60 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/896b936e05109af7324c8cfb63a623cf.pdf b98d4a1b470c0768b3bbc0ae83e1f63c PDF Text Text Off-Season Fruit Production Sara Demiral Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey sarademiral@akdeniz.edu.tr Salih Ülger Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey Abstract: Off-season fruit growing is expressed as to take the harvest time early or late than that of the normal growing season. Off-season production is preferred both to meet the fruit demand of off-season and to sell the products with higher price. In world, people who are good in economic level buy fresh fruit in every season. For example, fruits produced in the world's Southern Hemisphere countries are sold as fresh fruit to Northern Hemisphere countries in the winter months. Besides, some countries of Northern Hemisphere are trying to making the off season production in greenhouses or protected areas to meet fruit demand of off season. In recent years, the cultivation of fruit trees in pots have been started to grow for off season fruit production. The plants, growing for off-season is put into cold storage to meet their cold accumulation. The plants are achieved cold accumulation then transferred to open field or protected areas to produce fruit desired periods. One of the goals of our country in the fruit growing is to be a brand in off season fruit in foreign markets. Introduction Turkey, due to its geographical position in the world has a very favorable climate for fruit species except tropical fruits. In this respect, Turkey is the birth place of the culture of horticulture and origin of the many fruit species growing in the world (Ağaoğlu et al., 1997). World production and consumption of fruit has rapidly changed since 1950 to today. The effects of these developing are listed as recovery of exotic fruits by people by improving of travel opportunities; delaying of fruit breakdown by developing of cold storage methods and transportation network; shortening of travel time; transforming of fruits to unbreakdown form by developing processing methods; improving of distribution system; accelerating of advertisement and information and improving of research on production methods, mechanization, technological innovation (Storey, 1969; Samson, 1980). Many people around the world and especially in the Northern Hemisphere with a high economic level want to find quality fruits in the market in every season. This is why fruit growing developed in the some Southern Hemisphere countries such as Chile, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and they started to sell them during the winter period to the Northern Hemisphere countries. Besides, some countries in the Northern Hemisphere have been tried to fill market demands of certain fruits by off season production by heated or not heated greenhouse cultivation (Kaşka, 2004). Mean of off-season production is more profit for producers. Production is continued throughout the year not related to climate conditions. Protected areas have been made for this purposes and regularly year-round production has supplied. Production in the protected areas is firstly started as out of production under plastic tunnels in low tunnel system and then it has continued as greenhouse growing. Providing of ecological conditions requested by plants is the main factor in production in the protected areas in other words off-season production. In the protected growing, cooling in the summer months against the high temperature and shading against to high radiation even darkening were made, and moistening and ventilation were controlled (Günay, 2008). Purposes of protected cultivation of fruits are to provide early harvest, protect the fruits from the late frost, late summer rains, diseases and pests (Fideglli, 1990). 154 �Stone fruit cultivation in protected areas was first searched in Italy, Israel and Australia to dominate the global market by providing earliness and very positive results have been obtained. Some applications such as defoliation, spray of KNO3, DNOC and mineral oil and evaporative cooling recommend meeting the need of chilling requirement, breaking dormancy and getting more yields in protected areas and open field growing (Erez et al., 2000). Many experiments for off-season production were done in Turkey and world in protected areas and open fields (Erez et al., 1993, 1995, Erez et al., 1998, Ertoy and Ulger, 2003, Son and Kuden, 2003, Rossetto and Bortoletto, 2004, Manochai et al., 2005, Eltez and Tuzel, 2007). In recent years, some factors as advances in greenhouse construction materials, the use of dwarf rootstocks and controlling of ecological factors of greenhouse by computers has led to an increase in greenhouse cultivation of fruit. However, there is still many problems in protected area growing such as demand of chilling requirement, productivity, fruit set, fruit quality, training systems and construction problems (Kamota, 1988). Southern cost of Israel, Turkey, Spain and Italy in the subtropical climate zone are suitable for earliest fruit species. However southern coasts of Turkey are warmer than Spain, and also south part of Spain is warmer than Italy. For this reason, earlier production is obtained in Turkey from these countries. Spain and Italy is in competition with each other for the German market. Because of this competition, growers of Italy have started to grow fruits in protected areas to close day differentiation from Spain (Ertoy, 2003). Growing of stone fruits in greenhouse besides had positive effects earliness; it positively affects productivity and fruit quality characteristics (Kuden et al., 2001). In recent years, the fruit trees, for the purpose of the off-season production have grown in pots in the open field or protected areas to make production desired time. It is possible to obtain high density planting and dwarf growing by growing of fruits in small pots. For example, fruits of tropical and subtropical climate can be grown in including frost risk areas and temperate zone fruits is also be grown in the hot zone. Additional the fruits are grown purpose of ornamental or to eat fruits from branches of plants (Demiral and Ulger, 2009). Since fruits contain vitamins, antioxidants, unsaturated fatty acids, enzymes and proteins they have great significance for human nutrition. Therefore, in humans, fruit consumption is gaining importance day by day in terms of health. People want to consume the fruits not only in growing season but also in out of growing season. So, out of season production in fruit has widespread to meet the needs of fruits of people in year-round and since to get a good income to farmers. The very early or late season fruit removal provides better prices to sell. As a result, the growers tend to produce off-season fruits. References Ağaoğlu, Y.S., Çelik, H., Çelik, M., Fidan, Y., Gülşen, Y., Günay, A., Halloran, N., Köksal, A.I. and Yanmaz, R., 1997. Genel Bahçe Bitkileri. T.C. A.Ü.Z.F. Eğitim, Araştırma ve Geliştirme Vakfı Yayınları No: 4, Ankara. Demiral, S. and Ulger,S., 2009. Saksıda Meyve Yetiştiriciliği. Hasad. Kasım 2009. Yıl:25, Sayı: 294. S:56. Eltez, R. and Tüzel, Y., 2007. Merdiven Tipi Sistemde Farklı Topraksız Tarım Tekniklerinin Sera Çilek Yetiştiriciliğinde Verim ve Kaliteye Etkileri. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg., 2007, 44 (1): 15-27 ISSN 1018-8851. Erez, A., Wysoki, M., Yablowitz, Z. and Korchinski, R. 1993. High Density Plantings for Protected Cultivation of Fruit Crops; Net to Protect Against Inects. Acta Horticulturae. 349: 89-93. Erez, A., Yablowitz, Z. and Korcinski, R., 1998. Greenhouse Peach Growing. Acta Hort. 465:593-600. Erez, A., Yablowitz, Z. and Korcinski, R. 2000. Temperature and Chemical Effects on Competing Sinks in Peach Bud Break. Acta Hort. 514:51-58. Ertoy, N. 2003. Antalya’da Örtüaltında Erkenci Seftali Yetiştirme Olanaklarının Araştırılması. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Ertoy, N. and Ulger, S., 2003. Antalya’da Cam Serada Erkenci Şeftali Yetiştirme Olanaklarının Araştırılması. Türkiye IV. Ulusal Bahçe Bitkileri Kongresi, 26-28. 8-12 Eylül 2003, Antalya. Fideghelli, C. 1990. Protected Cultivation Of Tree Fruits In Italy. Chronica Horticulturae. 361: 565-573. 155 �Günay, A., 2008. Bitki Yetiştiriciliğinde Kimyasal Madde ve Hormonlar Kullanılmalı mı. http://www.tarimsalbilgi.org/forums/bitki_yetistiriciliginde_kimyasal_madde_ve_hormonlar_kullanilmali_mit2500.0.html;msg5402#msg5402. Kamota, F. 1988. Protected Cultivation Of Tree Fruits In Japan. Jard (Japon Agric. Res. Qarterly). 22(2): 107-113. Kaşka, N., 2004. Türkiye’de Meyveciliğin Modernleştirilmesi. Fact sheets: http://www.alaratarim.com.tr/onurkonuk1.htm. Küden, A., Küden, A. and Son, L. 2001. Ortüaltında Sert Çekirdekli Meyve Yetiştiriciliği. I. Sert Çekirdekli Meyveler Sempozyumu, Yalova, 25-28 Eylül, Bildiri Kitabı, 133-138. Manochai, P., Sruamsiri, P., Wiriya-alongkorn, W., Naphrom, D., Hegele, M. and Bangerth, F., 2005. Year Around Off Season Flower Induction in Logan (Dimocarpus longan, Lour.) Trees by KClO3 Applications: Potentials and Problems. Scientia Horticulturae. 104: 379-390. Rossetto, C.J. and Bortoletto, N. 2004. Response Of Mango Varıetıes To Pachlobutrazol. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 645:233237. Samson, J., A., 1980. Tropical Fruits Tropical Agriculture Series. Longman Group Limited ISBN 0-582-46032-8, ABD. Son, L. and Küden, A., 2003. Effects of Seedling and GF-31 Rootstocks on Yield and Fruit Quality of Some Table Apricot Cultivars Grown in Mersin. Turk J Agric For 27 (2003) 261-267. Storey, W., B., 1969. Recent Developments in Tropical Fruit Crops. Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc., 82, 333-9, Miami, ABD. 156 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 346 Title A name given to the resource Off-Season Fruit Production Author Author Demiral, Sara Ülger, Salih Abstract A summary of the resource. Off-season fruit growing is expressed as to take the harvest time early or late than that of the normal growing season. Off-season production is preferred both to meet the fruit demand of off-season and to sell the products with higher price. In world, people who are good in economic level buy fresh fruit in every season. For example, fruits produced in the world's Southern Hemisphere countries are sold as fresh fruit to Northern Hemisphere countries in the winter months. Besides, some countries of Northern Hemisphere are trying to making the off season production in greenhouses or protected areas to meet fruit demand of off season. In recent years, the cultivation of fruit trees in pots have been started to grow for off season fruit production. The plants, growing for off-season is put into cold storage to meet their cold accumulation. The plants are achieved cold accumulation then transferred to open field or protected areas to produce fruit desired periods. One of the goals of our country in the fruit growing is to be a brand in off season fruit in foreign markets. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aac3db8abc7ffe125c3870eda4cba134.pdf 17ec3290c30256028935df1df8d392b7 PDF Text Text Investigation of Live Weights at Different Ages by Cluster Analysis in Konya Merino Sheep Birol Dağ Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey bdag@selcuk.edu.tr Đsmail Keskin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey ikeskin@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the live weights at birth (BW), weaning (WW), sixth (SW), twelfth (TW) and eighteenth (EW) months of age by cluster analysis in Konya Merino sheep. k-means clustering methods was used for the cluster analysis. Clusters were obtained differently according to sex and birth types. Effects of dam age on BW, WW (P<0.01) and SW (P<0.05) were found to be significant and its effects on TW and EW were not significant in single born females. Dam age did not affect BW, WW, SW, TW and EW in twin born females and single born males. In twin born males, dam age affected only SW (P<0.05). By the statistically analyses different cluster numbers were determined as 6, 5 and 4 for single born females, twin born females, single and twin born males respectively. The differences between the clusters in respect of live weights at the same ages were statistically significant (P<0.01). At the end of the study, according to live weights at eighteenth month of age, the third cluster for twin males and the first cluster for single females gave the highest values. Keywords: Cluster Analysis, k-means, Konya Merino Introduction The relationships among birth weight which is an indicator of prenatal growth and weaning weight and also its relation to lamb survival rate up to weaning period and body weights at later ages are well known. Birth weight is one of the features that can be detected early. Lamb body weight at the onset of fattening period generally refers to weaning weight. The cluster analysis is one of the multivariate statistical analysis and the main goal of it is to dividing a data set in hand into two or more clusters by taking into account a certain similarity measure. This splits are desired as homogenous within cluster and heterogenic between clusters (Hair et al., 1998). This study was conducted to examine the body weights at various periods of Konya Merino sheep with cluster analysis. Materials and Methods Data from 162 Konya Merino lambs born in 2002 (57 males and 105 females) were used. The sheep were maintained at the Bahri Dağdaş Agricultural Research Institute farm in the Konya Province in central o ' o ' Turkey (37 , 51 N and 32 , 48 E). This province has approximately 1.6 million head of sheep, which represents 6% of the sheep population of Turkey. The province’s average annual rainfall is between 250 400 mm; the mean temperature 11.5 °C; and the average elevation 1016 m. 179 �The flock consisted of 400 ewes and 25 rams. Animals were maintained under semi-intensive conditions. Age at first lambing was approximately 24 months. Ewes lambed between 1 January and 15 February. The lambs were weaned at 75 days of age. Ewes were grazed from April to December and kept indoors throughout the winter. Live weight data were recorded monthly from birth to 16 months of age. Lambs were weaned at approximately 75 days of age and body weights at weaning, 6th, 12 th and 18th months of age were measured with an accuracy of 100 g. After 16 months the animals were kept for breeding purposes and no further weights were recorded. Least square analysis were used to determine the dam effect on BW, WW, SW, TW and EW. It has been assumed that there is no interaction between the factors examined and the influences was determined by using the following statistical model in Harvey’s (1987) package program. Yij = µ + ai + eij In the model; Yij : observation for each trait, µ : mean, ai : effect of dam age, eij : random residual effect. In clustering methods, there are two basic methods called hierarchical and nonhierarchical clustering methods are used when the units or variables are appropriately grouped according to clustering approach (Özdamar, 1999). Different approaches are applied to combine the units each other in hierarchical clustering methods. These methods are commonly used and known are follows. 1. Single Linkage Method, 2. Average Linkage Method, 3. Complete Linkage Method, 4. McQuitty Linkage Method, 5. Centroid Linkage Method, 6. Median Linkage Method, 7. Ward Linkage Method. In respect of having stronger theoretical basis than hierarchical clustering method and having prior information about cluster number provide preferring the nonhierarchical clustering methods to the hierarchical methods (Doğan, 2002). The most used methods among nonhierarchical methods are maximum likelihood, k-means. K-means method were used in this study. Cluster number were determined by using the following equation. k= n 2 Where; n: number of units divided into clusters and k: cluster number (Tatlıdil, 1996). When dividing variables into clusters, Mahalanobis distance is used as distance measure (Doğan, 2002). Mahalanobis distance is a generalized form of Euclid distance. Euclid distance between the units of a n*p dimensional data matrix is: P d (i, j ) = S ( X ik − X jk ) 2 k =1 i = 1, 2,.....n, j = 1, 2,.....n, Where; n: number of units, p: number of variables, Xik and Yjk represent the values of kth features of ith and jth units. Mahalanobis distance, d 2 (i, j ) = ( X i + X j ) t S −1 ( X i − X j ) X i : observation vector of ith units, X j : observation vector of jth units, t: vector transpose, S-1 shows the inverse of similarity matrix. In order to understand whether or not the used method constitute different clusters from each other, analysis of variance were made separately for all variables. Minitab 10.0 statistical software program were used for both clustering and analysis of variance. 180 �Results and Discussion At the end of the study, dam age on BW, WW (P<0.01) and SW (P<0.05) were found to be significant and its effect on TW and EW were not significant in single born females. Dam age did not affect BW, WW, SW, TW and EW in twin born females and single born males. In twin born males, dam age affected only SW (P<0.05). This study in which the Konya Merino lambs divided into clusters by k-means method, cluster analysis were made by considering both sex and birth type which can affect clusters. Clustering results obtained by k-means method for single born female Konya Merino lambs were given in Table 1 and for twin born female lambs in Table 2. It is possible that both single and twin born female lambs can be selected for the investigated traits by taking into account the clusters. If body weight is important for breeding, the first cluster for single born female lambs must be selected in respect of BW, WW, SW, TW and EW. But for twin born females in terms of BW and WW; SW; TW and EW, the third, fifth, first and fifth clusters must be chosen respectively. Clustering results obtained by k-means method for single born male Konya Merino were given in Table 3 and for twin born male lambs in Table 4. In terms of BW, WW, SW, TW and EW the first cluster for single born males must be selected. If both body weight and litter size are taken into consideration, the third cluster must be must be chosen from twin born males in terms of BW, WW, SW, TW and EW. In order to understand whether the used method really divided into different clusters from each other, analysis of variance were made separately for all traits. The results of variance analysis showed that the difference between the formed clusters for both sex and birth types were statistically (P<0.01). Cluster 1 2 3 4 5 6 BW 5.20±0.566 4.38±0.476 4.77±0.320 3.78±0.085 4.24±0.349 4.57±0.890 WW 23.60±0.994 22.10±2.268 17.81±1.818 15.84±1.688 16.830±1.787 20.81±1.834 SW 38.9±1.984 34.36±2.161 30.23±1.098 25.46±2.144 25.88±2.821 30.86±1.710 TW 56.40±0.231 48.92±2.517 44.18±1.632 31.54±2.952 39.98±2.389 41.39±2.263 EW 63.85±2.763 56.52±2.971 52.76±2.188 38.52±3.065 46.92±2.811 46.87±1.442 Table 1. Means and their Standard Deviations (Female/Single) Cluster 1 2 3 4 5 BW 3.46±0.424 4.10±0.447 4.39±0.383 2.80±0.361 3.96±0.422 WW 17.47±1.260 16.99±2.093 21.23±2.016 16.17±1.288 21.97±1.798 SW 28.72±2.692 24.17±2.582 31.30±1.784 25.87±3.249 36.44±2.468 TW 45.06±2.046 39.31±2.357 43.94±2.209 37.87±1.372 50.98±2.289 EW 53.52±2.448 45.01±2.909 54.84±3.504 43.33±1.361 58.03±1.628 Table 2. Cluster Means and their Standard Deviations (Female/Twin) Cluster 1 2 3 4 BW 5.45±0.296 4.54±0.197 2.70±0.021 4.78±0.612 WW 26.67±1.514 23.02±3.441 14.00±0.145 20.45±4.669 SW 43.20±4.025 36.65±1.925 21.90±0.188 32.07±4.092 TW 58.42±4.307 56.08±2.590 32.00±0.204 48.92±3.129 Table 3. Cluster Means and their Standard Deviations (Male/Single) 181 EW 70.18±2.332 71.39±4.592 47.30±0.237 60.70±5.012 �Cluster 1 2 3 4 BW 3.63±0.231 3.96±0.493 4.67±0.577 3.87±0.363 WW 15.20±0.222 19.81±1.869 25.10±2.972 18.05±1.777 SW 25.60±3.298 32.45±2.146 39.33±1.502 30.79±2.215 TW 43.93±5.525 55.00±3.960 65.33±1.865 45.40±2.985 EW 54.33±3.791 68.74±3.003 77.50±1.412 57.90±3.881 Table 4. Cluster Means and their Standard Deviations (Male/Twin) Conclusion The first cluster not only has the highest value for BW, but also has the highest values WW, SW, TW and EW. According to this result, it can be said that the selection which will be made for BW can give reliable outcomes for the further age body weights. If the third cluster for twin born males and the fifth cluster for twin born females are selected in respect of BW, also the highest values for WW, SW, TW and EW could have been chosen. In conclusion, it can be said that because of the advantages in terms of time, labor and cost, using the cluster analysis for the selection purposes would be appropriate than the other methods. References Doğan, Đ. (2002). Kümeleme Analizi Đle Seleksiyon (Selection by Cluster Analysis). Turk J Vet Anim Sci, 26: 47-53. Hair, F.H., Andersen, R.E., Tahtam, R.L. & Black, W.C. (1998). Multivariate Data Analysis. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Harvey, W.R. (1987). User’s Guide for LSMLMW PC-1 Version Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum Likelihood Computer Program. Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Mimeo. Minitab, (1995). Minitab Reference Manual, Release 10 Xtra. Minitab Inc. State Coll., PA 16801, USA. Özdamar, K. (1999). Paket Programlar ile Đstatistiksel Veri Analizi (Çok Değişkenli Analizler) II (Multivariate Analysis) . Kaan Kitabevi (2. Baskı), Eskişehir. Tatlıdil, H. (1996). Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli Đstatiksel Analiz (Applied Multivariate Analysis), Ankara. 182 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 370 Title A name given to the resource Investigation of Live Weights at Different Ages by Cluster Analysis in Konya Merino Sheep Author Author Dağ, Birol Keskin, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. The aim of this study was to investigate the live weights at birth (BW), weaning (WW), sixth (SW), twelfth (TW) and eighteenth (EW) months of age by cluster analysis in Konya Merino sheep. k-means clustering methods was used for the cluster analysis. Clusters were obtained differently according to sex and birth types. Effects of dam age on BW, WW (P<0.01) and SW (P<0.05) were found to be significant and its effects on TW and EW were not significant in single born females. Dam age did not affect BW, WW, SW, TW and EW in twin born females and single born males. In twin born males, dam age affected only SW (P<0.05). By the statistically analyses different cluster numbers were determined as 6, 5 and 4 for single born females, twin born females, single and twin born males respectively. The differences between the clusters in respect of live weights at the same ages were statistically significant (P<0.01). At the end of the study, according to live weights at eighteenth month of age, the third cluster for twin males and the first cluster for single females gave the highest values. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/23dfd1342de658a6a7f660ca67784d3b.pdf 7a53972005c459621485b5de2be8a7c3 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Pronunciation and Transphonemization of Arabisms in the Islamic English Language Samina Dazdarevic Department of Philology, International University of Novi Pazar, Serbia semene1994@hotmail.com Abstract: This work emphasizes the relationship between the English language and Islam and its significance in contemporary times. It focussed on the important role of the English language as a conveyor of knowledge about Islam to the international community and on the diverse ways in which Western and global cultures, often accessible in English, would no doubt continue to connect with the Muslim world. The English language has been one of the most hospitable languages in the world in accepting foreign loanwords and one of the languages that contributed to English is the Arabic language as a donor of words to other languages. Directly borrowed arabisms which are connected with Islam are pronounced the same in Arabic and English, it is zero transphonemisation or partial - compromise tranphonemisation. They form their orthography on the basis of the pronunciation of the model or an arabism follows the orthography of the model without any change. Introduction With the advent of Islam in the 7th century, followed by the establishment of Islamic/Muslim kingdoms/empires in various parts of the world, and through a series of historical crusades, contacts between English and Islam, and Arabic and Christianity were established. Whatever the argument is concerning the cultural invasion and political domination of the East by the West, or vice versa, the fact is, both have influenced and learnt from each other in all fields of life throughout the centuries. The simplest kind of influence that one language may exert on another is the borrowing of words. When there is cultural borrowing there is always the likelihood that the associated words may be borrowed too. Languages use various strategies in borrowing: perhaps adopting and preserving the form used in the donor language, sometimes adapting the borrowed word to conform more closely to their own phonological and morphological systems, and sometimes creating a new word through loan translation. Not surprisingly, the extent and nature of borrowing between two languages reflect the extent and nature of the contact between the corresponding cultures. Perhaps most English speakers are not aware of many words that have entered the English language from Arabic, some of which are original Arabic words and some of which entered Arabic from other languages. Of course, it is not merely the case that the words alone entered the English language. In most instances, the ideas and objects that the words represent were introduced to Western culture by the Arabs. English today has thousands of words in all fields of human endeavour which are of Arabic origin: in architecture, agriculture, art, astronomy, commerce, geography, industry, literature, mathematics, mechanics, medicine, music, physics and religion. Adaptation of these words is a gradual process and progresses in small steps: a foreign word, in our case - Arabic word - must adapt to a language system, to the orthographic and phonological systems of the receiving language, English; certain loanwords become integrated in the borrowing language to such an extent that they are no longer recognized as being of foreign origin. Also, a new lexical unit always enriches the vocabulary of the borrowing language: it names a new concept, product, or invention, or replaces an obsolete native word. Language is a human phenomenon influenced by collective conceptual memory of the society that speaks it. An Islamic language, therefore, is not a mere surface structural expression nor a language with a set of Arabic loan words It is a language indentified in both communal semantic memory and individual episodic memory with Islamic characteristics. (Abdussalam, 1999, p. 9) Isma‘il Raji al Faruqi (1986, p. 7) forcefully encourages Muslim native speakers of English language as well as Muslim users of English, to stick to Islamic Arabic terminology and vocabularies which equivalencies are not existent in English, in order to make them part of the communal memory of this language and consequently incorporate them in its dictionary. According to Ahmad Shehu Abdussalam (1999, p. 9) the term Islamic language includes any language spoken by a Muslim language group as a mother tongue, languages used in bilingual community or language 52 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo expected to be Islamic. The latter are languages spoken mainly by non-Muslim communities but used widely by Muslims in academic matters. This category may include languages such as English, French, etc., in case of influence of Islamic faith on its speakers. In order to determine to what extent a language community can be Islamic, socio-cultural criteria will need to be applied. Meanwhile, Arabic language is regarded as the lingua franca of Muslim Ummah. The reason is not that it has any supremacy, but for the fact that it is the language of the Qur’an, Hadith, prayers and main references on Islam. Precisely because of this, it is supposed to be learnt by every Muslim with some degree of proficiency. Beside Arabic, Muslims are encouraged to learn their mother tongues and languages of other Muslim group, in order to foster Islamic brotherhood and amicable social interaction. The diving force in a communal memory is cultural, and Islamic faith (`aqidah) is ought to assume this role in any Islamic language and features clearly in various modes of its expression and tands as well as distinctive feature. 2. Islam and Arabic: a Unique Relationship The revelation of the Qur'an in Arabic set the scene for a unique and lasting relationship between the language and Islam. On the one hand, Arabic provided a very effective medium for communicating the message of the religion. On the other hand, Islam helped Arabic to acquire the universal status which it has continued to enjoy since the Middle Ages, emerging as one of the principal world languages. (Chejne, 1969, p. 53) The relationship of Islam and the Qur'an to Arabic involves more than just the use of a language to communicate a divine message. There are a number of factors which set this relationship apart from that which exists between other holy books and the languages in which they appeared, for Arabic has come to be closely associated with Islam, and in this way has acquired a semi-official status. It is implicit that anyone professing Islam cannot ignore the role Arabic plays in his faith. Embracing Islam, therefore, entails exposure to, and familiarity with, the Arabic language. Such familiarity is necessitated by the fact that memorization and recitation of Qur'anic verses in their original language is necessary for the performance of the daily rituals. Other holy books may have had an impact on the languages in which they originally appeared, but the impact that Islam and the Qur'an have had on Arabic appears to be unique in its extent and durability. It has often been the case that a holy book appears in a given language and is then translated into other languages, in which it continues to be read and recited during the performance of rituals, but, in the case of the Qur'an, although it has been translated into many languages, these translations cannot replace the original language as a language of worship, which continues to be Arabic for all Muslims, native speakers and others. Other holy books also came to be associated with specific languages, such as the Torah with Hebrew, and, perhaps less intimately, the New Testament with Greek and Latin. (Chejne, 1969, p. 53) 2.1 Islam, the Qur'an, and the internationalization of the Arabic language The revelation of the Quran in Arabic in the early part of the seventh century AD helped the language to acquire an international status which it has continued to enjoy until the present day. (Chejne, 1969, p. 5). It is true that Arabic has played an important role in the life and history of the Arab people, but without the bond it has with Islam it would not have been likely to have acquired the type of international status it has acquired through Islam. It was under the banner of religion that Arabic spread beyond the borders of the Arabian Peninsula. The early Muslims who emerged from the north-western part of the Arabian Peninsula brought with them not only the Islamic religion but Arabic as well. This phenomenon was so remarkable that, within a few centuries after the revelation of the Qur'an, Arabic became the common language of government, correspondence, business, and literary expression. The speed and facility with which Arabic was first accepted and then eventually absorbed in the new countries was remarkable, and it was largely due to its association with Islam. Converts to the new religion looked with great interest towards the original language of their Holy Book. (Al-Jindi, 1908, p. 31). 53 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 3. Toward Islamic English? The relationship between Islam and Arabic leads us to a very important issue, and that is the relationship between English and Islam. The issue of English terms in Arabic was raised in the mid 1980s by the late Isma‘il Raji al Faruqi, himself an immigrant to North America, in a short book Toward Islamic English (1986). Faruqi’s goal was to foster the inclusion into English a wide range of Arabic terms that were, in his view, untranslatable and would enrich and enlarge English and other languages.There is a list of Islamic terms in Appendix C. Thus, for example, Urdu, a language based on Sanskrit, was enriched by Arabic words, which become the vehicles of a “new vision and new spiritual sensitivities” (al Faruqi, 1986, p. 13). Faruqi pointed out, for example, how misleading it was to translate salat or namaz as “prayer,” since that term makes no distinction between the requisite, chronologically appointed, salat and the spontaneous supplication of du‘a. Al Faruqi included some thirty pages of words, provided in Arabic script, correctly transliterated and properly defined, to serve as an initial pool of words meant to be regarded as English vocabulary. By adhering to the old cosmopolitanism of Arabic, one would contribute to the new cosmopolitanism of English. Islamic English is the English language modified to enable it to carry Islamic proper nouns and meanings without distortion, and, thus to serve the linguistic needs of Muslim users of the English language. (Isma‘il Raji al Faruqi, 1986, p. 7) According to Isma‘il Raji al Faruqi (1986, p. 7), Muslim users of the English language are, first, the Muslim citizens and permanent residents of the English-speaking countries and those countries around the world where English is an official language, such as Pakistan, India, Ceylon, Malaysia, the Philippines in Asia, and Nigeria, Ghana, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Tanzania and others in Africa and around the globe. Besides the foregoing, the category equally includes all those Muslims who have mastered or acquainted themselves with the English language, and who use it as a language of reading and research, for writing and communication. Finally, to this large number must be added the millions of Muslims who use the non-Islamic languages – e.g., the languages of Europe, Asia and Africa. On the basis of professor Faruqi's definition of Islamic English and classification of Muslim users of the English language, Zaidan Ali Jassem (1995) attempts to indentify some of the distinctive features of Islamic English in terms of the general language levels: phonology, morphology, syntax, lexis and discourse. He concludes that there are differences between Muslim native speakers of English and Muslim non-native speakers of English in nearly all levels, but the differences occur mostly at the discourse level. Jassem also outlines of the following salient characteristics of Islamic English: • Islam topics • lexis which includes islamic Arabic vocabulary, some of which have become part of standard English usage, eg. Shariah, Fiqh, Fatwa, Islam, Jihad to name a few • the grammar of Islamic English is plain syntax • the discourse incorporates many Arabic expressions, e.g., Bismilla, do'a (supplication), Salaam (greeting) and GazzajAllahu Khyra (for thank you) • the audience of Islamic English are Muslims or non-Muslims • the reliance on primary and secondary sources where the former include the Qur'an and Sunnah, and the latter include the work of Sahaba (the prophet's companions) and Muslim scholars in all walks of life. The above survey of the works of Professor Faruqi and Dr. Jassem establishes the existence of Islamic English as a distinct variety. Jassem (1995) makes a step further in recognising Islamic English as similar to other English varieties in the sense that it has topic, lexis, grammar, style, audience and dicsourse norms. With this, he concludes that Islamic English is an old reality and phenomenon that has been in practice probably since the first Muslims spoke and wrote English. Ahmad Shehu Abdussalam in his book Islam and language (1999, p. 6) states that describing languages as Islamic or non-Islamic normally surfaces while discussing Islamisation of linguistic studies, in the context of difference and similarity between language groups, socio-cultural indentity, thought, behavior and beliefs of these groups. In order to offer a clear description, linguistic features of an Islamic language need clarification. It is unexpected that this description will restrict itself to commonality between Arabic and other languages spoken by Muslim commonly on the surface level of lexical borrowing, despite the fact that influence of Islam on language transcends loan words to discourse and in-depth cultural meaning of borrowed lexicon. As Abdussalam notes, that description of this nature should consider peculiarity in the context of unity between cultures of different Muslim communities, the presumed relativity in perception of realities and linguistic variation in the expression of beliefs and thought of language groups. It is equally important to note language change due to forces within the language system itself, and in association with development and changes in other domains, such as cognition and cultural norms. 54 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 4. Arabic Contribution to the English Language If, today, we leaf through the English dictionaries, we will find that words of Arabic origin are to be found, here and there, under every letter of the alphabet. It will surprise many to know that some scholars have made a study of the Skeat's Etymological Dictionary and found that Arabic is the seventh on the list of languages that has contributed to the enrichment of the English vocabulary. Rober Deveux turned up 600 loanwords by leafingthrough the pages of the Random House Dictionary of the English Language (RHD), Webster's Third New International Dictionary (W3) and the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (SOED). James Peters and Habeeb Salloum in Arabic Contributions to the English Vocabulary (1996) state that some scholars have made a study of the Etymological Dictionary and found that Arabic is the seventh on the list of languages that has contributed to the enrichment of the English vocabulary. Only Greek, Latin, French, German, Scandinavian and the Celtic group of languages have contributed more than Arabic to the English idiom. According to Peters and Salloum there are over 3,000 basic words, along with perhaps some 4,000 derivatives, of Arabic origin or transmitted through Arabic in the English language. Upwards of 500 of the basic words are common in the everyday language. These Arabic loanwords employed in the everyday vocabulary indicate that in almost all areas, the Arabs contributed to the English way of life. Some examples of these common words with their Arabic origin will give an insight into this contribution. The Arabic loan words themselves are only one aspect of the Arabic impact on English. We must stress that lexicographers differ amongst themselves over the paths some loanwords have followed to reach English and even over the real origins of' some of the words. The word sales is a good example. It derives ultimately, strange as it may seem, from the Arabic khusa ath-tha'lab (the fox's testicles). On that point all lexicographcrs seem to agree; but the RHD gives its path as Arabic-Turkish-English, the W3 as Arabic-French or Spanish-English and the SOED as Arabic-Turkish-French - English.To cite another example, the W3 says that safari entered English direct from Arabic, while both the RHD and SOED say that the path was Arabic-Swahili-English. Many, Arabic loanwords, especially those connected with Islam (e.g., dhimmi, hafiz, ijma, khutbah (or khutba), madrasah (or madrasa), muezzin (or muazzin), murshid, waqf (or wakf, etc), are simply transliterations of the Arabic originals. But since different individuals have different ideas about how the Arabic alphabet should be transliterated into Latin characters, in many cases there is no single correct way to spell an Arabic loanword and, instead, dictionaries offer several - sometimes as many as seven - accepted variant spellings. What variant spellings have already been cited above. Other prime examples include: sequin, zequin, zequine, zecchino, zechin, zecchin, zecchine; durra, dura, dhurra, doora, doura, dourah; gufa, guffa, goofa, goofah, kufa, koofah; shariat, sharia, shar, shar', sheria; qadi, cadi, kadi, kadhi, gazi; ghazel, ghazel, gaze/, gasal, ghasel. These variant spellings of Arabic loanwords really do not create any serious problems, for the words, regardless of which variant you consider, are generally relatively close both in sound (allowing for English pronunciation) and meaning to their Arabic originals. The key word here is generally, for in more than a few cases loanwords have been altered beyond recognition both in form and meaning. 4.1 The Study of Arabisms For our study we have followed the Narrow Approach using studies of Rudolf Filipović whose whole work was based on the studies by Werner Betz (1949, 1959), Einar Haugen (1950, also 1956), and Uriel Weinreich (1953). Various linguists have gone in for influence of the English language on other languages using the methods that were worked out in Teorija jezika u kontaktu. Uvod u lingvistiku jezičnih dodira (Theory of Languages in Contact. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics) by Rudolf Filipović. Since the English language is constantly changing, responding to the world around it and absorbing elements from every other language and culture that it comes into contact with, many linguists have occupied themselves with these loanwords. For the purpose of this study, first we have to define arabisms and we followed Rudolf Filipović (1990, p. 20) and his definition of Anglicism: An arabism is any word borrowed from the Arabic language denoting an object or a concept which is at the moment of borrowing an integral part of Arabic culture and civilization; it need not be of Arabic origin, but it must have been adopted to the linguistic system of Arabic and integrated into the vocabulary of Arabic. Our analysis of arabisms in the English language is primarily based on how Rudolf Filipović analysed anglicisms in European languages in his book Anglicizmi u hrvatskom ili srpskom jeziku: porijeklo-razvojznačenje (Anglicisms in Croatian or Serbian: origin-development-meaning) (Filipović, 1990) using his methods that he briefly worked out in his book Teorija jezika u kontaktu. Uvod u lingvistiku jezičkih dodira. (Theory of Languages in Contact. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics) (1986). Filipović introduces his new terminology: adaptation on the phonological level is called transphonemization (phoneme substitution) and is further analysed as zero, partial and free. 55 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo This study deals with arabisms in the field of religion 4.2. Integration of Arabisms The integration of a certain number of arabisms into English - the receiving language, whose linguistic system is different from that of Arabic, requires a linguistic analysis to explain how the process is performed. Arabic source words in passing from one system into several others must be adapted before they can be integrated. The analysis of every arabism in our dictionaries of arabisms in the English language (Filipović, 1991, p. 125-133) is organised so that it defines: 1) the origin of the arabism (i.e. from which Arabic model-source it was developed), 2) its ortography or spelling, 3) its pronunciation in the receiving language, 4) its morphological categories (parts of speech and gender), and 5) its meaning. To achieve this, the analysis is performed on four levels: (a) the orthographic level, to show how the spelling of an Arabic source word is adapted into the orthography of the receiving language - English, (b) the phonological level, to explain the pronunciation of the arabism especially when it differs from the Arabic source word, (c) the morphological level, to show how the citation form of the arabism (and, if it is a noun, its gender, indicated by sb-m/f/n) are determined, (d) the semantic level, to determine which meaning of the Arabic source word is transferred into the corresponding arabism. We are going to discuss here the orthography and phonetics of arabisms. 4.3. The Orthography of Arabisms The adaptation of an Arabic source word into an arabism begins on the orthographic level in order to determine the spelling of the arabism (the citation form) and its relation to the orthography of the model (the Arabic source). First we have to define an orthography. It as a learnable human technology consisting of 1) a set of characters and 2) conventions for using them to make language visible. Since Arabic is written in a very different alphabet from English or any other language written with Latin alphabet, it is difficult for people with no knowledge of the Arabic alphabet to understand Arabic texts. It is than helpful to transliterate this alphabet into the Latin alphabet. For the purpose of this study we have to make a difference between transliteration and transcription because these two terms are often confused. Transliterating is a representation of an alphabet with letters from a different alphabet. The translation is done character by character, syllable by syllable. In other words, transliteration is used to reproduce the Arabic writing system into Latin alphabets. When trying to find a standard transliterator for Arabic, it was found that the writing is similiar to its pronunciation. Therefore, it was decided to find a system for phonetic transcription that both reproduces speech and writing. The term Transcription, as used here, denotes an orthography devised and used by linguists to characterize the phonology or morphology of a language. Trained linguists often use the International Phonetic Alphabet to transcribe languages. The typical transcription of Arabic has as its purpose to convey the pronunciation of Arabic words, usually to foreigners who are not comfortable with traditional Arabic orthography. Given their previous schooling in the orthographies used for their native languages, Western Europeans are more comfortable with a Roman-based transcription; Russians and Bulgarians would obviously prefer a Cyrillic transcription, etc. These transcriptions are possible orthographies for Arabic, possible ways of making Arabic visible, but because they use different character inventories and different conventions, they are different from the standard Arabic orthography. There are four possibilities but with arabisms in the field of Islam there are three: (1) the orthography of the arabism is formed on the basis of the pronunciation of the model: Arabic araq /ɑrɑk/ - English: arak Arabic ra'īs /re'i:s/ - English: reis (2) the orthography of the arabism follows the orthography of the model without any change: Arabic Allāh /ɑl'lɑ:h/ - English: Allah Arabic hijāb /hi'dʒɑ:b/ - English: hijab 56 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo (3) the orthography of the arabism follows partly the pronunciation and partly the spelling of the model in either order: - English: salaam Arabic salām /sɛ'lɑ:m/ 4.4 The Phonology of Arabisms The pronunciation is determined on the phonological level according to the similarity and dissimilarity of the phonological systems of Arabic and the receiving language - English. (1) If both systems of pronunciation have the elements equally described, then the substitution is complete and the arabism is pronounced in the way of the receiving language. Since there is no change, we call this process zero transphonemisation (Filipović, 1977, p. 125-133): Arabic bi-smi-lla-h /bis'milə/ - Arabic 'imām /i'mǡ:m/ - English: bismillah English: imam /bis'milə/ /i'mǡ:m/ (2) If some elements of the receiving language are different by their description, the pronunciation of the arabism is only partially equal to the Arabic source word: the process is called partial or compromise transphonemisation: Arabic halāl /hǡ'lǡ:l/ - English: halal /hə'lǡ:l/ (3) If the pronunciation of the Arabic source word consists of elements which do not have equivalents in the sound system of the receiving language, then the substitution is free: this process is called free transphonemisation and there is no such arabism in the field of Islam so there we have provided this example with the Arabism in the field of food: Arabic sukkar /suk ֽ◌kɛr/ - English: sugar /ʃugə/ 5. Conclusion The Arabic language has without doubt served as a very effective medium for the communication of the message of Islam. It has also served as a means for preserving the cultural and religious heritage of Arabicspeaking and Muslim peoples. In this sense, the language has been extremely useful to the religion. However, in its role as the language of the Qur'an, Arabic has benefited enormously. Furthermore, the need for Muslims, whether native or non-native speakers of Arabic, to memorize and recite verses from the Qur'an in their daily worship has helped to keep the Arabic language alive. It was due to its association with Islam and the Qur'an that Arabic gained a good deal of prestige as the language of faith, a faith that was gaining more and more followers with each new day. The interest in the new faith brought with it interest in the language of that faith. It was under the banner of Islam that Arabic has influenced many languages. In addition, the relationship between the English language and Islam has great significance in contemporary times as the English language continues to play an important role as a conveyer of knowledge about Islam to the international community. The English language has been one of the most hospitable languages in the world in accepting foreign loanwords and one of the languages that contributed to English is the Arabic language as a donor of words to other languages, not only of English but also of other languages. When it comes to the integration i.e the alteration of a borrowed word to such an extent that native speakers are no longer aware of any foreignness of arabisms from a donor language -- Arabic into English as the receiving language -- arabisms can be broadly divided into loanwords, i.e. those which have been assimilated phonologically, orthographically, morphologically or semantically and foreign words, i.e. those which have no assimilation. Most of the arabisms are loanwords but directly borrowed arabisms which are connected with Islam are foreign words. They form their orthography on the basis of the pronunciation of the model (Arabic: bi-smillāh /bis'mil ǡ/ -English: bimillah /bis'mil ə/) or an arabism follows the orthography of the model without any change (Arabic: hijāb /hi'dʒǡ:b/ - English: hijab). 57 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References: Abdussalam, A. S. (1999). Islam and Language. Kuala Lumpur: Al-Hilal Publishing. Al-Faruqi, I.R.(1986). Toward Islamic English. Virginia: International Institute of Islamic Thought. Al-Jindi, A . (1908). Al-Fusha lughat al-Qur'an. Lebanon: Typopress. Chejne, A. (1969). The Arabic language: its role in history. Minnesota: Minessota Press. Filipović, R. (1977). Transphonemization : substitution on the phonological level reinterpreted. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Filipović, R. (1986) .Teorija jezika u kontaktu, uvod u lingvistiku jezičnih dodira. Zagreb: JAZU, Školska knjiga. Filipović, R. (1990). Anglicizmi u hrvatskom ili srpskom jeziku. (Anglicisms in Croatian or Serbian: origindevelopment-meaning). Zagreb: JAZU, Školska knjiga. Filipović, R. (1991). The English Element in European Languages: vol. 3 : Reports and Studies. Zagreb: of Zagreb. University Jassem, Z. A. (1995). Islamic English: An applied Linguistic Perspective. A paper presented at the 9th Symposium on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics. Greece: Thessaloniki. Peters, J. & H. Salloum (1996). Arabic Contributions to the English Vocabulary, Lebanon: Typopress. 58 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 379 Title A name given to the resource Pronunciation and Transphonemization of Arabisms in the Islamic English Language Author Author Dazdarevic, Samina Abstract A summary of the resource. This work emphasizes the relationship between the English language and Islam and its significance in contemporary times. It focussed on the important role of the English language as a conveyor of knowledge about Islam to the international community and on the diverse ways in which Western and global cultures, often accessible in English, would no doubt continue to connect with the Muslim world. The English language has been one of the most hospitable languages in the world in accepting foreign loanwords and one of the languages that contributed to English is the Arabic language as a donor of words to other languages. Directly borrowed arabisms which are connected with Islam are pronounced the same in Arabic and English, it is zero transphonemisation or partial - compromise tranphonemisation. They form their orthography on the basis of the pronunciation of the model or an arabism follows the orthography of the model without any change. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3513cc97673818e38576f50fb2680ff3.pdf a05bba3dc561850e45825218015fb6d8 PDF Text Text The Current Situation of Citrus in the World and Turkish Markets Banu Dal Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute Antalya Turkey banudal@yahoo.com Abstract: Turkey is among the leading countries in the world in citrus production as far as its geographical position and its ecological properties are concerned. In 2008 data indicate a global world citrus production of 122.087.751 tonnes, 22.019.156 tonnes of which is produced by China, with Brasil second with a production of 20.774.752 tonnes, the USA third with 11.692.770 tonnes, Turkey ninth with 3.026.940 tonnes. About 47.2% of this production is represented by oranges, 25% mandarins, 22% lemons, 5.5% grapefruit. Citrus constitutes 23.6% of total fruit production and 35.4% of total exports of Turkey. Citrus is produced mainly in Mediterranean and Aegean regions and partially in East Black Sea region in Turkey. The study has evaluated the current situation of citrus in the World and Turkish markets, common varieties associated. Keywords: Citrus, species, cultivar, import, export Introduction Citrus is produced in the tropical and subtropical climate zones between 40 ° north and south latitudes. It is also possible to commercially produce citrus in more northerly or southerly suitable microclimate areas and locations where ocean winds soften the climate. Citrus Production And Market In The World And In Turkey Citrus is produced on 8.716.255 hectares in the world and 113.061 hectares in Turkey. World citrus production amounted to 122 million tonnes in 2008. Production in Turkey was recorded as 3.026.940 tonnes. World productivity average was calculated as 1401 kg/da, whereas the average in Turkey was above that of the world with 2677 kg/da. (FAO, 2008) (Table 1) Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Production (ton) 104 273 191 106 245 530 106 557 953 110 965 382 105 431 984 116 223 849 118 563 114 122 087 751 World Area (ha) Yield(Kg/da) 7 201 786 7 298 577 7 582 818 7 607 900 7 605 363 8 318 929 8 658 760 8 716 265 1 448 1 456 1 405 1 459 1 386 1397 1369 1401 Production (ton) 2 475 000 2 490 000 2 485 000 2 705 000 2 585 000 3 220 435 2 988 664 3 026 940 Turkey Area (ha) Yield(Kg/da) 88 933 89 982 94 494 96 778 96 778 97 173 98 300 113 061 2 786 2 771 2 633 2 800 2 674 3314 3040 2677 Table 1. Citrus production figures, areas and productivity figures in the world and Turkey between 2001 and 2008. As far as the production figures of countries are concerned, China leads with 22.019.156 tonnes, followed by Brasil with 20.774.752 tonnes, USA with 11.692.770 tonnes, India with 7.168.700 tonnes, Mexico with 157 �7.502.917 tonnes, Spain with 5.911.600 tonnes, Iran Islamic Republic with 3.756.000 tonnes, Egypt with 3.230.986 tonnes. Turkey is the ninth with a production of 3.026.940 tonnes. Table 2. indicates production figıures in Turkey, China and Brasil with respect to species. Species Production (tonnes) Turkey 167.765 672.452 1.427.160 756.473 3.090 3.026.940 Grapefruit (inc. pomelos) Lemons and limes Oranges Tangerines, mandarins Citrus fruit, nes Total Production (tonnes) China 567.546 917.166 3.454.125 15.622.593 1.457.726 22.019.156 Production (tonnes) Brasil 72.000 1.040.000 18.389.752 1.273.000 20.774.752 Table 2. Production figıures in Turkey, China and Brasil with respect to species in 2008. World citrus production is composed of oranges with 55%, mandarin with 23%, lemons with 11%, grapefruit with 4% and other citrus species with 6%. Our national production was made up of oranges with 47%, mandarin with 25%, lemons with 22% and grapefruit with 5,5%. Due to the properties of the varieties produced in Brasil and the market structure of the country, around 70% of the production is channelled to orange juice industry. Brasil is unique in concentrated juice export with this feature. While most of the production is kept for juice industry in the USA, mostly fresh consumption is preferred in the EU. Spain is the most important exporter of fresh orange varieties among EU countries and third countries. It is followed by South Africa Egypt and Morocco are important players on the Russian market. Recent production increase and accordingly the increasing export figures in Egypt draw attention (Anonymous, 2009a). 2,3 millions of tonnes of fresh fruit and vegetables were exported by Turkey in return for 1.759.114.179 USD Dollars in 2008 (Anonymous, 2009b). Citrus hold the greatest percentage as far as both amount and revenue are concerned in total fresh exports (Table 3). 826.385 tonnes were exported with a revenue of 587.420.060 USD Dollars (Table 3) (Anonymous, 2009b). 2008 Increase/Decrease (%) 2008-2009 2009 Groups Ouantity (tonnes) Ouantity (tonnes) Value($) Value($) Ouantity Value Citrus Other fresh fruits 826.385 587.420.060 1.184.608 801.829.022 43 37 1.052.098 672.071.059 1.055.712 653.478.303 0 -3 Fresh vegetable 457.501 499.623.060 530.870 492.239.087 16 -1 Total 2.335.984 1.759.114.179 2.771.190 1.947.546.412 19 11 Table 3. Changes in Turkish fresh fruit and vegetable export figures between 2008 and 2009. An increase of 19% was recorded in fresh fruit and vegetables in quantity and 11% in revenues. Citrus had an increase of 43% in quantity and 37% in revenues and topped the list in 2009 with 801.829.022 USD Dollars (Table 3). Lemon has increase by 82% in quantity and 37% in value among citrus, with a revenue of 282.140.639 USD Dollars (Table 4). 