main criteria for making economical costs comparable and realistic to expected profits in the free market. In addition, the results of this kind of attitude should be eliminating legal and economic consequences which have negative influence on law certainty and economic development. Sažetak: Postojanje ustava koji se ostvaruje u praksi, odnosno normi sa ustavnom snagom i funkcijom, u formi karakterističnoj za određeni pravni prostor i pravnu tradiciju, kojim se jasno definišu akteri političkog života i pravila političkih procesa i ostvarivanje prava i interesa građana na temeljima ustavnog principa vladavine prava, postojanja pravne države i pravne sigurnosti predstavlja jedan od preduslova za funkcionisanje i razvoj privrede u savremenom svijetu. Adekvatno stimulisanje privatne inicijative i privatnog poduzetništva je usko povezano sa postojanjem slobodnog tržišta i zaštite prava vlasništva i ekonomskih sloboda. Ekonomski ciljevi vladavine prava ogledaju se u uspješnom djelovanju ekonomskih sila i zakonitosti, a samim tim i kvalitetnog ostvarivanja prava na privatno poduzetništvo i postizanje višeg standarda života građana. Vladavina prava, zamišljena i definisana, u svom suštinskom dijelu, kao kontrolor arbitrarne državne vlasti i samovolje pojedinaca koje narušavaju ostvarivanje prava drugih ljudi omogućava pravnu izvjesnost i veću efikasnost u privrednim aktivnostima. U tom smislu vladavina prava se može smatrati jednom od neophodnih pretpostavki koje građanima omogućava da slijede svoje ekonomske ciljeve, s tim što su glavni kriteriji odlučivanja realni ekonomski odnosi na slobodnom tržištu. Jedan od rezultata ovakvog koncepta treba biti i eliminisanje pravnih i privrednih konsekvenci koje negativno utiču na pravnu sigurnost i privredni razvoj. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available Social Sciences Research Center of International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-04 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2303-5706 H Social Sciences (General)