64 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2fac7945c69ca89330241346ffaad8e6.pdf a3f53a99691521c0f0d9d5adeb843a4c PDF Text Text Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile with Concrete Ferhat Aydın Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey ferhata@sakarya.edu.tr Mehmet Sarıbıyık Technology Faculty, Department of Civil Engineering, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey mehmets@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications. In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering applications. Keywords: Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic, Concrete, Hybrid structure, Compressive properties, Flexural properties Introduction The investigations on the technical development have been continuous on the new methodology and construction materials following to the technological development in the world. The limitation of classical construction materials can be overcome by using new technological materials. In the continuing quest for improved performance of structural materials, scientists and engineers strive to improve the traditional natures or produce completely new one. Composite materials are an example of the latter category. Within the past five decades there has been a rapid increase in the development of advanced composites incorporating fine fibres, termed fibre reinforced composites. Due to the high cost of metal and ceramic matrix composite materials, the majority of composites used in the construction industry are based on polymeric matrix materials. Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are formed by embedding continuous fibres in a resin matrix which binds the fibres together. Common fibres include carbon, glass, and aramid fibres while common resins are epoxy, polyester, and vinyl ester resins. The most widely used FRP composite is glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite which is a new generation of structural materials for civil engineering structures. The GFRP materials have been manufactured using Pultrusion method. In the Pultrusion method, a continuous E-glass fibre reinforcement in the form of alternate layers of randomly oriented mat and layers of unidirectional roving bundles are pulled through a resin impregnator and then on through a heated die to form continuous prismatic members similar in geometry to those produced by the steel industry as seen Figure 1. 44 �Figure 1. Examples of Pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005) Pultruded GFRP profiles have great potential as construction materials, presenting several advantages when compared with traditional materials, related to the higher strength to weight ratio, the lower self-weight, the electromagnetic transparency, the possibility of being produced with any crosssection geometry, the easier installation, the lower maintenance requirements and the improved durability under aggressive environments (Karbhari and Seible, 1999, Keller, 2002). The construction industry appears to be gradually recognizing the additional benefits offered by these materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as secondary and primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications (see Figure 2). Figure 2. Examples of structure constructed using pultruded GFRP profiles (www.strongwell.com. 2005) GFRP profiles have been used in the buildings that exposed to the negative effect of the sea and chemicals. GFRP materials also used in hybrid bridges and soil improvement systems. GFRP–concrete hybrid elements have also been developed for new structural systems, combining the directional behaviour, the lightness and the high mechanical performance of GFRP pultruded profiles with the concrete 45 �compressive strength. The use of concrete-filled fibre reinforced tubes has been used in piles for maritime structures. The concept of hybrid system was first introduced for bridge systems (Seible, 1996). Preliminary studies, however, have shown that the design of concrete filled FRP tube bridge girders is stiffness driven, and that material strength may not be fully utilized. While concrete resists compression and prevents the failure of the tube due to instability phenomena, the FRP element confines the concrete, contributing to a strength and ductility increase, and protection from aggressive environment (Snow, 1999). The results from the tests showed that it is possible to manufacture a fibre reinforced plastic hybrid beam with concrete that can have excellent stiffness and be able to bear heavy loads (Nordin and Taljstena, 2004). The alternative use of GFRP pultruded profiles in GFRP–concrete hybrid structural elements has a very interesting potential. Compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated to use in construction system to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in engineering applications. The study focused on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles. Compressive Tests Three different groups (C20, C30 and C40) of concrete using Ordinary Portland Cement washed river sand and crashed aggregate were used in manufacturing the specimens. All specimens were made from the same delivery of materials (sand, aggregate and cement) and similar manufacturing and curing procedures were adopted throughout the test program. Concrete and concrete filled GFRP cube specimens in three groups with six specimens in each groups, concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness of 4 mm and cross-section of 100x100 mm GFRP box profile were used to produce concrete filled specimens (see Figure 3). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in cube mould and the remainder was filled in GFRP profiles. The specimens were kept in the water for 28 days and then tested to determine compressive strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN 12390-3, 2002). Average compressive strength and unit weight values are presented in Table 1. Figure 3: Samples of Compressive Tests 46 �Sample Concrete Class Unit Weight (gr/cm3) Ultimate Load (N) Plain Concrete C 20 2.33 272383 Compressive Strength (N/mm2) 27 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 20 2.21 328450 33 Plain Concrete C 30 2.37 393250 39 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 30 2.27 430480 43 Plain Concrete C 40 2.41 479816 48 Concrete filled GFRP Profiles C 40 2.19 532817 53 Table 1: Results of Compression Tests Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. Comparisons between plain concrete and concrete- filled GFRP profiles average values are given in Figure 4. However; compressive tests outcomes of C30 and C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher strength when compared with plain concrete as seen in Figures 5 and 6. Unit weight of concrete was reduced about 10% as seen in Table 1. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the compressive strength in three different concrete classes. The outcomes showed that increases of concrete quality reduce the effect of GFRP profiles. In addition; failure patterns of concrete filled GFRP profile were examined. Test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner as seen in Figure 7. Figure 4: Compression results of C20 concrete samples 47 �Figure 5: Compression results of C30 concrete samples Figure 6: Compression results of C40 concrete samples 48 �Figure 7: Concrete filled GFRP samples failure pattern Flexure Tests Concrete and concrete filled GFRP bending specimens in three groups (C20, C30 and C40) concrete classes were prepared according to the Turkish Standard (TSE 802, 1985). Wall thickness of 4 mm and cross-section of 74x74 mm length of 500 mm (beam’s span 400 mm) GFRP box profile were used to produce concrete filled bending specimens (see Figure 8). Portions of fresh mixed concrete were filled in GFRP box section and remainder was filled in same size of mould. The specimens were kept in the water for 28 days and then tested to determine bending strength according to the Turkish Standard (TS EN 12390-5, 2002). Three point bending tests were performed using universal tensile test machine as shown in Figure 9. Deflection of plain concrete, plain GFRP box section and concrete filled GFRP profile were recorded to determine the relative bending of the specimens. The load cell and LVDTs were connected to a PC via a signal conditioning unit. Measurements were taken at five intervals giving approximately 150 sets of measurements per test. Figure 8: Samples of Flexure Tests 49 �Figure 9: Flexure Test with Concrete Filled GFRP Box Profile After experiments in the load-deflection graphs are formed and the bending strength values of all samples were calculated by the equation 1. The obtained results have been compared to each with others. Average bending load and bending strength values are presented in Table 2. M×y (1) I Where; σ is bending strength, M is bending moment, I is moment of inertia and y is neutral axis distance. σ= Bending Strength (N/mm2) Plain Concrete Ultimate Load (kN) 4.84 Box Profile 11.70 47.17 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 20) 19.45 28.79 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 30) 19.07 28.23 Concrete Filled GFRP Profiles (C 40) 21.15 31.31 Sample 7.17 Table 2: Results of Flexure Tests Tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about four times and two times higher values when compared with plain concrete and plain GFRP box section respectively. Comparisons between plain concrete, plain GFRP and concrete- filled GFRP profiles loaddeflection graphs are given in Figure 10-12. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the bending load capacity in three different concrete classes. In addition; the GFRP box section protects the concrete and the filled concrete defends the local failure of GFRP profile. Test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner as similar as compressive samples as seen in Figure 13. 50 �Figure 10: Comparison between beam samples in C20 compressive strength Figure 11: Comparison between beam samples in C30 compressive strength 51 �Figure 12: Comparison between beam samples in C40 compressive strength Figure 13: Beam Sample after Flexure Test Conclusions High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Research activities have been taken in order to produce more effective constructions materials using hybrid use of pultruded GFRP and concrete. Compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles. The outcomes demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles will be used engineering applications. With respect to the experimental behaviour, the following conclusions have been drawn: • Compressive tests outcomes of C20 class specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 22% higher strength when compared with plain concrete. The tests outcomes of C30 and 52 �• C40 class’s specimens showed that the strength of concrete-filled GFRP has about 10% higher when compared with plain concrete. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the compressive strength. Bending tests outcomes of specimens showed that the bending load of concrete-filled GFRP has about four times higher values when compared with plain concrete and two times higher than plain GFRP box section. The results showed that the hybrid use of GFRP with concrete increased the bending load capacity in all concrete classes. GFRP box section protects the concrete and the filled concrete protects the local failure of GFRP profile. • Compressive and bending test results showed that all samples were broken from the corner of pultruded GFRP box profiles. • There are several structural advantages of hybrid use of pultruded GFRP profiles with concrete, including the increase of the flexural stiffness, reducing the structures deformability, and the increase of the structures strength capacity, and preventing the local failure of the GFRP profiles. References Nordin H.