158 �2008 Increase/Decrease (%) 2008-2009 2009 Crop Ouantity (tonnes) Value($) Lemon 226.600 206.506.893 Mandarin 313.833 Orange Ouantity (tonnes) Value($) Ouantity Value 412.089 282.140.639 82 37 203.957.036 369.141 259.096.215 18 27 157.295 94.917.841 266.371 171.386.364 69 81 Grapefruit 128.615 82.006.525 136.904 89.089.742 6 9 Other citrus 42 31.765 104 116.062 147 265 Citrus total 826.385 587.420.060 1.184.608 801.829.022 43 37 Table 4. Changes in Turkish citrus exports between 2008 and 2009 won the basis of varieties. Turkey exports citrus to around 55 countries with Russia being the first with 33% (Anonymous, 2009b). It is followed by Ukraine with 13%, Iraq with 11%, Saudi Arabia and Romania with 7% respectively. Table 5 shows the countries importing citrus from Turkey in the 2008-2009 period and the figures thereof. Russian Federation is the most important importer of oranges after EU. There is a serious competition between Egypt and Turkey regarding orange exports to the Russian Federation. The most important supplier of this country in the summer period is South Africa (Anonymous, 2009a). While Egypt is the most important exporter to Saudi Arabia, remarkable amounts are also exported by Turkey as well. Other important orange importing countries after Saudi Arabia are Canada, Hong Kong, Ukraine and UAE. The 2007/2008 season has been quite negative for the lemon sector. The drought in Spain in the summer of 2007, the very hot fronts and drought in the summer and the freezing winter in Turkey, USA and Argentina have impeded the global lemon production considerably. EU counties, the Russian Federation and East European countries constitute the major markets of fresh lemon consumption. Grapefruit production is not globally common as opposed to other varieties. The majority of global grapefruit production is China where internal consumption is remarkable. USA, however is the major exporter of grapefruit supplying Japan and EU, France in particular. Among the countries channelling most of the production to export are South Africa, Israel and Turkey. Israel and Turkey are competing on EU, Russia and Eastern European markets. Another major global exporter of grapefruit is Japan. China leads the mandarin production, followed by Spain, the producer and exporter among EU countries. Italy and Greece are the other mandarin producers in the EU. Although Japan is another major producer, the vast majority of the production is designated for internal consumption. If the Spanish exports of small citrus such as mandarin to other EU countries is ignored, the major exporter is Turkey. Morocco is also a leading small citrus variety producer and exporter (Anonymous, 2009a). Country 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Russian Federation Ukraine Iraq Saudi Arabia Romania Poland Germany Bulgaria Iran Islamic 01.01.2008 / 31.12.2008 Ouantity Value (KG) ($) 01.01.2009 / 31.12.2009 Ouantity Value (KG) ($) 263.366.301 120.662.795 58.748.558 49.422.158 77.329.888 20.293.208 17.897.675 24.701.474 13.485.732 366.137.606 148.366.169 150.846.877 83.807.482 83.413.875 31.359.147 24.202.830 34.335.994 26.316.685 197.610.561 84.176.607 32.969.220 38.143.132 50.067.286 17.481.198 16.113.335 13.184.195 7.173.831 159 262.427.176 101.834.292 92.004.505 56.128.526 53.143.402 22.676.299 18.670.197 18.203.620 15.144.800 Increase/Decrease(%) Ouantity Value (KG) ($) 39 23 157 70 8 55 35 39 95 33 21 179 47 6 30 16 38 111 �10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Rep. Serbia Holland Czech Republic Greece United Kingdom Mersin free zone Macedonia Georgia AzerbaijanNaxcivan Hungary Bosnia& Herzegovina 16.326.321 15.879.184 12.572.409 13.467.998 20.367.586 18.301.002 13.354.453 13.281.050 25 15 6 -1 13.141.721 11.649.969 9.855.083 9.581.353 16.948.416 18.838.523 12.657.647 12.382.527 29 62 28 29 6.079.733 5.205.389 16.204.217 12.211.823 167 135 20.819.794 10.686.998 10.710.643 13.469.408 6.572.327 5.953.686 13.733.565 12.979.121 12.235.071 10.523.868 7.936.157 7.750.935 -34 21 14 -22 21 30 8.821.234 8.662.943 5.281.276 6.503.128 10.402.230 9.724.990 7.082.757 7.050.150 18 12 34 8 6.406.327 4.289.849 10.307.368 6.184.279 61 44 Table 5. Leading 20 countries in exports from Turkey in 2008-2009 January-December periods. Table 6. indicates export figures with respect to species for the leading 5 countries citrus is exported from Turkey (in 2008 & 2009). Counrty/ Species LEMON Russian Federation Saudi Arabia Ukraine Romania Iraq MANDARIN Russian Federation Ukraine Iraq Romania Saudi Arabia ORANGE Russian Federation Iraq Ukraine Iran Islamic Rep. Romania GRAPEFRUIT Russian Romania Ukraine 2008 (January-December) Ouantity (kg) Value ($) 69.497.395 26.448.779 28.846.246 13.178.895 2.049.845 Ouantity (kg) 64.270.024 23.047.550 25.021.890 11.172.656 1.227.117 115.647.114 60.287.784 26.458.966 26.041.715 15.382.207 Ouantity (kg) 78.941.231 39.225.126 15.218.945 16.253.723 10.346.869 45.496.530 29.474.842 21.447.552 10.369.580 13.618.365 Ouantity (kg) 32.725.262 24.490.913 10.081.213 30.207.892 16.128.749 13.388.450 5.436.229 8.060.034 Value ($) Value ($) Value ($) 24.191.414 14.580.873 6.541.141 2009 (January-December) Ouantity (kg) Value ($) 105.807.501 59.882.035 43.061.854 24.521.321 25.200.401 Ouantity (kg) 73.412.406 39.208.246 29.003.885 16.607.912 15.085.872 136.819.370 59.645.469 54.069.596 25.201.944 17.456.666 Ouantity (kg) 102.552.369 42.189.962 33.623.819 15.983.525 12.476.592 85.162.069 69.005.202 34.139.195 14.541.426 12.439.311 Ouantity (kg) 38.327.246 21.251.299 11.519.651 59.803.414 41.736.700 22.851.972 8.099.085 7.540.283 160 Value ($) Value ($) Value ($) 26.645.064 13.011.682 7.788.473 Increase/Decrease (%) Ouantity Value ($) (kg) 52 126 49 86 1.129 Ouantity (kg) 18 -1 104 -3 13 Ouantity (kg) 87 134 59 40 -9 Ouantity (kg) 17 -13 14 14 70 16 49 1.129 Value ($) 30 8 121 -2 21 Value ($) 98 159 71 49 -6 Value ($) 10 -11 19 �Poland Germany 10.777.922 6.422.274 6.846.338 4.295.899 10.228.297 6.246.179 6.918.095 4.439.746 -5 -3 1 3 Table 6. Export figures with respect to species for the leading 5 countries citrus is exported from Turkey Varieties Produced And Exported By Turkey Varieties exported by Turkey are; in oranges; Washington Navel, blood orenges, Jaffa, Valencia, Thomson, Hamlin, Trablus, Navelina, in mandarin; Clemantin, Monreal, Satsuma, Wilking, Tanjerin, Fremont, Mineola Tanjelo, Nova, Marisol, Okitsu, in grapefruit; Marsh Seedless, Thompson, Red Blush, Star Ruby, Pink Ruby, Rio Red and in lemon; Interdonat, Lamas, Kütdiken, Yatak, Meyer, Tatlı limon (Anonymous, 2006; Dal &Gübbük 2007; Koç et al., 2009). Conclusion In order to increase export figures of Turkey, it is important to widen product diversity and lengthen the production season. Sustainability is also of high importance to endure on the market. It is necessary to plan product and production with a view to exporting. With the broadening of the diversity of varieties in citrus and thus filling in the gaps on global market, the sector will benefit considerably. References Anonymous, 2006. Yaş Meyve Sebze Sektörü Sorun Ve Çözüm Önerileri.. Akdeniz Đhracatçı Birlikleri . Meyve Sebze Đhracatçi Birlikleri Ortak Yönetim Kurulu. Nisan 2006 Anonymous, 2009a. Akdeniz Đhracatçı Birlikleri Araştırma Serisi. 2008 – 2009 Sezonu Küresel Narenciye Sektör Değerlendirmesi No:56. ( http://www.akib.org.tr). Anonymous, 2009b. Akdeniz Đhracatçi Birlikleri Genel Sekreterliği. Yaş Meyve Sebze Đhracatçilari Birliği Değerlendirme Raporu Türkiye Geneli ( 2008 / 2009 Ocak – Aralik Dönemi). Dal B.,& Gübbük H. (2007). Turunçgillerde Dünya ve Ülkemiz Piyasasında Mevcut Durum, Yaygın Çeşitler, Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri.V.Ulusal Bahçe Bitkileri Kongresi. Erzurum.Cilt 1. s.226-229. FAO, (2008). Production yearbook. http://www.fao.org Koç A.A., Işik S., Erdem S., Beyaz B., (2009). Türkiye’nin AB Üyeliğinin Turunçgil Sektörüne Etkileri. Rapor. 187s. 161 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 357 Title A name given to the resource The Current Situation of Citrus in the World and Turkish Markets Author Author Dal, Banu Abstract A summary of the resource. Turkey is among the leading countries in the world in citrus production as far as its geographical position and its ecological properties are concerned. In 2008 data indicate a global world citrus production of 122.087.751 tonnes, 22.019.156 tonnes of which is produced by China, with Brasil second with a production of 20.774.752 tonnes, the USA third with 11.692.770 tonnes, Turkey ninth with 3.026.940 tonnes. About 47.2% of this production is represented by oranges, 25% mandarins, 22% lemons, 5.5% grapefruit. Citrus constitutes 23.6% of total fruit production and 35.4% of total exports of Turkey. Citrus is produced mainly in Mediterranean and Aegean regions and partially in East Black Sea region in Turkey. The study has evaluated the current situation of citrus in the World and Turkish markets, common varieties associated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f1b2919467540f2e50e375a3efb1f095.pdf d0ab165fe0f9d26bde25fe48326e1715 PDF Text Text Evaluation of Zinc Accumulation Ability of Transgenic and Non Transgenic Tobacco Hatice Daghan Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey hdaghan@mku.edu.tr Mehmet Arslan Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Field Crop, 31000 Hatay, Turkey marslan@mku.edu.tr Nurcan Koleli Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey nkoleli@mersin.edu.tr Veli Uygur Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey vuygur@mku.edu.tr Abdullah Eren Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 31000 Hatay, Turkey aeren@mku.edu.tr Absract: The T2 generations of the ScMTII gene bearing transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants were grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L1 Zn to evaluate Zn accumulation capacity. Dry mass of shoot and roots, Zn concentration and Zn content were determined. In addition to Zn, glutathion (SH groups) concentrations, N, P, K, Cu, Fe and Mn of shoots and roots were determined. After growth for 15 days on media containing 10 mg L-1 Zn, non-transgenic plant showed slight chlorosis symptoms, including significant reduction in growth and chlorophyll. Transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants have been tested in terms of phytoremediator for Zn accumulations. The highest Zn concentration in shoots and also roots was tested in all Zn supply. The results showed that Zn accumulation ability of transgenic tobacco plant was higher than nontransgenic tobacco plants and Zn accumulation in the transgenic and the non transgenic tobacco plants were lower in the shoots compared to the roots. The Zn concentration in shoot of transgenic plant was increased by approximately 1.4 times compared to the non transgenic tobacco plants. Higher amount of Zn concentration in the shoot is a good indicator as a phytoremediation agent. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Introduction Heavy metal contamination of soils is a common problem in the world (Finzgar and Lestan, 2007). Many heavy metal cations such as Cu2+, Zn 2+, Mn2+, etc., are essential plant micronutrients, but when present in excess, these and non-essential metals, such as Cd2+, Hg2+ or Pb2+, can become extremely toxic 94 �(Macek et al., 2002). Heavy metals, released to the environment from anthropogenic and natural sources, tend to persist in soils, sediments and water and are difficult to remove. Heavy metals in soils frequently remain in the upper horizons, causing adverse effects on soil microbial activities and crop productivity, with the added risk of contamination of the food chain. Remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. Remediation technologies for contaminated soils can be grouped into three general categories: (1) extraction/removal, (2) destruction after separation, and (3) in situ processes. For third process, several technologies can be employed to clean up the soils contaminated by heavy metals, this process including thermal, biological, and physical/chemical procedures, or their appropriate combinations. These technologies usually require the removal of contaminants from contaminated soils, such as phytoremediation. Phytoremediation is defined as the use of green plants to remove pollutants from the environment or to render them harmless (Raskin et al., 1997). Phytoremediation technologies include phytovolatilzation, phytostabilisation and phytoextraction (Vangronsveld et al., 2000; Garbisu and Alkorta, 2001). The terms phytoremediation and phytoextraction are sometimes incorrectly used as synonyms, but phytoremediation is a concept while phytoextraction is a specific cleanup technology (Kumar et al. 1995). Phytoextraction is the most commonly recognized of all phytoremediation technologies, and is the focus of the research proposed in this prospectus. Phytoextraction is the most acceptable and applied phytoremediation technique that can successfully remove heavy metals from soils (Cunningham et al., 1995; Dushenkov et al., 1997; Ebbs et al., 1998; Huang et al., 1998). The removal of heavy metals from soil by plants, resulting in metal uptake, transport and concentration in plant tissues, is described as phytoextraction. These plants known as metal hyperaccumulators, frequently endemic to metalliferous soils with the capacity to accumulate unusually large concentrations of metals in their aboveground parts (shoots), are potentially most effective for this strategy (Baker and Brooks, 1989). Metal hyperaccumulator plants comprise species that accumulate (in mg/kg)>10000 (Mn or Zn), >1000 (Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) or >100 (Cd) in their shoots (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Wenzel and Jokwer, 1999). Of the over 450 plant species which have been identified as hyperaccumulators, 75% have been Ni hyperaccumulators (Clemens, 2001). Cropping metal-contaminated soils with species of these plants has demonstrated the potential of this technique as a low cost, low technology alternative to physical and chemical methods of soil remediation (McGrath et al., 1993), although it is limited by the rarity, slow growth rates and low biomass production of many hyperaccumulator species. Two most important characters include the ability to accumulate large quantities of biomass rapidly and the ability to accumulate large quantities of environmentally important metals in the shoot tissue (Kumar et al. 1995; Cunningham and Ow, 1996; Blaylock et al. 1997; McGrath, 1998). It is the combination of high metal accumulation and high biomass production that results in the most metal removal. In practice, metal accumulating plants are seeded or transplanted into metal contaminated soil and are cultivated using established agricultural practices. The roots of established plants absorb metal elements from the soil and translocate them to the above-ground shoots where they accumulate. If metal availability in the soil is not adequate for sufficient plant uptake, chelates or acidifying agents may be used to liberate them into the soil solution (Huang and Cunningham, 1996; Huang et al. 1997; Lasat et al. 1998). First, hyperaccumulator plants are usually specific for one particular metal (Baker and Brooks, 1989), and are adapted to precise climate and soil conditions (not really transferable). Furthermore, they cannot be managed as a conventional crop, have low biomass, and often a short life cycle. Therefore it seems more reasonable to search for non hyperaccumulator plants showing good features for phytoremediation and then transfer biotechnologically traits that make the modified plant even a more powerful tool than natural hyperaccumulators. Hence, the aim of the work reported in this paper was to engineer increased heavy metal absorption in a screen selected wild type plant species. In recent years, genetic engineering is a technique that might be applied advantageously to the search for more suitable phytoremediation plants combining high metal accumulating capacity and high aboveground biomass yield (Kärenlampi et al. 2000). With genetic engineering, plants can be manipulated to accumulate, translocate and tolerate heavy metals, thus creating the ideal transgenic plant for environmental clean up in the shortest possible time (Pilon-Smits, 2005; Bennett, 2003; Persans et al., 2001). For instance, genes can be isolated from metal hyperaccumulators and inserted into fast growing high biomass plant species (Persans et al. 2001). It has been suggested that phytoextraction would become commercially available if metal removal and tolerance properties of hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulescens (Brown et al., 1995; Bennett, 2003) or Pteris vittata (Ma et al., 2001), could be transferred into fast growing, high biomass producing crop species. The introduction of an additional metal binding domain to the implemented protein should further enhance the metal binding capacity (Macek et al. 1996, Kotrba et al. 1999). The goal of genetic modification is to develop fast growing, high biomass plants 95 �with the metal accumulation traits of natural small biomass hyperaccumulators: ‘engineered phytoremediators’ (Ow, 1996). The advantage of this technique is the relatively short space of time and selective targeting of genes for improvement. Most recently, Cd accumulation was enhanced when a metallothionein gene from Silene vulgaris L. was over-expressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) (Gorinova et al., 2006). The main objective of this study was to evaluate Zn accumulation ability of transgenic (p-SScMTII) tobacco (Nicotiana tobaccum) cultivar Petit Havana and the non-transgenic tobacco cultivar Petit Havana (SR-1) grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn. In addition to Zn accumulation, chlorophyll, glutathion (SH groups), N, P, Cu, Fe and Mn concentrations were also measured. Material and Methods Seeds of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII gene bearing) and non-transgenic tobacco (Nicotiana tabaccum) cultivar Petit Havana (SR-1) were obtained from RWTH-Aachen Molecular Biology Department. Seeds were germinated initially on Murashige and Skoog plates containing antibiotic (kanamycine), then transferred to a perlit and torf (1:1) mixture since having 2-3 leaves (after approximately 4 weeks). Then the seedlings were transferred into the pots included Hoagland nutrient solutions and were grown under controlled environmental conditions with a 16 h light/8 h dark period (light intensity of 10 klux or 120 µmol m-2s-1), a 25/20 oC temperature regime, and 60% relative humidity. Hoagland nutrient solutions consist of 3 mM KNO3, 2 mM Ca(NO3)2.4H2O, 0.25 mM MgSO4.7H2O, 1 mM KH2PO4, 0.001 mM MnSO4.H2O, 0.1 mM FeEDTA, 0.00025 mM CuSO4.H2O, 0.00025 mM (NH4)6Mo7O24, 0.001 mM ZnSO4.7H2O, 2.5 mM KCl, 0.0125 mM H3BO3; the medium buffered to pH 5.2. One in every 3 days the plants were transferred to fresh medium. Plants were treated with 0, 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn as ZnSO4.7H2O. Zinc was added to the nutrient medium in doses of 0 (the control), 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn. This Zn dosage was addition to initial Zn concentration (0.288 mg L-1) in nutrient solution. The plants were harvested after 15 days of growth. Each treatment was replicated three times for each plant. Before harvest, plants were assessed for the severity of leaf symptoms caused by Zn toxicity. In addition, chlorophyll in old and young leaves was measured using a Konica-Minolta SPAD-502 at the harvest. After harvest, the leaves and roots were separated. The roots were thoroughly washed with deionized water. For SH analysis in fresh tissues, approximately 0.5 g fresh mass (FM) of each organ was separately sampled three times, immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 oC until analysis. In addition, fresh mass of all plant parts was weighted (data not shown). The remaining tissues were oven-dried at 70 °C for determination of dry matter amount and then plant material was decomposed by microwave (MarsXpress) and the heavy metal concentration was determined by ICP-AES (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry, Varian Series II). Dried root and shoot samples were ground and digested in 2 mL 30% H2O2 and 5 mL 65% HNO3 in sealed vessels of a microwave apparatus. Cadmium, Zn, Fe and Cu were measured by ICP-AES. All sampling and measurements were carried out by using three independent replications. The accuracy of analyses was verified using blanks and the Virginia Tobacco Leaves (CTA-VTL-2) reference material. Total N was determined using Kjeldahl metod, total P was determined also using blue color method and total K was analyzed also using method (Kacar, 1995). Phosphorus, K, Fe, Mn, Cd and Cu concentrations were also measured by ICP-AES. SH-group content was determined using 5-5’-dithiobis (DTNB) under 5% meta-phosphoric acid as a reagent as described in Cakmak and Marschner (1992). Accordingly, 0.5 g fresh plant sample was homogenized in 5% meta-phosphoric acid and centrifuged at 4000 mg kg-1. The reaction mixture contained 0.5 mL aliquot of the supernatant, 2.5 mL 150 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) containing 5 mM EDTA and EDTA 0.5 mL 6mM dithiobisnitrobenzoic acid (DTNB). After incubation at room temperature for 20 min reaction time, the color produced was measured at 412 nm using a Hitachi U-2000 Spectrophotometer. Reduced glutathione was used as a standard in the range of 0 to 100 µg L-1. All measurements were carried out in triplicate. The results of the experiments were analyzed statistically using Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, 1996). Comparisons between means were carried out using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at the significance level of p < 0.05. 96 �Findings After Zn application, visual symptoms were reported through the experiment. Both non-transgenic and transgenic plants (SR-1 and p-S-ScMTII) did not show any typically symptom for Zn toxicity, such as necrosis on oldest leaf, especially on the leaf parts close to stem (data not shown). But non-transgenic tobacco plant showed slight chlorosis at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (Fig. 1). Increased Zn application was obviously decreased the shoot and root growth of both transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco (Fig. 1). After harvest of the tobacco plants the dry mass production of the shoots and roots were determined and is shown in Tab. 1. The dry mass of transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants decreased with the increasing concentration of Zn supply in the nutrient solution (Tab. 1) as shown also Fig.1. The highest shoot and root dry mass were obtained from the p-S-ScMTII gene bearing plants. The dry mass of transgenic and non transgenic tobacco plants were not significantly different (Tab. 1). Figure 1: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoots and roots growth of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) (Nicotiana tabaccum Petit Havana) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days before harvest. Tested Tobacco Plant Zn Supply (mg L-1 ) Dry Weight Zn Concentration Zn Content Shoot Root -1 (g plant ) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (µg plant DM) TF** P-S-SCMTII 0 5 3.56 3.78 0.41 0.48 32 784 116 3168 112 3009 49 1543 0.28 0.25 SR-1 10 0 5 2.12 3.46 3.26 0.09 0.35 0.43 1326 31 578 8145 70 2215 2780 106 1885 794 25 970 0.16 0.44 0.26 10 1.86 n.s.* 0.06 n.s. 980 86 7402 306 1846 560 488 232 0.13 LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not significant **TF: translocation factor 97 �Table 1: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root dry weight, Zn concentration, Zn content and translocation factor of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-transgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. The highest level of Zn concentration in the shoots and roots was detected in the transgenic tobacco plants. The concentration of Zn in the roots was higher than in the shoots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants (Tab. 1). Compared to the control plants, increased Zn dosage resulted in higher Zn concentrations in plant shoots and roots grown in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants. However, the Zn concentrations were higher in the transgenic plants. Our results are in agreement with Paplikova et al. (2004). While the shoots of transgenic tobacco plant accumulated similar Zn concentration (31-32 mg L-1 Zn) with the control plant (SR-1) at 0 mg L-1 Zn supply, at 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn supply accumulated approximately 1.4 times higher Zn. The highest Zn accumulation observed in roots was in transgenic tobacco plants at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (8145 mg kg-1 DM), which was 1.1 times the concentration of the control plant. The highest Zn accumulation in shoots was observed at 10 µM Zn supply (1326 mg kg-1 DM), which was 1.4 times the concentration of the control plant. Hyperaccumulation implies concentrations in dry matter above 1% for Zn, i.e. 10000 mg L-1 (Reeves and Baker, 2000). Transgenic tobacco plant grown on 10 µM Zn supply can be not evaluated as hyperaccumulator. The distribution of the accumulated metals within the plant is important, for phytoremediation, especially for the rate of the translocation into the harvestable parts (Macek et al. 2002). In fact, to evaluate the potential of plants for phytoextraction the translocation factor (TP) was used. This ratio is an indication of the ability of the plant to translocate metals from the roots to the shoots of the plant (Marchiol et al., 2004). Translocation factor is calculated by the ratio of root metal concentration to shoot metal concentration. Metals that are accumulated by plants and largely stored in the roots of plants are indicated by the translocation factor values < 1 with values > 1 indicating that the metals are stored in the shoots. As this evaluation, the translocation factor values of tobacco plants were < 1 and these values value verified that the Zn is stored in the roots. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Zinc content was calculated as dry mass x Zn concentration. Similarly, the highest level of Zn content in the shoots and roots was detected in the transgenic tobacco plants. The content of Zn in the roots was higher than in the shoots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants (Tab. 1). In shoot and root, the total content of Zn (µg plant-1 DM) (Tab. 1) in transgenic tobacco was larger than in non-transgenic tobacco plants. However, Zn content in shoot was higher in transgenic tobacco at 5 mg L-1. Since Zn concentration at 10 mg L-1 Zn supply was the highest but dry mass production was the lowest. This indicated that transgenic tobacco was tolerant to 5 mg L-1 Zn supply. Content of dry matter of transgenic plant was not significantly different compared to non-transgenic tobacco (Tab. 1). The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn in the shoots were lower than in roots in both transgenic and non-transgenic plants. The concentrations of Cu, Fe, Mn in the shoots were higher in non-transgenic tobacco plant than the transgenic tobacco plant. But this difference was not statistically significant (Tab. 2). Tested Tobacco Plant Zn supply (mg L-1 ) Cu Concentration Fe Concentration Mn Concentration Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) Shoot Root -1 (mg kg DM) P-S-SCMTII 0 5 28 27 174 310 81 77 18265 18900 40 46 209 53 SR-1 10 0 5 19 31 34 400 101 181 32 87 85 20322 1900 10126 15 42 56 38 440 147 10 24 2.77 127 49 41 n.s. 3752 2439 24 6.63 561 61 LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not signifigant 98 �Table 2: Effect of increasing Zn supply on Cu, Fe and Zn concentration of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-ransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nurtient solution for 15 days. N Tested Tobacco Plant P Root Shoot K Zn supply (mg L-1 ) Shoot P-S-SCMTII 0 5 4.65 4.50 n.d.** n.d. 0.59 0.59 21.07 1.28 7.54 8.01 4.11 4.13 SR-1 10 0 5 2.80 4.66 4.65 n.d. n.d. n.d. 0.44 0.59 0.59 3.00 18.42 1.25 5.90 8.30 8.08 2.47 3.94 4.12 (%) Root Shoot (%) Root (%) 10 2.31 n.d. 0.41 3.13 5.56 2.77 LSD (p<0.05) n.s.* n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. n.s. *n.s.: not signifigant **n.d.: not determined Table 3: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root N, P and K of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root N, P and K of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and nontransgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days shown in Table 3. But these differences for N, P and K are not statistically significant (Tab. 3). Plants have their own systems for binding heavy metals, mostly based on phytochelatins (Macek et. al., 2002). As a measurement of phytochelatins was determined spectophotometrically total glutathione (SH) in the fresh roots and shoots tissue of tobacco plants. Gluthation content of non-transgenic plant was higher in shoot at especially at 5 and 10 mg L-1 Zn application. But SH content of non-transgenic plant was not statistically significantly different compared to transgenic plant (Tab. 4). The contents of chlorophyll on old and young leaf were severely reduced by the Zn applications relative to 10 mg L-1 Zn supply (Tab. 4), especially with the 10 mg Zn L-1 application. This value verified visual chlorysis symptom. Similar results in chlorophyll were obtained for each of the two tobacco plants. SH Tested Tobacco Plant Zn Supply (mg L-1 ) Chlorophyll Shoot Root -1 (mg kg FM) Old Leaf Young Leaf (SPAD) P-S-SCMTII 0 5 343 136 28 25 37 37 34 31 SR-1 10 0 5 53 269 585 104 25 30 30 39 39 26 35 35 10 462 n.s.* 71 n.s. 32 2 24 n.s. LSD (p<0.05) *n.s.: not signifigant Table 4: Effect of increasing Zn supply on shoot and root SH and chlorophyll (on old and young leaf) of transgenic (p-S-ScMTII) and non-transgenic tobacco (SR 1) grown in hydroponic nutrient solution for 15 days. 99 �Conclusion The remediation of contaminated soil is necessary to preserve the soil resource (Li et al., 2005). There is an urgent requirement for develop of new techniques which are cheaper and more effective to remediate the contaminated soils. Using genetically modified plants is a new technique and has been introduced to remediate metal-contaminated soils. In the present study, the transgenic tobacco showed higher tolerance to Zn and Zn accumulation more than the non-transgenic tobacco plant. The ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco showed not the possibility of its utilization for Zn phytoremediation. Phytoextraction is an environmentally sound method for cleaning up sites that are contaminated with heavy metals. However, the method has been questioned because it produces a biomass-rich secondary hazardous waste containing the extracted metals. Therefore, further treatment of this biomass is environmentally necessary. Acknowledgement This research was supported by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Project No: 108-O-161. We thank Prof. Dr. Rainer Fisher for tobacco plant seeds. References Baker A.J.M., & Brooks R.R. (1998). Terrestrial higher plants which accumulate metals elements: A review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry. Biorecovery, 1, 81–126. Bennett, L.E., Burkhead, J.L., Hale, K.L., Terry, N., Pilon, M., & Pilon-Smits, E.A.H. (2003). Analysis of transgenic Indian mustard plants for phytoremediation of metal contaminated mine tailings. Journal of Environmental Quality, 32, 432-440. Blaylock, M. J., Salt, D.E., Dushenkov, S., Zakaharova, O., Gussman, C.,Kapulnik, Y., Ensley, B.D., & Raskin, I. (1997). 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W. & Cunningham, S.D., (1996) Lead phytoextraction: species variation in lead uptake and translocation. New Phytologist, 134, 75-84. Huang, J.W., Blaylock, M.J., & Kapulnik, Y. (1998). Phytoremediation of uranium-contaminated soils: Role of organic acids in triggering uranium hyperaccumulation by plants. Environmental Science and Technology, 32, 2004-2008. Kärenlampi S., Schat H., Vangronsveld J., Verkleij J.A.C., van der Lelie D., Mergeay M., & Tervahauta A.I. (2000). Genetic engineering in the improvement of plants for phytoremediation of metal polluted soils. Environmental Pollution, 107, 225–231. Kataba-Pendias, A., & Pendias, H. (1984). Trace elements in soils and plants. In: Heavy metals in soils. Alloway, B.J., (ed.). Blackie, Glasgow and London, pp. 339. Kotrba P., Macek T., & Ruml T. (1999). Heavy metal-binding peptides and proteins in plants. Collection of Czechoslovak Chemical Communications., 64: 1057–1086. Kumar, N.P.B.A., Dushenkov, V., Motto, H., & Raskin, I. (1995). Phytoextraction: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from soils. Environmental Science and Technology, 29, 1232-1238. Li Y.M., Chaney R., Brewer E., Roseberg R., Angle J.S., Baker A., Reeves R., & Nelkin J. (2003). Development of a technology for commercial phytoextraction of nickel: economic and technical considerations. Plant and Soil, 249,107115. Ma, J.F., & Nomoto, K. (1996). Effective regulation of iron acquisition in graminaceous plants. The role of mugineic acids as phytosiderophores. Physiologia Plantarum, 97, 609-617. Ma, L.Q., Komar, K.M., Tu, C., Zhang, W., Cai, Y., & Kennelley, E.D. (2001). A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic. Nature, 409, 579-579. Macek T., Macková M., Kučerová P., Chromá L., Burkhard J., & Demnerová K. (2002). Phytoremediation. In: Agathos S., Reineke W. (eds.): Biotechnology for the environment: Soil remediation. Kluwer Acad. Publ., Brussels, Belgium: 115 -137. Macek T., Macková M., Truksa M., Singh-Cundy A., Kotrba P., Yancey N., & Scouten W.H. (1996). Preparation of transgenic tobacco with a yeast metallothionein combined with a polyhistidine tail. Chem. Listy, 90, 690. McGrath, S. P. (1998). Phytoextraction for soil remediation. IN Brooks, R. R. (Ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals, Their Role in Phytoremdiation, Microbiology, Archaeology, Mineral Exploration and Phytomining. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. Ow D.W. (1996). Heavy metal tolerance genes: Prospective tools for bioremediation. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 18, 135-149. Pavlikova, D., Macek, T Mackova, M., Sura, M., Szakova, J. Tlustos, P. (2004). The evaluation of cadmium, zinc and nickel accumulation ability of transgenic tobacco bearing different transgenes. Plant and Soil Envıronment, 50 (12), 513–517. Persans, M.W., Nieman, K., & Salt, D.E. (2001). Functional activity and role of cation-efflux family members in Ni hyperaccumulation in Thlapsi goesingense. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98: 9995-10000. Pilon-Smits, E.A.H. (2005). Phytoremediation. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 56, 15-39. Raskin, I., Smith, R. D., & Salt, D. E. (1997). Phytoremediation of metals: using plants to remove pollutants from the environment. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 8, 221-226. Reeves, R. D., & Brooks, R. R. (1983). European species of Thlaspi L. (Cruciferae) as indicators of nickel and zinc. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 18, 275-283. Reeves, R. D., & Baker, A. J. M. (2000). Metal-accumulating plants. In: Phytoremedation of toxic metals - Using 101 �plants to clean up the environment; Raskin, I., Ensley, B. D., Eds.; John Wiley and Sons Inc.: New York, 2000; pp 193230. SAS Institute Inc. (1996). SAS/STAT Software: Chances and enhancements through release 6.11. SAS Inst. Inc., Carry, NC, USA. Wenzel, W.W. and Jockwer, F., 1999. Accumulation of heavy metals in plants grown on mineralised soils of the Austrian Alps. Environ. Pollut. 104, pp. 145–155. 102 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 339 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Zinc Accumulation Ability of Transgenic and Non Transgenic Tobacco Author Author Daghan, Hatice Arslan, Mehmet Koleli, Nurcan Uygur, Veli Eren, Abdullah Abstract A summary of the resource. The T2 generations of the ScMTII gene bearing transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants were grown on the nutrient medium with the addition of 0, 5 and 10 mg L- 1 Zn to evaluate Zn accumulation capacity. Dry mass of shoot and roots, Zn concentration and Zn content were determined. In addition to Zn, glutathion (SH groups) concentrations, N, P, K, Cu, Fe and Mn of shoots and roots were determined. After growth for 15 days on media containing 10 mg L-1 Zn, non-transgenic plant showed slight chlorosis symptoms, including significant reduction in growth and chlorophyll. Transgenic and non-transgenic tobacco plants have been tested in terms of phytoremediator for Zn accumulations. The highest Zn concentration in shoots and also roots was tested in all Zn supply. The results showed that Zn accumulation ability of transgenic tobacco plant was higher than nontransgenic tobacco plants and Zn accumulation in the transgenic and the non transgenic tobacco plants were lower in the shoots compared to the roots. The Zn concentration in shoot of transgenic plant was increased by approximately 1.4 times compared to the non transgenic tobacco plants. Higher amount of Zn concentration in the shoot is a good indicator as a phytoremediation agent. The results showed that p-S-ScMTII gene bearing transgenic tobacco plant is not suitable for phytoextraction either detected lower amount of Zn concentration (<10000 mg Zn kg-1 DM) in the shoot or the translocation factor value was less than one. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a4922e4c54a6d852181614a273565bd.pdf 5c6e30125d139101ab6ff77065907499 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo An Application of American Customer Satisfaction Index (Acsi) Government Model to Health Services In Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Teoman DUMAN Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina tduman@ibu.edu.ba Elif ÖZTÜRK Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina oztrkelf@hotmail.com Muris MESETOVĠC Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina Muris.mes@gmail.com Haris HOJKURĠC Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina hhojkuri@yahoo.com Ahmet KANTÜRK Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina Akanturk85@yahoo.com Zafer KONAKLI Faculty of Economics International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina zaferkonakli@yahoo.com Abstract: The purpose of this research is to test the relationships between expectations, service quality, satisfaction, complaints and citizen trust in the context of public health services in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) government model is used as the research framework in this study. Initially proposed by Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha and Bryant (1996), ACSI model is the most well-known customer satisfaction model in the US and in most parts of the world. As part of the proposed framework, public perceptions of service quality, expectations, satisfaction, complaints and citizen trust were measured for public health services with a self administered questionnaire. 212 completed questionnaires were used in the data analysis. Research results show that service process, service quality and satisfaction peceptions are main indicators of citizen trust for public health services in Sarajevo. Keywords: American Customer Satisfaction Index, Public Health Services, Bosnia and Herzegovina 723 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Introduction Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country with 4.6 million population. The country is composed of 10 cantons. The Sarajevo canton, which houses the central government, has around 423,000 population. The Public Institution Medical Centre of the Sarajevo Canton is the largest institution in Bosnia and Herzegovina providing primary health care to locals living in Sarajevo canton. The institution has 9 organizational units comprising the main building and associate localities (family medicine clinics), with the total of 2186 employees, out of which 1761 are medical staff, and 425 administrative-technical staff. According to the official statistics the institution served 3,202,081 patients and provided 8,934,285 primary health care services in 2009. As the effects of devastating war in 1990s is disappearing in all aspects of life, studies are needed to understand people‘s perceptions of recovery especially in terms of public services. Research studies about public‘s perceptions of health services in Bosnia and Herzegovina is necessary for future planning but are also very limited in scope. The purpose of this research therefore is to measure the relationships between public‘s expectations, service quality, satisfaction, complaints and citizen trust perceptions in the context of public health services in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) government model is used as the research framework in this study. Satisfaction Theory and Measurement Perceived overall satisfaction is defined as ―fulfillment response, the degree to which the level of fulfillment is pleasant or unpleasant‖ (Oliver, 1997, p.28). Marketing scholars usually agree that consumers compare their product performance perceptions with some standard to reach satisfaction evaluations (Oliver, 1997). The standards used by consumers might be their expectations, values, past experiences or benefits received by other consumers (Fournier ve Mick, 1999). The famous expectancy-disconfirmation theory of consumer satisfaction suggests that disconfirmation results from comparisons of expectations and product performace where positive disconfirmation occurs if product performance evaluations exceeds expectations while negative disconfirmation occurs when product performance evaluations falls short of expectations (Oliver, 1980, p.208). While developing expectations about products, consumers might use ideal standards, same or similar products, market promises and industry norms (Barsky, 1992; Woodruff & Gardial, 1996). Spreng et al. (1996, p.17) suggested that ―expectations are beliefs about the likelihood that a product is associated with certain attributes, benefits and outcomes.‖ Expectancy-disconfirmation model of consumer satisfaction represents a cognitive view where consumers are thought to make rational judgments to make their evaluations. Later theories of consumer satisfaction proposed that consumers‘ affective states are also important parts of satisfaction evaluations. Research showed later that affect was a separate and significant antecedent of satisfaction (Dube-Rioux, 1990; Mano and Oliver, 1993; Oliver, 1994, 1997; Westbrook & Oliver, 1991). One of the main predictors of consumers‘ satisfaction evaluations is consumers‘ quality perceptions. Zeithaml (1988, p.5) defined perceived quality of a product as ―the consumer‘s judgment about the superiority or excellence of a product.‖ Service quality relates to consumers‘ evaluations of the services and defined as ―global judgment or attitude, relating to the superiority of the service‖ (Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry, 1988 p.16). Similar to disconfirmation theory of consumer satisfaction, service quality theory suggests that consumers use their expectations when they make judgments about the quality of products. Researchers argue that consumer satisfaction represents an end result of a consumption experience while service quality serves as a cognitive evaluation of the superioriority of the product against others. To this end, service quality is considered an indicator of consumer satisfaction. American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) Government Model One of the well-known models of consumer satisfaction was proposed by Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha and Bryant (1996). In their American Customer Satisfaction Index Model (ACSI), Fornell and his colleagues proposed that overall customer satisfaction is a result of customer expectations, perceived quality and perceived value. In this model, satisfaction acts as a mediator between these constructs and customer complaints and customer loyalty. These researchers proposed that their model of consumer satisfaction was an overall measurement of a firm‘s 724 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo market offering rather than an evaluation of a specific transaction. In this form, the ACSI model was primarily measuring private sector transactions and a modified version was necessary for public agencies. In a later version of the ACSI model, Fornell and his colleagues proposed ACSI government model (ACSI, 2010). This model is shown in Figure 1. As shown in the figure, customer satisfaction for government agencies is influenced by customer expectations and perceived service quality. According to the model, perceived service quality is a function of the service process, information received, customer service and website. Consequences of satisfaction are customer complaints ot citizen trust toward public services. Figure 1: The American Customer Satisfactio n Index Government Model Health Services Research Customer satisfaction is an indication of success for every business today. Satisfied customers turn to be loyal customers who are main income generators for most businesses. Customer satisfaction is more important for service businesses especially where the nature of the service is highly technical and difficult to understand for service recipients. In such services, higher satisfaction is likely to turn to repeat business. For government agencies, fewer complaints and higher levels of citizen trust are possible with higher satisfaction with these services. Research shows that programs to increase customer satisfaction and decrease consumer complaints have significant effects on hospital financial performance (Howard, 1999). Research also suggest that customers who are encouraged to complain show higher satisfaction with the services if their complaints are resolved well (Nyer, 2000). In a study about health services quality, Shemwell and Yavas measured service quality in hospital services and found that search, credence and experience are main indicators of service quality in health services settings. In another study, Carman (2000) separated hospital services into operational and technical dimensions. Operational dimension represented how the service is offered while technical dimension represented the results of the services. It was found in this study that patients‘ perceptions about technical dimensions of the service is more important for their perceptions of quality. Considering the complexity and technicality of health services, measurement of satisfaction in this sector is a formidable task. Gill and White (2009) argued that standardization, reliability and validity issues for the measurement of satisfaction of health services still remains an issue in academia. Previous research suggest that service quality and satisfaction are major indicators of consumer loyalty and trust. Strength of these relationships depend in part on the level of consumer complaints as lower levels of compliants result in higher satisfaction and loyalty levels (Duman and Kozak, 2009). Nyer (2000) found that customers who are given chances for expressing their complaints report higher satisfaction levels. In another study, Vukmir (2006) found that timing and amount of 725 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo caring are the two main indicators of customer satisfaction for health services. Timely and personalized services can be expected to increase quality, satisfaction and loyalty levels for public services. Current research aims to measure public perceptions of expectations, service quality, satisfaction, complaints and trust and test the relationships between tehse variables in the context of public health services in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Research Methodology Research design Secondary sources were first explored to develop the research framework. A two-page questionaire with three sections were used to collect data. The first section of the questionnaire included questions about general health services experience. Questions such as type of clinic visited and wait time before treatment were asked in this section. The second part of the questions included questions about the concepts that are included in the research model (Figure 1). In this part 22 questions were asked, 19 of which were attitudinal questions and the rest were yesno questions. Questions refering to likelihood to recommend public services, overall confidence in relying on health services, official and unofficial complaints, overall satisfaction, overall quality, clarity of information given by hospital and professionalism of hospital staff were included in second section. Yes-no questions were used to identify if the respondents had any official complaint and whether they used the web site to search information about the health services. Questions in the second part were adapted from ACSI government model (ACSI, 2010) and Fornell et al. (1996). Questions in the second section were measures with seven – point numerical scales where one represented total disagreement and seven represented total agreement to the stated question. Finally, the last section was about demographics. Questions such as age group, gender, education, occupation and monthly household income were placed in the last section. The questionnaire was first prepared in English and transtlated into Bosnian language. Translation of the questionnaire was done with experts in busniess who know both languages and respective culture. Pretesting of the questionnarie was administered with 10 respondents chosen conveniently from a diverse cross-section of the population. The purpose of the pretest was to assess the validity of the questionnaire. The questions that were not fully understood were evaluated again and finalized for data collection. Data collection and sampling Information was gathered directly from actual users of hospital services in Sarajevo Canton. The sample for this study was selected conviniently from a diverse cross-section of the population in Sarajevo Canton. The sample included adults (18 years and older). Ten researchers from a marketing class distributed questionnaires personally to the general public in different parts of Sarajevo between April 1 and April 17 2010. A total of 250 questionnaires were distributed and 211 usable questionnaires were received during this time period, resulting in response rate of 84,4 percent. Respondents‘ anonymity was ensured by asking them not to identify themselves in any way. Gender was represented by 55 percent males and 45 percent females. The age of the respondents is skewed in favor of the younger population (64 percent in 18-35 age group). In the education category 67,2 percent of population had high school or college degree. Finally 54,8 percent of population were employed and 31,9 of population had income between 500 and 999 KMs. Analysis Frequency analysis was used to analyze demographic and visitation variables. The attitudinal variables were analyzed with descriptive analysis was done sample t-tests. In one sample t-tests, means were compared with 4 (midpoint of the scale). The research model was analyzed with multiple regression analysis. In this analysis, three regression models were run. In the first model, service quality was used as the dependent variable while process, information and customer service was used as independent variables. Web site was not used as an independent variable because response rate on this variable was too low. In the second model, customer satisfaction is used as a dependent variable and expectation and service quality were used as the independent variables. Finally, in the third model, citizen trust is used as the dependent variable and customer satisfaction and customer complaints were used as the independent variables. 726 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Results Table 1 presents the demographic and visitation characteristics of the patients. 64 % of patients were in 1835 age range. Males constituted 55 % and females constituted 45 % of the sample. 64 % had college or graduate education and 54,8 % were employed and 60 % had an income level between 500 – 1499 KM. 52 % of people waited until they have received medical treatment between 1- 20 in minute. 64,2 % of patients were given clear information by the hospital employees. Demographic Variables Age Group 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56 or over Total Gender Male Female Total N % 68 67 32 23 21 211 32,2 31,8 15,2 10,9 10 100 115 94 209 55 45 100 Education Status High School Vocational SchoolTechnical school College Graduate Total 57 17 27,5 8,3 81 49 204 39,7 24 100 Occupation Employed Retired Unemployed Student 114 23 21 50 54,8 11,1 10,1 24 Total 208 100 Demographic and Visitation Variables Income Level 0-499 KM 500-999 KM 1000-1499 KM 1500 KM or more Total Clarity of information given Yes No Partially Total Wait time before treatment (in minutes) 1-10 11-20 20-30 31-60 61 or over Total Visited Polyclinic Internal medicine Gynecology Pediatry Orthopedy Neurology Ear nose and throat Dermatology Other Total N % 36 65 57 46 204 17,6 31,9 27,9 22,5 100 124 13 56 193 64,2 6,7 29 100 38 49 30 29 21 167 22,8 29,3 18 17,4 12,6 100 48 20 25 17 10 18 12 56 206 23,3 9,7 12,1 8,3 4,9 8,7 5,8 27,2 100 Table 1: Demographic and Visitation Characteristics of Patients Table 2 presents the results of descriptive analysis and one sample t-tests. The significance of the results in one sample t-tests is measured by the comparison of 4 (nuetral attitude) with the mean values with a pobability level of .05. As seen in the table, respondents have positive feelings toward recommending the services they received (mean= 4,33; p=.01) and feeling confident in relying on these services (mean= 4,28; p=.02). However, respondents find making a formal compliant difficult (mean= 3,33; p=.00) and their complaints were not handled well by the officials (mean= 3,44; p=.00). Also, respondents feel that health services they recieved fell short of their expectations (mean= 3,76; p=.03). Similarly, they feel negative about the quality of services they received (means= 3,72, 3,70, 3,56; p=.01, p=,01, p=,00 respectively) and they find service process as inconvenient as indicated by the mean value of 3,52 (p=.00). Finally, respondents have neutral feelings in terms of expectations, information, customer service and web site (p>.05). 727 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Constructs and Items Citizen Trust Likelihood to recommend Confidence in relying on the health services Complaints Difficulty or ease of making a complaint Complaint handling by the officials Satisfaction Overall satisfaction Expectation confirmation Service Quality Overall Quality Quality in terms of fit to personal requirements Quality in terms of how often things have gone wrong Expectations Expectations of the overall quality Expectations in terms of how well the services fit to personal requirements Process Convenience Timeliness Information Clarity of information Accessibility of information Customer service Courtesy of health care staff Professionalism of the health care staff Web-site Finding information through web-site easily Usefulness of information N Mean Standard Deviation t-value p-value 212 211 4,33 4,28 1,82 1,71 2,60 2,41 0.01 0.02 84 118 3,33 3,44 1,90 1,90 -3,22 -3,20 0.00 0.00 208 213 3,85 3,76 1,74 1,63 -1,24 -2,18 0.22 0.03 211 210 3,72 3,70 1,52 1,58 -2,67 -2,75 0.01 0.01 208 3,56 1,48 -4,31 0.00 212 3,86 1,58 -1,26 0.21 208 3,87 1,47 -1,32 0.19 209 210 3,52 3,82 1,62 1,71 -4,30 -1,49 0.00 0.14 210 209 4,13 3,93 1,72 1,71 1,09 -0,56 0.28 0.57 209 210 3,94 4,12 1,78 1,66 -0,51 1,08 0.61 0.28 49 52 3,94 4,23 1,90 1,78 -0,23 0,94 0.82 0.35 Table 2: One sample t-test for measured variables (test value=4) Model Tests The relationships in the model were tested with three regression models. Before the model tests, correlations between variables were analyzed and presented in Tables 3 and 5. As seen in the tables, variables show moderate to high correlations in the range of .56 - .86 except for web site variable. Web site variable has low correlations with other variables possibly due to low response rate on this variable. For this reason, web site variable is removed from further tests of regressions. The other correlations in the table are significant at .05 probability level. 728 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Process Information Customer service Pearson corr. Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson corr. Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson corr. Service quality Process Information .785(**) ,000 211 ,788(**) ,000 211 ,782(**) ,755(**) ,000 211 ,756(**) ,815(**) Customer service Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 N 211 211 211 Pearson corr. ,203 ,153 ,337(*) ,396(**) Website Sig. (2-tailed) ,154 ,283 ,016 ,004 N 51 51 51 51 ** Correlation is significant at the 0,01 level (2-tailed). * Correlation is significant at the 0,05 level (2-tailed). Table 3: Correlations ( Model 1) Table 4 shows the results of first regression analysis. Independent variables explain 73% of variance in the dependent variable and all the independent variables have high correlations with the dependent variable (p=.00). Among the independent variables, service process has the strongest relationship with service quality followed by information and customer service (t=5,96; 4,47 and 3,96 respectively). Dependent Variable : Service Quality Independent Variables Standardized Beta t- value p- value VIF Process 0,36 5,96 0.00 2,69 Information 0,30 4,47 0.00 3,44 Customer Service 0,27 3,96 0.00 3,46 Note: R² =0,73; VIF: Variance Inflation Factor Table 4: Regression Analysis (Model 1) Customer Expectations Service Complaints Quality Pearson Corr. ,706(**) Expectation Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 N 119 Pearson Corr. ,698(**) ,750(**) Service Quality Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 N 119 211 Pearson Corr. ,641(**) ,748(**) ,858(**) Satisfaction Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 N 119 213 211 Pearson Corr. ,555(**) ,601(**) ,667(**) Citizen Trust Sig. (2-tailed) ,000 ,000 ,000 N 119 213 211 ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 5: Correlations ( Models 2 and 3) Satisfaction ,641(**) ,000 213 Table 6 and 7 show the results of second and third regression analyses. Independent variables in these models explain 77% and 38% of variance in the dependent variables respectively. All the independent variables in the models have high correlations with the dependent variables (p=.00). Among the independent variables in the second model, service quality has the strongest relationship with customer satisfaction (t=13,09 and 5,10 respectively). In the final model, customer satisfaction has a stronger relationship with citizen trust compared to customer complaints as indicated by t-values of 3,73. These findings are congruent with previous research on service 729 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo quality and satisfaction where service quality is the most important indicator of satisfaction perceptions as satisfaction is the most important indicator of recommending and trust perceptions (Cronin et al. 2000). Dependent Variable: Customer Satisfaction Independent Variables Standardized Beta t- value p-value VIF Expectation 0,26 5,10 0.00 2,29 Service Quality 0,66 13,09 0.00 2,29 Note: R² =0,77; VIF: Variance Inflation Factor Table 6: Regression Analysis ( Model 2 ) Dependent Variable: Citizen Trust Independent Variables Standardized Beta t- value p-value Customer Complaints 0,32 3,44 0.00 Customer Satisfaction 0,36 3,73 0.00 Note: R² = 0,38; VIF: Variance Inflation Factor Table 7: Regression Analysis ( Model 3 ) VIF 1,70 1,70 Discussion This researched analyzed antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for public health services in Sarajevo. Research results reveal insightful results for theory and managers of these services. In terms of the model test, the results show that proposed three indicators of service quality, process, information and customer service have positive and significant relationships with this variable. In other words, ease and timeliness of services process, clarity and accessibility of information and courtesy and professionalism of health care staff are important signs of quality service for public health services in Sarajevo. The features realted to web sites of the institutions may not have a significant impact on service quality because of limited use of these sites by the public. Results further suggest that expectations and service quality are significant indicators of customer satisfaction as satisfaction and complaint handling are important indicators for citizen trust. Higher service quality and satisfaction perceptions result in greater citizen trust perceptions. Although research participants indicate that they trust the services they get from public institutions, they feel negative about complaint handling, quality of service and convenience of service process. One reason for this result might be related to the physical conditions of the facilities as the recovery process is stil continuing from the recent war. Although not statistically significant, participants seem positive about professionalism of the health care staff but they think that the service process is not as convenient as they desire. This may be related to the fact that process of making an appointment is usualy slow in these instituions and patients have to wait from one to two weeks to be on the appointment list. Once they are on the list, process of getting treatment is relatively good and fast. Despite a general negative evaluations about service quality, participants show mix feelings about specific service quality features. This might be a sign that they feel improvements in services and they are positive about future expectations. Positive feelings of trust might indicate that participants are relying on their governmental services but they don‘t see current situation as adequate for their expectations. The results found in this study are coming from a limited sample and these results must be validated with future studies in this area. Higher sample sizes can give better ideas of public perceptions about health services in Sarajevo. Also, management of the health facilities should consider reasons of limited usage of their websites for appointments and complaint reporting. The use of web sites can easily improve public perceptions about these services. Also, detailed studies are needed to measure perceptions of public because there might be significant differences between different demographic groups. For example, one generation lived through a devastating war while another (younger) generation doesn‘t even remember these events. The management of public health services in Sarajevo should consider using citizenship and nationalistic themes in promoting their services. Apperantly public feels positive about their institutions and expect more in the future. 730 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo References Barsky, J. D. (1992). Customer satisfaction in the hotel industry: meaning and measurement. Hospitality Research Journal, 16(1), 51-73. Carman, J. M. (2000) Patient Perceptions of Service Quality: Combining the Dimensions, The Journal of Services Marketing, 14 (4), 337-352. Cronin, J. J., Brady M. K., & Hult, G. T. M. (2000). Assessing the effects of quality, value and customer satisfaction on consumer behavioral intentions in service environments. Journal of Retailing, 76(2), 193-218. Dube-Rioux, L. (1990). The power of affective reports in predicting satisfaction judgments. Advances in Consumer Research, 17, 571-576. Duman, T. and Kozak M. (2009). Service Failure, Tourist Complaints and Service Recovery, In Handbook of Tourist Behaviour: Theory & Practice. Routledge Fornell, C., Johnson, M. D., Anderson, E. W., Cha, J., & Bryant, B. E. (1996). The American customer satisfaction index: Nature, purpose and findings. Journal of Marketing, 60(October), 7-18. Fournier, S. and Mick, D. G. (1999). Rediscovering Satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 63, October, 5-23. Gill , L. and White, L. (2009). Acritical review of patient satisfaction. Leadership in Health Services, 22(1), 8-19. Howard, J. (1999) Hospital Customer Service in a Changing Healthcare World: Does It Matter? Journal of Healthcare Management, 44 (4), 312-325. Mano, H., & Oliver, R. L. (1993). Assessing the dimensionality and structure of consumption experience: Evaluation, feeling and satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(December), 451-466. Nyer, U. P. (2000). An investigation into whether complaining can cause increased consumer satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 17(1), 9-19. Jones, T. and Sasser, W. E. (1995). Why Satisfied Customers Defect. Harvard Business Review, November-December, 88-98. Oliver, R. L. (1980). A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 17, 460-469. Oliver, R. L. (1994). Conceptual issues in the structural analysis of consumption emotion, satisfaction, and quality. Advances in Consumer Research, 21, 16-22. Oliver, R L. (1997). Satisfaction: A behavioral perspective on the consumer. Boston, MA: Irwin, McGraw-Hill. Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V., & Berry, L. (1988). SERVQUAL: A multiple-item scale for measuring consumer perceptions of service quality. Journal of Retailing, 64(Spring), 12-40. Spreng, R. A., Mackoy, R. D. (1996). An Emprical Examination of a Model of Perceived Service Quality and Satisfaction. Journal of Retailing, 72(2), 201-214. Spreng, R. A., MacKennzie, S. B. and Olshavsky, R. W. (1996). A Reexamination of the Determinants of Consumer Satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 60, 15-32. Taylor, S. A., Baker, T. L.(1994). An Assesment of the Relationship Between Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction in the Formation of Consumers‘ Purchase Intentions. Journal of Retailing, 70(2), 163-178. Vukmir, R. B. (2006). Customer Satisfaction. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance, 19 (1), 8-31. Westbrook, R. A., & Oliver, R. L. (1991). The dimensionality of consumption emotion patterns and consumer satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 18(June), 84-91. Woodruff, R. B., & Gardial, S. F. (1996). Know your customer: New approaches to understanding customer value and satisfaction. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers. 731 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Zeithaml, V. A. (1988). Consumer perceptions of price, quality and value: A means-end model and synthesis of evidence. Journal of Marketing, 52(July), 2-22. 732 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 217 Title A name given to the resource An Application of American Customer Satisfaction Index (Acsi) Government Model to Health Services In Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Author Author DUMAN, Teoman ÖZTÜRK, Elif MESETOVİC, Muris HOJKURİC, Haris KANTÜRK, Ahmet KONAKLI, Zafer Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this research is to test the relationships between expectations, service quality, satisfaction, complaints and citizen trust in the context of public health services in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) government model is used as the research framework in this study. Initially proposed by Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha and Bryant (1996), ACSI model is the most well-known customer satisfaction model in the US and in most parts of the world. As part of the proposed framework, public perceptions of service quality, expectations, satisfaction, complaints and citizen trust were measured for public health services with a self administered questionnaire. 212 completed questionnaires were used in the data analysis. Research results show that service process, service quality and satisfaction peceptions are main indicators of citizen trust for public health services in Sarajevo. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3f93cdd90822aca8d7fa186c1d246210.pdf 827ec15f0582d4af0c6f261c2cf57f57 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Islamic Banks as Catalyst Of Economic Development Velid DRAGANOVĠC International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Hercegovina draganovic@hotmail.com Abstract: This paper discusses the current murabaha oriented practice of Islamic banks in the light of rules of Islamic law. Special attention is given to the issue of return rate to a depositor. That rate may be variable or fixed depending on contract. In both cases, analysis will focus on increasing return rate as a technique to mobilize deposits, increasing investment, and boast economic development. Mentioned issues will be related to benchmark models like LIBOR (London Interbank Offered Rate) in a case of fixed return rate and a question of risk management possibilities in Islamic finance in cases of profit-loss sharing products. Finally, a possibility of use of some forms of financial derivatives is analyzed in order to safeguard depositors from loss on profit-loss sharing deposits. Introduction Economic development could be considered as a main criteria in differentiating between prohibited interest - riba and a trade compliant to Islamic Shariah law. Economical issues are not dealt in details in textual sources of Islamic Shariah law – Qur‘an and Hadith, but they are left to be subject of rational judgement, guided by general moral principles outlined in textual sources and a few direct instructions. A question of an action being good or bad is by scholars of usuli-fiqh (principles of islamic jurisprudence) subjected to three criteria: universality, benefit of this world and benefit of hereafter. Issues of worship are exclusively judged according to the third mentioned criteria and described and sanctioned in details in textual sources. Economic transactions are judged according to benefits of this world if they fit into moral framework of Islam. Among those benefits, a significant position belongs to economic development, which is important factor of wellbeing of society. Economic transactions are positioned between two border cases: swap of goods with real value (benefit) with consent and satisfaction of two parties on one side, and betting where one party takes possession of other party without giving anything in return. Somewhere between those two border cases is a line which divides trade and prohibited interest. Transactions disconnected from economic activity and increase of benefits of society, are considered as riba transactions. Those transactions are in essence close to betting and gambling, where the core issue is exploitation, taking something from somebody without giving counter value. Modern financial institutions are therefore operating on riba basis. As an illustration of their disconnection from real economic activities can serve a fact that a volume of financial transactions is 50 times bigger than volume of world trade (Ayub, 2007). Islamic banks or Islamic financial institutions are founded with an aim to provide profit-loss sharing models. However, there is no actual difference between operations performed by Islamic banks and operations performed by other commercial banks. The key financial product of Islamic banks is murabahah in its different forms, especially commodity murabahah. More than half of the volume of banks operations in Malaysia, or about 51% of all cash transactions in Malaysia in years 2007 and 2008 is performed through murabahah contracts, with additional 15% through the way of bay al-innah (the special form of commodity murabahah allowed in Malaysia), which together is 65% or two thirds of total volume of transactions. (http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/20262/) Murabahah is a transaction in which bank or financial institutions buys commodity (usually at request from customer) and then sells it to a customer for higher price, which can be paid in installments or on agreed time. In this way customer can attain goods which he needs for his business or personal use. In a case in which goods are used for business, this kind of murabahah has its economic justification. Commodity murabahah is a way to obtain cash, instead of goods. Commodity is purchased on a deferred price, and sold to a third party to obtain cash. This kind of murabahah is also called tawarruq. Organised tawarruq includes bank as an agent in transaction. Bank sells a commodity to third party for a lower spot price, and two transactions are usually performed simultaneously, without actually acquiring goods. In this way, buying and selling commodity covers the basics of transaction, which is very similar to classical credit given by banks charging interest for deferred return of money. 88 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo There is much controversy about this transaction. The International Council of Fiqh Academy, which is an initiative of the Organization of Islamic Conferences (OIC), in its 19 th session which was held in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, from 1 - 5 of Jamadil Ula 1430 AH, corresponding to 26 – 30 April 2009, declared organized tawarruq impermissible. (http://www.isra.my/fatwas/treasury/interbank/tawaruuq/355-oic-fiqh-academy-ruledorganised-tawarruq-impermissible.html.) with a rationale that it is considered deception, in order to get the additional quick cash from the contract, and therefore containing the element of riba. Some scholars argue that tawarruq should be allowed. Mohammad Akram Laldin, a religious scholar from Malaysia, disagreed with the ruling of Fiqh Academy. (http://www.arabianbusiness.com/557758-islam-allowsorganised-tawarruq-asset-sales---scholar) In his opinion organised tawarruq does not violate Islamic law principles, and there is nothing wrong with the transaction itself. However, he admitted that organised tawarruq focuses on the creation of debt rather than an economic activity, and that Islamic finance must provide a balance between debt instruments and equity based instruments. Sheik Nizam Yaquby holds to idea that also said there were hardly any alternatives to tawarruq as a tool to satisfy legitimate financing needs. (http://islamicfinancenews.wordpress.com/category/products/tawarruq/) He expresses support for the standards of Bahrain-based AAOIFI — the Accounting and Auditing Organization for Islamic Financial Institutions — which in his opinion provided the necessary checks to prevent the abuse of tawarruq. Strongest points for impermissibility of tawarruq were forwarded by Mohammad Nejatullah Siddiqi. (http://siddiqi.com/mns/Economics_of_Tawarruq.pdf) In his paper Economics of Tawarruq he performed macroeconomic analysis and proved that the harmful consequences of tawarruq are much greater than the benefits claimed by supporters of such practice. That paper preceded ruling of Fiqh academy and cited views of scholars, but on the other hand could be considered last saying concerning this issue. The main problem of every tawarruq transaction is creation of a debt, which is larger than the cash it transfers to the client. Furthermore, debt document resulting from tawarruq is a subject to financial and speculative transactions, which cut links with real assets, resulting in a reversed pyramid – a huge quantity of financial instruments relying on a very small asset base. The economy than becomes focused on benefiting from consumption of debt. Therefore, Siddiqi summarized the harmful effects of tawarruq as follows: ―• It leads to creation of debt whose volume is likely to go on increasing. • It results in exchange of money now with more money in future, which is unfair in view of the risk and uncertainty involved. • It leads, through debt proliferation, to gambling like speculation. • It leads, through debt finance, to greater instability in the economy. • In a debt-based economy, the money supply is linked to debt with a tendency towards inflationary expansion. • It results in inequity in the distribution of income and wealth. • It results, through debt finance, in inefficient allocation of resources. • It contributes, by consolidating debt financing, to raising anxiety levels and destruction of environment. ― Some classical jurists considered tawarruq as permissible, and Siddiqi rightly points that the tools of macroeconomic analysis were not available to them, and consequently they could not consider the harmful impact (mafasid) of tawarruq on the economy as a whole, while its benefits (masalih) for some individuals were easy to see. Very strange is however, that some contemporary scholars are closing their eyes to economic tools that are available to them, and neglecting arguments that were not available to classical scholars. Indeed, voices supporting tawarruq practice are tinny. Even if practice itself does not contradict Islamic law, which is not the case, its harmful consequences are sufficient reason for its prohibition. When economic development is considered, it is obvious, that tawarruq practice should be discarded. The consequent issue is: what is an alternative to tawarruq? An alternative proposed by OIC Fiqh Academy to tawarruq (and other murabahah transactions) is qard hasan (benevolent credit). This alternative does not sound realistic. Qard hasan is an act of charity, and it is hardly to believe that there is a huge number of money owners who are willing to act in accordance with this high moral virtue. No question that such a form of money lending exists in practice, especially between relatives or close friends, but on a big scale, and as a policy which should provide economic growth, it does not give much sense. In the case of financial institution, it should work for free, taking deposits from depositors and giving them to customers, where depositors bear risk of not returning money and not getting any profit. A shift from murabahah practice and debt instruments must be made in the opposite direction. Instead of giving money with no profit at all, banks should turn to equity-based financing which could provide higher return for money depositors. However, a known fact is that higher return is connected to higher risk (Hull, 109). 89 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Mudarabah contract is an example of activity which can bring higher return, but carries higher risk too. In such a contract bank will provide capital for the project, while entrepreneur will provide expertise and work to carry the project. Contract defines share of each party in the profit, and bank usually bears all financial risks. This type of contract is attractive for Muslim investors, who obey principles of Islamic law for two reasons: it is compliant to Shariah, and it brings profit. On the other hand, this type of financial model could mobilize some other funds. A possible return rate for investors is much higher than LIBOR (London Interbank Offered rate) rate. LIBOR rates are short-term lending rates offered by banks in the interbank market (Hull, 94), and they are considered by financial derivative traders to be the best proxy for risk-free rate. They regard LIBOR as they opportunity cost of capital. It is approximately equal to short-term borrowing rate of AA-rated company regarding credit return ability. As a consequence of higher return rate from investing in mudarabah contract it can be attractive to arbitrageurs, who can see an opportunity to borrow money at risk-free rate and investing it in Islamic bank. A shift toward risk-sharing models (profit-loss sharing models) requires from banks to take an active role, because an emphasis is on real economic activities rather than some artificial arrangements. A well done risk management is necessary for operating bank activities. By analogy to analysis of tawarruq and debts instruments arising from it, as well as their harmful role to economy, risk management by use of options should be avoided. Consequently, Islamic banks must rely on third-parties guarantees and takaful – Islamic form of insurance in order to mitigate risks arising from mudarabah and other types of equity-based transactions. On the other hand, banks themselves should develop models for minimization of risk. This includes diversification of economic branches in which investments are made. Banks will need an expertise in every branch, which is chosen for possible investment. An expertise would be useful particularly for choosing entrepreneurs which are reliable in business. Finally, Islamic banks must ensure sustainable operation by allocating a ratio of profit to make own security funds, so that reliance on third parties guarantees decreases by time. Conclusions Judging by criteria of Islamic law and economic development murabahah practices including commodity murabahah or tawarruq should be avoided. Islamic banks should shift to more risky forms of equity-based financing such as mudarabah. Such a shift demands an active role of Islamic financial institutions in risk management through diversification of investments, investigating entrepreneurs and obtaining an expertise in the areas of investment. References Anwar, H. (ed.). (2008) Islamic Finance: A Guide for International Business and Investment. Global Market Briefings. Ayub, M. (2007). Understanding Islamic finance. West Sussex, England. Wiley. Hassan, M.K, Lewis, M.K (ed.). (2007) Handbook of Islamic finance. Cheltenham, UK. Edward Elgar. Hull, John C., (2009). Options, futures, and other derivatives. 7th ed., Pearson Education Inc. Iqbal, M. Llewellyn, D. T. (ed.). (2002) Islamic Banking and Finance New Perspectives on Profit-Sharing and Risk. Cheltenham, UK. Edward Elgar. Iqbal, Z. Greuning, H. (2008) Risk Analysis for Islamic Banks. Washington DC. The World Bank. Iqbal, Z. Lewis, M.K. (2009) An Islamic perspective of governance. Cheltenham, UK. Edward Elgar. Kahf, M. (2004). Outlines of a brief framework of tawarruq (cash procurement) and securitization in Shariah and Islamic banking. Seminar AAOIFI, Bahrain. Visser, H. (2009). Islamic finance. Cheltenham, UK. Edward Elgar. Warde, I. (2000) Islamic Finance in the Global Economy. Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. http://islamicfinancenews.wordpress.com/category/products/tawarruq/ 90 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/20262/ MPRA Paper No. 20262, posted 26. January 2010 / 17:38 http://siddiqi.com/mns/Economics_of_Tawarruq.pdf http://www.arabianbusiness.com/557758-islam-allows-organised-tawarruq-asset-sales---scholar http://www.isra.my/fatwas/treasury/interbank/tawaruuq/355-oic-fiqh-academy-ruled-organised-tawarruq-impermissible.html. 91 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 185 Title A name given to the resource Islamic Banks as Catalyst Of Economic Development Author Author DRAGANOVĠC, Velid Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper discusses the current murabaha oriented practice of Islamic banks in the light of rules of Islamic law. Special attention is given to the issue of return rate to a depositor. That rate may be variable or fixed depending on contract. In both cases, analysis will focus on increasing return rate as a technique to mobilize deposits, increasing investment, and boast economic development. Mentioned issues will be related to benchmark models like LIBOR (London Interbank Offered Rate) in a case of fixed return rate and a question of risk management possibilities in Islamic finance in cases of profit-loss sharing products. Finally, a possibility of use of some forms of financial derivatives is analyzed in order to safeguard depositors from loss on profit-loss sharing deposits. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/40dd395a610445becf03595db7b14bfd.pdf 943d3ace3cadf8c72388941c3e437247 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Research On Consumer Ethnocentrism and Consumer Boycotts HurĢit Ertuğrul DERE Afyon Kocatepe University Sultandağı Vocational School Turkey hursitdere@yahoo.com Abstract: The objective of this study is to investigate the consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycotts. Participiants who are consumers upper 18 age in 8 different cities of Turkey formed the sample for this study. For the emprical investigation consumer ethnocentric tendency and a new improved consumer boycott scales were used. Data collected were analyzed by using Anova, t-test and descriptive statistical techniques. Considerable findings in the matter of understanding consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycot in Turkey market.End of this study it is found that significiant relationship between age and consumer ethnocentric tendency and significiant relationship between marriage status and consumer boycot tendency. Keywords: Consumer ethnocentrism, Consumer boycott behaviour, CETSCALE Introduction The aim of this study is to examine the correlation between the ethnocentric tendencies of the consumers and consumer boycott behavior. Consumer ethnocentrism provides emotional perception of the consumers towards national goods. On the other hand, it is seen that even ethnocentric consumers prefer the cheaper goods even if they are foreign originated ones when they are comparing the goods in terms of prices which is a rational qualification. Today, the increase of the competition, transformation of the world into a common market by transportation and information technologies, and the encountered economical difficulties have made the consumers more conscious and caring more about rational factors compared to old days. In fact, even consumer boycotts that are mostly done with emotional base don‘t last long because of the rational factors. Consumers end the boycott for the brand, good, or the country when they realize that they will get the maximum benefit from these goods. Although national goods which are bought as a substitution to the foreign ones, reach a high number of sales income during the boycott, they have dramatical decreases of sales income when the boycott ends. National manufacturers can have a constantly increasing sales income if they focus on the issues such as quality development and basing the market, rather than taking advantage of the cases like these. Consumer Ethnocentrism The concept of ethnocentrism means the tendency of the individuals to see their groups as the center of the universe and judging of the other groups that have cultural differences and blindly acceptance of the groups that are similar. In this context, the symbols and values of their own group are seen as a resource of pride while the values of the other groups are scorned. As a result of relating ethnocentrism with the consumer behaviors, the consumer ethnocentrism has appeared. In general concept, consumer ethnocentrism expresses the effects of consumers‘ national emotions on purchasing intentions. ( Uzkurt & Özmen,2004). Many scientific researches, mostly foreign, have been conducted about consumer ethnocentrism recently. In the research which was conducted in 2004 in EskiĢehir by Uzkurt and Özmen, data was obtained by interviewing the customers who were chosen using convenience sampling method. Analysis has been conducted over 172 surveys in total. As a result of the analysis, the old compared to the young, ones with a lower education level compared to the higher ones, ones who have lower income compared to the higher ones and married people compared to the bachelors have higher ethnocentric tendencies. In the research which is conducted by Güneren and Öztüre (2005) in Cyprus using CETSCALE ( Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale), data is obtained from the survey applied to 114 people who were chosen with convenience sampling method. As a result of the survey, the participants with a high level of ethnocentrism were 455 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo mostly amongst women, people with lower education level and lower income. No remarkable correlation has been seen with the age of the participants and ethnocentrism. In the research which was conducted by Orth and Firbasova in 2002 in Brno, the second biggest city of the Czech Republic, and which was on ethnocentrism and yoghurts produced in Czech Republic, data was obtained using a survey applied to 297 people who were randomly chosen and four different correlation model were formed. As a result of the analysis it has been seen that, old consumers who have a high level of ethnocentric tendency, like Czech yoghurts more than the young costumers who have a lower level of ethnocentric tendency. It makes it hard to generalize the research that the number of the participants is low and it was only about yoghurt. Fang Liu and others examined the correlation between the brand names from different languages and customers‘ ethnocentric tendencies in 2007 in Guangzhou, the capital city of Guandog state in China. As a result of the research it has been found that there is a remarkable correlation between the ethnocentric tendencies of the customers and their ages and education levels. In the research that was conducted by Chakrabarty and Conrad in 1995, a survey was applied on the phone to 315 people who were chosen randomly. It has been found that ethnocentric tendencies decrease for good quality products. Consumer Boycotts The tendencies of consumers on not buying a brand or none of the brands of a country is called consumer boycott (Balıkçıoğlu and others, 2008). Consumer boycotts can be divided into various kinds considering the duration, scope, organization type and reasons to do. However, it is very difficult to consider a boycott in one class. For example, a boycott that is started because of political reasons may last for a long time or in contrast it may last for a short time. According to Balıkçıoğlu and others‘ statements, Friedman (1999) and Smith (2000) divide the consumer boycotts into four considering their functions. These are: instrumental, expressive, punitive and buycott. When boycotts in Turkey are examined, it is seen that products of Denmark were boycotted as the last one. As a result of the publication of Hz. Mohammed‘s cartoons one after the other negatively, not only in Turkey but also in the whole Islamic World they had confronted with enormous reaction and a boycott towards Danish products was started. However, the very little trading volume between Turkey and Denmark was resulted this boycott not to be so effective. Besides this boycott which was done as a result of religious exploitation, Italy and France were boycotted because of political reasons and enterprises in the public towards boycotting the products of these countries were started. Just like it was in Denmark sample, the little trading volume between Turkey and these two countries and employment of thousands of Turkish citizens in Italian and French originated corporations in Turkey with their national partners resulted these two boycott enterprises to fail. Besides country boycotts also brand boycotts have been made. Especially in 2005, an organized boycott on the Internet was started against Danone that is one of the biggest food companies, with messages distributed on the Internet telling that additional substances that cause mental deficiencies are used in the child-oriented products of this company and these statements caused dramatical decreases in the sales of the company. Danone firm, that had great damage because of this case, has started legal process for the responsible ones who distributed these messages on the Internet and for the next marketing works focused on the message that its products include no additional substances that may damage human health transmitting it in various medias. Research Method In the research data is obtained using a survey. Surveys were applied to consumers who live in eight different cities by interviewing them. 900 survey copies for consumers who live in 8 different cities were prepared and 514 of them returned, thus the analysis has been made using these 514 survey copies. The distribution of the participants according to the cities is given below. 