64 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c62d8421c6b8cf0f14ab596ca4eb88fb.pdf aaefaa96bae2fbcc7a25c0e965bf189a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Mehmet Baştürk Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Necatibey Education Faculty, English Language Teaching Department, Balıkesir, Turkey basturk@balikesir.edu.tr Ömer Koçer Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, French Language Teaching Department, Erzincan,Turkey okocer@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Key words: Effective Language Teacher, Teacher Inefficiencies, Foreign Language Education, Teacher Duties. Résumé : On voit que le facteur d’enseignant est dans le premier ordre si l’on recherche attentivement les problèmes existants dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Lorsqu’on regarde la formation des enseignants qui travaillent dans les écoles publiques et privées dans le cadre de Ministère de l'Éducation en Turquie, les facultés diplômées par ces enseignants sont très différentes de l’un et l’autre. De plus, on fait le processus d’enseignement plus désespéré par les enseignants parascolaires qui s’efforcent de faire les cours aux élèves. En outre, ces enseignants apprenant la profession dans la classe par la méthode d’essais et erreurs non seulement affectent négativement l’acquisition de langue des élèves mais aussi diminuent leur intérêt à une nouvelle langue. Ces faits sont les références significatives aux plusieurs questions à répondre dans l’apprentissage de langue étrangère. Récemment, les problèmes dans ce domaine et ne pas assez enseigner aux élèves les quatre compétences de langue font les experts incliner sur la recherche des nouvelles méthodes éducatives. Les recherches que l’on fait récemment en Turquie dans le processus d’apprentissage de langue étrangère mettant l’accent sur le rôle des enseignants tirent l’attention aux méthodes obsolètes et aux carences des enseignants sous l’angle de linguistique et pédagogique. En mouvement des publications liées à cette étude, on donne les conseils concernés aux devoirs des enseignants des langues. 45 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Les mots clés: Efficaces Enseignant de Langue, Inefficacités des Enseignants, Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère, Devoirs d’Enseignant. Introduction It has long been one of the scientific issues by researchers why not to teach a foreign language completely in the educational institutions in Turkey. Therefore, it needs to investigate the sources of the problems in foreign language education. According to Yiğiter (1988), there have been three factor affecting foreign language education; “teacher”, “student” and “method”. These problems in foreign language education result mostly from these three factors. According to Demirel (1990), the subheadings stated by researchers in foreign language education are like below; traditional education is based on teaching grammar rules, not to renewal of teaching programs, differences in practice, method problems in practice. So far, what has been the contribution of the current methodologies in practice to the foreign language teaching in our country? It is obvious to everyone that the application of these methods could not have an efficient outcome. Though the methods applied by teachers have a great importance, the founders of these methods could not introduce them according to our criterion and circumstance. Then, methods must be questioned in this context. Throughout the learning life of a student, that is only foreign language skill that might just work rather than the all subjects in curricula. Education in our schools including mathematic is based on theory. In this way, the only skill is of foreign language. But unfortunately so many years of education is too far to bring in this skill to the students. Any student takes foreign language courses 8 years in Elementary School, 3 years in High School, and 4 years in University totally 15 years of foreign language courses. Why he/she could not succeed in foreign language completely? The students take foreign language courses between 80-100 hours in Anatolian High Schools and in private colleges. But, the majority of them could not be successful in practice. In that case, looking at the teacher side in the educational process between teacher and student is needed. Foreign Language Education From Past to Present in Turkey When evaluated the current situation of foreign language education in Turkey since the declaration of Republican era, the first and most important step in the Republican period is the occurrence of the Unification of Education (Teaching of the Consolidation) Act, No. 430 dated March 3, 1924. Taught for a long time as foreign languages in the educational institutions of the Ottoman Empire Arabic and Persian in this period were revoked and instead of them western languages; German, French and English were taken in schools’ curricula. After the declaration of Republic our country has given more importance to the foreign language education for not to stay away from the rapid advances in technology over the world. And it can be said that in this issue Turkey has reached a more willing level. Hence, western languages (German, French and English) have been taught compulsory in the schools. But the deficiencies of methods and backgrounds practiced in public schools make inefficient foreign language education. It does not seem possible to teach a foreign language in such an environment and so it could not be trained qualified foreign language teachers. This deficiency is resulted in one another and the chain is going on so. Moreover, the state could not attract the qualified language teachers with its inefficient opportunities (Göktürk, 1983). In later years, new schools under the name of Anatolian high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula were opened. According to 1974-75 school years, the high number of high schools based on foreign language education in their curricula has increased twelve and this figure has reached in 103 Anatolian high schools totally to 40.715 students and 2845 teachers in 1986-87 school years (MEGSB 1986). 46 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Current Situation of Foreign Language Teaching in Turkey, Teachers and Problems Foreign language education in Turkey is basically dealt with elementary schools, yet in public high schools foreign language lessons are only given in the first grade. For this reason, the problematic situation in elementary schools is the point at issue in this study. And we handled with this problem as a main concern. Before the application of stepped rate system in general education put into practice in 1988-89, foreign language had being taught in secondary schools and high schools totally six years, that is to say, at least three hours per week. But it was not possible for the graduated students to speak three to five words. Then, stepped rate system was in practice and foreign language was not compulsory from then on in those schools. However, the stepped rate system was removed after one year and then English has been a compulsory lesson in the school curricula. But this lesson was removed from the curricula of second and third grade of high schools. Today, foreign language lesson starts firstly in the fourth grade of primary schools. But it is not possible for the students to speak effectively foreign language. One of the serious problems experienced in foreign language education is the lack of qualified teachers. Language teacher should consider the educational aspect of foreign language (knowing the culture of the country whose language is learnt, interacting with the people whose language is learnt, orienting the students to the main aim). Teachers have two tasks in foreign language education process. Thus, they should be a linguist and must integrate this skill with pedagogic skills. In our schools “grammar” that is to say, “about language” is given to students. And the students think that the main purpose is so. However, it is considered that one person has learned the foreign language if he/she succeed in understanding and using the sentences that he/she heart (Songün, 1983). One of the most important functions of education is to discover and to cultivate the existing capacity of the student (Hoşgörür & Taştan, 2009). The teachers in traditional education process do not include the students actively to the process and they apply the teacher-centered methods in their application. So, they do not need to update themselves. Today, it has been tried to apply the constructivist approach in all field of education including language education but it is too difficult to apply new methods and techniques with the teachers having no language skills and being inefficient in terms of pedagogy (Kömür, 2007). In Turkey’s conditions one or more primary school teachers in some schools in small towns or villages have been forced to practice all the lessons. The out-of branch teachers have been practicing the foreign language lessons and most of them are primary school teachers (Ünal, 2007). It is required to the out-of branch teacher to develop themselves in this field and to participate in in-service training programs. Foreign language lessons are generally practiced by out-of branch teachers (Primary school teachers) in Primary schools. In Europe, these lessons are practiced by these types of teachers too. Only in seven countries (Czech Republic, Greece, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania) these lessons are practiced only by branch teachers. In Germany, the semi-specialists are relinquishing by and by their position to the primary school teachers (Eurydice, 2005). In Turkey, foreign language lessons were being practiced by the out-of branch teachers in Primary schools. The system based on practicing all the lessons by the primary school teachers in the first five years of primary schools was removed in 2006. Ministry of Education has agreed with the branch teachers’ practicing, instead of Primary school teachers, the branch lessons in fourth and fifth grade in Primary schools (MEB Notification of Ministry Magazine, 2005). Until today, graduated schools of teachers have been very different from each other. The sources of foreign language teachers pointed before 1982 are like below (Demircan, 1988); • Those studying a type of X, Y, Z language courses after graduated from different departments, • Those graduated from institutions of education as open-university, • Those graduated from institutions of education as Higher Education Summer School in common, • Those graduated from accelerated institutions of education (1 or 2 months instead of 1 year, 1978-80), • Those succeeded in the exam of assistant teacher organized sometimes by Ministry of Education. Like seen above, it does not seem possible to consider the schools, which these types of teachers have graduated, are the institutions which educate people in terms of foreign language. These types of teachers 47 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo graduated from any kind of schools out-of faculty of education practice the language courses with the method of “we have learnt like that”. Especially, the teachers having no professional knowledge and working in many schools have been trying to learn their job with the method of trial and error. Though Ministry of Education has been trying to carry on this situation thanks to in-service education courses for teachers, the products cultivated by the teachers are evident. The students not understanding what is said, having no words for speaking, not expressing his/her feelings and thoughts. The findings of Enginarlar (2003) related to the language teachers in Turkey working in many different schools has a great importance. According to him, many language teachers throughout their primary and secondary schools’ lives; • • • • • • Have never taken any foreign language courses by native teachers Have never gone to the target country whose language has been learnt Have not used foreign language out of classes because of no opportunity and communication needs. Have never watched any foreign movies without subtitle. Have never used to read permanently any magazine or newspaper in foreign language Have generally used their mother tongue(Turkish) as a teaching tool When examined the teaching process, classroom practices and the measurement and evaluation of the teachers, it is seen the main reason of the problem. Either the teachers do not know modern language teaching methods and techniques or they do not use them in classroom even if they know them. For this reason, it results in coming into being the faulty students. Demirel (1990) explains ten tasks for the language teachers; 1. Developing four language skills 2. Planning teaching activities in advance 3. Teaching from the simple to the complex and from concrete to abstract 4. Using Audio-visual tools 5. Using mother tongue if it is needed 6. Presenting only one sentence pattern at a time 7. Trying transferring the data to daily life 8. Trying integrating the students actively to the lesson 9. Paying attention to the individual differences 10. Motivating and encourage the students These principles should be adapted to the age and readiness level of the students and the students should be faced with orally and writing of target language. However, on browsed the classroom activities, homework and the exams, it is seen that all activities are full of grammar. The teacher generally focusing on grammar in all activities gives this message unconsciously to the students: “The student who knows the grammar learns language.” This thought creates this equation in minds of teachers and students; learning foreign language means learning grammar rules. This is very inaccurate and incomplete information because language is learnt with its all skills. Besides, speaking fluently a foreign language does not mean knowing its grammar rules. Especially, it has not any great importance knowing all grammatical rules for a child in language learning process (Ellis, 1990). These rules only take advantage to the adults in language learning process. By a Hungarian researcher Nikolov (2001), in her study based to the unsuccessful students, it is stated that the teachers’ classroom activities has been the failure reason of the students. In another study related to Israeli students Arabic learning success, the quality of teaching program is the most affecting factor to the success of students (Donitsa, 2004). Like in all field of life, the reasons resulted in being unsuccessful of students in language learning process; ones arising from the student, ones arising from the environment and ones arising from the teacher. Primarily, high motivation of the person will increase the chance of success (Dörnyei, 2005). The attitudes and behaviors of foreign language teacher being willing to teach in the classroom has a great importance affecting the motivation of students. It is unavoidable for a teacher coming to the class with a down faced, tired and reluctant to find the teaching environment as if it were his/her self reflection. This situation results in communicate fear in the students. According to a study related to the communicate fear of student, approximately 35% of students said that they could not dare to speak in the classroom because of 48 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo teachers’ down faced and temper (Ergin, 2005). Foreign language education should considerably be based on communication and the students should learn foreign language in an environment having no communication fear. Here, the primary task is up to the foreign language teachers. How to be an Effective Teacher? It is not an easy concept to describe the term of “effective teacher” because the term “effective” can be interpreted differently by different people. Depending on the criterion used to judge effectiveness, an “effective teacher” can mean a teacher who always produces a class of high-achievers, or a teacher who generally receives positive evaluations from supervisors and administrators (Stronge, 2002). However, if the focus is on the teaching process and not on the end result, then it is possible to define an effective teacher as a person who “provides information to students in a way that is clear, understandable, and motivating” (Benson et. al., 2001). In another study, Young and Shaw (1999) found that teacher effectiveness is linked with qualities such as “effective communication, a comfortable learning atmosphere, concern for student learning, student motivation, and course organization.” Whereby; the quality which distinguishes ineffective teachers from the effective ones is the latter’s ability to make the most boring course interesting and important to the students. According to Clark & Walsh (2002), some of the common features which described the qualities of effective teachers like these; Strong discipline content knowledge, Pedagogical skills appropriate to the environment and discipline, Personal knowledge which included: the ability to forge strong relationship with the students, a concern for individual students and a firm moral code, Intimate knowledge of the context in which they were teaching. Research on teacher effectiveness in Turkey has shown that there are a number of qualities attached to an effective foreign language teacher (Demirel, 1990; Saraç-Süzer, 2007) among which having personal strategies to teach, creating a positive classroom atmosphere, to be able to a model teacher, being knowledgeable on target cultures, possessing positive personal characteristics, having correct pronunciation of the English sounds, teaching with effective classroom materials and using technology are the most common. Taşkafa (1989) found that giving positive reinforcement and being friendly were the most desirable qualities that were expected from a teacher. Similarly, Telli, den Brok, and Çakıroğlu (2008) found that students gave much importance to the quality of positive teacher-student interaction although other characteristics (such as subject-matter knowledge) were mentioned at lesser degrees. According to Alkan (1984), a teacher should be in accordance with specifications as follows: “A teacher should determine in what extent successful his/her each student, should help each student to understand how he/she has reached this success, should know what kind of support he/she will provide for each student for reaching to the top, should encourage each student to learn more and should help them to take much more responsibility for their wellness”. According to a research practiced by Prodromou in 1991 over 40 students by the aim of determining how a teacher students desire, these results revealed; A desired language teacher is a person who is proud of his/her students, behaves friendly, explains everything, makes students take notes, knows how to behave the students sitting on the desk, behaves as if he/she were a student, asks their opinions, has lots of experiences, speaks of individual problems, has a moderate personality, pays attentions to unsuccessful students, knows about physiology, believes and trust in students, communicate with students (Prodromou, 1991). Conclusion and Suggestions The teachers should be a qualified instructor using new educational approaches, being update to the era and being aware of their tasks for to make more effective the foreign language education in Turkey. It will be possible for them to have these skills and to function in a good way only if the problems faced by them in the process are removed. The first step is to determine the problems in detail. The reasons of not attaining to the desired level in foreign language education are the lack of teacher posts, out-of branch teachers and the other professional groups practicing language courses in the schools and the language teachers themselves using out-of date language teaching methods and techniques. Instead of out- of branch teachers taking only 2 hours of language courses in university or high school, it is possible for the students studying in the foreign language departments to teach foreign language only by taking the second foreign language as an auxiliary field and by taking methodology courses. Thus, it can be reached to the measure of professional formation in some extent. 49 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The teachers should practice their profession by adopting positive and negative aspects of their profession not because of its obligation. A teacher should have knowledge, skills and attitudes required in his/her profession. The teachers should update and renewal themselves and integrate technological developments to the class. An effective teacher in the same time should be aware of his profession without compromising from his national and moral values. And he/she could not forget that next generation has been commended to them. Finally, with words of Mevlana, “A teacher must be a person whose one foot is on his national root, the other one is that is turning like a compasses across the world, that is to say, a person who modernizes without alienating, a person who reaches to the era without breaking off from his root”. References Alkan, C. (1984). Eğitim teknolojisi (3.baskı). Ankara: Aşama Matbaacılık. Benson, L., Schroeder, P., Lantz, C., & Bird, M. (2001). Student perceptions of effective teachers. [Online]: Retrieved on 12April-2010, at URL: http://www.usfca.edu/ess/sym2001/PDFbooks/naspe/naspep53-56.pdf Clark, J. C., & Walsh, J. (2002). Elements of a model of effective teachers. AARE 2002 Conference papers. [Online]: Retrieved on April 4, 2010 from http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/wal02220.htm Demircan, Ö. (1988). Türkiye’de yabancı Dil. s. 92., Remzi Kitabevi, Đstanbul. Demirel , Ö. (1990). Yabancı dil öğretimi: ilkeler, yöntemler, teknikler. Ankara: USEM Yayınları. Donitsa-Schmidt, S., Inbar, O., & Shohamy, E. (2004). The effect of teaching spoken Arabic on students’ attitudes and motivation in Israel. Modern Language Journal, 88 (2), 217-228. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psycology of the language learner. London:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed second language acquisiton. London: Basil Blackwell. Enginarlar, H. (2003). Đlköğretim çağında yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk eğitim sisteminde yabancı dil eğitimi ve kalite arayışları. Đstanbul: Özel okullar Derneği. Ergin, A., & Cem, B. (2005). Eğitimde iletişim. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Eurydice, (2005). Directorate-general education and culture,. Key data on teaching language sat school in Europe. 2.11.2005, from the World Wide Web: www.eurydice.org Göktürk, A. (1983). Yabancı dil öğretimi., Türk Dili, Dil Öğretimi Özel Sayısı, 379-380, s.102, Ankara 1983. Hoşgörür, V., & Nuray, T. (2009). Eğitimin işlevleri. eğitim bilimine giriş (Editörler:Özcan DEMĐREL ve Zeki Kaya).Ankara : Pegem Yayınları. Kömür, Ş. (2007) Đçerde neler oluyor? 8.Sınıf Đngilizce dersine bir bakış XVI Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur. Tokat MEB Resmi Web Sayfası. (2005). Đkinci yabancı dil programı, Retrieved on April 8, 2010 at URL: http://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/indir/ttkb/programlar/ikinciyabancidil/ortogrt2yabdilfransızca.pdf Milli Eğitim Gençlik ve Spor Bakanlığı, (1986). M.E.G.S.B’nın 1987 Yılı Bütçe Konuşması, Đstanbul M.E.Basımevi. Nikolov, M. (2001).Why do you learn English? Because the teacher is short. A study of Hungarian children’s foreign language learning motivation. Language teaching Research, 3, 33-56. Prodromou, L. (1991). The Good language teacher. English Teaching Forum, XXIX (2), s.2-7. Songün, R. (1983). Doğu Anadoludaki orta dereceli okul Đngilizce öğretmen ve öğrencilerinin öğretim, öğrenim ve ilişkileri, Türk dili, Dil Öğrenim Özel Sayısı, 379-80, Ankara. 50 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Saraç-Süzer, S. H. (2007). Examining methodological issues through pedagogical and practical knowledge of experienced teachers: A case study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,. Hacettepe University: Ankara. Stronge, J.H. (2002). Qualities of effective teachers. Washington DC: ASCD. Taşkafa, G. (1989). As teachers we are evaluating our students constantly: Have you ever thought how our students evaluate us? Çağdaş Eğitim, 14, 27-30. Telli, S., den Brok, P., & Çakıroğlu, J. (2008). Teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the ideal teacher. Eğitim ve Bilim, 33(149), 118-125. Ünal, M. (2007). Đlköğretim yabancı dil programının sınıf öğretmenliği adaylarının görüşlerine göre değerlendirilmesi. XVI. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresinde Bildiri olarak sunulmuştur.Tokat Yiğiter, K.(1988), Günümüzde yabancı dil. Ondokuz Mayıs Ün. Eğt. Fak. Derg., Sayı: 3, s. 11-13. Young, S., & Shaw, D. (1999). Profiles of effective college and university teachers. Journal of Higher Education, 70(6), 670686. 51 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 375 Title A name given to the resource Teacher Factor in Foreign Language Education Process Le Facteur d’Enseignant dans le Processus d’Apprentissage de Langue Étrangère Author Author Bastürk, Mehmet Koçer, Ömer Abstract A summary of the resource. When examined carefully the existing problems in the foreign language teaching, it is seen that teacher factor has been in the first order. On browsed to formation of the teachers working in the schools of Turkish Minister of Education and in private ones, the graduated schools of these teachers are very different from each other. In addition to this, outof branch teachers trying to make the foreign language courses make the situation more desperate. Moreover, these teachers learning the experience as lecturer in the classrooms by method of trial and error not only affect negatively the language acquisition of the students but also decrease their interest on a new language. These facts have been a meaningful reference to many questions to be replied in the foreign language education. Recently, the problems in this field and not to teach enough the four language skills to the students make experts incline on searching new education methods. The researches pointing to the role of teachers which have been done recently in Turkey in the process of effective foreign language teaching emphasis the out-of date of the teachers’ teaching methods and the deficiencies of teachers in terms of linguistic and pedagogic. Moving from the publications related to this study, in the process of effective foreign language teaching, many advices related to modern language teachers’ duties have been given. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2c1d2dfed5b06b53daec24813880b780.pdf 9e6e2cf757c2c682520734981c7b0c61 PDF Text Text Hot-Weather Concreting Hakan Basaran Golmarmara Vocational High School, Celal Bayar University, Turkey haba1969@mynet.com Oktay Demirdag Civil Engineering Department, Pamukkale University, Turkey oktaydemirdag@pau.edu.tr Absract: In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously. Introduction Laboratory testing of concrete is usually performed at a controlled temperature, normally constant. In practice, however, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. Indeed, the actual range of temperatures has widened considerably with much modern construction taking place in countries which have a hot climate. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously (Neville, 1997). Effects of Hot Weather Conditions Because high temperatures increase the speed of hydration of cement and setting of concrete, a good planning is needed for placing the concrete at high temperatures. The most unsuitable conditions for pouring of concrete are hot, sunny, windy and dry (having low relative humidity) weather. The increase in temperature of weather increases the rate of evaporation, e.g. an increase of 10 oC in temperature increases the evaporation about 2 times. If the concrete has a higher temperature than the weather the evaporation becomes more rapidly. When the humidity in the air decreases the evaporation becomes easy and fast. As the relative humidity decreases from 90 % to 5 %, it is seen that evaporation increases about 5 times. In the sunny days, when the wind velocity increases from 0 to 20 km/h the evaporation increases about 4 times (Baradan, 1998). 345 �A high ambient temperature causes a higher water demand of the concrete and increases the temperature of the fresh concrete. This results in an increased rate of loss of slump and in a more rapid hydration, which leads to accelerated setting and to a lower long-term strength of concrete. Furthermore, rapid evaporation may cause plastic shrinkage cracking and crazing, and subsequent cooling of the hardened concrete can introduce tensile stresses. It is generally believed that plastic shrinkage cracking is likely to occur when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate at which the bleeding water rises to the surface, but it has been observed that cracks also form under a layer of water and merely become apparent on drying. Plastic shrinkage cracks can be very deep, ranging in width between 0,1 and 3 mm, and can be short as long as 1 m. (Neville, 1997). Influence of Early Temperature on Strength of Concrete A rise in the curing temperature speeds up the chemical reactions of hydration and thus affects beneficially the early strength of concrete without any ill-effects on the later strength. Higher temperature during and following the initial contact between cement and water reduces the length of the dormant period so that the overall structure of the hydrated cement paste becomes established very early. Although a higher temperature during placing and setting increases the very early strength, it may adversely affect the strength from about 7 days onwards. The explanation is that a rapid initial hydration appears to form products of a poor physical structure, probably more porous, so that a proportion of the pores will always remain unfilled. It follows from the gel/space ratio rule, that this will lead to a lower strength compared with a less porous, though slowly hydrating, cement paste in which a high gel/space ratio will eventually be reached. The rapid initial rate of hydration at higher temperatures retards the subsequent hydration and produces a nonuniform distribution of the products of hydration within the paste. The reason for this is that, at the high initial rate of hydration, there is insufficient time available for the diffusion of the products of hydration away from the cement particle and for a uniform precipitation in the interstitial space. In connection with the influence of temperature during the early life of concrete on the overall structure of the hydrated cement paste, it is useful to recall that a low early gain of strength has a beneficial effect on strength also when the hydration is slowed down by the use of retarders. Water-reducing and set-retarding admixtures were found to be beneficial in compensating for the reduction in the long-term strength of admixture-free concrete placed at a high temperature. However their effect arises from water reduction and therefore a lower water/cement ratio. Moreover, the rate of loss of slump is higher when these admixtures are used (Neville, 1997). Evaporation from Fresh Concrete The combined effects of air temperature, humidity, concrete temperature and wind velocity as they influence rate of evaporation of water from freshly placed and unprotected concrete is presented in Figure 1. This information is based on data taken from a free water surface. As an example, with air temperature at 26°C, a relative humidity at 50%, a concrete temperature of 30°C and a wind velocity of 20 km/hr, the rate of evaporation would be 1.2 kg/m2 hr. Importantly, plastic shrinkage cracking more commonly occurs when the rate of evaporation exceeds 0.5 kg/m2 hr. When the evaporation rate exceeds 1.0 kg/m2hr, precautionary measures to prevent plastic shrinkage are mandatory. The hydration is greatly reduced when the relative humidity within the capillary pores drops below 80 per cent. Hydration at a maximum rate can proceed only under conditions of saturation. For hydration to continue, the relative humidity inside the concrete has to be maintained at a minimum of 80 per cent. If the relative humidity of the ambient air is at least that high, there will be little movement of water between the concrete and the ambient air, and no active curing is needed to ensure continuing hydration. The preceding statement is valid only if no other factors intervene, e.g. there is no wind, there is no difference in temperature between the concrete and the air, and if the concrete is not exposed to solar radiation. In practice, therefore, active curing is unnecessary only in a very humid climate with a steady temperature. 346 �Figure 1: Influence of air temperature, relative humadity, concrete temperature and wind velocity on rate of evaporation Prevention of the loss of water from the concrete is of importance not only because the loss adversely affects the development of strength, but also because it leads to plastic shrinkage, increased permeability, and reduced resistance to abrasion. For hydration of cement to continue, it is sufficient to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete. This is true only if the water/cement ratio of the concrete is sufficiently high for the quantity of the mix water to be adequate for hydration to continue. The minimum periods of curing for external exposure are given in Table 1. Rate of gain of strength of concrete Temperature of concrete, oC Ambient conditions during curing [rh = relative humidity in per cent] 2) R 3) apid M 4) edium S low 5 10 15 5 10 15 5 10 15 No sun, rh≥80 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 2 Medium sun or medium wind or rh≥50 4 3 2 6 4 3 8 5 4 Strong sun or high wind or rh<50 4 3 2 8 6 5 10 8 5 Table 1: Minimum curing times (in days) due to rate of gain of strength of concrete, temperature of concrete and ambient conditions during curing (Neville, 1997). 347 �Curing Concrete Systems In order to obtain good concrete, the placing of an appropriate mix must be followed by curing in a suitable environment during the early stages of hardening. Curing is the name given to procedures used for promoting the hydration of cement, and consists of a control of temperature and of the moisture movement from and into the concrete (Neville, 1997). Curing is the protection of fresh concrete from evaporation and temperature extremes which might adversely affect cement hydration. To provide these conditions on site, the concrete must be protected from the harmful influences of wind, sun, low humidity and variable weather whilst hardening. A temperature of about 23°C is considered ideal for hydration to achieve strength and durability characteristics, however, it is known that such conditions will rarely be consistently achieved on site. Curing techniques for concrete fall into two groups:- those designed to prevent loss of water (such as the application of impermeable membranes), and those that supply moisture throughout the early stages of the hydration process (such as pounding or the application of wet sand ).(3) The influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development is demonstrated in Figure 2. Lack of curing can significantly reduce concrete strengths when compared with designed values.(3) Figure 2: Influence of curing on concrete compressive strength development Curing Concrete at High Ambient Temperatures The dangers of placing and curing concrete at temperatures in excess of 30°C are to be noted as such conditions lead to high evaporation rates. The maximum temperature for field hardening allowed under AS1012 Part 18 for concrete specimens taken in the Standard Temperature Zone is 33°C. In the Standard Tropical Zone, the maximum allowable temperature is 35°C. (3) Water Retaining Materials Chemical or liquid membranes are commonly used for curing on site largely because of convenience (Figure 3). They can be applied by hand or power sprays. Membrane compounds form a vapor seal on the surface of the concrete when dry. Water in concrete is therefore sealed in and good curing conditions can be established. Figure 3: Using chemical or liquid membranes 348 �Mechanical Barriers The use of waterproof building papers or plastic film (polyethylene sheeting) will prevent the evaporation of moisture from concrete (Figure 4). Pigmented polyethylene sheeting provides a good curing medium as it is impervious to moisture, light in weight, and can be re-used. Plastic sheeting also has the advantage of flexibility. It is easy to drape over complex shapes, and the progress of curing and condition of the concrete can be checked easily at any time. Any material used as a mechanical barrier to evaporation should cover the concrete as soon as the placing of it does not cause surface damage. Figure 4: Using mechanical barriers Water Addition Curing Theoretically, flooding, pounding or mist spraying (Figure 5) is better than the retention methods for achieving curing described above. However, such methods are not always practical under field conditions. On roads, pavements or floors, the method of flooding or pounding is simple. A small dam of earth or other water retaining material can be placed around the perimeter of the surface and the enclosed area is kept flooded with water. Care should be exercised to prevent large temperature differentials between the concrete mass and curing environment so as to avoid potential cracking due to temperature gradients within the concrete. This can result in thermal shock cracking.(3) Figure 5: Using water addition curing Absorptive Covers An absorptive medium such as sand, or canvas will hold water on the concrete surface during curing (Figure 6). Any such media must be kept damp constantly during the curing period, for if drying is permitted, the media itself will absorb moisture from the concrete. Alternate drying out and wetting of the cover may also cause cracking. The use of sawdust as a cover is not advisable for it has, on occasion, retarded the hardening of concrete through the action of sugars in the sap present in the sawdust.(3) 349 �Figure 6: Using absorptive covers Summary To sum up the advantages of careful control of moisture and temperature in curing: 1. The strength of concrete increases with age if curing conditions are favorable. Compressive strength of properly cured concrete is 80 to 100 per cent greater than the strength of concrete which has not been cured at all. 2. Properly cured concrete surfaces wear well. 3. Drying shrinkage cracking is reduced. 4. Greater watertightness in constructions is assured. Points to keep in mind when curing : 1. Start curing operations as soon as possible after concrete has been placed. 2. For proper curing concrete needs moisture. 3. Continuity in curing is a must. Alternate wetting and drying promotes the development of cracks. 4. If during curing concrete is allowed to dry out (as may happen in hot weather) the hydration reaction rate significantly reduces at the stage when the concrete loses its moisture. 5. The ideal curing temperature is about 23°C. 6. Cure concrete for at least 7 days. The problems of inadequate curing need to be highlighted. If enough water evaporates from the concrete before it has attained sufficient strength, there will not be sufficient water remaining in the concrete to fully hydrate the binder and so achieve design performance. This will lead to design performance requirements not being achieved on site. Precautions Recommended for Concreting in Hot Weather • Placing the concrete in the coolest part of the day : preferably at a time such that the ambient temperature will rise following the setting of the concrete, that is, after midnight or in the early hours of the morning. • Pre-cooling one or more of the ingredients of the mix : � Cooling mixing water. The mixing water should be get from a cooler source. The water reservoirs and the pipelines should be white, and should be placed away from sun radiation and under the ground if possible. Mix water can be chilled partially by crushed or flaked ice. All the ice must melt prior to the end of the mixing operation. � Cooling aggregates: The aggregate masses should be kept in the shade. Coarse aggregate can be cooled by spraying with chilled water or by inundation. Another method is to use evaporative cooling by blowing preferably chilled air through moist aggregate. Fine aggregate can also be cooled by air. � If possible, cement can also be used cool. 350 �• Using low heat cement types. • Keeping the cement content as low as possible: so that the heat of hydration does not unduly aggravate the effects of high ambient temperature. • Keeping all equipment used in concreting in the shade and painting them white if possible. • Cooling the places of contact of concrete: the formwork, the steel reinforcement, and the ground can be cooled by spraying cold water just prior to the placing of concrete. • Making the placing of concrete as soon as possible: placing of concrete should be previously planned. Delays in concreting lower the workability and increase the temperature of the concrete. • Using set-retarders: in general, they prolong the time during which concrete can be transported, placed, and compacted (workability time). Since they have water-reducing effect, they reduce the cement content without changing the w/c ratio, and prevent shrinkage cracks. • Sufficient and successful curing: the fresh concrete should be kept wet for preventing the fast evaporation. The concrete should be protected from the effects of direct sunlight and wind. References Neville, A.M. (1997). Properties of concrete, Fourth and Final Edition Baradan, B. (1998). Structural Materials II (in Turkish). Izmir, Dokuz Eylul University Engineering Faculty Editions No:207 http://www.csr.com.au/product_homeswork/construct/concrete http://www.miconcrete.org 351 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 451 Title A name given to the resource Hot-Weather Concreting Author Author Basaran, Hakan Demirdag, Oktay Abstract A summary of the resource. In practice, concrete is mixed at a wide range of temperatures and also remains in service at different temperatures. There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather, arising both from a higher temperature of the concrete and, in many cases, from an increased rate of evaporation from the fresh mix. These problems concern the mixing, placing and curing of the concrete. Hot-weather concreting is not so much an unusual or a specialized process; rather, it requires taking certain recognized measures to minimize or control the effect of high ambient temperature, high temperature of the concrete, low relative humidity, high wind velocity, and high solar radiation. What is required on each construction project where any one or more of the above conditions exist is to develop appropriate techniques and procedures and to follow them rigorously. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b933193cc7c0eb4a71ad92f8001034a3.pdf 4e9c0141c2e7ab43c430ea1ce021b866 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Border Matters and Border Determination Studies Between the Provinces of Montenegro and Kosovo after the Berlin Pact Assoc. Prof. Dr. Hasan Babacan Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Science and Letters History Department babacan@aku.edu.tr Introduction Today, Gusinye ve Pleve are within the borders of Montenegro State and placed in the north-east part of the country†††††††††††††††††††††. These lands shape the west part of Kosovo. During the reign of Abdülhamid II., Gusinye and Plave which bound to Kosovo were the provinces of Đpek Sub-province, it had great importance as; at one side it forms some part of the Montenegro - Ottoman border, on the other side, it forms the Kosovo Montenegro Province’s borders. For Ottoman State 19th century was such a period that its effects continued many years. Particularly at the end of the Ottoman-Russia War in 1877, at first in Ayastefanos and then in Berlin Pact, Albanians in Kosovo and Ottoman borders reacted these two provinces are given to the Montenegro State. According to the 28th article of the Berlin Pact, the lands of Montenegro expand one time as much, but with Berlin Pact, it is forced to give back some parts of the lands which are gained at Ayastefanos Treaty. Piva, Nişnik, Kolaşin, Podgoriça, Jabliak, Đşbuz (Spuz) and near the Bar Port, including the provinces of Kosovo, these wide lands Gusinye and Plave, are in the borders of Montenegro‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. a- Gusinje and Plave’s giving to the Montenegro and Kosovo’s Reaction Gusinye and Pleve are generally formed with Albanians. For this reason, They don’t accept to be a part of Montenegro and resisted§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. The Christian Albanians living that region are not pleased to be abandoned to the Montenegro like Muslim Albanians**********************. As a matter of fact, they rebel after a few years††††††††††††††††††††††. The organization of the Albanian and Kosovo Albanians raise after Berlin Pact. In July 1878, an organization established which is called ‘Albanian League ‘including Kosovo Albanian members, so that in order not to give Gusinye and pleve to the Montenegro, they armed. When Montenegro acts to take the control of the lands which they own with the pact, they face with the resistance of the Albanians and forced to go back‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. After that Montenegro consults to the states which have signatures in Berlin Pact and complain the attitudes of Ottoman. In the declaration which is sent to the international commission, come together to determine Ottoman State and Montenegro, it is said that ‘Without the consent of Albanian, no Albanian land can be transferred’ but European States are continued to be ‘deaf ‘ to these protests. Albanians in Kosova Province are sad about their lands to be given Montenegro, Greece and Sırbia. They start to think that their lands are dispersed and sacrified to the use of Balkan States§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. On the other hand, muslims and christian Albanians in Kosovo State, in order to preserve their religion and ††††††††††††††††††††† Today Gusinje is a unit connected to plave. Prime ministry otoman archieves, Sadanet Muhimme Kalemi Evrakı (A.MKT.MHM) Nihat Erim Internatıonal law and politics passages. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ In spite of treaty Judgements, this place remained as a unit of ottomans until 1913. Yılmaz Öztuna: our losing European Turkey, Losing Rumeli,Babıali Kültür Yayıncılığı. Đst. 2006 pages 62-68. ********************** 4 M.S Anderson The Eastern Question 1774-1923 Macmillian, London 1966 pages 221. †††††††††††††††††††††† Besim Darkot “ Montenegro” encyclopedia of Islam C.6, MEB Ankara pages 226-227. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Constantine A. Chekrezi, Albania Past and Present, McMillan Company, NY 1919, p. 51. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Constantine A. Chekrezi, Đbid, p. 52. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ 459 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo nationalistic thoughts, declared that they want to be in the borders of Otoman State and they tell their wishes to Abdulhamid on this matter. ‘States and the sub-states where Albanians live should be united under the roof of one state and to manage the state somebody who is talented should be appointed.’ The Kosovo Albanians who wish ‘States and the sub-states where Albanians live should be united under the roof of one state and to manage the state somebody who is talented should be appointed.’ declared that if not so, they’ll completely lose Albanians and this means the end of Ottoman State in Rumeli. Kosovo representatives also declared they wish Abdulhamid to form an organization ‘komisyon-ı ali ‘to find a solution to this matter***********************. While the gossip of bad treat is being done to the Muslims in Montenegro spreads, The Kosovo Albanians who don’t want to prefer Gusinye to Montenegro†††††††††††††††††††††††, ın November 1879 established an organization called ‘Yakova Cemiyyet-i Đttihadiyesi” and with the assistance of the citizens try to raise the number of the members of the organization‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In 2nd of Nov 1879, they establish Prizren Heyet-i Đttihâdiyesi in Prizen. The organization which aims to unite the Albanians, if not so they declare, they’ll not accept any renovation. Prizren Heyet-i Đttihâdiyesi which is bound to Kosovo State, by arranging The Albanian soldiers, they decide to defend Yakova, Đpek and Gusinye provinces from the Karada𧧧§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. It can be seen that Ottoman State is under the pressure of two sides. At one side as for the treaty signs with great nations they are forced to go back from the lands which are given to Montenegro, on the other side, they face with the resistance of Albanians. Otaman State, at first, decides not to give any chance to the organizations which struggle for ‘freedom’************************. This decision is both for to calm down the great nations and to give a thought that a solution to these matters is aimed. Montenegro wants to carry this attitdue of Otoman who is late to abondon Gusinye and Plave, to the international platform. b- Being Sent of Mehmet Ali Pasha’ and Nasihat Heyeti Otoman State sent Mehmet Ali Pasha to the region in order to pasify Kosovo Albanians by giving advices to them, to make studies in order to make them unarmed and to give the lands to Sırbia and Montenegro according to the articles of Berlin Pact††††††††††††††††††††††††. On the other hand Mehmet Ali Pasha announced to the Prince of Montenegro for his being appointed to the region as superintended of police‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In addition, Mehmet Ali Pasha§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§, who will determine the borders of Ottoman - Montenegro to the Kosovo, meet with the governor and president of Albania and try to tell the aims and orders of the Ottoman State*************************. Mehmet Ali Pasha who meet the governors of Đşkodra, Debre, Priştine, Đpek, Yakova and the other provinces in Prizen tell them that, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha’s acts are not wright and this Albanian alliance force should be seperated urgently†††††††††††††††††††††††††. Mehmet Ali Pasha goes from Prizen to Yakova and he causes about two thousand Albanian to meet in 6th of September. At that time, he is shot at Abdullah Pasha’s mansion‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The soldiers with Mehmet Ali Pasha who are almost composed of Albanians, avoid shooting to their own citizens§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Albanians, with the leadership of governor *********************** Yıldız Perakende Evrâkı Arzuhal ve Jurnaller (YPRK AZJ), 1/25. BOA, Yıldız Hususi (YAHUS), 162/81. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YAHUS, 162/103. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Prominent people of Cosova, Debre, Pristine, Prizren, Uskup, Yenipazar, Yonya, Ergiri, and Berat Sanjaks gathered in Maraş Tekke. BOA, YPRK MYD, 2/1-3-4. ************************ BOA, Yıldız Parakende Başkitabet (YPRK BŞK), 2/36. †††††††††††††††††††††††† Fahir Armaoğlu; 19th century history of politics 1789 – 1914, TTK Ank. 2003, p. 540. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, ĐMMS, 59/2772, Mehmet Ali Pasha was known as Maxhari Ali Pasha in Albaniç. Peter Bartl; Albanian Muslims during national independence struggles. Trans. Ali Taner, Bedir Yay Đst.1998 page 203. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Born in Prution Brandeburg, Mehmet Ali Pasha raan away to Istanbul when he was 15 and became a Muslim. After he graduated from military school, Mehmet Ali Pasha commanded the Tuna west army with the rank of Muşir in 1875. Mehmet Ali Pasha was appointed as the second Murahhas with Karato dori Pasha in Berlin treaty. Süleyman Külçe Albania in otoman history. Izmir 1944 page 257. Mehmet Ali Pasha is the grandfather of poet Nazım Hikmet. ************************* BOA, Foreign ministry politics parts (HR,SYS), 126/22. ††††††††††††††††††††††††† BOA,YPRK.A, 2/10. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Külçe, Đbid pages 257. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Türkgeldi; Mesâil-i Mühimme-i Siyâsiyye, TTK, Ankara 1987, p. 137; Peter Bartl; ibid, p. 203. ††††††††††††††††††††††† 460 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo of Yakova killed Mehmet Ali Pasha and Abdullah Pasha**************************, as they think that they betray their thoughts††††††††††††††††††††††††††. While Albanians go well together, Prince Nikola wants Podgoriçe and Đşboz Castles to be given to Montenegro in his telegraph‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Montenegro Governor declared with his order to Bab-ı Ali that, if the lands are not un-settled in ten days, Montenegro army will enter Gosine§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Before the Montenegro governors negotiate the matter of Gosine and Plave’s abandonment, solving by the European Commission is thought***************************. Bab-ı Ali tells the Muslim citizens to abandon the lands. There will be given lands in Đşkodra, Manastır and the villages in Kosovo to the citizens who are volunteer to migrate and they’ll not pay any tax†††††††††††††††††††††††††††. It is clear that the crime of Mehmet Ali Pasha proved Albanians being decided in the matters of Gosine and Plave. It is not seen easy for both Albanians and Montenegro citizens to give up armed struggle by advice. The insisted attitudes of Montenegro makes the situations hard. It shouldn’t be forgotten that Mehmet Ali Pasha is one of the people who has signature in the Berlin Pact‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. And this is one of the reason why Albanians feel anger to Mehmet Ali Pasha so much. The crime of Mehmet Ali Pasha makes Montenegro anxious. Montenegro starts to act to enter Gosine. Gosine people even start any preparation for the defense. When it is heard that Albanians in Đpek and Yakova go to region in large numbers for to defense, in order not to make the situation hard, the governor of monastery and 3rd army commander Müşir Ahmet Muhtar Pasha is sent to Gosine, immediately. If it is not possible to go there, he wants to go to Prizen§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. It is a fact of Abdulhamid’s being silent towards the Kosovo Albanians. With this reason Abdülhamid can find an excuse to great countries why the lands, which should be given to Montenegro, are not abandoned****************************. As the offer of the lands where Albanians live, should be united isn’t accepted by the government, Albanians arm approximately 10.000 people. With the management of Ali Pasha by uniting 12 flags, they attack Anderviça Church. While Montenegro is announcing his anxiety first with the help of Russia and then the other great states, at the same time with the management of Mark Milan, attacks to Ali Pasha with for about 10-15 thousand people and turned to apply the articles of Berlin Pact. Ali Pasha who is supported by Albanians from the Ipek, Gaç, Kristic, and in Pepic and Nisnik collide with Montenegro in bloody wars††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. On 4th December 1879, in spite of Ottoman State, Kosovo Albanians and the Montenegro People who do not want to give their lands, come face to face in Novic – Velika. The Albanians with the leadership of Ali Pasha, fights against the Montenegro Army, and forced them to go up to Andrijevica. Upon losing the battle, Montenegro people become aware of the difficulty of occupying Gusine and Plave by force‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In conclusion, the Ottoman Albanians, living in the lands abandoned to Montenegro, are decisive not to give their lands. At this point there are to alternatives to be done. First one is, to persuade the Albanians, the second one is to convince the great states to accept another alternative. As the other ones except these can cause new divisions and wars. At this point the most peaceful way, admonition, is chosen. ************************** A great rage occured among the Albanians against Mehmet Ali Pasha. However later, this hostility vanished and the tomb of Mehmet Ali Pasha was transformed in to a turbe Süleyman kani irtem. Macedonia issue Temel Yayınları, Istanbul 1999, p. 132. †††††††††††††††††††††††††† Nicolae Jorga: History of Ottoman Empire Yeditepe Yayınları. Trans.: Nilüfer Epçeli. After he was wounded, Mehmet Ali Pasha`s head was separated from his body and put on a stick. It was showed for three days. A tomb was made for him in 1897. Süleyman Külçe, Đbid, page 259. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Yıldız Esas Evrakı (YEE), 100 /1. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Turkgeldi; Đbid, p. 137. *************************** BOA,YAHUS, 160/28. ††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Peter Bartl; Đbid. p. 204. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 260. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuad Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 137. **************************** However, these societies are known to have an important role in establishing the Albanian Kingdom. Mustafa L. Bilge “Albania”, TDVIA, V: 3 ist 1991, page 386. †††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Süleyman Külçe: Đbid 247-248. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Peter Bartl: Đbid page 204. 461 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo On the other hand, Montenegro Prince announces, if Kosovo Muslims surrender, they will be behaved humanly, but if not, he declared they’ll be behaved unjustly§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. Montenegro general Bojo Petroviç claims that, Kosovo people in Gusinje and Plave are directly supported by Babı-ali and Ahmet Muhtar Pasha gives 500 riffles and a lot of ammunition to Gusinyeli Ali Pasha*****************************. As for new events strike out, Ottoman’s attention should be taken in a proper way before it is too late†††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. Also Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s being sent to the region again doesn’t make it possible to gain not the Kosovo Albanians but Albanian Albanians‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Ahmet Muhtar Pasha aims to accept his advises to Albanians for not to shed blood in vain and give up rebellion, so he’ll do this with words instead of using force. Ahmet Muhtar Pasha says to Albanians that, whose lands are given to Montenegro people, you can immigrate to Prizen, Kosovo, Đşkodra, Manastır and Ergiri and you’ll be settled to farms in these lands, you’ll be given seeds and machines for agriculture. Even it is said that they are free from tax for a few years, finding a solution to the matter with advise and peace method doesn’t work§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. c- Italy’s mediation instead of Gusinye and Plave Gruda, Klemendi and Hot’s being given to Montenegro: Kont Corti Pact Montenegro delegate Voyvoda Gabroye is in Đstanbul and he urgently wants to go his hometown. The reason is it is understood that as because of the article of Gusinye, Montenegro people want to start a war. The transmission of some materials to the region is started. Prince Nicola send the message to abandon Gusinye in 34 days, if not so Montenegro army’ll enter Gusinye. Also Montenegro who sent nato to great states send their complaints. He wants Ottoman State to pay 2 billion Frank as indemnity and up to fulfill the articles of Berlin Pact completely, he declares that he seizures the possessions of the Muslims who immigrate from the lands which are abandoned to Montenegro******************************. Ottomans effect on Albanians becomes lesser as; Mehmet Ali Pasha’s being killed who is sent to Albania to find a solution and then instead of him Ahmet Muhtar Pasha’s been sent and his struggles come out with no result. It should be declared that; Mostly, Italy interests the national development in Albania. As Italy, who afraid of the situation, knows Austria has potential to interfere in Albania, so immediately in the side of the problems being solved between Ottoman State and Montenegro. How earlier it is solved, much better it will be††††††††††††††††††††††††††††††. After Albanians reacted for Gusinye and Pleve’s been given to Montenegro, on 2nd April in 1880 the member countries’ leaders of Berlin Pact start to think about the matter. Italian representative Kont Corti who mediates between Ottoman and Montenegro, offers to give Gruda, Hot and Klemendi instead of Gusinye and Plave, because Gruda, Hot and Klemendi are mostly formed by Catholic Albanians. Finally, it is accepted to leave Hot, Gruda and Klemendi to Montenegro. According to the treatment called Kont Corti‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡; 1- Border starts from Vakroçi up to the lake. It passes the lake and goes between the Kasrati and Hoti Lakes, then passes the top of Tuzi and Hoti Mountains and reaches the River of Zam. It goes through the river of Zam and climb foot of Goliş and following the tops of Yenzika Mountain by passing the Vermos Valley reach the top of the Stovica Mountain. The border passing from the top of Libovica Zerintin ends with by leaving Kerya to Montenegro and Okra Plantya to Ottoman State. 2- These lands will be abandoned 10 days after the treaty. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 163/30. ***************************** Beitullah Destani (Ed.) “Mr. Kirby Green to Marques of Salisbury 17 January 1880 Cettinje” Montenegro: Political And Ethnic Boundaries 1840–1920, Volume I, Cambridge University Press Archive Editions, Wilts 2001 UK, p. 640. ††††††††††††††††††††††††††††† BOA, Yıldız Perakende Evrakı Elçilik, Şehbenderlik Ve Ataşemiliterlik (YPRKEŞA), 2/11. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 540. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 138; BOA, Đradeler Meclis-i Mahsus (ĐMMS), 66 /3104. ****************************** Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 138. †††††††††††††††††††††††††††††† Armaoğlu Đbid page 540-541. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ For the whole text of the treaty look at Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid, page 353-356. 462 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 3- 24 hours before the evacuation Montenegro informs Podgorica Commanders, so that Ottoman Commanders can pass at that hour. After the evacuation, Ottoman State does not be responsible with the events in these abandoned lands. 4- People keep remaining their possessions in these abandoned lands. But it is told by the Sultan, who wants to immigrate should already tell where they want from Ciftligat-ı Hümayun in Kosovo and Monastery. Nikola, the Prince of Montenegro accepts the treaty and via Ambassador of Cetine sends his thanks to II. Abdulhamid. With the help of a published declaration§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§, the matter, between the Foreign Minister of Ottoman Sava Pasha and Charge of the Affairs of Montenegro Gavro Vaucovitch, is solved on 12th of April. So that, the border is determined with the leadership of Kont Corti and the treaty which carries the same name with him. It is accepted by the states and which have signatures in the Berlin Pact, and it is made valid in a protocol on 18th of April*. On May 1880, Iskodra’s governor and commander sends a notification to Đzzet Pasha in order to make Albanians abandon Tuz and Hot†. As it is understood from the articles, Christian Albanians are shown the possible element for giving Hot, Grude and Klemend instead of Gosine and Pleve. That is; It is supposed that, Christian Albanians do not have any matter with Christian Montenegro Citizens. Nothing happens as Kont Corti has foresighted. When the citizens of Hot and Gruda receives such an information, they start to act and 26 people composed of olds and the leaders of aşiret, sends Kirby Green a letter and express that they give a signal of resistance by saying ‘they will fight till the last drop their blood’‡. The citizens of Hot, Gruda Ksatrat, Đşkirek and Repol declare that they’ll struggle with Montenegro people, so reacted to the decision and on 4th April they send an article to representatives of the six states. In this article by protesting the occupation; ‘For centuries we are devoted to our Sultan with obedience and faith. We are proud as we live our independence. We’ll fight everybody whoever changes our situation.’§ The leaders of tribes in Hot, Gruda and Klemendi come together and with ‘Besa Oath’∗ they give the signals of they’ll struggle. Telegraphs are send to Đşkodra, Prizen, Đpek, Yakova, Debre, Elbasan and Tirana and asked for help**. They sent a manifesto to II. Abdulhamid on 10th April 1880 and again they take their desire of autonomy to agenda. II. Abdulhamid refused their offer. Abdulhamid do not completely refuse the Albanians by not accepting their autonomy offer. He sends a telegraph to Albanians with aiming to show favors. In his telegraph he says he knows how Albanians are devoted to himself††. He expressed his good feelings to them and even giving a small portion of land gives sorrow to him but they do that because of the forceful effect of the policy. If the Albanians who have faith to Ottoman State, and love their religion and state, should leave Hot and Klemendi to the Karadağ Government. If the citizens cease from their rights in these lands, they’ll be given some lands and inhabitances in Ciflikat-ı Humayun which has the same value‡‡. They will be exempt from some responsibilities§§. So they’ll keep themselves, Albanians and also Ottoman State from a great danger. If they insist on not abandoning Hot and Klemendi, they cause danger for the state and warns them by saying you come face to face God’s and his own torture. He gives morale to §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Armaoğlu, Đbid page 540-541. According to our research Hot Gruda, Klemendi and virmoş valley are the places that were intended to leave to Montenegro with the treaty of cant Corti. For the whole text of treaty signed by Düvel-i Muazzama Murahhas Look at Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page 357 Beitullah Destani; Đbid V.2 page 65-67 * BOA, YPRK BŞK, 2/71. † Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 261. ‡ § Beitullah Destani ; Đbid, Volume I, s 628-629. Peter Bartl; Đbid, p. 205. ∗ Besa, an Albanian word, means Albanian swearing. At the same time, it means the treaty made between the bloody hostiles through swearing. Ottoman language dictionary “Besa” ** Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 261. †† Abdin Temizer: Ottoman-Montenegro border disagreements and solution, On dokuz Mayıs University, SBE unissued master`s thesis, consultant Ass. Prof. Mucize Ünlü. ‡‡ Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page, 146 §§ YAHUS, 164/57, 17 ca 1297, (27.04.1880). 463 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Albanians whose lands are given to Montenegro by saying ‘you’ll gain the lands again with the help of God and Our Prophet which you have to abandon, don’t lose your hope.’*** According to Corti Treaty by considering the borders between Ottoman and Montenegro†††, it is started to the solution of the matter and carrying out the articles of the barter. Also the military and material needs for the evacuation are provided‡‡‡. Ghazi Ahmet Muhtar Pasha demands soldiers in order to fight against the terrorists§§§. He gives the order of making Albanians accept the border which is determined in Corti Traty by advise if not with help of soldiers by force. It is explained that they’ll be given lands from Hümayun farms and other places. Besides, in order not to cause any problem it is desired what need to do****. But, Albanians tell Ferik Necip Pasha that they’ll not accept the advice committee††††. In conclusion, at least Ottoman State tries to give a sense of faith to treaty and ready to do what’s necessary, it is not easy to solve the problem. It comes out that the plan that Italy puts forward with great hopes doesn’t work. The insistent acts of Albanians require to think Berlin Pact, again. In the region Abdulhamid’s struggles to find a peaceful solution is in vain because of Albanians an insistent thought. d- England’s Efforts, Ülgün’s Exchange With Gusinye and Plava Upon the Kont Corti Treaty is out of use, a solving plan is put forward by England. The article comes forth,as before European ambassadors give a note to Ottoman, if the submission of the lands ,which are determined in Berlin Pact, are not taken in, it is thought to give Ülgün instead of these lands. As it is known by the Albanians that it impossible to abandon that note which is published August 1878, different alternatives are applied‡‡‡‡. In 2 years time, liberal party is in power. The leadership is done by William Gladstone who is known with his Turk hostility. A great deal of changes occur in England’s political aspects about Turkey. This worries Abdulhamid§§§§. The prime minister of England Gladstone makes great efforts to protect the rights of the small countries especially Montenegro*****. But this offer is given up since it may cause a new crisis in the Balkans. In short, with Glindstone period England’s policy changes towards Ottoman. It is a period of breaking Ottoman State instead of protecting it†††††. In Kont Corti Treatment which is done with Italy’s moderation on 12th April 1880, England’s Foreign Affairs Minister Lord Grandville‡‡‡‡‡ who seen Ottoman State responsible with the problems, prepares an offer pack and present it to great countries which consists of Montenegro’s legal wishes§§§§§. Gladstone, who declares that carrying out some articles of Berlin Pact is a European crisis, wishes for from the six states to give a memorandum to Ottoman State via their ambassadors. Gladstone wants to be carried out the agreements in Montenegro and Greece and he puts forward Albanians to be given autonomy. The agreement is send via the ambassadors to Babı-Ali on 11th June 1880******. It is also added that Ottoman himself will responsible from the bad results delaying to carrying out the agreement††††††. Ottoman is accused of not pertaining the Kont Corti Pact and ignoring Albanian’s invasion of the lands, which are given to Montenegro. On the memorandums which Ambassadors of the great states one by one give to Babı-ali, it is also expressed that Ottoman will be responsible *** Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 146-146. BOA, YPRK UM, 1/102. ‡‡‡ BOA, YPRK.KOM, 2/75. §§§ BOA, YEE, 147/12. **** BOA, YEE, 101/16. †††† BOA, YAHUS, 164/160. ‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 101/15. §§§§ Britain, having pursued a “Turcophil” policy was highly agitated because of the otoman attitude during Bulgarian revolt. The British public turned against Turks after Gladstone published “Bulgarian Horrors and the question of the East” and issued 200 thousand copies. M.S Anderson Đbid, page 221-184. ***** Joan Haslip; Unknown Soultan IInd Abdulhamid, IQ Kültür Sanat Yay. Ist. 2001 Trans: Nejdet Öztürk, page 190. ††††† Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 541. ‡‡‡‡‡ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 144. §§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 164/83. ****** BOA, YAHUS, 165/22. †††††† Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 144. ††† 464 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo for any conflict between Albanians and Montenegro and it is wished Corti Pact to be applied‡‡‡‡‡‡. Because of the unavoidable resistance of Kosovo Albanians in in Gusinye and Pleve, England declares that Montenegro and Ottoman should come together immediately to solve the problem. They come together in Berlin and discuss with the matters Montenegro and Greece on 16th June 1880§§§§§§. England’s Cabinet finds an alternative solution to the border matter between Ottoman and Montenegro on 26th of 1880. For this reason; these lands should be abandoned to Montenegro, which are Hot and Grode lands between Adriatic Sea and Iskodra which comprises Ülgün and upto the river Boyona. In order to lessen the reactions of the Albanians it is offered to establish an autonomic Albanian State which is again connected to the Ottoman, but it is refused. Instead of this, it is wished some means to some extend satisfy the legal inclinations of Albanians and give them some administrational discriminations*******. In spite of all the facts, Ottoman State prefers Corti Pact to 26th June offer. It insists on carrying out these decisions as it’ll be better for Ottoman State to carry out the responsibilities in Corti Pact on 18th April. Because as it is seen if these are not carried out, great states don’t mind Montenegro’s invading Ülgün†††††††. On 18th August Abidin Pasha gives a reply to representatives of six states and he wants border determination Agreements to be organized. Also he declares that he prefers Ülgün’s being abandon instead of Gosine and Plave. Because of England’s Gladstone policy six states send Ülgün a navy. Ottoman State who knows using force results in bad consequences and this is not true for religious and political morals, force his own citizens to bind a government which they don’t want‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. The navy reached to Ülgün on September 1880 and spends about 2 months there§§§§§§§. This is only a kind of warning and threat. As it is ordered to captains not to shoot. This threats works and Albanians, who do not want to give Ülgün to Montenegro starts to resist. Ottoman State’s unhurried actions and instead of forcing Albanians, trials of convincing them delay Ülgün’s being abandoned. England becomes angry about Ottoman’s these inconsiderate attitudes and offers to invade Đzmir with Russia and Italy. Gladstone’s this offer is refused by Germany, Austria and France********. Abdulhamid doesn’t believe that they will give an end to the navy show, which is given after ülgün abandoned. He says; the aim of great nations is to make Ottoman state just a land, for this reason it is difficult to take a written guarantee††††††††. So, it stated that instead of gosine and plave, ülgün can be abandoned in certain conditions‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In Berlin Pact the possessions and religions are already taken under guarantee§§§§§§§§. The reason of Abdulhamid’s wish to take such a guarantee is the obligations of the six states, which make a navy show, and the worry about the Yanya matter*********. Ottoman State, with the decision of Meclis-I Vükela gives Rıza Pasha an order and for this reason††††††††† Rıza Pasha immediately goes to the region with a six battalion soldier on 10th October ‡‡‡‡‡‡ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 358. Armaoğlu; Đbid, p. 541. ******* For the whole text of the passage look at Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid page 364 Darkot, Đbid article, page 227. ††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/23. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ For the whole text of the document look at Ali Fuat Türkgeldi: Đbid page 368-369. §§§§§§§ Francis Seymour Stevenson; A History Of Montenegro, Elibron Classics, London 2005, p. 202; BOA, YPRK ASK, 4/49. ******** BOA, YPRK. ASK, 4/36; Constantine A. Chekrezi, Đbid page 53; The six country fleet anchored to Dubrounik consisted of 3 french, 2 British, 2 Austrain, 2 Đtalian, 1 Russian and 1 German ships. Peter Bantl; Đbid page 207-208, Armeoğlu; Đbid page 542. †††††††† Soultan IInd Abdulhamit Han. “Detect” V.2 memleket görüşlerim, çağır yay. Đst. 1976, p. 76-77. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 76/83. §§§§§§§§ BOA, YPRK HR, 5/35. ********* Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 157. ††††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/29. §§§§§§ 465 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1880‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. On the other hand the time is up which is stated by Admiral Simon to give Ülgün§§§§§§§§§. These decisions are prepared by Meclis-I Vükela********** and they are presented to great nations††††††††††. Ottoman State decides to use force to Albanians for to abandon Ülgün and sends Müşir Derviş Pasha as the magnificent commandor who is in Selonika, in order to send Albanian forces out of Ülgün‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Dervis Pasha with 1300 soldiers come to the Ülgün by using Istanbul and Mecidiye Ships§§§§§§§§§§. Upon this order, Dervis Pasha comes from Đskodra to Ülgün with Ottoman soldiers and gives an end to rebellion by using force on 23rd November 1880. With the demand of an officer from Montenegro, an agreement is prepared with Ottoman officer Bedri Bey and Montenegro citizens entered Ülgün*********** at the night of connecting 26th to 27th November in 1880†††††††††††. At the same night Düvel-i Sitte‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ ambassadors are informed by Asım Pasha and the navy’s showing of is ended on 5th December 1880§§§§§§§§§§§. In conclusion, it is given to Montenegro instead of Ülgün, Gosine and Plave which are composed mostly of Albanian Muslims. The effects of this barter, which is done by taking the support of all the great nations, continue for a long time. An existing problem is solved but it causes many other ones. As it is understood, the lands, which are given to Montenegro indirectly triggers the independence of Albanians. The Albanian lands, which are lying on the connection line of Ottoman and Montenegro are given to Montenegro after the Berlin Pact. Although Ottoman State doesn’t want to this, with the force of great nations these lands are given and Albanians are bartered. This causes a disappointment among Albanians which lasts long years. e- The Determination of Montenegro’s Border and Göksu Pact Gosine and Pleve keep on binding to Kosovo Province. But the problem is where will be the border passes. Montenegro doesn’t want to abandon some of the villages in Gosine where they occupy as Ottoman gives Ülgün to Montenegro************. Also they don’t contend a new agreement††††††††††††. Ottoman offers a new and unusual recommendation in order to solve the matter. It is absolutely certain that Albanians do not want to abandon their lands to Montenegro. But it is necessary from one side to step back. Otherwise the matter can become long lasting and again an international conflict. Ottoman offers Nikola if he gives up the insisting on the lands on Tuz region, he’ll be given a scar, and some of his debts to Ottoman State will be ignored‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In order to conclude the border studies on 19-31st August, some meetings are held between Prince Nikola, Nusret Pasha, who is the representative of Ottoman State, in Göksu town. Prince pleases from the meetings and expresses his thanks§§§§§§§§§§§§. There occur some conflicts during the meetings held by the representatives of the two states in Lim Valley. So the problems become hard to solve. Prince Nikola and Montenegro Government’s offers do not cover each other. In order the correct the fault, Prince Nikola during his visit in Istanbul makes some meetings in Göksu Town where he stays as a guest. At the end of these meetings and exchanging of ideas, which are held on ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Nuray Bozbora: Albania under otoman control and development of Albanian nationalism, Đstanbul, 1997, p. 200-202. BOA, YPRK PT, 1/31, 18 za 1297 (23.10.1880). ********** BOA, YEE, 100/39. †††††††††† BOA, YEE, 100/43; According to this, 1.States will give up fleet shows, 2.Inhabitants of the abondoned towns will be protected in terms of religion, residence, legal rights. 3. Rights of the Muslim and Catholic community will be guaranteed. 4. Podgorica boundary will be accepted log the states. Ali Fuat Turkgeldi; Đbid page 156; Peter Bantl; Đbid page 208. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Süleyman Kocabaş; Đbid, s 170; Darkot; Aynı makale, p. 227. §§§§§§§§§§ Peter Bartl; Đbid, p. 209. *********** BOA, YEE, 101/66. ††††††††††† BOA, YEE, 101/61. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YPRK KOM, 2/87. §§§§§§§§§§§ Ali Fuat Türkgeldi; Đbid, p. 166. ************ BOA, YPRK UM, 5/104. †††††††††††† BOA, YPRK UM, 5/103. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Đrade-i Dahili (ĐDH), 1295/-3 /102094. §§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, YAHUS, 174/66. §§§§§§§§§ 466 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo between 19-31 August 1883, Prince Nikola, Montenegro Foreign Affairs Minister M. Radonic and Nusret Pasha, who is the representative of Ottoman State, reach these decisions;************* The Places in Lim Valley and under Montenegro’s management will be abandoned to Montenegro. Prince will leave all the places, which are not invaded or belonged to Montenegro, to Devlet-i Aliye whether they are Christian or not. Villages are determined with the borders of the towns. As between in Sisko, Jezero and Moikovach the places, which verified in Berlin Pact, become exceptions. On the decided border line, Montenegro and Devlet-I Aliye superintendent of polices make determination studies together†††††††††††††. For this reason, Prince Nikola expresses his thanks to Babı-Ali for their good thoughts and attitudes‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. Göksu pact is a very important progress. It is seen as a good step to lessen the conflicts even if it doesn’t finish them. After the pact is signed, the necessary instruction is given to Mustafa Asım Pasha§§§§§§§§§§§§§. With the determination of Montenegro, Ottoman officers Mustafa Asım ( Brana Head superintendent of police ), Đsmail Hakkı, Ahmet Tahir, Bedrettin and Sabri Bey continue to decide undetermined parts of the borders of Gosine – Plave and Montenegro – Ottoman in 1884**************. Another determination study of border is in Ülgün–Pilaninçe (Planintiza). In order to determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border in its last form, G. Vooucovitch, Istanbul Montenegro Charge of the affairs, sends a memorandum to Ottoman Delegates,Müşir Derviş and Nusret Pasha. In the memorandum it is foreseen to interfere to the Christians in Berane††††††††††††††. Charge of the Affairs of Montenegro and Ottoman representatives Nusret Dervis Pasha and Rıza Pasha sign an agreement in order to determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border, definitely. In this agreement, particularly in Planenitza, where rebellion signs can be seen, border determination is done. According to agreement;‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ Morino Province is given to Montenegro, Repic Province is given to Devlet-I Aliye, Rjenitza Province is given to Devlet-I Aliye, Velika Province is given to Montenegro, Mokra Planina is given to Ottoman State. In this agreement Christian Villages are given to Montenegro§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. So, Göksu Pact signed on 29 August 1883, is affirmed***************. Nikola The Prince of Montenegro is pleased from this agreement as he thinks it gives an end to the conflicts. He immediately requests Dersaadet Charge of the Affairs Gavro Voukovich to forgive the citizens of Montenegro††††††††††††††† who are in prison and soon after this request these are left free‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. ************* BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300 BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YAHUS, 174/66, 30 L 1300. §§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, Đrade-i Haricî (ĐHR), 337 /21725, 24/Z /1300 (Hicrî). ************** BOA, YAHUS, 205 /83, 29/Za/1304 (Hicrî). †††††††††††††† BOA, YEE, 109/17, 02/Z/1301. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, YEE, 100/44, 11 Ra 1302. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Thomas Erskine Holland (e.d.); Đbid, p. 295 *************** This agreement was signed among Ibrahim Rıza Pasha, Nusrat Pasha and Montenegro Dersaadet charge d`affaires G. Voucovithe on 12th December 1884. BOA,YEE, 100/44i 11,RA 1302. ††††††††††††††† The letter,which includes the list of ten Montenegro prisoners and signed by Montenegro embassador, was presented to the soultern. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, ĐDH. 958 /75775, 04/Z /1302 (Hicrî). ††††††††††††† 467 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In conclusion, the completion of the determination of the borders causes a relaxation among the citizens. But it should be remembered that the people who do not like the completion of the determination of the borders will try to arise some incidents in order to cause some conflicts between the two countries. The Continuation of the Border Matters After leaving Ülgün to Montenegro, the determination studies are carried out between Ottoman – Montenegro officers. The members are changed from time to time and new appointments are done. We can see that up to 1882 - 1887 years, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha worked in the border determination commission. In Albanian, Ali Beg Shabanagaj is a leader who was born in Gusinye and gets military education in Istanbul. He works as a head officer in Gusinye since 1845. Also in determination of borders, he tries hard to the keep the borders utterly in Gusinye§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. In 1883, Erkan-I Harbiye Head Officer Bedri Bey is appointed to remove the conflict in the border of the Montenegro****************. In January 1884, Mustafa Asım, Ismail Hakkı, Ahmet Tahir, Bedrettin Bey and Sabri Bey are appointed as the officer to the determination commission of Montenegro border††††††††††††††††. In 1887, the determination of Montenegro border is carried out by a mixed commission, which is composed of Gusinyeli Ali Pasha, Cetine Sefiri, charge of the Affairs of the border and an officer who is sent by Montenegro Government‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. In 1890, Ahmet Pasha is appointed again for the determination of the border§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. In 1905, Montenegro requests to form a commission for the determination of the borders. In 1906, with the leadership of Ferik Enver Pasha from Ottoman State and General Vukovic, National Defense Minister of Montenegro, a report is prepared*****************. After that in 1908, in order to analyze the border matter deeply, a commission is appointed as the representative of Ottoman State with the leadership of Bedri Pasha, who is the Governor of Đşkodra†††††††††††††††††. The two countries commissions continue to border determination negotiations‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. While determining the borders, the expenses are paid by the public treasury. Salaries are given to the members of the commission. From time to time some difficulties arise and the obligation of sending the military forces to the region. Süleyman Külçe points out that, lots of people die because of the conflicts in these border matters. He also indicates that, the height of the corpsesare as long as the borders between Ottoman and Montenegro and he specifies the determination of Ottoman and Montenegro border is a very difficult task. Montenegro’s struggles to expanse and take more money makes the determination of the borders difficult and Ottoman’s patriotism makes it too long§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§. As it is seen the missions of the commissions, which determine the Ottoman – Montenegro border are carried out many years. Up the end of the Abdulhamid’ period this commission tries hard to determine Kosovo – Montenegro border. But it is a difficult task to find a solution. It can be understood from the struggles of the commissions that, the determination of the borders is not easy and they come face to face lots of difficulties. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Peter Batl; Đbid, page 204, Gusinyeli Ali Pasha was originally from plve. While he was oppsed to the legality of Berlin treaty, he became famous with his revolt. He used interesting methods in fixing the borders. At once, Montenegro murahhas offered him to determine the border by using the pathway of his horse. But later, whild the protocol was being prepared, some disagrements were occured on the pathway of his horse. Süleyman Külçe; Đbid page 310. **************** BOA, YPRK ASK, 15/62. †††††††††††††††† BOA, YPRK ASK, 15/62. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, Meclis-i Vâlâ (MV), 16/9. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ BOA, ĐMMS, 114/4868. ***************** BOA, YEE, 100/45. ††††††††††††††††† Devleti Aliyye-i Osmaniye Đle Karadağ Hududu Tarifnamesi, Matbaa-i Askeriye, ist. 1324, p. 4-19. ‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡ BOA, MV, 162/61. §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ Süleyman Külçe; Đbid, p. 311. 468 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 735 Title A name given to the resource Border Matters and Border Determination Studies Between the Provinces of Montenegro and Kosovo after the Berlin Pact Author Author Babacan, Hasan Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e3a9f49ae30ccf0038017d963f740ae2.pdf efd4cfd4e274faa2cb67c30fed71cd7a PDF Text Text Who are Our Students? Investigating Learners’ Risk Taking Ability and Achievement on Second Language Acquisition Assiye BURGUCU Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, TURKEY sybrgc@gmail.com Turgay HAN Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, TURKEY turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Ali Osman ENGĐN Kafkas University, Faculty of Education Department of Education Sciences, Kars, TURKEY aosmanengin@gmail.com M. Dursun KAYA Atatürk University, Vocational College of Erzurum, Erzurum, TURKEY dursun@atauni.edu.tr Abstract : Teachers of second language, to be most effective, should be aware of who their students really are. It means that teachers must comprehend diversities among their students in many individual characteristics, such as age, self-esteem, motivation and motivation span, sex, cooperation, competition, language learning techniques, strategies, styles, and the last and one of the distinctive individual characteristics is risk-taking ability. All of these variables are directly related to achievement; however the general purpose of this study is to overview the links between learners’ risk-taking ability and achievement on second language acquisition in a comprehensive manner. The study examines three stages. The first part of this paper presents the general overview of learners’ risk-taking ability and behaviors on language acquisition process and its effects on learners. The second part introduces how it affects achievement, the proportion between risk-taking ability and achievement. The third part of the article is related to advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching. The article concludes with how teachers and learners use this character positively. Key words: Risk-taking ability, L2 learning, achievement, individual differences. “The world lies in the hands of those who have the courage to dream and who take the risk of living out their dreams- each according to his or her own talent.” Paul Coelho �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Introduction The term “risk-taking” is defined “a situation where an individual has to make a decision involving choice between alternatives of different desirability; the outcome of the choice is uncertain; there is a possibility of failure” (Beebe, 1983, p. 39). On the other hand, according to some linguists, they define risk-taking as the ability of being eager and ambitious to experience new information intelligently regardless of embarrassment in linguistics. (cited in Hui-An Yu, 2005). Risk-taking is not only one of the dimensions of individual differences (IDs), but also, it is one of the important parts in second language learning process; moreover, it is a language learning strategy for good language learners who are willing to take risks (cited in Gass & Selinker, 2000). Language learners are willing to understand new knowledge from their teachers; however, how should they communicate or interact with teacher? or how should language teachers understand important learning-related differences among their students? how should they courage and support their students? For students, the answer is taking risk (Dörnyei, 2005, Hui-An Yu, 2005). For teachers, the answer is about encouraging students to take risk (Oxford, 1992). Therefore, in order to reinforce risk-taking, language teachers should organize risk-taking process. Oxford, (1992; p.38) implicated that classroom atmosphere affects learners’ learning process in risktaking situation; “[…] a non-threatening classroom climate, class discussion of fears, individual counseling with inhibited students, and training in strategies that facilitate taking risks (e.g., compensation strategies like guessing or using synonyms). Teachers can help learners relax and not be worried if they do not understand everything right away; and at the same time, they have the ability to assist learners in knowing when and how to take risks, particularly in conversational settings”. It means that it is necessary to develop positive classroom climate and to reinforce risk-taking, [language] teachers should arrange and develop an ample affective framework to overcome learners’ anxiety of learning the target language (Brown, 2000). Table 1 shows that Skehan (1989), and Dörnyei (2005) look insight IDs such as language aptitude, personality, motivation and the other less central IDs. Nevertheless, they have an important role in L2 learning process; for instance, intelligence, self-esteem and “risk-taking” (Ellis, 2008). In the literature, many different studies focused on IDs and second language learning. For example, “Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency” by Clement and Kruidenier (1985), “Personality and speech production: a pilot study of second language Learners” by Dewaele and Furnman (2000), “Individual differences in second language learning” by Dörnyei (2005) and Skehan (2003), “Language anxiety and achievement” by Horwitz (1986), and “Risk-taking and language learner” by Beebe (1983). Skehan (1989) Robinson (2002) 1- Language aptitude 1- Intelligence 1- Personality 2-Motivation 2- Motivation 2- Language Aptitude 3-Language learning strategies 4- Cognitive and affective factors: a) extroversion/ introversion b) risk-taking c) intelligence d) field independent e) anxiety 3- Anxiety 3- Motivation 4- Language Aptitude 4- Learning and cognitive strategies 5- Other learner characteristics a) anxiety b) creativity c) willingness to communicate d) self-esteem e) learners beliefs 5-Working memory 6-Age Dörnyei (2005) Table 1: Factors listed as influencing individual learner differences in language learning three surveys Source: Adopted from Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP, p.644 2 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo “Explaining Individual Differences” In this paper we will focus on one particular psychological dimension about risk-taking and its effects on second language learning and achievement. After the review of the literature, we shall discuss advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking ability and how language teachers stimulate their students to be riskier in oral proficiency. The Literature Review Risk-taking behavior appeared in the literature of psychology in 1960s (Kogan & Wallach, 1967), and 1970s (Bem, 1971) and it appeared in literature of linguistics and English as a Second Language (ESL) in 1960s, (Labov, 1969), 1980s (Beebe, 1983, Ely, 1986a). Kogan and Wallach correlated two personality dimensions, motivation and risk-taking behavior to this basis McClelland –Atkinson position, which is a theory of achievement motivation developed by McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell in 1953, (cited in Beebe, 1983). In this context, Kogan and Wallach (1967) implicates that high motivated persons are prone to achieve moderate but not high risk takers contrary to popular belief. Also Beebe (1983) advocates that “[…] low need achievers, persons who strongly fear failure, and those with a high need for approval, are likely to take courses of action which are extremely risky or extremely conservative. They are less likely to change their risk-taking behavior even when it leads to failure” (p. 41). According to Kogan and Wallach, this theory has been repeatedly tested out and confirmed, however, they do not admit that it controlled for individual differences in skill and studied chance condition. Another study about risk-taking is of Bem (1971) who studied risk-taking behavior through three categories; all of these categories are external as: the situation (e.g.: previous experience), the individual (e.g.: personality factors) and the social setting (e.g.: cultural value for risk) (cited in Beebe, 1983). Studies on language learning and risk-taking are few in number. We turn to examine some research studies literature in linguistics and ESL related to risk-taking. Labov (1969) had a study on black students who never speak teachers in class or during conversational and oral practice. These students and ESL students, who behave like this, are in common. However, we should not label them “nonverbal” (Labov, 1969). Although they are often quite talkative students in their peer groups, they are quiet with their teachers. Their perception of risks involved in oral skill in classroom atmosphere. On the other hand, Beebe (1983, p.43) emphasizes that when students act with their peers, speaking is a low risk – high gain situation. Trimpop (1994) named risk-takers in two characters depending on their base-levels; one of them is “risk-avoider (… Coward) and the other is riskseeker (…Hero). Thus, we can deduce that the risk-avoider students, basically, could be risk-seeker in their peer groups. It depends on atmosphere and situation. Language teachers should know how to behave their students both inside and outside of the class, because it affects students’ risk-taking behavior. Beebe (1983) illustrated that “encouraged dread of risk-taking both in classroom and in natural settings can cause some of negative ramifications, such as a bad trade in the course, a fail on the exam, a scolding from teacher, a sneer from a classmate, punishment or embarrassment either inside the classroom or outside the classroom” (p. 40). It means that the negative factors both inside and outside of the classroom may affect language learners’ intention and aptitude of risk-taking. Moreover, language learners who fear the frequent ambiguities of language learning often suffer reduced risk-taking ability (cited in Beebe, 1983). Because of these important reasons, as Woolfolk (2001) noted and advised that activities can be done in order to increase the confidence of silent students in the classroom; 1. Break instructions into small steps and provide short activities, chosen and sequenced by the teacher. 2. Cover material thoroughly and at a moderate pace, give plenty of practice, immediate feedback and specific praise. 3. Have students work as a whole class so that the teacher can supervise. Avoid individualized, self-paced, or independent work. 4. Maintain a level of difficulty that guarantees high rates of success. 5. Ask convergent questions – one correct answer. 6. Make sure to call on everyone, and stay with a student until a question has been answered. 7. Avoid interpretations, open-ended questions, and non-academic conversations. 8. Emphasize short, frequent paper-and-pencil exercises, not games, arts, craft, discovery or inquiry learning activities (Johannessen, 2003). These activities, especially to improve students’ oral skills, reduce anxiety level, and risk-taking ability improves. Hence, students show that they are not afraid of their possible off beam guesses and as a result take the risk of going wrong (Woolfolk, 2001). Ely (1986a) studied risk-taking behavior of university students and studied the relationship between risk-taking tendencies and classroom participation. At the end of the study, Ely (1986a) found that a correlation 3 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo between risk-taking tendencies and classroom participation, the students’ risk-taking behavior was a positive predictor of students’ voluntary classroom participation. On the other hand, although the correlation of risktaking and participation was high, the relationship with actual success was relatively weak. This result supports the idea that individual differences and personality affect language learning in a specific manner. Personality (risk-taking behavior) does not affect longer tem success (Gass & Selinker, 2000). Besides, Ely (1986b) reported that “the learners with a high level of discomfort were less likely to take risks in class suggesting that high anxiety negatively affected motivation” (Ellis, 2008, p.694). Another study about classroom participation and risk-taking ability, Beebe (1983) tried to find the reason why L2 learners are shyer a second language around peers or classmates from their mother tongue group than around native speaker and teachers is that they perceive the risk of looking foolish as a greater in the presence of peers from their own country. Beebe (1983) presented data from twenty Puerto Rican bilingual (Spanish-English) children who were selected randomly from one school in the New York area. The study maintained in four occasions with these children. The children were interviewed in English once by a bilingual (Spanish dominant) interviewer, once by a monolingual English-speaking interviewer and then again by a bilingual interviewer, but this time the interviewer is English dominant, and once by all three interviewers (in groups of three children). In this context, Gass and Selinker (2000) explains that “Beebe operatically defined risk-taking in terms of a number factors, among them number of attempts to use particular grammatical factors avoidance, amount of talk, amount of information volunteering” (p. 361). At the end of the study, the results showed that risk-taking was the greatest with monolingual interviewer (Gass & Selinker, 2000). It means that taking risks may depend on situation and learners’ willingness, not only with their general type (Beebe, 1983, Gass & Selinker, 2000). Beebe (1983), also states willingness and risk-taking relationship, willing to guess and accurate guesser, willing to appear foolish in order to communicate, willing to use what knowledge they do have of the target language, we know these three strategies from seven general strategies research by Rubin (1975) that the Good Language Learner. Beebe asserts that they are related risk-taking although Rubin does not directly say. For Rubin, these strategies are abilities for poor language learners need to develop. Beebe states that all of these three strategies are related risk-taking, for example willing to guess is a part of risk-taking and willingness to appear foolish is willing to take risk. Beebe also added about motivation which Rubin claims to be second crucial variable in good language learning. The students do not want to look foolish in the classroom and do not take risk. I have practically observed this behavior among some students in my speaking class. Some of my students are silent and look like stressful throughout the lesson. After the lesson, when I asked the reason, why they did not attend the conversations, their explanation about that their friends might laugh them and this situation could disturb their psychology and learning enthusiasm. This is a common student thought about them. However, as Beebe’s cogitation, “willingness to appear foolish is willing to take risk.” Willingness is a part of risk-taking. Advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching When we see again Skehan (1989), Robinson (2002), Dörnyei (2005) researches about individual differences table, we can realize that risk-taking behavior is one of the personality - cognitive - affective factors. It is clear that all of these factors are correlated each other like a chain. For instance, “extrovert students tend to participate more in classroom interactions, worry less about accuracy and have a tendency to take risks with their language, all of which are assets when it comes to communicative oral competence” (Kelly, 2004). Extroversion may well have a role to play in the development of oral skills. Last of all, these students are motivated, have less anxiety and are in an advantaged position while L2 learning process. However, introvert students have some problems about L2 learning, because they have anxiety of speaking inhibition themselves and anxiety causes ambiguousness. So, risk-taking is related to competitiveness and in these kinds of situation, risk-taking may cause anxiety; anxiety may encourage or discourage risk taking; and inference, insofar as it involves an element of guesswork, is a risk-taking activity. For these reasons, some students keep in the background while risk-takers have chance to speak, attend to the lesson, be more active, learn better etc. Shortly, sometimes risk-taking behavior brings disadvantaged position for some students who are mostly introvert. Consequently, “the advantage for a learner is to motivate them to learn language and increase their imagination; the disadvantage for a learner is to deduce theory impulsively” (Hui-An Yu, 2005, p.9). Discussion and Conclusion In the conclusion, risk-taking ability effects L2 learning in many ways and has a significant role in L2 acquisition, risk-taking ability is associated with success in second language teaching (Emerson, 2005) and it 4 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo affects oral proficiency (Beebe, 1983, Ely, 1986b, Gass & Selinker, 2000; Johannessen, 2003, Kelly, 2004, Labov, 1969, Hui-An Yu, 2005). Teachers should establish an encouraging class atmosphere in their classes to reveal risk takers. Oxford (1992) noted that “risk-taking ability, though sometimes considered inherent character traits, can be developed through a nonthreatening classroom climate, class discussion of fears, individual counseling with inhibited students, and training in strategies that facilitate taking risks (e.g., compensation strategies like guessing or using synonyms)” (p. 38). Language teachers should be aware of who their students are, what are the individual differences among their students. Because, learners need teacher’s reward and respect to boost their learning style. If the teachers assure this atmosphere in their classes, learners are not afraid of being blamed and humiliated, also, they can be risk-takers in many situations when they talk and share their ideas, they will take part in the class willingly and do well on L2 acquisition unconsciously. Researches suggest that language learners should take moderate but intelligent risks to learn L2 better, for instance “guessing meanings based on background knowledge and speaking up despite the possibility of making occasional mistakes, rather than taking no risks at all or taking extreme, uninformed risks” (Oxford, 1992, p. 38). In many research shown, the key point to accomplish L2 learning, be sure the personality differences among learners, classroom should be student-centered and being a risk taker in many situations, because an outgoing and risk-taking person inclining to take advantage of learning the language. Further research may search relationship between the strategies language learning and risk-taking they feel might help the learners to become more effective in their learning experience and also researching may be done with questionnaires or the whole year (in the first and second term) language teacher may observe his/her speaking class (for speaking skill), but firstly, at the beginning of the year, she makes an interview in English with the students about English, its difficulties, personal differences and then at the end of the year , she may ask the same questions (make the same interview) to the students. Between these two terms, most probably, teacher, also students realize the differences. Results may show us “risk avoiders” or “risk seekers” (Trimpot, 1994). References Bebee, L.M. (1983). Risk-taking and language learner. In Seliger H.W & Long M.L. Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House: 36-66. Bem, D.J. (1971). The concept of risk in the study of human behavior. In R.E. Carvey (Ed.), Risk-taking behavior Springfield, III : Charles, C. Thomas. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. NY: Addison-Wesley. Clément, R. & Kruidenier, B.G. (1985). Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency: a test of Clément's model. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 21-37. Dewaele, J-M., & Furnham, A. (2000). Personality and speech production: A pilot study of second language learners. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 355-365. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman. Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In Doughty C. and Long M. (Eds.), Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ellis, R. (2003). Second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP. Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: OUP. Ely, C. (1986a). An analysis of discomfort, risk taking, sociability and motivation in L2 classroom. Language learning 36: 1-25 Ely, C. (1986b). Language learning motivation: a descriptive and casual analysis. The Modern language Journal. 70: 28-35 Emerson D. C. (2005). English 418-Course notes. session twelve. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from California State University Bakersfield website: http://www.csubak.edu/~ecase/Session_12_notes.htm. Johannessen, L. R. (2003). The Clearing House 77: Achieving Success for the Resistant Student. 1, 6-1 Retrieved March 28, 2010 from Education Full Text. 5 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Gass, S.M., & Selinker, L. (2000). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (2nd Ed.). Retrieved March 25, 2010 from. Horwitz, E., M. Horwitz & J. Cope. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 2: 125-132. Hui-An Yu, C., & McCarty, K. (2005). How risk-takers succeed on second language acquisition. Retrieved April 12, 2010 from http://it.snhu.edu/EFL-537/yuhuian/EFL%20501/How%20Risktakers%20Succeed%20on%20SLA.doc Horwitz, E. (2001). Language A-anxiety and achievement. Annual review of applied linguistics. 21: 112-26 Horwitz, E., Horwitz M., & J. Cope. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 2: 125-132. Kelly, M. (2004). Taking account of affective learner differences in the planning and delivery of languagecourses for open, distance and independent learning. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from University of Southampton website: http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/resourcesitem.aspx.resourceid=1315. Kogan, N. & Wallach, M. A. (1967). Risk Taking as a function of the situation, the person, and the group. New directions in psychology III. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Kelly, M. (2004). Taking account of affective learner differences in the planning and delivery of language courses for open, distance and independent learning. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from University of Southampton website: http://www.lang.ltsn.ac.uk/resources/resourcesitem.aspx.resourceid=1315, Labov, W. (1969). The Logic of Nonstandard English. Georgetown Monographs on Language and Linguistics, Vol. 22:1-31. McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., 4 Lowell, E. L. (1953). The Achievement Motive. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Oxford, R. (1992). Who are our students? A synthesis of Foreign and Second Language Research on Individual Differences with Implications for Instructional Practice. TESL Canada Journal, 9, 2: 30-48. Robinson, P. (2002). “Learning conditions, aptitude complexes and SLA: A Framework for research and pedagogy” in P. Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51. Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second and foreign language learning. London: Edward Arnold. Trimpop, R. M. (1994). Advanced in psychology, the psychology of risk-taking behavior. Holland: Acid Free Paper: 48-51. Woolfolk, A. (2001). Motivation: issues and explanations. In educational psychology (8th Ed.), Needham Heights, MA: Pearson Education Company. 6 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 320 Title A name given to the resource Who are Our Students? Investigating Learners’ Risk Taking Ability and Achievement on Second Language Acquisition Author Author BURGUCU, Assiye HAN, Turgay ENGİN, Ali Osman KAYA, M. Dursun Abstract A summary of the resource. Teachers of second language, to be most effective, should be aware of who their students really are. It means that teachers must comprehend diversities among their students in many individual characteristics, such as age, self-esteem, motivation and motivation span, sex, cooperation, competition, language learning techniques, strategies, styles, and the last and one of the distinctive individual characteristics is risk-taking ability. All of these variables are directly related to achievement; however the general purpose of this study is to overview the links between learners’ risk-taking ability and achievement on second language acquisition in a comprehensive manner. The study examines three stages. The first part of this paper presents the general overview of learners’ risk-taking ability and behaviors on language acquisition process and its effects on learners. The second part introduces how it affects achievement, the proportion between risk-taking ability and achievement. The third part of the article is related to advantages and disadvantages of risk-taking on second language teaching. The article concludes with how teachers and learners use this character positively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/45610a2f22ceb132b5c3807f926dcb9a.pdf 73d1a020a70938186b3b32adc500ea7a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Effects of Internal Entrepreneurshıp as an Innovative Activity: a Field Research on Manufacturing Industry Öznur BOZKURT Düzce University Akçakoca Tourism Management High School oznurbozkurt54@yahoo.com Serkan BAYRAKTAROĞLU Sakarya University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences serkanb@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: Intraperneurship is an entepreneurship activity in existence foundation. Intrareneurship is an innovative activity which is very important for competition. In this study, intrapreneurship is considered within the scope of innovativeness, it is discussed what the efficient causes are on the formation of internal entrepreneurship structures and what sort of effect internal entrepreneurship has on company achievement. In this study, in which internal entrepreneurship is considered as an innovative activity was used and questionnaire method was used for the purpose of data acquisition. According to the results of research, there are significant relationships between innovation and intrapreneurship. In addition corporate entrepreneurship and innovation were higher tendency in research organizations. Introduction The word ―entrepreneur‖ comes from the French word "Entreprendre" which means to take on. Entrepreneur who is undertakes to organize and risk. In recent years, entrepreneurs have been doing many different jobs that they require to expand the definition. Today, an entrepreneur as an innovatory or developer to find and capture opportunities; converts these opportunities into marketable ideas; in time, adds value this ideas with money or skills; to apply these ideas to bear the risks of the competitive market place and these efforts can translate into money (Kuratko and Hoggets, 1995: 4). Intrapreneurship, in recent years prominent in the literature and stated that entrepreneurship in an existing organizations and it is an integral part of the innovation concept, previously considered only features of the largescale organization. Later on this concept to be regarded as tools to provide development and growth. Employees to act as entrepreneurs and have the right to autonomy become a key element for strategic development in organization. The need to have entrepreneurial thinking to respond to environmental changes has brought a different view in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship is not limited or start a new business to establish production. It includes changes in the organization. Today, entrepreneurship means starting a new job and looking for opportunities in existing organizations for creating and innovative acts. When evaluated from this point of view,this process includes entrepreneurial behavior. Intrapreneurship Concept On the basis of intrapreneurship, entrepreneurial thinking is spreading into the organization. In general, intrapreneurship is demonstrating total entrepreneurship and innovation effectiveness within an existing organization and directed staff to act as entrepreneurs (Koçel, 1998: 17). Within an existing institution by one or more employees out of a importent innovation for the company and implementation (Carrier1996,p.7). intrapreneurship, besides innovation to create or maintain a competitive advantage to organizations, markets and sectors is redefined. (Covin and Miles, 1999,p.50). Intrapreneurship emerges in an existing organization and is separated from conventional behavior. Regardless of size of organization, beyond create a few new business opportunities, is an innovative activity (Antoncic and Hisrich, 2003). 648 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Dimensions of Intrapreneurship Many studies are regarding intrapreneurship with six intrapreneurship dimension. These dimensions are typically include new products, services, market technology and management techniques to develop a strategic change, autonomy, and proactiveness elements. These dimensions in relation to each other (Rule and Irvin, 1988). New Business Opportunities: In short it can be defined, as regardless of the size of organization, demonstrating on innovationof the existing products or markets and creating new jobs (Antoncic, 2007). The company's bringing new products or innovation in existing products for the future. In other words, it is about making improvements to meet the needs of the market (Jarna and Kaisu 2005). According to another definition the company's market and their products by redefining and mobilizing the company's internal dynamics is to turn the company‘s staff into entrepreneurs. This application helps through competitively regulation of the company's vision and business arrangement (Fitzsimmons, 2005: 18). Innovation: Innovation is a particular function of entrepreneurship. Innovation means creating wealth with new sources or wealth creation by increasing the use of existing resources as a potential (Drucker,1998). For firms creating and maintaining competitive advantage in the market dynamism is necessary pushing innovation. Corporate entrepreneurship or intrapreneurship in terms of innovation is an important factor. Development of new technologies related to the products, services and administrative practices (Antoncic and Hisrich, 2001). New Venture Initiation: Companies to produce new products or market improvements is existing products for future market needs (Fitzsimmons, 2005). Regardless of the size of organization new processes are put in market or products (Antoncic, 2007). Proaktiveness: This term expresses to gain a competitive advantage for companies and predict events, risk taking and to be first in the market. In other words, for the firm's competitive ability is achieved new products, services, technology and management techniques in the market (Jarna and Kaisu, 2005). Strategic Renewal: The basic idea is toensure the organizational change and rebuild (Antoncic, 2007). Strategic and organizational changes oriented as innovation, market, customer and competitor (Fitzsimmons, 2005). Manifesto, called B-type of strategic renewal, reconstruction of existing missions and change in creative direction, changed the system and refers to organization structure focused on innovation. Usually this kind of change as revealed for the organization's basic values (Jarna and Kaisu, 2005). Autonomy: The development of independent entrepreneurship in society, open-minded and free-willed person to act as brave decisions have an important role. Likewise, intrapreneurship as an considered organizational level which implementation and development of the necessary conditions, creative and new ideas to individuals or teams within the company. Therefore, it is necessary to have an important motivating factor in the market leader is to find an independent entrepreneurial spirit (Ağca, 2005). Internal Environmental Factors Affecting Intrapreneurship There are many factors which influence intrapreneurship Intrapreneurship in the literature mainly talks about two environment: Internal environment and external environment. In place of intrapreneurship in a company and success seen as determining the organizational features includes elements such as, communication, formal control, environmental monitoring intensity, organizational and administrative support, and organizational values. The effect on intrapreneurship of the external environment characteristics include dynamism, technological opportunities, industry growth, demand for new products and intense competition. Organizational characteristics, individual characteristics and environmental interactions create entrepreneurial behavior. Zahra (1991) refers to the emergence of corporate entrepreneurship with many factors that affecting intrapreneurship. Threats / hostile (threatens on the company's mission competition / competitors) dynamism are important factors. Heterogeneity of the developments creating demand for company's products in the market and in addition to administrative structures and values among these factors are considered. Greenberger and Sexton (1988) mentioned in some special situations that trigger the emergence of entrepreneurial behavior. These are changes in 649 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo corporate governance, merger or take over their competitors' moves to increase market share, and new technology development, economic changes, changes in customer expectations and changes in the process (Hornsby et al, 1993). Relationship Between Entrepreneurship And Innovation Innovation is an entrepreneurship activity. Innovation means ―creating new sources of entrepreneurship for wealth creation or with use of existing resources to create prosperity‖ (Drucker,1998). The relationship between entrepreneurship and innovation has been one of the subjects of several investigations for many years. R & D is seen as a technological innovation for more than half a century ( Zahao, 2005). Moreover, inventions used as the narrow definition of innovation. Innovation is a multidimensional concept and has technical characteristics. Innovation takes place in a radical way and change in products, services as well as the change in management even may be in technology change so is a multidimensional process that is beyond the technical aspects (Zahao, 2005). The relationship between entrepreneurship and innovation and entrepreneurs be seen as innovator which was first introduced by Schumpeter in 1930. According to him, entrepreneurs may impact providers through economic development by making innovations. According to this entrepreneurial paradigm, entrepreneurs hasve assumed a dynamic process for starting-up business by innovativeness activity. As a result of an entrepreneur's innovation process some tools such as Product and service differentiation, successfully meet market needs were created These are the process of entrepreneurial innovation. Innovation is an continuity activity. Therefore, evaluation of new ideas must be used for profit (www.focusinnovation.net, 2010). Intrapreneurial innovation can be carried out by employees. The employees may be holding a special effort to innovate and so it is an important element for the firm to support this request. On the other hand, employees' support is a potential source for the company. Human capital is an important element for the company's innovation potential. Support of intrapreneurship affect lowering the cost by preventing supplied outside innovation (Subramanian, 2004). Importance and Purpose of Research Intrapreneurship is briefly defined as an entrepreneurship in the existing organization and in this respect, intrapreneurship positively affects the staff and institutions. Intrapreneurship isconsiderd within innovation context in this study, investigating environmental factors which affect the intrapreneurship formation and the impact of intrapreneurship in the success of companies have been discussed. Also it is investigated in this study that there exists a significant relationship between innovation and intrapreneurship. Research Method This study employed a standard questionnaire for data collection. Reviewed the relevant literature and questionnaire was created. There are total 76 questions in the first part of questionnaire for measuring the environmental factors which affect intrapreneurship, relation between innovation and entrepreneurship. In the second part of the questionnaire has total 9 questions to determine demographic characteristics. Whilst choosing the sample of research some certain criteria has been considered, such as companies having at least 50 employees and that have been passed 5 years of activity operating in the manufacturing industry as well as with companies having more than 250 employees and registered in Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Sakarya. Randomly selected 340 white collar employees in 33 companies answered the questionnaire. Data collected were then analyzed using SPSS 16.0 program. Research Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How perception of innovation in studied corporate? How is the perception of intrapreneurship is seen in sample organizations? Is intrapreneurship differentiated according to gender? According to the company's activities while in innovation and entrepreneurial orientation tend to vary? According to the company's age, do companies differently tend to apply innovation and intrapreneurship? Are there any relationship between intrapreneurship and innovations? 650 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Findings Variable Age of Firm Less than 5 5-9 10-14 15-19 20+ No Export Revenue Less than % 20 %20-%40 %41-%60 %61 + Work in Less than 1 year 1-5 year 6-10 year 11-20 year 21 and + Woman Sex Man Frequency % 15 4,6 84 61 79 25,5 18,5 24,0 90 27,4 103 32,9 76 24,3 60 19,2 49 Variable Frequency % 43 12,9 87 115 85 161 173 19 26,1 34,5 25,5 48.2 51.8 6,5 75 25,8 114 39,2 15,7 %6- %10 %11 -%20 60 20,6 25 8,0 %21 + 23 7,9 43 13,0 10 3,0 176 91 21 1 53,0 27,4 6,3 0,3 166 34.9 21-30 31-40 41-50 51 + Married 144 142 32 8 210 42,9 42,3 9,5 2,4 63 215 64.8 Single 124 37 50-100 Number Employees of 101-250 251-500 500+ Manager Employee %0- Status Increase Number Employees in of %0 -%5 21 - Age Marital Status Table 1: Frequency Distribution of Demographic Characteristics Research examined the demographic characteristics of the companies 27% and over 20 years of operating, 34% of the cases has more than 250 employees, approximately 70% of its have an export income, The increase in the number of employees by a ratio of 40% from 6% to be between 10%, and approximately 80% of questionnaire respondents between 20 and 40 age are shown. also 63% of survey respondents were married and 65% are male and 48% of managers. Disagree Frequency % Unstable Frequency % Agree Frequency % Mean Increase the resources to R & D activities. 91 26.8 70 20.6 179 52.7 3,38 R & D expenditure is above the industry average. 101 30 114 33.8 122 36.2 3,12 Innovation is important factor for the institution. Total 51 15.2 59 17.6 225 67.2 3,69 81 24 81 24 175.3 52.03 3,39 Variable Table 2: Dimensions of Innovation As shown in the table above 52% of research participants with 3.38 average stated that increasing the resources allocated to developing new products. Moreover, 67% stated that innovation is an important element for the institution but the resources allocated to R & D according to industry averages is not fully clear. The average size is 52% innovation. This ratio is quite high. 651 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Dimensions of Intrapreneurship Innovation Arithmetic Average 3,39 Standard Deviation 0,730 Starting New Business Venture Self-Renewal Risk Taking Proactive Behavior Competitive Assertiveness Autonomy Intrapreneurship 3,47 3,40 3,35 3,56 3,28 3,40 3,38 0,729 0,690 0,708 0,749 0,654 0,713 0,592 Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of Intrapreneurship Dimensions There are descriptive statistics whit related to entrepreneurship to researches companies in table 3. Between those dimensions that have the highest average proaktivite dimension. This dimension has 3.56 average. The lowest average is the competitive initiative. Moreover, intrapreneurship seems the range of 3.38. within a 5-level scale. Variable Internal Communication Factor Formal Control Environmental Scanning Organizational and Administrative Support Organisational Values Disagree f (x) % 68.7 20.3 82 24.5 45.6 13.5 68.8 20.4 70.5 20.7 Unstable f (x) % 70.7 20.9 56.5 16.7 60.3 17.8 62.4 18.5 76.7 22.5 Agree f (x) 173.5 198.7 232.6 200.4 192 % 58.8 58.8 68.6 60.8 56.6 Mean 3.44 3.44 3.75 3.54 3.48 Technological Opportunities 45.5 13.45 46 13.35 246.5 73.2 3.78 Dynamic Environment Intense Competition Sectoral Growth and The Demand For New Products 81.75 93.6 46.6 24.27 28.02 13.86 57.25 68.8 60.33 17 20.82 17.93 200.25 171.4 229.66 58.7 51.3 68.2 3.44 3.30 3.74 Table 4: Environmental Factors Affecting Intrapreneurship Internal and external environmental factors affect intrapreneurship. Accordingly, having the the largest effect elements on intrapreneurship are as follows; environmental scan (3.75), technological opportunities (3.78), industry growth and demand for new products (3.74). Innovation Intrapreneurship Low Medium High Total Significance : 0.000 df: 4 R²: 0.56 Low 14 38 0 52 Medium 6 91 26 123 High 0 46 116 162 Total 20 175 142 337 Table 5: Relationship Between Intrapreneurship and Innovations As shown in the table, there is a high level relationship between intrapreneurship and innovation. The rate of this relationship is examined, intrapreneurial activity is effective innovation in a ratio of 56%. Firm Innovation Mean A g e Starting New Business Venture Mean SelfRenewal Mean Risk Taking Mean Proactive Behavior Mean 652 Competitive Autonomy Intrapreneurship Assertiveness Mean Mean Mean �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Less than 5 5-9 year 10-14 year 15-19 year 20+ 3.27 3,31 3.16 3.20 3.20 3.48 3.30 3,27 3.18 3.42 3.23 3.21 3.62 3.23 3.37 3.30 3.79 3.63 3.74 3.63 3.70 3.59 3.79 3.67 3.43 3.57 3.55 3.34 3.57 3.33 3.33 3.41 3,32 3.35 3.23 3.34 3.43 3.08 3,28 3.29 Table 6: According to Firm Age Corporate Entrepreneurship As shown in table 6, firm age matters in having intrapreneurship characteristics for companies. In literature intrapreneurship has a history of at least five years for establishment of intrapreneurship in company. The companies with less than 5 years age have lower intrapreneurship means (3.27) . As the company of the firms increases they tend to be more intrapreneur. But after 10-14 years (for 15-19 and +20) this increase stops and begins to decline. Conclusions In recent years, intrapreneurship has been a major field of study for utilization of opportunities. Internal entrepreneurship include, risk taking, innovation, proaktiveness, strategic innovation, autonomy and tend to intense competition. These are expressed as organizational trends. Main goal of intrapreneurship, against the fast-changing market demands in the environment can turn into opportunities and create business behavior to new areas of competition, dynamism, flexibility and innovation. In this study, intrapreneurship, has been evaluated under the organizational and environmental determinants. Internal factors are considered as, open communications, environmental monitoring, event successful for the administrative support and formal control administrative support elements of these factors the highest level relationship with the corporate entrepreneurial than others. Environmental factors which affect corporate entrepreneurship was considered, intense competition, dynamic environment, technological opportunities, industry growth and demand for new products. technological opportunities the most of of relations with intrapreneurship. In this study the relationships were examined within the framework of intrapreneurial innovation. Innovative applications created internal entrepreneurs and this study concluded that there is an impact of intrapreneurship practices on innovation (%56). References Agca, V. (2005). Intrapreneurship Structures and Firm Performance Effects: Research Company in the Textile Sector in Denizli ,PhD Thesis, Afyon Kocatepe University Institute of Social Sciences, Afyon Antoncic, B. (2007). Intrapreneurship: a Comparative Structural Equation Modeling Study, Industrial Management and Data System s(vol.107, No.3, pp.309-325). Slovenia Antoncic, B., & Hisrich, R.D. (2003). Clarifying The Intrapreneurship Concept, Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development (10 (1) s.7-24.) Antoncic, B. & Hisrich, R.D., (2001). Intrapreneurship: Construct Refinement and Cross-Cultural Validation, Journal of Business Venturing (16 (5), s. 495-527). Carrier, C. (1996). Intrapreneurship in Small Businesses: an Exploratory Study, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice (21 (1), s. 5-20). Covin, J.G., & Miles, M.P. (1999). Corporate Entrepreneurship and Pursuit of Competitive Advantage, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 23 (3), 47-64. Drucker, P. (1998), The Discipline of Innonation, Harward Business Review, Nowember-December 653 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Fitzsimmons, J.R., Douglas, E.J., Hisrich, R.D. & Antoncic, B. (2005). Intrapreneurship in Australian Firms, Journal of The Australia and New Zealand Academy of Management (11 (1): 17-27). Hornsby, J.S., Kuratko, D.F. and Zahra, S.A., (2002). Middle Managers‘ Perception of The Internal Environment For Corporate Entrepreneurship: Assessing A Measurement Scale, Journal of Business Venturing, (17 (3), s.253-273). Jarna, H. & Kaisu, K. (2005). How About Measurıng Intrapreneurshıp?, Small Business Institute, Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, Finlan Kuratko, D. & Hoggetts, R. M. (1995). Entrepreneurship, Third Edition, The Dryeden Pres, Orlanda Koçel, T. (1998). Entrepreneurship but Which One, Executive Excellence (s:10). Rule, E.G. & Irwin, D.W. (1988). Fostering Intrapreneurship: The New Competitive Edge, The Journal of Business Strategy (9 (3), s. 44-47). Subramanian, N. (2004). The Economics of Intrapreneurial Innovation, Working Paper Series, Jel Classifications (D21, G32, L22, L23) Zahao, F. (2005). Exploring the synergy Between Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Internetional Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research (Vol.11, no.1, pp.25-41) Zahra, S. A. (1991). Predictors and Financial Outcomes of Corporate Entrepreneurship: An Exploratory Study, Journal of Business Venturuing (6 (4), s.259-285). http://www.focusinnovation.net/techtransfer.html(05.02.2006) 654 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 253 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Internal Entrepreneurshıp as an Innovative Activity: a Field Research on Manufacturing Industry Author Author BOZKURT, Öznur BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan Abstract A summary of the resource. Intraperneurship is an entepreneurship activity in existence foundation. Intrareneurship is an innovative activity which is very important for competition. In this study, intrapreneurship is considered within the scope of innovativeness, it is discussed what the efficient causes are on the formation of internal entrepreneurship structures and what sort of effect internal entrepreneurship has on company achievement. In this study, in which internal entrepreneurship is considered as an innovative activity was used and questionnaire method was used for the purpose of data acquisition. According to the results of research, there are significant relationships between innovation and intrapreneurship. In addition corporate entrepreneurship and innovation were higher tendency in research organizations. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ee6848af6c8d9581964badb19a60b1db.pdf 30cc8c4e6a3e6055a9c48bf219b62746 PDF Text Text Determining The Morphological and Yield Characteristics of Melon (Cucumis melo L.) Landrace From Canakkale-Turkey Seyit Ahmet BECAN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Rectorate, Health, Sport and Culture Department ahmetbecan@hotmail.com Mürsel GÜVEN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Soil Department mursel@comu.edu.tr Abstract : This research has been carried out in order to determine some morphological and yield characteristics of melon landrace (Hirsiz kaciran) grown in Canakkale. Research was laid out in randomized block design with four replications and 20 plants in each replication. Cucumis melo L. cv. Kırkagac-637 was also used as control cultivar. In addition to fruit and yield charactreristics seed germination tests were also performed. According to data; fruit weight, fruit diameter, total soluble solids of Hırsız Kaciran landrace was found as 1186,15 g, 126,5 mm and 8,4% respectively. Keywords : Melon, landrace, yield Introduction Melon takes part in Cucurbitaceae family is evaluated as cold fruit rather than main foodstuff. Little fruits of melons take an important place in pickle industry. Anotolia, Iran, Afganistan, Middle Asia and Soutwest Asia is admitted as origin centers of melon. Wild types of melons are seen in this region. Melon was taken to the European countries taking from Van region by the Roman missioners (Vural et.al. 2000). Melons are classified up to their fruit shapes, skin colours, flesh colur, fleshe firmness, their aromas and cavity of seeds. Production of melon is approximately 20 millions tonnes in the world and China achieves 6.6 millions tonnes and Turkey takes part in the second line with the 1.8 millions tonnes production in 103.000 hectares area. Melon is produce relatively with local populations and open polinated cultivars while hybrids use in greenhouse and irrigated lands. In Turkey, melon cultivars consists of raund Kırkağaç (60%), elipse Kırkağaç (%30-35) and YuvaHasanbey (%5-10). Production of seeds are recieved 37.150 kg in local open polinated and 2.302 kg in hybrids in Turkey in 2007. On the other hand importation of seeds was made 5400 kg in open polinated types and 3288 kg in hybrid types in 2007 (Ünlü et. al., 2007). While mature fruits of melon is consumed freshly, there are also some other source of consuming. They are consuming as ice-cream, consuming as drink mixing with milk, using as essence, consuming in salads as immature, consuming in soups and as brines vegetables, using in diets because of consisting protein and vegetable oils (Anonymous, 2010). Kaynaş et. al.(2003) carried a study out in order to determine the adaptation characteristics of melon and watermelon cultivars in Canakkale conditions. Types of watermelon used in experiment is 117 F1 and Crimson sweet and 2 melons are Topaz and Altınbaş. They reported that Topaz and 117 F1 cultivars can be suggested to region producers. Abak (1991), made studies on devoloping melon agriculture in GAP under the circumstance of Şanlıurfa Harran plain. It is painted out the suitable types for locals establishing types, fertility and adaptation in melon. Sarı et.al.(1994), made studies on effects on production grafted watermelon and melon in Çukurova university. She emphasis on fusarium is seen much more in ungrafted rather than grafted plots and can be seen dramatic increase in growth of fruits with using grafted seedlings . Küçük et.al.(2002) collected samples from Kırkağaç, Hasanbey and Çinikız cultivars produced in three population in Agean region for melon selection improvement. Firstly Hasanbey population was held and the population which shows different two characters was divided into two groups and two types was asserted as 533 �Hasanbey-1,Hasanbey-2 .Candidates of melons were determined as Kırkağaç-589 and Kırkağaç-637 up to constitutions of fruits in the lines get from Kırkağaç population. Also Çinikız-808 a new type come out from Çinikız population. Hasanbey-1, Kırkağaç-589 and Kırkağaç-637 was register as new types in 1991. Village populations named as local types or landraces, these wild relatives, old types are not used anymore. Genetics of vegetable sources include genetics knowledge types of one plant in DNA pod and they have the quality of being source for genetic variety. These valuable source is face to be in danger with the pressures of local and the others. Protection of these is a must by the way of taking guarantee to protection of vegetables of future, future of human beings. 10000 years ago, variety of genetics which was seen in the local types carries importance of being protected these types and being used in improvement since it reflects harmony to different local condition at the same time. Types of vegetables must have genetics in order to adapt changing ambient condition. Genetics of vegetable source are loading because of overusing of the source, genetics introductions, pollution, climate cahanges, loss, decrease, cutting to pieces of the land, development pressure and genetics erosion. Protection of genetics of vegetable source is vegetable source in their countries protects or saves genetics of vegetable source in their countries applying internetional protection strategies. Types of plants are taken under protection either in their nature or out of it in genebanks. Today and the next natural experiments has to be ready for improvements. Using wealth of biology of a country in its own progress and moving it into action needs to be determıned by its wealth. Not paying attention to this and not doing anything for short investments means the same with the destruction of economic potential which can be left the next generations. Local populations becoming with the effects of natural selection have to be protected in order to provide maintaining agriculture. They have great importent in ecological agriculture. They are quite rich as they contain genetics and cultural specialities. They have many characteristics by the way of quality, resistance to pest and diseases and fertility. Material and Method The seeds of Hırsız Kacıran melon population which is produced in small areas by the local producters and consumed by families and being in local bazars in Çanakkale has been used as plant material and Kırkağaç637 melon cultivar is as a control. Hırsız Kaçıran population was collected by the producers in Kepez county of Çanakkale. Method Both seeds were planted directly with randomized block design with 4 replication and 20 plants im each replication. Seeds were sown at 21st of May and each parcel is lay out in 530 m2. In each replication of 5 plants were left for seed harvest and experiments were on 15 plants . Before the planting, field have fertilized with manure (4tonne/da) and also 15 kg/daN (NH4NO3), 20kg/da P2O5 (TSP) and 15 kg/da K2O (K2SO4) applied. At time of flowering and 8 kg/da N added to each parcel. Drip irrigated plants hoed two times before plants have 6-7 leaves. For plant protection; all plants spreyed with fungucide against fungal diseases. Totaly four harvests done for both cultivars in experiment. Criteria below was determined during and at the end of experiment. - The time passing from sowing to harvest (day): - The time passing from flowering to harvest (day) - The time between sowing and flowering (day - Fruit weight (g): weighing by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with digital balance (0,01 sensibility). - Fruit length (mm): measuring the fruit length by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with strip and digital compass. - Fruit diameter (mm): measuring the fruit diameter by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with strip and digital compass. - Total Soluble Solids (%): measuring the TSS by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with hand refractometer. 534 �- Flesh thickness (cm): measuring the fruit flesh thickness by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with digital compass. Seed weight (g): weighing the total fresh seed weights of randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with digital balance (0,01 sensibility). Skin colur: by observation Skin (outher layer of pericarp) thickness (mm): measuring the fruit pericap thickness by randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with strip and digital compass. Yield per plant (g/plant): weighing and added the perivious weight of randomly selected 5 plants in each harvest for each replication with digital balance (0,01 sensibility). Yield per decare (kg/da) Data were subjected to ANOVA test for statistical analysis and “Minitab 13” statistical software was used for statistical analysis. Differences among the averages were tested at P=0.05 significance levels. For germination test; Germination of seeds were carried out in petri dishes (9 cm diameter) containing two Whatman (No:1) filter paper imbibed with 8 ml of distilled water. Three replicates of 50 seeds were germinated in each seed lot. Seeds were allowed to germinate at 25 oC in the dark for 14 days. 2 mm radicle protrusion was accepted for as germination. Cold test was carried out on each cultivars with three replications of 50 seeds were sown 4 cm deep in compost in sandwich boxes and wetted with 50 ml water. Sandwich boxes with lid on were kept at 10 oC for 7 days in the dark. They were then transferred to 25 oC and normal seedlings that appeared at the surface were counted after 10 days. High temperature germination test in each cultivar was conducted on three replicates of 50 seeds at 35 o C by the same way. Findings And Discussion Data for yield and some quality parameters can be seen in Table 1.All parameters on yield and yield parameters are found to be significant al 0.05 level. According to analysis; average fruit weight is found as 1186 g in Hırsız Kaçıran and 2336 g in Kırkağaç-637. Yield per plant is occured as 2901,34g and in 6126,60g Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Similarly yield on decare are found higher in Kırkağaç (1997kg/da) than in Hırsız Kaçıran (916,5kg/da). As relatively to fruit weight, fruit length and fruit dimeter are also found to be higher in Kırkağaç-637 (216,9 mm and 184,8mm) than Hırsız Kaçıran ( 134,6mm and 126,5 mm). For consumer demand generally larger melon and watermelon cultivars are less in atrraction. Markets for especially local and domestic bazars public concern is from the moderate sizes. From this point of view local genotype Hırsız Kaçıran landrace has an advantage although it’s yield occurs less than the control plant. Total soluble solids ocur as 8,4% and 12,5% in Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Hırsız Kaçıran has low total soluble solids that means less sweet than Kırkağaç-637. Normally melon cultivars has total soluble solids between 8-15%. From this point of view it has an alternative choice for the consumers who does not like more sweets even fort he diabetics. Neverthless, flavour of Hırsız Kaçıran is very significant as compare with Kırkağaç-637. Skin thickness is measured as 2,33 mm and 7,28 mm in Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637 respectively. Very low skin thickness is an advantage for the consumers but vice versa a disadvantage for postharvest and transportation. Further studies must be lay out for solving this problem. Flesh thickness is obtained as 2,42and 4,29 cm for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Cultivar Fruit weight (g) Fruit length (mm) Fruit diameter (mm) TSS (%) Seed weight (g) Skin thickness (mm) Flesh thickness (cm) Yield per plant (kg/da) Hırsız Kacıran 1186 B 134,6 B 126,5 B 8,4 B 41,98 B 2,33 B 2,42 B 2901,34 B Kırkağaç637 2336 A 216,9 A 184,8 A 12,5 A 54,51 A 7,28 A 4,29 A 6126,60 A LSD 215 5,466 2,465 0,3182 3,866 0,3182 0,5032 150,5 Table 1. Statistical analysis results for yield and quality parameters 535 �Days harvest from sowing is counted as 81,25 and 73 for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç respectively. Although Kırkağaç reaches maturity approximately 9 days earlier than Hırsız Kaçıran, 81 day can be consider as a medium vegetation for vegetables. Besides this melon is planting as a second crop after wheat in the region. Hırsız Kaçıran can be evaluated from this point also. Cultivar Days to harvest from sowing (day) Days to harvest from floweing (day) Days to flowering from sowing (day) Hırsız Kacıran Kırkağaç637 LSD 81,25 A 39,50 A 41,75 73,00 B 31,00 B 42,00 3,528 2,054 Ö.D. Table2. Statistical analysis results for days to flowering and harvest Skin colour, flesh colour and seed colours of observed fruits from each replacation has been lay out in Table3. Skin colour of Hırsız Kaçıran is mainly white. Skin has slices on the outher layer with green-yellow strips on the slices. Flesh colour at maturity is mainly white but around the seeds colour becomes yellow-orange. Seed colour occurs as light yellow. Kırk Ağaç- Hırsız 637 Kaçıran Cultivars Skin colour at maturity Flesh colour at maturity Seed colour Main colur is white Slices have Green-Yellow colour Main colour is white, seed cavity around is; yellow –orange Light yellow Main colour is yellow, have randomly black spots on it Light green- white, seed cavity around is; orange Yellow Table 3. Skin colour, flesh colour and seed colour of Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637 Seed width, seed length, hypocotyl radicula ratio adn 1000 seed weight of tested plants can be seen in Table 4. Cultivar Seed width (mm) Seed length (mm) 1000 seed weight (g) Hypocotyl/Radicula ratio (H/R) Hırsız Kaçıran Kırkağaç-637 10,405 11,825 4,55 4,82 37,3 41,63 5,18 6,72 Table 4. Seed width, length hypocotyl/radicula and 1000 seed weight of tested plants From the harvested fruits means of a thousand seed weight is calculated as 37,3 g while the seed width and length is 10,404 and 4,55 mm respectively. At germinated seedlings hypocotyl radicula ratio is calculated as 5,118. Selected fruits before seed harvest, harvested and seeds seperated by hand. Seperated seeds washed under tap water and then dired at incubator until the seed humidity levels reaches to 10%. Standart germination, cold and heat tests performed on the harvested seeds. Results can be seen in Figure 1 and 2. According to results; standart germination means are 92,5% and 96,5% for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637. Cold test results are 48,5% and 57% while heat test are 63,5% and 71,5% for Hırsız Kaçıran and Kırkağaç-637 respectively. Hırsız Kaçıran has also moderate tolerance to low and high soil temperatures and it can be grown in a long period during the months (May-October). 536 �Hırsız kaçıran is a local landrace for Canakkale and its province. So it has a well adaptation especially for the region ecological situations. Wheras open pollinated and hybrid cultivars claimed to be more resistant to pest and diseases and also more productive. Landraces are found in areas where crop species first arose through domestification, Turkey also lies within the board region of domestification of several crops. Therefore, there are highly variable domesticated crops as well as landraces with unique characteristics in Turkey. Introducing the new crops, nitrogen fertlizers and increase in commercial trades in agriculture reduce the ratios of landrace productions. Sustainable development requires human beings to raise and improve their quality of life in harmony with and by conserving the balance of ecosystems, they are part of and which supply the fundamental support to sustain their lives. The development of new and innovative policies fort he sustainable use of biodiversity necessitates, foremost, a fundamental revision of national land-use policies and an earnest change in national policies concerning agriculture, animal husbandry, employment and health. In this regard endangered species, endemic species, their ecosystems and natural habitats must be protected. The relationship between species conservation and sustainable development is important for biodiversity. The market prices of endangered species, especially those which are of economic value, are high because of scarcity (Tüzün and Sezer, 2002; Tan,1996). Most of landraces maintain a high level of genetic heterogenity. This will be a key role for the further studies. Figure 1. Mean values of germination, cold and heat tests of Hırsız Kaçıran Figure 2. Mean values of germination, cold and heat tests of Kırkağaç-637 537 �References Abak, K., 1991. Köy Hizmetleri Araştırma Enstitüsü. Şanlıurfa. Anonymous, 2005. www.die.gov.tr/istatistikler Anonymous, 2010. www.fao.org Coşkun, R., Ünlü, M., Eren, A., Köksal, Y., Ünlü, A.2008. Bazı Kavun Saf Hatlarının Morfolojik Karakterizasyonu ile Fusarium oxsyporum F. Sp. Melonis’e <reaksiyonlarının Tespiti ve Hibrit Çeşit Islahı Amacıyla Kullanımına Yönelik Çalışmalar. VII. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu 26-28 Ağustos 2008 Yalova Kaynaş, K.,Kuzucu C., Kaya S., Tatlıç, N. 2003. Bazı kavun ve karpuz çeşitlerinin kalite ve verim özelliklerinin belirlenmesi. V.Sebze Sempozyumu Bildirileri. 21-24 Eylül 2004 Çanakkale. Küçük, A., Abak, K. ve Sarı, N., 2002. Cucurbit genetic resources collections in Turkey. First AD HOC Meeting on Cucurbit Genetic Resource. 19 January2002 Adana, Turkey. 46-51 Sarı, N., Pıtrat, M, H., Abak, K., Yücel, S. 1994. Türkiye’de yaygın olarak yetiştirilen karpuz ve kavun çeşitlerinin bazı fungal hastalıklara ve virüslere karşı reaksiyonları. Çukurova Üniv. Ziraat Fakültesi 25. Kuruluş Yılı Özel Sayısı, Yayın No:105, 37-50. Tüzün, G., and Sezer, S. 2002. National Report on Sustainable Development. World submit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg. Ankara, The National Programme on Environment and Development. Tan, A. 1996. Turkey Country Report. Fao International Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources, 17-23 June, Leipzig. Germany. Vural, H., Eşiyok, D., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri ( Sebze Yetiştirme) Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Bornova, Đzmir. 538 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 597 Title A name given to the resource Determining The Morphological and Yield Characteristics of Melon (Cucumis melo L.) Landrace From Canakkale-Turkey Author Author BECAN, Seyit Ahmet GÜVEN, Mürsel Abstract A summary of the resource. This research has been carried out in order to determine some morphological and yield characteristics of melon landrace (Hirsiz kaciran) grown in Canakkale. Research was laid out in randomized block design with four replications and 20 plants in each replication. Cucumis melo L. cv. Kırkagac-637 was also used as control cultivar. In addition to fruit and yield charactreristics seed germination tests were also performed. According to data; fruit weight, fruit diameter, total soluble solids of Hırsız Kaciran landrace was found as 1186,15 g, 126,5 mm and 8,4% respectively. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d09c8f9c877e89cabe1219366bde08bc.pdf 7b8527bd0ea3d520975139fab8f5fe65 PDF Text Text The Effect of Different Soil Regulators on Quality Tomatoes Rudil BAYYURT Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey rudilbayyurt@gmail.com Funda AYAR ŞENSOY Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey ayar@akdeniz.edu.tr Burçin ÇAKALOZ KOÇ Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey burcinkc@hotmail.com Nurgül ERCAN Akdeniz University, Faculty Of Agriculture Department Of Horticulture, 07049 Antalya-Turkey nercan@akdeniz.edu.tr Abstract: Soil structure are very important factor at plant growing. Plants take water and plant nutrients via their roots. If the factors such as water holding capacity and porosity of soil is good enough, yield and quality of plant will be increased. Tomato is valuable plant both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. It is grown in a wide range of climates in the field and under protection.The aim of this research is to determine the effect of different soil regulators (zeolite, peat, Terra Cottem, organik fertilizer) on tomato quality. They were mixed into the soil before planting. At the end of the research, while organic fertilizer has the highest value in terms of fruit weight and fruit diameter, control treatment has the highest value at fruit lenght. According to the results, organic fertilizer is able to be mixed into soil for much better fruit quality. Introduction After the importance of vegetables on human nutrition is understood, both the number of works on vegetable growing, its rehabilitation and vegetable production-consumption increase quickly. Tomato is the one of these vegetables which is mostly produced and consumed and it is the one of them which is mostly worked on its quality and efficiency. In the world, tomato has 129.649.883 ton production on 5.227.883ha field. (Anonymous, 2010a) On the other hand in our country, we have 10.985.400 ton tomato production on 300.000ha field. Therefore, following China, UK and America, we are on the fourth rank on tomato production. (Anonymous, 2010b) Also, in spite of 247.996 hg/ha tomato profit in the world, in Turkey it is 366.180 hg/ha. Our efficiency is high because one part of the Works on tomato embraced by soil regulators used in growing. In terms of soil wish, tomato is not a kind of selective plant. It is grown in each rich soil that is full of nutrition ingredients. There is an earlier crop development on the light origin soil, but the plant’s life is short. According to this, the efficiency automatically fallen. On the other hand, although on heavy clay soil, plant development is rather slowly at the beginning, the plant always develops and grows new shoots,flowers and fruit. Thus, the efficiency is higher on these soils. The plant is stronger against to illness and pests. Tomate fruit produced on these cray soils becomes nicer on colour and more enduring. The highness water holding capacity of the soil also substantially affects the plant development and efficiency. Tomato needs 5.5-7 soil ph. Sometimes the soil conditions that the plant need can not be supplied or the plant can not get nutrition ingredients from the soil. This causes problems with the efficiency and quality. 23 �The aim of using organic and inorganic soil regulators is to make simpler to get plant nutrition ingredients by doing soil’s physical and chemical origin better. Besides, the cure of soil’s physical features is considerably important in terms of plant growing and soil protection. With the solution of negative effects of acid in soil and the saving the endurance of aggregation and aggragates, a plant can adequately grows. (Ozdemir et al, 2005) Generally our country’s organic nutrient ingredients are not enough. By adding different organic materials, especially such as stable fertilizer , it is tried to make soil features (especially physical ones) better and to heighten the organic nutrient and the efficiency of the soil. Inadequacy of farm fertilizer and its expensiveness cause searches on using of other materials as organic nutrient source and soil regulator. ( Kütük et al, 1995; Okur and Delibacak, 2006) In this study, in order to protect the origin of soil; get maximum profit from water in soil; simplify plant’s getting nutrient elements from the soil; provide product rise, zeolite, terra cottem, peat and organic fertilizers are used. The effects on tomato quality of these different soil regulators are searched. Tomatoes Used in The Media 1.1.1.Zeolite Chemical composition of zeolite is a hydrated silicic mineral of aluminium. Main characteristics of zeolite are high cation exchange capacity, in balance water retention/release, nutrient available via ion exchange, arrange of acidity and air porosity. In addition, zeolite like a slow release fertilizer(Ayan, 2001). Trade Name Zeta NATM 900 NMF 9000 Filter Clino Application Animal Coaster Contribution feed Contribution of fertilizer Filtration, waste water Size (microns) 2,5-3,5 0-0,7 1,5-7,0 Price ($ / ton) 70 85 80 2,5-3,5 5,0-7,0 15,0-16,0 75 75 75 Table 1: Commercial Natural Zeolites Produced in Turkey (Anonymous, 2010d) Chemical Structure SiO 2 Al 2 O 3 Fe 2 O 3 K2O H2O CaO MgO Na 2 O Ti % 71.29 13.55 1.15 3.50 5.90 1.96 0.60 0.02 0.04 No 30 0.70 Ag N B (ppm) Table 2: Chemical Composition of Zeolites (Altan et al, 1998) 1.1.2.Peat Peat is composed of water level decrease in lake’s beds and then plant’activities come to the fore, in winter plant death by water level increasing. The natural phenomenon reproduce constantly. Peat is the type of organic soil and is used for vegetables, seedlings, cultivated mushroom and potted ornamental crops. Đts ph is range from 5.5 to 6.5. it is a poor organic soil except for nitrogen and semi- steril. In Turkey peat deposites which are approximately 40- 50 thousand hectares, were found 15 units (Ulukan and Ece, 2006) . Peat is very popular and commanly used for growing vegetables and seedlings in Turkey. 1.1.3.Organic Fertilizer Nowadays a huge range of products can be obtained, which have been produced intensively using chemical fertilizers; however, the extreme and careless usage of chemical fertilizers leads to structural damages and deterioration of physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil, like salinization, withering, 24 �extreme pH-levels and the destruction of organic material which acts as nutrients for microorganisms, which can only be recognized at long-terms. For reestablishing the physical, chemical and biological balance of our farming grounds, organic fertilizing is essential. The organic substances which the soil gets enriched with by organic fertilizing reestablish the air/water balance in the soil and thus maintain a healthy soil structure. Due to increased activity of microorganisms in the soil as a result if adding organic substances, the biological activity also increases and nutrients will be released, what either leads to a better chemical structure of the soil. This way the physical, chemical and biological balance of the soil is being reestablished. In order not to devastate this balance, we urgently have to stop the intensive usage of chemical fertilizers and we need change to organic fertilizing (Anonymous, 2010c) 1.1.4. Terra Cottem The terra cottem soıl conditıoner is a proprietary mixture of more than twenty components from six different groups all assisting the plant growth processes in a synergetic way:The Growth Stimulators play a very important role in the initial growth phase of the plant. They activate rootcell elongation and differentiation, and biomass production. In addition, roots are encouraged to grow more rapidly to depths where more water is present. Terra cottem’s crosslinked hydroabsorbent copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid partially neutralized by potassium and ammonia salts absorb and store water that is normally lost to evaporation and leaching, reducing the volume and frequency of necessary irrigation up to 50%. This water is then kept at the disposal of the plant that accesses the stored water on demand through its root hairs, keeping the water in the root zone for a longer period of time. In dry form, polymers are white, crystalline granules swell quickly, absorbing water and expanding into a gel- like substance. Each polymer is capable ofstoring many times its own weight in water. The terra cottem polymers have a low sensitivity to electrolytes, yielding numerous wet/dry cycles. The soluable mineral fertilizers absorbed by the hydrogels, feature a classic NPK mixture used as a starter component for the first growth phase of plants. They contain a high amount of trace elements. The slow release fertizlizers offer a constant flow of nutrients and play an important role in soil fertilization for many months. The release of nutrients starts approximately 2- 3 weeks after application and is temperature activated. The organic fertilizers stimulate microbiological activity in the soil and contribute to overall soil conditioning by releasing nitrogen and other growth stimulating elements. Terra cottem’s carrier material consists of a particular kind of volcanic pyroclastic rock (lava). The material acts as a component binder, a vehicle for the growth stimulators and allows homogeneous distribution of all components. Lava also improves the soil’s aeration (Anonymous, 2010e). Benefits • • • • • • • • • Stronger and deeper root development Healthier plants and increased yields Higher resistance to diseases Increased survival rate Soil conditioning Water savings Better use of fertilizers Good for the environment Enable plant growth in degraded, saline or otherwise marginal soils The Study This study was conducted in Akdeniz Unıversity Faculty of Agrıculture’s research and application field’s greenhouses. Each application were prepared separately. Soil regulators mixed in the soil for growing. controls were composed of non-regulators soil. The usage area and the amonuts are the same with the line lenght 12. 3 cm and the soil regulator weight of 623 kg/da was used. Tomato cv M19 was choosen as 25 �plantal material. Organic 1application was composed of %65 Clinoptilolite and %20 total organic materail. Organic 2 application was composed of %45 Clinoptilolite,%20 total organic materail, %8 total nitrogen and %1 organic nitrogen. Clinoptilolite is one of 40 different minerals of the group of zeolites and also the most important one among them. Because of its superior physiochemical characteristics and its versatile usability in a number of different industries it is used in geological, physical, chemical and agricultural, animal breeding and medical processes. Due to its huge anion and cation exchange capacity and its essential characteristics, like a balanced water management and its ability to bind and to release nutrients, Clinoptilolite is used as soil regulator and re-activator. Study was carried out as Randomized block design with 3 replications for each application. 15 fruits observation was donefor each replications. Examined parameters are fruit width, length and weight. Fruit width and length were measured by electronic calipers. Statistical analyses were performed by using SASsoftware package (SAS Institute, 1988), treatments means were separeted by Duncan’s test. Findings The highest value was supplied with organic 1- 2 and these applications weren’t significantly different from each other but they were significantly different from others; zeolite application showed the lowest value in terms of fruit width parameter. On fruit size parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 1 and this application had statistically differences from the others; zeolite application gave the lowest value.when the total fruit weight parameter was taken into consideration, the highest value was supplied with organic nutrient 1-2 and these applications weren’t significantly different from eac other but they were significantly different from other applications; zeolite application showed the lowest value [Table 3]. Applications (I.harvest) Width Size Peat 71.6924b* 58.8913bc Soil 70.9832b 59.9996ab Zeolite 67.3582c 56.0720d Organic 1 74.4369a 60.4882a Organic 2 74.5020a 60.1896ab Terra cottem 69.0800c 58.4371c *Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant differences between applications(P<0.01). Table 3: Fruit width, size and weigth results of I. harvest. Weight 184.952b 185.981b 153.885d 202.085a 204.602a 168.517c statistically It was seen that the highest value was supplied with organic 1and this application was significantly different from others; zeolite application showed the lowest value in terms the fruit width parameter. On fruit size parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 1 and soil. Those applications had statistically differences from the others but these applications weren’t significantly different from eac other; zeolite application gave the lowest value. When the total fruit weight parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 1 and this application is significantly different from other applications; zeolite application showed the lowest value [Table 4]. Applications (II. harvest) Width Size Weight Peat 68 341 b * 57.1107 b 162.206b Soil 69 712 ab 59.2798 a 173.842ab Zeolite 67 453 b 56.6422 b 157.328b Organic 1 71 890 a 59.7404 a 188.623a Organic 2 68 078 b 56.6800 b 161.122b Terra cottem 67 792 b 57.2582 b 160.508b *Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant statistically differences between applications(P<0.01). Table 4: Fruit width, size and weigth results of II. harvest. 26 �On fruit width parameter, the highest value was supplied with organic 2, zeolite and soil. These applications weren’t significantly different from each other but they were significantly different from others; the other applications showed the lowest value. When the fruit size parameter was the case, the highest value was supplied by soil and this application had statistically differences from the others; peat and organic 1 gave the lowest value. The highest value was supplied with zeolite, soil and these applications aren’t significantly different from eac other but they are significantly different from other applications; organic 1,Terra cottem and peat applications showed the lowest value in terms of the total fruit weight parameter [Table 5]. Applications (III. harvest ) Width Size Weight Peat 49 208 b * 43 827 c 72 874 c Soil 54 166 a 48 610 a 91 720 a Zeolite 53 379 a 47 292 ab 89 648 a Organic 1 48 266 b 43 500 c 68 730 c Organic 2 53 246 a 47 697 ab 88.321ab Terra cottem 49 604 b 45 824 abc 71 854 c *Means with the same letter are not significantly different. There were significant statistically differences between applications(P<0.01). Table 5: Fruit width, size and weigth results of III. harvest. Conclusions If soil doesn’t have enough nutrients for farming and has low water holding capacity, soil regulators can be used for avoding these problem. Soil regulators provide; water savings, stronger and deeper root development, better use of fertilizers and fruit quality. In this study, the soil of greenhouse is Terra rossa soil which has rich in nutrient materails, enough holding water capacity. Therefore; difference among the applications were not put the case clearly. The impacts of applications come into being clearly in the bad soil condition. According to results of the study; on fruit quality, the highest value was supplied with organic 1 - 2 in first two harvest; in latter harvest zeolit supplied the highest value on the fruit quality because of initating heat stres, fruits didn’t reach peculiar to fruit cultivar size. References Altan, A., Altan, Ö., Alçiçek, A., Nalbant, M. ve Akbaş, Y. (1998). Tavukçulukta Doğal Zeolit Kullanımı I., Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt. 35, No.1-2-3, S. 9-16, Issn 1018-6651, Đzmir Anonymous, 2010a. http://www.fao .org. Anonymous, 2010b. http://www.aib.gov.tr/proje/meyvesebzeulkeler.pdf Anonymous, 2010c. http://www.eregligubre.de/tr/4,0,1,0.html Anonymous, 2010d. http://www.mining-eng.org.tr/7.bykp/ ekutup96/o480/zeolit.htm Anonymous, 2010e. http://www.terracottem.com/eng/index.php Ayan, S. (2001). Utilization Of Zeolite As Plant Growing Media, Gazi University, Kastamon Faculty Of Forestry Silviculture Department Journal Of Doa No : 7 Page: 97 – 111, , Kastamonu. Delibacak, S., Eşiyok, D., Okur, B., Yağmur, B., Gevrek, M. N.( 2006). Farklı Azolla (Azolla meksicana) Düzeylerinin Kimi Toprak Özellikleri ve Roka (Eruca sativa) Verimi Üzerine Etkileri Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg., , 43(2):97-108 ISSN 1018-8851. 27 �Kaptan, H. (1990).Türkiye’de Turba Yatakları Ve Kullanılma Alanlarının Saptanması, Atatürk Bahçe Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, Yalova. Kütük, A.C., Çayci, G., Baran, A. (1995). Çay Atıklarının Bitki Yetiştirme Ortamı Olarak Kullanılabilme Olanakları. Ankara Üniv. Zir. Fakültesi Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi, Yıl 1, Sayı 1, Sayfa 35-40. Özdemir, N., Gülser, C., Ekberli, Đ., Özkaptan, S. (2005). Toprak Düzenleyicilerinin Asit Toprakta Strüktürel Dayanıklılığa Etkisi, Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 36 (2), 151-156, 2005 Issn : 1300-9036 Sas Đnstitute.(1989). Sas/Stat User’s Guide. North Caroline: Sas Institute Ulukan Đ., Ece A. (2006). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesinde Farklı Yerlerden Elde Edilen Değişik Torf Materyallerinin Domates (Lycopersicon Lycopersicum L.) ‘Te Fide Kalitesi Üzerine Etkileri, Bahçe Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü –Erzincan , Gaziosmanpaşa Üni. Ziraat Fakültesi Bahçe Bitkileri Bölümü –Tokat. 28 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 325 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Different Soil Regulators on Quality Tomatoes Author Author BAYYURT, Rudil AYAR SENSOY, Funda ÇAKALOZ KOÇ, Burçin ERCAN, Nurgül Abstract A summary of the resource. Soil structure are very important factor at plant growing. Plants take water and plant nutrients via their roots. If the factors such as water holding capacity and porosity of soil is good enough, yield and quality of plant will be increased. Tomato is valuable plant both for the fresh fruit market and the processed food industries. It is grown in a wide range of climates in the field and under protection.The aim of this research is to determine the effect of different soil regulators (zeolite, peat, Terra Cottem, organik fertilizer) on tomato quality. They were mixed into the soil before planting. At the end of the research, while organic fertilizer has the highest value in terms of fruit weight and fruit diameter, control treatment has the highest value at fruit lenght. According to the results, organic fertilizer is able to be mixed into soil for much better fruit quality. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/dfcd08b7136b690e5144bf7e1bda2620.pdf 81607964fb82f67c1c3c3a3e1dee2e8b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Tale of Two Disciplines: Perspectives on HRM vs. Industrial Relations in Europe and in Turkey Serkan BAYRAKTAROGLU Sakarya University, Department of Management, TURKEY Cemal IYEM Sakarya University, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, TURKEY Yasemin ÖZDEMĠR Sakarya University, Department of Management, TURKEY Abstract: In 1960‘s there are many problems about HRM like stagnation because of many different factors. During 1950‘s HRM is seen as a part of industrial relations. After 1960‘s in time HRM and industrial relations tended to develop as two different areas: industrial relations is narrowly focused on unions and labour-management relations and HRM is focused on the functional parts of employment management. IR and HRM differentiation is parallel to work economist and scientists from management and behaviour sciences (Kaufman 2007: 33). In this paper, the comparison of perspectives of IR and HRM disciplines within the framework of the text books will be made. Industrial Relations Background Post-industrial transformation process and that with the change in labour force quality, as well as the importance of human resource management field to gain reduces the effectiveness of industrial relations. In fact, the importance of industrial relations the most important reason for the reduction of a serious decline of unionism and workers' organizations can be shown to be. However, Yildirim's (1997:13), as expressed to decline to check this in the future of industrial relations or the form of industrial relations in the union will wrap, or vanished, and the human resources management will be left to claim is incorrect. Therefore, a dynamic sub-system of society as "Industrial Relations" at the past, today and future to analyze the "Human Resources" and "Strategic Human Resources" approach" in the role of Industrial Relations will allow us to understand better. In particular, In the 1970s, World War II until the end of the ongoing period of high employment, growth, industry relations, as well as reconciliation and the trade union organizations and collective bargaining it is possible to see the development of. However, these positive statements in the first quarter of the 1970s economic crisis occurring in the unstable structure was replaced. Especially with the increase in the unemployment rate and employment to the unemployed masses "Atypical working" formats emerged. Moreover, the advanced technology brought a change in the workforce profile. Employers and trade unions in the 1980s is coming to the economic and social life and the effects vary with the location, it is possible to see the trade unions started to weaken (Uckan and Kağnıcıoğlu 2004:75). In particular, the process of restructuring in the economy and technological progress by now lost the importance of relationships corporatist individual interests to the fore an understanding that reveals the judges. This change in the structure of collective bargaining itself is felt. National-level collective bargaining in the sense of place to a configuration requires a more micro level, was replaced by the establishment. Once upon a time, massive blue collar and more humane work / life conditions to ensure that come together as created and then this combination political field into the other developments with the welfare state the path to the layer of trade unions to the state when look at it; unions now and against capital as well as the political scene when considered What is the power! is seen as one raised for organizations that are afraid of fashion (Man and Iyem 2008). This component consists of the industrial relations system, developed in parallel with the very nature of the matter is lost. Areas where the collective consciousness of individuals focused on the future of industrial relations in many different scenarios were produced. At present, industrial relations and are opposed to each other HRM‘s and HRM‘s development of industrial relations will disappear with you in the direction of HRM and Industrial Relations that the competitors to each other, complement each other in the direction where there are different opinions (Tokol 2001:210). 655 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In fact Tokol (2001: 211) expressed as a paradox is in the process, business or business to the worker's trade union decision-making power is the closest. The same paradoxical problem, create a theoretical dimension to the educational process is also possible to downmix. Thus from Personnel Management to Human Resources together with the transition to the Industrial Relations The importance of teaching reading based resources are the basis of how the changes brought?, Western literature with the source in Turkey between sources of Industrial Relations The importance of what similarities or differences are there? HRM Perspective The 1980s saw the emergence of the concept of strategic HRM (for example Schuler 1989; Boxall 1992; Bratton and Gold 1999). Increased competition in both national and global arenas has forced managers to reconsider the management of all resources within the organisation, paying specific attention to the effective management of the human resource, leading to declarations such as ―people are our most valuable asset‖. This reappraisal of the techniques used to manage employees within an organisation has led to the development of various approaches towards human resource management: for example the instrumental approach which focuses on the so-called hard HR areas such as HR planning where human resources are viewed as ―rationally‖ as any other economic factor; and the humanistic approach emphasising the so-called softer aspects of HRM such as organisational culture and employee commitment (Goss 1994). The shift from traditional personnel management towards a more sophisticated human resource management has been reported extensively in recent years (Storey 1989; Legge 1989; Sisson 1989; Guest 1989; Beer et al. 1985). Guest (1993) identifies the central levers for HRM as selection, training and rewards. It is widely accepted, however, that the main features of a human resource management network include additional features such as welfare, trade unions, assessment, employee involvement and equal opportunities. In the Europe and USA the transformation required a process based in the improvements within HRM practices but in Turkey the transformation remained superficial limited to the name change from personnel management to HRM. Furthermore the transformation to strategic HRM has been seen as luxury for the Turkish companies (Bayraktaroglu 2006). Literally strategic HRM includes four dimensions (Bratton and Gold 1999): reengineering, leadership, workplace learning and labour unions. It can be claimed that these dimensions will let us improve HRM strategically and hence overcome so-called shortfalls of HRM. There may be different mechanisms to provide the balance of achieving the desired results: HRM view and IR view mainly structured around the idea of labour unions. Creation of “us” and “them” as competing parties this process may become more unproductive in terms of performance standards. Aim of the Research In this research, the understanding of HRM within the theoretical framework will be analysed to explore the present HRM understanding of academics in comparison with industrial relations view. Method of the Research This research will employ qualitative methods namely content analysis (Holsti 1969; Luborsky 1994) and Turkish HRM textbooks will be used in comparison with British and American HRM text books. In this way, it is hoped that the transformation of strategic HRM in Turkey will be explored and this will help to understand the degree of convergence of the HRM discipline with industrial relations. We propose to use a provisional, working list of main types of industrial relations. We used basic industrial textbooks when working list of main types of industrial relations. These books are very important and basic text books in industrial relations literature (Purcell 1981; Salamon 1987; Ferner and Hyman 1992; Salamon 2000; Edwards 2003). Findings In this section the findings of our research will be indicated in two parts: the findings about European and Turkish HRM books. We used seven British and American HRM text books in this study; also we did content analysis (used main types of industrial relations) on seven British and American HRM text books. 656 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Above table shows the text books that have been published between 1974 and 2007 years. The number one shows the oldest published (1974) text book while the number seven shows the newest (2007) published text book. The subjects in industry relations have been changed as the time passes. The first three books emphasize the importance of collective bargaining, wages and employee/employer associations because most of the companies were unionised. However, we don‘t see these subjects/chapters in more recently published text books because weakened labour union bargaining power and chancing collective bargaining strategies have contributed to this result. On the other hand, we started seeing that recently published books have started giving place to nonunionization. Some of the union efforts there such as wages, employee labour associations, pay and productivity and disputes. Concepts/ Issues Labour Relations Industrial Relations Industrial Action Collective Agreement Collective Bargaining Disputes Grievances Negotiation Books 1 2 3 4 + + (employe eemployer relations) + (emplo yeeemploy er relation s) 6 ++ 7 8 + ++++++ ++++++ + +++ + ++ + + ++++ +++++ + +++ +++++ + (collec tive work dispute s) + (collective work disputes) ++++++ 9 ++++ ++ + ++ and + (collective negotiation) Conflict Pay and Productivity Wages 5 76 (wage) and 2 (determi nig wages) ++++ ++++ + and + (wage manag ement) , 1 (deter 31 (wage) and 1 (determi nnig wages) + (produc tivity) 25 (wage) 657 8 (wage) , 1 (deter minnig wages) and 1 (wage manag 3 (wag e man age ment ) 5 (wage), 1 (wage managemen t), 2 (determinni g wages) and 5 (wage system) 4 (wage )and 2 (deter minni g wage s) 1 (dete rmin nig wage s) �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo minni g wages ) Manpower Unemployment Conciliation and Arbitration Redundancy Join Consultation Union Recognition Strike Lockout Trade Union ement) +++++ ++++ +++++ + ++ 3 (conciliat ion) and 4 (arbitrati on) + 1 (concili ation) and 1(arbitr ation) +++ ++ + ++ +++ 1 (peaceful) and 1 (computing solutions) ++ + + ++++++ ++++++ + ++ ++++++ ++++++ ++ + Labour Union + ++ + + ++++++ + +++++ +++++ ++++ + 1 (relatio ns with trade unions ) ++++ 1 (work place union), 1 (sectoral union) and 1 (occupati onal union) Unionism Labour Federation 1 (work place) and 1 (occupation al unions) ++ + and 1(confedera tion) + EmployeeEmployer Associations. Works Council Shop Stewards ++ Is there a special part in the book about these subjects? As legal dimensio ns of HRM ++ + + - + + 1 (Labour Law) 658 + + - - - �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2: The findings about Turkish HRM books (8th and 9th ones are SHRM books) are summarized below; As it is seen from the table only 3 HRM books have a special part named industrial relations and all the HRM and SHRM books mention at least 2 concepts about IR. The most mentioned concept is about wages and the second one is about trade unions. It can be said that although IR is an important area in the development of HRM, the concepts/issues about IR do not have an important place HRM books so in HRM literature. Conclusion Generally the idea of HRM model in Turkey is the opposition of classical industrial relations and collective bargaining agreement and it is argued that HRM methods and policies are developed prove the interest of personnel‘s good and higher life standards by the management. However, there seems to be a dilemma between the HRM and IR understandings for the organisations. This feature of HRM has had some big effects from the views of political and legal developments, decrease of the membership of labour unions and the governments in USA and the UK. The labour unions‘ success can only be possible if they can achieve to adopt the developments in innovative management techniques. Now employees and employers have to face the difficulties of business world together. Instead of wage trade unions the view which supports company‘s success, competition and employing possibilities is getting stronger. These unions have to look over their roles in business world and adaptive themselves to new developments to survive in today‘s world. As a result, this process is representing an important stage for developing strategically HRM in Turkey. Our research findings indicate that the dilemma between HRM and IR disciplines are to be faded away as the objectives of both sides are harmonised as the current conditions forced them to cooperate. References Barutcugil, I. (2004) Stratejik Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Kariyer Yayıncılık, Ġstanbul. Bayraktaroğlu, S.(2002) Stratejik Olan ve Olmayan Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Beta Yayınları, Istanbul. Bayraktaroglu, S. (2006) Human Resources Management. Sakarya, Adapazari. Beardwell, Ian and Len Holden (1994) Human Resource Management (A Contemporary Perspective), Pitman Publishing, London. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. and Walton, R., (1985) HRM: A General Manager‘s Perspective, Free Press, New York, NY. Bingol, D. (2006) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Arıkan Yayınları, 6. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Boxall, P. and J. Purcell (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management. Boxall, P. (1992) Strategic human resource management: beginnings of a new theoretical sophistication? Human Resource Management Journal 2(3): 60-79. Bratton, J. and Gold, J. (1999) Human Resources Management, London: MacMillan Press. Edwards Paul (Edited) (2003) Industrial Relations Theory and Practice, Blackwell Publishing. Ferner Anthony, Richard Hyman (1992) Industrial Relations in the New Europe, Oxford, UK Fındıkçı, Ġlhami (2001) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Alfa Yayınları, 3. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Graham, H.T. (1974) Human Resource Management, London Graham, H.T. and R. Bennett (1992) Human Resource Management, London. 659 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Guest, D. (1993) ―Current perspectives on human resource management in the United Kingdom‖, in Hegewisch, A. and Brewster, C. (Eds), European Developments in Human Resource Management, Kogan Page, London. Guest, D. (1989) ―HRM: implications for industrial relations‖, in Storey, J. (Ed.), New Perspectives on HRM, Routledge, London. Gunnigle, P., N. Heraty and M. Morley (1997) Personnel & Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice in Ireland, Dublin. Goss, D. (1994), Principles of Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Kaufman, B. E. (2007) ―The Development of HRM in Historical and International Perspective‖, in The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, edit: Boxall, Peter, John Purcell ve Patrick Wright, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 1947. Kaynak, T., Z. Adal et al. (2000) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Istanbul Universitesi Isletme Fakültesi Isletme Iktisadı Enstitusu AraĢtırma ve Yardım Vakfı Yayını, No: 7, Istanbul. Legge, K., (1989) ―Human resource management: a critical analysis‖, in Storey, J. (Ed.), New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Luborsky, M.R. (1994) Qualitative Methods in Ageing Research, Thousand Oaks, C. A: Sage. Mabey, C. and Salaman, G. (1998) Human resource management: a strategic introduction, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Business. Man, F. and C. Ġyem (2008) ―Türkiye‘de Sendikalar Siyaseti Etkileyebilir mi?‖, 10. Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi, ODTÜ, Ankara. Purcell, J. (1981) Good Industrial Relations Theory and Practice, MacMillan. Rigg, C., J. Stewart and K. Trehan (Edit.) (2007) Critical Human Resource Development, UK. Sabuncuoglu, Z. (2008) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi Uygulamaları, Alfa Aktuel Basım, 3. Baskı, Bursa. Salamon, W. M. (1987 first edition), Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice, UK. Salamon, W. M.l (2000 fourth edition), Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice, UK Schuler, R. S. (1989) Strategic human resource management and industrial relations. Human Relations. 42(2): 157-84. Sisson, K. (1989), Personnel Management in Britain, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, London: Routledge. Tokol, A. (2001); Endüstri ĠliĢkileri ve Yeni GeliĢmeler, VipaĢ, Bursa. Uckan, B. and Kagnıcıoglu, D. (2004) Endüstri ĠliĢkileri, Anadolu Üniversitesi, EskiĢehir. Uyargil, C., Adal, Z., Ataayi I., Acar, A., Özçelik, O., Sadullah, Ö., G. Dündar and L. Tüzüner (2008), Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Beta Yayınları, 3. Baskı, Istanbul. Yıldırım, E. (1997) Endüstri IliĢkileri Teorileri (Sosyolojik Bir Değerlendirme), DeğiĢim Yayınları, Sakarya. Yüksel, O. (2007) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Gazi Kitabevi, 6. Baskı, Ankara. 660 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 255 Title A name given to the resource A Tale of Two Disciplines: Perspectives on HRM vs. Industrial Relations in Europe and in Turkey Author Author BAYRAKTAROĞLU, Serkan IYEM, Cemal ÖZDEMİR, Yasemin Abstract A summary of the resource. In 1960‘s there are many problems about HRM like stagnation because of many different factors. During 1950‘s HRM is seen as a part of industrial relations. After 1960‘s in time HRM and industrial relations tended to develop as two different areas: industrial relations is narrowly focused on unions and labour-management relations and HRM is focused on the functional parts of employment management. IR and HRM differentiation is parallel to work economist and scientists from management and behaviour sciences (Kaufman 2007: 33). In this paper, the comparison of perspectives of IR and HRM disciplines within the framework of the text books will be made. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5b2ccaf42be76ee7d6a4d69b800ce9e1.pdf 81607964fb82f67c1c3c3a3e1dee2e8b PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Tale of Two Disciplines: Perspectives on HRM vs. Industrial Relations in Europe and in Turkey Serkan BAYRAKTAROGLU Sakarya University, Department of Management, TURKEY Cemal IYEM Sakarya University, Department of Labour Economics and Industrial Relations, TURKEY Yasemin ÖZDEMĠR Sakarya University, Department of Management, TURKEY Abstract: In 1960‘s there are many problems about HRM like stagnation because of many different factors. During 1950‘s HRM is seen as a part of industrial relations. After 1960‘s in time HRM and industrial relations tended to develop as two different areas: industrial relations is narrowly focused on unions and labour-management relations and HRM is focused on the functional parts of employment management. IR and HRM differentiation is parallel to work economist and scientists from management and behaviour sciences (Kaufman 2007: 33). In this paper, the comparison of perspectives of IR and HRM disciplines within the framework of the text books will be made. Industrial Relations Background Post-industrial transformation process and that with the change in labour force quality, as well as the importance of human resource management field to gain reduces the effectiveness of industrial relations. In fact, the importance of industrial relations the most important reason for the reduction of a serious decline of unionism and workers' organizations can be shown to be. However, Yildirim's (1997:13), as expressed to decline to check this in the future of industrial relations or the form of industrial relations in the union will wrap, or vanished, and the human resources management will be left to claim is incorrect. Therefore, a dynamic sub-system of society as "Industrial Relations" at the past, today and future to analyze the "Human Resources" and "Strategic Human Resources" approach" in the role of Industrial Relations will allow us to understand better. In particular, In the 1970s, World War II until the end of the ongoing period of high employment, growth, industry relations, as well as reconciliation and the trade union organizations and collective bargaining it is possible to see the development of. However, these positive statements in the first quarter of the 1970s economic crisis occurring in the unstable structure was replaced. Especially with the increase in the unemployment rate and employment to the unemployed masses "Atypical working" formats emerged. Moreover, the advanced technology brought a change in the workforce profile. Employers and trade unions in the 1980s is coming to the economic and social life and the effects vary with the location, it is possible to see the trade unions started to weaken (Uckan and Kağnıcıoğlu 2004:75). In particular, the process of restructuring in the economy and technological progress by now lost the importance of relationships corporatist individual interests to the fore an understanding that reveals the judges. This change in the structure of collective bargaining itself is felt. National-level collective bargaining in the sense of place to a configuration requires a more micro level, was replaced by the establishment. Once upon a time, massive blue collar and more humane work / life conditions to ensure that come together as created and then this combination political field into the other developments with the welfare state the path to the layer of trade unions to the state when look at it; unions now and against capital as well as the political scene when considered What is the power! is seen as one raised for organizations that are afraid of fashion (Man and Iyem 2008). This component consists of the industrial relations system, developed in parallel with the very nature of the matter is lost. Areas where the collective consciousness of individuals focused on the future of industrial relations in many different scenarios were produced. At present, industrial relations and are opposed to each other HRM‘s and HRM‘s development of industrial relations will disappear with you in the direction of HRM and Industrial Relations that the competitors to each other, complement each other in the direction where there are different opinions (Tokol 2001:210). 655 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In fact Tokol (2001: 211) expressed as a paradox is in the process, business or business to the worker's trade union decision-making power is the closest. The same paradoxical problem, create a theoretical dimension to the educational process is also possible to downmix. Thus from Personnel Management to Human Resources together with the transition to the Industrial Relations The importance of teaching reading based resources are the basis of how the changes brought?, Western literature with the source in Turkey between sources of Industrial Relations The importance of what similarities or differences are there? HRM Perspective The 1980s saw the emergence of the concept of strategic HRM (for example Schuler 1989; Boxall 1992; Bratton and Gold 1999). Increased competition in both national and global arenas has forced managers to reconsider the management of all resources within the organisation, paying specific attention to the effective management of the human resource, leading to declarations such as ―people are our most valuable asset‖. This reappraisal of the techniques used to manage employees within an organisation has led to the development of various approaches towards human resource management: for example the instrumental approach which focuses on the so-called hard HR areas such as HR planning where human resources are viewed as ―rationally‖ as any other economic factor; and the humanistic approach emphasising the so-called softer aspects of HRM such as organisational culture and employee commitment (Goss 1994). The shift from traditional personnel management towards a more sophisticated human resource management has been reported extensively in recent years (Storey 1989; Legge 1989; Sisson 1989; Guest 1989; Beer et al. 1985). Guest (1993) identifies the central levers for HRM as selection, training and rewards. It is widely accepted, however, that the main features of a human resource management network include additional features such as welfare, trade unions, assessment, employee involvement and equal opportunities. In the Europe and USA the transformation required a process based in the improvements within HRM practices but in Turkey the transformation remained superficial limited to the name change from personnel management to HRM. Furthermore the transformation to strategic HRM has been seen as luxury for the Turkish companies (Bayraktaroglu 2006). Literally strategic HRM includes four dimensions (Bratton and Gold 1999): reengineering, leadership, workplace learning and labour unions. It can be claimed that these dimensions will let us improve HRM strategically and hence overcome so-called shortfalls of HRM. There may be different mechanisms to provide the balance of achieving the desired results: HRM view and IR view mainly structured around the idea of labour unions. Creation of “us” and “them” as competing parties this process may become more unproductive in terms of performance standards. Aim of the Research In this research, the understanding of HRM within the theoretical framework will be analysed to explore the present HRM understanding of academics in comparison with industrial relations view. Method of the Research This research will employ qualitative methods namely content analysis (Holsti 1969; Luborsky 1994) and Turkish HRM textbooks will be used in comparison with British and American HRM text books. In this way, it is hoped that the transformation of strategic HRM in Turkey will be explored and this will help to understand the degree of convergence of the HRM discipline with industrial relations. We propose to use a provisional, working list of main types of industrial relations. We used basic industrial textbooks when working list of main types of industrial relations. These books are very important and basic text books in industrial relations literature (Purcell 1981; Salamon 1987; Ferner and Hyman 1992; Salamon 2000; Edwards 2003). Findings In this section the findings of our research will be indicated in two parts: the findings about European and Turkish HRM books. We used seven British and American HRM text books in this study; also we did content analysis (used main types of industrial relations) on seven British and American HRM text books. 656 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Above table shows the text books that have been published between 1974 and 2007 years. The number one shows the oldest published (1974) text book while the number seven shows the newest (2007) published text book. The subjects in industry relations have been changed as the time passes. The first three books emphasize the importance of collective bargaining, wages and employee/employer associations because most of the companies were unionised. However, we don‘t see these subjects/chapters in more recently published text books because weakened labour union bargaining power and chancing collective bargaining strategies have contributed to this result. On the other hand, we started seeing that recently published books have started giving place to nonunionization. Some of the union efforts there such as wages, employee labour associations, pay and productivity and disputes. Concepts/ Issues Labour Relations Industrial Relations Industrial Action Collective Agreement Collective Bargaining Disputes Grievances Negotiation Books 1 2 3 4 + + (employe eemployer relations) + (emplo yeeemploy er relation s) 6 ++ 7 8 + ++++++ ++++++ + +++ + ++ + + ++++ +++++ + +++ +++++ + (collec tive work dispute s) + (collective work disputes) ++++++ 9 ++++ ++ + ++ and + (collective negotiation) Conflict Pay and Productivity Wages 5 76 (wage) and 2 (determi nig wages) ++++ ++++ + and + (wage manag ement) , 1 (deter 31 (wage) and 1 (determi nnig wages) + (produc tivity) 25 (wage) 657 8 (wage) , 1 (deter minnig wages) and 1 (wage manag 3 (wag e man age ment ) 5 (wage), 1 (wage managemen t), 2 (determinni g wages) and 5 (wage system) 4 (wage )and 2 (deter minni g wage s) 1 (dete rmin nig wage s) �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo minni g wages ) Manpower Unemployment Conciliation and Arbitration Redundancy Join Consultation Union Recognition Strike Lockout Trade Union ement) +++++ ++++ +++++ + ++ 3 (conciliat ion) and 4 (arbitrati on) + 1 (concili ation) and 1(arbitr ation) +++ ++ + ++ +++ 1 (peaceful) and 1 (computing solutions) ++ + + ++++++ ++++++ + ++ ++++++ ++++++ ++ + Labour Union + ++ + + ++++++ + +++++ +++++ ++++ + 1 (relatio ns with trade unions ) ++++ 1 (work place union), 1 (sectoral union) and 1 (occupati onal union) Unionism Labour Federation 1 (work place) and 1 (occupation al unions) ++ + and 1(confedera tion) + EmployeeEmployer Associations. Works Council Shop Stewards ++ Is there a special part in the book about these subjects? As legal dimensio ns of HRM ++ + + - + + 1 (Labour Law) 658 + + - - - �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2: The findings about Turkish HRM books (8th and 9th ones are SHRM books) are summarized below; As it is seen from the table only 3 HRM books have a special part named industrial relations and all the HRM and SHRM books mention at least 2 concepts about IR. The most mentioned concept is about wages and the second one is about trade unions. It can be said that although IR is an important area in the development of HRM, the concepts/issues about IR do not have an important place HRM books so in HRM literature. Conclusion Generally the idea of HRM model in Turkey is the opposition of classical industrial relations and collective bargaining agreement and it is argued that HRM methods and policies are developed prove the interest of personnel‘s good and higher life standards by the management. However, there seems to be a dilemma between the HRM and IR understandings for the organisations. This feature of HRM has had some big effects from the views of political and legal developments, decrease of the membership of labour unions and the governments in USA and the UK. The labour unions‘ success can only be possible if they can achieve to adopt the developments in innovative management techniques. Now employees and employers have to face the difficulties of business world together. Instead of wage trade unions the view which supports company‘s success, competition and employing possibilities is getting stronger. These unions have to look over their roles in business world and adaptive themselves to new developments to survive in today‘s world. As a result, this process is representing an important stage for developing strategically HRM in Turkey. Our research findings indicate that the dilemma between HRM and IR disciplines are to be faded away as the objectives of both sides are harmonised as the current conditions forced them to cooperate. References Barutcugil, I. (2004) Stratejik Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Kariyer Yayıncılık, Ġstanbul. Bayraktaroğlu, S.(2002) Stratejik Olan ve Olmayan Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Beta Yayınları, Istanbul. Bayraktaroglu, S. (2006) Human Resources Management. Sakarya, Adapazari. Beardwell, Ian and Len Holden (1994) Human Resource Management (A Contemporary Perspective), Pitman Publishing, London. Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P., Mills, D. and Walton, R., (1985) HRM: A General Manager‘s Perspective, Free Press, New York, NY. Bingol, D. (2006) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Arıkan Yayınları, 6. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Boxall, P. and J. Purcell (2003) Strategy and Human Resource Management. Boxall, P. (1992) Strategic human resource management: beginnings of a new theoretical sophistication? Human Resource Management Journal 2(3): 60-79. Bratton, J. and Gold, J. (1999) Human Resources Management, London: MacMillan Press. Edwards Paul (Edited) (2003) Industrial Relations Theory and Practice, Blackwell Publishing. Ferner Anthony, Richard Hyman (1992) Industrial Relations in the New Europe, Oxford, UK Fındıkçı, Ġlhami (2001) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Alfa Yayınları, 3. Baskı, Ġstanbul. Graham, H.T. (1974) Human Resource Management, London Graham, H.T. and R. Bennett (1992) Human Resource Management, London. 659 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Guest, D. (1993) ―Current perspectives on human resource management in the United Kingdom‖, in Hegewisch, A. and Brewster, C. (Eds), European Developments in Human Resource Management, Kogan Page, London. Guest, D. (1989) ―HRM: implications for industrial relations‖, in Storey, J. (Ed.), New Perspectives on HRM, Routledge, London. Gunnigle, P., N. Heraty and M. Morley (1997) Personnel & Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice in Ireland, Dublin. Goss, D. (1994), Principles of Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Kaufman, B. E. (2007) ―The Development of HRM in Historical and International Perspective‖, in The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management, edit: Boxall, Peter, John Purcell ve Patrick Wright, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 1947. Kaynak, T., Z. Adal et al. (2000) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi, Istanbul Universitesi Isletme Fakültesi Isletme Iktisadı Enstitusu AraĢtırma ve Yardım Vakfı Yayını, No: 7, Istanbul. Legge, K., (1989) ―Human resource management: a critical analysis‖, in Storey, J. (Ed.), New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, Routledge, London. Luborsky, M.R. (1994) Qualitative Methods in Ageing Research, Thousand Oaks, C. A: Sage. Mabey, C. and Salaman, G. (1998) Human resource management: a strategic introduction, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Business. Man, F. and C. Ġyem (2008) ―Türkiye‘de Sendikalar Siyaseti Etkileyebilir mi?‖, 10. Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi, ODTÜ, Ankara. Purcell, J. (1981) Good Industrial Relations Theory and Practice, MacMillan. Rigg, C., J. Stewart and K. Trehan (Edit.) (2007) Critical Human Resource Development, UK. Sabuncuoglu, Z. (2008) Insan Kaynakları Yonetimi Uygulamaları, Alfa Aktuel Basım, 3. Baskı, Bursa. Salamon, W. M. (1987 first edition), Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice, UK. Salamon, W. M.l (2000 fourth edition), Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice, UK Schuler, R. S. (1989) Strategic human resource management and industrial relations. Human Relations. 42(2): 157-84. Sisson, K. (1989), Personnel Management in Britain, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Storey, J. (1989) New Perspectives on Human Resource Management, London: Routledge. Tokol, A. (2001); Endüstri ĠliĢkileri ve Yeni GeliĢmeler, VipaĢ, Bursa. Uckan, B. and Kagnıcıoglu, D. (2004) Endüstri ĠliĢkileri, Anadolu Üniversitesi, EskiĢehir. Uyargil, C., Adal, Z., Ataayi I., Acar, A., Özçelik, O., Sadullah, Ö., G. Dündar and L. Tüzüner (2008), Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Beta Yayınları, 3. Baskı, Istanbul. Yıldırım, E. (1997) Endüstri IliĢkileri Teorileri (Sosyolojik Bir Değerlendirme), DeğiĢim Yayınları, Sakarya. Yüksel, O. (2007) Ġnsan Kaynakları Yönetimi, Gazi Kitabevi, 6. Baskı, Ankara. 660 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 305 Title A name given to the resource A Tale of Two Disciplines: Perspectives on HRM vs. Industrial Relations in Europe and in Turkey Author Author BAYRAKTAROGLU, Serkan IYEM, Cemal ÖZDEMĠR, Yasemin Abstract A summary of the resource. In 1960‘s there are many problems about HRM like stagnation because of many different factors. During 1950‘s HRM is seen as a part of industrial relations. After 1960‘s in time HRM and industrial relations tended to develop as two different areas: industrial relations is narrowly focused on unions and labour-management relations and HRM is focused on the functional parts of employment management. IR and HRM differentiation is parallel to work economist and scientists from management and behaviour sciences (Kaufman 2007: 33). In this paper, the comparison of perspectives of IR and HRM disciplines within the framework of the text books will be made. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ea24957ee4f90fee5443e0db4ee0173c.pdf 6532ad82883b4a9d0ff27acbbe3cd153 PDF Text Text The Effect of Current Density and pH of Cadmium Removal by Electrochemical Processes Serkan BAYAR Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Environmental Engineering Erzurum, TURKEY sbayar@atauni.edu.tr Alper Erdem YILMAZ Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Environmental Engineering Erzurum, TURKEY aerdemy@atauni.edu.tr Recep BONCUKCUOĞLU Atatürk University, Engineering Faculty Department of Environmental Engineering Erzurum, TURKEY rboncuk@atauni.edu.tr Abstract : Removal of cadmium from synthetically prepared solution using electrochemical processes is studied in the present study. To determine the optimum operation conditions, the effect of several parameters such as current density and initial solution pH have been investigated. Iron electrode was used as electrode materials. Experiments were carried out with different current densities ranging from 0.25 to 1.25 A/m2. It was observed that the removal of cadmium increases with increasing current densities. The distance of between electrodes was chosen as 5 mm. Initial cadmium concentrations was kept constant at 100 mg/L while other parameters such as current density and initial solution pH were investigated. Cadmium concentration in the solution was determined using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The experimentally obtained results were shown that electrochemical processes were achieved to cadmium removal (e.g. 99.99%) from synthetically prepared solution. Key words: Cadmium, removal, electrocoagulation, electroreduction 1. Introduction Heavy metals pose a significant hazard to environment and human health. Wastewater generated from cadmium processing is extremely toxic to environment and to humans. Due to their high toxicity, industrial wastewaters containing heavy metals are strictly regulated and must be treated before being discharged in the environment. Cadmium is a toxin of environmental concern. The impact for non-cancer causes includes kidney, liver, and lung damage [1]. It is also classified as a probable human carcinogen for lung cancer. The association of cadmium with hormone-related cancers such as prostate and breast cancers has being actively investigated since the initial implication [2-4]. There is no known function of cadmium in the human biological system. The presence of such foreign metal ion in the human is likely a result of various exposures. In addition to direct exposure from air and drinking water, another potential exposure is to result from crops grown in the contaminated water and soil environment, which transports the metal into food chain where cadmium is accumulated in various parts of crops [5]. Electroplating, nickel–cadmium battery production and disposal, fossil fuels, pigments, fertilizers, certain electronic components are all potential sources of contamination to water [6]. Various methods can be applied to remove toxic metals from industrial effluents [7,8]. These methods include precipitation, co-precipitation, electrodeposition, electrocoagulation, cementation, membrane separation, solvent extraction, ion-exchange, 518 �adsorption and biosorption [9, 10]. Precipitation is most applicable among these techniques and considered to be the most economical. Among these methods, electrocoagulation is particularly interesting. The electrocoagulation has been successfully used to treat oil wastes, with a removal efficiencies as high as 99% [11,12]. A similar success was obtained when treating dye-containing solutions [13–14], potable water [15], urban and restaurant wastewater [16,17] and nitrate or fluoride containing waters [18,19]. In addition, a great deal of work performed in the last decades [20–21] has proved that electrocoagulation is an effective technology for the treatment of heavy metal containing solutions. This technology delivers the coagulant in situ by anodic dissolution and produces subsequently, iron (or aluminium) hydroxides having a considerable sorption capacity, while the simultaneous cathodic reaction allows pollutant removal either by deposition on cathode electrode or by flotation (evolution of hydrogen at the cathode) [22]. Likewise, during electrocoagulation process, liquid is not enriched with anions and salts content does not increase, compared to chemical metal precipitation [23]. This contributes to production of metallic sludges which are compact using electrocoagulation compared to those generated by chemical precipitation [24,25]. Moreover, electrocoagulation requires simple equipment, small retention time and is easy to operate [26,27]. These characteristics contribute to reduction of operating cost for industrial applications. In the present work, the efficiency of electrocoagulation in removing cadmium from synthetically solution was reported. The effect of initial pH and current density on the removal efficiency is explored and discussed to determine the optimum operational conditions. Aim of this study is to investigate the effects of initial pH and current density on cadmium removal from wastewater by electrocoagulation method using iron electrodes. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Materials Wastewater sample used in the experiments were prepared synthetically using CdCl2H2O having 99.99 of purity from Merck. The solution with cadmium concentration of 100 mg/L was prepared by dissolved 0,1796 mg in distilled water and completed with distilled water to 1 L. The electrolyte was synthetically prepared by using analytical reagents and distilled water. A stock solution of cadmium chlorine, 100 mg/l was prepared. The pH of the solution was adjusted to the required value with 10−2M nitric acid and 10−2M sodium hydroxide. All measurements were carried out at ambient temperature approximately (22 ± 1 oC) 2.2. Experimental setup and procedure The experimental setup is schematically shown in Figure 1.The EC unit consists of six pair of electrodes made of plate iron with total area of approximately 1000 cm2 and the gap between the electrodes is 5 mm. Electrodes were connected to a digital DC power supply (Good Will) in monopolar mode. Two digital multimeters (Brymen Bm 201) as ampermeter and voltmeter were used to measure the current passing through the circuit and the applied potential, respectively. The EC unit has been stirred at 150 rpm by a magnetic stirrer. (Heidolp MR 3004 S). The thermostated electrocoagulator is made of plexiglass with the volume of 900 mL. During the experiments, temperature, conductivity and pH of the solutions were measured by a multi-parameter (WTW Multiline P-4 F-Set-3). Reactor was operated in batch and galvanostatic mode. Figure 1. 519 �1.Water Cırculator 4.Digital Voltmeter 2.Digital D.C Power Supply 5.Electrochemcial Reactor 3.Digital Ampermeter 6.Digital Magnetic Stirrer Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup. 2.3. Brief description of electrocoagulation mechanism Electrocoagulation is based on the in situ formation of the coagulant as the sacrificial anode corrodes due to an applied current, while the simultaneous evolution of hydrogen at the cathode allows for pollutant removal by flotation. This technique combines three main interdependent processes, operating synergistically to remove pollutants: electrochemistry, coagulation and hydrodynamics. An examination of the chemical reactions occurring in the electrocoagulation process shows that the main reactions occurring at the electrodes are: When iron is used as electrode material, the reactions are as follows. • At the cathode: 3H2O + 3e− → 3/2 H2(g) + 3OH− (1) • At the anode: (2) 4Fe(s) → 4Fe2+(aq) + 8e− • and with dissolved oxygen in solution: (3) 4Fe2+(aq) + 10 H2O (l) + O2(g) → 4Fe(OH)3 +8H+(aq) • overall reaction: (4) 4Fe(s) + 10 H2O(l) + O2(g) → 4 Fe(OH)3(s) + 4 H2(g) 2. Result and discussions The effects of parameters: In the runs, it has been investigated the effects of parameters such as initial pH and current density under the conditions which the reaction time, temperature of solution and stirring speed hold in constant. The effect of pH: It has been established that the pH has a considerable influence on the performance of electrocoagulation and reduction process. To evaluate this effect, a series of experiments were performed, using solution containing cadmium of 100 mg/L. The effect of pH on the cadmium removal was examined at 3.0, 4.0, 5.0 and 6.0 pH’s. Solution temperature of 293 K and stirring speed of 100 rpm were kept constant in the experiments. The results of the experiments conducted to examine the effect of pH are shown in Figure 2. 520 �removal efficiency, % 90 70 pH 3 pH 4 50 pH 5 pH 6 30 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 current, A Figure 2. The effects of solution pH on cadmium removal (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution temperature and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal) As seen in Figure 2, while there had effects of pH variation on cadmium removal efficiency, the effects of pH variation were not important with increasing current density. At the lower current density, solution pH had effects on cadmium removal efficiency. When cadmium removal was investigated by electrochemical process, energy consumption values obtained in the system. Energy consumption values in the electrochemical reactor related to solution conductivity. The conductivity of an electrolyte solution is a key property. In an electrochemical process, the conductivity determines the cell resistance while the properties of solvent and electrolyte determine their interaction with the electroactive species and thereby influence the electrode reactions. The results obtained for energy consumption were shown graphically in Figure 3. 2,00 energy consumption, kW-h/m3 pH 3 pH 4 1,50 pH 5 pH 6 1,00 0,50 0,00 0 10 20 30 40 time, min 50 60 70 Figure 3. The effects of solution pH on energy consumption(100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution temperature, 0,5 A of current and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal) 521 �The effect of current density: The effect of current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process using iron plate electrodes was investigated using 100 mg/L Cd+2 and pH 5. Effects of current density on system parameters have been analyzed. Variation of cadmium removal efficiency versus time and variation of energy consumption versus time in various current densities with iron plate electrodes is shown in Figures 4-5. 100 removal efficiency, % 80 60 0,25 A 40 0,50 A 1,00 A 20 1,50 A 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 time, min Figure 4. The effects of current on removal efficiency (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution temperature, pH 5 of solution and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal) As seen in Figure 4, efficiencies of cadmium removal and removal rate have increased by increasing current density. The removal efficiency depends on the quantity of iron generated, which is related to the time and the current density. It is seen that system energy consumption has mainly increased over a specific current density, respectively. energy consumption, kW-h/m3 3,00 0,25 A 2,50 0. 50 A 1,00 A 2,00 1,50 A 1,50 1,00 0,50 0,00 0 10 20 30 40 time, min 50 60 70 Figure 5. The effects of current on energy consumption (100 rpm of stirring speed, 293 K of solution temperature, pH 5 of solution and 100 mg/L of initial cadmium removal) 522 �Since applied potential have increased by increasing current density, system energy consumption has increased. Although potential and current have linearly increased, energy consumption has exponentially increased. Thus, when it has been studied in high current, this state might be taken into consideration. Besides, when it is studied on high potential and current, electrode reactions have taken one's way to secondary reactions from major reactions. Thus, when optimal current density and potential are selected, either high removal rate or low energy consumption might be taken into account. 4. Conclusions In this study, effects of solution pH and current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process using iron plate electrodes were investigated and effects of these parameters on system parameters were analyzed. When lower current density was applied to electrochemical process, solution pH must taken into consideration. In the experiments, effects of current density on cadmium removal by electrochemical process were investigated. According to results obtained from the experiments, removal rates and removal efficiencies have increased by increasing current density using iron plate electrodes. But system energy consumptions have increased by increasing current density. References [1] B. Volesky, 1990, Biosorption of Heavy Metals, RC Press, Boca Raton, FL [2] M.P.Waalkes, S. Rehm, (1994) Cadmium and prostate cancer, J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 43 251–269. [3] A. Åkesson, B. Julin, A. Wolk, (2008) Long-term dietary cadmium intake and postmenopausal endometrial cancer incidence: a population-based prospective cohort study, Cancer Res. 68 6435–6441. [4] M. Filipic, (2006) Molecularmechanisms of cadmium inducedmutagenicity,Hum.Exp. Toxicol. 25 67–77. [5] T. Lebeau, D. Bagot, K. Jˇıezˇıequel, B. Fabre, (2002) Cadmium biosorption by free and immobilised microorganisms cultivated in a liquid soil extract medium: effects of Cd, pH and techniques of culture, Sci. Total Environ. 291 73–83. [6] R. Salim, M.M. Al-Subu, E. Sahrhage, (1992) Uptake of cadmium from water by beech leaves, J. Environ. Sci. Health A27 603–627. [7] C.S. Brooks, 1991. Metal Recovery from IndustrialWastes, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, [8] A.P. Chmielewski, T.S. Urbanski,W. Migdal, (1997) Separation technologies for metals recovery from industrial wastes, Hydrometallurgy 45 333–344. [9] J.F. Blais, S. Dufresne, G. Mercier, (1999) État du développement technologique en matière d’enlèvement des métaux des effluents industriels, Rev. Sci. Eau 12 687–711 (in French). [10] M. Bissen, F.H. Frimmel, (2003)Arsenic—a review. Part II. Oxidation of arsenic and its removal in water treatment, Acta Hydroch. Hydrob. 31 (2) 97–107 [11] N. Biswas, G. Lazarescu, (1991) Removal of oil from emulsions using electrocoagulation, I. J. Environ. Stud. 38 65–72. [12] R.R. Renk, (1988) Electrocoagulation of tar sand and oil shale wastewater, Energy Prog. 8 205–208. [13] S.H. Lin, C.F. Peng, (1994) Treatment of textile wastewater by electrochemical method, Water Res. 28 277–282. [14] J.S. Do, M.L. Chen, (1994) Decolourization of dye-containing solutions by electrocoagulation, J. Appl. Electrochem. 24785–790. 523 �[15] E.A. Vik, D.A. Carlson, A.S. Eikum, E.T. Gjessing, (1984) Electrocoagulation of potable water, Water Res. 18 1355–1360. [16] M.F. Pouet, A. Grasmick, (1995) Urban wastewater treatment by electrocoagulation and flotation, Water Sci. Technol. 31 275–283. [17] X. Chen, G. Chen, P.L. Yue, (2000) Separation of pollutants from restaurant wastewater by electrocoagulation, Sep. Purif. Technol. 19 65–76. [18] A.S. Koparal, U.B. Ogutveren, (2002) Removal of nitrate from water by electroreduction and electrocoagulation, J. Hazard. Mater. B89 83–94. [19] F. Shen, X. Chen, P. Gao, G. Chen, (2003) Electrochemical removal of fluoride ions from industrial wastewaters, Chem. Eng. Sci. 58 987–993. [20] J. Mrozowski, J. Zielinski, (1983) Studies of zinc and lead removal from industrial wastes by electrocoagulation, Environ. Prot. Eng. 9 77–85. [21] P.R. Kumar, S. Chaudhari, K.C. Khilar, S.P. Mahajan, (2004) Removal of arsenic from water by electrocoagulation, Chemosphere 55 (9) 1245–1252 [22] T. Picard, G. Cathalifaud-Feuillade, M. Mazet, C. Vandensteendam, (2000) Cathodic dissolution in the electrocoagulation process using aluminium electrodes, J. Environ. Monit. 2 77–80. [23] V.E. Cenkin,A.N. Belevtsev, (1985) Electrochemical treatment of industrial wastewater, Eff. Water Treat. J. 243–247. [24] F. Persin, M. Rumeau, (1989) Le traitement électrochimique des eaux et des effluents, Tribune de l’Eau 42 45–56 (in French). [25] K.A. Baltpurvins, R.C. Burns, G.A. Lawrance, A.D. Stuart, (1997) Effect of electrolyte composition on zinc hydroxide precipitation by lime, Water Res. 31 973–980. [26] K. Rajeshwar, J. Ibanez, 1997Environmental Electrochemistry—Fundamentals and Applications in Pollution Abatement, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, p. 776. [27] H. Wendt, G. Kreysa, 2001, Génie électrochimique—principes et procédés, Dunod, Paris, France, (p. 386, in French). 524 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 583 Title A name given to the resource The Effect of Current Density and pH of Cadmium Removal by Electrochemical Processes Author Author BAYAR, Serkan YILMAZ, Alper Erdem BONCUKCUOĞLU, Recep Abstract A summary of the resource. Removal of cadmium from synthetically prepared solution using electrochemical processes is studied in the present study. To determine the optimum operation conditions, the effect of several parameters such as current density and initial solution pH have been investigated. Iron electrode was used as electrode materials. Experiments were carried out with different current densities ranging from 0.25 to 1.25 A/m2. It was observed that the removal of cadmium increases with increasing current densities. The distance of between electrodes was chosen as 5 mm. Initial cadmium concentrations was kept constant at 100 mg/L while other parameters such as current density and initial solution pH were investigated. Cadmium concentration in the solution was determined using Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The experimentally obtained results were shown that electrochemical processes were achieved to cadmium removal (e.g. 99.99%) from synthetically prepared solution. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)