& Taljstena B. (2004). Testing of hybrid FRP composite beams in bending. Composites: Part B 35 (27–33) Karbhari VM. & Seible F. (1999). Fiber-reinforced polymer composites for civil infrastructure in the USA. Struct Eng Int, IABSE 1999;9(4):274–7. Keller T. (2002). Fibre reinforced polymer materials in bridge construction. In: Towards a better built environment— innovation, sustainability, information technology, IABSE Symposium, Melbourne (CD-Rom). Snow RK. (1999). Encapsulation: protecting concrete piles in marine environments. Concr Int, ACI 21(12):33–8. TS EN 12390-3. (2003). Testing hardened concrete - Part 3 : Compressive strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara TS EN 12390-5. (2002). Testing hardened concrete - Part 5: Flexural strength of test specimens, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara TS 802. (1985). Design Concrete Mixes, Türk Standardları Enstitüsü, Ankara www.strongwell.com. (2005). web page of Strongwell Company 53 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 328 Title A name given to the resource Compressive and Flexural Behavior of Hybrid Use of GFRP Profile with Concrete Author Author Aydın, Ferhat Sarıbıyık, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Research activities have been taking on place for new construction materials in order to produce more effective constructions. One of the new technological materials is Pultruded Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) materials. High tensile strength, lightweight and non-corrosive properties allowed GFRP to become a competitive alternative to traditional structural materials. Having resolved fundamental manufacturing constraints through the development of the pultrusion process, the mass adaptation of GFRP sections as primary load bearing elements have been used in a number of civil engineering applications. In this study; compressive strength and flexural properties of hybrid use of GFRP profile with concrete have been investigated. The tests applied on the specimens including plain concrete, GFRP box profiles and concrete filled GFRP profiles to demonstrate the advantages and importance of GFRP profiles used in civil engineering applications. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b2f513586101058bffa95e70051368c8.pdf 4ed6ee26b910b832288c497382da9f84 PDF Text Text CONCEPT FOR UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK FOR CROATIAN STUDENTS (IN TERMS OF LEARNING A CLOSELY RELATED LANGUAGE) Lesya Petrovska & Ana Dugandžić Taras Shevchenko University, Ukraine & University of Zagreb, Croatia Article History: Submitted: 09.06.2015 Accepted: 29.06.2015 Abstract: In creating textbooks and course books for foreign language education, the starting point is the goal of learning the language – language acquisition either on the level of communication skills for specific purposes (business or daily), or as part of the process of training philology specialists, or more specifically, linguistics specialists. In this, among other factors, authors should take into account the ethno-linguistic characteristics of the audience, so the training process should be organised differently for groups of students who study a language closely related to their native language. In studying a closely related language, a variety of phenomena is observed, such as, for example, interference, cross-language homonymy, the fact that ability to perceive and understand a foreign language always outweighs the ability to reproduce material, etc. These points are important to consider when preparing textbooks and course books, and they should be reflected in the selection of lexical material and presentation of grammar. Existing textbooks for learning Ukrainian as a foreign language are mainly not designed for a Slavic languages-speaking audience, which makes the process of training specialists in Ukrainian in Slavic countries more difficult. On the other hand, the methods of organising the material in a textbook and its structure should be designed for philology students and therefore should feature a complex and comprehensive presentation of the language material and combine various methods of teaching. We propose the principles we follow in creating a textbook for learning Ukrainian designed for Croatian students whose primary field of study is the Ukrainian language. �Key words: teaching methodology, closely related languages, communication skills, teacher’s role, philology students �1 Introduction Ukrainian language studies at the University of Zagreb have a long and strong tradition. However, one of the constant tasks is to improve the effectiveness of training specialists in Ukrainian as future translators, teachers, and in broader terms – Slavic philologists with a high level of expertise. In classes, there is an obvious lack of appropriate teaching materials, handbooks and textbooks that could best meet the students’ needs. 2 The objective of this paper is to lay down for consideration and discussion the conceptual principles of such a textbook, its main characteristics, structure and methodology that are built into its basis. 3 Specific characteristics of materials used in teaching Ukrainian. In working with students whose field of study is a foreign language, special textbooks are commonly used, developed for the purpose of acquiring the language at the appropriate level, as well as grammar books, dictionaries and other academic publications that enable a deeper and more detailed study and research of certain linguistic phenomena. The existing textbooks of Ukrainian for foreigners partially cover our needs. In particular, teachers in our department use in their work Ukrainian language textbooks designed for foreigners who are not speakers of Slavic languages (Zhluktenko, Ju. O., & Toc’ka, N. I. (1973). Pidruchnyk ukrajins’koji movy. Kyjiv.; Zajchenko, N. F., & Vorobjova, S. A. (2004). Praktychnyj kurs ukrajins’koji movy dl’a inozemciv: usne movlenn’a. Kyjiv.; Jeshchenko, N.O. (Bojchenko) (2010). Praktychnyj kurs ukrajins'koji movy: usne movlennja. Navchaljnyj posibnyk dlja inozemnyh studentiv; Palins'ka, O., & Turkevych, O. (2011) Krok-1(ukrajins'ka mova jak inozemna). L'viv), and among the existing textbooks that take into account the needs of speakers of related languages, there are only those designed for students who speak Russian. Therefore, it is necessary to create a textbook that would successfully combine approaches to teaching Ukrainian for “distant” and “close” foreigners. In addition, the textbooks mentioned are designed to help students master Ukrainian in order to develop active communication skills and to master grammar structures, or for specific professional purposes (for example, foreign students learning Ukrainian at a basic level to be able to study at other, non- philological faculties in the Ukraine – medical, technical, natural sciences, �etc.). This approach, which can roughly be referred to as “communicative”, is generally prevalent in modern foreign language teaching, although it is not fully appropriate for philology students. In this case, the foreign language itself becomes the object of students’ study. Accordingly, students must not only develop the skills of expressing themselves in the foreign language (“surface” knowledge), but also understand the core of the language and linguistic phenomena (“deep” knowledge of the foreign language). Therefore, if we talk about training linguists in broader terms, we should use the “conceptual and functional” approach to teaching, and to the preparation of textbooks (Jarmak, 2001), since the training of philology students involves the introduction of a strong theoretical basis with numerous exercises. The aim of teaching in this case is to train expert philologists; they should gradually acquire both grammar and orthography, have a wide vocabulary and the ability to express themselves and even to “think” in the foreign language, i.e. acquire the cultural image behind the words. Hence, all language levels, and preferably in aspects that are as broad as possible, should be taken into account. Accordingly, in considering what exactly the kind of the textbook required is, it should be noted that this is a textbook for 1) philology students for whom the Ukrainian language is the major field of study, and 2) students who study a closely related language. To solve this problem, our goal was to prepare a Ukrainian language textbook for students studying Ukrainian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Zagreb, which would fit the education needs of philology students. The planned textbook is designed for students of the 1st and 2nd years of study, and is intended to be used during 4 semesters – the time required for a more or less full basic mastering of the language studied. 4 Conceptual principles The first of the conceptual principles in the Ukrainian textbook preparation is its focus on the professional education of philologists. This means that the presentation of material will cover the conceptual instruments and categories the philology students should know. Therefore, it is our task to prepare a textbook that would: - propose lexical and grammar material in accordance with the professional level of students; �- develop active language skills that ultimately form linguistic knowledge; - develop skills of appropriate language use depending on communicative situations; - fully cover the basic Ukrainian grammar system; - include wide but systematically framed lexical material, the mastering of which would allow students to freely use texts (both oral and written), in most everyday situations and in special texts, that is, which would constitute the basis for the further expansion of the lexical fund and the deepening of vocabulary in highly specialised fields; - contain a sufficient amount of exercises and practical tasks, which will provide a good drill and mastering of lexical and grammar structures at the appropriate level; - include a sufficient amount of texts related to the culture, history and geography of the country, etc., which are an obligatory component in the formation of professional competence of specialists in a foreign language (and beyond: in literature and culture). Therefore, this would be a single integrative foreign language textbook, which would develop various language skills in students, at the levels of both understanding and expression (Kljuchkovs'ka, 2009). 5 Textbook structure The overall textbook material can be divided into two parts: a) the beginners level, intended for the first two semesters of the language study, which would include grammar and lexical structures that allow students to express themselves grammatically correctly in basic everyday situations, and be able to construct simple syntactic structures (this refers to the knowledge of all cases, their forms and basic functions in a sentence, basic grammatical categories of verbs, such as tense and aspect, etc.); and b) the intermediate level that would continue the expansion of linguistic knowledge, building on the already acquired material, which will allow students to construct syntactically and lexically more complex structures (for example, the emphasis on individual case functions, verb categories such as aspect, voice, certain rules of word formation, etc.) The textbook consists of the main book and a workbook with exercises accompanying each unit. In considering the structure of the main part, we concluded that it is most appropriate to divide it into units (not lessons), each of which includes: 1) the main text; �2) vocabulary from the text with translations into Croatian; 3) orthoepy and orthography rules with exercises; 4) grammar rules and exercises; 5) speech structures; 6) lexical, grammar and communicative exercises; 7) translation exercises; 8) additional material for optional work (or self-study). More precisely, the main text should include lexical tools for a certain lexical topic (e.g., “family”, “house”, “food”, “clothing”, etc.). The text should also take into account the grammar structures dealt with in the unit, and repeat them several times, but it should not be loaded with other structures that are unknown to the student at this stage of language learning. However, it should be noted that such forms are allowed, as well as more complex structures. After all, the speakers of Croatian will more or less understand the majority of Ukrainian grammar forms from the context. For example, for students whose native language is Croatian, the meaning and grammatical characteristics of the Ukrainian sentence: “Я буду читати” should be clearly understandable already at the beginning of learning the language, without indicating that this is the future tense form of the verb (as in similar structures Вона читала – past tense; Ми пишемо – present tense), while for students who are native speakers of e.g. English or German, the introduction of such structures without explanation and multiple repetitions will aggravate understanding. Therefore, we allow the inclusion of more complex texts already at the initial stage of language learning compared to the texts in Ukrainian language textbooks for foreigners that are currently available. Croatian students will understand most material from the context, and more complex structures or complicated words are accompanied with comments or direct translation into Croatian. Therefore, students will immediately be provided with the entire logically complete text, expand their vocabulary more intensively and acquire expression skills more quickly. To this end, it seems appropriate to provide some additional vocabulary after the text that is related to the topic. A set of phonetic and orthography exercises is introduced to develop the skills of correct pronunciation of Ukrainian language sounds and stress. It should be noted that accentuation rules �are one of the main problems for Croatians who learn Ukrainian due to fundamental accentuation differences, whether it is the understanding of the nature of stress as a linguistic phenomenon, or mastering the Ukrainian “floating” stress. Special attention is paid to the pronunciation of certain sounds, especially those absent in Croatian, such as /г/, differences in pronunciation of hard and soft consonants, etc. We consider it useful to include exercises of expressive reading, tongue-twisters, etc. in phonetic exercises. Croatian students used to the Latin alphabet need orthography exercises primarily because of the different graphical system. Therefore, such exercises will enable a faster development of correct writing skills in Cyrillic. In addition, they will also help them master certain features of Ukrainian orthography, such as the apostrophe and the specific rules of its use, the implementation of morphological orthographic principle to a greater extent than in Croatian, change of sounds, etc. Grammar rules should be presented sufficiently broadly and comprehensively and must take into account similarities and differences of certain grammar forms in the foreign and native languages. For example, we believe that each case should be dealt with individually, not in the paradigm or declination. In this way, what is equal and different in the two languages is better observed – functions of cases in the sentence, specific formal forms, and links with verbs are taken into account, as is the presence of prepositions in structures. For example, 1st year students often make mistakes in the instrumental case, which, in addition to almost identical endings for masculine and neuter, has different endings for the feminine: masc. studentom=студентом, učiteljem=учителем, neutr. selom=селом, suncem=сонцем, but femin. sestrom–сестрою (not *сестром). Frequently there will also be errors in selecting the correct case in structures such as торт з малиною (instr.) – сік з малини (gen.), because in Ukrainian the same preposition is used with different cases (compared to Croatian – s čime instr. // od čega gen.). Special attention is given to certain verb categories, for example, reflexive verbs: differences in forms but also in expressing the reflexive category itself. In some cases a Ukrainian reflexive verb corresponds to a non-reflexive verb in Croatian (uživati u čemu – насолоджуватися чим, koristiti što – користуватися чим). To the same end, i.e. in order to detect differences between the two languages, we include �translation exercises from Croatian into Ukrainian, which also help understand, raise awareness of the differences between the native and the foreign language, in addition to, of course, contributing to the acquisition of translation skills. In the translation exercises students can visualise the characteristics of meaning, the nuances of the semantic structure of lexemes. Thus, it is appropriate to include exercises that would provide for the selection of several translation variants, search for synonyms (in foreign and native languages), and translation exercises containing proper names (especially toponyms). This is why lexical material is so important in the process of selecting material for the preparation of exercises. These are the words and phrases which represent the core of the language itself, but at the same time they are the basis for practising grammar structures. As for vocabulary, it should be noted and emphasised that closely related languages in their vocabularies have a large number of the same or similar words in terms of pronunciation and semantics. In the process of language learning, this phenomenon is at the same time facilitating and aggravating: on the one hand, it makes it easier to understand and master the language faster, but on the other hand it is often confusing (at the level of understanding if the same pronunciation has different meanings, the so-called cross-language homonymy; at the level of expression it can create a habit among students to use Croatian words, phonetically and morphologically adapted to the Ukrainian language, which is quite often the case, from our experience, for example *ормарик for ormarić, or *піджама for pidžama, etc.). By speech structures we mean various formulas, phrases typical of certain communicative situations that are introduced into example dialogues. These exercises are primarily intended for the acquisition of speaking skills which are the primary task for anyone who learns a foreign language. Such structures should take into account the different communication tonalities, both the formal, characteristic of official communication, and the purely conversational, typical of everyday situations, and even some forms of slang, since a philologist as a foreign language specialist should master the clear stylistic differentiation and have the ability to select linguistic resources in accordance with actual communicative situations. Therefore the use of multi-style language material in foreign language learning helps to achieve a more successful professional communication. Developed communicative exercises help the teacher to create communicative situations �that encourage students to speak actively. This is facilitated by dialogue exercises, as well as games (e.g., role-playing). We consider it appropriate to include in the structure of each unit additional material for optional use, or for self-study. These can be literary texts related to the topic learned (lexically or grammatically), or folk poetry, non-fiction texts, advertisements, jokes, etc., accompanied by exercises for individual work (e.g. “Answer the questions...”, “True or false?” – exercises to check understanding; “Write down synonyms/antonyms...”, “Write the meaning of words/idioms” – vocabulary exercises, etc.). Such or similar material is preferred in foreign language study, as it contributes to faster progress in learning. Therefore, its inclusion in the textbook facilitates primarily the work of the teacher as it builds on the vocabulary and grammar structures learned within the units. 6 As the conclusion, it should be pointed out that in teaching a foreign language to philology students a textbook is needed with the informative, developing, communicative, motivating, systematising and formative, in addition to instructive and control functions, i.e. a textbook that would “integrate” in its structure several aspects of training language professionals. �References: Jarmak, V. (2001). Aktuelni metodološki problemi nastave srpskog jezika kao stranog za studente početnike u Ukrajini. Slavistika, pp. 245 – 255. Beograd. Kljuchkovs'ka, I. (2009). Osnovy koncepciji integratyvnogo pidruchnyka z ukrajins'koji movy jak inozemnoji. Theory and practice of teaching Ukrainian as a foreign language, No. 4. pp 45-50 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2916 Title A name given to the resource CONCEPT FOR UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE TEXTBOOK FOR CROATIAN STUDENTS (IN TERMS OF LEARNING A CLOSELY RELATED LANGUAGE) Author Author Petrovska, Lesya Dugandžić, Ana Abstract A summary of the resource. In creating textbooks and course books for foreign language education, the starting point is the goal of learning the language – language acquisition either on the level of communication skills for specific purposes (business or daily), or as part of the process of training philology specialists, or more specifically, linguistics specialists. In this, among other factors, authors should take into account the ethno-linguistic characteristics of the audience, so the training process should be organised differently for groups of students who study a language closely related to their native language. In studying a closely related language, a variety of phenomena is observed, such as, for example, interference, cross-language homonymy, the fact that ability to perceive and understand a foreign language always outweighs the ability to reproduce material, etc. These points are important to consider when preparing textbooks and course books, and they should be reflected in the selection of lexical material and presentation of grammar. Existing textbooks for learning Ukrainian as a foreign language are mainly not designed for a Slavic languages-speaking audience, which makes the process of training specialists in Ukrainian in Slavic countries more difficult. On the other hand, the methods of organising the material in a textbook and its structure should be designed for philology students and therefore should feature a complex and comprehensive presentation of the language material and combine various methods of teaching. We propose the principles we follow in creating a textbook for learning Ukrainian designed for Croatian students whose primary field of study is the Ukrainian language. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-09 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2757 Title A name given to the resource Concept of Environment, Health and Energy Systems in Turkey Author Author ALPARSLAN, Mustafa CULHA, Turk AKSOY, Fatih BARIS OZALP, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Since the Chernobyl disaster in the Black Sea region, it has been understood that environmental problems are not restricted to the countries of their origin. Research has shown that international attention given to the Mediterranean Sea has generated a more positive impact on environmental protection, as com-pared to that of the Black Sea. Industrialization around the Black Sea during the Cold War, a lack of international attention for long decades, and the region’s position since the Second World War as a crucial hub for the transport of the energy produced by Caucasian and Black Sea littoral countries to the energy consuming countries in Europe aggravated the environmental situation in the region. Pollutants created by chemical industries and oil leaking from tankers have caused a decrease in biological diversity. Thus, increased pollution in the sea en-tered the agendas of governmental and non-governmental international/regional organizations and individual states in the last two decades. Unfortunately, after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the main priorities of the newly independent states included neither an increase of biological diver-sity nor a decrease in pollution. As the regional states put their efforts into competing in the international liberal market, they focused on increasing industrialization, trade and economic ties with the energy demanding countries. There are ten wind farms mainly on land clustered together in the west of the country and in the Aegean region, including in Çanakkale, close to the site of ancient Troy, Çeşme, Akhisar and on the island of Bozcaada. Wind powe in Turkey is gradually expanding in capacity. In 2006, 19 MW of wind power was installed, and in 2007, installed wind capacity increased to almost 140 MW. Turkey is set to double the amount of its electricity supplied by wind power with the construction of a wind farm in southeast Turkey which will have an installed capacity of 135 megawatts (MW) when it is completed in 2009. This very important project will use 52 of the latest generation of turbines from GE Energy, each rated at 2.5 MW.] Installed wind power is expected to reach 808.81 MW by the end of 2008.Wind energy potential for Turkey is 58GW. The European Wind Energy Association stated that installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2009 was 801 MW. A total of 343 MW of capacity was installed in 2009. According to Official Transmission Reports, installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2010 has increased to 1265 MW. The installed capacity is specified as 1645,30 MW by October, 2011 by the same reports. At the end of 2012 there will be over 80 windfarms in Turkey. At the end of 2012 Turkey will have 2 GWs of installed capacity. The Turkish government has a target of a 20 times increase in wind capacity by 2020. Keywords: environment, renewable energy, chernobyl disaster Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014-06 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233 - 0054 T Technology (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fea0cae1404b5b16bcda4fbeda6005b0.docx e5d95b5adb2d626db377204700c7c1af https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e96114614c5c10c78a19c979cd43b67e.pdf 1d0104be3a44c83c0db832615fa42036 PDF Text Text CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND ENERGY SYSTEMS IN TURKEY Mustafa Alparslan Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Izmir, Turkey m_alparslan@hotmail.com Saniye Türk Çulha Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Izmir, Turkey saniye.turk.culha@ikc.edu.tr Fatih Aksoy Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Izmir, Turkey fatih.aksoy@ikc.edu.tr Hasan Barış Özalp Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey jacenzo@yahoo.com Keywords: Environment, Renewable Energy, Chernobyl Disaster ABSTRACT Since the Chernobyl disaster in the Black Sea region, it has been understood that environmental problems are not restricted to the countries of their origin. Research has shown that international attention given to the Mediterranean Sea has generated a more positive impact on environmental protection, as com-pared to that of the Black Sea. Industrialization around the Black Sea during the Cold War, a lack of international attention for long decades, and the region’s position since the Second World War as a crucial hub for the transport of the energy produced by Caucasian and Black Sea littoral countries to the energy consuming countries in Europe aggravated the environmental situation in the region. Pollutants created by chemical industries and oil leaking from tankers have caused a decrease in biological diversity. Thus, increased pollution in the sea en-tered the agendas of governmental and non-governmental international/regional organizations and individual states in the last two decades. Unfortunately, after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the main priorities of the newly independent states included neither an increase of biological diver-sity nor a decrease in pollution. As the regional states put their efforts into competing in the international liberal market, they focused on increasing industrialization, trade and economic ties with the energy demanding countries. There are ten wind farms mainly on land clustered together in the west of the country and in the Aegean region, including in Çanakkale, close to the site of ancient Troy, Çeşme, Akhisar and on the island of Bozcaada. Wind powe in Turkey is gradually expanding in capacity. In 2006, 19 MW of wind power was installed, and in 2007, installed wind capacity increased to almost 140 MW. Turkey is set to double the amount of its electricity supplied by wind power with the construction of a wind farm in southeast Turkey which will have an installed capacity of 135 megawatts (MW) when it is completed in 2009. This very important project will use 52 of the latest generation of turbines from GE Energy, each rated at 2.5 MW. Installed wind power is expected �to reach 808.81 MW by the end of 2008.Wind energy potential for Turkey is 58GW. The European Wind Energy Association stated that installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2009 was 801 MW. A total of 343 MW of capacity was installed in 2009. According to Official Transmission Reports, installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2010 has increased to 1265 MW. The installed capacity is specified as 1645,30 MW by October, 2011 by the same reports. At the end of 2012 there will be over 80 windfarms in Turkey. At the end of 2012 Turkey will have 2 GWs of installed capacity. The Turkish government has a target of a 20 times increase in wind capacity by 2020. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2137 Title A name given to the resource CONCEPT OF ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND ENERGY SYSTEMS IN TURKEY Author Author ALPARSLAN, Mustafa TURK CULHA, Saniye AKSOY, Fatih BARIS OZALP, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. Keywords: Environment, Renewable Energy, Chernobyl Disaster ABSTRACT Since the Chernobyl disaster in the Black Sea region, it has been understood that environmental problems are not restricted to the countries of their origin. Research has shown that international attention given to the Mediterranean Sea has generated a more positive impact on environmental protection, as com-pared to that of the Black Sea. Industrialization around the Black Sea during the Cold War, a lack of international attention for long decades, and the region’s position since the Second World War as a crucial hub for the transport of the energy produced by Caucasian and Black Sea littoral countries to the energy consuming countries in Europe aggravated the environmental situation in the region. Pollutants created by chemical industries and oil leaking from tankers have caused a decrease in biological diversity. Thus, increased pollution in the sea en-tered the agendas of governmental and non-governmental international/regional organizations and individual states in the last two decades. Unfortunately, after the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the main priorities of the newly independent states included neither an increase of biological diver-sity nor a decrease in pollution. As the regional states put their efforts into competing in the international liberal market, they focused on increasing industrialization, trade and economic ties with the energy demanding countries. There are ten wind farms mainly on land clustered together in the west of the country and in the Aegean region, including in Çanakkale, close to the site of ancient Troy, Çeşme, Akhisar and on the island of Bozcaada. Wind powe in Turkey is gradually expanding in capacity. In 2006, 19 MW of wind power was installed, and in 2007, installed wind capacity increased to almost 140 MW. Turkey is set to double the amount of its electricity supplied by wind power with the construction of a wind farm in southeast Turkey which will have an installed capacity of 135 megawatts (MW) when it is completed in 2009. This very important project will use 52 of the latest generation of turbines from GE Energy, each rated at 2.5 MW. Installed wind power is expected to reach 808.81 MW by the end of 2008.Wind energy potential for Turkey is 58GW. The European Wind Energy Association stated that installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2009 was 801 MW. A total of 343 MW of capacity was installed in 2009. According to Official Transmission Reports, installed wind power capacity in Turkey at the end of 2010 has increased to 1265 MW. The installed capacity is specified as 1645,30 MW by October, 2011 by the same reports. At the end of 2012 there will be over 80 windfarms in Turkey. At the end of 2012 Turkey will have 2 GWs of installed capacity. The Turkish government has a target of a 20 times increase in wind capacity by 2020. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-24 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed Identifier An unambiguous reference to the resource within a given context ISSN 2233-1565 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/05fe0e3fcb4d4528cb0a701bc3d7c75c.docx 2414c35c9f2494c19ff0354fcacac99b https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a490618c4935819316c17a87eb0d0af2.pdf 9faf2a6d20d0061e58fcc427fe807603 PDF Text Text Concepts and Conceptual Categories Used in Children's Short Stories N.Tayyibe Eken Aksaray University/ Aksaray,Turkey Key words: language acquisition, conceptual categories, lexical classification ABSTRACT One cannot deny the fact that words and concepts are inseperable components of language acquisition. Examining words and conceptual categories gives information about language acquisition and development. In this sense conceptual constructions of the texts used in language development and preschool education have been examined. One of the conceptual classifications in the language acquisition literature is suggested by Clark (1995). This theory is used in the present study. Vocabulary development in the mother tongue occurs by means of spoken and written texts that children are exposed to. Children see written texts via their parents in the language acquisition process. Types of these texts can be diversified. In this context this study is aimed to categorize concepts in the children’s stories which are one of the visual educational materials and to reach the principle findings about lexical hierarchy. The study is mainly based on indirect observation, content analysis and statistical analysis. Data of the study consist of 20 stories for 5;0+ year-old children. Lexical data were transcribed and compiled using Microsoft Excel and then all vocabulary lists were analysed/categorised according to Clark‘s classification (1995). In the light of the foregoing information, the research questions are: • What are the frequency levels of conceptual categories in children’s short stories? • What are the frequency levels of conceptual subcategories in children’s short stories? Findings gained from the database of this study are as follows: • There are 4606 words in all stories’ database, 1606 of which are nouns, the most used category. • The category of verbs is the second most used category. Verbal categories were divided into two subcategories: states and acts. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1913 Title A name given to the resource Concepts and Conceptual Categories Used in Children's Short Stories Author Author EKEN, N.Tayyibe Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: language acquisition, conceptual categories, lexical classification ABSTRACT One cannot deny the fact that words and concepts are inseperable components of language acquisition. Examining words and conceptual categories gives information about language acquisition and development. In this sense conceptual constructions of the texts used in language development and preschool education have been examined. One of the conceptual classifications in the language acquisition literature is suggested by Clark (1995). This theory is used in the present study. Vocabulary development in the mother tongue occurs by means of spoken and written texts that children are exposed to. Children see written texts via their parents in the language acquisition process. Types of these texts can be diversified. In this context this study is aimed to categorize concepts in the children’s stories which are one of the visual educational materials and to reach the principle findings about lexical hierarchy. The study is mainly based on indirect observation, content analysis and statistical analysis. Data of the study consist of 20 stories for 5;0+ year-old children. Lexical data were transcribed and compiled using Microsoft Excel and then all vocabulary lists were analysed/categorised according to Clark‘s classification (1995). In the light of the foregoing information, the research questions are: • What are the frequency levels of conceptual categories in children’s short stories? • What are the frequency levels of conceptual subcategories in children’s short stories? Findings gained from the database of this study are as follows: • There are 4606 words in all stories’ database, 1606 of which are nouns, the most used category. • The category of verbs is the second most used category. Verbal categories were divided into two subcategories: states and acts. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/fb32c6dea4cd08dbe198d7df5a4219b6.pdf a9108b186e492ed5e5c5f0ba28c40f96 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Gabriela Tucan West University Timisoara, Romania Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 10.11.2014. Abstract Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. 99 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Introduction In the exceptional and emotionally charged story of his autobiographical memoir, Joseph Anton, Salman Rushdie (2012) fights the crucial battle for writer’s freedom and – at all costs – for freedom of speech. He instructs us that in an era when we are being pushed toward “ever-narrower definitions of ourselves” (p. 576), and hence toward narrower identities, literature ought to encourage a multiplicity of identities. The human self is heterogeneous rather than homogenous: “not one thing but many, multiple, fractured and contradictory” (p. 576). Writers and readers with broad identities will always find common ground with fictional characters and, most importantly, using that knowledge, they find points of identification with their fellow beings. Rushdie’s distinction between ‘narrow’ and ‘broad’ identities shows one of the most fundamental features of our inner lives: the distinction between the human Subject and our multiple selves. If the Subject makes what we uniquely are, the self is the sum total of our thoughts, experiences, and actions. In order to construct the sense of self, the human being changes social roles and becomes acquainted with multiple personal histories. The Subject or ‘our essence’ as the locus of human consciousness differs from the self in many different aspects. Admittedly, as Rushdie explains in his memoir, “the person you were for your parents was not the person you were with your children, your working self was other than your self as a lover, and depending on the time of day and your mood you might think of yourself as tall or skinny or unwell or a sports fan or conservative or fearful or hot” (p. 575-576). It is as if the ‘home self’, the ‘lover self’, the ‘work self’, or the ‘moody self’ were various facets of different individuals, but still they all define one unique body. The split self It seems that our multiple fractured selves are under the direct control of others and our constructed identity is the reflection of external realities. If this is true, we grow up learning to constantly adapt to stories created outside our self. More specifically, this is how we actually learn how to behave and act like others; which means that from the very beginning we start to experience ourselves as split identities. This is not to say, however, that infants are blank slates written on by others, since they are all born with a set of representational and perceptual capacities. While we are generally perfectly willing to admit that parents or adults are the prime source for imitation, we have yet to address the question of imitation more pointedly 100 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics in order to show that learning by imitation largely defines our understanding of the split self. With this goal in focus, my thesis is that early imitation is a foundation for the emergence of more selves in the subject. I contend that it is precisely in early childhood forms of entertainment, as expressed in a host of imitation games (pretend play, make-believe, fantasy or imaginative play, etc.) that our sense of self begins to take a bifurcating shape. But the analysis will also go one step further in arguing that an examination of children’s fantasies provides insight into the imitative mind. Early imitation – a way to learning and communication The recent interest of theorists in the theme of imitation from across disciplines has given rise to diverse lines of inquiry (see the edited collections by Nehaniv & Dautenhahn, 2007; Meltzoff & Prinz, 2002). In this study, the term ‘imitation’ is broadly used to refer to types of imitation used in pretend games in which young children reproduce behaviours that they have witnessed prior to the instance of reproduction. Very early evidence of imitation can be found in infants. In a series of studies, Meltzoff and Moore (1994, 1998) demonstrate that imitation allows infants to determine the identity of others by replaying an imitative game they had played before with the same person. In time, this predominantly nonverbal communication realized in infant imitation develops into more mature and more abstract manifestations that will retain a sense of others. By imitating adults, infants of different ages may start to recognize what they share with other people and later this realization can open the door into the social world. The interpersonal or social relationships with parents and household members from birth force us to continually evaluate our actions in the light of how others evaluate what we do and how others choose to perform the same actions. It is this interplay between personal experience and external influence that will shape our self as adults. As the human brain develops, so does the mind– but this can only happen in the presence of others. Young children depend on others to such a great extent that their early experience of self mirrors a cluster of influences that have touched their lives until that moment. Therefore, juveniles are able to evolve through different social interactions and only through continually receiving socially relevant information. By imitating the social models around us, young children continually shape and reshape their selves in order to adjust to new changing contexts and novel roles. However, compelling scientific evidence proves that the brain is primarily responsible for who we are. Any dysfunctions of the brain caused by accidents, drugs, or aging processes may temporarily or definitely alter our perceptions of the 101 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities self. The individual radically becomes a different person. But yet brains do not live in isolation – rather “each brain exists in an ocean of other brains that affect how it works” (Hood 2012, p.17). This ultimately indicates that the self is not only modelled by our brains but is equally influenced by the external world that assaults us at all times and sends signals that are to be interpreted and internalized by our brains. Most importantly, the development of our socially created self is a long modelling process that takes place throughout our lives and occupies the largest part of early childhood. These last points highlight imitation as a social tool serving multiple purposes. At various levels, imitation can be used to initiate and maintain social interaction; it can be a mode of inter-personal communication. My paper also works on the same assumption that early imitation has a significant social function. The split self engages in pretend play In this section I propose that young children not only imitate to engage socially with others and to create their social selves, but imitation is seen as a cognitive ability to project oneself onto another or other entity in a hypothetical situation. Being able to simultaneously hold more than one identity in different mental spaces develops the concept of separate conceptual selves. I argue that pretend play or fantasy games can account for the cognitive function of imitation. Why do children construct online fictions? How do minds construct and share such imaginative mental constructs? In addressing these questions, I will rely on G. Fauconnier’s mental space theory (1994, 1997) that convincingly advances the view that humans are able to integrate two or more mental spaces as they speak, listen to a string of speech, or read texts. Mental spaces are partial mental constructs set up as the conceptualizer perceives, understands, remembers, or imagines a particular scenario. In short, mental space theory is a useful tool for analysing how individuals interpret sequences of spoken and written language. In this light, the paper examines instances of mental space mapping in children’s fantasy plays. In most pretend games, children share a communicative situation as the starting point and then project themselves onto another imaginary entity trying to imitate its behaviour and actions. As such, play companions inhabit the body of fictive participants in an imaginary scenario that may not correspond to the one in the real situation of communication. Importantly, the playfellows are physically present but the verbal interaction takes place strictly in the fantasy world. It is interesting to examine how such imaginary verbal interaction is represented in the minds of the participants. More specifically, how they can make mental contact with potential realities that would otherwise have a non-interactional relationship. The type of face102 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics to-face communication carried out during a fantasy play bears resemblance with what Pascual (2002, 2008) and Brandt (2008) call “fictive interaction”. Such interactional structure does not mirror the observable communicative situation and “constitutes an invisible – although equally present and critical – channel of communication between fictive participants, who may or may not correspond to those in the actual situation of communication” (Pascual 2008, p. 81). The examples selected for detailed analysis come from V. Gussin Paley’s A Child’s Work: The Importance of Fantasy Play. While playing, pre-school children are able to create with spontaneity highly imaginative stories and carry the plot and characters to places they have never visited. Let us look at the case of a child who engages in a fantasy play: Pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost, and then you call me but I don’t come because I have a different name now and then you hear a noise and you think it’s a wolf but you can’t call me because you don’t know my name now. (p. 16) As revealed in the example above, in this fascinating pretend game, the child is split into two individuals in the GAME space and the FANTASY mental space. It involves simultaneously the split of the self into two parts. The same individual in actuality is referred to both as a playmate in reality and as a ‘baby dinosaur’ in the fictional scenario. The child in the REALITY space is safe from any worries and dangers and begins to stage an exciting story with a real play companion. They seem to know each other well and both enjoy the suspense of the pretend play. On the other hand, his counterpart in fiction takes a new identity (‘the baby dinosaur’) and a new name, gets lost and is unable to help his friend. He speaks as if he were the metamorphosed baby dinosaur. In the scenario of the pretend game, there is no direct reference to the other playfellow, but one may assume he is also in an altered condition. In their fictitious setting, the wolf impersonating the danger cannot be stopped because the fictional counterparts, bearing small resemblance to the playfellows in reality, do not know each other by name. All these fictional elements in the pretend play do not directly mirror the world. The wolf and the increasing tension are only present in the game and the two playmates with their counterparts in fiction contradict what they experience in actuality. In brief, the world defined by the children’s fantasy game not only splits the referents into two dissimilar parts but it also provides insight into the playmates’ cognitive capacities for representing such imaginary worlds. It seems, then, that fantasy play entails imagining a fictive identity and engaging in fictive interaction. In their imagined interaction, there are two metamorphosed interactants (the baby dinosaur and perhaps another animal) who engage in imaginary topics of conversation, but the speech and the bodies correspond to the 103 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities actual playmates. True, the fictive communication of the represented entities does not necessarily relate to the experiential domain but undeniably it has a physical grounding (the playing ground, the playmates, etc.). The child departs from the REALITY space or the BASE space to construct a potential or a hypothetical space, set up by the space builder pretend. The playfellows no longer talk about what they do in their actual world but what they pretend they share in their imaginary world. With respect to the previous factual space, the second mental space sets up a counterfactual scenario in an alternative situation, with characters behaving as if they were something else. In this hypothetical space, the fictional counterpart of the second companion hears a noise and interprets it as danger. He thinks it is a wolf, which partitions the discourse into a further BELIEVE space, but he can’t call his fictional companion because he doesn’t know his name. The conjunction but clearly shows the contrast between the need for help and the impossibility to ask for it. For further analysis, let us look at another example of a pretend game: “Pretend I’m the good mother.” “Is there a mean one?” “The step one? No, only one mother, the nice one.” “Let’s both be baby sisters and our nice mother isn’t lost yet.” “Was she lost or are we lost?” “Not yet. No one is lost. This is the part where we’re still happy.” (p.19) As in the other fantasy game, the space builder ‘pretend’ represents an overt indicator that opens up a new virtual mental space. The dialogue script shifts focus to a space in which the fellow companions become ‘baby sisters’ watched by their ‘nice mother’ who has not been lost yet. The final scenario is set up gradually after the participants hesitantly evaluate the other options: who could be the ‘good mother’ and whether there is ‘a step mother’. In this fictive address, the interactants also evaluate their new roles and, in this way, they can learn what they think of the individuals talked about in real situations of communication. This means that the underlying configuration of their fictive interaction bears the mark of the participants’ social experience and of their exposure to similar situated exchanges. The pretend space builder not only requires the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space but it also requires the integration of incompatible structure. Even though ‘the baby sisters’ know that they and their ‘good mother’ may be lost in the real story, they set up potential realities in which nobody is lost and time is halted to a never-ending happiness. It is interesting to look at the following engaging fantasy play in which children rewrite the story of The Little Red Riding Hood: 104 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics “You be the mother,” she tells Cora. “You have to come with me in case there’s a wolf.” “First we see the hunter,” Cora decides. “He already banged at the wolf.” “But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!” “No, see, this is the first real way it goes. The wolf sees the mother and so he runs away.” (21) Clearly, children enjoy such fantasy games for their entertainment value. But more significantly, nevertheless, they do not simply participate in the game with the purpose of enjoying the imagined stories as such: they play out concepts and beliefs from experience, animate entities, and present imaginary scenarios affectionately. The alternative framework of the story allows for complementary improvement of the original storyline: the bad wolf sees the mother and runs away. Interestingly, in their fictive interaction the fictional mother and girl incorporate conversational cues from the original story: ‘But you didn’t tell me don’t talk to the wolf!’The speaker seems to suggest that they need to repeat exactly the lessons learned experientially or taken directly from the original story. In other words, the desire to imitate the behaviours and beliefs of the original scenario takes them back to the BASE space of actuality. However, the other communicative participant presents her suggestion to keep the virtual space because it seems safe and ‘the first real way’ for a turn of the story. Blending and double-scope creativity in (pretend) games The various case studies presented in the previous section give evidence of the fact that, when involved in fantasy games, participants set up mental spaces as imaginary scenarios, interconnect them, and modify them as discourse unfolds. On the other hand, this is not the whole story of the imitative mind. For instance, the sentence “pretend I’m your baby dinosaur and I’m lost...” requires not only the conceptualization of a hypothetical mental space, but it also requires the mapping of incompatible mental spaces. Even though in the BASE space the playmates are real individuals who feel safe from any trouble, they can still imagine themselves as nonhuman figures facing danger and risking their lives. The discovery that individuals are able to imagine such a situation contrary to facts with essential consequences for thinking led cognitive scientists G. Fauconnier and M. Turner (2002, 2006) (see also Turner 1996) to advance the theory of conceptual blending. This pretend game is a double-scope network (Fauconnier and Turner 2002, p. 131139) that has input spaces with clashing structures. There is disanalogy between the safe playmate in the BASE space and the lost baby dinosaur in the second input. Further, in the space of reality both companions know each other well whereas in the counterfactual space there is no communication. If the first input is free of danger, 105 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities the presence of the wolf in the second input emphasises the clashing differences. But the inputs are not simply juxtaposed. The imagined situation in which the second playmate cannot call for help and thus may be caught by the wolf is understood as the blended space. Evidence of blending or conceptual integration can be found in other similarly engaging children’s activity. For instance, when a two-year-old picks up a banana and talks into it as if it were a mobile phone, s/he proves to have collected important pieces of cultural information to be later used for making other useful connections. With the highly imaginative Lego construction sets, the child can play, build and rebuild. The player constructs towers, castle, cars, or other miniature objects replicating physical objects from the surrounding reality. When the building is finished, players may want to change pieces, move one tower to another place, or make the castle taller; all these additions are only limited by the physical characteristics of the building blocks that cannot be divided or changed into a different size or shape. Gravity may sometimes spoil the fun. Otherwise, no one really instructs children on such physical constraints but they will know quite precisely what rules satisfy their constructions. Endowed with the capacity for integration, the child will take that information from the surrounding cultural stimuli and use that knowledge in their play. The fact that they may have already experienced boat trips and bridge crossings, they may have seen pictures of towered castles, or they may have witnessed different actions and behaviour gives them enough stimuli to reproduce them out of Lego sets. Such construction games are much more than simply imaginative imitation games: they are useful applications of early forms of human imagination. Building and rebuilding construction sets creatively and resourcefully reflects the making and unmaking of conceptual integration networks. Concluding remarks In this paper I have argued that early imitation constitutes a form of social engagement that also helps infants develop the concepts of self and others. Analysis suggested that through multiple forms of imitation, the self is largely shaped by people around us. It is through imitation that we experience ourselves as split. I further proposed that every sort of fantasy game that children play can express a sense of others and reveal the split in the self. The manifestations of imitation in fantasy or pretend games may be concerned with the social function of imitation, but most importantly, with how the self and the other are coded in the minds. More generally, children engage in fantasy games for their immensely entertaining value but, at the same time, they begin to act out theatrically on the stage of their creative 106 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics minds. By projecting themselves onto someone else or something else, the self of the young individual takes a bifurcating shape that allows them to develop broad identities. Such a fundamental cognitive activity involving the dramatization of the self helps us later understand such puzzling language: “If I were you, I'd hate me too” (Johnson & Lakoff 1999, p. 281). If fantasy games seem to impact upon the individual’s identity, they can be used as valuable teaching tools. References Brandt, L. (2008). A semiotic approach to fictive interaction as a representational strategy in communicative meaning construction. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (109148).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Fauconnier, G. (1994).Mental spaces: Aspects of meaning construction in natural language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G. (1997). Mappings in thought and language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think: Conceptual blending the mind’s hidden complexities. New York: Basic Books. and Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2006). Mental spaces: Conceptual integration networks. In Geeraerts, D. (Ed.). Cognitive linguistics. Basic readings (303-371). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Gussin Paley, V. (2004). A child’s work: The importance of fantasy play. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Hood, B. (2012). The self illusion. London: Constable. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind its challenge to western thought. New York: Basic Books. and Meltzoff, A. N. & Moore, M. K.(1994). Imitation, memory, and the representation of persons. Infant Behavior and Development, 17, 83–99. Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1998). Object representation, identity, and the paradox of early permanence: Steps toward a new framework. Infant Behavior and Development, 21,201–235. 107 �Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Meltzoff, A. N., & Prinz, W. (2002). (Eds.) The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nehaniv, L. C., & Dautenhahn, K. (Eds.) (2007). Imitation and social learning in robots, humans and animals . Behavioural, social and communicativedimensions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pascual, E. (2002). Imaginary trialogues: Conceptual blending and fictive interaction in criminal courts. Utrecht: LOT. Pascual, E. (2008). Fictive interaction blends in everyday life and courtroom settings. In Oakley, T. & Hougaard, A. (Eds.). Mental spaces in discourse and interaction (79-108).Amsterdam/Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins. Rushdie, S. (2012). Joseph Anton. A memoir. New York: Random House. Turner, M. (1996). Conceptual blending and counterfactual argument in the social and behavioral sciences. In Tetclock, T. &Belkin, A. (Eds.). Counterfactual thought experiments in world politics: Logical, methodological, and psychological perspectives (291-295). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. 108 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2787 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Blending in Children’s Games as a Model for Double-Scope Creativity and New Learning Opportunities Author Author Tucan, Gabriela Abstract A summary of the resource. Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their lives. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s/he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability to blend and deblend. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biologically) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations that are essential for their lives as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. Keywords: blends, early childhood, mental development, children-designed games Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LF Individual institutions (Europe),LT Textbooks Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3432 Title A name given to the resource CONCEPTUAL BLENDING IN CHILDREN’S GAMES AS A MODEL FOR DOUBLE-SCOPE CREATIVITY AND NEW LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES Author Author Tucan, Gabriela Abstract A summary of the resource. Fauconnier and Turner (2002, pp. 389-396) provide an overview of how blending affects the course of a human life, and more specifically, how young children are engaged in building complex blends in very early stages of their life. Their detailed analysis shows that only after the young child is able to master culturally recognized blends will s /he be effectively ‘living in the blend’ and will prove capable of further achieving other blends with more flexibility. During early childhood, it appears that learning and mental development are intrinsically linked to our human ability of blending and deblending. Besides engaging in direct cultural blends, the young child can operate on conceptual blends that are not physically (biological) given. For instance, this may happen when their imaginative processes are at work in a wide variety of games or fun activities, starting with Lego construction sets to fictive interactions with imaginary companions. In such games and activities, children manifest an extraordinary capacity for double-scope blending. Therefore, by playing games or getting involved in free activities, young children will bring to mastery mental integrations which are essential for their life as adults. In this light, the paper examines a set of children-designed games and activities that can all account for cases of fictive or potential reality. That is, the mental spaces created do not refer directly to entities in the outside world. I argue that an analysis of such fantasy mental spaces (with the tools of the mental space theory) can shed new light on learning and human creativity. While playing and blending mental spaces with their counterfactual counterparts, the young subject has to manipulate his/ her ‘split self’ (Lakoff & Johnson 1999) or counterfactual self. With the knowledge of early evolution of conceptual blending in children’s games, I propose that educators may apply the results in diverse areas of instruction and learning in order to better deal with the cognitive side of learning, and eventually come to terms with human creativity. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 937 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Integration Theory in Text-Image Advertisements Author Author Delibegovic Dzanic, Nihada Berberovic, Sanja Abstract A summary of the resource. Conceptual integration theory, proposed by Fauconnier and Turner in 1993, has been successfully used in the study a wide range of phenomena of human thought and action, from counterfactuals to metaphors, proving blending to be present in the simplest kinds of human thinking. In that sense, conceptual integration theory has emerged as a powerful theory that can account for a wide variety of linguistic and non-linguistic phenomena. Therefore, it is not surprising that conceptual integration theory has found its application in the study of advertising. Advertising requires both conscious and subconscious mental interpretation of the hidden messages. The primary objective of this paper is to show that conceptual integration theory is equipped with the mechanisms that can explain the construction of the meaning of text-image advertisements. Specifically, analyzing several text-image advertisements, this paper attempts to explore to what extent hidden cognitive mechanisms involved in the interpretation of advertising can be explained using the postulates of conceptual integration theory. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/637ae320302cb0e7c17af4d7fae51c65.pdf b75bee6ae7827368750342798cf90280 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science David Dunér Lund University, Sweden Submitted: 16.04.2014. Accepted: 23.11.2014. Abstract The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden Introduction Cognitive history concerns how humans in the past used their cognitive abilities in order to understand the world around them and to orient themselves in it, but also 49 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science how the world outside their bodies affected their way of thinking. The objective of this paper is to lay the theoretical basis for a cognitive approach to history, providing the tools for a cognitive history that can be tested on the historical sources in order to providing new insights into how people in history perceived their world as a result of an interaction between mind and its environment. This approach has also interdisciplinary consequences. A cognitive history can provide empirical historical data to the research into the biocultural co-evolution of human cognition. There are three steps towards a cognitive history. First, we have to lay the theoretical foundations for a cognitive approach to history, a new historical theory and method enlightened by cognitive science. If cognitive science is right in its claims concerning human thinking, then its theories must also be valid for people in history with whom we share same cognitive abilities. The second step would be to test the theories of cognitive science on the historical sources to ascertain whether they lead to new explanations and a deeper understanding of human cognitive creativity in history. By these cognitive theories we can open up the hidden thought processes of humans in the past and come closer to an understanding of how people thought, not only what they thought, and further study the interaction between the human mind and the surrounding world. The most ambitious step, the third step, is in the long run also to inform the research on the cognitive evolution of the human mind. History can, I believe, contribute to cognitive science and provide empirical historical data concerning how human cognition is a result of time, of history, personal and collective memories, and as a result of the human mind’s interaction with its specific environment in time and space. The first step, that of identifying plausible theories for a cognitive history, is not enough.These theories should also begin doing some work; it must be possible to implement themon the historical sources. A new theory for historical research is of no use if it cannot show any new results, give new explanations and enhance our understanding of the human past. In the long run, this enterprise can contribute to the research on the evolution of cognition, and, as it were, connect Palaeolithic man with the postmodern by studying the cultural evolution and its impact on human cognition. In order to exemplify the concepts involved, I have chosen examples from the early modern period, that especially was crucial for the emergence of modern scientific thought, but I believe that it could and should be possible to implement a cognitivehistorical method on any kind of historical period, topic or material. The early modern period was a time in human history when modern science began to take shape. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, human beings showed a growing interest in the world around them. A new knowledge of nature was acquired, 50 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics efficient mathematical tools were constructed and inexorable mechanical laws were introduced. The labyrinths of the human body were mapped; merchants and explorers set foot in foreign lands, and plants and animals were classified in an allencompassing system. Humankind sought an order in the world, an assumption that the effect followed the cause, and that nothing happens arbitrarily. In order to understand the world around them, they used their cognitive capacities that had gradually been evolving for millions of years. Metaphors of the mind The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis, proposed in cognitive semantics, is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, in other words, if we consider how people think, not just what they think, we could get close to an understanding of how they shaped their ideas about the world. This is a cognitive history of ideas, a history of thinking. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research into different cognitive explanatory models of human expressions and cultural evolution, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. 1 These approaches are combined in a theory of cognitive science in order to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science.2 The aim of the cognitive history of science suggested here is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories.3 Research in 1 Scott Atran, Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1990); Michael Tomasello, The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition (Cambridge MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1999); Mark Turner, ‘The Cognitive Study of Art, Language, and Literature’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:9–22; Alan Richardson & Francis F. Steen, ‘Literature and the Cognitive Revolution: An Introduction’, Poetics Today, 2002, 1:1–8; Michael Tomasello, ‘Uniquely Human Cognition Is a Product of Human Culture’, Evolution and Culture: A Fryssen Foundation Symposium, eds. S. C. Levinson & P. Jaisson (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2005), p. 203–217; Scott Atran & Douglas L. Medin, The Native Mind and the Cultural Construction of Nature (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2008); Brian Boyd, On the Origin of Stories: Evolution, Cognition, and Fiction (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009); Denis Dutton, The Art Instinct: Beauty, Pleasure, and Human Evolution (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009). 2 Steven Mithen, The Prehistory of the Mind: The Cognitive Origins of Art, Religion, and Science (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996); Colin Renfrew, Chris Frith & Lambros Malafouris (eds.), The Sapient Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2009). 3 Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘How do Scientists Think? Capturing the Dynamics of Conceptual Change in Science’, Cognitive Models of Science, ed. R. N. Giere (Minneapolis MN: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1992), p. 4–7, 36–38; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Opening the Black Box: Cognitive Science and History of Science’, Osiris, 1995, p. 194–211; Nancy J. Nersessian, ‘Interpreting Scientific and Engineering Practices: Integrating the Cognitive, Social, and Cultural Dimensions’, Scientific and Technological 51 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science cognitive history has generally dealt with the fundamental cognitive practices such as reading and counting, as well as scientific and religious perceptions.4 There are at least three assumptions about thought that a cognitive history of ideas can rest on. In cognitive science it has been ascertained, firstly, that our concepts and reason are associated with and structured by the body, the brain, and our everyday action in the world.5 Mind is embodied, situated and distributed. Space, the environment in which we live, the registration of the senses, and the movement of the body through the physical landscape, all are significant for thought. Secondly, it has been shown that most of our thinking takes place without us being aware of it. There are unconscious cognitive processes to which the conscious mind has no access, such as memories, mental images, conclusions, and perceptions of meanings. The unconscious conceptual system structures our conscious thought. Thirdly, reason is metaphorical, that is, abstract concepts are understood in terms of concrete ones, as conceptual metaphors allow us to think about one thing with the aid of something else. Based on a knowledge of the known, we draw conclusions about the unknown. Thinking, eds. M. E. Gorman et al. (Mahwah NJ: L. Erlbaum, 2005); see also E. Thomas Lawson, ‘Counterintuitive Notions and the Problem of Transmission: The Relevance of Cognitive Science for the Study of History’, Historical Reflections/Réflexions Historique, 1994, 3:481–495; David Gooding, ‘Cognitive History of Science: The Roles of Diagrammatic Representations in Discovery and Modeling Discovery’, Theory and Application of Diagrams (Berlin: Springer, 2000); Ryan D. Tweney, ‘Scientific Thinking: A Cognitive-Historical Approach’, Designing for Science: Implications from Everyday, Classroom, and Professional Settings, eds. K. Crowley, C. D. Schunn & T. Okada (Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001), p. 141–173; Peter Carruthers, Stephen Stich & Michael Siegal (eds.), The Cognitive Basis of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2002); Christophe Heintz, ‘Introduction: Why There Should Be a Cognitive Anthropology of Science’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2004, 3:391–408; E. Thomas Lawson, ‘The Wedding of Psychology, Ethnography, and History: Methodological Bigamy or Tripartite Free Love?’, Theorizing Religions Past: Archaeology, History, and Cognition, eds. H. Whitehouse & L. H. Martin (Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), p. 1–5; Harvey Whitehouse, ‘Cognitive Historiography: When Science Meets Art’, Historical reflections/Réflexions historiques, 2005, 2:307–318. 4 David R. Olson, The World on Paper: The Conceptual and Cognitive Implications of Writing and Reading (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996); Reviel Netz, The Shaping of Deduction in Greek Mathematics: A Study in Cognitive History (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1999); Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker & Xiang Chen, The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006); Luther H. Martin & Jesper Sørensen, Past Minds: Studies in Cognitive Historiography (London: Equinox Publishing, 2011). 5 George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought (New York NY: Basic Books, 1999), p. 3, 7, 10; Mark Johnson, The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1987); Francisco J. Varela, Evan Thompson & Eleanor Rosch, The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1991); John Krois et al. (eds.), Embodiment in Cognition and Culture (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2007); Paco Calvo & Toni Gomila (eds.), Handbook of Cognitive Science: An Embodied Approach (Oxford: Elsevier Science, 2008). 52 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. In cognitive semantics, as represented by George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, and others, certain conclusions have been drawn from assumptions in cognitive science about the way humans think. One feature that has been seized on is the fact that humans think metaphorically. Our basic concepts do not function beyond our everyday experiences. To conceptualize non-everyday phenomena or abstract thoughts requires conceptual metaphors. Metaphor can then mean understanding and experiencing something with the aid of something else, or that a structure in one domain is transferred to another, from a source (the sensorimotor domain) to a target (subjective experience) which simultaneously preserves the deductive structure. Metaphors entail conceptualizing something in terms of some other thing, and function in a way as models for less well-known areas. We transfer knowledge about the known to the unknown, from the familiar to the unfamiliar, from the commonplace world, society, human life, engineering and handicraft, to the invisible particle world, to the soul and God. One could say that metaphorical thought means finding similarities between things, but also forgetting dissimilarities, being able to generalize and abstract. The creation and use of metaphors requires creativity and imagination. Many of our fundamental concepts are organized on the basis of one or more spatial metaphors.6 There are metaphors that transfer a structure, or proceed from a spatial orientation that arises from the action of the body in physical reality. Our experiences of physical objects give rise to ontological metaphors, that is, seeing events, emotions, ideas, and states as objects, entities, substances, or containers. They can be metaphors such as imagining life as a journey or intellectual influence as a physical force. Time can be understood spatially as something flowing along a line or in a circle. Thinking can be described in terms of movement, moving forward step by step without skipping any stages, or taking the straightest course to the conclusion without going in circles or getting away from the subject. To think is to travel. It is a walk along a path, a voyage on the sea, a journey with or without a goal. The 6George Lakoff & Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago IL: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980), p. 14, 17, 25, 30; cf. Peter Gärdenfors, Conceptual Spaces: The Geometry of Thought (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2000), p. 2, 255. 53 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science researcher can get lost in the labyrinth of reality. He cannot find the narrow trail out of the jungle, he can be driven off course on the ocean of knowledge, or after much searching he may find the straight road towards the goal, ‘truth’. The landscape with its settlement, habitability, shifts of light and shade, also gives conceptual patterns. Wilderness and darkness are ignorance and irrationality. Fortified castles and light represent sure knowledge and wisdom. To think is also to see. Knowledge is vision. What is unknown, difficult to comprehend, is obscure darkness. Without knowledge we grope in the dark. To acquire knowledge is to shed light on things, a knowledge that enables us to see and allows new findings to see the light of day. Knowledge brings enlightenment, we see, feel, everything is clear. What is significant and important is of greater weight or size. Similarity is understood as physical nearness, difficulties are burdens, and organizational structures are like physical structures. These metaphors are used unconsciously, automatically in everyday life and arise from our quotidian experience. Without metaphors, abstract reasoning would be impossible.7 Metaphorical concepts have their origin not just in our physical but also in our cultural experience. The more layers of metaphors we employ, the more abstract and culturally specific the concept becomes.8 Some metaphors proceed from some special cultural knowledge, for example metaphors based on Euclidean geometry. People who live in cultures with no knowledge of Euclidean geometry would not understand such metaphors. Euclidean geometry gives the world a specific visual metaphorical structure, a world of relations between points, lines, and circles. In many cases, then, scientific theories and concepts about the world are founded on spatial metaphors with a physical and cultural origin. Philosophers and natural scientists use the same conceptual system as ordinary people in their own culture. In philosophical theories they incorporate the concepts available in the historical context and the general theories, models, and metaphors that are common and typical in the culture to which they belong, but they also rework these basic concepts, see new links, and draw new conclusions. It is the shared concepts and ideas that make a specific philosophical theory comprehensible to people within a particular culture. Philosophical theories can be interpreted as attempts to refine, expand, clarify, and make consistent certain common metaphors and ‘popular’ or ‘general’ theories shared by people in a culture. What a particular philosophical theory also does is to select the ‘right’ metaphors. Differences between philosophical views thus depend on different choices of metaphors. Each philosopher’s metaphysics has its origin in what 7 Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 59; George Lakoff & Rafael E. Núñez, Where Mathematics Comes From: How the Embodied Mind Brings Mathematics into Being (New York NY: Basic Books, 2000), p. 41. 8 Marcel Danesi, ‘The Dimensionality of Metaphor’, Sign Systems Studies, 1999, 27:60–87, on p. 73– 74, 78. 54 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics he takes as central metaphors. A ‘world-view’ can therefore be regarded as a consistent constellation of concepts, especially metaphorical concepts, over one or more conceptual domains.9 The world-view is the reality for the people of its time. In philosophical analysis and scientific theory formation, then, metaphors play an important part. Philosophical and scientific texts are more or less strewn with metaphors, analogies, metonymies, similes, and comparisons. In the history of science they have often been dismissed as unscientific and uninteresting adornment.10 They have mostly been regarded as poetic whims, educational and rhetorical devices, or simply as superfluous linguistic expressions that obscure the view of the true logical structure of the scientific arguments, the purely rational scientific and mathematical. Against this I claim that metaphors, the linguistic form, the tropes that modify the basic meaning of a word, are of crucial importance. They are not mere external ornament, but a major part of creative thought by establishing visual analogies and abstract ideas. For this reason they also provide valuable clues to how scientists think. Scientific reasoning uses metaphors to a great extent as conceptual tools or as theoretical models of the external world. Structural metaphors and process metaphors are particularly common in scientific reasoning, metaphors that try to get away from the emotional and subjective. In science one must form new concepts for the new phenomena one is describing, and this is often done with the aid of metaphors related to what is already known. Conclusion We can divide the cognitive-historical agenda into three undertakings: i) to delve into the current theories of cognitive science, to evaluate and select the most useful theories for historical research; ii) to collect historical data that is representative, challenging and relevant; and iii) to implement the cognitive theories on the collected data, and through this produce new interpretations and theories, that push the field forward. If this fails, then either (i) the theories and results of cognitive science are false, or (ii) the theories and results of cognitive science are not relevant for historical research. An answer to the first option is that the theories and results of cognitive science are well grounded; there are many experimental proofs that have been carefully checked. If we believe in the scientific enterprise, we can rule out the first explanation. If cognitive science turns out to be completely wrong in its 9 Lakoff & Johnson, Philosophy in the Flesh, p. 338–341, 511. There are of course exceptions, see Alistair C. Crombie, Styles of Scientific Thinking in the European Tradition: The History of Argument and Explanation Especially in the Mathematical and Biomedical Sciences and Arts II (London: Duckworth, 1994), part IV; Marta Spranzi, ‘Galileo and the Mountains of the Moon: Analogical Reasoning, Models and Metaphors in Scientific Discovery’, Journal of Cognition and Culture, 2004, 3:451–483. 10 55 �Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science proclamations, human beings still use categories, metaphors and objects, etc. in their daily lives and in science. This fact still needs an explanation. Turning to the second option; if these theories and results of cognitive science are universal and valid for all humans, this must also include our immediate ancestors in our own species (they must reasonably have had brains). If this is not so, I cannot find any explanation for this other than that the cognitive historian has not yet convinced other historians about it by showing new results that inspire new research on other topics. My conclusion is that cognitive history is a promising approach for future historical research. First, a cognitive approach to history will give us new tools for analyzing and interpreting ideas in history, explaining events and historical change, and enable us understand in greater detail how people thought, felt and believed as historical beings situated in time and space, and by this enlighten the interaction between the mind and its surroundings. In all, it will let us enter the black box of hidden cognitive processes of human minds in history. Secondly, with a new cognitive-historical method, new sources will be sought and discovered; material that before seemed to be hard to use will now be useful, and well-known sources must be re-interpreted. Successful new methods provide not only new interpretations and explanations, they discover new facts, use known sources in a new way and discover new sources that can be used in historical research. An empirical cognitive history will explain the cognitive processes behind human encounters with the surrounding world, what happened to the mind in unknown environments, how mental images in science and technology were used, how objects and techniques enhanced thinking in science, and unveiling the metaphorical thinking behind concept formation and the categorization strategies in systematics and taxonomy. In all, such cognitive-historical studies will give new explanations to the emergence of human thinking as an interaction between the mind and the world. Thirdly, with a cognitive theory, history will contribute to the ongoing research in cognitive science and on cultural evolution. We will arrive at an interdisciplinary historical theory integrated with our collected knowledge. History cannot only borrow and learn something from other disciplines; it will also contribute to the them, and provide important data that will give the clues as how our distant ancestors thousands of years ago gradually enhanced their cognitive abilities and techniques and finally gave birth to us, we postmodern thinking, feeling, and living beings. The cognitive history outlined hereinrepresents an open field of possibilities. It will take time to explore its vast territory, that is for sure, and the enterprise will require hordes of historians to be occupied for decades. But this endeavor must begin 56 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics someday. A cognitive history of ideas relates to the basic human conditions; it unites people in history that we have the experience of living, that we register and participate in the world around us – the flowing in the veins, the storms of emotions, and the escaping thoughts. It provides an understanding of the thoughts and lives of people in history, as sentient and reflective beings. It unveils the hidden thought processes in the past. 57 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2806 Title A name given to the resource Conceptual Metaphors of Science Prolegomena to a Cognitive History of Science Author Author Dunér, David Abstract A summary of the resource. The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Keywords: metaphors, cognition, cognitive history, Sweden Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-16 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PR English literature Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3393 Title A name given to the resource CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS OF SCIENCE PROLEGOMENA TO A COGNITIVE HISTORY OF SCIENCE Author Author Dunér, David Abstract A summary of the resource. The cognitive abilities explained by cognitive science and cognitive semantics can inform us concerning the use of metaphors in science. The thesis is that abstract ideas rest on experiences of the concrete world. In this paper I will explain the use of conceptual metaphors in science, with examples from the mechanistic worldview of the 17th and 18th century. If we proceed from the way people think in general, their mental abilities, reason and cognition, we could get close to an understanding of how scientists during the scientific revolution shaped their ideas about the invisible geometry of matter. This is a cognitive history of ideas. What is called the ‘cognitive turn’ in the humanities has generated vigorous growth of research, for example, in cognitive poetics, neuroaesthetics, and cognitive anthropology. These approaches try to arrive at an understanding of creative processes. In the historical sciences there is also a growing interest in cognitive-historical analyses, particularly in archaeology and history of science. The aim of the cognitive history of science is to reconstruct scientific thinking on the basis of cognitive theories. The starting point for a cognitive history of ideas that I defend here is that philosophy, science, and mathematics do not really happen just in texts, in language, in laboratories, or in social contexts, but in brains and minds in interaction with the world around the subject, and are thus connected to the body, to perception, thoughts, and feelings. We humans are captured in our brains situated in the world, we are dependent on our thoughts and senses, our prior knowledge, our mental images, when we try to create a picture of the world. Science, in other words, is shaped by our distinctive way of reasoning, not least in metaphors. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English