456 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Province Ġstanbul Ankara Ġzmir Adana Afyonkarahisar Konya Samsun Gaziantep Frequency 98 99 85 71 63 49 20 29 % 19.1 19.3 16.5 13.8 12.3 9.5 3.9 5.6 Table 1: The Distribution of the Participants According to the Cities The survey used in the research has four parts. In the first part the participant‘s city, his/her attitude related to consumer behaviors and if he/she is a member of any kind of consumer organization or not are asked. In the second part basing on the February 2008 data of Turkish Statistical Institute (TSI) ten countries are given from which Turkey imported goods and the participants are asked to state their attitude towards these countries. In this part a fivefold likert scale has been used and attitudes are listed from (1) the country from which I can buy products with peace of mind, to (5) the country which must be boycotted the most. In the third part, five scales, which are in ―I certainly agree‖ and ―I certainly disagree‖ interval, are given for 19 attitude items that are prepared in accordance with likert scale. Six of these items are taken from CESTSCALE which was developed by Shimp ve Sharma (1987). 10 items are related to consumer boycott and final 3 items are asked in order to find out the attitudes of the consumers towards foreign goods and EU. In the fourth part the demographic features of the participants have been tried to evaluate. In addition, it has been asked the participants how do they defined themselves and whether they had any foreign product on at the moment when the survey was being applied. Research Findings Demographic Structure of the Participants 64.6 % of the participants are male and 31.3 % of the participants a female. According to the 2008 TSI data male-female rationale is equal in total population but it has been a limit of the study that female rationale is less than male one. Besides according to the 2007 TSI data, the ratio of the university graduates to the total population is C (vocational schools+faculties+masters degree and Phd) about 10%. In the sample the rato of the university graduates is 39.7%. This situation is the other limit of the research. 457 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Demographic Structure Gender Male Female Marital Status Married Single Widow-divorced Education Primary education High education University Age 18-24 25-31 32-40 40-50 51-60 Over 60 Income (YTL) Below 580 581-800 801-1200 1201-2000 Over 2000 YTL Occupation Officer Laboring Tradesman Retired Self-employed Housewife Student Frequency Current % 332 161 66,7 32,3 292 190 14 58.9 38.3 2.8 79 221 204 15.7 43.8 40.5 138 102 121 89 43 6 27.7 20.4 24.2 17.8 8.6 1.2 107 84 136 71 42 24.2 19 30.8 16.1 9.5 95 120 72 33 33 21 81 20.9 26.4 15.8 7.3 7.3 4.6 17.8 Table 2: Demographic Structure of the Participants The World View of the Participants At the end of the survey it has been asked the participants how they defined themselves and to choose one option out of six ones. 37% of the participants have defined themselves as patriots. View Leftist Social Democrat Conservative Religious Nationalist Liberal None Frequency 40 92 59 59 183 36 23 % 8.1 18.7 12 12 37.2 7.3 4.6 Table 3: The World View of the Participants. 458 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 67% of the participants have stated that they had foreign products on at the moment of replying the survey. It has been found out that the most common foreign product that the participants have on is the mobile phone. Research Findings About Consumer Boycott Behavior 46.5 % of the participants have stated that they had boycotted a country or a brand. In table 4 that is given below, the product groups that the consumers had boycotted are shown. As a result of the analysis it has seen that the product group which is boycotted the most is food group with a ratio of 44.7 % and the least is medical group with a ratio of 2.5%. Product Group Food Confection-textile Automative Personal care products Cleaning products Whiteware Newspaper-magazine Furniture-carpet-home products Banking-insurance group Medical Group Frequency 106 36 21 16 11 13 11 9 8 6 Current % 44.7 15.2 8.9 6.8 4.6 5.5 4.6 3.8 3.4 2.5 Table 4: Boycotted Product Groups. When the boycott durations are analyzed, 61.3 of the participants have stated that they have been still going on with the consumer boycotts. Boycott duration Below 3 mounths 3-6 mounths 6-12 mounths 1-2 years Over 2 years Still going on Frequency 25 25 19 14 8 144 Current % 10.6 10.6 8.1 6 3.4 61.3 Table 5: Boycott Duration Boycotted Countries and Brands With a ratio of 35.7% it has been found out that mostly boycotted country is USA and 39% of the participants believe USA to be boycotted constantly. Five of the participants have stated that they boycott Turkey. 459 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Country U.S.A France Israel Italy China Russia England Denmark Netherland Germany Iran Turkey Sweden Japan Frequency 74 38 28 16 13 1 4 16 12 6 1 5 1 2 Current % 35.7 18.4 13.5 7.7 6.3 0.5 1.9 7.7 1 2.9 0.5 2.4 0.5 1 Table 6: The Boycotted Countries It has been found out that the participants boycott 41 different brands. According to the results of the analysis mostly boycotted brand is Coca-Cola. As Coca-Cola is a food company that belongs to the USA, it is seen that research findings about the boycotted product group, country and brand are consistent. It has been found out that 11different Turkish brands are boycotted by the participants. 460 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Brand Coca-Cola Ariel Danone Mc Donalds Nestle Nescafe Rodi Motorola Gucci Ġpek shampoo Colgate Bosche Benetton Newspaper of Turkey Ülker Rosche Profilo Adidas Pınarsüt Fruko Leke Knorr Converse Amway Telefunken Vestel Ġstikbal Avon Beta Leman Newsweek Peugeot Renault Ford Fiat Scharzkopf Siemens Ġpana Philips Toyota Loreal Paris Frequency 49 10 5 3 7 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 Current % 36.6 7.5 3.7 2.2 5.2 1.5 0.7 3.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.2 0.7 0.7 3.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.7 0.7 1.5 2.2 0.7 0.7 1.5 2.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 3 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.7 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 Table 7. The Boycotted Brands 34.3 % of the participants have stated that they bought a product again later which once they had boycotted. 16.1 % of the participants have replied the question. The reasons of the re-purchasing these products are shown in Table 8. 461 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Reasons for Repurchasing Quality Chepness Obligation Reason of the boycott disappeared was Frequency 18 12 43 10 Current % 21.7 14.5 51.8 12 Table 8: Consumers Reasons for Repurchasing The Brands That They Boycotted. More than half of the participants who have replied to the question have stated that they re-purchased the products that they once boycotted because they had to do it. 21.7 of the participants have re-purchased the products because of its good quality. The attitudes of the participants towards ten countries from which Turkey had imported goods according to the February 2008 data of TSI have been evaluated. A fivefold scale has been used starting from the country from which you can buy goods in peace of mind (1) to the country that must be boycotted the most (5) In table 9 attitudes of the participants towards these ten countries are shown. Countries The counrty which shoul be boycotted most (%) The counrty which should be boycotted (%) Russia Germany China Italy U.S.A. France England Switzerland Ukrain Iran 9.7 8 35.6 10.9 55.6 42.8 28.8 12.5 5.4 10.5 17,3 13.6 24.7 22 24.5 26.1 19.8 11.5 8.4 5.1 The country which doesn‘t need to be boycotted (%) 27 28 15.6 27.4 7 11.9 19.5 30.5 35 29.4 The country which should be cooperated (%) 27 23.2 10.9 14.2 4.5 6.4 12.5 17.5 22.8 30.5 The country which we get their products with peace of mind (%) 3.5 13.6 1.8 3.5 1.9 1.6 2.7 7.2 5.8 8.6 The participants that have no informed (%) 15.4 13.6 11.5 22 6.4 11.3 16.7 20.6 22.6 16 Table 9: View of the Participants About Ten Selected Countries Only 1.8 % of the participants have been a member of any kind of a consumer organization. Evaluation results about the 19 items which are located in the third part of the research and which are prepared using a fivefold likert scale about the attitudes of the participants towards consumer boycotts are given in Table 10. 462 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Statement 1. Domestic products should be taken at any time instead of imported products. 2. The products not only in our country should be imported. 3. Foreign products should‘nt be bought because this will cause unemployment. 4. I prefer to support my country‘s product, even if the cost burden to me. 5. Access of the foreign products to Turkish market should be complicated 6. Consumer boycotts are effective on companies. 7. Local businesses organizate the boycotts that against to the foreign products. 8. Media orientate the consumer boycotts. 9. I boycott the products of companies which exploited my religious beliefs. 10. I boycott the products of companies which damaged my country‘s political interest. 11. People around me effect met to do consumer boycott. 12. I boycott the products with my own volition. 13. I never purchase a product of a country or firm which I boycotted before. 14. I try to orientate the other consumers to boycott. 15. Boycott is an individual reaction against the negative bahaviour. 16. Importation sholud be prevented because it is a big threat for domestic production. 17. Quality product should been in my country even if it is foreigner 18. I believe that EU membership would be useful for our country. 19. Imported products increases our quality of life. Mean 4.18 S.D. 1.03 3.94 3.64 1.03 1.14 3.72 1.15 3.71 1.07 3.73 3.26 0.92 0.92 4.01 0.87 4.19 4.33 0.99 0.89 2.35 4.04 1.15 1.61 3.85 3.57 1.02 1.1 3.96 0.94 3.97 1.02 3.49 1.12 3.35 1.34 2.82 1.24 Table 10: Average Values Related to the Participants‘ Ethnocentric Tendencies and Consumer Boycott Behaviors The correlation between the demographic characteristics of the participants and consumer ethnocentric and consumer boycott behaviors has been examined. T-test and variance analysis results are separately given in Table 11 and Table 12. Demographic Structure Gender Age Marital status Income Calculated Value 14.684 2.297 0.601 2.548 Significicance Level 0.188 (t) 0.048 0.549 0.02 (P= 0,05) Table 11: The Examination of the Correlation Between Ethnocentric Tendencies and Demographic Features of the Participants 463 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo As a result of the T-test it has seen that ethnocentric tendencies don‘t change according to the gender. As a result of the variance analysis no remarkable correlation is found between the consumer ethnocentric tendencies and marital status. Besides that it is seen that consumer ethnocentric tendencies differ according to age and marital status. Demographic Structure Gender Age Marital status Income Calculated Value 1.073 0.843 3.076 0.676 Significicance Level 0.451 0.519 0.047 0.669 (P= 0,05) Table 12: The Examination of the Correlation Between Consumer Boycott Behavior of the Participants and Their Demographic Features. In the result of the T-test it has been found out that consumer boycott behaviors tendencies don‘t differ according to the gender. In the results of variance analysis it has been found out that consumer boycott behavior tendencies differ according to the marital status. In addition to that it has been found out that consumer boycott behavior tendencies don‘t differ according to the age and income. Conclusion and the Limits of the Research Inadequate quantity of the sample group and because available sample group doesn‘t reflect the demographic features of the main group prevent the research results from generalization. Another limit of the research is because of the disparity of the number of the participants from 8 different cities compared to the number of each city‘s population. As a result of the T-test it has been found out that consumer ethnocentric tendencies don‘t differ according to the gender. As a result of the variance analysis no remarkable correlation has been found out between consumer ethnocentric tendencies and consumer marital status. However, it has been found out that consumer ethnocentric tendencies change according to the age and income. As a result of the research, the upper location of the countries and brands that are mostly boycotted in the list in terms of Turkey‘s exporting volume and intensifying of consumer boycotts in especially some definite countries and brands can be subjects of future researches. References Balıkçıoğlu, B., Koçak, A., Özer, A.(2008). Process of indirect consumer boycott as a non-violence movement and evolvations for Turkey. Journal of Faculty of Politic Sciences of Ankara University, 63(2), 79-100 Güneren, E.& Öztüren, A. (2005). A Pilot Survey on Effect of Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies to Buying Trend of Domestic and Foreign Products of TRNC Citizens. 10th Marketing Congress, 2005, 169-188 Lui F., Murphy, J., Li, J., Liu, X. (2007). English and Chinese? The role consumer ethnocentrism and country of Chinese attitudes towards store sings. Australasian Marketing Journal, 14(2), 5-13 Orthu, R. & Firbasova, Z.(2002). Ethnocentrism and Consumer Evaluations of Czech Made Yoghurt. Agric. Econ.48(4),175-181 Turkish Statistical (10.05.2008) Institute.(2008). National Data Release Calendar. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb id=11. Uzkurt, C. & Özmen, M. (2004). The Effects of Consumer Ethnocentrism and Country-origin to Consumer Attitudes of Domestic and Foreign Products. Proceedings Books. Faculty of Administrative and Economic Sciences of Gazi University, 2004, 261-274 464 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 243 Title A name given to the resource A Research On Consumer Ethnocentrism and Consumer Boycotts Author Author DERE, Hurşit Ertuğrul Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this study is to investigate the consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycotts. Participiants who are consumers upper 18 age in 8 different cities of Turkey formed the sample for this study. For the emprical investigation consumer ethnocentric tendency and a new improved consumer boycott scales were used. Data collected were analyzed by using Anova, t-test and descriptive statistical techniques. Considerable findings in the matter of understanding consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycot in Turkey market.End of this study it is found that significiant relationship between age and consumer ethnocentric tendency and significiant relationship between marriage status and consumer boycot tendency. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/45f095bd0421f6b027d9bd2d4d6effc8.pdf b5b7a252e2972987e8be2e1fe7d2472c PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Comparison of Islamic, Traditional and Alternative Utility Theories Sümeyye DEMĠRSOY International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Mehmet CAN International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: Decision making under uncertainty is always trying to be explained by utility theory. And utility theory‘s roots rely on moral philosophy. Moral philosophy is concerning concepts about good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, etc. It can be say that utilitarianism, which is a field of moral philosophy, is more directly about utility theory. Throughout the human history, from Prophet Abraham to Greek philosophers; Socrates, Aristotle, Epicurus, to Islam scholars al Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Razi, Ibn-i Sina, Ibni Rushd, Ibn-i Haldun, all discussed about ethics and utility concept. 1. Introduction Although utility is an economic term which measures the satisfaction or desirability in terms of the consumption of goods and services, its roots rely on moral philosophy which deals with the concepts about good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness. On the other hand, concepts of good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness was constituents of ethichs throughout history of humanity. Human concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness were the concern of human civilizations through millenniums. Historically the foundations of human ethics are laid by divine revaliations through prophets. Muslims identify the prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by Allah to teach mankind. Humans may rely on revelation or tradition to identify prophets. Each prophet brought the same basic ideas of ethics. They brought the belief in a single God and in the avoidance of idolatry and sin. Muslims regard Adam as the first prophet and Muhammad as the last. Islamic theology recognises as many as 124,000 prophets. The Qur'an identifies 25 prophets by name, starting with Adam and ending with Muhammad. Five of them, Rasuls, receive the highest reverence for their perseverance, Ibrahim (Abraham), Moosa (Moses), Dawud (David), Isa (Jesus), and Muhammad. 1.1 Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) Ibrahim was born in a house of idolaters, in the kingdom of Babylon. He announced to his people: O my people I turned my face towards Him Who created the heavens and the earth, and never shall I give partners to Allah. He has the power to make the stars rise and set. 1.2 Prophet Musa (Moses) Musa the son of Imran, was born in Egypt in which at that time the kings were known as Fir‘awns. First statement about working ethics in Torah is in Genesis part. ―In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.‖ (Torah, Genesis 3/19) In Torah it is suggested to respect neighbour rights and to behave in good way to them: ―When thou dost lend thy brother any thing, thou shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge. Thou shalt stand abroad, and the man to whom thou dost lend shall bring out the pledge abroad unto thee. And if the man be poor, thou shalt not sleep with his pledge: In any case thou shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in his 476 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo own raiment, and bless thee: and it shall be righteousness unto thee before the Lord thy God."(Torah, Deureronomy 24/10-13) Another statement about poor is as following and in this statement Torah mentioning about living together with brothers: ―And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen in decay with thee; then thou shalt relieve him: yea, though he be a stranger, or a sojourner; that he may live with thee. Take thou no usury of him, or increase: but fear thy God; that thy brother may live with thee.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 25/35-36) ―If thou lend money to any of my people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou lay upon him usury. If thou at all take thy neighbor's raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down: For that is his covering only, it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep? and it shall come to pass, when he crieth unto me, that I will hear; for I am gracious.‖ (Torah, Exodus, 22/25-27) ―And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy field, neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard; thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger: I am the LORD your God.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 19/910) ―And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen in decay with thee; then thou shalt relieve him: yea, though he be a stranger, or a sojourner; that he may live with thee.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 25/35) 1.3 Prophet Dawud (David) Dawud (David) was not only an illustrious Prophet of the Israelites but he was also their king. The Holy Qur'an affirms: "And Allah gave him the kingdom! and wisdom and taught him of that which He willed." (2: 251). And it was said unto him: ― 0' Dawud!To! We have set you as a vicegerent in the earth, therefore, judge aright between mankind and follow not desire." (38:26) He lived in Bait-ul-Lahm which was situated at the distance of ten miles from Jerusalem. He prayed: "Our Lord! Pour out constancy on us and make our steps firm and help us against those who are disbelievers." (2:249) Allah revealed the Zabur (Book of Psalms) to Prophet Dawud. It contains lessons for the guidance of his people. 1.4 Buddha The evidence of the early texts suggests that the Buddha was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of fifth century BCE northeast India. This community seems to have had two categories of people, masters and servants. The Four Noble Truths of Budhism: 1. 2. 3. 4. Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to suffering/uneasiness (dukkha) in one way or another. Suffering is caused by craving. This is often expressed as a deluded clinging to a certain sense of existence, to selfhood, or to the things or phenomena that we consider the cause of happiness or unhappiness. Craving also has its negative aspect, i.e. one craves that a certain state of affairs not exist. Suffering ends when craving ends. This is achieved by eliminating delusion, thereby reaching a liberated state of Enlightenment (bodhi); Reaching this liberated state is achieved by following the path laid out by the Buddha. 2. The Greek Philosophers For ancient Greek philosophers the question ‗how should I live?‘ took a fundamentally prudential or selfregarding form. It amounted for them an inquiry searching how a man could secure his own happiness, fulfilment or perfection. Benevolence, altruism, philanthropy, a concern for happiness of others occupied a secondary position in their ethical recommendations. It is conceived as a condition of self-realisation of the individual. In general Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle in particular, found a place for restricted benevolence by emphasising the role of friendship in a fully satisfying life. Aristo somewhat made a disdainful liberality part of his conception of the ethically ideal or ‗magnanimous‘ man. It can be said that utilitarianism, which is a field of moral philosophy, is more directly about utility theory. Utilitarianism can be understood as a movement for legal, political and social reform that flourished in the nineteenth century. It can also be understood as the ideology of that movement. It is also a general ethical theory. As a theory of 477 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ethics, it provides a criterion for distinguishing between the right and wrong action, an account of nature of the moral judgements that characterise action as right and wrong. Utilitarianism can be expressed as the combination of two principles: (i) the consequentialist principle that the rightness, or wrongness of an action is determined by the goodness, or badness of the results that flow from it and (ii) the hedonist principle that the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure and the only thing bad in itself is pain. The doctrine can be expressed in the form of a single principle, the greatest happiness principle: the rigthness of an action is determined by its contribution to the happiness of everyone affected by it. (Quinton, 1973). Greek moralists unreflectively assumed a consequentialist position in developing their more or less prudential life-styles. The only way in which they conceived it to be possible to justify a type of conduct was by reference to the results to which it gave rise (Quinton, 1973). 2.1 Socrates (BC 470-399) Socrates' ethical intellectualism has an eudaemological character in which he asserted that the highest good for any human being is happiness. According to Socrates, people‘s true happiness is promoted by doing what is right. When people‘s true utility is served (tending own soul), people are achieving happiness. Happiness is evident from the long-term effect on the soul. According to him, whatever action a man chooses is motivated by his desire for happiness. All the concepts like knowledge, virtue, and wisdom are the same and man chooses an action according to what he thinks will bring him the greatest happiness. Therefore the more a man knows, the greater his ability to reason out the correct choice and the greater his ability to choose those actions which truly bring happiness to him. According to Socrates, to answer the question ‗what is happiness‘, the first question should be asked to an individual by himself: If all his needs were completed, or he had enough power to do anything, would he really be happy? When individual observe and attract attention to him, even all these needs mentioned above are completed, he sees that he is not happy enough. On the contrary he sees that he witnessed many disappointments, only when he is in harmony with himself he will really be happy. People who are not in harmony with themselves never be happy properly. Socrates believes that psychic harmony is the greatest good, and that the result of it is moral behavior. He also believes that if you have a healthy body and soul then you are in psychic harmony with yourself. In the ideal soul, the reasoning part and the feelings (desires for honour) rule over the appetitive part (desires for wealth, food, etc). A properly ordered soul experiences a sense of well-being or psychological health. Thus, psychological health is something distinct from psychological stability since it depends on psychic harmony. According to Socrates, immoral behavior is a result of an unbalanced personality and leads people to irrational behavior. Psychic harmony is a psychological condition and makes someone moral and this harmony has no motivation. Moral behavior comes from people‘s own beliefs and desires. If one is bad or unjust in the social sense it is because of his sensuality, greed, or vanity. According to Socrates where there is psychic harmony, the motives for injustice in the social sense will be eliminated. Socrates did not surpass the prejudice of Greek intellectualism in ethics. It is enough to know virtue in order to be virtuous. Everyone wishes to be happy and if someone does not attain happiness, it is because he does not know the way that leads to happiness. Consequently, so-called evil men are in reality only ignorant. Thus, vice is synonymous with ignorance, so knowledge of the good is synonymous with virtue. That is why Socrates, who intended to form a virtuous youth, restricted his teaching to the search for moral concepts. The foundations of Socratic system of ethics can be summarised as; i. a choice is rational if and only if it is a choice of what is best for the agent ii. something is good for an agent if and only if it is morally right. The cornerstone of Socratic ethics is the self-interested concern for happiness, that is, one's own good. But this concern requires that we act in accordance with what is just and noble, that is the moral good. The identity of one's own good with the moral good is the basis for specific Socratic foundations. Socrates shows in the book Gorgias that one's own good coincides almost completely with the moral good, since the utility of nonmoral goods, for example, wealth, depends on the possession of moral excellence. According to Socrates, the content of goodness/benevolence covers utility and pleasure. That is why some of the historians of ethics assume that Socrates is Epicurean, so he is utilitarian. However, pleasure, which Socrates implies, is not harmfull to intellect and soul. Here intellect has a role of being informative and determinant. Thus Socrates‘ pleasure is under control of intellect. And also Socrates‘ utility view is not individualistic, but public. 478 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2.2 School of Cyrene – Aristippus (BC 435-366) Cyrene school of philosophy is a kind of discipline of Socrates, founded in the 5th century by Aristippus. He was a hedonist and urging the pre-eminent claims of bodily pleasure as an end. This philosopher explains his thought, which he starts with a question ‗what is a happy life‘, by answering ‗life, which has as much as possible pleasure and as little as possible suffering, is a happy life‘. To make life happy, someone should include as much as possible pleasure and as little as possible suffering to his/her life. For to do this, he/she should decrease needs, so it will be adjusted to life with limited needs. So by doing with limited needs, it can be benefited from all pleasures of life. Aristippus teaches us kind of a life art that should be lived wisely. And this art can be gained by giving up desires which make people slaves of themselves. Thus, school of Cyrene derived hedonism from Socrates‘ eudaimonism. Later on, school of Cyrene‘s this hedonism concept was accepted by Epicurus (Aster, 2005) 2.3 School of Cynicism – Antisthenes (BC 455-365) Antisthenes, who outlined the themes of the school, is the first philosopher of school of cynicism. He had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. Antisthenes has severe discussions to Aristippus‘ pleasure assumption. According to Antisthenes, people should look for real happiness in desire of freedom and liberty inside. People, who reach to real happiness, know how to stay insensitive and disregarding in relation to either pleasure or suffering. This staying indifferent in relation to pleasure or suffering brings freedom from inside. 2.4 Plato (BC 427-347) Plato, founder of Academy in Athens, is a classical Greek philosopher. His mentor was Socrates and his student was Aristotle. According to Plato, nothing is fine without moderation, and the thing which is pleasant becomes as pleasant with this moderation. He also mentiones about moderation in between organic pleasures and intellectual benevolence. Unlike Aristotle‘s developed concept of happiness (will be mentioned below), Plato‘s happiness concept is more obscure. According to Plato, the Good is the source of intelligibility. He asserted that the highest goal in all of education is knowledge of the Good. According to him, human beings aim at the good, nobody voluntarily chooses evil. Plato thinks that the masses are incapable of grasping the truth. He illustrated this in his the allegory of the cave where Plato suggests that the masses cannot see the truth directly but they are satisfied with an illusion of reality. According to Plato, the good is the source of intelligibility and happiness is the attainment of intelligibility. Thus, Plato describes his happiness concepts as the goal of life. There is an important difference between Socratics and Plato. Both Aristippus and Antisthenes are individualists. For both of them, origin is individual. Both of them don‘t deal with super-individual fact as state, history, society. If people want to be really happy, they should be on their own, they should not depend on other people. In this point, Plato has disagreement with his other two schoolmates. According to Plato, people never be on their own but always live with other people. If we isolate an individual from the society he lives in, we exclude him from his own resources. Moreover, the institution called ‗state‘ is like a human. What condition social entire is in, individual lives in the same condition. Thus to understand human being, it should be looked into the state which he lives. Therefore Plato rejects Socratics‘ (Aristippus and Antisthenes) thoughts. Although they seem like the followers of Socrates, Plato thinks that they are not thinking in similar perspective. According to Plato, contrary to Aristippus and Antisthenes‘ individualistic tendency, Socrates did not only show his skillfulness about living, but he also became the first example of moral principle which took socialization as a base (Aster, 2005). 2.5 Aristotle (BC 384-322) Aristotle is a Greek philosopher who is student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His teaching about virtue and ethics is set forth in his Nicomachean Ethics. Greek philosophy accepts that human life‘s main purpose is ‗happiness‘. However they differentiate from each other about ‗what is happiness‘. Aristotelian method is different from others because, according to him, each existence has 479 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo its own activity. Knowing specific activity of human shows us that what kind of an objective this human wants to reach. So it will be learned what is the ‗real happiness‘. According to Aristotle, happiness (eudaimonia) is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue and it is the highest of all goods. Happiness is the first principle and cause of all goods and it is a self-sufficient activity always chosen for itself. Unlike other virtues, happiness is the only thing chosen only for itself and not for the sake of other things. Aristotle believes that amusement is not self sufficient like happiness and he distinguished between the life of amusement and the happy life. Aristotle proposes two possible paths to happiness as a life of virtuous activity and a life of theoria and asks which of the two is the best. The former path defines happiness as a practical vitue and in need of external goods. And the latter path theoria is contemplation of eternal truths for an entire lifetime which is the highest activity of reason. Aristotle chooses theoria. Becuase the life of practical virtue achieves happiness in a lesser sense because of the necessity of material goods in this life and the life of the theoria limits the need for material goods and perfect happiness (eudaimonia) is enjoyed by the Gods. According to Aristotle, human being is rational as his nature. If a rational man behaves rationally and moderate, he will be behaved parallelly to his nature. ‗Thinking‘ and ‗knowing‘ are human‘s highest activities. But what can be ratio/intellect‘s activity in practical life? Each of the virtues is a state of being that naturally seeks its mean. All virtues are in between of two extremes, virtues are means of the two extremes. This mean is not mathematical but it is a border which can be found by ratio/intellect. The virtuous habit of action is always an intermediate state between the opposed vices of excess and deficiency. For example; with respect to the enjoyment of pleasures, temperance (sophrosúnê) is a mean between the excess of intemperance and the deficiency of insensibility. Greek thought always searches for harmony and moderation, dislikes extremes. Aristotle is an opposer to all kind of extremes, too. Thus, Aristotle is against the thoughts that reject possessions like Cynics. Aristotle emphasizes on possessions‘ relative values. By using them moderately, they can bring even sense and value. One another thought of Aristotle is not to ignore desires and urges totally, they should not be ignored totally, but to keep them down by ratio. According to Aristotle, there is no direct connection between good/benevolence and pleasure. These three points should be taken into account: First pleasure is not main principle for a moral life, second pleasure occurs as a result of an action which targets virtue. And third virtue is in the action which results in pleasure. 2.6 Epicurus (BC 341-271) Two more schools joined to the list of schools of philosophy in about BC 300s. One is school of Stoa and the other one is Epicureanism that took its name from the founder Epicurus. These two schools have contradictory opinions about life and knowledge. As it is mentioned in former parts of this work, school of Cynicism and Cyrene have contradictory opinions about ethics, too. According to Cynics, it is important to exert perfect dominance on desires. After Cynics, we see some similar thoughts are repeated by Stoa. It is virtuous to exert dominance on excitements, desires because virtue gives us staying apathetic to life and death. School of Cyrene perceives life‘s real purpose as catching pleasure and escaping from pain. Kind of a dissidence, like between Cynics and Cyrenes, later on was seen in between Stoa and Epicureanism. These two schools, Stoa and Epicureanism, sustained their existence by keeping alive dispute among them. However at the same time they have some similar or common opinions. The first point they agree is that human being is subject of philosophy. First they draw portraits of ‗superman‘. However all these ‗superman‘ concepts were interpreted differently. For Stoa school, superman is man who beats demands and desires, knows to disregard to both life and death. They show apathy (lack of interest or concern) as a purpose to human. On the other hand Epicureanism finds its purpose on ataraxie (freedom from worry). However it can be noticed that there is no big difference between ataraxie and apathy. According to Stoa school, first principle is people‘s need to understand that they are organs of the unity called world. Second principle is people‘s need to know their own stand in the world and so to adopt themselves to destiny which is chosen for themselves. However Epicurus thinks that world processes with respect to blind and spontaneous necessity. If people‘s destinty is determined by coincidences which can not be seen before, then they can have interest in products which are their own will-power. Thus, people will stay disregard in respect to life and death and by behaving rationally they will know how to distinguish things which give happiness. Epicurus adopted the principle to attain pleasure and to escape from pain in ethics. But human should do this wisely. He should avoid from intense pleasures which bring pain at last. Human should not interest in anything more than its necessity because extremes cause to pain. People should know to keep away from temporary and 480 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo specious values such as fine and glory. Temporary values always direct people to more, and this more never ends, that is why people always stay in unrest. Thus, people should be interested in ―moral pleasures‖ which won‘t cause to dissatisfaction. According to Epicurus, for to be happy, it is necessary to live moderate, to tend pleasures which are moral, and to behave in accordance with all these. Epicurus established his school in Athens in 306 BC. In the surviving writings of Epicurus, there is little of direct relevance to the connection between utility and justice. However, virtue including justice, was not intended to limit pleasure. According to Bailey (Bailey 1928) Epicureanism is ‗a system of uncompromising egoistic hedonism‘. Scarre (Scarre 1994) put it, ‗just as the Epicurean community practiced economic self-sufficiency within the walls of its garden, the Epicurean man cultivates an inner self-sufficiency, a contentment in his own physical and mental states and a suppression of unnecessary desires‘. The only perfect pleasure was a condition of ataraxie where one lives quietly in bodily health and with little physical and psychological distress. (Rosen, 2003). Although none of the pleasure is bad, some (involving less pain) are purer than others. Epicurus made connection between pleasure and health, pain and disease. All pleasures were good in the sense that health was good, even though some pleasures were mixed. If health was good, with disease of body or soul it becomes greatest evil. In Epicureanism the greatest pleasure was defined by the removal of all pain, and hence the Epicurean lived quietly and peacefully in the real or metaphorical Garden (Rosen, 2003). The important virtue for Epicurus was prudence, and a considerable emphasis was placed on the egoistic pleasures connected with friendship. On the other hand, little attention was given to social values and instincts. When it comes to ‗justice‘ in Epicurus‘ system, it can be said that ‗justice‘ means achieving security from the attacks of other people. Epicurus‘ state on a conception of justice is that; a pledge of mutual advantage to restain men from harming one another and save them from being harmed (Epicurus,1926). At another point, Epicurus wrote about justice in terms of being of advantage in the requirements of men‘s dealings with one another (Epicurus, 1926). Epicurus used here a Greek phrase, ‗sumpherei en tais chreiais‘, for ‗advantage in the requirements‘. Rosen claims that Greek noun, ‗chreia‘, also possessed a range of meanings and might be translated as ‗need‘, ‗use‘ or ‗utility‘. For all societies in which to make compacts not to harm one another is not possible, nothing was either just or unjust. Although justice was applied potentially to all requiring, where contracts for one should not harm others, such a justice might be applied differently in different societies and under different circumstances. Where a law, which was previously considered, just, had no longer had usefulness or secured advantage, there was no longer just (Epicurus, 1926). According to Alberti (Alberti 1995) ‗justice is the realization of utility by means of a contract‘. The emphasis on utility allows for the separation of law from justice by rejecting the view found in Plato and Aristotle, that all law is just. And emphasis on utility leads to a notion of justice which is different from nomos (legal justice) and physis (natural justice) (Rosen, 2003). Justice was an invention of the wise for their own good. Epicurus summed up matters with brutal directness and claimed that the laws exist for the sake of the wise, not that they may not do wrong, but that they may not suffer it (Bailey,1928). Law and justice were matters of convenience which the wise person devised and approved. Epicurus had no reason to make justice a positive part of the human condition except enabling people to obtain ‗peace of soul‘ (DeWitt, 1954). ―It represented a painful burden, and in its application as punishment justice could be extremely painful. All that could recommend it was its utility to the wise. Other members of society might have less invested in justice, as they were not cultivating their gardens as were Epicureans, and might well gain less from rules concerning not harming others. However, so long as they accepted the compact, they would be assisting themselves, as well as not harming the wise in society.‖(Rosen, 2003). 3. Medieval Times Islam Philosophers In the seventh century, translation movements from Greek to Arabic language started and in the time of Caliph al-Mansur this movements reached its peak. The study of Islamic ethics began to take shape in the third century of Islam‘s emerge, with the influences from Greek ethics including Stoicism, Platonism and Aristotelianism. Al-Kindi, the first philosopher of Islam, influenced by Socrates and Diogenes the Cynic as seen in his ethical writings. Other influences can be seen in the work of Platonists such as Abu Bakr al-Razi or Neoplatonists such as al-Farabi, Aristotelian influences can be seen in the works of al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. 481 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 3.1 Al-Kindi (d.873) Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (d.873) was the first philosopher of Islam and also the first author on philosophical ethics. In Baghdad, al-Kindi was involved in the scientific movement of the translation of Greek texts into Arabic. His starting point was Greek philosophy and he is reported by the classical bibliographers that he has a number of ethical treatises reflecting an interest in Socratic and Cynic thought. In al-Kindi‘s writings, the personalities of Socrates and Diogenes the Cynic are united and both emerge as ideal instances of virtue and asceticism (Fakhry, 1998). Moreover, the Stoic idea of apatheia (freedom from passion) and the indifference to the vicissitudes of fortune are set out in fluent terms. According to al-Kindi, the antidote of pain is to consider that pain results either from our actions of from doing the actions of others. In the former case, it is individual‘s duty to avoid from doing which is the cause of pain. In the latter case, averting the pain is either in our power or it is not. If it is in our power then we certainly ought to avert it, if it is not, we should not suffer at the prospect of injury with the hope that it might somehow be turned away. The suggestion, to avoid material possessions as temporary acquisitions, reflects the influences of the Stoic philosophers. 3.2 Abu Bakr al-Razi (d. 925) Another philosopher Abu Bakr al-Razi (d. 925), who is influenced by Plato, refers to Plato as ‗the master of the philosophers and their leader‘ and to Socrates as ‗the ascetic and spritual‘ sage in his book al-Tibb al-Ruhani (The Spiritual Physic). A Socratic-Platonic theme which takes place in al-Razi‘s writings is the foolishness of the hedonistic life which turns man into a slave. People‘s many of pleasures are temporary and unattainable and people are attacked by anxiety or pain. But according to al-Razi, true philosopher will not succumb to pain, because philosopher understands that nothing is permanent in this world. And that whatever cannot be turned away should be ignored, since it is the product of passion and not of reason. al-Razi says in his book al-Falsafiya that: 'For reason summons us only to what is susceptible of bringing about profit sooner or later; grief does not bring any advantage... That is why the perfectly rational man will only follow the summons of reason ... and will never follow the summons of passion or allow himself to be led by it or get close to it. Like Socrates and Plato, al-Razi believes that the soul, leaving the body, will return to its original residence in the intelligible world, after passing through an endless cycle of purifications. Death is a logical consequence of our being human and essential part of the definition of man. However, al-Razi adds another argument which derives from Epicurus that death is the deprivation of sensation and with his death man will be stripped of the sensations of pleasure and pain. Thus this is a better condition than living in pain. That is why 'according to the judgment of reason the condition of death is better than the condition of life' (Rasa‘il al-Razi al-Falsafiya). 3.3 Al-Farabi (d. 951) Abu Nasr al-Farabi (d. 951) was known as the ―second master‖ (muallim-i sani) amongst his peers, Aristotle being the first (muallim-i evvel). Al-Farabi was the first systematic writer on philosophical questions in Islam. He also contributed to ethical discussions and wrote a commentary on some parts of the Nicomachean Ethics which is translated into Arabic by Ishaq bin Hunayn. Al-Farabi follows Aristotle in ethics like dividing the virtues into moral and intellectual (Fakhry, 1998). According to him, moral virtues are perfections of the lustful part of the soul whereas perfections of the intellectual part are practical reasoning, good judgement, wisdom and sound understanding. Al-Farabi also follows Aristotle‘s arguments about justice which consists in the equitable distribution of ‗common goods‘ in the city or in the state. Every member of city or state is entitled to share this ‗common goods‘ such as security, wealth, dignity, public office, etc. Al-Farabi deflects from Aristotle and other Greek phlosophers believing in the life hereafter in Qor‘anic way. Accoring to al-Farabi, nations and citizens of cities attain happiness, worldly in here and supreme in the life hereafter, when four human needs are met. These are; theoretical virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts. Worldly happiness is necessary for the attainment of supreme happiness in the hereafter. According to him, happiness is the absolute good and achieving happiness is the purpose of life. Whenever the soul of the person reaches perfection, then happiness is achieved. According to al-Farabi, if individual‘s desire for happiness is weak and he/she has other purposes in his/her life, then the result will be evil. 482 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Theoretical virtues, the first one of the four themes mentioned above, consist of the sciences. The purpose is to have understanding of all the beings on these sciences. Deliberative virtues are voluntary intelligibles that vary across time and place such as events occuring accidentally or willingly, such as disasters or war. An individual cannot possess deliberative virtue without possessing moral virtue. A person has to have virtuous moral character who wishes the good for himself/herself or for others. And according to al-Farabi, theoretical virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts are all inseparable. The his famous work al-Madina al-Fadila (virtuous city), in which people cooperate and help each other for the purpose of attaining happiness, al-Farabi reflects again his devotion to Islamic utility perception. To him, on the other hand, non-virtuous city is the city whose people do not know happiness. Al-Farabi discussed these two cities‘ souls of the citizens and he believed that the souls of the citizens of the virtuous city are immortal. However, the souls of the citizens of the ignorant city are mortal and their destiny is to suffer. As a result, al-Farabi believed that political association should be directed towards the attainment of happiness. Generally, it can be said that al-Farabi was greatly influenced by both Aristotle and Plato in his philosophy and his concept of happiness particularly. On the other hand, his thought was framed by Islam. He selected portions from each of these three different influences to form a complete description of happiness. So his concept of happiness is a product of his understanding of Greek philosophy and Islam. With his concept of happiness, he combines Plato‘s concept of the good, Aristotle‘s concept of eudaimonia (happiness) and Islamic concept of Jihad Al nafs (struggle of the soul). Plato and Aristotle‘s concepts were given above. On the other hand, the Islamic concept of Jihad Al nafs means the struggle of the soul. According to Islam, God created man to achieve bliss (happiness) in the next life through a clearly defined struggle in this life called Jihad. By the Quranic definition, ―And whosoever strives (jahada), strives (yujahidu) only for himself. Surely Allah is self sufficient, above need of His creatures.‖ (Quran 29:6). The person who struggles with turning his inner self into a new way of living that understands the true reality where material is only a small portion. 3.4 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (d. 980) Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (d. 980) is one of the foremost philosophers in the Medieval Hellenistic Islamic tradition and one of the most important practitioners of philosophy. He exercised a strong influence over the other Islamic philosophers and medieval Europe as well. Al-Farabi‘s successor Ibn Sina is the author of a very short tract on ethics and he follows closely the Platonic model in psychology. Ibn Sina speaks about the laws which are needed to be laid down as the moral habits (akhlaq) and traits (adat) which lead to justice. He divides the soul into different parts like rational, irascible, and concupiscent which correspond to the virtues of wisdom, courage and temperance respectively. Finally justice is the ‗summation‘ of all these three. According to Ibn Sina, enforcement of justice within the state (with the existence of caliph) is necessary as the sovereign of the world and God‘s vicegerent on earth. The virtues of temperance, courage, and wisdom are for the well-being of human beings in this world. They can be followed adequately without theoretical wisdom. Ibn Sina presents theoretical wisdom as being so important that one can attain happiness only by acquiring it as well as these three virtues, all of which add up to justice. Ibn Sina distinguishes himself from Farabi by insisting on the possibility of acquiring temperance, courage, and practical wisdom-or justice-without possessing theoretical wisdom. In other words, unlike Farabi, Ibn Sina does not perceive all the virtues to be intellectual or to be grounded in sound intellectual understanding. Make separation between the practical virtue and the theoretical virtue does not fully account for Ibn Sina's moral teaching. From what appears in his treatises that moral habits are directed to the liberation of the soul from the body. Thus they serve the ultimate goal of theoretical virtue, that is the soul achieving a free perception of God and the divine intelligences. It is not clear, however, how the moral habits lead to justice. The only explanation that comes to mind is that insofar as some human beings center their thoughts and activities on other worldly concerns. Ibn Sina differs here from al-Farabi too since he starts with the basic human needs and ascends from them to the larger issue of law- giving and providing for justice. On the other hand, Al-Farabi begins by thinking about ultimate human happiness. Ultimate human happiness is about the highest ends of human beings rather than their humblest beginnings or it is about their noble concerns rather than about their basic needs. 483 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 3.5 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (d. 1198) Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (d. 1198) is regarded as one of the important Islamic philosophers. He set out to integrate Aristotelian philosophy with the Islamic thought in the twelfth-century of Islamic Spain. He produced commentaries on Aristotle‘s Nicomachean Ethics and also Plato‘s Republic which is relevant to his ethical theory as well. According to Ibn Rushd, the principal virtues correspond to the perfection of the three parts of the soul are the rational, the irascible, and the concupiscent. Then he describes justice along Platonic lines as the ‗harmony‘ of the three corresponding virtues of wisdom, courage and temperance. As Aristotle stated in the Nicomachean Ethics, it has two subdivisions which are common or universal, corresponding to ‗perfect virtue‘, and particular. However, Ibn Rushd does not identify happiness with the contemplative life, but rather with conjunction (ittisal) to the active intellect, which the Muslim Neoplatonists had regarded as man‘s ultimate goal. In Muslim thought, everything they need to know about moral behaviour is encapsulated in Islam. However, Ibn Rushd argued that a distinction should be drawn between moral notions and divine commands and here he follows an Aristotelian approach (Leaman). According to Ibn Rushd, the answer of question ―what is the purpose of a human being?‖ is that; one of the ultimate aims is to be happy and to avoid actions which lead to unhappiness. Moral virtue leads to happiness. If people do what they should do in accordance with their nature, people will be able to achieve happiness. This happiness may be interpreted as a mixture of social and religious activities or as an entirely intellectual ideal. However, neither religion nor philosophy would approve of entirely intellectual ideal as the ultimate aim for the majority of the community. It is possible for someone that he/she would try to live apart from the community with concentrating entirely on intellectual pursuits, but this way of living is inferior to a life in which there is a concentration upon intellectual thought but combined with integration within the practices of a particular society. Ibn Rushd, inspite of working within an Islamic context, does not identify happiness and misery with some aspect of the afterlife since he was unable to accept the traditional view of the afterlife. Here Oliver Leaman, who has many works about Ibn Rushd, claims that without religious imagery, ordinary believers may find it difficult to understand that our moral actions affect not only ourselves but the happiness of the whole community, not just at a particular time or in a particular place but as a species. With our bad behaviours, we damage our own chances of human flourishing, and this damage affects our personal opportunities for achieving happiness and maturing as people. It is also resulting to the weakening of society. According to Leaman, while it is possibly true that the misery of evil-doing may not follow us personally after our death, it may well follow the community. The notion of an afterlife points to the wider terms of reference in which moral action has life. 3.6 Ibn Khaldun Another philosopher Ibn Khaldun, who lived in 14th century, centred his economic ideas generally around the ideas of justice, hardwork, cooperation, moderation and fairness. He emphasises Al-adl (justice) as the bedrock of the economy, and lack of justice leads to the breakdown of the state. Some of his writings may appear as secular. For instance; ―Civilisation and its well-being as well as business prosperity depends on production and people‘s efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit‖ (Muqaddimah, Volume 2). However, Ibn Khaldun insisted that man must avoid from evils, must improve himself, and must give preference to matters of the next world against this world (Muqaddimah, Volume 1). According to Ibn Khaldun, extravagance and luxurious living lead to the destruction of the state. ―Sedentary people are much concerned with all kinds of pleasure. They are accustomed to luxury and success in worldly occupations and indulgence in worldly desires. Therefore, their souls are adored with all kinds blameworthy and evil qualities‖(Muqaddimah, Volume 1, 225). Another issue Ibn Khaldun emphasises is cooperation. He says that ―the power of the individual human being is not sufficient for him to obtain the food he needs through cooperation, the needs of a number of persons, many times greater than their own number can be satisfied‖ (Muqaddimah, Volume 1, 69) ( Ibn Haldun, 1977). Above the economic philosophy of Ibn Khaldun was mentioned shortly, but, his Muqaddimah covers a large number of other areas about economy like money, value, market, population, growth, international trade, etc. When dealing with micro or macro economic issues, he demonstrated perfect competence in generating theories. In his work, Ibn Khaldun synthesises the ideas learnt from the Qur‘an and Sunnah, and from other sources which were converted into powerful theories. 484 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Human concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness were the concern of human civilizations through millenniums. Historically the foundations of human ethics are laid by divine revaliations through prophets. Then Greek phlosophers and Muslim scholars contributed to the theory till the begining of the modern times. With the begining of the 20th century industrial society began to transform into information society and risk and uncertainty became prior and diagnostic feature of human behaviour. And now with these changes new structure of society is multi-dimensional, more complicated and uncertain. While this theory became accepted and is using in economics, criticism voices started to become louder. Critics to economics‘ deductive, abstractive and pure rationalist method focused especially on uncertainty and risk that propelled from that analysis. Among them only one was seem as an strong alternative to expected utility theory: Prospect theory which was found by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in (Kahneman and Tversky 1979). They dealt with utility concept from the cognitive point of view, Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky‘s studies were the earliest studies of human decision-making by cognitive psychologists. Development of the theory through modern times may be the subject of another work. References Alberti, A., (1995). The Epicurean Theory of Law and Justice, in A. Laks and M. Schofield (eds) Justice and Generosity, Studies in Hellenistic Social and Political Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bailey, C. (1928). The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford: Clarendon Pres. DeWitt, N.,W., (1954). Epicurus and his Philosophy, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Epicurus, (1926). Epicurus, the Extant Remains, trans. C. Bailey, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ibn Haldun, (1977). Mukaddime, Ankara: Onur Yayinlari. Ibn Khaldun, (1967). An Introduction to History: The Muqaddimah, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kahneman, D., Tversky A., (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263-291. Quinton, A., (1973). Utilitarian Ethics, London: Open Court Rosen, F. (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill, New York: Routledge Scarre, G. (1994). Epicurus as Forerunner of Utilitarianism, Utilitas, 6:219-31. 485 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 252 Title A name given to the resource Comparison of Islamic, Traditional and Alternative Utility Theories Author Author DEMİRSOY, Sümeyye CAN, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Decision making under uncertainty is always trying to be explained by utility theory. And utility theory‘s roots rely on moral philosophy. Moral philosophy is concerning concepts about good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, etc. It can be say that utilitarianism, which is a field of moral philosophy, is more directly about utility theory. Throughout the human history, from Prophet Abraham to Greek philosophers; Socrates, Aristotle, Epicurus, to Islam scholars al Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Razi, Ibn-i Sina, Ibni Rushd, Ibn-i Haldun, all discussed about ethics and utility concept. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1c6b895704384d8b1cc4dec738becddd.pdf a5f7661d67172e97d7edbfc302e9607d PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Determinants of Firm Survival in Manufacturing Industry: A Research on Lake Region in Turkey Hakan DEMĠRGĠL Assis.Prof.Dr.,Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey demirgil@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Murat KARAÖZ Assoc.Prof.Dr., Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey mkaraoz@akdeniz.edu.tr Bekir GÖVDERE Assis.Prof.Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey bgovdere@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Muhlis CAN Res.Assist., Hakkari Üniversitesi, Hakkari, Turkey muhliscan@hakkari.edu.tr Abstract: This paper gives an empirical analysis of determinants of firm survival in the manufacturing sector of Lakes Region (Turkey) from 2003 to 2009. The survival activities of the firms are measured through a four-dimensional, namely firm based, industry/environment based, innovation based and human capital based, questionnaire consisting of 49 questions. For the application logistic regression method is used for the evaluation of survival probability and the findings are compared with the basics of the related literature. According to the results of the empirical work, the effects of the ―Firm Based‖ factors on the survivals and growth performances of the firms located in the region are found to be more significant and positive than the remaining dimensions. Introduction Studies, depending on market entry and exit dynamics, have emphasized on the importance of the the high turbulence level in the industry in recent years. Applies to all sectors and all the economies, most of the new companies stop their activities a few years after entering to the markets. Chance of firms‘ survival and improving their performance for growth depend on following successful strategies which can be adaptable to changing environmental conditions. The difference in survival rate of firms till to the 1980s has not been got attention in the literature as deserved. However, after 80s, there has been an increasing interest in performance of the firms to survive and the studies have focused on the determinants of survival. The relationship between scale and growth rate were investigated in the studies, related to the performance levels of firms in the 1950s and 1960s by using firm-level data. However, nowadays, the studies gives particular importance to firm-level factors which effect the survival rate. Economists have started to use the market selection models which affect the survival of firms to explain the empirical findings. Based on previous studies of the factors, affecting the survival of companies, can be classified under three categories : 1-) Firm-based factors 2-) Industry-based factors 3-) Local factors At a level in firm-based , the most important and best-known variables that affect the chance of firms‘ survival are firm‘s age and its scale. The changes in the scale of the firms occuring in the course of time also reflect the interactions between entry and exit. The most important determinants of the survival chance at a level in the industry are market scale and growth rates, technology properties and product life cycles. Among these three categories, human capital and local factors are evaluated with different measurement in the literature of survival. Human capital is generally a variable related to individual characteristics of the the owner‘s of the company, entrepreneur‘s, manager‘s and employee‘s (Van Praag 2002). Therefore, in the analysis of 210 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo survival of the firms, human capital variables is not used whether in local or regional level (Acs and Armington 2006). Human capital is evaluated in the firm-based level because of reflecting its own specific effects. In addition to these three categories, especially at the end of the 90s, the impact of the innovative efforts of companies to survive has started to take over. Innovation in a changing environment will provide a competitive position to the company and this will increase the firm‘s potential for being successful in the market. This effect is important for both the firms that are operating in the industry and the firms being freshly established and enter to the market. Innovation can not only increase the chance of survival of new firms by means of enabling them to enter suitable niche markets but also reduce the negative effects of tecnologies which are new and devoloping or desructive upon the avaliable firms. Determinant Features of Survival of Firms Classifying of the factors affecting survival in the industry-based and firm-based would be appropriate to form a starting point. Industrial attributions include both time-based factors and external variables which show the effects amidst the markets. This scope is a result of the form and rate of technical changes and different demand attributions. Therefore, affecting the survival of firms, owned properties are regarded as internal factors (Agarwal and Gort 1997). The other important point should also be noted that the survival of the firms is seen as a function of the variables of the firm and variables of the industry. The entering to the market and existing of the firms from the markets are important process which affects the degree of competition / efficiency and evolution of the industry. These two cases have important impacts on the distribution of resources, increasement of productivity with innovation rate and renewal of the industry. Although, existing of firms from markets have both social and economical effects, the number of studies is very low regarding factors which determine the risk of exist. Factors which increase the effectiveness of the company are the important determinants of survival as well (Perez et al.2004). Most of the recommended practices which increase the probability of survival are expanding export rates and increasing R & D activities ( providing information about foreign markets, guiding in entrance to the market and providing export structure, support policies into investment R & D ) Determinants of survival of the firms which newly enter are avaliable in industrial organization literature. According to Geroski (Geroski 1995), one of the important points related to market entry are age and scale which are directly related with the chance of firm‘ s survival. As first put forward by Stinchcombe (Stinchcombe 1965), new firms are faced with ― barrier to being new‖ and this is a risk of failure compared with large firms. During the period of starting, the firms are faced with the problem of completion in efficieny levels and organizational effectiveness to maintain their speed in the same level with competitors. In order to overcome this case, obtaining of capital and labour force, establishment of business connections with suppliers and finding of customers for products are essential points. The studies related to entry and exit of the firms, performance after entry and evolution of industry do not fully deal with the location, especially the role of region at the time of entry. The problems of the countries in which the risk ratio is different in local center and out of city center and where the economic activities are intensive in only a few local center can be eliminated by application of the development policies. Location selection is the most important strategic decisions of the company at the begining. A large part of the new firms which start operations are located in clusters where the firms have particular relations between each other and where the institutions are geographically concentrated (Pe‘er and Vertinsky 2006). Scale and scope not only allow the creation of organizational capital, but also provide different benefits. Scope provides diversity in the organizational capital while scale gives the depth to the organizational capital. A larger scale and scope of the firm can increase chance of survival when faced with problems of money, connections and provide benefits such as work Schedule (Bercovitz and Mitchell 2007). There are some structural factors such as firm‘s age and its scale which play important role in the industrial economy. Differences among the chance of survival among the firms are seen the results of the selection process. Experience will increase the chance of firm‘s survival and therefore, life curves of the firm has extended with the scale of the firm. Innovation may increase chances of the firms‘ survival by contributing to the development of appropriate strategies. The existing firms in the market is also under risk because of recession/ fluctuation in the industry that are results of tecnological changes occurring in its nature. Innovation activities increase their abilities to being alive permanently. Level of competition, demand predictability, the rate of tecnical change and its structure vary among different industries and these affect the chance of survival. The industry characteristics affecting the survival can be analyzed in two groups (Agarwal and Gort 1997):  Specifications for all products in this group vary in course of time or more distinctly, in the period of consecutive product life cycle. 211 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  In the second group, industrial properties change between industries thanks to all stages of the life cycle or a large part of life cycle. The conditions of industry at the time of entry have two significant reasons for firms which newly enter to the industry. Firstly, the firms must make large irremeable investments in order to compete with the firms which are already exist in the industry. If the firms flunk out from the industry, these investments would be appraised as sunk costs and it is considered that these investments affect dynamics and profitabilitiy of the company. Therefore, identification of industry‘s conditions that reflect the nature of cost at the time of entry enable to understand how this kind of structural barrier effect the performance after entry. Having a high human capital attributes of entrepreneur will decrease the ambiguities about the efficiency level and also enable to firm to adapt market condition and enable faster at the time of arranging the capacity so this will reduce the probability of exit. The entrepreneurial human‘s impact on the success of new firm may start before establishment. The entrepreneurs, who have opportunity to capture lucrative market and have ability to access relevant information, get the advantages because of past experience. High level of previous experience is not only increasing economic performance, but also opportunity of obtaining of entrepreneurs and the expected income level of entrepreneurs in alternative business sectors. Therefore, a skilled entrepreneur performs better when he works for himself, also he will have high performance that he needs to go on his business life (Gimeno et al. 1997). Has previously worked in similar industries or individuals who set up a new company in the same region, command the organization of firm associated with business environment, relational features of sector and contex of sector (Santarelli and Vivarelli 2007). One of the factors that increase the survival of institution which is related to founder, owner and employees level of education can be found in lots of studies. The founder of firm can be accepted as the first builder of organization‘s both structure and strategy. The role of the founder is inevitably an important position in capitalist economy. When viewed from this aspect, the level of education of the founder should be considered as one of the important determinant affecting the performance of the firm (Nelson 2003). Research Research Sample The universe of firms located in Lake District region are in manufacturing industry. The number of firms in the sample set is 60. This sample was used in Dr.Bekir Sami Oğuztürk dissertation thesis titled ― The Role of Innovation in Regional Development and a research in Lake District‖. The firms which were applicated in survey in the sample set are compared after 5 years with a new survey which was prepared by us to investigate the cases whether they are survive or not. 39 of 60 firms are located in Isparta, 21 of them are located in Burdur. The survey of the study was applicated by meeting individually with each firms owner, partner, manager, department manager of the firms including active or not active at that time. 12 of the firms (20% of the sample) in the sample ended their activity in 2008. Construction Timber Textile Cosmetic Food Bait Machine Gun Tarımsal Sulama Total ISPARTA 3 6 13 4 8 1 4 39 BURDUR 3 8 8 1 1 21 Table 1. The Sectoral Distribution of Sample Firms Sample included firms in other sectors of the provincial distribution are included in Table 1. Looking at the sectoral distribution of firms, in both provinces is seen as a condensation on the timber industry. Wood products industry is identiy of the region. The industry has a long history in the region and this industry which has provided value added to the region for many years and has also included a large portion of employment. Naturally, in the set of sample, most of companies are performing in timber industry in both cities. Looking at the city-level, after timber sector, 2nd intensive industry is textile in Isparta. The reason is city‘s past experience 212 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo in carpet and yarn, and also having infrastructure. In Burdur, most of firms are performing in timber industry and in machine industry. Considering high agricultural production level in Burdur, it has a considerable potential in the production of agricultural equipment and machines. Research Data The source of data for study is a survey, consisting of 39 questions about firms‘ survival and growth performance, was applied to the firms between June-July 2008. This survey consists of four main headings: firm information, product and sales information, staff information working in branch, firm‘s innovation performance. Moreover, the data belongs to 2003 was obtained from survey which was used in dissertation thesis of Dr.Bekir Sami Oğuztürk. Influential factors on the growth performance of firms for survival analysis will be collected under four main headings to be used for the growth analysis by making totalitarian evaluation. The headings under which analysis of growth are categorized as firm characteristics, industry / environmental characteristics, innovation activities and human capital ( for entrepreneurs and workers). Variables, grouped under four headings, have detailed explanations above. The symbols and the use of variable are presented in Table-2 VARIABLES Exit (EXT) DEFINITION For the survived firms 1 Otherwise 0 Firm Age (AGE) For the survived firms difference between founding date and year 2008, for the exit firms difference between founding date and exit date. Firm Size (SIZE) Number of employees in 2003 at the firm Export (EXPRT) For the exporter firms 1 Fort he non-exporter firms 0 Diversification (DVSF) Number of plant, branch office and bussiness concerns ecept headquarter Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) Proportion number of emplyees at the firm to number of employees in own sector. Industrial Growth (IGRWT) Mean of sectoral growth rates fort he last four years Location (LCT) Isparta ilinde faaliyet gösteren firmalar için 1, Burdur ilinde faaliyet gösteren firmalar için 0. Innovation Activities (INNO) Ġf the firm has bought/developed; a-) A new product , b-) A new production system and/or technology 1 Otherwise 0 Patents/Industrial Design (PTNT) Number of patents and/or industrial design certificate Research and Development (RD) For the regular R&D activities 1 Otherwise 0 Educational Level of Employees (ELE) (Graduate employment)/(Total employment) Table 2. Variables Used In The Analysis Logistic regression model ( logit) will be used to distinguish the survival firms and failed firms in 5 years period after 2003. Logit model is explained as below with estimation of a specific event / fact with β probality parameters. 213 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (1) In logit model, β coefficient is calculated by maximum probabilty method. Thus, taking into consediration of the firm‘ s situation within a specific period, it is possible to calculate the probability of firms‘ survival. Results The main features of firms being inclusive of sample are shown in Table 3. Accordingly, in the region, the firms' average age was 26 and this age level shows that most of the firms were founded in the early 80s and 90s while the industrialization was accelerated in Turkey. The firms in the region have an avarage level of foreign sales opportunity. 57% of firms are exporting. In terms of employees or scale, firms are in middle sizes (average number of employees is 73). Although there is no setted innovative structure and culture, 42% of the firms are engaged in informal R&D activities. Although the structure of firms are generally limited liability and joint-stock company, the most prominent characteristic for all the firms is family business. Finally, it is observed that 83% of the firms‘ founders in the sample have experience in the same or different sectors as an entrepreneurial. COMPANY STRUCTURE EXT AGE SIZE EXPRT DVSF MES IGRWTH LCT INNO PTNT RD ELE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS MEAN STANDART DEVIATION 60 1.13 0.34 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 0.8 26.03 72.78 0.56 1.88 47.84 7.35 1.35 0.53 0.45 0.41 9.27 0.40 22.25 103.2 0.49 1.7 15.4 7.46 0.48 0.50 2.65 0.49 8.64 MINIMUM MAXIMUM 1 (Corporate) 0 3 7 0 1 10 -3.07 1 0 0 0 0 2 (Individual) 1 153 431 1 11 100 19.17 2 1 20 2 38.71 Table 3. Descriptive Statistics The correlation analysis will be made in order to see whether there is a directly relationship amidst explanatory variables which cause an increasement in the estimate values‘ of standart errors of parameters before making econometric analysis. Table 4 contains the results of correlation analysis. When we examine the values of co-efficient resulted from correlation analysis, it can be seen that there is no highly relationship which can cause multicolinearity problem between independent variables. Table 2 will also help us to see the direction of relationship between firms growth rate and survival chances with independent variables The Stata 1.9 statistical program was used for all models while the researh findings are being obtained. In the findings section, the determinants which affect the firms‘ survival including firm-based, industry and environment-based, human capital and innovation-based, growth perfomance factors will be examined with an order. 214 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo EXT AGE SIZE EXPRT DVSF MES IGRWTH LCT INNO PTNT RD EXT AGE SIZE EXPRT DVSF MES IGRWTH LCT INNO PTNT RD ELE 1 0.32 0.05 0.25 0.28 -0.02 0.09 -0.15 0.08 0.05 0.28 0.26 1 0.18 0.18 0.13 -0.12 0.14 -0.14 -0.01 0.20 0.38 0.41 1 0.44 0.04 0.29 -0.46 -0.33 -0.01 0.16 0.12 0.13 1 0.29 0.23 -0.35 -0.12 -0.13 0.32 0.29 0.11 1 -0.01 -0.12 0.01 -0.03 0.33 0.05 0.43 1 -0.54 -0.24 0.07 -0.21 -0.20 -0.13 1 0.46 -0.07 -0.08 0.22 0.01 1 0.01 0.10 -0.16 -0.19 1 0.18 0.18 0.15 1 0.29 0.37 ELE 1 0.28 1 Table 4. Correlation Analysis EXT AGE Coefficient 0.08 Std.Dev. 0.05 z 1.59 P>|z| 0.11 SIZE 0.00 0.01 -0.68 0.50 DVSF 3.49 1.64 2.14 0.03*** EXPRT 2.36 1.45 1.63 0.10 MES 0.00 0.05 -0.03 0.98 IGRWTH 0.26 0.12 2.08 0.04*** LCT -3.84 2.05 -1.87 0.06** RD -0.73 1.42 -0.52 0.61 PTNT -1.15 0.60 -1.93 0.05** INNO 1.23 1.22 1.01 0.31 ELE 0.06 0.10 0.64 0.52 Constant -2.46 3.69 -0.67 0.51 Significance Level: *=%10, **=%5, ***=%1 Number of obs = 60 Pseudo R2 = 0.4877 LR chi2(11) = 29.29 Log likelihood = -15.381425 Prob > chi2 = 0.0020 Table 5. Factors Affecting Firms‘ Survival Effects of variables on sırvival probabilities of firms are respresented in Table 5. Accordingly, DVSF, IGRWTH, LCT and PTNT variables has significant effects. The mos striking result is that PTNT variable has significant and negative effect. But, only four firms has patent application and even more these firms has exited. ThereforePTNT is not a robust variable with which we could observe the concrete effects of the patent ectivities of the firms on their survival opportunities. Conclusion There are a lot of factors which affect the performance of the companies. The majority of factors are stochastic such as war, natural disasters, change of government, fluctuations in the stock market etc. In this study, the systematic factors which are thought as having an impact in the process of firms survival and the direction of these affects are investigated. The factors including firm, industry, innovation and human capital that affect the performance of firms operating in Lake District are identified by econometric analysis. The results obtaining from emprical analysis clearly demonstrate that new and small-scale firms‘ importance. The results show that generally firms in the region continue their activities, and grow under the 215 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo traditional factors. Survival results related to literature do not show very large differences. Source of the differences is the variables which do not show significance in the Lake District sample set. Generally, opening branches for going to path differentiation are usually carried out by large firms. However, a large part of the firms going to path differentiation in Lake Region are consisting of small and medium sized firms. This case is one of the important difference that shows small and junior firms in the region perform better. References Acs, Z.J., & Armington, C. (2006). Entrepreneurship, Geography and American Economic Growth. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p.45. Agarwal,R., & Gort, M. Firm and Industry Attributes as Determinants of Survival. JEL:O30, L20, p.2. Bercovitz,J., & Mitchell, W. (2007) When is More Better? The Impact of Business Sale and Scope on Long Term Business Survival, While Controlling for Profitability. Strategic Management Journal, Vol.28, 61-79. Geroski,P., (1995). What Do We Know about Entry?. International Journal of Industrial Organisation, Vol. 13, 421-440. Gimeno J., T.B. Folta, A.C. Cooper, & Woo, C.Y. (1997) Survival of the Fittest? Entrepreneurial Human Capital and the Persistence of Underperforming Firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42 (4), p.756. Nelson T., (2003). The Persistence of Founder Influence: Management, Ownership and Performance Effects at Initial Public Offering. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 24, p.707. Pe‘er, A., & Vertinsky, I. (2006). The Survival Value of Clusters for De Novo Entrants. Academy of Management Best Conference Paper, 2006, BPS:N1, p.1. Perez,S.E., A.S. Llopis, & Llopis, J.A.S. (2004) The Determinants of Survival of Spanish Manufacturing Firms. Review of Industrial Organization, Vol.25, p.251. Santarelli E., & Vivarelli, M. Entrepreneurship and the Process of Firms‘ Entry, Survival and Growth. Industrial and Corporate Change, 16 (3), 461-463. Stinchcombe, A. L., (1965) Social Structure and Organizations. in J. G. March, ed., Handbook of Organizations. Chicago: Rand-McNally, 142-193. Van Praag, C.M. (2002). Business Survival and Success of Young Small Business Owners. Small Business Economics, 21 (1), p.3. 216 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 159 Title A name given to the resource Determinants of Firm Survival in Manufacturing Industry: A Research on Lake Region in Turkey Author Author DEMİRGİL, Hakan KARAÖZ, Murat GÖVDERE, Bekir CAN, Muhlis Abstract A summary of the resource. This paper gives an empirical analysis of determinants of firm survival in the manufacturing sector of Lakes Region (Turkey) from 2003 to 2009. The survival activities of the firms are measured through a four-dimensional, namely firm based, industry/environment based, innovation based and human capital based, questionnaire consisting of 49 questions. For the application logistic regression method is used for the evaluation of survival probability and the findings are compared with the basics of the related literature. According to the results of the empirical work, the effects of the ―Firm Based‖ factors on the survivals and growth performances of the firms located in the region are found to be more significant and positive than the remaining dimensions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory