61 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8745857c93787856d74cfd67853b8e89.pdf c53ecb1261321ee5972576a84495a786 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Importance of Information Problem in Financial Markets Nedret DEMĠRCĠ Asst. Prof. Dr., Kırıkkale University, Department of Economics, Kırıkkale, Turkey nedretdemirci@kku.edu.tr Ercan SANCAK Asst. Prof.Dr., Fatih University, Department of Management Ankara, Turkey esancak@fatih.edu.tr Abstract: Information can be considered just as an economic good, because it has a price in the market like every economic product and to produce and disperse it is costly. Also it allows individuals to make choices that yield higher expected payoffs or expected utility than they would obtain from choices made in the absence of information. Information has some other special characteristics than other economic values. It is easy to create but hard to trust. It is easy to spread but hard to control. It influences many decisions. These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories and make sense on the financial markets. The goal of this paper is to emphasize on what information means generally in economics and especially in financial markets and to evaluate the economic problems in a detailed manner when ―imperfect information‖ is available in the financial markets. Key words: financial markets, asymmetric information, adverse selection, moral hazard, credit rationing. The Role of Information in Market Economy Information economics is a branch of microeconomic theory that studies how information affects an economy and economic decisions. In economic literature, nearly everything in the world can be treated a commodity, including information. However, it is not all treated the same. Information in economics as a commodity apart from other goods has special characteristics. It is easy to create but costly, because creating information has a transaction cost. It influences many decisions. These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories. Some of these characteristics can be put in line as follows. First, in the normal economy, the buying and selling of goods means those goods are no longer able to be used by others, at least not in the same condition. That simply does not exist in information economics. One person consuming information does not prevent another person from consuming that information. Second, in normal economic theory, items for trade are usually valued based on their scarcity, as well as their demand. If products become scarcer or demand is increased while supply stays the same, the price increases. However, that is not true in information economics. Information is not scarce and is becoming even less scarce all the time. Technological progress makes information more ample and easy to reach it. The first thing we have to emphasis on is that information has economic value because it allows individuals to make choices that yield higher expected payoffs or expected utility than they would obtain from choices made in the absence of information. This special characteristic of information leads the economy some important problems. Because of the transaction cost of having the complete information on contracts parties are not likely to have the same information. We call this incompleteness ―asymmetric information problem‖ or ―imperfect information problem‖. 129 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Asymmetric Versus Complete Information; a Close Look at the Problem Markets allow economic agents to separate the consumption and production of goods and services through trade. Thus, theoretically markets produce Pareto-optimal allocation of resources that is a situation in which no individual can be made better off without making someone else worse off. According to the Arrow and Debreu (1954) model when: 1. there is full information, 2. agents are atomistic (too small to influence market and prices) 3. there are no externalities (unpriced side effects like pollution) there are market clearing prices and that makes individual plans consistent (Spencer, 2000). When we consider above explanation, it is obviously assumed that there is an efficient market that allocates resources in a Pareto-optimal manner; once the market opens, equilibrium prices are found and exchanges are made without any problem. According to the Classical Economists, perfect competition is prevalent in the market hence information for every market type is perfect and reachable. That means for especially financial markets there is no friction, so the economy is a well- functioning device like a clock. Actually this argument of Classical School arises from Adam Smith`s ―Laissez-Faire Laissez-Passer‖ philosophy. As it is well-known, A. Smith and other Classics argue against the state intervention because of their prominent assumption arguing that there is a ―mysterious chef‖ bringing the market always into equilibrium. That ―mysterious chef‖ is sometimes called ―invisible hand‖. In Smithian thought, this ―invisible hand‖ commands the whole economy without any undesired results. As it is well known by economists, ―invisible hand‖ is none other than ―prices‖. Thus, according to this idea there is perfect competition in the market and information is perfectly attainable by every participant of this market without any barrier. The asymmetric information literature which looks at the impact of financial structure on economic activity focuses on the differences in information available to different parties in a financial contract (Mishkin, 1990;4). Asymmetric information is a situation in which one party in a transaction has more or superior information compared to another. This often happens in transactions where the seller knows more than the buyer, although the reverse can happen as well. For example agents on one side of the market have much better information than those on the other side. Borrowers know more than the lender about their repayment prospects; the seller knows more than buyers about the quality of his car. Disputes on asymmetric information theory go back to Hayek, in his path breaking work ―The Use of Knowledge in Society‖ he says ―The peculiar character of the problem of a rational economic order is determined precisely by the fact that the knowledge of the circumstances of which we must make use never exists in concentrated or integrated form, but solely as the dispersed bits of incomplete and frequently contradictory knowledge which all the separate individuals possess‖ (Hayek, 1945:519). Hayek implicitly accept that in a contract having more information of one party than another leads to asymmetric information problem. Imperfect Information and Its Mechanism As we can remember from classical economics, prices convey all the relevant information (especially about the scarcity value of resources). We now realize that there are a variety of other ways in which economically relevant information is conveyed, and that prices convey information other than that about scarcity. Producers and consumers realize that their actions—both individually and ‗‗collectively,‘‘ e.g., through aggregate movements in prices and quantities convey information, and this affects actions, so that the simple theory of consumer and producer behavior does not describe the behavior of consumers or producers in several central aspects (Stiglitz, 2000:1449). Because information possesses many of the properties of a public good, non-rivalrous consumption (which means that consuming information does not exclude someone else from also consuming it even if it is potentially possible, it is socially inefficient to do this ) and non-excludability (it is difficult to exclude others from its use), there is a presumption that information will be ―underproduced‖ in competitive market economies. There are also externalities associated with the acquisition of information since it is not easy (or is sometimes not possible) to appropriate the returns to collecting information (Islam, 2007:2). Correspondingly, the asymmetric information theory focuses on the differences in information that different parties have with different degree in a financial contract. For example in a lending transaction borrowers have an informational advantage over lenders because borrowers have more information about the quality of the investment projects they want to undertake than lenders have. Informational difference and its arising drawbacks in the financial markets like classic "lemons" problem first described by Akerlof (1970) in his pioneering article. Akerlof gives an simple and quite apparent example from 130 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo used car market. In his essay, he says the example of used cars captures the essence of the problem. This kind of used car‘s sellers are better informed in comparison with the buyers about the quality of cars. Defective cars in the market are called ―Lemons‖. We can explain Akerlof‘s idea with a simple example. Individuals want to buy used cars in the market but they don‘t know which car have high quality and which one have poor quality (e.g. lemon). On the other hand, they can make an estimation with q probability that car will be high quality and with (1-q) will be lemon. We are making an assumption here that q is the proportıon of good car and (1-q) is the proportion of lemons in second hand market. Information asymmetry arises here and sellers have more knowledge about their cars than buyers. However, good cars and bad cars sell at the same price due to buyers can not differ easily the good one from the bad (to be able to do that they have to get extra knowledge by paying its charge, e.g. that requires a transaction cost). Clerarly their prices have to be at different values because of the quality difference. If this situation continue in this manner, the seller of bad cars is going to sell ―lemons‖ at the price of good car and buy a new one that may be good with the probability of q. Obviously this will be a good trade for the bad car sellers. In Akerlof‘s example, sellers and buyers make different valuations about the cars for both high quality and poor quality. By using Let‘s say buyers evaluate high quality cars with a price W h and poor quality Wp and, sellers evaluate high quality with a price Vh and poor quality VP. In buyer‘s mind Wh ˃ Wp and according to the sellers‘ VP < WP and Vh ˂ Wh. In practice, the markets would merge into a single market with one and the same price for all units (Lofgren, Persson and Weibull, 2002:197-198). Suppose that this occurs and that the sellers' valuation of high quality exceeds the consumers' average valuation. In accordance with the former explanation, we make a new assumption that buyers evaluate all cars in the market with an average price W a. We may represent this case with the following inequality: Vh ˃ Wa, where the average valuation Wa is given by Wa = qWp + (1-q)Wh. In the market, consumers want to pay for the car at most W a. But this price is under Vh, what sellers want. Hence, high-quality sellers leave the market to low-quality goods, the lemons, due to demand for their good quality cars doesn‘t meet the price that they expect. Therefore the only machines remain in the market are bad quality. As a result, while good cars can not find their worth, bad cars are sold at a higher value that they don‘t deserve. Apparently bad cars drive out the good from the market30. Asymmetric Information and Deriving Problems Information asymmetry can lead to three main problems: 1. Adverse selection: immoral behavior that takes advantage of asymmetric information before a transaction. For example, a person who is not in optimal health may be more inclined to purchase life insurance than someone who feels fine. 2. Moral Hazard: immoral behavior that takes advantage of asymmetric information after a transaction. For example, if someone has fire insurance they may be more likely to commit arson to reap the benefits of the insurance. 3. Principal-Agent Problem: if information is asymmetrically distributed between those who make decisions (agents) and the theoretical beneficiaries of those decisions (principals), then the reward functions which govern firm decision-making may not have the form of simple valuation maximization assumed in the neoclassical theory (Greenwald and Stiglitz, 1990). Adverse Selection In accordance with the explanations in the previous topic, we can better identify “adverse selection” mechanism with following illustration: Buyer Knows Doesn‘t know every car‘s quality and Make decision according to average price $600 30 Excellent Car Good Car Fair Car Lemon Car Average Value Seller Knows $1500 $600 $300 $200 $600 This situation is known as Gresham‘s Law and is defined ―bad money drives out good‖. 131 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 1: The Mechanism of Adverse Selection Buyers know that the sellers of excellent cars won‘t sell for the average value, so they recalculate the average value without excellent car: ($600 + $300 + $200) / 3 = $366. With this new average price, only fair car owner will be wishful to sell car, and buyer will revise the average price once again excluding good car: ($300 + $200) / 2 = 250. At this time the only lemons will sell at this price, and last time buyer will revise average price. Last evaluation: $200 (that is lemon). According to the above explanation, at the end, only lemons will be sold in the second hand market and high quality cars will leave the market. This situation is called ―adverse selection”. This result is completely dissimilar what A. Smith argues in the classical theory. A firm or fund users have an incentive to present lenders with an evaluation of positive financial condition and have an incentive to persuade them about the positive return of the investment. If lenders knew perfectly the risks associated with each borrower, this would matter little; each borrower would be charged an appropriate risk premium. It is because lenders do not know the risk properties perfectly that this process of adverse selection has important consequences Because of lack of sufficient information, or having this information is costly about the riskiness of the projects, in the similar way that we developed in used car example, lenders will make a classification among the projects according to the their level of risk and define only one average interest rate to apply for all borrowers. But healthy projects with high level of returns will find this rate of interest is quite high and not affordable, on the other hand, poor quality projects with a high probability of negative result (that is lemon) will be demanding the loan at this high rates. As a result, poor investment projects will drive out the healthy projects from the market. This situation is called ―adverse selection‖ in financial markets. Moral Hazard The lack of appropriate information about the quality of borrowers may result in another problem called ―moral hazard‖ which effects the well-functioning of financial markest. Because the insufficient information that lenders have about the riskiness of the barrower, barrower has incentives to engage in activities that most probably will result in with a high loss (Mishkin, 1990:7). Because that low probability of positive return of the project there is a default risk at the end and this situation harm the lender. Moral hazard occurs when a barrower's behavior is hard to monitor and control and thus payment to that barrower is based on incomplete information. Thus, moral hazard takes place after having the credit from the lender. In financial markets, due to less information and low degree of control and monitoring about the barrowers‘ actions, barrowers have a tendency to deal with risky projects. In particular, if there is a deposit insurance the state provide to the financial institutions like banks, that encourages the lenders to monitor their barrower appropriately because they will not have to carry the full burden of losses. If the majority of the barrowers consist of risky projects, the total amount of default risk will be higher at that much. Hence, the abundance of the losses may reduce the total amount of credits in the financial markets. This circumstance is called “credit crunch” that is the real crises. So, better information on the economy helps borrowers and lenders make better decisions and may be expected to rise lending. Principal-Agent Problem Principal-agent problem occurs when one party, called an agent, acts on behalf of another party, called the principal. The agent usually has more information about his or her actions or intentions than the principal does, because the principal usually cannot completely monitor the agent. The agent may have an incentive to act inappropriately (from the viewpoint of the principal) if the interests of the agent and the principal are not aligned. For example the CEO of a firm knows more than shareholders about the profitability of the firm and may engage in some risky actions without the knowledge of the firm owner (shareholder). Consequently the firm faces a loss. Incentive problems may intensify when a firm is equity financed. Managers, who receive only a small fraction of any additional profit, are likely to put forth less than optimal amounts of effort (Stiglitz, Greenwald and Weiss, 1984:4). 132 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Credit Rationing One result deriving from the asymmetric information is credit rationing. Why credit is rationed? When there is an excess demand for credit, in order to meet this increase in financial market, lenders apply credit rationing mechanism instead of increasing the interest rates due to falling short of this demand. The adverse selection aspect of interest rates is a consequence of different borrowers having different probabilities of repaying their loan. The expected return to the bank obviously depends on the probability of repayment, so the bank would like to be able to identify borrowers who are more likely to repay. It is difficult to identify good bor-rowers, and to do so require the bank to use a variety of screening devices (Stiglitz and Weiss, 1981:393). As the interest rate rises, the average riskiness of those who borrow increases, possibly lowering the bank's profits because of the default risk. So, that increases the pool of the risky project and discards the high quality projects from market. In the figure, the space I shows the interest rate r* that maximize the expected returns of the banks. Both credit demand (LD) and credit supply (LS) are the function of the interest rate and at the rate of r*, credit demand exceeds credit supply. Excess demand is shown with Z. In the conventional analysis, the investors who are not eligible to get the credit will offer higher interest rates to the banks and in this way they will induce to increase the amount of funs supplied in the market. However, in the credit rationing mechanism a Walrasian market equilibrium is not realizied and, though the fund demand is not equal to fund supply, r* is the equilibrium interest rate (Jaffee and Stiglitz, 1990:854). When we look at the space II, we can find out that banks are not willing to lend credit with the rate above r* because of the adverse selection effect. From the viewpoint of banks, borrowers offering interest above the rate r* have a higher level of risk than the borrowers with rate r*. Consistently, former projects will have lower return in comparison with latter. Lower rate of R than r* shows this relationship. L L IV IV I z I Z LS 0 45 ( LS m r r* R III II G Figure 1: Credit Rationing in Financial Markets Source: Villanueva and Mirakhor, 516 133 LD r �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Space III represents the relationship between supply of funds and expected rate of return. For more rate of return the amount of funds supplied have to be increased. Space IV shows the relationship between supply of funds and the quantity of funds at equilibrium. When there is a credit rationing in the financial market, the equilibrium interest rate is realized at the rate r*. There is an excess demand at this rate r*, on the other hand the market clearing interest rate is rm. This rate is neither optimal nor effective for banks, because that provides the banks lower rate of return in comparison with the rate r*. Despite r* is not market clearing rate, it is both optimal and effective because banking sector profits are at the maximum level and the risky projects are excluded. As a result, credit rationing mechanism may be good solution for the adverse selection problem when there is asymmetric information about the credit market. References Akerlof, George A., ― The Market For Lemons: Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism‖, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 84, No. 3, August 1970, pp. 488-500. Greenwald, Bruce C., Stiglitz, Joseph E., ―Asymmetric Information And The New Theory Of The Firm: Financial Constraints And Risk Behavior‖, National Bureau Of Economic Research, Cambridge, May 1990. Hayek, F.A., ― The Use of Knowledge in Society‖, The American Economic Review, Vol. XXXV, September 1945. Islam, R. ―Economic Information and Finance: More information means more credit, fewer bad loans and less corruption‖, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No: 4250, June 2007. Jaffee, Dwight Ve J. Stiglitz, ―Credit Rationing‖, B. M. Friedman Ve F. H. Hahn (Ed.), Handbook Of Monatary Economics, Elsevier Science Publishers, Volume II, Chapter 16, 1990 Lofgren, Karl-Gustaf, Torsten Persson, and Jorgen W. Weibull, ―Markets with Asymmetric Information: The Contributions of George Akerlof, Michael Spence and Joseph Stiglitz‖, The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, Vol. 104, No. 2, June 2002. Mishkin, Frederic S., ―Asymmetric Information And Financial Crises: A Historical Perspective‖, National Bureau Of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 3400, 1990, Cambridge. Ma 02138 July 1990 Spencer, Peter D., ―The Structer and Regulation of Financial Markets‖, Oxford University Press, New York, 2000. Stiglitz, Joseph E., Bruce Greenwald And, Andrew Weiss, ―Informational Imperfections On The Capital Market And MacroEconomic Fluctuations‖, National Bureau Of Economic Research Working Paper No. 1335, Cambridge, April 1984. Stiglitz, Joseph E., ― The Contributions of the Economics of Information To Twentieth Century Economics‖, The Quarterly Journal Of Economics, November 2000. Stiglitz, Joseph E., and Andrew Weiss, ―Credit Rationing in Markets with Imperfect Information‖, The American Economic Review, Vol. 71, No. 3, June, 1981. Villanueva, Delano Ve A. Mirakhor, ―Strategies For Financial Reforms: Interest Rate Policies, Stabilization, And Bank Supervision Ġn Developing Countries‖, IMF Staff Papers, Vol.37, No:3, September, 1999. 134 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 198 Title A name given to the resource The Importance of Information Problem in Financial Markets Author Author DEMİRCİ, Nedret SANCAK, Ercan Abstract A summary of the resource. Information can be considered just as an economic good, because it has a price in the market like every economic product and to produce and disperse it is costly. Also it allows individuals to make choices that yield higher expected payoffs or expected utility than they would obtain from choices made in the absence of information. Information has some other special characteristics than other economic values. It is easy to create but hard to trust. It is easy to spread but hard to control. It influences many decisions. These special characteristics (as compared with other types of goods) complicate many standard economic theories and make sense on the financial markets. The goal of this paper is to emphasize on what information means generally in economics and especially in financial markets and to evaluate the economic problems in a detailed manner when ―imperfect information‖ is available in the financial markets. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0de1be2a4cfb5025b345eb317efdf580.pdf 8e82581d972ea1bcb458ee2432dec628 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Employee Empowerment and Its Effect on Organizational Performance M. Kemal DEMĠRCĠ Dumlupınar University, Turkey mkdemirci26@hotmail.com Ali ERBAġ EskiĢehir Osman Gazi University, Turkey mkdemirci26@hotmail.com Abstract: Employee empowerment is frequently used by business academicians and managers on business activities. It refers to employees being more proactive and self-sufficient in assisting an organization to achieve its goals. The term became prominent as part of the total quality management, although its roots are in issues raised earlier under the heading ―employee involvement‖ or employee participation. The purpose is not only to ensure that effective decisions are made by the right employees but to provide a mechanism by which responsibility for those decisions is vested in individuals and teams. The right to share authority and to codetermine important decisions is accompanied by responsibility to exercise this power for the legitimate benefit of multiple stakeholders. Responsible decision-making requires that employees have access to managerial level knowledge and information about the enterprise, as well as to opportunities to learn new skills that will enable them to interpret and use the information. Such information may, however, involve technical, economic, or interpersonal and organizational aspects of the firm that many employees will be unprepared by their previous education, training, and work experience to understand and make use of. A democratic workplace will need to provide for the ongoing education and training of employees not only in relation to their immediate work tasks but also for their broader role in participating in the management of complex enterprises. Key Words: Employee Empowerment, Organizational Performance. Introduction Empowerment, participation or participative management is a classic concept in business administration literature (Wilkinson, 1988). Empowerment, although generally seen as a key to employee satisfaction and improved productivity, opponents regard it merely as an action toward downsizing a company and increasing workloads. The advocates of empowerment see it as the essential underpinning of continuous improvement. Empowerment concept has emerged as a development of the total quality management philosophy in recent years. Common ground has been established as to the acceptance that empowerment is one of the more difficult factors of continuous improvement, but should not also be understood as a cure to all contemporary corporate ills. Empowerment yet, has no any metric to assess its impact on business performance and this condition caused the concept to remain fundamentally qualitative rather than quantitative. Empowerment and Its Relation to Decision Making Process In our study we see participative management, empowerment (see for a wide range of definitions of empowerment: Geroy, Wright, and Anderson) and participation as synonyms. We consider empowerment as the new version of participative management of 1970‘s. On the other hand, concepts of involvement and commitment (Becker, Billings, Evaleth and Gilbert, 1996) as elements included in empowerment. Empowerment is achieved through involvement and commitment of employees. Without involvement of employees in the decision-making process, the base of decisions will not be properly maintained, and thereby the members of organization can not be accountable for the quality of their tasks. Members of the organizations should always think strategically and by employing employees in decision making activities, human resources of the business should be directed towards the satisfaction of customers, better than before. In essence, empowerment is a management style where managers share endeavors with the rest of the organizational members. Their influence in the decision-making process – or the collaboration in the decision- 142 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo making is not limited to the formal power – with certain characteristics as far as information systems, training, rewarding, power sharing, leadership style and organizational culture are concerned (Pardo del Val and Lloyd, 2003). Participation of employees in the decisions is not a simple act. Decision process is composed of a couple of stages, like a chain where each link can be regarded as equally valuable and essential. These stages mainly are; identification of the problem, intelligence stage, conception or design of alternatives stage, choosing one of the alternatives as decision, implementation and revision of the decision. All of these stages need to be elaborated properly and at each level of hierarchy, managers should continuously perform influence and collaboration. There are a variety of decisions in every organization. Therefore it is better to classify decisions in three fold in a pyramidal way, as a best known and generally accepted classification. Of a hierarchical division of decisions, at top strategic, then tactical and at the bottom operational decisions take place. Such classification also will be helpful in identifying the collaboration degree of the individuals in the decision making process. The Implementation Conditions of Empowerment According to Herrenkohl (Herrenkohl, Judson and Heffner, 1999) and Wooddell (2009), effective implementation of employee empowerment projects in the organization needs maintaining the following four conditions. Shared Vision As his top strategic priorities, like financial solvency, improved reporting process, increasing the level of customer satisfaction of the company, for example, might be the vision of the director of the organization. Thus, unless the same vision is shared with the director, it would be very difficult, even sometimes impossible to implement an employee empowerment project. Shared vision with the director plays a key role and the empowerment endeavors can obtain ground and can identify its own goals and then can design its own process to achieve its goals. Starting with the lacking of empowerment areas, the department or the company would provide the empowerment team with the opportunity to train selected employees to improve their leadership skills. Organizational Support Without a concrete support of the director, securing attendance of the supervisors and managers to training workshops would be almost impossible. Beside this, to plan for access to staff meetings would not be expected to be successful. Therefore executive director has a critical effect and role on the successfully implementation of the empowerment project in the organization. Knowledge and Learning After the implementation of the empowerment project, the members of the team are expected to improve their skills in project management and team development skills which would be an asset applicable for other projects as well. And also skills like, brainstorming, time management, improved discussion, consensus-based decision making and problem solving techniques for managers and supervisors, and leadership development training and customer service training for employees could be maintained. Institutional Recognition For a successful implementation of an empowerment project, team members need to receive a widespread appreciation and recognition for their skills in their endeavors. Therefore good reputation of an empowerment team and its members, could directly impact span of acceptance of the director and department managers, supervisors and front line employees. Empowerment And Its Effect On Performance Organizations need to manage and improve the performance of their employees. As the power or capacity to produce a desired effect, efficacy of an employee is enhanced by empowerment, doubtlessly. Empowerment can be formulated as the combination of four dimensions. Thus, the equation is derived keeping in mind the factor of empowerment enhancing the role efficacy of individual employees (Table 1) (Shulagna, 2009). Some argue that lacking of one of these elements will deflate, though not completely eliminate, the overall degree of empowerment (Shulagna, 2009), but still others (Bowen and Lawler III, 1995) believe that, any one of four elements, that is power, information, knowledge and rewards will completely destroy empowerment. Thus, employees provided with the 143 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo elements of power, knowledge, information and rewards would be more involved and empowered in all levels of business development programs. Basing on above explanations, empowerment equation could be formed as the following: Empowerment = Power * information * Knowledge * Rewards Power Autonomy Information HRI (Feedback) Authority Delegation Role Clarification Motivation Participation (Work Suggest) Knowledge Training (mentoring and Tutor) Counseling Appraisals Reward Compensation (awards) Career Planning Job Enrichment Table 1: Instruments of Empowerment It is now widely recognized that decisions concentrated at the top hampers flexibility and timely action at the lower levels, but pushing down decision making at lower levels, may lead to chaos, conflicting decisions and a discernible lack of common purpose ((Shulagna, 2009). Therefore to avoid such disadvantages, the decision of taking decisions, or to push it upwards should be left at employee‘s prudence. To develop the prudence of employees on the other hand, the organization should develop its personnel and also should create an organizational culture and a climate that would provide the employee with the right to decide or to push it up the hierarchy. Empowerment helps to achieve such a culture and an environment in the organization by increasing organizational effectiveness through developing and deploying competent influence in the human resource. The term empowerment denotes the enhanced involvement of employees in the organizational processes and decision-making (Sinha, 2005). All visions and strategies in the organization need able and empowered personnel. Unfortunately, empowerment is rarely used in the organizations and is less common than other management efforts like teamwork, quality management or inventory control. Although empowerment influence performance in a positive way, unfortunately it can not be measured properly and directly, yet. Figure 1 represents a view of empowerment process that churns out competent influence in the workforce and ultimately affects performance by leading to customer satisfaction, customer involvement, customer loyalty and customer recognition (Shulagna, 2009). Prompt decision making satisfaction Enhanced accountability Involvement empowerment Performance loyataly Understanding the value of work recognition Job mastery Figure 1: Empowerment and Its Relation to Performance Enhanced employee engagement 144 creativity �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Each and every employee in the organization must consider the elements of competent influence which can be aligned as commitment, capability, and ethicality, in order to create empowered individuals and climate which also would secure a much better performance in the organization. Commitment: Empowerment leads employee‘s psychological attachment to the organization, that is commitment. Commitment towards the job is increased as accountability increases. Empowerment also leads to employee engagement. And when there is a shared purpose, employee becomes a self-directed decision-maker towards the goals and objectives of the organization. Capability: Through history, when an opportunity is given to a person with a right attitude he/she always has done the best of his means and capabilities. Therefore, by employing empowerment, employee is motivated and given the chance to make the best utilization of the opportunities given to him. Workplace will provide him freedom and fun and he/she will get the pleasure of fulfillment of his contribution to work and get full job satisfaction in return. Ethicality: Being in accordance with the accepted principles of right and wrong that govern the conduct of an employee is called ethicality. When employees are empowered, it will lead to exercising competent influence. Empowering by enhancing more freedom would cause employees express the truth and prevent them from falsehood, and pretends. After creating empowered individuals and climate in the organization, we propose the decision making performance of all employees at all levels to be improved as shown in Figure 2. Top management Decision making (Planning) Collaboration And planning Degree line Routine duties Middle management Low management Figure 2: Collaboration degree of the individuals in the decision making process On the above figure, top level managers have the highest degree of collaboration and planning duties as depicted by the collaboration and planning degree line. Adversely the lower-level managers are expected to have the least degree of collaboration engagement in decision making process and spend their efforts to routine daily tasks more than the higher management levels. If the management at all levels, obey the above division of responsibilities for decision making and routine daily tasks and degree of collaboration(diagonal line), all managers would be expected to contribute the organization at maximum level possible. Conclusion Employees need to be provided with the greater authority to make independent decisions as more decisionmaking responsibility is deconcentrated and concerned through empowerment. There is no doubt that empowerment is achieved by objective and structural organizational changes which provides individuals greater convenience to make decisions and use greater influence regarding their work. When empowerment projects are launched, of course considerations regarding to some of the internal resistance of the organization should be taken into account. Involved negative behaviors are; improper conduct of 145 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo some managers towards change, resistance to delegate their control to their subordinates, reluctance to invest resources and make commitment, that are expected to insure long term success of empowerment, as well as employees negative behaviors to change, etc. Employees attitude against change is generally due to their conditioned behavior to follow orders, and tendencies not to collaborate with others, and not willing to accept greater responsibilities and risks, in work environment. Such difficulties are potential in every organization, and therefore should be accepted as normal, and are expected to be overcomed by shared vision of director, intensive organizational support, knowledge, continuous learning, and institutional recognition of the empowerment project team. A successful empowerment endeavor, as an important organizational challenge proves to be successful in providing employee feelings of self-efficacy, and removing conditions which cause restlessness and powerlessness. It also achieves job mastery by providing for role clarification, job enrichment and proper training. Empowerment also gives growth support to its employees through career planning, rewards and welfare, and by employing counseling, motivation, and appraisals techniques, uses social reinforcement and persuasion in the organization. When empowerment approaches adopted, employees gradually would start to feel that they are valued, competent and the jobs they are doing have so great meaning and impact, and, when legitimately empowered, they would continuously be in a mood to believe they have so vast opportunities to apply their skills. In return they are expected to change their behaviors towards using their talents in the work place better than before, and such employee driven changes are expected to bring contribution to the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. References Wilkinson, A. (1988). Empowerment: theory and practice, Personnel Review, Vol. 27 No 1, (pp. 40-56). Geroy, G.D., Wright, P.C and Anderson, J. Strategic performance empowerment model, Empowerment in Organizations, V. 6 N.2, (pp 57-63). Becker, T.E., Billings, R.S., Evaleth, D.M. and Gilbert, N.L. (1996). …bases of employee commitment: implications for job performance, Academy of Management Journal, V. 39 N.2. (pp. 464-481) Pardo del Val, M. and Lloyd, B. (2003). Measuring Empowerment, Leadership & Organization Development Journal, (pp. 102103.) Herrenkohl, R., Judson, G and Heffner, J. (1999). Defining and measuring employee empowerment, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 35, (pp. 373-385). Wooddell, V. (2009). Employee Empowerment, Action Research and Organizational Change: A Case Study, Organization Management Journal, 6, (pp.15-18). Bowen, D. E. and Lawler, E.E III (1995), Empowering Service Employees, Sloan Management Review, 36, 4, (pp. 73-82). Sinha R. (2005). Lighting of a Spark, Human Capital, 8, 9. Shulagna S. (2009). Employee Empowerment in the Banking Sector‖, IUP Journal of Management Research. Hyderabad: Sep. 8, 9, (pp. 48-67) 146 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 200 Title A name given to the resource Employee Empowerment and Its Effect on Organizational Performance Author Author DEMİRCİ, M. Kemal ERBAŞ, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Employee empowerment is frequently used by business academicians and managers on business activities. It refers to employees being more proactive and self-sufficient in assisting an organization to achieve its goals. The term became prominent as part of the total quality management, although its roots are in issues raised earlier under the heading ―employee involvement‖ or employee participation. The purpose is not only to ensure that effective decisions are made by the right employees but to provide a mechanism by which responsibility for those decisions is vested in individuals and teams. The right to share authority and to codetermine important decisions is accompanied by responsibility to exercise this power for the legitimate benefit of multiple stakeholders. Responsible decision-making requires that employees have access to managerial level knowledge and information about the enterprise, as well as to opportunities to learn new skills that will enable them to interpret and use the information. Such information may, however, involve technical, economic, or interpersonal and organizational aspects of the firm that many employees will be unprepared by their previous education, training, and work experience to understand and make use of. A democratic workplace will need to provide for the ongoing education and training of employees not only in relation to their immediate work tasks but also for their broader role in participating in the management of complex enterprises. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1f38e725c28ab8afe5242c568f75f1b2.pdf 2414af8be8e5b33c8f50de2ba32ccfbf PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Property Right in the 1982 Constitution As a Social Right Fatih DEMĠRCĠ Dumlupınar University, Kütahya, Turkey fdemirci@hotmail.com Abstract : Property right is often referred to for defining political regimes. Therefore to study property right in the 1982 Constitution is crucial for analyzing the Turkish political structure. Property right in the 1982 Constitution stands within the Article 35. This article consists of three clauses. The first two clauses may often exist in any democratic constitution but the third clause has a very interesting and peculiar feature. Because the first two clauses say that everyone has right to own and inherit property and this right may be limited by law only in view of public interest. But the third clause says that exercise of the right to own property shall not be in contravention of the public interest. This third clause is objectionable in two reasons. First; this clause ordains the citizens an impossible thing. Because it is impossible for people to use their properties always in favor of public interest. If this article said that property right could not be used against the public interest, it could be acceptable and reasonable. But this clause as written in the constitution puts an impossible obligation but the law cannot order any obligation on the citizens. Secondly; the limit of property in liberal democracies may be in line with the public interest and this limit can be defined only by law. Using the property right in favor of public interest is merely a matter of people‘s choice. However this article literally obliges people to use their property in favor of public interest. This is not appropriate for liberal democracies. Introduction Property has always been a critical issue in political philosophy. Every political philosopher has something to say about it. However, the theme of property has become particularly central in modern political thought: at times the whole science of politics has seemed to be subordinate to, or even identical with, the science of economics. While Rousseau defines property as the source of all kinds of evil, Aristotle and John Locke place the right of property in the basis of state. Especially in his Two Treatises of Government, John Locke attaches to property as the motive for establishing and maintaining political society (Zvesper, 1996, p.91). To Locke, property is a natural right for an individual and each individual has a natural right of property before state. For Locke, what makes a government legitimate is its preservation of property. To him, the aim of government is preservation of property (Tully, 1993, p.120). Thus Locke favors any form of government that supports an individual‘s natural right of property, its acquisition and its preservation in the hands of its rightful owner (Tannenbaum-Schultz, 2004, p. 184). Actually, the right of property is listed among the personal rights and the basic rights of the individual in the constitutions of the American States where they declared their independency, in ―the American Declaration of Independency‖ and the French Revolution‘s ―The Declaration of the Rights of Men and of the Citizen‖ (Soysal, 1987, p. 229). For example, in 1789 the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which has been announced after the French Revolution it is declared that “since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.”( http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html). Thus property is still one of the most prominent issues in politics. Property right so important in some certain ways that some suggest that what reveals the difference between Eastern and Western political regimes is property3. In this context, many constitutions in the West oblige the state to protect property. 3 For details about this issue see ―Feodalite ve Osmanlı Toplumu‖ by Murat Özyüksel, Derin Yayınları, 2007, Ġstanbul. 50 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Property Right in Turkey Private possession of land has been limited, as feudalism as a political regime flourished after the fall of the Roman Empire through right of property, in order to prevent the advance of such a fragmented government structure like feudalism. The most detailed regulation concerning property is the Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber. This edict reads: “If there is an absence of security for property, everyone remains indifferent to his state and his community; no one interests himself in the prosperity of the country, absorbed as he is in his own troubles and worries. If, on the contrary, the individual feels complete security about his possessions then he will become preoccupied with his own affairs, which he will seek to expand, and his devotion and love for his state and his community will steadily grow and will undoubtedly spur him into becoming a useful member of society”(http://www.yursil.com/blog/2010/01/hatt-i-sherif-of-gulhane-noble-edict-of-the-rosechamber-beginning-of-tanzimat-reforms) But the given importance to property that took place in this edict is for protection of the state exclusively. In the Republican Era, Ziya Gökalp‘s solidarist thoughts prevail as against the liberal economic and political thoughts. While 1924 Constitution declares that property is an inviolable right, 1961 and 1982 Constitutions declare that property is used for only public benefit. Property Right in the Constitution of 1982 The text of the article concerning property right in 1982 Constitution is exactly the same with the one included in 1961 Constitution (Soysal, 1987, p. 229). However, property right was listed under the heading ―Social and Economic Rights and Liabilities‖ in the 1961 Constitution while it takes place in the ―Rights of the Individual‖ section of the 1982 Constitution (Tanör-YüzbaĢıoğlu, 2009, p.174). Moreover, considering the content of the article, it is clear that property right was regulated as a ―social‖ right rather than an ―individual‖ right in the constitution. In the Constitution, the right of property was regulated in the Article 35 (the Article 36 of 1961 Constitution) as follows: “Everyone has the right to own and inherit property. These rights may be limited by law only in view of public interest. The exercise of the right to own property shall not be in contravention of the public interest” Although property right was placed in the section of ―Rights and Duties of the Individual‖ instead of ―Social And Economic Rights And Duties‖ section in the 1982 Constitution, it was stated that this right can be limited by law for the sake of public interest and its exercise cannot be in contravention with public interest. Clearly, a big and fundamental change took place in terms of property; this sacred, inviolable right was limited for the sake of the society for the first time (Polatcan, 1989, p. 140). However, inclusion of property right in the section of personal rights has got two results in terms of application: the Article 91 that gives the authority to issue Decree Law (KHK) states that during normal periods, the subjects concerning personal rights cannot be regulated with KHKs and such regulations can only be performed during the period of martial law and state of emergency. But it is always possible to issue KHK about social and economic rights and to regulate the subjects concerning these rights with KHKs (Bulut, 2006, p. 23). On one hand this replacement can be considered as a kind of weakening in the social state principle, on the other hand, maybe as a more appropriate comment, because of being listed with individual‘s rights the property right has been strengthened and protected better by the 1982 Constitution. Nonetheless, it would be beneficial to consider as a whole the way the property right was regulated in the constitution. Although the first two clauses of the Article 35 in the Constitution include some provisions, which are normally included in any other modern constitution, the last clause of the Article is one of the interesting regulations concerning property right. The interesting part of the last clause of the article concerning property right in the Constitution is that its projection saying property rights shall not be exercised against ―the public interest‖. This provision is interesting because the condition not to use property against public interest is independent from the provision of limiting property right merely for the sake of public interest and only by law. This provision reveals the content in which property right is recognized; that is, this right is recognized within limitation by ―public interest‖ from the beginning. There is also a disadvantage of this provision because it leaves room for arbitrary intervention in exercise of this right, even if it is not a legitimate limitation based on law, by claiming that the property was not used in line with public interest, thus giving the courts the right to decide on the way property owners should use their property right (Erdoğan, 2006, p. 77). 51 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Justifications in the Constitutions of 1961 and 1982 of the Article text are vitally important for a better understanding of the subject. In the article justification in 1961 Constitution, especially about the last clause of the article, it was stated that property right has the quality of unlimited freedom that can be exercised however the individual wants to, inconsiderate of public interests with the same interpretation of this right in Roman Law and that even in our old law, property had also a social characteristic and inclusion of this right in the constitution would guide the legislator and would have a disciplinary influence on the individuals (Özer, 1996, p. 175). In the justification of 1982 Constitution, it is stated that together with the guaranty provided to property right, the economic systems that ignore private property would be unable to remove private property (Özer, 1996, p.170). The 1982 Constitution considers property right basically as private property. This understanding of property includes free enterprise, private property of production tools. Therefore, choice of a fascist or communist system or a system based on religious principles is not possible because of the provisions of the Constitution concerning property as well as its other provisions (Polatcan, 1989, p.140). Moreover, although the right of property is a basic right, its exercise was determined not to be against the public interest. Public interest may necessitate total abolition of property right in some cases. Therefore, expropriation and nationalization were regulated within the Constitution (Polatcan, 1987, p.139). Because of its definition this regulation is based on the privilege of private enterprise and private property, as stated by Taha Parla in his study on Ziya Gökalp‘s model of state, and it has some features of capitalism while it also reminds corporatism, which bears ―anti-Marxist‖ and ―anti-Socialist‖ characteristics (Parla, 1999, p.90). As observed above, in essence the 1982 constitution considers property right within the framework of ―property right as a social function‖ idea. Property right is not an absolute right in the constitution as the owner of something is adorned by a set of responsibilities, yet a relative right that can be limited on social grounds (Bulut, 2006, p.25). The judgment of the Supreme Court concerning property right is in a similar vein: “Property right has already lost its former connotation as a right which the individual might use at his will and a boundless liberty, the understanding of property has developed labeling it as a social right and the principle that this right also could be limited for public interests as many others was adopted. Property right, which initially meant the absolute sovereignty of an individual over a thing and was deemed sacred lost these implications and this absolute and subjective right has transformed into a conditional situation and bounded by its social functions (Akad-Dinçkol, 2007, p.230). In another judgment the Supreme Court accounts for the fact that property right could not be used against public interest as follows: “It is quoted that property right cannot be used against public interests. In our constitution property right is not recognized as an absolute right and it is foreseen that public interests would be privileged in case individual interests conflict with public interests and the social function of property is identified with using in line with public interests. The constitution does not permit using property right against this (Akad-Dinçkol, 2007, p.232). The motivation behind this and similar regulations concerning property right has traces of the public property understanding before the Republic and the solidarist corporatist state model in the Republican period developed by Ziya Gökalp. Yet, according to Parla, the corporatist thought of Gökalp might be considered as a model of ―corporatist capitalism‖ which deeply influenced the Turkish thought and provided the governing classes (including those who prepared the constitution) with a paradigmatic worldview. Unlike the individual-based liberal social model, corporatism considers individualism and individual property as a force that atomizes and disintegrates society. Hence it is asserted that this has an annihilating effect on the balance of social organism and its possibility to survive. So to speak, as he believes the liberal society has anarchist tendencies, the self-interested efforts of individuals, their private properties and enterprises are considered legal in this model as far as they serve social solidarity and unless they damage the public interest which is a supreme value per se (Parla, 1999, p.93). In his study which examines modern constitutions Wheare states that constitutions are primarily prepared in two types. He notes that, the first approach considers the constitution as a legal document in principle and thus only includes laws in praxis and excludes others while the second approach considers constitutions as a kind of manifesto, an acknowledgement of belief, an expression of ideals (Wheare, 1984, p.43). While denoting which one to choose he says that it would be wise to exclude anything that would not be considered as a law from the constitution (Wheare, 1984, p. 67) and the ideal constitution would include the least number of laws (Wheare, 1984, p. 45). In this context, the article of the constitution on property is more a petition that clarifies the desired ends than a law expressing the recognition and exercise of rights. However, according to Wheare, a constitution which is considered as a political manifesto or creed by some should limit not ideas, desires or plans but itself as far as possible with laws (Wheare, 1984, p. 62-67). The judgment expressed in the third clause of the property rights article of the 1982 constitution which is the expression of the yearning for property in a solidarist and corporatist society more than a law clause, especially the provision ―property rights cannot be used against public interests‖, is problematic in its insistence as a law. 52 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In the first place, laws do not demand impossible things. That is to say, laws include applicable commandments. However, the provision ―property rights cannot be against public interests‖, is not applicable. An applicable provision would exist if the provision in the constitution were ―property cannot be used to damage the public‖. Nevertheless, the provision in the constitution, considering the critics of the concept, necessitates each and every use of property by the individuals should contribute to public interests, which is impossible. However, the important discrepancy between these two concepts is neglected and comments interpret that the constitution only commands not to impair. For instance, while the Supreme Court pointed out in a judgment that property right is limited by ―not violating others‘ rights‖ (Akad-Dinçkol, 2007, p. 237) a scientific study on this provision asserts that the provision that asserts property rights cannot be against public interests is unnecessary since it was accepted by law that property should not be used in contravention of public interests (ġahin, 2009, p.96). However, it must be kept in mind that what the constitution commands is ―property should not be against public interests‖ and not that ―property should not impair public interests‖. In the second place, it should be discussed whether the constitutions aimed at guaranteeing rights and limiting the governments in this respect limit the individuals with the liability of being in favor of the public whenever they exercise their property right or not. While the primary task of the state is preserving the rights through law, the introduction of the moral principle of appealing to public interest as a legal obligation for individuals is not fully consistent with the universal principles of law. Conclusion Considering the comments of K. C. Wheare, who studied modern constitutions, about the Article 43 of the Irish Constitution4 where it is declared that the State guarantees to pass no law attempting to abolish property right, and then states that the exercise of the rights mentioned in the provisions of this Article ought, in civil society, to be regulated by the principles of social justice, thus may, as occasion requires, delimit by law the exercise of the said rights with a view to reconciling their exercise with the exigencies of the common good; in other words, although property right is recognized, it is limited by social considerations, which Wheare considers as ―a classical example of giving a right by one hand and taking it back with the other‖ (Wheare, 1984, p.57) it can be concluded that some rulings in constitutions that conflict with legal techniques are not only unable to maintain the desired aims but also fall short in protecting rights and liberties, which is the main reason of their existence, and might leave them without guarantee. References Akad, M. & Dinçkol, A. (2007). 1982 Anayasası ve Anayasa Mahkemesi Kararları, Ġstanbul, Der Yayınları. Bulut, N. (2006). Mülkiyet Konusundaki Temel YaklaĢımlar ve Türk Anayasasında Mülkiyet Hakkı, Erzincan Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, Atatürk‘ün 125. Doğum Yılına Armağan, Cilt : X, Sayı: 3-4, Aralık 2006 (pp. 15- 26). Erdoğan, M. (2006). Ġnsan Hakları, Ankara, BaĢbakanlık Ġnsan Hakları BaĢkanlığı Yayını. http://www.constitution.ie/reports/ConstitutionofIreland.pdf http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html 4 Full text of tihs article : Private Property Article 43 1. 1° The State acknowledges that man, in virtue of his rational being, has the natural right, antecedent to positive law, to the private ownership of external goods. 2° The State accordingly guarantees to pass no law attempting to abolish the right of private ownership or the general right to transfer, bequeath, and inherit property. 2. 1° The State recognises, however, that the exercise of the rights mentioned in the foregoing provisions of this Article ought, in civil society, to be regulated by the principles of social justice. 2° The State, accordingly, may as occasion requires delimit by law the exercise of the said rights with a view to reconciling their exercise with the exigencies of the common good. (http://www.constitution.ie/reports/ConstitutionofIreland.pdf) 53 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo http://www.yursil.com/blog/2010/01/hatt-i-sherif-of-gulhane-noble-edict-of-the-rose-chamber-beginning-of-tanzimat-reforms Özer, A. (1996). Gerekçeli ve 1961 Anayasası ile Mukayeseli 1982 Anayasası, Ankara, Lazer Ofset. Parla, T. (1999). Ziya Gökalp, Kemalizm ve Türkiye‘de Korporatizm, Ġstanbul, ĠletiĢim Yayınları. Polatcan, Ġ. (1989). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası, Gerekçeler, Anayasa Mahkemesi Kararları, Bilimsel GörüĢler, Ġstanbul, Bayrak Yayımcılık. ġahin, A. (2009). Ulusalüstü Ġnsan Hakları Hukukunda ve Türk Anayasa Hukukunda Mülkiyet Hakkının Sınırlandırılması Sorunu, Liberal DüĢünce, KıĢ-Bahar 2009, Sayı: 53-54, (pp.65-83). Soysal, M. (1987). 100 Soruda Anayasanın Anlamı, Ġstanbul, Gerçek Yayınevi. Tannenbaum D.G. & Schultz, D. (2004). Inventors of Ideas, An Introduction to Western Political Philosophy, Toronto, Thomson Wadsworth. Tanör, B. & YüzbaĢıoğlu N. (2009). 1982 Anayasası‘na Göre Türk Anaysa Hukuku, Ġstanbul, Beta Yayınları. Tully, J. (1993). An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Wheare, K.C. (1984), Modern Anayasalar, Çev. Mehmet Turhan, Ġstanbul, DeğiĢim Yayınları. Zvesper, J. (1996). Locke and Aristotle on Property, In Richard Bellamy & Angus Ross (Editors) A Textual Introduction to Social and Political Theory, (pp. 91-121), Manchester and New York, Manchester University Press. 54 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 170 Title A name given to the resource Property Right in the 1982 Constitution As a Social Right Author Author DEMİRCİ, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. Property right is often referred to for defining political regimes. Therefore to study property right in the 1982 Constitution is crucial for analyzing the Turkish political structure. Property right in the 1982 Constitution stands within the Article 35. This article consists of three clauses. The first two clauses may often exist in any democratic constitution but the third clause has a very interesting and peculiar feature. Because the first two clauses say that everyone has right to own and inherit property and this right may be limited by law only in view of public interest. But the third clause says that exercise of the right to own property shall not be in contravention of the public interest. This third clause is objectionable in two reasons. First; this clause ordains the citizens an impossible thing. Because it is impossible for people to use their properties always in favor of public interest. If this article said that property right could not be used against the public interest, it could be acceptable and reasonable. But this clause as written in the constitution puts an impossible obligation but the law cannot order any obligation on the citizens. Secondly; the limit of property in liberal democracies may be in line with the public interest and this limit can be defined only by law. Using the property right in favor of public interest is merely a matter of people‘s choice. However this article literally obliges people to use their property in favor of public interest. This is not appropriate for liberal democracies. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cd98b32de3a74ef59586eef3ebc40a8d.pdf e49b57e92ebf6f1204ddcebe5ed476bc PDF Text Text Table Grapes Transport Simulation Study by Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) Cultivar Grown in Karaman Turkey Fikret DEMĐR Selcuk UniversityFaculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Machinery 42003 Konya, Turkey fdemir@selcuk.edu.tr Zeki KARA Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture 42003 Konya, Turkey zkara@selcuk.edu.tr Kazım CARMAN Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Agricultural Machinery 42003 Konya, Turkey kcarman@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Table grapes is a second industry in viticulture in Turkey and have been grown in primarily Mediterranean region a popular fruit for local consumption and export to many European and Asian countries as a fresh dessert and for this reason this product has to be transport so long distances for marketing. This simulated export transit experiment with Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) local table grape cultivar grown in Karaman province was conducted in lab condition Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture. To produce main knowledge, and to improve the application of resources used to produce, pack, transport, and merchandise Turkish table grapes by increasing efficiency, controlling cost and managing risk throughout the supply chain. In order to develop optimized methods of reducing table grape damage transport stimulatory as vibration stimulator have been used to measure the shocks and vibrations in market bins during 30 min and 60 min transport stimulation. During road transport simulation at 25°C in wooden boxes damages of clusters and berries were measured by laboratory trials to stimulate the events in a controlled and repeatable manner. 3 bins full of fruits were placed onto a vibration table, and during the stimulation three-load profile sensor were placed inside each of bins. While the number of separated berry was determined as a 31.33 in 30 min, the number was 83.10 in vibration period of 60 min. Starting with the beginning the numbers separate resistance of berry, resistance to cracking of berry and elasticity modulus is continuously lowering in 30-60 min vibration periods. The berry separate resistance from cluster were changing between 4.46 N to 1.73 N, and berry cracking resistance were measured between 31.59 N to 26.01 N, and berry elasticity modulus were obtained as between 1423 kPa to 1076.7 kPa. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz that was obtained in of 1.42 m box height. Introduction Table grapes (Vitis vinifera L.) are physiologically speaking, a relatively durable fruit. They have a low respiration rate and can therefore live a long time after harvest. However, they are extremely susceptible to decay, can be injured easily, and lose water readily. If any of these deterioration factors is not well controlled, the potentially long post harvest life will be drastically shortened (Nelson, 1985; Bollen et al., 1994; Burton et al., 1989; Campbell et al., 1986; Maindonald & Finsh, 1986; Hinsch et al., 1993). Many of horticultural products are in consumer hands within 2 day of harvest in another part of the world. Transportation and packaging is the key to this success. Under the best circumstances the quality of table grapes can only be maintained, not improved, during transportation. During transportation, storage and marketing table grapes may be exposed to rough handling during loading and unloading, compression from the overhead weight of other containers of products, impact and vibration during transportation. Grapes are not ripening after harvest. Transits and storage life is 1-6 months. Packaging is by fiberboard, polystyrene foam, or wood lugs, or perforated film liners and 100 – 110 N some with sulfur dioxide 456 �pads. Transportation is by highways, and piggyback trailers, van containers or break-bulk vessels. Loading is unitized on pallets with corner. Proper packaging of table grapes is essential to maintaining product quality during transportation and marketing (Olorunda & Tung, 1985; McGregor, 1989; Kaynaş et al., 1989). In Turkey, current produce container standardization is not, but many of markets prefer to outside dimension of a 420 x 310 x 150 mm wooden containers that have 60-80 N grapes for table grape transportation. Pang et al. (1995) in their investigation observed solve natural handling conditions for transportation and used his observation to replicate the same situation in laboratory simulations. Mechanical damage on agricultural products changes depending on physical and biological structure of the products and type of the force applied. First damage on the products appears during harvest and transportation. This damage usually occurs as a result of colliding of products with the others or vibrations of the transportation system, and causes severe deformation, such as breakage, separation and bruise. According to the estimates, approximately 25% of the agricultural products harvested in Turkey is spoilt and wasted away between the producer and consumer (Dokuzoğuz, 1997). Transportation of vegetables and fruits should be rearranged to avoid any loss in quality and to provide more economical and productive conditions. Transportation type is chosen depending on the biological decay rate, rigidness and maturity of the product, on the carrier type, distance and purpose of the product usage. Other factors influencing this are physical characteristics, basic dimensions (geometrical measures, weight, density, pouring and shaking density), static- dynamic press resistance elasticity, vibration, behavior and also biological characteristics and product’s content, carriage style and type of container (Moser 1984). Static-dynamic press resistance and form changing characteristics of the product determine the allowable pouring and filling amount, fall height and vibration limit during the transportation of the product. Allowable static resistance (cell blowout biological resistance limit) is calculated by force deformation diagrams and dynamic resistance by crashing experiments for applications, allowable press resistance limit is the point of biological crashing. But some safety distance should be allocated. The resonance frequency, fR of the product is closely related to the speed and shock absorber of the transportation vehicle and to the filling depth of the container. In order to prevent the crushing, resonance frequency should not be the same with vehicles generated from outside factory frequency. Resonance frequency is inversely proportional to the pouring dept and the densityρ, λ of the container frequency acceleration affecting fruits carried in low depth containers is doubled especially in upper and middle levels when compared to deep containers (Moser 1984; Pang et al., 1995). The purpose of this study is to investigate factors on concerning the damage in table grape during transportation period in a simulated transportation environment in terms of separation resistance of berry from pedicel, number of separated berry, resistance to cracking of berry and elasticity modulus. Materials and Methods Materials In this study, table grape cv Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) were used since it is an important product in Konya and Karaman, Province of Turkey. The description of cv. Bardas is as follow. This is a local variety. It accounts for about 20 percent of the table grape production in Göksu Valley in Turkey. Sex of flower is hermaphrodite. The cluster is large in size and compact in density. The very large and uniform berries are somewhat ovoid and elongated in shape dark red to reddish black in color with advanced maturity, particular flavor is none, and are seeded. Berry must yield is very high sugar and total acid content of must is medium. Harvest season extends from mid September through October. Because the berry is thick skinned and crisp, and stem attachment is hard clusters resist damage well during post harvest handling. The cluster of this variety is shown Fig 1. 457 �Fig 1. Table grape cv. Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) Methods Chemical Properties The titration acidity of the fruits was analysis established with titration method by using 2,6 dichlorophenal indophenol solution. Soluble solids of the fruits were determined by Atago hand refractometer (Kara, 1992; Anonymous 1997). The initial moisture content of the berry was determined by using standard method (USDA, 1970). Technological Properties To determine the sizes and projected areas of berry, 10% samples were randomly taken and their linear dimensions were measured, i.e. length (L), width (W) and projected area (P). Projected area of a fruit was determined using a digital camera (Kodak DC 240) and Sigma Scan Pro5 program (Trooien & Heermann, 1992). Also, linear dimensions were established by using a digital vernier caliper with sensitivity of 0.01 mm. Several investigators (Deshpande et al., 1993; Gubta & Das, 1997; Demir & Özcan, 2001) have measured these dimensions for other grains and seeds in a similar manner to determine size and shape properties. The geometric mean diameter Dg of the berry was calculated by using the following formula (Sreenarayanan et al., 1985): (W=T) (1) Dg = (LW2)1/3 The berry volume V was calculated by using the following formula and its berry or true density Pk, Pycnometer and toluene displacement method. Toluene (C7H8) was used rather than water because it is absorbed by fruits to a lesser extent. Also, its surface tension is low, so that it fills even shallow dips in a berry and its dissolution power is low (Sahay & Singh, 1994). (2) V=πW2L2/6(2L-W) According to Mohsenin (1986); Sreenarayanan et al., 1985), the degree of sphericity (Ø) can be expressed as follows; (3) Ø = (LW2)1/3 / L = Dg/L (4) The surface area S of the fruit was calculated by using the following formula (McCabe et al., 1986); (5) S = (πWL2) / (2L-W) = π Dg2 The containers used in this study are of 420 x 310 x 150 mm size. These have four pieces horizontal wooden bar and bottom four pieces leveled wooden bar and four pieces flat wooden vertically, fixed nails. This is shown Fig. 2. Paperbound cartons were used as cushion materials, in order to reduce the damage on the bunch in transit. Paperbound cartons were placed at the bottom and side at the containers. The grape bunches were lined up in one layer in containers. Bunches contact with one another. According to the observation, 60-80 N bunches were placed in the containers. Fig. 2. Experiment device for simulates table grapes transport in laboratory During the transportation in truck and trailer the frequency is between 7.5 and 11.5 Hz and the acceleration g’ value is between 0.8 and 13 ms-2. It’s amplitude A is 0.6 and 6 mm (Aydin, 1993; Witney 1996). 458 �An important application of dynamic test is the determination of the vibration properties of table grape cultivars, in order to assess, their sensitivity to damage during transit. The table grape cultivars are generally transporting in containers on board motor vehicle. fR during transport the resonance frequency of the road or vehicle, then the acceleration of the grape berries will increase considerably owing to resonance and it will be damaged by impact. The natural frequency fn of table grapes in a container may be calculated approximately from the equation: (6) fn = [1/4λ]√Eg/ρ Computation using Eqn. (6) were found to correspond well with those of table grapes in bins vibration at resonance on a laboratory condition Fig. 3. Observation of berries were measured at average of 100 berries taken from the 1/3 medium scope of bunches. Fig. 3. Test equipment used in compression test The vibration simulation container used in this study, like the vibration container was projected California University (Öğüt et.al., 1999; O’Birien & Guillou, 1969). On this box, vibration was formed at every cycle using unbalanced weights. Changing the number of weights enables setting of maximum acceleration and expansion plate caused by natural frequency fn of the spiral system and the container. The vibration container is activated by a 0,55 kW electrical engine with a 2800 min-1 rotation and cos ϕ=0,827 and rotation of the box is set by an electronic vibrator. In treatments, the resonance frequency was adjusted as or 11.5 Hz. This frequency was obtained in 690 min-1 of simulation platform. The movement flow diagram in the vibration simulation container is given in Fig 2. Motor’s rotation is measured as min-1 using an electrical dynamo coupled directly with motor’ once and working linearly and measuring instrument’s monitor. Damage on the product was determined after 3060 minutes of vibrating the container at the set frequency. The vibration box had worked for 30 min and 60 min, which are equal to transportation of track with 540 km and 1080 km respectively in Turkish highways. The value of vibration were measured and recorded on magnetic tape. In order to determine the elasticity of berry, a plate test was used (Zohadie 1982). The test equipment is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4. Deformation of berry during compression The calculation of elasticity modulus is based on the following assumptions: 1) The berries are long elliptic in shaped very small expansion in the longitudinal plane occurred with compression in vertical plane, and 2) Each side of the berry in contact with the flat plates has and equal deflection (O’Brien et al., 1965). According to following expression, the modulus of elasticity was calculated following equation: (7) E= F/πδ2 In order to determine damage during transport, the modulus of elasticity before the berries (which were harvested by hand) was placed on the vibration container and 30 and 60 min after than the modulus of elasticity that is subject to vibration was determined. 459 �In this study, damage is described as a difference of elasticity modulus, separation resistance, number of separated berry and resistance to cracking before and after the test. This study was carried out tree replication. MINITAB was used for statistical analysis. Vibration of the simulation container was measured using a HBM, SMM-31 type instrument which can measure vibration’s expansion, speed and acceleration at different levels. Results and Discussion Physical and chemical characteristics of grape fruits are given in Table 1. Among chemical characteristics; titration acidity content was 5.1 g/l and with 17.4 ⁰Brix soluble solids, and 83 ml/100 g fruit juice. Berry volume Berry weight Berry length Berry width Number of seeds per berry Cluster weight Number of berry per cluster Soluble solids Titration acidity Berry juice Project area Surface area Sphericity Geometric mean diameter Moisture content Natural frequency Elasticity modulus Density of berry in the container Separating resistance of berry from pedicel Berry density Resistance to cracking of berry 5476.05 11.17 ± 2.36 34.59 ± 1.81 20.61 ± 1.28 1.92 ± 0.79 682.65 ± 33.19 62.06 ± 4.70 17.4 5.1 83 763.3 1594.19 0.708 24.49 82.48 109.322 1347 3072.196 3.846±0.095 2.137 31.743±0.479 mm3 g mm mm number g number ⁰Brix g/l ml / 100 g mm2 mm2 mm % Hz kPa N/m3 N g/cm3 N Table 1. Some characteristics of berry and cluster Average berry moisture content was 82.48% (w.b.), berry length was 34.59 mm, berry width was 20.61 mm, berry weight was 11.79 g, berry volume was 5476.05 mm3, and berry sphericity was 0.708, the geometric mean diameter was 24.49 mm, the project area 763.3 mm2 and the surface area is 1594.19 mm2 found ( by using the method of Moser, 1984). It’s found that there was a decrease in the separate resistance of the grape in the beginning. First related to 30 min vibration period it was 44.40% and there was a decrease of 61.21% in the vibration period of 60 min. This decrease is found significant (p<0.01) from statistical respect and the lowest separate resistance was found at 60 min. period with 1.73 N average (Table 2). The increase in the period vibration lowered the separate resistance. Moser (1984) reports similar results. Containers position Top Middle Bottom Average (LSD: 0.58) Beginning (N) 4.33 4.46 4.60 4.46 a 30 min (N) 2.26 2.60 2.60 2.48 b 60 min (N) 1.33 1.61 2.24 1.73 c Table 2. Separating resistance of berry from pedicel Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance 460 �The container position and the vibration period is found statistically significant (p<0.01) on the number of separated berry (Table 3). The number of the separated berry was determined 82.83 at average in the top container and it decreased with 31.6% in the middle container. The number again reduced with 61.17% in the bottom container. These numbers were found at 30-60 min. vibration period. This results from the effect of high acceleration in the top container. Turczyn et al., (1986) found similar conclusions. The number of the separated berry had an increase of 265.2% in 30 min. vibration period to the period of 60 min. Containers position Top Middle Bottom Average 30 min (Number) 51.00 24.33 18.66 31.33 a 60 min (Number) 114.66 89.00 45.66 83.10 b Average (LSD: 4.70) 82.83 a 56.66 b 32.16 c Table 3. Number of separated berry Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance The numbers of the cracking resistance of the berry related to the position of the container and the vibration period is given in Table 4. The effect of the containers position and vibration period on the cracking resistance was found statistically significant (p<0.01). While the highest cracking resistance number was found in the bottom container with 28.81 N, the numbers were 27.67 N and 28.0 N in the middle and top containers. Statistically there was no difference between the middle and top container. While the cracking resistance number was 31.59 N averages in the beginning, the numbers were 26.01 N and 26.87 N at 30-60 min vibration periods. There has been no difference between the two vibrations periods found at statistical respect. Containers position Top Middle Bottom Average (LSD: 0.94) Beginning (N) 31.74 31.59 31.47 31.59 a 30 min (N) 24.79 24.72 28.53 26.01 b 60 min (N) 27.48 26.70 26.43 26.87 b Average (LSD=0.94) 28.00 b 27.67 b 28.81 a Table 4. Resistance to cracking of berry Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 1% level of significance. Although the effect of elasticity modulus on the container position was not significant, the vibration period’s effect was found significant (p<0.01). While the elasticity modulus was 1423 kPa in the beginning the number was 1203,7 kPa and 1076,7 kPa at 30-60 min vibration period, but there has no statistical difference observed between the two vibration periods (Table 5). (O’Brien et al., 1965; Fridley et al., 1968; Zohadie, 1982) These investigators found similar results. Box acceleration at top, middle and bottom were 1.90 ms-2, 0.90 ms-2 and 0.7 ms-2 respectively. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz. This frequency was obtained in box height of 1.42 m. Aydin (1993) reported that natural frequency for the peach is varied between 7-110 Hz according to the box height. Containers position Top Middle Beginning (kPa) 1464 1381 30 min (kPa) 1228 1140 60 min (kPa) 1098 1020 Bottom Average ( LSD: 153.7) 1424 1423 a 1245 1203.7 b 1112 1076.7 b Table 5. Elasticity modulus Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the %1 level of significance 461 �Conclusions 1. Berry separating resistance from pedicel, number of separated berry, and berry resistance to cracking, and elasticity modulus were affected significantly by the vibration time. The affection was less at the 30 min vibration than 60 min vibration. The number of separated berry and resistance of the cracking of berry are affected significantly by the position of the container. 2. The separate resistance which is 4.46 N in the beginning becomes 2.48 N in the periods of 30 min and 1.73 N averages in the periods of 60 min. 3. The number of separated berry is 31.33 in the period of 30 min average and increased to 83.10 in the period of 60 min. While this is 82.83 in the top box the number is 32.16 in the bottom box. 4. Resistance to cracking is determined 28.81 N in the bottom box as the highest number. The resistance of cracking is 31.59 N in the beginning, and changes to 26.01 N and 26.87 N in the period of 30 and 60 min vibration time respectively. 5. While the elasticity modulus is 1423 kPa in the beginning these are 1203.7 kPa and 1076.7 kPa in 30 min and 60 min periods respectively. 6. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz. This frequency was obtained in box height of 1.42 m. 7. Table grape variety Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) grown in Karaman Turkey have been found resistance to transportation. References Anonymous. (1997). Descriptors for Grapevine (Vitis spp.). International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 62p. Aydın, C. (1993). Bazı biyolojik malzemede titreşim etkilerinin belirlenmesi. [Determination of the vibration effects on some biological materials.] PhD Thesis, Department of Agricultural Mechanisation, Graduate School of Natural Applied Sciences, Selçuk University, Konya, Turkey. Bollen, A.F., Wead, I. & Dela Rue, B.T. (1994). Compression forces and damage in the postharvest handling system, Harvest and postharvest technologies for fresh fruits and vegetables, Guanajuato, Mexico, February 20-24, 1995. Burton, C.L., Brown, G.K., Schulte Pason, N.L. & Timm, E.J. (1989). Apple bruising related to picking and hauling impacts. Paper no: 89-6049, ASAE/CSAE; Summer Meeting, Quebec, Canada. Campbell, D.T., Prussia, S.E. & Shewfelt, R.L. (1986). Evaluating postharvest injury to fresh market tomatoes. J. Food distribution research, September: 16-25. Demir, F. & Özcan, M. (2001). Chemical and technological properties of rose Rosa canina L. fruits grown wild in Turkey. Journal of Food Engineering, 47; 333–336. Dokuzoğuz, M. (1997). The development of garden products storage and marketing at garden products, Yalova, p, 1-7. Hinsch, R.T., Slaughter, D.C., Craig, W.L. & Thompson, J.F. (1993). Vibration of fresh fruit and vegetables during refrigerated truck transportation. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 364; 1039-1042. Kara, Z. (1992). Determination of the ampelographic characters of grape varieties in Tokat, Vitis Viticulture and Enology 312: 47. Kaynaş, K., Sürmeli, N. & Türkeş, N. (1989). Natural and simulated transportation on H2274 tomato; effect of static load, refrigeration and falling on quality of fruit in Turkish Gıda sanayi, Turkey, 14; 27-34. Maindonald, J.H. & Finch, G.R. (1986). Apple damage from transport in wooden bins. N.Z.J. Technology, 2; 171-177. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. & Harriot, P. (1986). Unit operations of chemical engineering. New York:McGraw-Hill. McGregor, M.B. (1989). Tropical products transport handbook US Dept. of Agr. Off. of Transp., Agr. Handbook no: 668, 148 pp. Minitab, C. (1991). Minitab reference manual Release 7.1 Minitab Inc., State Coll., PA 16801, USA. Mohsenin, N.N. (1986). Physical properties of plants and animal materials. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. New York. pp 5-8; 616-647. 462 �Moser, E. (1984). Verfahrenstechnik Intensivkulturen. Bd.4 Verlag Paul Parey- Hamburg-Berlin. Nelson, K.E. (1985). Harvesting and handling California table grapes for market, Agricultural Experiment Station University of California Division of agriculture and Natural Resources Bulletin 1913, pp 55. O’Brien, N., Gentry, J.R. & Gibson, R. (1965). Vibrating Characteristic of fruit as releated toyn- transitynijury, Transaction of the ASAE, 241-243. Öğüt, H., Aydın, C. & Peker, A. (1999). Simulated transit studies on peaches: Effects of container cushion materials and vibration on elasticity modulus, Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America 303; 59-62. Olorunda, A.O. & Tung, MA. (1985). Simulated transit studies on tomatoes; effect of compressive load, container, vibration, vibration and maturity on mechanical damage, Journal of food technology, 206; 669-678. Pang, D.W., Bollen, F., McDougall, A. & Rue, B.D. (1995). Simulation of Bulk Apple handling to determine bruising levels, Harvest and postharvest technologies for fresh fruits and vegetables, Proceedings of the International Conference Guanajuto, Mexico 20-24 February 1995, p:152-159. Sahay, K.M. & Singh, K.K. (1994). Unit operations in agricultural processing. New Delhi: Vikas. Sreenarayanan, V.V., Subramanian, V. & Visvanathan, R. (1985). Physical and thermal properties of soyabean. Proceedings of the Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, 3; 161-169. Trooien, T.P. & Heermann, D.F. (1992). Measurement and simulation of potato leaf area using image processing I, II, III. Transactions of the ASAE, 35(5): 1709-1722. Turczyn, M.T., Grant, S.W., Ashby, B. & Wheaton, F.W. (1986). Potato shatter bruising during laboratory handling and transport simulation. Transactions of the ASAE. 29(4): 1171-1175. USDA. (1970). Official grain standards of the United States. US Department of Agricultural Consumer and Marketing Service Grain Division, Revised. Widney, B.D. (1996). Choosing and using farm machines. Land Technology Ltd, p. 412, Scotland, UK. Zohadie, B. (1982). Elasticity of Malaysian papaya as a design criterion for prevention of damage during transportation, Fac. of Agric. Engineering, Univ. Pertanian Malaysia, Serdang, Selanger, 52;178-183. 463 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 546 Title A name given to the resource Table Grapes Transport Simulation Study by Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) Cultivar Grown in Karaman Turkey Author Author DEMİR, Fikret KARA, Zeki CARMAN, Kazım Abstract A summary of the resource. Table grapes is a second industry in viticulture in Turkey and have been grown in primarily Mediterranean region a popular fruit for local consumption and export to many European and Asian countries as a fresh dessert and for this reason this product has to be transport so long distances for marketing. This simulated export transit experiment with Bardas (Vitis vinifera L.) local table grape cultivar grown in Karaman province was conducted in lab condition Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture. To produce main knowledge, and to improve the application of resources used to produce, pack, transport, and merchandise Turkish table grapes by increasing efficiency, controlling cost and managing risk throughout the supply chain. In order to develop optimized methods of reducing table grape damage transport stimulatory as vibration stimulator have been used to measure the shocks and vibrations in market bins during 30 min and 60 min transport stimulation. During road transport simulation at 25°C in wooden boxes damages of clusters and berries were measured by laboratory trials to stimulate the events in a controlled and repeatable manner. 3 bins full of fruits were placed onto a vibration table, and during the stimulation three-load profile sensor were placed inside each of bins. While the number of separated berry was determined as a 31.33 in 30 min, the number was 83.10 in vibration period of 60 min. Starting with the beginning the numbers separate resistance of berry, resistance to cracking of berry and elasticity modulus is continuously lowering in 30-60 min vibration periods. The berry separate resistance from cluster were changing between 4.46 N to 1.73 N, and berry cracking resistance were measured between 31.59 N to 26.01 N, and berry elasticity modulus were obtained as between 1423 kPa to 1076.7 kPa. Natural frequency of berry was calculated as on 109.332 Hz that was obtained in of 1.42 m box height. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/47991fbd496bf3a175865f6572ad0472.pdf c63f65048817fac5f0d5819e90bb4baa PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Performance and Satisfaction of Work as Characteristics of Human Capital (Comparative Analysis of Some Indicators of Human Capital in Several Balkan Countries) Alexi DANCHEV Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences Fatih University, Turkey adanchev@fatih.edu.tr Erkan ĠLGÜN Department of Management International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina eilguen@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The paper analyses the role of such elements of human capital as performance and satisfaction of work for its further improvement. It is indicated that due to its complex nature human capital is a core element in many sides of development. Basic results of a survey of human capital carried out in Turkey, Bosnia and Bulgaria are discussed. The multifarious effects of human capital are analyzed indicating in particular the specific functions of performance and satisfaction of work in its growth. From this perspective the authors look for a broader vision of the role of satisfaction of work and its link with the performance to improve the skill and knowledge regarded as basic indicators of human capital. The conclusion is that despite regional differences the performance and satisfaction of work are highly correlated with the income and the social setting within the team the respondents work. Introduction The interest in the influence of human factors on economic growth and development is increasing, which is result of many reasons. The main rationale maybe the understanding that while in the post-war restoration of the world economy capital is of a crucial importance, nowadays human factors are decisive for the success and survival in the sharply increasing competition in the global economy due to advantages given by the new technologies. More and more the elements influencing human behavior in the reproduction process become predominant in the theoretical and empirical studies on growth and development. The present paper follows this tradition. It is aimed at tracing out the influence of such basic elements of human capital as performance and satisfaction of job. We give short theoretical survey on the basic visions of the role of performance and satisfaction of job in the human capital literature. Next we proceed with the empirical study of the level of performance and satisfaction of job in three Balkan countries: Turkey, Bosnia and Bulgaria. Finally we conclude. The Theoretical Background Human capital is the basic category, which reflects the contribution of labor to growth and development. In the past it was interpreted as the level of education and experience (learning by doing, Arrow, 1962 and Sheshinski, 1967), which was complemented to the labor force indicators as for example the Harrodneutral technological progress, (Barro, and Sala-i-Martin, 2003). While in the classic model of growth labor was included into the production function (the basic growth model) as Y = A(t)KαL1-α the attempts to find more correct reflection of the labor contribution to growth resulted in the introduction of new indicator – human capital as an exponential improvement of the quality of labor force mainly by means of learning by doing mechanism. Y = A(t)KαL[Leht)]1-α ht where e is the exponential improvement of the quality of labor force. Nowadays it is clear that this very essential approach to such complicated factor of production as labor is too far from outlining a realistic picture of the actual contribution of labor to growth. There are many reasons 225 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo to recommend the need for further improvements. First, human capital creation depends strongly on the health status of the individuals, which is reflected by the health human capital indicator already commonly accepted in the Development literature. The health is however not the only indicator necessary for more correct reflection of labor force contribution to growth. People must be first of all satisfied with the current job they are employed and next to be motivated to work further. Besides, we think that the job performance is standing on higher level of contributive elements than satisfaction in sense than people may be motivated to work for many reasons one of which can be the satisfaction to work. Thus, we can complement the growth model with a new one, which describes the job performance as JP = f(S, X1, X2, X3….Xn) Where JP is the job performance S – Satisfaction of work X1, X2, X3 …Xn – factors influencing the performance. The very satisfaction is however also function of other factors, some of which are common with the performance model. So S = f(Z1, Z2, Z3…..Zn). We think of performance and satisfaction as subsets of human capital set in which JP U S → HC. Among the elements included into this set we can define: 1. Money paid for the job 2. Social surrounding 3. Social importance of the job 4. Nice spending of time 5. Team-working satisfaction feeling. The choice of the variables was result of a scrutinize literature survey covering economic, social, psychological and other studies on job performance and satisfaction. In most general terms job performance is commonly identified with productivity. Kostiuk P. and Follmann D. (1989) are studying the effect of the on-thejob learning, experience and the individual characteristics on productivity regarding it as an indication of job performance. Bishop (1990) however underlines that ―while job matching is an important phenomenon at most small- and medium-sized establishments, it does not account for a significant share of the rise in average productivity that occurs in the first year of tenure on the job‖. The deeper roots of the job performance and satisfaction are coming from the value system of the individuals, which origin was studying by Halaby (2003) paper of the link between the performance and the entrepreneurial ability of ―the willingness to accept responsibility and the capacity to process information for the purpose of effective problem-solving and decision-making under varying conditions‖. Halaby provides detailed study of the entrepreneurial ability as a function of cognitive ability and talent, as well as ―decision-making and problem-solving skills acquired through experience or schooling‖. Wise (1975) early studies provide econometric estimations of job performance measured as the rate of salary increase assumed to be adjusted ―to match individual performance‖. He found out that ―job performance, as measured by rate of salary increase, was not only correlated with academic achievement but the evidence suggested that mastery of academic subject matter contributed to an individual's ability to perform job-related tasks‖. Concerning the satisfaction of job a big variety of studies provide various evidences of its influence on the formation of human capital. The attempts to develop a theory of job satisfaction dates back to 1970‘s with incorporating differences in work values and perceived job characteristics as ―key explanatory variables‖ (Kalleberg, 1977). The theoretical backgrounds are empirically testing the relationship between job satisfaction and such indicators as work values, job rewards associated with ―six dimensions of work-intrinsic, convenience, financial, relations with co-workers, career opportunities and resource adequacy‖. By highlighting the job satisfaction over the whole life-cycle of individuals Kalleberg and Loscocco (1983) underline the importance of nonwork roles for explaining work-role outcomes. Two explanations are formulated concerning the link between the age and job satisfaction: one that ―the relationship between age and satisfaction is the result of generational differences in education and value systems (i.e., a cohort explanation)‖ and second, that ―this relationship is simply a function of older workers having moved into better jobs across their careers (i.e., a life cycle explanation)‖. Janson and Martin (1982) find out that neither explanation is adequate, leaving the question of what accounts for higher levels of satisfaction of older workers unresolved‖. Since that time there is not a sufficient support of these two explanations. Most of the literature however unambiguously indicates the direct link between education (the basic factor of human capital) and job satisfaction. Glenn and Weaver (1982) empirically estimate that ―the total effect of education is positive for both sexes but is considerably stronger for women than for men‖. 226 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Short Characteristics of Human Capital in the Balkan area It is difficult to present a short characteristic of human capital in the Balkan area as it is a category with multifarious dimensions. Normally the share of expenditure on education in GDP is regarded as the most general indicator at least as a necessary precondition for generating of human capital. It is presented in table 1 for the last two decades, which are a period of big transformations in the Balkans. Nevertheless, the dynamics of this indicator shows that there is not a big gap between the Balkan countries and the rest of Euroarea and the middle income countries. Country Years 1990 2000 2008 Albania 6 3 3 Croatia 7 4 5 Bulgaria 5 4 4 Greece 2 3 3 Romania 3 3 3 Serbia .. 2 4 Slovenia .. 6 6 Turkey 2 3 4 Euroarea 5 4 5 Middle income countries 4 4 4 Table 1: The share of total expenditure on education as a % of GDP. Source: World Development Indicators on Line, (2010) http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/DDPQQ/report.do?method=showReport More synthetic measure of the state of human capital in the Balkan area is given by the UNDP‘s Human Development index (HDI), which ―is a summary composite index that measures a country's average achievements in three basic aspects of human development: health, knowledge, and a decent standard of living‖ (UNDP, 2010). The dynamics of this indicator for the last three decades (Table 2) unambiguously indicates convergence of the Balkan area to the advanced Western European economies, which is a good precondition for further improvement of the quality of human capital in the area. The detailed analysis of the basic components of the HDI reveals various details indicating the difficulties in this process. Not only increased funding is needed in the crucial sectors forming human capital, serious institutional adjustment is also required to overcome the difficulties of the transformation process in the formally centrally-planned economies in the area. HDI rank 8 22 25 29 45 61 63 67 70 Country code FRA DEU GRC SVN HRV BGR ROM SRB ALB 76 79 BIH TUR Country name France Germany Greece Slovenia Croatia Bulgaria Romania Serbia Albania Bosnia and Herzegovina Turkey 1980 0.876 0.869 0.844 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1985 0.888 0.877 0.857 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1990 0.909 0.896 0.872 0.853 0.817 .. 0.786 .. .. 1995 0.927 0.919 0.874 0.861 0.811 .. 0.780 .. .. 2000 0.941 .. 0.895 0.892 0.837 0.803 0.788 0.797 0.784 2005 0.956 0.942 0.935 0.918 0.862 0.829 0.824 0.817 0.811 2006 0.958 0.945 0.938 0.924 0.867 0.835 0.832 0.821 0.814 2007 0.961 0.947 0.942 0.929 0.871 0.840 0.837 0.826 0.818 .. 0.628 .. 0.674 .. 0.705 .. 0.730 .. 0.758 0.803 0.796 0.807 0.802 0.812 0.806 Table 2: HDI is the Balkan countries for the period 1980 – 2007. Source: UNDP, Human Development Reports, 2010, http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/data/ 227 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Study The role of performance and job satisfaction as preconditions for improvement of human capital cannot be revealed by means of the official statistics, they are to be obtained by interviewing. Due to a project funded by the Research fund of Fatih University data have been collected about the quality of human capital in three Balkan countries: Turkey, Bosnia and Bulgaria. Although the collection of data is still on-going some ideas about the role of performance and satisfaction of job on the formation of human capital can be formulated to trace out the influence of human capital on growth more correctly. The sample includes 426 interviews from Turkish citizen, 275 interviews from Bosnian citizens and 182 interviews from Bulgarian citizens. The samples are not representative so the results should be cautiously interpreted. The performance and job satisfaction were measured mainly by 5-scale level. Special attention has been paid on the estimation of the match between the level of skill and knowledge on one hand and the requirements of the present job on the other. The respondents have been asked by 5-scale codes to declare do they think they have the skill and knowledge sufficiently enough to complete their job properly. Among the factors influencing the ability and willingness to work (the basic elements of labor supply) the respondents have to scale out: 1. The rise of the level of skill and knowledge they possess. 2. The efficiency of management in the firm they work in. 3. The problems in their personal life and health. 4. The state of economy in their country 5. The state of the world economy Findings Below we report only the basic characteristics of the indicators measuring job performance and satisfaction. Detailed study of the links between these two indicators and the factors influencing their behavior will be published after the completion of the collection of data. The salary promotion as an indicator of job performance commonly used in the research studies reflects only one side of the problem. Outside the attention remains another very important aspect of the job performance: how the very respondents estimate their own performance. Certainly this is a subjective measure of the performance, nevertheless it is important to know the own vision of their status and to juxtapose it with the carrier promotion. Such a comparison may provide very interesting information for many sides beyond the job performance. For example the gap between the carrier promotion (income growth) and the self estimation can be regarded as a proxy of the level of corruption in society. On the other hand however it is well known fact that normally everybody pretends to receive more than he actually deserves - an old tradition in the Balkan (and not only in the Balkans of course). Our study provides information was based on the self-estimation principle: the respondents had to declare their own estimation of their job performance during the current year and the last three years. The results of the interviewing are indicated in table 3. Level of performance 1. Lowest 2. 3. 4. 5. Highest No. of answers Turkey Current year 0.7% 2.4% 18.2% 51.7% 27.0% 422 Bosnia Last 3 years 0.7% 3.1% 17.9% 51.0% 27.3% 418 Current year 0.4% 0.8% 17.9% 58.9% 22.1% 263 Bulgaria Last 3 years 1.1% 1.1% 19.5% 58.0% 20.2% 262 Current year 0.0% 1.7% 9.1% 44.6% 44.6% 175 Last 3 years 0.0% 1.1% 11.3% 40.7% 46.9% 177 Table 3: Self-estimation of job performance As a whole the picture is of a relatively stable short-run dynamics (the last three years) of the job performance in the countries of observation. This is an evidence of the stability of this indicator, which accumulates the influence of many factors. The level of satisfaction of job is measured in the similar way – by means of 5-scale discrete choice presented in table 4. It is distributed as follows: Level of satisfaction Turkey Bosnia Bulgaria 1. Lowest 1.4% 1.1% 3.9% 228 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2. 3. 4. 5. Highest 8.3% 33.7% 43.9% 12.7% 2.3% 19.9% 53.8% 22.9% 7.9% 37.1% 42.1% 9.0% Table 4. The level of satisfaction of job The influence of the factors on the level of job satisfaction has been measured in two aspects: factors influencing high level of satisfaction and factors influencing low level of satisfaction. Several factors influencing positively the level of satisfaction of job have been formulated, namely: 1. Giving good money to enjoy the life 2. Ability to meet very good friends 3. The understanding of the social importance of the job 4. Spending time very nicely during the working hours 5. The pleasure to work with the team. The respondents rank the presented above alternatives in the following way: Bulgarian respondents (136) give highest rank on the giving money to enjoy the life (29.4%) as the reason for the high level of job satisfaction, followed by the understanding of the social importance of job (alternative 3) – 25,0% and the pleasure to work with the team 19.1%. The ability to meet very good friends and the spending time very nicely during the working hours have equal ranking of 13.2% (weighted average 30). Turkish respondents (366) are distributed in the following way: 47.9% are satisfied from their job because it gives them money to enjoy the life, 18.7% are satisfied as they find their job socially important, 12.7% enjoy their job because it gives them ability to meet very good friends, 11.8% have a pleasure to work with the team and 8.8% are satisfied as they spend very nice their time during the working hours. The Bosnian respondents are more evenly distributed in the voting for their job satisfaction: like the previous respondents they give highest share of the job as a source of having money to enjoy the life (33,4%), followed by almost equal share of the understanding of the social importance of their work (22.2%) and the pleasure to work with the team (21.4%). Almost equal share is given to the understanding of social importance of their job (11.7%) and the spending time very nicely during the working hours (11.3%). The results look quite realistic and allowing to draw important conclusions: there is a big resemblance of the factors influencing satisfaction of job among the compared countries. Quite normal sounds the predominance of the materially-related motivations as having money to enjoy the life followed by the social importance of the performed job in all countries. It is also indication of our ability to create a network of data collection producing comparable results despite the restriction of the non-representative sample. Similar is the picture also related to the opposite side of job satisfaction – the reasons leading to its low level. Although in all countries the answers of this question are small, nevertheless they are important for better understanding of the reasons for dissatisfaction of job. Bulgarian sample has only 43 answer of the ranking of reasons leading to low job satisfaction. The biggest share of the answers (65.1) is due to the too low level of payment, followed by the unpleasant atmosphere in the team respondent works with (18,6%), uselessness of the job for society (9.3%) and the job as boring and irritating activity (7%). The Turkish respondents (120 answers) are distributed in the following way: Too low level of payment is indicated as the reason for low level of satisfaction of job by 57.5%, 15.0% indicate as such a reason the unpleasant atmosphere in the team the respondent works with, 14.2% as the job is found as boring and irritating, 8.4% as finding the job useless for society and 5% as the lack of interesting persons in the firm. Bosnian respondents (52 answers) find the basic reason for dissatisfaction of job the low level of payment (67.3%), following by boring and irritating work (11.5%), the unpleasant atmosphere in the team the respondent works with (9.6%), with equal share (5.8%) of the uselessness of the job for society and the lack of interesting persons in the firm. Important information related both the job performance and satisfaction was hidden into the present and past vision of the respondents for the correspondence between their level of experience and knowledge on one hand and the adequate completion of the tasks they were responsible for - on the other. As to the present correspondence between the level of experience and knowledge and the present job half of the Turkish respondents thing it is good, 28.8%, - very good, 18.4% - average, 1.2% - low and 0.9% - very low. This distribution for the Bulgarian respondents (174) is: 55.7% - very high, 32.2% - high, 7.5% - average and 4.6% low (0 answer of very low). The Bosnian respondents (270) give the following ranking of the correspondence between the level of experience and knowledge and the completion of the tasks of the present job: 38.9% - very high level of correspondence. 48.5% - high level, 11.9% - average level and by 0.4% for the low and very low levels. The distributions of the same problem for the past are as follows: Turkish respondents (420): 22.6% very high , 54.0% - high , 21.4% - average, 1.4% - low and 0.5% - very low; Bulgarian respondents (174): 45.4% 229 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo - very high, 35.1% - high, 15.5% - average, 3.4% - low and 0.6% - very low; Bosnian respondents (263): 31.9% as very high, 52.9% as high, 13.3% as average, 1.1% as low and 0.8% as very low. The presented above analysis is an evidence of big similarity in the mechanisms of creating human capital in the compared Balkan countries related to such a basic characteristics of human capital and job performance and satisfaction. This is a good indicator of the expectations for their further successful integration and accession to the EU – an ongoing tendency and strategic aim of the economic policy in the whole Balkans. Conclusions The presented above results of the empirical study of performance and job satisfaction as elements of human capital indicate that there are good preconditions for its further growth and improvement in the selected Balkan countries. There is a definite need for increasing the expenditure of R&D and education to materialize these preconditions in real contributions to the economic growth of the region. The collected information which is still on-going allows constructing various models of revealing various sides of human capital and the ability of its improvement of the aims of reaching sustainable development in the area. Acknowledgements: The work on this paper has been possible due to the project ―Managing human capital for the aims of sustainable development (case study of some Balkan countries)" supported by the Scientific Research Fund of Fatih University under the project number P51010901_1. We express our thanks for the ability to use this support. References Arrow, K. J. (1963). Human Choice and Individual Values, 2nd edition. New Haven, Conn; Yale University Press. Barro R. J. & Sala-i-Martin X. (2003). Economic Growth, Second Edition, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bishop J. H. (1990). Job Performance, Turnover, and Wage Growth, Journal of Labor Economics, (pp. 363-386), 8(3). Glenn N. D. & Weaver Ch. N. (1982). Further Evidence on Education and Job Satisfaction, Social Forces, (pp. 46-55), 61(1). Halaby Ch. N. (2003). Where Job Values Come from: Family and Schooling Background, Cognitive Ability, and Gender, American Sociological Review, (pp. 251-278), 68(2). Janson Ph. & Martin J. K. (1982). Source Job Satisfaction and Age: A Test of Two Views, Social Forces, (p. 1089) 60(4). Kalleberg A.L. & Loscocco K. A. (1983). Aging, Values, and Rewards: Explaining Age Differences in Job Satisfaction. American Sociological Review, (p. 89), 48(1). Kalleberg A.L., (1977). Work Values and Job Rewards: A Theory of Job Satisfaction. American Sociological Review,(p.124), 42. Kostiuk P. F. & Follmann D. A. (1989). Learning Curves, Personal Characteristics, and Job Performance, Journal of Labor Economics (pp. 129-146), 7 (2), 129-146. Sheshinski, E. (1967). Optimal Accumulation with Learning by Doing. In Karl Shell (Ed), Essays on the Theory of Optimal Economic Growth, (pp.31-52). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. UNDP, Human Development Reports, 2010, http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/data/ Wise, D. A. (1975). Personal Attributes, Job Performance, and Probability of Promotion. Econometrica, (p. 913), 43(5/6) World Development Indicators on Line. (2010). http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/DDPQQ/report.do?method=showReport 230 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 164 Title A name given to the resource Performance and Satisfaction of Work as Characteristics of Human Capital (Comparative Analysis of Some Indicators of Human Capital in Several Balkan Countries) Author Author DANCHEV, Alexi ILGÜN, Erkan Abstract A summary of the resource. The paper analyses the role of such elements of human capital as performance and satisfaction of work for its further improvement. It is indicated that due to its complex nature human capital is a core element in many sides of development. Basic results of a survey of human capital carried out in Turkey, Bosnia and Bulgaria are discussed. The multifarious effects of human capital are analyzed indicating in particular the specific functions of performance and satisfaction of work in its growth. From this perspective the authors look for a broader vision of the role of satisfaction of work and its link with the performance to improve the skill and knowledge regarded as basic indicators of human capital. The conclusion is that despite regional differences the performance and satisfaction of work are highly correlated with the income and the social setting within the team the respondents work. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cc524d044878f83b391a100c1ca39ee8.pdf cdee52142719ead2807d229c249f99d6 PDF Text Text Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal of Textile Wastewaters: An Overview Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Release of colored wastewaters represents a major environmental problem worldwide due to the toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of the dyes and their breakdown products. Therefore much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. The most widely used dyes in industries are azo dyes which require anaerobic and aerobic phases for their complete biodegradation. Color is removed under anaerobic conditions in which azo dyes act an electron acceptor. Further, aerobic conditions are essential for removal of breakdown products which are known resist to biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Thus using both anaerobic and aerobic stages represents both decolorization and mineralization of azo dyes. Anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, however; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with the factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency. Introduction Increased population and developments in industrialization have resulted in higher use of textile products leading to release of its huge amount of wastewaters to the environment. Actually the main problem related to the textile wastewaters is colored effluents. There are so many types of dyestuffs used in textile industry to give its color to the fabrics Dye is the most difficult constituent of the textile wastewater to treat since they are synthetic and typically derived from coal tar and petroleum based intermediates. It is estimated that almost 109 kg of dyes are produced annually in the word, of which azo dyes represent about 70% by weight (Dos Santos et al., 2007). Azo dyes are characterized by nitrogen to nitrogen double bonds (N=N). The major problem associated with the dyes and their breakdown products is their toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity. Their discharge into surface water leads to aesthetic problems and adversely affecting to aquatic life. To overcome this problem, much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. There are many reports on the use of chemical and physical methods for color removal (Cooper, 1993; Hao et al., 2000; Dos Santos et al., 2007). The most commonly used chemical and physical treatment methods for dye-containing textile-processing wastewaters are chemical oxidation, chemical flocculation and settling, adsorption, membrane filtration and ion exchange. By these existing physical and chemical color removal methods, color is generally concentrated in the sludge or colored molecules are partly removed. Moreover, formation of large amounts of sludge and economical limitations presents disadvantages of these methods. Alternatively, biological methods are commonly considered to be the most effective treatment applications since they present lower operating costs and improved applicability (Shaw et al., 2002; Lourenço et al., 2001). It is known that several microorganisms; such as fungi, bacteria and algae; can decolorize many azo dyes (Pandey et al., 2007). In this review we will focus on the bacterial decolorization. Bacterial decolorization applied for textile effluents are based on anaerobic and aerobic treatment. Under anaerobic conditions, azo dyes are readily cleaved generating aromatic amines. The required electrons are provided by electron donating carbon sources which can be glucose, acetate, volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Hence, azo dye acts as electron acceptor and organic matters act as electron donor under anaerobic conditions. Electrons released from oxidation of electron donor directly accepted by azo dyes which results in azo linkage and color removal. Although these process the 571 �remove color of the wide range of azo dyes dyes, they do not completely mineralize the aromatic amines generated in the anaerobic environment with few exceptions (Brown and Laboureur, 1983). However due to the carcinogenic effects treatment of the aromatic amines is essential. It is known that some of the aromatic amines can be biodegraded under aerobic conditions (Brown and Hamburger 1987; Seshadri et al. 1994; Carliell et al. 1995). Combination of anaerobic and aerobic conditions is therefore the most convenient concept for treating colored wastewaters (Haug et al., 1991; Zaoyan et al., 1992; Seshadri et al., 1994; Kudlich et al., 1996; Hu, 1998). This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with combined anaerobic-aerobic SBRs. Since anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, parameters affecting color removal should be determined to achieve desirable treatment. Therefore, this review study especially presents the problems dealing with anaerobic color removal. Anaerobic color removal can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. Therefore, factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency are briefly discussed in subsequent sections. Factors Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal Efficiency As mentioned before, anaerobic phase is the first stage of decolorization process starting with the formation of intermediary aromatic amines by reductive cleavage of the azo bond (Walker 1970; Wuhrmann et al., 1980; Haug et al., 1991; Blumel et al., 1998). The schematic diagram of enzymatic dye reduction is depicted in Figure 1. The research papers reviewed are proved that color removal is mainly associated with the anaerobic stage of the SBR, however; contribution of aerobic stage is almost none. Therefore, this review study especially presents the problems dealing with anaerobic phase of SBRs. Since most of the azo dyes can be decolorized under anaerobic conditions, anaerobic biodegradation seems to be nonspecific. Nevertheless; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. Therefore, factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency are briefly discussed in subsequent sections. Figure 1. Enzymatic azo dye reduction, adapted from Subst., substrate or primary electron donor; Subst.oxid, products of substrate oxidation (Dos Santos et al., 2007) Microorganism In most of the reported processes of azo dye biodegradation, a wide range of organisms are found to reduce azo compounds such as bacteria, algae, and fungi. Azo dyes are generally known to resist aerobic bacterial biodegradation with the exception of bacteria with specialized azo dye reducing enzymes. Bacterial strains which can anerobically reduce azo dyes, cannot utilize dye as the growth substrate, therefore; require organic carbon sources. There are only a few bacteria that are able to grow on azo dyes as the sole carbon source. Aromatic amines resulting from reductive cleavage of azo bond can be used as a carbon and energy source for bacterial growth. Like carbon source, a nitrogen source is also essential for decolorization process with exception of bacteria that can be used azo dyes as a nitrogen source. As reported before, ammonium chloride is the most suitable among all nitrogen sources for SBR studies, since nitrate is believed that it is a better electron acceptor than azo bond (Wang et al., 2008). Based on the previous publications, azo dye can be reduced by azoreductasecatalyzed reduction under anaerobic conditions. But still there is a speculation whether bacterial flavin reductases are responsible for the azo reductase activity observed with bacterial cell extracts. In a published report, it was reported that flavin reductases are indeed able to act as azo reductases (Russ et al., 2000). Bacteria produce extracellular oxidative enzymes which are relatively non-specific enzymes catalyzing the oxidation of a variety of dyes. It was reported that there are so many diverse groups of bacteria playing role in decolorization. It has been also reported that mixed microbial community could reduce various azo dyes and members of the γproteabacteria and sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) were found to prominent members of mixed bacterial population by using molecular methods to determine the microbial population dynamics (Pandey et al., 2007). 572 �Dye Structure It appears that almost every azo compound that has been tested is biologically reduced under anaerobic conditions, nevertheless; though similar conditions were provided, different color removal efficiencies were achieved. This indicates that, dye structure is important when investigating biological color removal by SBRs. It was reported that metal-ion containing dyes can have adverse effect on decolorization efficiency (Chung et al., 1978; Brown and De Vito 1993). It has been also reported that azo compounds with methyl, methoxy, sulpho or nitro groups being less likely to biodegrade than the others with a hydroxyl or amino group (Zimmermann et al., 1982; Claus et al., 2002). Azo dyes with a limited membrane permeability such as; sulfonated azo dyes, cannot be reduced by intracellularly (Stolz, 2001). Cycle Time Though cycle time plays an important role in the SBR for the decolorization process, not so many reports are found in literature. The long retention times are often applied in the anaerobic phase of the reactor studies such as 18h, 21h. In several studies, it was reported that there is a positive correlation between the anaerobic cycle time and color removal (Kapdan et al., 2003; Albuquerque et al., 2005). Indeed, in combined anaerobicaerobic SBRs, since bacteria shifted from aerobic to anaerobic conditions, or vice versa; anaerobic azo reductase enzyme can be adversely affected from aerobic conditions which are essential for aromatic amine removal, thereby resulting in insufficient color removal rate. To investigate the effect of cycle time on biodegradation of azo dyes, Çınar et al. (2008) operated SBR in three different total cycle times (48-h, 24-h and 12-h), fed with a synthetic textile wastewater. The results indicated that decrease in anaerobic cycle time, the system performance on color removal is not adversely affected; on the contrary, both color removal efficiency and COD removal efficiency are slightly improved. Sludge Age The sludge retention time (SRT) is known as very important operational parameter for color removal in SBR system. To obtain efficient color removal rate, adequate microbial population is desired. It was reported that 10 days sludge retention time remained insufficient to obtain adequate population, and to ensure the color removal, sludge retention time was increased to 15 day (Lourenço et al., 2001). Redox Mediators Since long retention times are often applied in the anaerobic phase of the SBR, it can be concluded that reduction of many azo dyes is a relatively slow process. Reactor studies indicate that however; by using redox mediators; which are compounds that accelerate electron transfer from a primary electron donor (co-substrate) to a terminal electron acceptor (azo dye), azo dye reduction can be increased (Keck et al., 2002; Kudlich et al., 1997). By this way, higher decolorization rates can be achieved in SBRs operated with a low hydraulic retention time (HRT) (Cervantes et al., 2001; Dos Santos et al., 2003). Flavin enzyme cofactors, such as flavin adenide dinucleotide (FAD), flavin adenide mononucleotide (FMN) and riboflavin as well as several quinone compounds such as AQS, AQDS and lawsone have been found as redox mediators (Semde et al., 1998; Cervantes et al., 2000; Rau et al.,2002a; Rau et al.,2002b).Though accelerating effect of redox mediators is proved, differences in electro-chemical factors between mediator and azo dye is limiting factor for this application. It was reported that redox mediator applied for biological azo dye reduction must have redox potential between the half reactions of the azo dye and the primary electron donor (van der Zee et al., 2003). The standard redox potential for different azo dyes is screened generally between -430 and -180 mV (Dubin and Wright 1975). Alternative Electron Acceptors Decolorization of azo dyes starts by reductive cleavage of azo bond. Electrons releasing from oxidation of organic compounds in the wastewaters goes through the azo dye and cleaves the azo bond. As anaerobic color removal occurs by the way of reduction of the azo dye which acts a final electron acceptor in the microbial electron transport chain, existing different electron acceptors in anaerobic zone can be assessed as limiting factor for the dye removal. Alternative electron acceptors such as oxygen, nitrate, sulfate and ferric ion; may compete with the azo dye for reducing equivalents, and resulting in insufficient color removals under anaerobic conditions. Electron flow preference as a function of the different electron couples is depicted in Figure 2. Among the electron acceptors involved in electron transport chain, oxygen is the most effective electron acceptor. Anaerobic reactors in full-scale treatment systems are designed as open to the atmosphere. The effect of oxygen entering anaerobic reactors through the surface is generally assumed to be negligible since surface area is small relative to 573 �the reactor volume. Oxygen can get into the anaerobic reactors of waste water treatment plants with the mixed liquor recirculated from the aerobic zone and mixing. The impact of oxygen on anaerobic color removal efficiency becomes progressively larger when it is thought that oxygen is the most effective electron acceptor on the electron transport chain. Researchers have reported that decolorization is significantly affected from the, high-redox-potential electron acceptor, dissolved oxygen. This is because; released electrons by oxidation of organic compounds are preferentially used to reduce oxygen rather than the azo dye. Oxygen has an adverse effect on decolorization under anaerobic conditions, therefore; facultative or obligate anaerobes are necessary for azo dye reduction (Chang and Kuo, 2000). Inhibition of azo reductase activity by oxygen was also reported for Pseudomonas luteola (Chung and Stevens, 1993; Blumel et al., 1998). Indeed, NADH leads to bacterial biodegradation of azo dyes by acting electron donor. In the case of the fact that oxygen is the electron acceptor, the consumption of NADH by oxidative phosphorylation can adversely affect the enzymatic decolorization of azo dye. In a recent study results also suggested that the presence of oxygen inhibits azo decolorization when the dissolved oxygen concentration in the medium was higher than 0.5 mg/L (Xu et al, 2007). This is mainly due to the adverse effect of the molecular oxygen on anaerobic azo reductase enzyme. Figure 2. Electron flow preference as a function of the different electron couples, RM and RMreduc are the oxidized and the reduced form of the redox mediator, respectively (Dos Santos et al., 2007) Among the electron acceptors involved in electron transport chain, nitrate is the second effective electron acceptor. Nitrate is normally found in textile processing wastewaters and generally coming from the salts such as, sodium nitrate which is included in dye baths for the improvement of dye fixation to the textile fibers. Nitrate concentrations used during textile processing can reach 40–100 g/l (Carliell et al., 1998). The importance of nitrate in anaerobic phase of SBR is that nitrate can compete with the azo dye for the reducing equivalents formed and resulting in decreasing decolorization (Carliell et al., 1995; Carliell et al., 1998, Lourenço et al., 2001; Panswad et al., 2000; Wuhrmann et al., 1980). Wuhrmann et al (1980) was reported that azo dye cannot be decolorized until denitrification ends up. Like nitrate, sulfate is also a constitute of textile processing wastewaters. Sulfate is generally added to the dye baths for ionic strength adjustment or it may be formed by the oxidation of sulfur species used in dyeing processes, such as sulfide, hydrosulfide, and dithionite (van der Zee et al., 2003). There are so many reports highlighting different effects of sulfate on azo dye degradation. It seems that in the presence of sulfate, decolorization may be rather stimulated than competitively suppressed (Carliell et al., 1995; Carliell et al., 1998; Panswad and Luangdilok, 2000; van der zee, 2003; Albuquerque et al., 2005). It was reported that when inhibiting sulfate-reducing activity of microbial population in SBR by the addition of molybdate, anaerobic azo dye removal efficiency is decreased. Indeed, since sulfate acts as an electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions, may compete with the dyes for the electrons available, thus causing an adverse effect on the decolorizing process. However; microbial population and sulfate concentration is also important for the reactions taking place during anaerobic phase. High sulfate concentrations are found to adversely affect decolorization unless sufficient amount of substrate is supplied to overcome the negative effects of elevated concentrations of sulfate (Cervantes et al., 2007). Furthermore; when sulfate is reduced under these conditions by sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB); sulfide, which is known as bulk reductant, is generated and can in turn serve as an electron donor. Sulfide generation is found to also contribute to the reduction of azo dyes. It is also reported that cofactors involved during microbial reduction of sulfate such as; cytochrome C3 (-205 mV) and NADH (-324 mV); have appropriate redox potential. Therefore, can channel the electrons to azo dyes. 574 �Meanwhile, the redox potentials with more positive of the dye reduction than the redox potential of biological sulfate reduction (-220 mV) can be accelerated by sulfate. It was also reported articles that ferric iron can act as an electron acceptor under anaerobic conditions in which azo dye reduction occurs. Like sulfate, it was found that addition of ferric iron to the reactor stimulates the azo dye reduction. Indeed, the reactions are dealing with the redox couple Fe (III)/Fe (II) which can act as an electron shuttle for transferring electrons from electron donor to the electron accepting azo dye. Meanwhile, reactions of both reduction of Fe (III) to Fe (II) and oxidation of Fe (II) to Fe (III) facilitate the electron transport from the substrate to azo dye, thus acting as an extracellular redox mediator (Albuquerque et al., 2005). Primary Electron Donor Type Since anaerobic azo dye reduction is an oxidation-reduction reaction, a liable electron donor is essential to achieve effective color removal rates. It is known that most of the bond reductions are occurred during active bacterial growth (Nigam et al., 1996). Therefore, anaerobic azo dye reduction is extremely depended on the type of primary electron donor. It was reported that ethanol, glucose, H2/CO2 and formate are effective electron donors, contrarily; acetate and other volatile fatty acids are normally known as poor electron donors (Dos Santos et al., 2003; Tan et al., 1999; Pearce et al., 2006). So far, because of the substrate itself or microorganisms involved, with some primary substrates better color removal rates have been obtained but with others no effective decolorization have been observed. Electron donor concentration is also important to achieve higher color removal rates. Since there are so many reactions involved in bioreactor, competition for reducing equivalents by other reactions may increase the required amount of primary substrate. Though in theory the amount of electron donor per mmol monoazo dye azo is 32 mg COD, it was reported in a study that even if 60300 times higher of the stoichiometric amount is used, more electron donor source is needed (O’Neill et al., 2000). Dye concentratıon In several studies, large variations in dye concentrations have been applied in the reactor studies and it was reported that dye concentration may play a role in the decolorization process. In the case of exceeding the reactor’s biological azo dye reduction capacity, high dye concentration may adversely affect the dye removal efficiency and COD removal efficiency. Kapdan and Özturk (2005) reported that increasing initial dyestuff concentration adversely affect the COD removal performance of SBR. Nevertheless; dye removal rate may be increased by increasing dye concentrations (Cruz and Buitron, 2001). Some of the reactor studies have been proved the possibility of azo dye toxicity to microorganisms involved in biodegradation. Though toxicity is related to dye concentration, dye type applied is also important (Luangdilok and Panswad 2000). Metal-complex dyes and reactive dyes are known to have toxicity effect on decolorization process from the literature (Libra et al., 2004). Conclusion Azo dye containing wastewaters seems one of the most polluted wastewaters which require efficient decolorization and subsequent aromatic amine metabolism. Based on the available literature, it can be concluded that anaerobic- aerobic SBR operations are quite convenient for the complete biodegradation of both azo dyes and their breakdown products. Nevertheless, like the other methods used for biological treatment, SBRs treating colored wastewaters have some limitations. Presence of forceful alternative electron acceptors such as nitrate and oxygen, availability of an electron donor, microorganisms, and cycle times of anaerobic and aerobic reaction phases can be evaluated as quite significant. Though treatment of azo dye containing wastewaters needs combined anaerobic-aerobic phases, microorganisms are subjected to continually alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Thus, it is presumable that anaerobic enzymes involved in the azo dye reduction may be adversely affected from aerobic conditions, as well as aerobic enzymes involved in the aromatic amine mineralization may be adversely affected from anaerobic conditions. Since little is known about the regulations of the enzymes involved in complete biodegradation of colored wastewaters, this approach seems to need advanced investigation to improve color removal and aromatic amine mineralization. References Albuquerque MGE, Lopes AT, Serralheiro ML et al (2005) Biological sulphate reduction and redox mediator effects on azo dye decolourisation in anaerobic–aerobic sequencing batch reactors. Enzyme and microbial technology 36: 790–799 575 �Blumel S, Contzen M, Lutz M et al (1998) Isolation of a bacterial strain with the ability to utilize the sulfonated azo compound 4-carboxy-4`- sulfoazobenzene as the sole source of carbon and energy. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 64: 2315 – 2317 Brown MA, DeVito SC (1993) Predicting azo dye toxicity. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 23: 249–324 Brown, D., Hamburger, B., (1987) The degradation of dyestuffs: part III – investigations of their ultimate degradability. Chemosphere 16, 1539–1553. Brown, D., Laboureur, P., (1983) The degradation of dyestuffs: part I – primary biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Chemosphere 12, 397–404. Carliell CM , Barclay SJ, Naidoo N et al (1995) Microbial decolourasition of a reactive azo dye under anaerobic conditions. Water SA 21: 61–69 Carliell CM, Barclay SJ, Shaw C et al (1998) The effect of salts used in textile dyeing on microbial decolourisation of a reactive azo dye. Environmental technology 19: 1133–1137 Cervantes FJ, Enrıquez JE, Petatan EG et al (2007) Biogenic sulphide plays a major role on the riboflavin-mediated decolourisation of azo dyes under sulphate-reducing conditions. Chemosphere 68: 1082–1089 Cervantes FJ, van Der Velde S, Lettinga G et al (2000) Competition between methanogenesis and quinone respiration for ecologically important substrates in anaerobic consortia. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 34: 161–171 Cervantes FJ, van der Zee FP, Lettinga G (2001) Enhanced decolourisation of acid orange 7 in a continuous UASB reactor with quinones as redox mediators. Water Science and Technology 44: 123–128 Chang JS, Kuo TS (2000) Kinetics of bacterial decolorization of azo dye with Escherichia coli NO3. Bioresource Technology 75:107–111 Chung KT, Stevens SEJ (1993) Degradation of azo dyes by environmental microorganisms and helminths. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 12: 2121–2132 Chung KT, Fulk GE, Egan M (1978) Reduction of azo dyes by intestinal anaerobes. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 35: 558–562 Claus H, Faber G, Koenig H (2002) Redox-mediated decolorization of synthetic dyes by fungal laccases. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 59: 672–678 Cooper, P., (1993) Removing colour from dyehouse waste waters—a critical review of technology available. J. Soc. Dyers Colourists 109, 97–100. Cruz A, Buitron G, (2001) Biodegradation of disperse blue 79 using sequenced anaerobic/aerobic biofilters. Water Sci Technol 44 (4): 159–166 Çınar Ö, Yaşar S, Kertmen M et al (2008) Effect of cycle time on biodegradation of azo dye in sequencing batch reactor. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 86: 455–460 Dos Santos AB, Cervantes FJ, van Lier JB (2007) Review paper on current technologies for decolourisation of textile wastewaters perspectives for anaerobic biotechnology. Bioresearc techonogy 98: 2369–2385 Dos Santos AB, Cervantes FJ, Yaya-Beas RE et al (2003) Effect of redox mediator AQDS on the decolourisation of a reactive azo dye containing triazine group in a thermophilic anaerobic EGSB reactor. Enzyme and microbial technology 33: 942–951 Dubin P, Wright KL (1975) Reduction of azo food dyes in cultures of Proteus vulgaris. Xenobiotica 5: 563–571 Hao, O.J., Kim, H., Chang, P.C., (2000) Decolorization of wastewater. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30 (4), 449–505. Haug W, Schmidt A, Nortemann B et al (1991) Mineralization of the sulfonated azo dye Mordant Yellow 3 by a 6aminonaphthalene-2-sulfonate-degrading bacterial consortium Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 57:3144–3149. Hu TL (1998) Degradation of azo dye RP2B by Pseudomonas luteola. Water Science and Technology 38: 299 – 306 576 �Kapdan IK, Özturk R (2005) Effect of parameters on color and COD removal performance of SBR: Sludge age and initial dyestuff concentration. Journal of Hazardous Materials B 123: 217–222 Kapdan IK, Tekol M, Sengul F (2003) Decolorization of simulated textile wastewater in an anaerobic–aerobic sequential treatment system. Process Biochemistry 38 (7) : 1031–1037 Keck A, Rau J, Reemtsma T et al (2002) Identification of quinoide redox mediators that are formed during thedegradation of naphthalene-2-sulfonate by Sphingomonas xenophaga BN6. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 68: 4341–4349 Kudlich M, Bishop P, Knackmuss H-J et al (1996) Synchronous anaerobic and aerobic degradation of the sulfonated azo dye Mordant Yellow 3 by immobilized cells from a naphthalenesulfonate-degrading mixed culture. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 46: 597–603 Kudlich M, Keck A, Klein J (1997) Localization of the enzyme system involves in anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by Sphingomonas sp. strain BN6 and effect of artificial redox mediators on the rate of azo dye reduction. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 63: 3691–3694 Libra JA, Borchert M, Vigelahn L (2004) Two stage biological treatment of a diazo reactive textile dye and the fate of the dye metabolites. Chemosphere 56 (2): 167–180 Lourenço ND, Novais JM, Pinheiro HM (2001) Effect of some operational parameters on textile dye biodegradation in a sequential batch reactor. Journal of Biotechnology 89 (2–3): 163–174 Luangdilok W, Paswad T, (2000) Effect of chemical structures of reactive dyes on color removal by an anaerobic–aerobic process. Water Science and Technology 42 (3–4): 377–382 Nigam P, Banat IM, Singh D (1996) Microbial process for the decolorization of textile effluent containing azo diazo and reactive dyes. Process Biochemistry 31: 435–442 O’Neill C, Lopez A, Esteves S et al, (2000) Azo-dye degradation in an anaerobic– aerobic treatment system operating on simulated textile effluent. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology53 (2): 249–254 Pandey A, Poonam S, Leela I, (2007) Bacterial Decolorization and degradation of azo dyes, International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 59: 73–84 Panswad T, Luangdilok W, (2000) Decolorization of reactive dyes with different molecular structures under different environmental conditions. Water Research 34 (17): 4177–4184 Pearce CI, Christie R, Boothman C et al, (2006) Reactive azo dye reduction by Shewanella Strain J18 143. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 95: 692–703 Rau J, Knackmuss HJ, Stolz A (2002a) Effects of different quinoid redox mediators on the anaerobic reduction of azo dyes by bacteria. Environmental Science and Technology 36: 1497–1504 Rau J, Maris B, Kinget Ret al, (2002b) Enhanced anaerobic degradation of polymeric azo compounds by Escherichia coli in the presence of low-molecular-weight redox mediators. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 54: 1471–1479 Russ R, Rau J, Stolz A, (2000) The function of cytoplasmic flavin reductases in the reduction of azo dyes by bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66: 1429–1434 Semde R, Pierre D, Geuskens G, (1998) Study of some important factors involved in azo derivative reduction by Clostridium perfringens. International Journal of Pharmacy 161: 45–54 Seshadri S, Bishop PL, Agha AM, (1994) Anaerobic/ aerobic treatment of selected azo dyes in wastewater. Waste Management 14 (2): 127–137 Shaw CB, Carliell CM, Wheatley AD, (2002) Anaerobic/aerobic treatment of coloured textile effluents using sequencing batch reactors. Water Research 36 (8): 1993–2001 Stolz A, (2001) Basic and applied aspects in the microbial degradation of azo dyes. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 56: 69–80 Tan NCG, Prenafeta-Boldu FX, Opsteeg JL et al, (1999) Biodegradation of azo dyes in cocultures of anaerobic granular sludge with aerobic aromatic amine degrading enrichment cultures. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 51: 865–871 577 �Van der Zee FP, Bisschops IAE, Lettings G et al, (2003) Activated carbon as an electron acceptor and redox mediator during the anaerobic biotransformation of azo dyes. Environmental Science and Technology 37: 402–408 Walker R, (1970) The metabolism of azo compounds: a review of the literature. Food Cosmetics Toxicol 8 (6): 659–676 Wang X, Cheng X, Sun D et al, (2008) Biodecolorization and partial mineralization of Reactive Black 5 by a strain Rhodopseudomonas palustris. Journal of Environmental Sciences 20: 1218–1225 Wuhrmann K, Mechsner K, Kappeler T, (1980) Investigation on rate-determining factors in the microbial reduction of azo dyes. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 9: 325–338 Xu M, Guo J, Sun G, (2007) Biodegradation of textile azo dye by Shewanella decolorationis S12 under microaerophilic conditions. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 76: 719–726 ZaoyanY, Ke S, Guangliang S et al, (1992) Anaerobic–aerobic treatment of a dye wastewater by combination of RBC with activated sludge. Water Science and Technology 26: 2093–2096 Zimmermann T, Kulla H, Leisinger T, (1982) Properties of purified orange II-azoreductase, the enzyme initiating azo dye degradation by Pseudomonas KF46. European Journal of Biochemistry 129: 197–203 578 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 603 Title A name given to the resource Parameters Affecting Anaerobic Color Removal of Textile Wastewaters: An Overview Author Author Cırık, Kevser Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Release of colored wastewaters represents a major environmental problem worldwide due to the toxicity, mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of the dyes and their breakdown products. Therefore much attention has been focused on the effective treatment of dyes discharged from the dying and textile industries. The most widely used dyes in industries are azo dyes which require anaerobic and aerobic phases for their complete biodegradation. Color is removed under anaerobic conditions in which azo dyes act an electron acceptor. Further, aerobic conditions are essential for removal of breakdown products which are known resist to biodegradation under anaerobic conditions. Thus using both anaerobic and aerobic stages represents both decolorization and mineralization of azo dyes. Anaerobic stage is the first and the most important phase for color removal, however; decolorization can be affected by so many parameters such as; organic carbon source added, microorganisms selected, dye structure, cycle time, sludge age, and alternative electron acceptors involved. This review article summarizes the results of several research studies dealing with the factors affecting anaerobic color removal efficiency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d89cb4727472f79d23272328601741b6.pdf e22a26229ac27b75a609a4bfbf35d5dc PDF Text Text Membrane Biofilm Reactors (MBfRs) for DrinkingWater Treatment Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Emine Çutay Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey chalon_e@hotmail.com Elif Gamze Gündoğan Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey elifgamze_gundogan@hotmail.com Arzu Kılıç Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey arzukilic38@hotmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Increase demand on water resources make ground waters essential due to the fact that surface waters don’t actually meet the water requirements for agricultural, industrial, recreational and drinking purposes. Provided that their quality and quantity are ensured, ground waters are a good source as drinking waters. However, they are threatened by various micro compounds coming from industrial, municipal, and agricultural activities such as; perchlorate, chlorinated solvents, oxidized contaminants, and heavy metals. Therefore a reliable treatment method should be applied to remove these micropollutants. Among the treatment technologies used for water supply, biological methods are widely used for the treatment purposes of drinking waters. Recent studies focus on the removal of micro pollutants by using membrane biofilm reactors (MBfRs) which allow gaseous substrate to move across the membrane for gas delivery and support biofilm formation on the outer surface of the membrane. This paper reviews several applications of MBfRs for water treatment. • Introduction Increase in population and developments in industrialization have resulted in higher use of chemicals leading to faster transport rates between environmental compartments such as ground waters which drinking water is mainly produced. So many pollutants are known as danger for ground waters even if in micro levels such as; oxidized pollutants, chlorinated solvents, heavy metals and pesticides (Nerenberg and Rittmann, 2004; Modin et al., 2008; Chung and Ritmann, 2008). These pollutants are mainly the reason for industrial, municipal, and agricultural activities. In this respect, increasing chemical pressure on drinking water sources should be taken into account especially to be able to meet drinking water needs. Thus, due to the harmful effect on human health, the contamination of drinking water sources with inorganic compounds is a matter of concern. Therefore a reliable treatment method should be applied to remove these contaminants. Technologies available for the treatment of contaminated ground waters include physical, chemical and biological processes. Application of chemical and physical methods has been some disadvantages due to the toxic characteristics of these contaminants that needs to transform less toxic forms (Modin et al., 2008; Xia et al., 2009). But by the help of chemical and physical methods, these contaminants can only be transformed other toxic forms or even more 805 �toxic. Applied chemical and physical methods includes; ion exchange, reverse osmosis, adsorption, and electro dialysis or more than one of them. However; biological treatment methods have the advantages of being relatively inexpensive and having the ability to completely destroy the contaminants rather than producing another waste. Biological treatment has long been known as a promising technology that use microorganism to remove any pollutant. Biological processes are classified as attached or suspended growth has been the most popular treatment configuration. In attached growth processes normally occur between microorganisms and a surface that allow microorganism to make biofilm (Hasar, 2009). Membrane biofilm reactors (MBfRs) are among the attached growth biological treatment applications which are newly adapted technologies that allow biofilm growing on the membrane. This configuration of the MBfR allows gaseous substrate to move across the membrane for gas delivery and support biofilm formation on the outer surface of the membrane. This exciting new technology for removal of contaminants from ground waters has been among the most promising trends. Therefore, to be able to operate the membrane biofilm reactors, system configurations, applications and also limitation of MBfRs should deeply investigated. These factors will briefly be discussed in subsequent sections. • Main MBfR components MBfRs are among the biological treatment technologies that let biofilm grow on the membrane fiber where pressurized gas diffuses through the membrane lumen in order to oxidize or reduce the soluble constituents present outside the membrane lumen. The main difference between the membrane biofilm reactors (MBRs) and MBfRs are that MBRs are only functional to separate biomass from effluent water, be sort of clarifier (Nerenberg, 2004). Nevertheless; in MBfRs, membranes let naturally- forming biofilm that catalyzes desired reactions. A gaseous substrate is also essential for this treatment technology. Depending on the treatment aims; air, oxygen, hydrogen or methane can be used as gas. Thus a gas and a membrane that allows microorganism accumulation represent the MBfR’s main components. The main advantages in use of MBfR for the ground water treatment purposes are that contaminants available in these waters are mostly micro levels with toxic properties and they cannot be removed with conventional biological treatment methods. Also, biological treatment occurs with biochemical reactions in which a substrate acts commonly an electron donor for microorganisms. However, ground waters are lack of electron donors essential for the treatment purposes; usage of gases electron donors and its efficiency make MBfRs solve these problems. • Membranes Membranes are one of the indispensable components in MBfRs. Membranes can be made of organic and inorganic materials. Sheet or hollow-fiber geometries are generally applied for membrane design in which hollow-fiber membranes are commonly used. (A) (B) Figure 1. (A) A bundle of hollow-fiber membranes; (B) Cutaway view of one fiber (Ritmann, 2006) A schematic bundle of hollow fiber and a cutaway view of one fiber are represented in Figure 1. This membrane type has very small diameter as small as 0, 1 mm and consist of large number of membranes in a module. Materials used for hollow-fiber membranes are usually made of hydrophobic materials in order to keep their 806 �pores dry and thus make gaseous molecules diffuse much more quickly through dry pores. By this way, efficiency of the gaseous distribution can be maintained. Dry pores also eliminate the fiber clogging from liquid and biofilm infiltration. In Figure 2, scanning electron micrograph of pore structure on the hollow fiber membrane is depicted. Figure 2. Pore structure on the hollow fiber membrane (Nerenberg, 2005) • Biofilm Biofilms are formed on the membrane surface naturally. They are the accumulated and attached microorganisms and are responsible for the removal of the contaminants in the effluent. Normally biofilm-based treatment methods supply both electron donor and/or acceptor for biofilm formation from the bulk solution via diffusion. But the mechanism in MBfRs is rather different since electron donor, which is normally a gaseous substrate, is diffused into the biofilm from the membrane and other from the bulk liquid. Figure 3. Biofilm microorganisms from MBfR (Xia et al., 2009) Figure 3 indicates the surface morphology of the hollow fiber with biofilm formation. Actually biofilm formation is a key factor to be control since it directly affects the MBfR efficiency. It has been reported that biofilm structure such as; thickness, density and composition is vital for MBfRs. For instance, excess biofilm development is undesirable because of the fact that it can result in biofilm sloughing, non-uniform flow distribution, inhibition of substrate or gas diffusion. The detachment or sloughing of biomass needs to be balanced with biomass accumulation (Hwang et al., 2009). Hence, many researchers identified biofilm control as one of the most challenging aspect of MBfR operation (Hwang et al.,2009; Celmer et al., 2008). • Gas substrate Mostly biological treatment processes are based on oxidation reduction reactions. In MBfR technologies microorganisms use electron donors as an electron and energy source. Electrons released from electron donors 807 �(normally H2) are transfer to the electron accepting contaminants. The few rate of these electrons are used for microbial growth and hence biofilm formation on the surface of membrane. The most known advantage of the MBfR technology is the use of a gaseous substrate which prevents regrowth caused by organic donor materials used as electron donors such as ethanol, methanol, and acetate. Published reports have been showed that organic materials used for electron donor results in recontamination of waters by residual of these organic donors. By this respect, substrate as gaseous form is usually used as electron donor but some cases as electron acceptor. For the electron donor purposes, methane, hydrogen and for the electron acceptor purposes oxygen has been mostly used in recent studies (Nerenberg, 2005). Hydrogen is the ideal electron donor that has been used in most MBfR studies due to the inherent advantages over other organic donors. H2 is non toxic to human and cost effective. Supporting autotrophic bacteria eliminates the need for an organic carbon source since the growth rate of autotrophic bacteria is slow; amount of produced microorganism per removed substrate is rather scarce. So H2 produces far less excess biomass than organic donors. On the other hand, its low water solubility prevent the residual in the water which means it cannot be over-dosed to increase effluent BOD and be wasted at the same time (Ritmann, 2006). Additionally, it was reported in a study that use of H2 as gaseous substrate reduce the cost about 3-15 times compaired to other common organic donors used (Lee and Rittmann,2000). (B) 10. Figure 4. (A) Normal biofilm and (B) MBfR biofilm; The bold line is the dissolved gas concentration, while the dotted line is the substrate from the bulk liquid (Nerenberg, 2005). Figure 4 compares the ways in order to supply gas (electron donor) into the bulk solution and represents the advantages and disadvantages of these ways. Normal biofilm and biofilm formed on the MBfR have the dissimilarities with respect to gas diffusion. The amount of required electron donor is much less in MBfRs compare to the conventional biofilms. This promotes the usage of the membrane biofilm reactors especially for the cost-effectiveness of the process. • MBfR applications This part of the review paper includes research articles mainly focusing on MBfR applications. Besides drinking water treatment processes, there are applications of MBfRs for industrial and domestic wastewater treatments. Researches on the applications of MBfRs have been focused on the denitrification processes and the treatment of oxidized contaminants (Nerenberg et al., 2002; Chung et al., 2006). Removal of nitrogen Nitrate contamination is a widespread problem for drinking water around the world. Nitrogen is mainly found in ground waters as mainly in the form of nitrate ( ) and nitrite ( ). Contamination of ground waters with nitrate mainly the reason for the usage of nitrogen fertilizers and the irrigation with domestic wastewater (M. Shrimali, K.P. Singh,2001). Nitrate should be regulated in drinking water since the excess levels can cause methemologlobinemia or blue baby disease in humans. Nitrate removal in biological systems involves denitrification processes which require anaerobic conditions. Denitrification occurs in two ways according to the carbon source, heterotrophic and autotrophic; respectively. In heterotrophic denitrification processes, electron 808 �donor source is normally organic compounds. However, due to a very low organic carbon sources in ground waters nitrate cannot be removed effectively through heterotrophic biological methods. Hopefully, autotrophic denitrification has advantages over the heterotrophic denitrification, such as usage of inorganic electron donor which makes biomass yields low (Shin et al., 2007). In a research article it has been found that denitrification rate can be affected from gas pressure and nitrate loading (Celmer et al., 2006). The reactions involved in autotrophic denitrification consist of oxidation of H2 gas to hydrogen ions and reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. Overall half reactions and the schematic diagram of the MBfR for denitrification process are represented in Figure 5. Oxidation of hydrogen gas : Reduction of nitrate: Overall denitrification reaction: Figure 5. Principle schematic diagram of MBfRs for autotrophic denitrification and reactions involved (Xia et al., 2009) • Removal of micro contaminants Hydrogen-based MBfR is a successful tool of reducing many oxidized pollutions such as such as; arsenate (AsO43−), perchlorate (ClO4−), selenate (SeO42−), chromate (CrO4−), trichloroethene (TCE), and nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), hexavalent chromium which are difficult to remove in conventional biological treatments (Ergas and Reuss, 2001; Lee and Rittmann, 2002; Nerenberg et al., 2002). These contaminants are usually found in micro levels in ground waters. Origin of the perchlorate in water mainly is the improperly disposed-of rocket fuel. It inhibits thyroid function even if at low levels (Espenson, 2000). Level of 4 µg/L has been determined in California for perchlorate in spite of the fact that there is no standard for perchlorate. Arsenic is another micro pollutant exclusively found in groundwater which can cause gastrointestinal damage and cardiac damage. Hence it has been considered as a human carcinogen. Level of 10 µg/L arsenic is determined by Protection Agency (EPA) Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG). Bromate is regulated under the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection By-Products Rule at 10 µg/L (Kirisits et al., 2001). Chromium is also an inorganic contaminant. It is released to drinking water sources from electroplating facilities, old mining operations, and fossil-fuel power plants. It has been known that chromium can cause liver and kidney damage, and the maximum contaminant level for drinking water is 0.1 mg/L total chromium. DCM (CH2Cl2), methylene chloride, which is carcinogenic, highly soluble in water, and one of the most common groundwater contaminant (Kohlerstaub et al., 1995). Consequently, these micro contaminants should be removed due to their adverse affects. In a published report, it has been found that a wide range of oxidized contaminants (arsenate, perchlorate, selenate, chromate, and dichloromethane) can be successfully removed by the hydrogen based hallow-fiber membrane biofilm reactor and removals were greater than 75% without any community adaptation. It has been noted that when the contaminants need to be reduced to very low levels nitrate or oxygen can serve as primary electron acceptors, on the other hand; many of the contaminants can serve as primarily electron acceptors at higher concentrations. (Nerenberg and Rittmann, 2004). Conclusion MBfR is a novel system that uses membranes to supply dissolved gaseous directly without bubbling to a biofilm growing on the membrane surface. The H2-based MBfR has great potential to solve emerging problems in water quality and has kept increasing since it appears in the early 1980s. Especially after 2000, more research 809 �studies have been published from all around the world. MBfR is a promising technology by the means of gaseous substrate usage, which prevents regrowth caused by organic donor materials used as electron donors. By utilizing H2 gas as the electron donor, some of the major problems such as; a large increase in excess biomass generation, over- or under-dosing of donor, safety concerns can be able to be solved. Application studies of MBfRs have shown promising potential and suggest the possibility of utilizing MBfR in biological treatment technologies also for industrial and domestic wastewater treatments but mainly for the purpose of removing micro pollutants found in ground waters. The results of the published reports confirm that the wide variety of oxidized contaminants can be successfully reduced and removed immediately in a hydrogen-oxidizing MBfR with oxygen or nitrate as primary acceptors. However, so many research articles has emphasized that there are some outstanding challenges associated with MBfRs in the near-future. The principal obstacle to full scale implementation is the problem of excess biomass control which can lead to significant performance deterioration. Hence, field studies are needed to focus on biofilm thickness and activity control to make commercial scale applications feasible. Additionally, possible developments in this area are likely to focus on membrane material and module design improvements in along with selection of appropriate liquid/gas scouring methodologies. References Celmer, D.,Oleszkiewicz, J.,Cicek,N.(2008).Impact of shear force on the biofilm structure and performance of a membrane biofilm reactor for tertiary hydrogen-driven denitrification of municipal wastewater:Water Research ,42 3057 – 3065. Celmer, D.,Oleszkiewicz, J.,Cicek,N.,Husain H.(2006).Hydrogen limitation- a method for controlling the performance of membrane biofilm reactor for autotrophic denitrification of wastewater: Water Science and Technology, 54(9), 165 – 172. Chung, J.,Brown,R.,Rittmann B.E.(2008).Bioreduction of trichloroethene using a hydrogen – based membrane biofilm reactor : Environmental science & Technology 47, 477 – 483. Ergas, S.J. and Reuss, A.F. (2001). Hydrogenotrophic denitrification of drinking water using a hollow fibre membrane bioreactor. Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology – Aqua, 50(3), 161–171. Espenson, J. (2000). The problem and perversity of perchlorate. Perchlorate in the Environment, 1–9. Hasar ,H.,Đpek,U.(2010). Gas permeable - membrane for hydrogenotropic denitrification:Clean 2010, 38(1) 23 – 26. Hwang ,J.H.,Cicek,N.,Oleszkiewicz,J.A.(2009).Membrane biofilm reactors for nitrogen removal: state-of the art and research needs: Water Science and Technology , 2739 – 2747. Kirisits, M.J., Snoeyink, V.L., Inan, H., Chee-Sanford, J.C., Raskin, L. and Brown, J.C. (2001). Water quality factors affecting bromate removal in biologically active carbon filters. Water Research, 35(4),891–900. Kohlerstaub, D., Frank, S. and Leisinger, T. (1995). Dichloromethane as the sole carbon source for Hyphomicrobium sp strain Dm2 under denitrification conditions. Biodegradation, 6(3), 229–235. Lee, K.-C. and Rittmann, B.E. (2002). Applying a novel autohydrogenotrophic hollow-fiber membrane biofilm reactor for denitrification of drinking water. Water Research, 36(8), 2040–2052. Modin, O.,Fukushi, K.,Yamamoto, K.(2008).Simultaneous removal of nitrate and pesticides from groundwater using a methane – fed membrane biofilm reactor :Water Science and Technology ,58.6. Nerenberg, N.(2005).Membrane Biofilm Reactors for Water and Wastewater 2005 Borchardt Conference: A Seminar on Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment. Nerenberg, R., Rittmann, B.E. and Najm, I. (2002). Perchlorate reduction in a hydrogen-based membranebiofilm reactor. J. AWWA, 94(11), 103–114. Nerenberg, R.,&Rittmann B.E.(2004).Hydrogen–based,hollow– fiber membrane biofilm reactor for reduction of perchlorate and other oxidized contaminants:Water Science and Technology ,223 – 230. Rittman, B.E.(2006).The membrane biofilm reactor : the natural partnership of membranes and biofilm : Water Science and Technology ,53(3),219 – 225. Shin,J.,Sang,B.,Chung,Y.,Choung,Y.(2007).A novel CSTR- type of hollow fiber membrane biofilm reactor for consecutive nitrification and denitrification:Desalination 221,521 – 533. Treatment A Seminar on Advances in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Ann Arbor, MI 574-631-4098. 810 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 631 Title A name given to the resource Membrane Biofilm Reactors (MBfRs) for DrinkingWater Treatment Author Author Cırık, Kevser Çutay, Emine Gündoğan, Elif Gamze Kılıç, Arzu Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase demand on water resources make ground waters essential due to the fact that surface waters don’t actually meet the water requirements for agricultural, industrial, recreational and drinking purposes. Provided that their quality and quantity are ensured, ground waters are a good source as drinking waters. However, they are threatened by various micro compounds coming from industrial, municipal, and agricultural activities such as; perchlorate, chlorinated solvents, oxidized contaminants, and heavy metals. Therefore a reliable treatment method should be applied to remove these micropollutants. Among the treatment technologies used for water supply, biological methods are widely used for the treatment purposes of drinking waters. Recent studies focus on the removal of micro pollutants by using membrane biofilm reactors (MBfRs) which allow gaseous substrate to move across the membrane for gas delivery and support biofilm formation on the outer surface of the membrane. This paper reviews several applications of MBfRs for water treatment. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a2053553f2789df556ec7dea6f204df4.pdf da382aee3f43206f973b34757ef8c75d PDF Text Text Parameters Affecting Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthesis from Wastewaters Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Dilek Aydoğmuş Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey aydogmus86@hotmail.com Şebnem Özdemir Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey sebnemozdemir55@hotmail.com Mehmet Gezginci Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey mehmetgezginci@gmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Plastics used almost every manufacturing industry are resist to biodegradation. Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), known as a biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics. In recent years, researchers have focused on the processes to increase PHA production which involve in biological phosphorus removal (BPR). Normally, BPR can be achieved through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphateaccumulating organisms (PAOs). PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in PHA production from wastewaters and parameters effecting PHA production efficiency. 1. Introduction Plastics which are known to be widely used in almost every manufacturing industry are very much advantageous. Plastics are popular in many durable, disposal goods and as packaging materials. Beside a wide range of benefits, they are not desirable in the environment. Especially, plastics are known as hardly biodegradable even non-biodegradable due to the fact that they mainly have high molecular weights (Reedy et al., 2003). Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. An alternative approach to conventional plastics is Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) which are known as a completely biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics (Bengtsson et al., 2008). Additionally, Poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyric acid (PHB) and hydroxyvalerate (PHV) are among the most common PHA monomers. The chemical structure of the PHAs is shown in Figure1. 579 �Figure 1. Chemical structure of PHAs (Lee, 1996) 2. PHA Production As mentioned before, the PHAs are non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable thermoplastics that can be produced from renewable resources such as biomass. These biopolymers accumulate as storage materials in microbial cells under stress conditions (Sudesh et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2001; Kadouri et al., 2005). Many grampositive and gram-negative bacteria are known to be able to synthesize PHAs (Reedy et al., 2003). PHAs can be produced through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs). Although PAOs are often present in a wide range of aerobic suspended growth cultures, they only have the ability to store large quantities of phosphate when they are subjected to alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions. PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions (Figure 2). Under aerobic conditions stored PHA or PHB within the cell is used as energy source for biomass growth, and glycogen synthesis. A B Figure 2. Anaerobic PHA production and phosphorus release (A), aerobic PHA utilization and phosphorus uptake (B) within the cell (Lee and Choi, 1999) Recently reported research articles have been performed to understand PAO metabolism (Seviour et al., 2003). Acetate has been used almost exclusively as the carbon source in these studies, partially explained by the fact that it is typically the largest volatile fatty acid (VFA) species present in the wastewater treatment plants. Metabolic PAO models for anaerobic acetate uptake and utilization and the subsequent aerobic processes have been proposed. As depicted in Figure 2, anaerobic process is based on fermentation in which poly-P degradation and phosphate release take part. Under anaerobic conditions with acetate as the carbon source, phosphate 580 �accumulating microorganisms can take up acetate rapidly, accumulate PHAs in the cell. The energy for this biotransformation is mainly generated by the cleavage of polyphosphate and release of phosphate from the cell. They consume previously stored intracellular carbohydrate, and release P as a result of utilization of stored polyP. Thus, wastewater from anaerobic process is rich in inorganic phosphate. In aerobic processes, oxygen is electron acceptor and microorganism use stored PHB as their carbon and energy source. PAOs are actually known as responsible for enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) and have a key role with respect to both PHB accumulate within the cell and phosphorous removal. The process is one of the most commonly used and environmentally sounds methods for phosphorus (P) removal from wastewater. As mentioned before, VFAs are preferable substrates for PHA production. Anaerobic fermentation converts various organic compounds to VFAs hence increasing the potential to produce PHA from the wastewater. The composition of the VFAs produced during fermentation will influence the final polymer product. However, the number of literature reports for PHA production with mixed cultures enriched with real wastewaters is limited. • PHAs Extraction from the Cell Since PHAs are accumulated within the cell, it should be extracted to be able to be used as plastic polymers. However, the extraction of bioplastics from microorganism poses yet a challenge. There are two common protocols used for PHA extraction from bacteria. The first protocol is developed by taking into consideration of solubility in chloroform and insolubility in methanol. Harvested bacterial cells are exposed to warm chloroform to make PHAs soluble. Further, residuals from harvested bacteria such as lipids and other lipophilic components are removed by reflux in hot methanol. Purified PHA production efficiency of this protocol is high. However, requirements of a large amount of hazardous solvent make it not environmentally friendly (Lee, 1996). The second protocol developed for the aim of avoiding organic solvent usage. In this protocol, a mixture of enzymes are used such as proteases, nucleases and lysozymes, additionally to remove proteins, nucleic acids, and cell walls, detergents are used. 3. Factors Affecting PHB Production In the previous sections the importance of PAOs on PHB production and phosphorus removal from the wastewaters were emphasized. However, their production costs are much higher than the petrochemical- based plastics (Fang et al., 2009). Thus, it becomes inevitable to know parameters affecting PHA production efficiency within the cell such as; microorganisms involved, pH, substrate, solid retention time (SRT), availability of electron acceptors, and temperature. These will be briefly discussed by taking into account the published research articles that focus on increasing the cost-effectiveness of this process. a. Microbial Population Determination of microbial population that involve in PHB production and phosphorous removal is one of the most important factor to be able to make the process successful. It has been emphasized in so many articles that there is a competition between two microorganisms, PAOs and glycogen (non-polyphosphate) accumulating organisms (GAOs) respectively. Like PAOs, GAOs are able to proliferate under alternating anaerobic and aerobic conditions but the problem is they do not contribute to P removal hence anaerobic P release or aerobic P uptake cannot be established. This constitutes a major challenge since PHA production without any phosphorous removal cannot be convenient according to discharge regulations. Additionally, the presence of GAOs increase the anaerobic VFA requirements of these plants, thus so many investigators have focused on the ways that minimize the growth of GAOs. Factors affecting GAOs and PAOs competitions can be summarized as: 6. One factor affecting the PHA accumulation is the ratio of organic carbon to P in the influent or the so-called COD: P ratio. In so many studies it was reported that a high COD/P ratio (e.g. 450mgCOD/mgP) in the wastewater feed tends to favorable the growth of GAOs instead of PAOs while a low COD/P ratio (e.g. 10– 20mgCOD/mgP) tends to favorable to the growth of PAOs (Oehmen et al., 2007). 7. Effect of pH has been reported in so many research articles. They have found that increase in pH from 6.57.5 is favorable for PAOs while is not favorable for GAO. Thus it is possible to eliminate GAOs by increasing pH. In a study performed by Filipe et al., (2001a) has shown that P uptake, PHA utilization and biomass growth were all inhibited by a low pH (6.5), and suggested that a higher aerobic pH (7–7.5) would be more beneficial for PAOs. 581 �8. Effect of temperature is also investigated by so many researches and they concluded that GAOs are inhibited at 10 ºC since PAOs are the dominant microorganisms at low temperature (Carlos et al., 2009). It was also noted that high temperatures (30 ºC) can suppress the proliferation of GAO in which operating conditions for pH is high (>7) and an adequate acetate to propionate ratio (75–25%) is supplied. The experimental evidence obtained thus far suggests that GAOs tend to become stronger competitors with PAOs at higher temperatures. b. pH In many studies it was shown that adjusting to pH higher levels results in a higher anaerobic P release (Smolders et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1996; Bond et al., 1999; Filipe et al., 2001b). Kasemsap et al., (2007) found that increasing the pH from 6 to 8 promoted the PHA production significantly. It was also reported in other study that the ratio of anaerobic P release to acetate uptake increase from 0.25 to 0.75 P-mol/C-mol by increasing pH from 5.5 to 8.5 (Smolders,1994). Actually, by adjusting pH GAOs can be eliminated, this is the reason for why so many researchers focus on its effects. Increase in pH makes the energy requirements for substrate uptake high. When external pH is high, more energy is needed for acetate uptake. This increased energy is generated through an increase in polyphosphate degradation. This scenario has been found ineffective for the acetate uptake, glycogen degradation and PHA accumulation rates of PAOs when the pH is over the range 6.5–8.0 (Filipe et al., 2001b). Nevertheless, this situation is rather different for the GAOs. It was reported that a higher pH results in a higher energy demand for acetate uptake, but negatively affects the ability of GAOs to take up acetate. This is obviously related to the differences between metabolic pathways of the microorganisms. The energy production pathways of GAOs and PAOs are dissimilar since PAOs use the energy required for the substrate uptake from the hydrolysis of poly-P while GAOs from the hydrolysis of glycogen (Smolders et al., 1994; Filipe et al., 2001a,b). That means PAOs have poly-P as an extra energy source as compared to GAOs and they deplete it to meet higher energy demand. In a published report performed by Chua et al.(2003) studied the effect of pH on the PHA content using acetate as the substrate. They found that, through controlling the pH at 6 or 7, the PHA content (less than 5%) was lower than at pH 8 or 9 (25–32%). Like this record, Serafim et al., (2004) was found that polymer yield per substrate and the intracellular PHB content were higher at pH 8 than at pH 7. c. Substrate It is a prerequisite to optimize all the fermentation conditions for the successful implementation of commercial PHA production systems. Actually there is a major challenge to reduce PHA production costs. Carbon source has a large impact on production cost of the PHA produced. Hence, recent studies have been focused on reducing costs. The price of the product ultimately depends on the substrate cost, PHA yield on the substrate, and the efficiency of product formulation in the downstream processing. In so many studies different substrates were used to improve the predictability of the metabolism of both PAOs and GAOs. Acetate has been used almost exclusively as the carbon source. It has been well known that short chain fatty acids like acetate are favorable carbon sources for PAOs. Beside acetate, there are so many carbon sources used in order to investigate PHA production pathway, such as; lactate, propionate, sucrose, glucose, cheese whey, cane molasses, methanol, and hemicelluloses hydrolsate (Quillaguaman et al., 2007; Ahn et al., 2000; Wong and Lee, 1998; Rhu et al., 2003; Hong et al., 2000). Waste materials or industrial by-products can also be used for PHA production. However it was reported that carbohydrates are not directly stored as PHA and they are tend to be preferentially accumulated as glycogen (Dircks et al., 2001; Karahan et al., 2006). PHA production from raw materials requires a previous anaerobic fermentation step for their transformation into volatile fatty acids (VFA). This is the reason why the majority of the studies related to PHA production are based on the use of organic acids. The effect of various substrate costs, the yield on the P (3HB) and production cost are summarized in Table 1. Wastewater contains a much more diverse mixture of substrates other than acetate and investigations were conducted with other compounds, alone or in mixtures, including: propionate, butyrate, valerate, isovalerate, formate, lactate, malate, pyruvate, glucose, citrate, succinate but glutamate but the metabolism of these organic substrates have not yet been well understood (Wang et al., 2002). Several studies concluded that glucose as sole carbon source led to deterioration of the EBPR process, as glucose promoted the growth of GAOs which do not accumulate polyphosphate and therefore capable of utilizing glucose without the release of phosphate (Cech and Hartman, 1993; Mino et al., 1994; Satoh et al., 1994; Tasli et al., 1997). However, there are also opposite research results where a stable EBPR performance could be maintained with glucose as the major organic substrate, with no appreciable proliferation of GAOs (Carucci et al., 1999; Jeon and Park, 2000; Wang et al., 2002). 582 �Substrate Glucose Sucrose Methanol Acetic acid Ethanol Cane molasses Cheese whey Hemicellulose hydrolysate Substrate Price (US$ kg_1) 0.493 0.290 0.180 0.595 0.502 0.220 0.071 0.069 P(3HB) yield (g P(3HB) (g substrate)_1) 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.38 0.50 0.42 0.33 0.20 Product cost (US$(kg P(3HB))_1) 1.30 0.72 0.42 1.56 1.00 0.52 0.22 0.34 Table 1. Effect of various carbon sources on PHB yield and production cost (Reddy et al., 2003) In the past, there have been relatively few studies on EBPR systems involving propionate as a carbon source (Satoh et al., 1992,). In recent years, however, the metabolism of propionate by PAOs (Lemos et al., 2003) and its effect on EBPR performance has attracted considerable attention. Several studies have suggested that propionate could be a more favorable substrate for EBPR (Chen et al., 2004; Thomas et al., 2003), likely providing a selective advantage to PAOs over GAOs (Oehmen et al., 2004a, 2004b; Pijuan et al., 2004). In the studies used other single substrates such as lactate, ethanol, and glutamate which can be converted into PHB, very low storage yield has been obtained. When lactate used for carbon source, 0.20 g PHA g-1 substrate accumulation was obtained, it was 0.25 g PHA g-1 substrate for ethanol, and 0.058 g PHA g-1 substrate for glutamate (Dionisi et al., 2004; Doi et al.,1987). Lactate is taken up by PAO cells and converted to propionylCoA, using both poly-P and glycogen hydrolysis as energy sources. Poly-P is hydrolyzed to orthophosphate and released from the cells, while glycogen is hydrolyzed to acetyl-CoA and CO2. Acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA are reduced and condensed to form PHA, with the reducing power provided by glycogen hydrolysis. This mechanism is compared to the situation in which acetate is used as sole carbon source in Figure 3. A B Figure 3. Control of redox balance of different carbon source in PHA production under anaerobic conditions (Mino and Satoh, 2006). H, reducing power or hydrogen in such forms as NAD(P)H and FADH2; S, molar amount of acetate or lactate taken up; G, molar amount of glucose unit in glycogen consumed; P, molar amount of monomeric units of PHA produced. In Figure 3, redox balance regulation is depicted which is the key mechanism for anaerobic carbon uptake and hence proliferation of PAOs. Glycolysis via Embden Meyerhof pathway (EMP) and acetate oxidation through the TCA cycle provides the required reducing power for the conversion of acetate into 3hydroxybutyrate for PHA synthesis (Figure 3A). Mino reported in this study that the ratio S/G/P will be 1:(1/6):(2/3) and 1:0:(4/9) if all reducing power is supplied by glycolysis and by the TCA cycle, respectively. In Figure 3 B, lactate is taken up within the cell as carbon source. By this way, ratio of S/P is increased to 2. During conversion of lactate into acetyl-CoA the reverse operation of the TCA cycle is needed to consume excess reducing power produced. 583 �d. Solid Retention Time (SRT) and Temperature It is obvious from the published reports that SRT has important impact on PHA production yield for a given organic loading rate (OLR) .Short SRT sludge acquires higher PHA production capability, hence sludge acclimatization with a short SRT may also be preferable for PHA production purpose. This approach is confirmed since the sludge yield under a shorter SRT is higher than that under a longer SRT. So it can be concluded that with a short SRT can supply sufficient amount of sludge for PHA production compared to that with a long SRT. It was found that sludge with a short SRT (3 days) could achieve PHA content about 10% more than sludge with a long SRT (10 days) (Chua et al, 2003). However, it was reported that higher cell growth rates resulted in a lower PHB content higher PHB yields were produced at longer SRT when the cells were growing more slowly (Dias et al 2006). Beun et al. (2000) reported that the PHB yield per substrate and specific productivity were almost constant when vary the SRT from 3.8 to 19.8 day. Dionisi et al. (2001) obtained a relatively constant storage yield in a SRT range of 0.37–3 day. Temperature also appears to be a factor that has an important impact on the PHA production. It was reported that temperature has actually directly affected microorganism competition which is known as GAO and PAO. In a published report, it was mentioned that a lower temperature decrease the rates of P release/uptake, acetate uptake, PHA oxidation, growth (Brdjanovic et al., 1998). Panswad et al. (2003) found that the rate of P release increased with increasing temperature from 20 to 35 ºC, while the rate of P uptake decreased. Aditionally,it was reported in a study that the increase of temperature from 15 to 35 ºC result in decrease in the yield of PHB on acetate from 0.43 to 0.072 g PHA g-1 substrate and a decrease in the specific productivity from 0.12 to 0.060 g PHA g-1 cell dry weight h-1 (Krishna and van Loosdrecht, 1999). The yield of biomass also decreased with temperature increase. Low temperatures (between 15 and 20 ºC) allow for a less costly process thus increasing the PHA productivity. e. Availibity of Electron Acceptors Since anaerobic P release based on fermentation process, availability of electron acceptors, such as; oxygen, nitrate and sulphate, is not desired since this will eliminate the fermentation process. For example availability of nitrate will result in denitrification process and nitrate reduction will take place other than fermentation process in which organic compounds are usually used as electron acceptors. Additionally, it has been observed that aerobic P uptake is inhibited by the presence of nitrite (Kuba et al., 1996). Saito (2004) also reported that the presence and accumulation of nitrite inhibits PAOs, thereby favoring the growth of GAOs. Third et al. (2003) was studied the effect of dissolved oxygen concentration (DO) on PHA production. They found that when oxygen was limited PHA yield was 0.49 g PHA g-1 substrate using acetate as sole carbon source. They have found that PHA yield was decreased to 0.34 g PHA g-1 substrate under excess oxygen. 4. Conclusion Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) have gained major importance because of their similar properties to conventional plastics and their complete biodegradability. PHA can be produced from renewable carbon sources, allowing for a sustainable process for the production and use of such polymers. PHA can be synthesized by polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO) under anaerobic conditions from external carbon sources and internal glycogen. Glycogen-accumulating organisms (GAO) are also present in EBPR systems and compete for carbon substrates with PAO. They also cycle PHA and glycogen in a fashion similar to PAO, but GAO do not cycle polyphosphate. Hovewer, much more effort is required in this area to increase the production of bioplastics to successfully replace the non-degradable plastics. Thus the future of bioplastics depends on the efforts towards fulfilling requirements of price and performance. This review shows the parameters affecting PHA production efficiency. Process monitoring and control are important factors for achieving high productivity. Since carbon source has a large impact on production cost of the PHA produced recent studies have been focused on reducing its costs. Besides carbon source, some other factors such as SRT, temperature, pH, availability of electron acceptors in the anaerobic phase are proved to have important affect on PHA production yield. It can be concluded that, low SRT, temperature ranging between 15-25 ºC, pH above 7 can be preferable for higher PHA production efficiency. Indeed, the main challenge regarding the bioreactor operation and control is the development of culture selection strategies of fast growing organisms that have a high PHA storage capacity. 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The influence of different substrates on enhanced biological phosphorus removal in a sequencing batch reactor. Water Science Technology 35, 75–80. Third, K., Newland, M., Cord-ruwısch, R. (2003). The effect of dissolved oxygen in PHB accumulation in activated sludge cultures. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 82, 238-250. Thomas M, Wright P, Blackall L, Urbain V, Keller J. (2003). Optimisation of Noosa BNR plant to improve performance and reduce operating costs. Water Science Technology 47,141–148. Wang N.D., Peng J., Hill G. (2002). Biochemical model of glucose induced enhanced biological phosphorus removal under anaerobic condition. Water Research 36, 49–58. Wong H.H., Lee S.Y. (1998). Poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate) production from whey by high-density cultivation of recombinant Escherichia coli. Applied Microbiology Biotechnology 50, 30-33. 587 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 604 Title A name given to the resource Parameters Affecting Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthesis from Wastewaters Author Author Cırık, Kevser Aydoğmus, Dilek Aydoğmus Özdemir, Sebnem Gezginci, Mehmet Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Plastics used almost every manufacturing industry are resist to biodegradation. Their persistence in soil for a long time has become a major concern in terms of the environment. This promotes many investigators to search for replacement of non-biodegradable by degradable plastics. Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), known as a biodegradable plastic produced by bacteria, have received increasing attention due to the difficulties in disposal of plastics. In recent years, researchers have focused on the processes to increase PHA production which involve in biological phosphorus removal (BPR). Normally, BPR can be achieved through anaerobic- aerobic cycling by a group of bacteria known as polyphosphateaccumulating organisms (PAOs). PHA is stored within the PAO as carbon polymers under anaerobic conditions by taking up volatile fatty acids (VFAs), further it is used as energy source and phosphorus uptake under aerobic conditions. The aim of this review is to discuss recent advances in PHA production from wastewaters and parameters effecting PHA production efficiency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/77c2a94dcf4813f20749f4f83e68969f.pdf 5578b8f77e1bef2563a7cbeeeadefbc3 PDF Text Text Recent Developments in Biogas Production from Pulp and Paper Industry Wastewaters Kevser Cırık Suleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Isparta, Turkey kewss_@hotmail.com Veli Özdemir Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey veli.85@hotmail.com Emre Yazar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Bioengineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey emre_mishima@hotmail.com Özer Çınar Kahramanmaraş Sütçü Đmam University, Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey ocinar@alumni.clemson.edu Abstract: Increase in population and rapid developments in technology have enhanced production capacity in pulp and paper industry and have resulted in formation of huge amount of wastewaters, as high as 6-15 x 104 L per ton of paper produced. Depending on the pulping process, wastewaters can have a wide range of various pollutants characterized by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids (SS), toxicity, and dark color. Untreated wastewaters from pulp and paper can be potentially very polluting especially for high COD concentrations which can be reach at 13000 mg/L. Thus a reliable treatment process is needed to reduce any possible impacts of wastewaters on the receiving media. To overcome this problem an environmentally friendly and economically viable treatment technology should be applied. Indeed, high organic content of pulp and paper industry wastewaters make anaerobic treatment a very attractive option for these wastes. Anaerobic processes not only remove the wastewater pollution but also can produce methane gas which is a valuable and renewable energy source. This review evaluates the recent developments of treatment technologies that highlight to practical use and economic availability of biogas production from pulp and paper wastewaters. 1. Introduction The rapid increase in population and the increased industrialization to meet human requirements have created problems leading to the environmental danger. The pulp and paper industry which is the one of the most important industries produces a wide range of different types of papers we use today such as; channeled carton paper, newspaper, cleaning paper, cigarette paper, and bag paper. Normally paper production can be achieved by the help of so many process steps and each step generates a wide range of various pollutants. Generated pollutants from the wood pulping and production of the paper products have the potential of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids (SS), toxicity, and color (Pokhrel andViraraghavan, 2004). Discharge of these wastewaters without any treatment poses a significant contributor to the environment pollution, such as; organic pollution, scum formation, color problems, loss of aesthetic beauty in the environment, and increase in toxic substances that affects terrestrial ecosystem (Berube and Kahmark, 2001). Thus a reliable treatment process is needed to reduce any possible impacts of wastewaters on the receiving media. Before introducing the applied treatment technologies for these wastewaters, the process of pulp and mill industry and characterization of the wastewaters generated in each step will be discussed briefly. Treatment methods widely used in order to remove the pollution in the process of papermaking will be deeply described in the subsequent sections. 598 �2. Process Description of Pulp and Paper Mill Industry and Generated Effluents 2.1 Pulp and Paper Making Process Pulping is the initial step of the paper making industry and represents the largest source of the pollution in the whole process of papermaking. The whole process from wood preparation to paper production can be classified into two categories, pulping and papermaking; respectively. Each process utilizes large amounts of waters which are then turn into a wastewater stream. The paper making operation generally consists of two parts. One is stock preparation by treating the pulp to the required degree of fitness and the other is paper making where the treated pulp is passed through continuous moulds/wires to form sheets (Pokhrel andViraraghavan, 2004) (Table 1). Paper Making Stock Preparation Bleaching Wood Pulping preparation Process Paper Table 1. Paper Process Widely used pulping processes are mechanical pulping, chemical pulping and a combination of the two (chemical thermo-mechanical pulping). In the process of mechanical pulping wood is prepared for the subsequent steps by a rotating grindstone in which the fibers are stripped of. When the wood is broken down mechanically, the resulting pulp is known as groundwood pulp. Although mechanical pulping efficiency can reach about 90-95%, the quality of the generated pulp is highly colored, and contains short fibers. Additionally, this process does not require chemicals, but the lignin is not removed. In the process of the chemical pulping the wood chips are transformed into fibrous mass by using appropriate chemicals under elevated temperature and pressure in an aqueous solution. The main aim of this process is to remove the lignin by breaking it down and make it soluble (Smook, 1992). This process is performed under two different process, kraft process, and sulfite process; respectively. Kraft process requires alkali conditions in which woodchips are cooked in a solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (NaS2). Differently, in sulfite process woodchips are cooked in mixture of sulfurous acid (H2SO3) and bisulfide ions (HSO3-) to dissolve lignin (Pokhrel andViraraghavan, 2004). This process makes the wood free from lignin and hemi-cellulose and generated bagasse is used as energy source by burning. Remaining liquor from this step is called as black liquor (Soloman, 2009). In addition, the process in which the wood is first partially softened by chemicals and the remainder of the pulping proceeds with mechanical force is called the chemical thermo-mechanical pulping. By the help of this step, the wood chips are broken down and prepared for the next step. The bleaching process is used for removal of colored compounds and lignin by chemical agents. In bleaching process chlorine based oxidation agents are used such as hypochlorite, NaOCl, Cl2, ClO2, etc. On the other hand there is also oxygen based oxidation agents used for bleaching such as (such as H2O2, Na2O2, O3, etc) however their use as not widely as the chlorine based ones. Bleaching by the chlorine-based chemicals cause production of degradation products in which various chloro organic derivatives can be seen. The bleaching process technology and in-mill control is improving continuously. Finally, paper making processes is the last step in which generated pulps is used as paper production including two parts. Initially, a stock is prepared by treating the pulp to meet the required degree of fitness and then treated pulp is passed through continuous moulds/wires to form sheets (Pokhrel andViraraghavan, 2004). In the preparation of stock, pulp is diluted to at least 99% with water also some additives can be used such as optical brighteners and polyvinyl alcohol (Hentzschel, 1998). 599 �2.2 Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent Due to the diversity of processes and chemicals used in pulping and papermaking operations there is a significant difference between the qualities of wastewaters produced from the both (Billings and DeHass 1971). The major difference between the generated wastewaters is that pulp wastewater contains the dissolved wood derived substances which are extracted from the wood during the process of pulping. Additionally, the other difference between the pulp and paper mill effluents is the color of the effluents. Due to the dissolved lignin, all pulping effluents including papermaking effluents have some discoloration. Actually, lignin is responsible for the mechanical strength of the wood structure and gives the brownish color to the effluents (Leiviska, 2009). Except for the color, pulp and paper mill effluents represent some other pollutants. The sources of pollution and the generated pollutant features are summarized in Table 2. Although the availability of trace elements including heavy metals in the effluents is not mentioned above, there have been published reports on the discharges of metals and other elements from the pulp and paper industries. Process Description Wood preparation Pulping Suspended solids (SS) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Fibers High pH, Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Adsorbable organic halides (AOX) Volitile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Suspended solids Resins, Fatty acids Dissolved lignin, Carbohydrate, Color, Inorganic chlorine compounds Organo chlorine compounds Features of wastewaters generated in each step Paper Making Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Particulate waste, Organic compounds, Inorganic dyes, Acetone Table 2. The sources of pollution and the generated pollutant features (EPA, 1995) 3. Treatment of Effluents Pulp and paper industry generates large quantities of highly polluted wastewaters. The high water usage, between 20,000 and 60,000 per ton of product results in large amounts of wastewater (Nemerow, 1991; Sinclair, 1990). Normally 150 m3 effluents are generated per ton paper produced (Ali, 2001). Effluents of the pulp and paper making processes are widely expressed by its brownish color, high COD and high BOD. The effluent generated at the pulping stage, which is called as black liquor, contains a wide range of compounds like dissolved lignin and its degradation products, hemicelluloses, resin acid, fatty acids, tannins and phenols that are also responsible for giving the effluent its characteristic dark brown color and toxicity (Ali, 2001; Lara, 2003; Malaviya, 2007). Thus, the problems faced by the industry relate to the high organic content, toxicity and color. Discharging of these wastewaters without any treatment applications can cause serious pollution problems. Thus a reliable treatment method should be applied in order to meet discharge acceptance regulation. Mostly applied treatment methods are physical, chemical and biological treatment methods as well as combination of different methods in series. Application of chemical and physical methods has some disadvantages over the biological treatment methods such as their cost-effectiveness and residual effects. Biological treatment is known to be effective in reducing the organic load and toxic effects of pulp and paper mill effluent. There have been several attempts to use biological methods to decontaminate effluent from kraft mills because of their ability to degrade lignin by several microorganisms. The success of the biological treatment with respect to reduction organic load and toxic effects of pulp and paper making effluents have been proven in so many research articles. Biological treatment methods can be divided into two categories, aerobic and anaerobic; respectively. Aerobic treatment of the pulp and paper making effluents has long been known and widely used for these purposes. Aerobic treatments are effective for high COD and BOD removal efficiency (ranging from %70 to %90) but removal of AOX which are known to toxic and hardly biodegradable, cannot be removed effectively, the overall removal of 600 �AOX from the effluents by aerobic treatment has been remained insufficient in so many situations (Savant, 2006). Alternatively, anaerobic treatment has become the most commonly used method not removes the wastewater pollution but also can able to produce methane gas that known as a renewable energy source (Rintala, 1994). Anaerobic treatment is simple to operate, relatively inexpensive technology, moreover; it consumes little energy. Pulp and paper making effluents are nutrient deficient. This feature of the effluent make anaerobic treatment more convenient since commonly used COD: C: N ratio in aerobic treatment is 100:5:1 while it is 350:5:1 in the anaerobic treatment (Maat, 1990). In a study anaerobic treatment was found to reduce AOX and COD by 73% and 66%, respectively. Also, when glucose was added to this effluent, there was generation of biogas containing 76% methane (Ali and Sreekrishnan, 2000). Typical COD removal data for the treatment of papermill wastewaters shows that a relatively constant removal effciency of about 80% can be achieved and that the treated effluent has a COD concentration of about 800 mg/l. This COD concentration means that some form of additional treatment is required. Compairation of two system was studied, the three-step sequential bioreactor treatments by anaerobic and aerobic (fungus and aerobic bacteria) microorganisms and two step (fungus and aerobic bacteria), respectively and it was found that microorganisms exhibited significant reduction in colour (88.5%), lignin (79.5%), chemical oxygen demand (87.2%) and phenol (87.7%) in the two step aerobic sequential bioreactor, and colour (87.7%), lignin (76.5%), chemical oxygen demand (83.9%) and phenol (87.2%) in the three-step anaerobic-aerobic sequential bioreactor. They have concluded that in the anaerobic treatment, biogas is produced which can be utilized for energy generation; however; aerobic treatment (aerobic fungus + aerobic bacteria) was more significant than anaerobic– aerobic treatment (anaerobic + aerobic fungus + aerobicbacteria) (Chuphal et al. 2005). Numerous physicochemical processes have also been developed to remove a variety of toxic materials from pulp effuents and to reduce parameters such as colour and COD. They include ozonation and adsorption, often in combination with coagulation, which is used as a pre-treatment stage (Thompson et al., 2001). Bishnoi et al. (2006) reported the biodegradation of pulp and paper mill effluent using anaerobic followed by aerobic treatment. Using a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) for anaerobic digestion of black liquor, these authors reported a maximum methane production was found up to 430 ml /day. a. Biogas Production The interest in biogas production has grown considerably for the most of the industries. Anaerobic treatment producing methane that can be directly used as a source of energy has long been employed in industrial waste treatment. Anaerobic treatment is an effective means of decreasing the organic content of different wastewaters in the absence of oxygen (Noykova et al., 2002). Application of aerobic treatment is not commonly preferred due to the cost of oxygen supplementation and generation of higher sludge quantities and odors (Gavala et al., 1999). For the treatment of pulp and paper mill effluents, anaerobic digestion is essentially viable method due to waste reduction and energy potential. Actually anaerobic digestion consists of three main stages. The first step of anaerobic digestion called hydrolysis; complex organic molecules are broken down into simple sugars, amino acids, and fatty acids with the addition of hydroxyl groups which is accompanied by a rapid decrease in pH (Goblos et al., 2008). Step 2 is a fermentation process where acid-forming bacteria, also known as acidogens, convert the products of hydrolysis into simple organic acids, alcohols, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen gas. Finally, end-products of the fermentation process (acetate, butyrate, propionate etc.) are converted by methanogenic microorganisms into methane and carbon dioxide, together with trace quantities of other gases (Fig. 1). In brief, two groups of methanogenic organisms are involved into the methane production; one group splits acetate into methane and carbon dioxide, and the second group uses hydrogen as electron donor and carbon dioxide as electron acceptor to produce methane. In general, biogas produced as end-product of anaerobic digestion consists of about 65–70% methane, 30–35% carbon dioxide and trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and water vapor. It is the methane component of the biogas that will produce energy. The gas can be used to generate heat or electricity or both. Anaerobic treatment seems adequately not only removing the wastewater pollution but also producing methane gas which can be used for the energy requirement of the industry. Anaerobic wastewater treatment is typically used in different industries such as chemical, dairy, and pulp and paper mills. Application of anaerobic treatment of pulp and paper industry has been investigated by so many researchers. It has been noted that the adoption of this technology by pulp and paper industries has been limited, mainly due to the 30–60 day residence times required to process the sludge in conventional bioreactors (Elliott and Mahmood, 2007). The published reports that evaluate the recent developments of treatment technologies will be briefly discussed by means of biogas production from pulp and mill wastewaters and solid wastes. 601 �Figure 1. Anaerobic Methane Production Anaerobic biogas production is actually a sensitive process. Presence of toxic materials in the effluent can be result in deterioration of the process which is undesirable. Unfortunately, pulp and paper industry effluents mainly contains high amount of lignin, adsorbable organic halide, color, low biodegradability (COD: BOD, 4–6) and potential toxicity problems. Inhibitory agents that can be found in pulp and paper industry effluents are summarized in Table 3. Providing that biomass is protected from toxic materials biogas production from pulp and paper industry can be successfully managed. Wastewater Pulping • Thermomechanical • Chemithermomechanical COD (mg/L) Degradation (%) Inhibitors 1000-5600 2500-13000 60-87 40-60 Resin Acids Resin Acids, fatty acids, sulfur 30-50 - Sulfur, ammonia Chlorinated phenols, resin acids Kraft condensate 7000 900-2000 120000220000 1000-33600 83-92 Sulfite condensate 7500-50000 50-90 Sulfur, resin acids, fatty acids, terpenes Sulfur, organic sulfur Sulfite condensate Chlorine bleaching Sulfite spent liquor Table 3. Inhibitors to methanogens in the effluent of pulp and paper industry (Rintala et al., 1994) In the process of chlorine bleaching, so many toxic substances that affect the methanogens can be released. Also it is well known that chlorinated phenolics and chlorinated lignin derivatives are among the main chemical species responsible for the toxicity of pulp and paper mill effluents. Resin acids are tricyclic diterpenes that occur naturally in the resin of tree wood and bark and are transferred to process waters during pulping operations. Several workers have reported the accumulation of resin acids in anaerobic reactors treating mechanical pulping wastewaters. It was reported in a study that inhibition of methanogenic activity of the anaerobic consortium was noted at initial resin acid/biomass ratios exceeding 0.0031 mg resin acid/mg VSS. In addition to resin acids, unsaturated fatty acids, such as; oleic acids, linoleic acid and linolenic acid from pulp and paper mills employing softwood are also a source of toxicity. Since fatty acids can be degraded anaerobically, it is not entirely necessary to prevent them from entering the anaerobic reactors, however; the concentrations present in the wastewater should be kept below the maximum allowable level so that they do not cause significant inhibition to the anaerobic bacteria. For the removal of phenolic compounds white rot fungi have proved their potential in the lignin/phenolic wastewater treatment (Eaton et al. 1980). They have proved ideal organisms for decolorization as well as for the reduction of adsorbable organic halides (AOX) and the chemical oxygen demand (COD). Several researches have also shown that kraft mill effluents can be partly decolorized by white rot fungi (Gokcay and Dilek 1994). 602 �For these reasons, the resent studies have been focused on the application of pretreatment technologies before anaerobic treatment in order to enhance biogas production. There are a number of physical, chemical or biological techniques (use of fungus and bacteria) to minimize the inhibitory effects of effluents prior to anaerobic treatment systems (Lettinga et al. 1991). Reactor design for anaerobic biogas production is also important. The use of thermophilic digesters has recently become more attractive due to their superior performance, better pathogen destruction, and higher digestion rates, which allow the anaerobic digestion facilities to operate at higher loading rates. Using two-stage systems, which segregate the formation of volatile fatty acids from methanogenesis, have also been developed, improving the overall digester performance. In a study performed by Yamini et al. (2009), Upflow anaerobic fixed packed bed reactor (UAFPBR) with brick ballasts as packing material was used in order to treat pulp and paper mill effluents. They have studied biogas production from paper and mill organic sludge in combination with fermented municipal sludge and cattle manure as inoculum. They have found that with a optimum hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 12 hr, reduction of 74.5% COD and 81% BOD was obtained. Additionally 30% inoculum concentration was best for the anaerobic treatment of the effluent with a maximum biogas production of 1.37 L / L effluent. Beside pulp and paper effluents, pulp and paper industry solid wastes are also valuable for biogas production. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, several research articles have been published introducing anaerobic digestion for treating pulp and paper solid wates (Kowalczyk and Martynelis, 1989; Puhakka et al., 1988; Puhakka, 1991). The long residence time requirement of anaerobic sludge digestion has historically deterred its use in the pulp and paper industry. Techonological advancement that potentially can make anaerobic digestion more feasible has been the development and establishment of pretreatment of sludge prior to anaerobic digestion to accelerate the hydrolysis of sludge. Pretreatment enhances sludge digestion and the rate and quantity of biogas generated, thereby reducing the retention time requirement from 15 to 25 days to approximately 7 days. The studies were performed on both laboratory and pilot-scale systems. Generally, the results of these studies showed that anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper biosolids could reduce solid wastes by 30–70%, with the benefit of methane production. Studies were focused on cost and benefits of the anaerobic technology if pretreatment technologies, including high temperature, sonication, high-pressure homogenization, addition of acids and bases, or addition of enzymes, have been developed to solubilize the organic fraction of secondary sludge (Elliott and Mahmood, 2007; Barjenbruch and Kopplow, 2003; Bougrier et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2007; Khanal et al., 2007; Penaud et al., 1999; Tanaka et al., 1997; Valo et al., 2004). In addition to microbial biomass, pulp mill secondary sludge can contain residual cellulose, lignin and chemical components from the pulping process (Kyllönen et al., 1988). In a study performed by Wood (2009), thermal and caustic pretreatment can significantly increase both the extent and rate of anaerobic bioconversion of pulp mill secondary sludge to biogas. 4. Conclusion The pulp and paper industry is considered to be a highly energy intensive and polluting industry. In recent years, the high cost of energy inputs and increased environmental concerns are forcing the pulp and paper industry to look for cost-effective and environmentally friendly alternatives. The general characteristics of the pulp and paper industry effluent can be listed as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High lignin content, High adsorbable organic halide (AOX) concentration (due to the bleaching process), Color, Low biodegradability which is indicated by their high chemical oxygen demand to biochemical oxygen demand ratios (COD/BOD), often in the range of 4–6, Potential toxicity problems Although physical and chemical methods are available for treatment of pulp and paper mill effluent, they are less desirable than biological treatment because of cost-ineffectiveness and residual effects. Biological treatment is known to be effective in reducing the organic load and toxic effects of pulp and paper mill effluent. Since the early 1980s anaerobic treatment of industrial effluents has found widespread application in the pulp and paper industry. Over 200 anaerobic plants are treating a large variety of different pulp and paper mill effluents. Anaerobic fermentation is especially valuable because its end product is methane, a renewable energy source. In the resent years, studies were performed on pretreatment techonologies to decrease toxicity of the effluent prior to anaerobic treatment. Advantages of anaerobic pretreatment are net production of renewable energy (biogas), minimised biosolids production and reduced emission of greenhouse gases. Anaerobic treatment of pulp and paper effluents combination with manure (co-digestion) has emerged among the new treatment 603 �perspectives for these effluents. Additionally, other energy source is the anaerobic pulp and paper solid wates. The long residence time requirement of anaerobic sludge digestion has prevented its use in the pulp and paper industry. 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Biodegrad. 52 167–173. Leiviska T., Ramo J., Nurmesniemi H., Poykio R., Kuokkanen T. (2009). Size fractionation of wood extractives, lignin and trace elements in pulp and paper mill wastewater before and after biological treatment WaterResearch, 43 (13), pp. 3199 3206. Lettinga, G., Field, J.A., Alvarez, R.S., Vanlier, J.B., Rintala, J.B., (1991) Future perspectives for the anaerobic treatment of forest industry wastewaters. Water Sci. Technol. 24, 91±102. Maat, D.Z. (1990). Anaerobic treatment of pulp and paper effluents. In Proceedings TAPPI 1990 Environmental Conference, TAPPI press, Atlanta, GA, pp. 757-9. Malaviya P., Rathore V.S., (2007). Bioremediation of pulp and paper mill effluent by a novel fungal consortium isolated from polluted soil, Biores. Technol. 98 3647–3651. Nemerow NL, Dasgupta A. (2001). Industrial and hazardous waste management. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Noykova, N., Muller, T.G., Gyllenberg M., Timmer J., (2002) Quantitative analysis of anaerobic wastewater treatment process: identifiability and parameter estimation, Biotechnol Bioeng, Vol. 78, pp. 89–103. Penaud, V., Delgenès, J.P., Moletta, R., 1999. Thermo-chemical pretreatment of a microbial biomass: influence of sodium hydroxide addition on solubilization and anaerobic biodegradability. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 25, 258–263. Pokhrel D., Viraraghavan T. (2004). Treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater Science of the Total Environment 333 37– 58 Puhakka J., (1991) Anaerobic sludge digestion in industrial wastewater treatment, Water Sci. Technol. 24 (1) 61–68. Puhakka J.A., Viitasaari M., Latola P., Maatta R., (1988) Effect of temperature on anaerobic digestion of pulp and paper industry waste water sludges, Water Sci. Technol. 20 (1) 193–201. Rintala J.A., Puhakka J.A. (1994) Anaerobic treatment in pulp- and paper-mill waste management: A review Bioresource Technology, 47 (1), pp. 1-18. Savant D.V., Abdul-Rahman R., Ranade D.R. (2006) Anaerobic degradation of adsorbable organic halides (AOX) from pulp and paper industry wastewater Bioresource Technology, 97 (9), pp. 1092-1104. Sinclair WF. (1990) Controlling pollution from Canadian pulp and paper manufactures: a federal perspective Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing Centre. Smook GA. (2001) Handbook for pulp and paper technologist. Vancouver Bellingham: Angus Wilde Publications. Soloman P.A., C. Ahmed Basha, M. Velan, N. Balasubramanian, P. Marimuthu, (2009) Augmentation of biodegradability of pulp and paper industry wastewater by electrochemical pre-treatment and optimization by RSM, Separation and Purification Technology, Volume 69, Issue 1 , Pages 109-117, ISSN 1383-5866. Tanaka, S., Kobayaski, T., Kamiyama, K., Bildan, S., Ma, L.N., (1997) Effects of thermochemical pretreatment on the anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge. Water Sci. Technol. 35, 209–215. Thompson G., Swain J., Kay M., Forster C.F (2001) The treatment of pulp and paper mill effluent: A review Bioresource Technology, 77 (3), pp. 275-286. US EPA. EPA (1995) Office of compliance sector notebook project: profile of pulp and paper industry. Washington, DC 20460, USA: EPA/ 310-R-95-015. Valo, A., Carrère, H., Delgenès, J.P.,( 2004) Thermal, chemical and thermo-chemical pre-treatment of waste activated sludge for anaerobic digestion. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 79, 1197–1203. Yamini S, Deepak P, Anoop SRK, Srivastava (2009) Treatment of rayon grade pulp drain effluent by upflow anaerobic fixed packed bed reactor (UAFPBR), Journal of Environmental Biology, 30(5) 667-672. Wood N., Tran H., Master E. (2009) Pretreatment of pulp mill secondary sludge for high-rate anaerobic conversion to biogasBioresource Technology 100 5729–5735. 605 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 607 Title A name given to the resource Recent Developments in Biogas Production from Pulp and Paper Industry Wastewaters Author Author Cırık, Kevser Özdemir, Veli Yazar, Emre Çınar, Özer Abstract A summary of the resource. Increase in population and rapid developments in technology have enhanced production capacity in pulp and paper industry and have resulted in formation of huge amount of wastewaters, as high as 6-15 x 104 L per ton of paper produced. Depending on the pulping process, wastewaters can have a wide range of various pollutants characterized by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids (SS), toxicity, and dark color. Untreated wastewaters from pulp and paper can be potentially very polluting especially for high COD concentrations which can be reach at 13000 mg/L. Thus a reliable treatment process is needed to reduce any possible impacts of wastewaters on the receiving media. To overcome this problem an environmentally friendly and economically viable treatment technology should be applied. Indeed, high organic content of pulp and paper industry wastewaters make anaerobic treatment a very attractive option for these wastes. Anaerobic processes not only remove the wastewater pollution but also can produce methane gas which is a valuable and renewable energy source. This review evaluates the recent developments of treatment technologies that highlight to practical use and economic availability of biogas production from pulp and paper wastewaters. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6e66c909187716382a85f8ea02bfaa54.pdf 925bb23c85ea665e2424fa2fb8988427 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo International Financial Reporting Standards for Smes and The Applicatıon Process In Turkey Mehmet CĠVAN Assist. Prof., The University of Gaziantep Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Business Administration civan@gantep.edu.tr Mehmet KÖRPĠ Lecturer , The University of Gaziantep Naci Topcuoglu Vocational School of Higher Education korpi@gantep.edu.tr Burcu BUYURAN Vocational School Part Time Lecturer The University of Gaziantep Naci Topcuoglu Vocational School of Higher Education bbuyuran@hotmail.com Abstract: Today, 95% of the world and in our country's economic system occurs from the Small and Medium-Large Enterprises (SMEs) constitute. Only the European Union, more than 25,000,000 and in our country 1.000.000 companies is estimated in the SME status. As shown the SMEs get a large share of sector ,the existence of their special structure, has become inevitable. One of these special structure, is financial reporting. Increasingly widespread use of International Financial Reporting Standards,the issue of how to implement those standards to SMEs, has been brought up. And for this problem in 2009 "SMEs for IFRS''was published. by IFRS. In this context, the basic aim of our study is to investigate and see the implemention proses of ―IFRS for SMEs‖ which resolve the differences of national accounting systems that applied in various countries of the world and will enable to comparison of financial reports and to see how affects and what would bring to Turkey‘s economic system. Keywords: Small and Medium-Large Enterprises (SME), International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), Accounting, Financial Reports 1. Introductıon After the product of the five-year study, International Accounting Standards Board ("IASB") was released on 9 July 2009 ―International Financial Reporting Standards‖ in line with the SME accounting standards ("IFRS for SME's") for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises ("SME") that estimated approximately 95% of all businesses on the world. In the development of Accounting standards on SMEs; SME Commission be formed from forty person, working like counselling to establish the contents of standards and in order to measure of the SME-oriented approach to the final draft ,the draft was published in five different languages. More than fifty meetings arranged to final draft, pilot applications done more than a hundred enterprises in more than twenty different countries and after be finalized set of draft standarts , the standarts be published The differences between applying national accounting systems in various countries of the world, makes hard to comparability of financial statements and makes difficult for investors the identification of 92 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo investment opportunities in different regions of the world , also slowing foreign capital inflows to emerging economies and investors in the decision making process increases the investment risk. Accounting standards for SMEs is expected to provide, consistently applied globally to a common financial language requirements, that become almost indispensable for the mobility of capital more easily and quickly in with each passing day more integrated capital markets Accounting standards for SMEs, was prepared more simpler, more easily performed and designed with an understandable language than IFRS and according to the needs of enterprises in various parts of the world . SME accounting standards published an independent set of accounting standards from IFRS and countries which IFRS doesn‘t applied will be able to use based their initiatives. Which businesses will be covered by these standards are left to the discretion of the relevant countries. In order to put an end to implement the multi-headed, in Turkey's accounting and financial reporting system ; Turkey Accounting Standards Board (TASB) that have administrative and financial autonomy and public entities has been established. for to create and publish accounting standards TASB have adopted IFRS in order to ensure compliance with European Union legislation and to close the world applications. with this decision TASB) was signed between the copyright and license agreement, by the International Accounting Standards Foundation (IASCF) and has been decided to make an official translation by TASB. As a result of this study Turkey Accounting Standards (TMS) was published in the Official Gazette. Corrections and additions will be made to IFRS are expected to apply by TASB for to continue to ensure full compliance of IFRS and TFRS with the order. 2. SMEs (Small and Medium-sized enterprises) Definition and Criteria Financial Reporting Standards published for SMEs is defined SMEs as ―SMEs are Bussinesses without Public accountability obligations and publish general purpose financial statements for external users‖. External users stated in definition are;  Business owners that are not in business management  Lenders or potential lenders of business  Ġnformation users such as Credit rating agencies Standard, was sort obligation to account to the public situations like the following: a.Company's debt and equity instruments (stocks), domestic or foreign capital market or over the counter market, including local and regional markets the public in an open market transactions, or that such a market process to see these instruments exported in the process of be be. b.Assets, with the title custodian be maintained on behalf of a large mass counterparts. (Banks, Investment Banks, mutual funds, insurance companies, pension companies, pension funds, brokerage companies, factoring companies, leasing companies and other financial institutions, etc.) Small and medium-sized enterprises (SME), defined in terms of some criteria are companies that do not exceed a certain size. SME criteria vary between countries. The European Union and Turkey, the Ministry of Industry and Commerce has identified the SME criteria are as follows: Criteria Number of Employees Amount of sales; (Euro) Total assets (Euro) Micro-Scale <10 <2.000.000 <2.000.000 Small-Scale <50 <10.000.000 <10.000.000 Medium- Scale <250 <50.000.000 <43.000.000 Table 1: Valid from 2005, according to EU criteria for SMEs Criteria Number of Employees Amount of sales; (Euro) Total assets (Euro) Micro-Scale <10 <1.000.000 <1.000.000 Small-Scale <50 <5.000.000 <5.000.000 Medium- Scale <250 <25.000.000 <25.000.000 Table 2: Criteria for SMEs according to the Ministry of Industry and Trade 93 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 3. International Financial Reporting Standards For SMEs Financial reporting standard for SMEs, are intended to be used for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is simplified than the full set of accounting standards Standard consists of a total thirty-five chapters. This sections is also included the section of the definition of SMEs and two sections describe concepts and general principles. Ġn this state of standarts it is not true to perceived standards as a miniature set of IFRS. Because to be enhanced that with the standards there are found special solutions apart from IFRS. Ġt is considered by everyone that Special standards for SMEs will be developed to meet the needs of the individual nature of SMEs. In other words, developed a "special standard" must be applied without no dependents set of IFRS. The major criticism of the earlier draft version of the standard is implementation alone regardless of the standard set of IFRS can not be possible. Accordingly, the standard version of the first set of IFRS for application to be able to fully implement, while the new version with a very large extent, this situation has been eliminated. Another major criticism towards IFRS is changing of the standards too often. The changing of Standards very often, makes the implementation of standards for practitioners difficult. While the publication of these standards, updates will be made as possible intermittent (unless absolutely necessary to make updates every three years) have been described in the standard will make it more stable. With the standard of such a policy be presented, especially for SMEs, should be regarded as a positive situation. 4. The Contents of Financial Reporting Standards for SMEs Accounting standards for SME to be prepared by IASB, consisted of three parts.  In Section One, Chapter 35 (standard) and a dictionary  In the Second Section; Implementation Guide (sample financial statements and footnote information to be announced)  In the Third Section, the descriptions of the standards check list is explained. Figure 1. "IFRS for SMEs" according to the latest draft of partitioning 94 �In the full set, Standards are released with a separate standards codes, Ġn SME financial reporting standards as published in the Code section. Each chapter covers one or several standard according to the situation. SME standard consists of 35 sections. Section No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Section Name Small and Medium Sized Entities Concepts And Pervasıve Prıncıples Fınancıal Statement Presentatıon Statement Of Fınancıal Posıtıon Statement Of Comprehensıve Income And Income Statement Statement Of Changes In Equıty And Statement Of Income And Retaıned Earnıngs Statement Of Cash Flows Notes To The Fınancıal Statements Consolıdated And Separate Fınancıal Statements Accountıng Polıcıes, Estımates And Errors Basıc Fınancıal Instruments Other Fınancıal Instruments Issues Inventorıes Investments In Assocıates Investments In Joınt Ventures Investment Property Property, Plant And Equıpment Section No 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Section Name Intangıble Assets Other Than Goodwıll Busıness Combınatıons And Goodwıll Leases Provısıons And Contıngencıes Lıabılıtıes And Equıty Revenue Government Grants Borrowıng Costs Share-Based Payment Impaırment Of Assets Employee Benefıts Income Tax Foreıgn Currency Translatıon Hyperınflatıon Events After The End Of The Reportıng Perıod Related Party Dısclosures Specıalısed Actıvıtıes Transıtıon To The IFRS For Smes Table 3: Department of IFRS for SMEs 5. " IFRS For SMEs " of the United States, European Union and in Turkey Forecast Developed standards, largely to meet the needs of SMEs are expected.Because of no negative opinion to draft text makes strengthening the argument. Primarily for the implementation of standards by SMEs of the country's internal legal system of standards is required to be transferred. USA Status In the United States there is no Standard or standard set developed for SMEs, Besides this Only the Companies following to SEC(U.S. Securities and Exchange Board ) disclosure requirement of their financial statements (Ġn EU ,all capital companies have to publish financial statements )shows the transposition of standards to domestic law is as not easy as estimated . From the perspective of the IASB in the U.S. in dealing with the process currently is uncertain how it will operate.Ġn the process of convergence with USA (Process of USA counterpart is FASB) carried out no plan to develop accounting standards for SMEs for now 5.2.The European Union Status In full integration prosess to EU hhe most important public Works of financial integration practises is due to accounting practises become compatible with EU countries and international scales.For this purpose important Works is done within the EU. EU has a working mechanism to achieve the full integration of accounting practises . �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo While IFRS implementation issues, the EU opened in front of the application, in what direction will be decided for SMEs become obvious in future times . Need to accept that find applications of Ġnternational financial standards in EU have a significiant effects for to be used standards widely in the world. The most tangible results of this implementation has been seen in editing of Implementation of IFRS in listed companies. Union to apply IFRS in the EU to enforce regulations in many counties, including Turkey, in many countries on the implementation of IFRS set of regulations to be made easier. In countries subject to regulations were released for companies that application of IFRS obligation is not set in the EU. Ġn EU countries, it is essential that the 4 and 7 regulations implementing guidelines for companies outside of this arrangement. IASB has published IFRS for SMEs is currently applying for EU countries are not mentioned.Ġn other words, unless the EU adopted the Standard ,this practice will not be mentioned in developed countries within the EU.Unless accepted standards of practice for SMEs in the EU 4. and 7. guidelines will continue to apply. 5.3.Situation in Turkey The Dynamics of IFRS practice in Turkey is Turkey‘s EU accession process.To some extent as a result of this process but largely to the initiative of the authorities concerned since 2005 International Financial Reporting Standards in Turkey with full compliance with IFRS has found applications. Viewed from this angle, the Companies in Turkey, in terms of public AccountAbility IFRS is not a problem for the Implementation of the set. Real challenge for Turkey is how to implement of accounting standards in companies that not obliged to give public accounts (mainly SMEs). Ġt is obvious that The TCC proposal being discussed in Parliament (Bill) and recorded the important progress in this process. .In other words implementing the provisions of the draft IFRS for SMEs that are missing parts will be completed. Bill 88 / (1). The article "real persons and corporations to trade books, the amount while both the individual and consolidated financial statements do editing, just to follow and implement Turkey Accounting Standards Board published by Turkey, Accounting Standards , the conceptual framework in accounting principles and their integral part and the comments of them‖ provision, introduced. Figure 2: Board of Education in Turkey according to the draft Framework for the Implementation of IFRS According to the provisions of the bill, companies will have to apply TFRS keep their accounting records until financial reporting .Ġt is clear that the big companies would not be issues for implementation of this provision . However ,there could be problems in the SME size companies is foreseen. For the same article 3. of in the paragraph “Turkey Accounting standards boards be placed in special and exceptional standards for businesses and industries in different criteria as state regulations allowed in different ways by International Financial Reporting Standards ; those who implement them, status in question, are explained in footnotes of financial statements” provision is included. The draft of these regulations is defined an "exception" for implementation in SMEs TFRS set.This provision is based on for different scale enterprises in case of implementation of specific standards to allow development of specific standards by TASB. Naturally these standarts will have to be developed in full compliance with IFRS. In other words this regulations is reference to developed by the IASB standard of IFRS for SMEs .Because in this case this matter was clearly expressed. IFRS for SMEs developed in Turkey 96 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo for the implementation of SME companies, TASB Turkey by the International Financial Reporting Standards as required to publish. This circumstance is a necessary condition for perspective to TASB activities.. TFRS set and how to implement TFRS standards for SMEs in companies is organized in Turkish Commercial Code and law on Application of the 13/2 (a). Accordingly this article, “Turkey Accounting Standards board may publish Turkey Accounting Standards in line with IFRS for small sized capital companies and all sizes of companies,individual companies,real person transactions or industries.This case referred companies and businesses are applied mentioned specific standards.However,companies and businesses can apply rather than spesific standards withTurkey Accounting Standards fully compatible with IFRS” rule will be implemened by companies Individual / Consolidated Financial Statements Individual / Consolidated Financial Statements Large Capital Stock Companies TFRS SMEs TFRS for SMEs Individual Companies TFRS for SMEs Real Persons TFRS for SMEs Figure 3: Scope of Application TFRS According to the draft TCC Accordingly, the public accountability of corporations (publicly traded companies and banks and insurance companies) naturally will be applied TFRS set , and the Small-scale capital firms and individual companies with real people traders will be applied TFRS standards for SMEs. According to the same provision also non SME sized (Large) capital firms will be applied TFRS set. Such an arrangement be made for Small- Scale companies as the reasons set forth in the relevant articles of the relevant international organization (the IASB) and prepared by the standard issues of SMEs in Turkish law, the legal infrastructure is to be reflected. How many companies will be involved in the regulation of the draft, are unknown. Revenue Administration of the 2008 year-end number of taxpayers are taken into account, the total number of 635 042 SMEs with capital companies and how it is not possible to determine the class will be included. In addition, there is no reliable data for this number is how much active in our hands. 97 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo TYPE OF TAXPAĠRS 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Real People Limited Company Partnership Joint-Stock Company Others Cooperative Unlimited Company Unincorporated Limited Partnership Limited Company with Securities Total 3.212.471 540.153 48.979 95.278 75.303 58.814 5.117 526 3.099.868 509.074 47.272 84.000 77.495 53.419 43.399 393 3.148.767 526.242 47.177 82.734 77.296 51.401 4.002 345 321.707 547.726 46.332 81.714 81.476 49.331 36.682 309 3.221.277 554.377 43.690 80.664 84.142 47.202 3.373 274 56 48 38 2 1 4.027.648 4.035.000 4.036.697 3.876.284 3.938.002 Table 4: Number of active taxpayers As species The process of Implementation of standards in SME sized companies smooth the definition of SME based on a key role. Accordingly, the bill's definition of SMEs should coincide with the IASB definition of SME. In the first section of standards Small and Medium Sized businesses definition explained. Accordingly ,SMEs are defined as ―SMEs are Bussinesses without Public accountability obligations and publish general purpose financial statements for external users‖. A company's public accountability obligations that are Company's debt and equity instruments (stocks), domestic or foreign capital market or over the counter market, including local and regional markets the public in an open market transactions, or that such a market process to see these instruments exported in the process of being and existance . Assets, with the title custodian be maintained on behalf of a large mass counterparts. (Banks, Investment Banks, mutual funds, insurance companies, pension companies, pension funds, brokerage companies, factoring companies, leasing companies and other financial institutions, etc.) 1523. draft of the article describes the capital stock companies according to the scale of companies. Accordingly, 1. Companies that are not exceeded at least two of the following three criteria is considered to be small capital stock companies:  Be found with taken out loss from asset Balance sheet total of six million TL  The last day of the accounting period (balance sheet day) of total sales in the previous twelve months twelve million TL  Fifty people yearly average number of employees. 2. Companies that exceeds at least two criteria of the first paragraph and at least two of the following three criteria are not exceeded two will be considered medium-size capital companies :  Be found with taken out loss from asset Balance sheet total of twenty million TL  The last day of the accounting period (balance sheet day) of total sales in the previous twelve months fifty million TL  Two hundred and fifty-people yearly average number of employees. 3. Cabinet size can be increased up to ten times or ten or one to reduce. 4. In the second paragraph of the criteria for at least two of the largest companies in excess of capital is considered capital firm. A company that its Securities in Turkey securities exchange or traded securities in the list of the countries declared each year from Capital Markets Board or traded to quotas have been or quotation for the reference made in, have not exceeded this clause in the criteria shall be deemed to be even greater capital company. Projects in the SME definition, to the obligation of accountability to the public transmission to the 4. article of the indirect causes are no contradictions between the two definitions. Besides this, the bill is clearly a wider scope of application. Ġt is clear that scope of application of the draft, is the larger than definition. To the effect that for the implementation of standards,the obligation of non public accountability condition in addition to publishing general-purpose financial statements for external users condition. 98 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Accordingly, although the SME scale of a company may not apply this standard if it does not publish general purpose financial statements . This situation could be used as, a "way out" particularly for micro-enterprises. Such a practice is in draft form that is not in question. Implementation of standards in Turkey, an EU accession perspective of Turkey is the other dynamic. Turkey's EU-led negotiations process with regard 12.30.2008 dated Official Gazette "Turkey's EU Acquis Compliance Program" in the Corporate Law with reference the commitment of the standard application process is another decisive factor. Accordingly the TASB have new tasks to publish a new application to comply with the EU's Fourth Directive based on the General Communiqué Accounting System, and to publish a new application in order to adapt EU‘s Seventh Directive. With this published papers for companies that have no obligation to public accountability will have been new arrangements compatible with EU's fourth and seventh directives.In clear terms according to these commitments the Accounting Practice General Communique ' published by the Ministry of Finance that the companies have to follow according to the EU's Fourth Directive to be revised and the consolidation in accordance with the EU Seventh Directive will need to create a new notification. This process is obvious that the bill had predicted structure and the TASB Board of Education 's Financial Reporting Standards in Turkey is against the development perspective. Under Compliance program in the case of arrangements of old accounting system we will not be compatible with the International Financial Reporting Standards.The implementation of accounting standards for SMEs have three dimension such as TCC Bill, Turkey's EU accession process and the perspective of TASB.These three dimension will be balanced or conflicts will be eliminated.But It should be stated that these conflicts are pointed a temporary situation. And This temporary situation largely disappeared with description of EU‘s position and TCC draft be enacted 6. Conclusions Disclosure of financial information of companies that have a full and fair benefit to all parts in the economy. This is the obligation of accountability to the public until the company is also true for the SMEsize companies. In this context, the IFRS for SMEs issued by IASB is assuming a very important function. The financial reporting standards for, SMEs are released SMEs, financial reporting quality, comparability and to recognize information apply the to generate opportunities to all over the world and brings SMEs a chance to open foreign markets. The standard application of the provisions that the simpler from the full set of IAS / IFRS 's, but also largely based on issues similar to the IAS / IFRS CPCs, SMEs when they pass large business class makes a full set of IAS / IFRS applications easier. International Financial Reporting Standards for SMEs are seperated from full set, taken into consideration of SME needs,simplified without leaving IAS and IFRS‘s underlying philosophy,and which introduced in various country.For this reason SMEs in Turkey implement these standards without undue delay so that SMEs can easily find finance sourcing and open foreign markets. Financial reporting standards for SMEs effective application contains a number of potential problems and to have a significant majority of SMEs in the economy makes implementation of standards difficult. First of all for the implementation of the standard needs to be transferred to domestic law. In this issue priorities and preferences of each country is different. In Turkey, the process is no exception. Ġmplementation of standards in Turkey must be enacted in the event of the draft become law of the TCC. References Akdoğan, Nalan.(2010).‖KOBĠ Finansal Raporlama Standartlarına Genel BakıĢ ve Tam Set IAS/IFRS‘lerden Farklılığı‖, http://www.tmsk.org.tr/ makaleler/Diger/N_Akdoğan.pdf Aslan, Sinan.(2007).Küçük ve Orta Büyüklükteki ĠĢletmeler(KOBĠ) Ġçin Uluslararası Finansal Raporlama Standartları (UFRS) Ġle Global Uyum Süreci, The University of Marmara Journal, C.XXIII, S.2,s.203-221. Çelik, Orhan. (2006). Uluslararası Finansal Raporlama Standartlarının KOBĠ‘lerde Uygulanması: Temel Dinamikler ve Potansiyel Sorunlar. Ankara: TESMER Publication No. 73. Çelik, Orhan. (2010). ―Küçük Ve Orta Büyüklükteki ĠĢletmeler Ġçin Uluslar arası Finansal Raporlama Standardı: Genel BakıĢ‖. http://www.tmsk.org.tr/ makaleler/Diger/OrhanÇelik.pdf 99 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Demir,Volkan.(2007).‖KOBĠ‘ler Ġçin UFRS‖nin Son Taslağı ve Değerlendirmeler, Journal of Financial Solutions Year:17, p.80,p.43-58. IFRS For SMEs, International Financial Reporting Standard (IFRS) for Small and Medium-Sized Entities (SMEs), Internatıonal Accountıng Standards Board (IASB), 2009. Karakaya,Mevlüt.(2010).‖KOBĠ‘lerin Küresel Ekonomik Ġklime Uyumunda Uluslar arası Finansal Raporlama Standartları‖. http://www.tmsk.org.tr/ makaleler/Diger/MEVLUT_KARAKAYA.pdf Sayar,Zafer.(2008).‖Küçük ve Orta Büyüklükteki ĠĢletmelerin ÇağdaĢ Finansal Raporlama Dünyası: KOBĠ Muhasebe Standartları‖.Ankara: TESMER Publication No:79. Türkiye Muhasebe Standartları; TASB, 2010 100 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 188 Title A name given to the resource International Financial Reporting Standards for Smes and The Applicatıon Process In Turkey Author Author CİVAN, Mehmet KÖRPİ, Mehmet BUYURAN, Burcu Abstract A summary of the resource. Today, 95% of the world and in our country's economic system occurs from the Small and Medium-Large Enterprises (SMEs) constitute. Only the European Union, more than 25,000,000 and in our country 1.000.000 companies is estimated in the SME status. As shown the SMEs get a large share of sector ,the existence of their special structure, has become inevitable. One of these special structure, is financial reporting. Increasingly widespread use of International Financial Reporting Standards,the issue of how to implement those standards to SMEs, has been brought up. And for this problem in 2009 "SMEs for IFRS''was published. by IFRS. In this context, the basic aim of our study is to investigate and see the implemention proses of ―IFRS for SMEs‖ which resolve the differences of national accounting systems that applied in various countries of the world and will enable to comparison of financial reports and to see how affects and what would bring to Turkey‘s economic system. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory