59 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/9f06a34d5c0723c89ff7547725dc32ed.pdf ad92001278bc57db48efac04802b68a2 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Attitudes of Education Faculty Students towards Compulsory English Courses: The Case of Ağrı Ibrahim Ceçen University Assist. Prof.Dr.Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of Science and Letters Kars,Turkey gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Inst.Adem AKALIN Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey ademakalin86@gmail.com Inst.R.Mutlu SALMAN Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey rmutlusalman@gmail.com Abstract: Attitudes toward learning a language is thought to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success of the foreign language learners. In this respect, the aim of this study was to determine the attitudes of Education Faculty students at Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey, towards compulsory English courses. The subjects of this study were 249 Faculty of Education students from 5 different departments. In the study, the relationship between attitudes of the students towards such variables as demographic data related to the participants’ genders and departments was searched using a foreign language attitude scale prepared by Çakıcı (2007). For the data analysis, SPSS 17 program was used and for the assessment of the results independent Sample t-test and descriptive statistics were used. According to the result of the study, at the Education Faculty of Đbrahim Çeçen University 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude towards compulsory English courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male students and female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (M =137,79) than male students (M = 132,40). Keywords : students’ attitudes, compulsory English, Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University, gender, department Introduction Attitudes are considered to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success of foreign language learners. Therefore, much research has been carried out to show the role of the beliefs and attitudes of the students (Gardner, & Lambert, 1972; Fishbein, & Ajzen, 1975; Boykin, & Trungamphai, 1982; Horwitz, 1988, 1991; Saracaloğlu, 1992; Lanara, 1999; Ajzen & Fishbein, 2000, 2005; Rifkin, 2000; Jernigan, 2001; Mattern & Schau, 2002; Dornyei, 2003). Dornyei (2001) argues that unsuccessful learners’ lack of learning attitude and motivation affects their learning in a negative way. Attitude and motivation play a significant role in determining the learners’ level of achievement in language learning. According to Gardner (1985) there is a strong connection between achievement and language attitude, motivation and anxiety. In his two studies about the psychology of second language learning, Lambert (1963,1967, Cited in Reynolds & Lambert 1991) discussed some psychological theories related to language learning of Hebb (1949) and, Skinner (1957) and the concept of language attitude of Carroll (1959). Lambert, in his article in 1963, described his “Social Psychology of Second Language Learning” and “Psychology of Bilingualism.” Lambert’s theory proposes that a learner who is acquiring a second language gradually gets various aspects of behavior that are unique to the members of another cultural group. The learners’ attitudes toward the other group are believed to determine their success in learning the new language and their motivation to learn is thought to be determined by their attitudes. 181 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Problem Although learning a foreign language is considered to be vital in Turkey, there hasn’t been much progress in achieving it, except in private schools. Students learn a foreign language, namely English, at primary, secondary, high school, and university level, however, with the exception of foreign language departments and departments with preparatory classes, no satisfactory result has been reached. Research Questions 1.Do students at Đbrahim Çeçen University in Education Faculty have a positive attitude towards compulsory English courses? 2. Is there a significant difference in the attitudes of students in relation to their gender? Methodology This study was carried out to investigate the attitudes of Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University students’ attitudes towards compulsory English courses in relation to departments and genders. Participants The subjects of this study were 249 students (164 males and 85 females) from Education Faculty. Instrument A language attitude scale formed by (Çakıcı, 2007) was used in this study. The scale aimed to measure four aspects of the participants; affective features (Cronbach Alpha: 0.95), perceptions about the usefulness and importance the compulsory foreign language (Cronbach Alpha: 0.87), the reasons for negativity (Cronbach Alpha: 0.77), and the reasons related to the teacher (Cronbach Alpha: 0.79). The questionnaire was composed of two parts. First part was prepared to elicit demographic information related to the participants. The second part consisted of a 45- question containing 5- point likert-type scale that attempted to determine the attitudes of the first year students towards English as a common compulsory course. Of 45 statements in the second part, 26 were positive and 19 were negative. Procedure In order to use the attitude scale in the study, a permission e-mail was sent to Dilek Çakı on 22nd 02.2010. Çakıcı responded our e-mail on 03rd 03.2010, accepting our using her attitude scale. Then on 15th 03. 2010 an official permission was requested from the authorities of Ağrı Đbrahim Çeçen University and the authorities accepted our proposal. 0n 14th March we administered the questionnaire to 249 students from five different departments of Education Faculty during the class hours. Data Analysis For the data analysis SPSS 17 for windows was used and significance level was set as 0,05. For the statistics, descriptive statistics and independent simple t-test were used. 182 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results Anaysis of Demographic Data Gender and Department As can be seen in Table 1, mostly the participants were from Primary School Teaching 80 (32,1%) and from Social sciences 68 (27,3%). Gender % Department Primary School Teaching N 80 32,1 Teaching of Physical Education 43 17,3 Social Sciences 68 27,3 Turkish Language Teaching 46 18,5 Preschool Teaching 12 04,8 Total 249 100,0 Table 1.The Numbers and Percentages of the Participants according to the Departments. As for the other departments, 46 (18,5) were from Turkish Language Teaching department, 43 (17,3%) from Teaching of Physical Education department, and 12 (4,8%) were from Preschool Teaching department, respectively. 164 of the students were males and 85 females. The high schools and departments and the University The high schools, the participants graduated from and their departments at the Education faculty of Đbrahim Çeçen University have been given in Table2. Department at the University Primary School Teaching Teaching of Physical Education Social Sciences Turkish Language Teaching Preschool Teaching Total High School Type General Private High School College N % N % 60 24 01 0,01 Anatolian High School N % 19 08 Vocational High School N % 00 00 36 14 00 0,00 04 02 03 0,12 62 41 25 16 01 00 0,01 0,00 05 04 02 02 00 01 00 0,01 00 02 0,00 0, 1 06 38 2,4 15 02 06 01 2,4 04 203 02 82 Table 2.High School Types of the Participants and their Departments As seen in Table 2, of 249 students 203(82%) came from general high school, 38 (15%) from Anatolian high school, 6(2,4%) from vocational high school and 2 (0,1) from private college. Having English Lessons at Secondary and High Schools Course Taken Yes N % 187 75,1 No 62 24,9 183 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 3.The numbers and Percentages of the Participants having English Lessons at Secondary and High School It is clear in Table 3 that 187 (75,1%) of the students had English courses at secondary and high school, while 62(24,9) didn’t have. English Level of the Students English level of the students have been given in Table 4. Knowledge Little Medium Good Excellent Total N 174 42 29 04 249 f 69,09 16,09 11,6 01,6 100 Table 4. English Levels of the Students According to Table 4, 174 (69,09%) of the students had little knowledge of English, 42 (16,09%) had medium, 29 (11,6%) had good, and 04 (1,6) had excellent, respectively. Therefore, it is clear that students mostly didn’t have enough knowledge of English. Attending to a Private Course According to the results of the study, none of the students attended any private courses. Analysis of the Research Questions Research Question 1: Do students at Đbrahim Çeçen University in Education Faculty have a positive attitude towards compulsory English courses? In determining the attitudes of the students, the means of the responses were taken into consideration(M= 132, S=31,91). If the total scores of the subjects were under the mean value, they were considered as negative attitude, if ever than the mean value then they were considered as positive attitude. The result have been given in Table5. Atitude Positive N % 114 45,8 Negative 135 54,2 Table5.Attitudes of Subjects towards Compulsory English Courses As seen in Table 5, 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude towards compulsory English courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude. The highest attitude scores were “I believe the essence of English to be able to communicate with people who speak this language”(M=4,09, S=1,25, “I envy people who speak English fluently” (M=3,81, S=1,40), “I think knowledge of English improves the individual's general knowledge” (M=3,81, S=1,40). The lowest attitude scores were “I never want English courses to be finish” (M=2,15, S=1,18), “I'm more willing to study English than other courses” (M=2,26, S=1,30), and “I like studying English at my free time” (M=2,32, S=1,24), respectively. Research Question 2: Is there a significant difference in the attitudes of students in relation to their gender? The results of the study have been given in Table 6. Gender Male N X S sd t 164 132,40 18,12 247 2,45 184 P ,015 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Female 85 137,79 12,79 Table 6.Attitudes of Male and Female Students towards Compulsory Foreign language It is clearly seen in Table 6 that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male students and female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (X =137,79) than male ones did (X = 132,40). Discussion and Conclusion Burstall (1975) claims that indices of attitudes and motivation are strongly related to success in the second language. Likewise, McDonough (1986) and Skehan (1998) assert that second language acquisition is a cyclical process: strong motivation and positive attitude may lead to the desired level of success in learning a second language process. However, in this study it is clear that most of the participants had a negative attitude towards compulsory English courses and therefore, this may cause them failure. In a study carried out at Dokuz Eylül University by Çakıcı (2007), it was determined that there was no significant difference between the gender and the attitudes of the students. Similarly, Karaş (1996) and Saracaloğlu (1996) found no gender difference in their studies. However, Graham (1990) , Saracaloğlu(2000), and Spolsky (1989) found out that females had a significantly much more positive attitude towards foreign language learning. Our study is in paralel with Graham and Spolsky, as female students had a significantly more positive attitude than males did. As a result, in order to make students have more positive attitudes towards compulsory English courses, teachers should: 1.plan the courses according to interests and levels of the students. 2.present the lessons in different techniques such as role plays and dramas. 3.benefit from information technologies. 4.encourage students to participate in the classroom activities. 5.create a friendly atmosphere in the class. 6.provide group works and pair works. Acknowledgements We would like to thank to Dr. Dilek Çakıcı for letting us use her attitude scale and to authorities of Đbrahim Çeçen University for letting us carry out the study and to the students at the faculty of Education for participating in the study. 185 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the attitude-behavior relation: reasoned and automatic processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 1-33. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (2005). The influence of attitudes on behaviour. In D. Albarracin., B.T Johnson., & M.P Zanna. (Eds). The handbook of attitudes (p. 173-221). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Boykin, A., & Trungamphai, A. (1982) “ Attitudes and Attained English Proficiency of University Students in Thailand: A Sociolinguistics Study”, The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, March 19-23. 1882. New York. Burstall, C. (1975). French in Primary School: The British Experiment. Canadian Modern Language Review, 31, 388-402. Carroll J. B., & Sapon, S. M. (1959). Modern Language Aptitude Test. New York: Appleton. Çakıcı,D.(2007). The Attitudes of University Students towards English within the scope of Common Compulsory Courses. Journal of Gazi University. 27(3), 21-35. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Essex: Pearson Education. Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and applications. Language Learning, 53(1), 3-32. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to Theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W.E. (1972). Attitudes and motivations in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Gardner, R.C. (1985). Social psychology aspects of second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Arnold. Graham, W.R.(1990). Gender Differences in Intelligence Personality and primary mental Abilities among Irish Children, PhD thesis, Northern Ireland: University of Ulster. Horwitz, E.K. (1988). The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. Modern Language Journal, 72, 283-293. Horwitz, E.K. (1991). Language anxiety. From theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Jernigan, C.G. (2001). The role of beliefs, attributions, and perceived goal attainment in students’ motivation. In G. Bräuer (Ed.), Pedagogy of language learning in higher education(pp. 23-45). Westport, CT: Ablex. Karaş, M.(1996). Using Attitude Scales to Investigate Student Attitude,(paper presentation). 2.IATEFL Balkan ELT Conference. Đstanbul: 5-7 September. Lanara S. (1999), Attitudes and Motivation of Japanese Students Studying English at Asia University CELE Journal 10th Anniversary Anthology, 55-64.(Date 12,11.2009). Mattern, N. & Schau, C. (2002). Gender difference in attitude-achievement relationships over time among white middle-school students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39, (4), 324-340.McDonough, S.H. (1986). 186 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching. London: Routledge. Mclaughlin, B. (1991). Theories of Second Language Learning. NY: Routlage, Chapman and Hall. Reynolds, A. G., & Lambert, W. E. (1991) Bilingualism, Multiculturalism, and second Language Learning. McGill Conference in Honour of W. E. Lambert. Rifkin, B. (2000). Revisiting beliefs about foreign language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 33, 394-420. Saracaloğlu A.S. (1992) Attitudes to Foreign Language. British Council and METU conferences. Ankara. Saracaloğlu A.S. (1996). The Relationship between Affective Entry Characteristics and Foreign Language Achievement of Prospective Physical Education Teachers. Performans, 2(4), 145-158. ------(2000). The Relationship between Traniee Teachers’ Attitudes to foreign Language and their Academic Success. Journal of Education and Science, 1(254). Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: OUP. Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal Behaviour. New York. Spolsky, B. (1989). Conditions for Second Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 187 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 454 Title A name given to the resource Attitudes of Education Faculty Students towards Compulsory English Courses: The Case of Ağrı Ibrahim Ceçen University Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer AKALIN, Adem SALMAN, Mutlu Abstract A summary of the resource. Attitudes toward learning a language is thought to be one of the most important factors affecting the failure or success of the foreign language learners. In this respect, the aim of this study was to determine the attitudes of Education Faculty students at Đbrahim Çeçen University, Ağrı, Turkey, towards compulsory English courses. The subjects of this study were 249 Faculty of Education students from 5 different departments. In the study, the relationship between attitudes of the students towards such variables as demographic data related to the participants’ genders and departments was searched using a foreign language attitude scale prepared by Çakıcı (2007). For the data analysis, SPSS 17 program was used and for the assessment of the results independent Sample t-test and descriptive statistics were used. According to the result of the study, at the Education Faculty of Đbrahim Çeçen University 135 (54,2%) of the students had a negative attitude towards compulsory English courses, whereas 114 (45,8%) of them had positive attitude. The results of the study showed that there was a significant difference between the attitudes of male students and female ones t(247)=2,45, p<0,05. Female students had more positive attitudes (M =137,79) than male students (M = 132,40). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/822dbb1e91b57c663920749a0ca0c7fd.pdf 8cdab71b19df8dfad03703e94b847bbb PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language Teaching in Turkey and an Evaluation of Them in Context with Linguistic Revolution Hüseyin EFE Asst. Prof. Dr. Atatürk University Erzurum, Turkey hefe@atauni.edu.tr Ahmet Selçuk AKDEMĐR Lecturer Erzincan University Erzincan, Turkey aakdemir@erzincan.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, our aim is to derive the views of intellectuals and authors published in the journals and papers during the first years of Republican Era in Turkey on language teaching and the teaching of basic language skills and to evaluate them in context with Linguistic Revolution of Turkey (July 12, 1932). The views we deal here compose a good source for those interested in developing educational programme and they caused a brainstorming on cultural revolutions and linguistic issues of the new Turkish State among our intellectuals and authors of the time. Principally being a literature review, our study also presents useful information to solve today’s problems on language teaching. Key words: language teaching, linguistic revolution, Republic of Turkey, Turkish, Turkish intellectuals. Introduction After many turbulent years of the last period of Ottoman Empire, new Turkish Republic had in one hand steam to make major innovations and serious problems to overcome the difficulties of creating a new society on the other hand. Nearly in all fields of the society, constituted innovations and revolutions. Tradition left its position to modernity. Educational activities also received its share from these revolutions. However, before talking about educational activities, we need to deal Turkish Linguistic Revolution. Evolution and revolution in a language are very different concepts. While talking about these two concepts, Korkmaz (1970) explains that, the first one occurs in a long time span without any human intervention. So it should be evaluated as a maturation process. The second concept is very different by means of the intervention as any revolution is made by some human effect and it occurs in a short time span comparatively. In this sense, the changes, Turkish language experienced, can be said to be revolution. In order to explain the term ‘revolution’, Karal (1956) quotes from Atatürk as follows: “Revolution is something like replacing all old – fashioned institution with those ones providing opportunities of civilization to the nation.” Dealing linguistic revolution in this sense, we can conclude that Turkish Linguistic Revolution is an attempt to create a national language including all national developments of culture, gaining self – development opportunity and self – confidence (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 99). Turkish has three main periods: Seljuks, Anatolian Principalities and Ottomans. Having the knowledge of these periods of Turkish language in mind, we can examine the effects it had throughout its history. When it reached to Republic period, Turkish language was in a state of deterioration and corruption to the culture and nation it belonged to. In spite of the attempts made by some public officials and intellectuals to purify and simplify Ottoman Turkish during the Tanzimat, the language could never succeed to become a nationalized one. During Ottoman period, the influence of Arabic and Persian was so much that Turkish language was very far from being an original one. The influences of other languages were multi directional such as rules, vocabulary, syntax, and alphabet and so on (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 100). Regarding all these factors, Atatürk made a revolution on 12 July 1932 known as Letters Revolution. This revolution is an attempt to facilitate education, relations of society and to increase literacy level. In essence, this is not merely a revolution of letters and writing. After the use of Latin 455 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo alphabet, many innovations and explorations occurred in grammar, phonology, semantics and syntax of Turkish language. As a result of purification, simplification and derivation practices, many diligent works were carried out. Authors, intellectuals, scientists and journalists adopted different ways to enhance their works with genuine Turkish. Vocabulary that our language acquired during revolution era has three types: 1- Derivations from vulgar (from regional spoken language) 2- Derivations from old written texts of Anatolian Turkish Literature 3- Newly created words (Korkmaz, 1970 s; 110). As all other revolutions, Linguistic Revolution was sustained by the support and care of Atatürk and Turkish Language Institute. In a short time, efforts turned out to be fruitful and new Turkish Republic managed to create a fresh and modern society by means of educational, cultural and social aspects. While the results of Linguistic Revolution had their way to educational systems of the new state, many debates, concerning Linguistic Revolutions and unity of education, arose among the intellectuals of the time. 1. The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language and Language Teaching Before starting to discuss their views, we need to explain what we mean by the phrase ‘Early Republican Intellectuals’. Turkish Republic, founded on 1923, had a new type of intellectuals supporting almost all revolutions held by the government. That was valid for nearly 15 years between 1923 and 1940. Those intellectuals mostly grown up to the last days of the Empire and experienced ending struggles of modernization of the Empire. Having those desperate struggles in their vision, they bore some kind of modernist intelligence to the new State of old country (Anatolia). Here, our expression of ‘Early Republican Intellectuals’ stands for that group of writers, journalists, pedagogues, sociologists and academicians. However being modernist enough, intellectuals of early period had many problems to solve especially on educational issues. Language teaching was one of the most prominent of these. To see the picture of the day, we should remember the Linguistic Revolution and Letters Revolution that demolished all the possessions of tradition. The government enacted to use Latin alphabet instead of Arabic letters in 1928 and four years later another revolutionary process, can be defined as a purification and simplification of the language, was started by the government and the intellectuals of the period. After these revolutionary steps, there occurred a new problem: adapting these changes to educational programs especially by means of language teaching and literacy. While proposing their ideas, early republican intellectuals performed considerable brainstorming. As we get on our presentation of their opinions, our subjects will prove to have very different and genuine proposals on language teaching. There are a great many of people in number so we need to group them by means of their arguments. 2. Their Proposals on Syntax: Kazım Sami, a republican intellectual, says that grammar is important but it should be taught embedded into reading and speaking (Yetiş, 2005). He supports grammar, but does agree with teaching rules barely. According to him, vivid examples should be used to teach grammar. Şükriye Emel, another intellectual of the time, has different views from K. Sami. According to her, the main problem of language teaching is the chaotic situation caused by Letters Revolution (Yetiş, 2005). She observes both teachers and students having great difficulties in understanding new letters (Latin alphabet). Being accustomed to vowel points of Arabic script, students and teachers are perplexed on how to pronounce the words. If this problem is solved then other fields of language teaching will be eased. M. Zekeriya participates to these issues with examples he derived from American and Russian education systems. He argues that grammar has no importance for a student’s linguistic development and learning (Yetiş, 2005). As anyone do not need to revise grammar rules while speaking, grammar and rules should be considered to be sub – conscious base for language and they need to be learned by speaking, reading, writing and vocabulary. M. Zekeriya is so strict in his view that he even proposes that grammar should be removed from curriculums while the new Republic is trying to create a reasonable level of literacy. Kazım Nami, an instructor of Turkish for foreign students of different ethnic origins, talks about his educational story and emphasizes that during his years as a student in military school nearly all of the language courses were constructed on reading, writing and speaking. Grammar has a very slight place in the last grade according to his educational experience. He states that though his little formal training on grammar, he is very 456 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo successful to teach Turkish grammar to others (Yetiş, 2005). He argues that grammar is useful only to teach it to others. According to his views, he is a supporter of some kind of Transformational – Generational-learning style. Grammar rules should be learned sub – consciously. While learning a language – or for any first language curriculum – grammar rules and structures are formed subsequently. He states that the language itself is so flexible that you can not stuff it into a grammar book. Grammar shall only be used as a tool for brainstorming. His criticism on grammar is so strict that he can not stop himself but calling grammar courses as ‘parasitic’. Mustafa Şekip has very different views on grammar. According to him, new script and letters need a new grammar and the structure of this new type of grammar is difficult to estimate beforehand. From this obscurity, he thinks that as the rules are not clear, there is nothing to say about teaching (Yetiş, 2005). According to Yusuf Ziya, grammar is useless to use a language fluently. They are human’s instincts and competences to determine the fluency of the language (Yetiş, 2005). Orhan Seyfi, a well-known poet of the time, supports sub-conscious learning for grammar. He points out that first of all grammar needs to be revised whether it is suitable for linguistic revolution and new alphabet. Grammar rules should be in accordance with both spoken and written language. Sadri Etem is another intellectual to refuse the necessity of grammar in the curriculum as a separate topic. Trying to teach a language with grammar is something like trying to teach swimming someone in a desert says for grammar and language teaching. Peyami Safa, one of the greatest authors of Modern Turkish Literature, thinks that grammar is only important to understand the content of a language not the language itself. An inductive style should be adopted. Grammar consolidates the structures that we already know. Nazım Hikmet, one of the greatest poet of the day and whose reputation still exist in literary world, calls everyone to put the grammar aside and learn reading, writing and speaking. Grammar should be considered only useful for those having academic interests. 3. Their Proposals on Writing – Reading On writing and reading activities, Kazım Sami has many things to say again. He presents American style of education and emphasizes that reading and writing skills are best developed when they are conducted together. All examples should be suitable to children linguistic development. Şükriye Emel is more pessimistic than others about new alphabet and the problems of educational regulations. According to her, as the Minister of Justice stated in the Parliamentary, letters and their spelling is the main cause of chaos. Therefore, the standardization of spelling must be ensured and changeover process must be completed as soon as possible. M. Zekeriya is also another opponent of grammatical patterns and rules while teaching reading and writing. As we, Turkish nation, are in a very need of creating an educated society, we should eliminate all other patterns like abandoning new alphabet and removing grammar from curriculum. 4. Conclusion As a general assessment of their opinions, we can conclude that nearly all intellectuals of the period agree in approving a language teaching method in which grammatical patterns and rules are thought not directly but in a sub-conscious manner, in doing so the language will be learned and thought easily. Regarding the fact that the period was a very sensitive one by means of revolutions especially cultural ones, it is easy to understand their concerns on practical and quick language teaching ways. Nearly all of them are aware of the importance of revolutions and the sensitive manner of the society. So no offensive proposal exists in their writing. The main concern for them is to help the development of the society. The opinions of intellectuals form a good source for us as language teachers and researchers. Somehow they saw many problems of our field beforehand and they tried to bring practical solutions. While doing this, they benefited from their early experiences many of which depended on the period of Empire. As we observe, we realize that language teaching became easier thanks to Linguistic Revolutions especially to Letters Revolution. 457 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Bibliography ĐMER, Kamile; Türk Dil Devrimi, TDK 1976. ĐMER, Kamile; Türk Yazı Dilinde Dil Devriminin Başlangıcından 1965 Yılı Sonuna Kadar Özleşme Üzerine Sayıma Dayanan Bir Araştırma, TDK 1972. KORKMAZ, Zeynep; Dilde Doğal Gelişme ve Devrim Açısından Türk Dil Devrimi, TDK 1970. PALA, Đskender; Türk Dili Nereden Nereye, Đstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi Dergisi 2002. ŞAVKAY, Tuğrul; Dil Devrimi, Gelenek Yayıncılık 2002. YETĐŞ, Kazım; Atatürk ve Türk Dili, TDK 2005. 458 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 734 Title A name given to the resource The Views of Early Republican Intellectuals on Language Teaching in Turkey and an Evaluation of Them in Context with Linguistic Revolution Author Author EFE, Hüseyin AKDEMİR, Ahmet Selçuk Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, our aim is to derive the views of intellectuals and authors published in the journals and papers during the first years of Republican Era in Turkey on language teaching and the teaching of basic language skills and to evaluate them in context with Linguistic Revolution of Turkey (July 12, 1932). The views we deal here compose a good source for those interested in developing educational programme and they caused a brainstorming on cultural revolutions and linguistic issues of the new Turkish State among our intellectuals and authors of the time. Principally being a literature review, our study also presents useful information to solve today’s problems on language teaching. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c674d30bce1a08246fd0b8bccd83f957.pdf 474d4d18732e0c911450d9a5a918f713 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development Lejla DĠZDAREVĠC International University Philip Noel Baker 71000 Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina lejla.hadzi@emu.edu.tr Abstract: In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development. Introduction Surveys done by WTO and many written papers conclude that significant number of the tourism development plans brought in the past have been implemented partially or have not been implemented at all. What or who is guilty for this? Maybe the problem is in tourism industry itself or among those responsible for tourism planning, or it is in approaches used for planning tourism development. However the problem is in place, implementation is not going well and plans remain on papers and shelves gathering only dust while at same time development of sustainable tourism fail. Therefore, the question is not whether to plan or not to plan, but how to plan, which practices to use and what approaches to choose. Tourism planning requires knowledge and rationality which in practice may not be achievable. Besides that planning for sustainable tourism development assumes environmental and social protection over pure economic goals. Finally politics is in the center of tourism planning. Achieving agreement on a rationale, comprehensive, holistic and long-range planning approach to tourism may look impossible task. However, knowledge, rationality and willingness may find suitable approaches to planning, implementation and control. The aim of this paper is to take you back to importance of tourism planning and to address key approaches and practices, among many, to sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements but when we look for good example of such tourism development there are only few of them. As Getz (1986) argues, this is mainly because of the failure to put together theory and practice. Almost three decades ago the issue was evident but still problem is not solved and drawing of rigid ―Master Plans ― is with no hesitation still considered as main approach to tourism planning mainly in developing countries (Burns 2004). Although tourism planning recently moved toward application of more sustainable approaches still failures of sustainable development are superior. Tourism, Planning and Sustainability Tourism for long time is a major topic for many academics, researchers, industries, governments and publics (Coppock 1982; Jenkins 1982; Getz 1986; Davidson 1993; Burns 2004). It is widely accepted that tourism is one of the largest industries today with rare ability to move millions of people from one place to another on base of something what is intangible in core. Until know many definitions on tourism have been brought and discussed. However problem of developing one that best describes tourism phenomena is present. Permanently used term ―tourism industry‖ also received some criticisms, where some authors suggest that tourism cannot be described as an industry because it does not produce a single, distinct product (Jefferson and Lickorish 1988). As Gilbert (1990) 608 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo argues this difficulty of defining tourism is mainly because of the nature of tourism as a concept and also inputs involved in satisfying tourist‘s demands and needs and recently interests of host community. Tourism left that issue behind and until now developed into a truly worldwide activity that goes far beyond political, cultural, geographical, and ideological boundaries. It is not just another industry but important part of economy foundation in many countries. Besides that is fastest growing and leading industry at global level and one of the top five exports for 80% of countries (WTO 1998). Tourism can be viewed, described and measured from different perspectives depending on nature of main interests, objectives and aims. Decades ago the most important indicators and objectives of tourism were related to economic growth and employment rate, mainly measuring how much money can bring into a country, how many people can employ and how much visitors can attract. Still these elements are important indicators in measuring overall tourism development, but also by time some other essential aspects have been considered as well. Today significance of tourism is also measured trough impacts which tourism has on people‘s lives, places where they live and also the way tourism is affected by different forces. It has been argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2002, p. 5), ―Tourism is much like the elephant: diverse and sometime hard to describe, but just like the elephant, too big to be ignored‖. Finally we can say that tourism represents an important element of global economy and today almost every country in some way is trying to achieve greater development through development of tourism. As it was mentioned before tourism was widely accepted and used to accomplish quick economic growth and to increase employment rate which is important element of economical indicators. However, in early 1980s such tourism development receives many critics because of increasing evidence of negative impacts of tourism (Logar 2010). Tourism planners are asked to employ different approaches to tourism planning in order to regulate tourism development before essential resources and potentials reach their end. In different destinations unfortunately this occurred, mainly due to planning approaches used which did not include social, cultural and environmental aspect (Hall 2000). And this is in fact how the need for more appropriate and more responsible approach to tourism planning was born. This remains difficult task to solve, although today is possible to find different and quite adoptable approaches to work out. In following we remind on value and role of planning process. Planning is a term that is difficult to define because it may be used in relation to individuals or groups, governments and organizations and can be applied to different levels like regional, national and international. In addition it is a term widely accepted and used to describe ways and means to achieve future goals and objectives. However planning means and requires much more. As it was argued by Williams (1998) without planning there is a risk that activities undertaken will be unregulated, formless or haphazard and likely will lead to a range of negative economic, social and environmental impacts. This actually best describes the situation with tourism in early 1970s and 1980s. Also Gunn (1988), argued similarly when he claimed that the lack of planning may cause serious mal functions and inefficiencies. It is important to mention that planning in early stages was largely reactive while modern planning in the late twentieth century was far proactive and future oriented. Furthermore, in early stages focus on the plan as physical design has probably contributed to the failure to recognize the importance of actions involved in planning (Gunn, 1988), while main aim of modern planning is to seek for optimal solutions to perceive problems that is designed to maximize development of benefits, producing predictable outcomes (Williams, 1998). In addition, planning is an ordered sequence of operations and actions that are designed to realize one siege goal or interrelated goals. To conclude, making plans and estimates for the future including measurable outcomes is essential and continuous process that helps, and is necessary activity in today‘s uncertainty. Previously mentioned brought us to discussion of tourism planning. Nearly three decades ago tourism planning was summarized in following way: ―to ensure that opportunities are available for tourist to gain enjoyable and satisfying experience and at the same time to provide a mean of improving the way of life for residents and of destination area‖ (Matthieson and Wall 1982, p.186). Many researchers agreed upon that planning for tourism is not an easy task (Boud-Bovy 1982; Gunn 1988; Williams 1998; Spanoudis 1982; Burns 1999) and it is more difficult than planning for other industries. Tourism planning is not a fixed process, but rather is continuous and dynamic. Similarly as it is argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2000, p. 294) ―tourism planning is continuous process based on a number of steps to develop and also sustain revenues created by tourism‖. Planners are facing many challenges when planning for tourism, and mainly in the areas of aims and objectives, coordination and corporation, compromises, and more so impacts. Since tourism involves so many other industries in its functioning, its benefits must be integrated with the development of other sectors and its goals set to be sustainable. In another words approaches to tourism planning should pay attention to the real mechanisms of tourism development and to its integration into the whole economy. One direction planning has led to the negative tourism consequences in many countries what was mentioned previously. In addition, where planning process was limited to the few narrow goals or interests of few people plans failed to bring positive and measurable outcomes. This can be 609 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo considered as one of the reasons why so many plans couldn‘t be implemented. Still debates and researches are going on in direction of finding approach for tourism planning which will include broader set of economic, social and environmental needs without excluding the indigenous values (Haywood 1988). According to Boud-Bovy (1982), planners should ensure that important factors are integrated into planning sequence and some of them are:  The interdependency between tourism development and overall development of a country  The interdependency between tourism sector and all other participants in tourism development  The interdependency between domestic and foreign tourism. Thus, it is obvious that need for elaboration of planning approach with ability to integrate all those factors and much more is very present. Furthermore, stakeholders‘ participation in planning process should be completely accepted and encouraged. Evolution of tourism and different political, socioeconomic, technical and environmental factors has created different approaches to tourism planning which were extensively used. We will mention and give very short explanation about few of them:  Boosterism  Economic approach  Physical spatial approach  Community oriented approach  Sustainable approach Boosterism has been planning approach since the emergence of mass tourism focusing on positive and ignoring negative impacts on economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects (Baidal 2004). Economic approach is actually continuation of boosterism giving importance to economic issues over social and environmental ones (Burns 1999). The focus is on tourism as an export industry and its potentials for economic growth. Physical spatial approaches appear as opposite to those previously mentioned, focusing mainly on the environmental issues, with emphasis on preservation of the natural resources. Community oriented approach focuses on tourism development at local level and greater social involvement in planning process. And finally concept of sustainability and sustainable planning approach become incorporated in tourism. This approach is based on a coherent, holistic perspective, and focusing on the balance between economic growth, social justice and environmental preservation (Hall, 2000). In the following attention will be on sustainability and sustainable tourism. The issue of sustainability is introduced almost twenty or thirty years ago while its roots are found even centuries ago. However, discussion over sustainable tourism is phenomenon of the 1990s. It is widely accepted that sustainable in general represents development which meets our needs today without compromising the ability of people in the future to meet their needs (Swarbrooke 1999). It is obvious that is directed toward future considering long term perspectives what is hard to find in human decision-making. Besides that it underlines importance and need of planning and interventions before it is too late. Furthermore, concept of sustainability is including integration of environmental, people and economic systems. Discussions and debates over this were going on which mainly influenced emergence of sustainable tourism. In 1997, Hunter addresses some of essential issues of sustainable development that can be adopted as important part of sustainable tourism debate and those are:  The role of economic growth in promoting human well-being  The impacts and importance of human population growth  The effective existence of environmental limits to growth  The sustainability of natural resources with human made capital created trough economic growth and technical innovation  The different interpretation of the criticality of various components of the natural resource base and , therefore, the potential for substitution  The ability of technologies to decouple economic growth and unwanted environmental side-effects  The meaning of the value attributed to the natural world and the rights of non-human species, sentient or otherwise  The degree to which a system (ecosystem) perspective should be adopted and the importance of maintaining the functional integrity of ecosystems 610 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Apparently, tourism industry begins to accept idea of sustainable tourism, but little of that actually was applied. Much of that remains on presentation papers, reports and in poorly designed ―Master plans‖ for tourism development. Well known elements of sustainability can for sure provide better future how for human and natural environments also for tourism industry. But it is clear that application of concept somehow find hidden reasons to be pushed in a side while the center is occupied by economic growth and related indicators. Finally we can say that incorporation of main principles of sustainable development into tourism may play key management issues in its development. The study will proceed with new heading under which some of noteworthy practices and approaches for sustainable tourism development will be presented. Prospective approaches and practices for sustainable tourism For quite long period, convincingly, mass tourism was blamed for negative impacts on the social, natural and economic aspects. In addition arguments have appeared like, reaction to the tourism planning biases, discussion of limited growth and suggestion of alternative tourism. This brought emergence of alternative forms of tourism and especially ecotourism as a practical option (Cater 1993). Burns (1999) in his work presents two basic approaches or so called bipolarities in tourism planning and concludes that all tourism planning approaches can be placed within two main groups. First is so called ―Tourism First, basically supply-led approach, focusing on the development of tourism facilities and on the need of production. Tourism represents consumerism and commodisation, led by globalization where markers drive distribution. Second approach is ―Development First‖ which is in line with UN‘s National Development concept and supposes to achieve poverty elimination, development of rural areas creating productive employment. Tourism is perceived as holistic system with emphasis on distribution and sustainable human development. Additionally, holds the philosophy that tourism is the part of a whole structure for economic improvement. As it can bee understood these two approaches represents two opposite sides, containing definite paradoxes in relation to tourism planning. However, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. While ―Development First ―cannot ensure achievement of short-term goals, return on investment and other related issues, ―Tourism First‖ approach cannot satisfy needs of environmental preservation, sustainable use of resources and fair distribution of benefits. After all, as result of previously mentioned Burns (2004) presents its work introducing new model for tourism planning so called ―Third Way‖. The attributes are fairly significant as listed below:  It is more flexible  Less limited with more alternatives for development  More politically and socially adjustable  May help the formation of different civil institutions  Moves beyond many other models  It requires realistic assessment of potential benefits and problems Besides, application of this approach asks for complete commitment within democratic process giving no rights without responsibilities. With its remarkable six elements, important factors and prerequisites ―Third Way‖ approach somehow appears as solution for sustainable tourism development especially in developing countries. However, it is necessary to mention that model has not been tried representing an valuable option, what inspires in fact. This proves still problematic harmonization between theories and practices. Unfortunately, what is given on paper remains on paper. More about the model is given in original study written by Burns (2004). Some benefits of sustainable tourism brought at Globe `90 conference in Vancouver are summarized in following give us chance to draw adjustable actions toward sustainable tourism development.  Idea of sustainable tourism is based on understanding impacts of tourism on cultural, human and natural environment. Education with accent on negative and positive impacts of tourism may play an important role in understanding the main idea of sustainable tourism. Furthermore involvement of academics and researchers in planning processes and open public discussions may contribute as well.  Fair distribution of benefits and costs is encouraged by sustainable tourism. Tourism development should be intergraded into broader national development ensuring involvement of different stakeholders who will agree on responsibilities. Tourism development must manage to avoid chances for achievement of monopolistic power and personal interests. 611 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  Sustainable tourism encourages development of domestic industries. Domestic investors and owners of different enterprises should be encouraged through incentives and preferable conditions to support the completion of tourism products. How various sectors directly or indirectly influence tourism industry it is necessary to ensure good cooperation among them.  Tourism generates employment at local level, directly or through other sectors. Thus, local people should have priorities even cheaper working force can be imported. This may reduce leakages and contribute to the economy. Finally, seasonally imported workers are not part of long-term sustainable development.  Tourism is a foreign currency earner for the country and helps the economy. Invisible export is key power of tourism industry. Inflow of foreign tourists should be encouraged with respect to interests of host community, cultural aspects and environmental issues like carrying capacity.  Tourism encourages improvement of local infrastructure, transportation and communication. Developed infrastructure should be primarily there to serve local needs, then needs of tourism, what ensures greater quality of life at the destination. Governmental involvement is necessary here.  Tourism encourages preservation of existing man-made attraction and development or recreational facilities. Interest of tourists may help to preserve important historical monuments and sites previously neglected. Development of various facilities should be encouraged mainly by governmental help but also domestic investors, ensuring the same right for everyone. Such policies may reduce tensions between hosts and foreigners.  Tourism helps the local economy to be diverse. Development of supporting tourism sectors should be done at local level resulting in direct decrease of importing costs. In addition this is way to help development of rural areas.  Sustainable tourism requires involvement of all stakeholders in the decision-making process. Here is important to balance the interests of stakeholders and to develop mechanisms to manage different views on same issues. This can be difficult task due to difficulty to find homogenous communities but sustainable concept should be held at the center of main objectives and interests.  Sustainable tourism encourages natural protection and proper land use. Here the importance is on understanding what is to be preserved and what is to be achieved. Clear thinking and good management are very important which will help to design best ways for land use and methods for natural preservation.  Sustainable tourism influence cultural aspect in a positive way. Tourism as it is known brings diverse cultures together. Thus it can be used to help preservation of cultural heritage, traditional way of life, and even civilizations.  Sustainable tourism is environmentally oriented and serves to protect natural and cultural resources creating social and economical well being for community. Managing quality of the natural environment is of great importance for tourism existence. It is the environment that mainly attracts visitors. Control can be done through regular application of different methods like: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental auditing etc. Application of different policies, laws and regulation can also help preservation of cultural heritage.  Sustainable tourism requires monitoring, assessment and management of tourism impacts. In addition, counters any negative impact. To remain sustainable tourism must be monitored and controlled by established regulatory institution. Thus development of different institutions is necessary. Besides, different measures encountering negative impacts of tourism should be constantly enlarged and improved. Although one can think that sustainable tourism is impossible dream, sustainability can be managed by application of different lows and regulations, policies, measures and methods. Trade-offs as well will be necessary in accomplishing this task. Conclusion The aim of this study was to explore the importance of planning process especially in relation to tourism industry and development. However the main aim was to underline the appropriate approaches and practices to sustainable tourism development Aims were accomplished through relevant literature review what broaden the discussion on mentioned issues. Based on this discussion it is possible to draw some general conclusions that can be understood as recommendations. Firstly, concept of planning should be deeply understood and learned by so called 612 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ―planners‖. This can help to avoid pitfalls in designing plans especially for tourism development. Second, tourism should be perceived from different perspectives but not only economical in order to forecast the possible social and environmental changes resulting form tourism development. Third, concept of sustainability should not be used to hide from view various unsustainable interests, goals, and objectives. In addition, sustainability should be at the center of human, environmental, social and economical development. Fourth, agreement should be achieved at all levels and among various stakeholders in order to carry on with tourism development. That is a way of ensuring broader involvement of local people what is at the same time prerequisite for sustainable development. . Fifth, appropriate approaches for sustainable development of tourism must be at place, developed according to all potentials, problems, social, cultural and environmental characteristics of particular destination. This ensures integration of home-grown values and their respect. Finally, benefits of sustainable tourism development should be ensured trough carefully designed practices, policies and methods. We like it or not, sustainability represents our future. It is hoped that this study will at least encourage some promising thoughts or likely brighter future for sustainable tourism development. References Baidal, I.J. (2004). Tourism planning in Spain; evaluation and perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (2), 313-333 Baud-Bovy, M. (1982). New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation. Tourism Management, December Burns, M.P. (1999). Paradoxes in planning; tourism elitism or brutalism? Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (2), 329-348 Burns, M.P. (2004). Tourism planning; a third way? Annals of Tourism Research. 31 (1), 24-43 Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the third world: problems for sustainable tourism development. Tourism Management, April Cook, A.R., Yale, J.L. and Marqua, J.J. (2002). Tourism; business of travel. (2 nd ed.). New Jersey, Person Education Inc. USA Coopock, J.T. (1982). Tourism and conservation. Tourism Management, December Davidson, R. (1993). Tourism. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Gilbert, D. (1990). Conceptual issues in the management of tourism. Progress in Tourism Recreation and Hospitality, vol.2 Getz, D. (1986). Models in tourism planning; toward integration of theory and practices. Tourism management, March Gunn, C.A. (1998). Tourism planning, (2 nd ed.). New York, Taylor and Francis Hall. C.M. (2000). Tourism planning. Pearson Education, Prentice Hall Huywood, M.K. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, June Hunter, C. (1997) Sustainable tourism as a adoptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 850-67 Jefferson, A. and LIckorish, L. (1988). Marketing tourism-a practical guide. Harlow, Longman Jenkins, L:C. (1982). The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing counties. Annals of Tourism Research, 9, 229-249 Logar, A. (2010). Sustainable tourism management in Cirkvenica, Croatia , an assessment of policy instruments. Tourism Management, 31, 125-135 Matthieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism; economic, social and environmental impacts. London, Longman Spanoudis, C. (1982). Trends in tourism planning and development. Tourism Management, December Swarbrooke, J. (1999).Sustainable tourism management. CAB International, UK Williams, S. (1998). Tourism geography. London, Rutledge 613 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo World Tourism Organization (1998). Tourism economic report 614 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 291 Title A name given to the resource Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development Author Author DİZDAREVİC, Lejla Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/1ebbc8908fab3f9b128f3cc7f4c13cb4.pdf 474d4d18732e0c911450d9a5a918f713 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development Lejla DĠZDAREVĠC International University Philip Noel Baker 71000 Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina lejla.hadzi@emu.edu.tr Abstract: In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development. Introduction Surveys done by WTO and many written papers conclude that significant number of the tourism development plans brought in the past have been implemented partially or have not been implemented at all. What or who is guilty for this? Maybe the problem is in tourism industry itself or among those responsible for tourism planning, or it is in approaches used for planning tourism development. However the problem is in place, implementation is not going well and plans remain on papers and shelves gathering only dust while at same time development of sustainable tourism fail. Therefore, the question is not whether to plan or not to plan, but how to plan, which practices to use and what approaches to choose. Tourism planning requires knowledge and rationality which in practice may not be achievable. Besides that planning for sustainable tourism development assumes environmental and social protection over pure economic goals. Finally politics is in the center of tourism planning. Achieving agreement on a rationale, comprehensive, holistic and long-range planning approach to tourism may look impossible task. However, knowledge, rationality and willingness may find suitable approaches to planning, implementation and control. The aim of this paper is to take you back to importance of tourism planning and to address key approaches and practices, among many, to sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements but when we look for good example of such tourism development there are only few of them. As Getz (1986) argues, this is mainly because of the failure to put together theory and practice. Almost three decades ago the issue was evident but still problem is not solved and drawing of rigid ―Master Plans ― is with no hesitation still considered as main approach to tourism planning mainly in developing countries (Burns 2004). Although tourism planning recently moved toward application of more sustainable approaches still failures of sustainable development are superior. Tourism, Planning and Sustainability Tourism for long time is a major topic for many academics, researchers, industries, governments and publics (Coppock 1982; Jenkins 1982; Getz 1986; Davidson 1993; Burns 2004). It is widely accepted that tourism is one of the largest industries today with rare ability to move millions of people from one place to another on base of something what is intangible in core. Until know many definitions on tourism have been brought and discussed. However problem of developing one that best describes tourism phenomena is present. Permanently used term ―tourism industry‖ also received some criticisms, where some authors suggest that tourism cannot be described as an industry because it does not produce a single, distinct product (Jefferson and Lickorish 1988). As Gilbert (1990) 608 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo argues this difficulty of defining tourism is mainly because of the nature of tourism as a concept and also inputs involved in satisfying tourist‘s demands and needs and recently interests of host community. Tourism left that issue behind and until now developed into a truly worldwide activity that goes far beyond political, cultural, geographical, and ideological boundaries. It is not just another industry but important part of economy foundation in many countries. Besides that is fastest growing and leading industry at global level and one of the top five exports for 80% of countries (WTO 1998). Tourism can be viewed, described and measured from different perspectives depending on nature of main interests, objectives and aims. Decades ago the most important indicators and objectives of tourism were related to economic growth and employment rate, mainly measuring how much money can bring into a country, how many people can employ and how much visitors can attract. Still these elements are important indicators in measuring overall tourism development, but also by time some other essential aspects have been considered as well. Today significance of tourism is also measured trough impacts which tourism has on people‘s lives, places where they live and also the way tourism is affected by different forces. It has been argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2002, p. 5), ―Tourism is much like the elephant: diverse and sometime hard to describe, but just like the elephant, too big to be ignored‖. Finally we can say that tourism represents an important element of global economy and today almost every country in some way is trying to achieve greater development through development of tourism. As it was mentioned before tourism was widely accepted and used to accomplish quick economic growth and to increase employment rate which is important element of economical indicators. However, in early 1980s such tourism development receives many critics because of increasing evidence of negative impacts of tourism (Logar 2010). Tourism planners are asked to employ different approaches to tourism planning in order to regulate tourism development before essential resources and potentials reach their end. In different destinations unfortunately this occurred, mainly due to planning approaches used which did not include social, cultural and environmental aspect (Hall 2000). And this is in fact how the need for more appropriate and more responsible approach to tourism planning was born. This remains difficult task to solve, although today is possible to find different and quite adoptable approaches to work out. In following we remind on value and role of planning process. Planning is a term that is difficult to define because it may be used in relation to individuals or groups, governments and organizations and can be applied to different levels like regional, national and international. In addition it is a term widely accepted and used to describe ways and means to achieve future goals and objectives. However planning means and requires much more. As it was argued by Williams (1998) without planning there is a risk that activities undertaken will be unregulated, formless or haphazard and likely will lead to a range of negative economic, social and environmental impacts. This actually best describes the situation with tourism in early 1970s and 1980s. Also Gunn (1988), argued similarly when he claimed that the lack of planning may cause serious mal functions and inefficiencies. It is important to mention that planning in early stages was largely reactive while modern planning in the late twentieth century was far proactive and future oriented. Furthermore, in early stages focus on the plan as physical design has probably contributed to the failure to recognize the importance of actions involved in planning (Gunn, 1988), while main aim of modern planning is to seek for optimal solutions to perceive problems that is designed to maximize development of benefits, producing predictable outcomes (Williams, 1998). In addition, planning is an ordered sequence of operations and actions that are designed to realize one siege goal or interrelated goals. To conclude, making plans and estimates for the future including measurable outcomes is essential and continuous process that helps, and is necessary activity in today‘s uncertainty. Previously mentioned brought us to discussion of tourism planning. Nearly three decades ago tourism planning was summarized in following way: ―to ensure that opportunities are available for tourist to gain enjoyable and satisfying experience and at the same time to provide a mean of improving the way of life for residents and of destination area‖ (Matthieson and Wall 1982, p.186). Many researchers agreed upon that planning for tourism is not an easy task (Boud-Bovy 1982; Gunn 1988; Williams 1998; Spanoudis 1982; Burns 1999) and it is more difficult than planning for other industries. Tourism planning is not a fixed process, but rather is continuous and dynamic. Similarly as it is argued by Cook, Yale and Marqua (2000, p. 294) ―tourism planning is continuous process based on a number of steps to develop and also sustain revenues created by tourism‖. Planners are facing many challenges when planning for tourism, and mainly in the areas of aims and objectives, coordination and corporation, compromises, and more so impacts. Since tourism involves so many other industries in its functioning, its benefits must be integrated with the development of other sectors and its goals set to be sustainable. In another words approaches to tourism planning should pay attention to the real mechanisms of tourism development and to its integration into the whole economy. One direction planning has led to the negative tourism consequences in many countries what was mentioned previously. In addition, where planning process was limited to the few narrow goals or interests of few people plans failed to bring positive and measurable outcomes. This can be 609 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo considered as one of the reasons why so many plans couldn‘t be implemented. Still debates and researches are going on in direction of finding approach for tourism planning which will include broader set of economic, social and environmental needs without excluding the indigenous values (Haywood 1988). According to Boud-Bovy (1982), planners should ensure that important factors are integrated into planning sequence and some of them are:  The interdependency between tourism development and overall development of a country  The interdependency between tourism sector and all other participants in tourism development  The interdependency between domestic and foreign tourism. Thus, it is obvious that need for elaboration of planning approach with ability to integrate all those factors and much more is very present. Furthermore, stakeholders‘ participation in planning process should be completely accepted and encouraged. Evolution of tourism and different political, socioeconomic, technical and environmental factors has created different approaches to tourism planning which were extensively used. We will mention and give very short explanation about few of them:  Boosterism  Economic approach  Physical spatial approach  Community oriented approach  Sustainable approach Boosterism has been planning approach since the emergence of mass tourism focusing on positive and ignoring negative impacts on economic, social, cultural and environmental aspects (Baidal 2004). Economic approach is actually continuation of boosterism giving importance to economic issues over social and environmental ones (Burns 1999). The focus is on tourism as an export industry and its potentials for economic growth. Physical spatial approaches appear as opposite to those previously mentioned, focusing mainly on the environmental issues, with emphasis on preservation of the natural resources. Community oriented approach focuses on tourism development at local level and greater social involvement in planning process. And finally concept of sustainability and sustainable planning approach become incorporated in tourism. This approach is based on a coherent, holistic perspective, and focusing on the balance between economic growth, social justice and environmental preservation (Hall, 2000). In the following attention will be on sustainability and sustainable tourism. The issue of sustainability is introduced almost twenty or thirty years ago while its roots are found even centuries ago. However, discussion over sustainable tourism is phenomenon of the 1990s. It is widely accepted that sustainable in general represents development which meets our needs today without compromising the ability of people in the future to meet their needs (Swarbrooke 1999). It is obvious that is directed toward future considering long term perspectives what is hard to find in human decision-making. Besides that it underlines importance and need of planning and interventions before it is too late. Furthermore, concept of sustainability is including integration of environmental, people and economic systems. Discussions and debates over this were going on which mainly influenced emergence of sustainable tourism. In 1997, Hunter addresses some of essential issues of sustainable development that can be adopted as important part of sustainable tourism debate and those are:  The role of economic growth in promoting human well-being  The impacts and importance of human population growth  The effective existence of environmental limits to growth  The sustainability of natural resources with human made capital created trough economic growth and technical innovation  The different interpretation of the criticality of various components of the natural resource base and , therefore, the potential for substitution  The ability of technologies to decouple economic growth and unwanted environmental side-effects  The meaning of the value attributed to the natural world and the rights of non-human species, sentient or otherwise  The degree to which a system (ecosystem) perspective should be adopted and the importance of maintaining the functional integrity of ecosystems 610 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Apparently, tourism industry begins to accept idea of sustainable tourism, but little of that actually was applied. Much of that remains on presentation papers, reports and in poorly designed ―Master plans‖ for tourism development. Well known elements of sustainability can for sure provide better future how for human and natural environments also for tourism industry. But it is clear that application of concept somehow find hidden reasons to be pushed in a side while the center is occupied by economic growth and related indicators. Finally we can say that incorporation of main principles of sustainable development into tourism may play key management issues in its development. The study will proceed with new heading under which some of noteworthy practices and approaches for sustainable tourism development will be presented. Prospective approaches and practices for sustainable tourism For quite long period, convincingly, mass tourism was blamed for negative impacts on the social, natural and economic aspects. In addition arguments have appeared like, reaction to the tourism planning biases, discussion of limited growth and suggestion of alternative tourism. This brought emergence of alternative forms of tourism and especially ecotourism as a practical option (Cater 1993). Burns (1999) in his work presents two basic approaches or so called bipolarities in tourism planning and concludes that all tourism planning approaches can be placed within two main groups. First is so called ―Tourism First, basically supply-led approach, focusing on the development of tourism facilities and on the need of production. Tourism represents consumerism and commodisation, led by globalization where markers drive distribution. Second approach is ―Development First‖ which is in line with UN‘s National Development concept and supposes to achieve poverty elimination, development of rural areas creating productive employment. Tourism is perceived as holistic system with emphasis on distribution and sustainable human development. Additionally, holds the philosophy that tourism is the part of a whole structure for economic improvement. As it can bee understood these two approaches represents two opposite sides, containing definite paradoxes in relation to tourism planning. However, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. While ―Development First ―cannot ensure achievement of short-term goals, return on investment and other related issues, ―Tourism First‖ approach cannot satisfy needs of environmental preservation, sustainable use of resources and fair distribution of benefits. After all, as result of previously mentioned Burns (2004) presents its work introducing new model for tourism planning so called ―Third Way‖. The attributes are fairly significant as listed below:  It is more flexible  Less limited with more alternatives for development  More politically and socially adjustable  May help the formation of different civil institutions  Moves beyond many other models  It requires realistic assessment of potential benefits and problems Besides, application of this approach asks for complete commitment within democratic process giving no rights without responsibilities. With its remarkable six elements, important factors and prerequisites ―Third Way‖ approach somehow appears as solution for sustainable tourism development especially in developing countries. However, it is necessary to mention that model has not been tried representing an valuable option, what inspires in fact. This proves still problematic harmonization between theories and practices. Unfortunately, what is given on paper remains on paper. More about the model is given in original study written by Burns (2004). Some benefits of sustainable tourism brought at Globe `90 conference in Vancouver are summarized in following give us chance to draw adjustable actions toward sustainable tourism development.  Idea of sustainable tourism is based on understanding impacts of tourism on cultural, human and natural environment. Education with accent on negative and positive impacts of tourism may play an important role in understanding the main idea of sustainable tourism. Furthermore involvement of academics and researchers in planning processes and open public discussions may contribute as well.  Fair distribution of benefits and costs is encouraged by sustainable tourism. Tourism development should be intergraded into broader national development ensuring involvement of different stakeholders who will agree on responsibilities. Tourism development must manage to avoid chances for achievement of monopolistic power and personal interests. 611 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  Sustainable tourism encourages development of domestic industries. Domestic investors and owners of different enterprises should be encouraged through incentives and preferable conditions to support the completion of tourism products. How various sectors directly or indirectly influence tourism industry it is necessary to ensure good cooperation among them.  Tourism generates employment at local level, directly or through other sectors. Thus, local people should have priorities even cheaper working force can be imported. This may reduce leakages and contribute to the economy. Finally, seasonally imported workers are not part of long-term sustainable development.  Tourism is a foreign currency earner for the country and helps the economy. Invisible export is key power of tourism industry. Inflow of foreign tourists should be encouraged with respect to interests of host community, cultural aspects and environmental issues like carrying capacity.  Tourism encourages improvement of local infrastructure, transportation and communication. Developed infrastructure should be primarily there to serve local needs, then needs of tourism, what ensures greater quality of life at the destination. Governmental involvement is necessary here.  Tourism encourages preservation of existing man-made attraction and development or recreational facilities. Interest of tourists may help to preserve important historical monuments and sites previously neglected. Development of various facilities should be encouraged mainly by governmental help but also domestic investors, ensuring the same right for everyone. Such policies may reduce tensions between hosts and foreigners.  Tourism helps the local economy to be diverse. Development of supporting tourism sectors should be done at local level resulting in direct decrease of importing costs. In addition this is way to help development of rural areas.  Sustainable tourism requires involvement of all stakeholders in the decision-making process. Here is important to balance the interests of stakeholders and to develop mechanisms to manage different views on same issues. This can be difficult task due to difficulty to find homogenous communities but sustainable concept should be held at the center of main objectives and interests.  Sustainable tourism encourages natural protection and proper land use. Here the importance is on understanding what is to be preserved and what is to be achieved. Clear thinking and good management are very important which will help to design best ways for land use and methods for natural preservation.  Sustainable tourism influence cultural aspect in a positive way. Tourism as it is known brings diverse cultures together. Thus it can be used to help preservation of cultural heritage, traditional way of life, and even civilizations.  Sustainable tourism is environmentally oriented and serves to protect natural and cultural resources creating social and economical well being for community. Managing quality of the natural environment is of great importance for tourism existence. It is the environment that mainly attracts visitors. Control can be done through regular application of different methods like: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Environmental auditing etc. Application of different policies, laws and regulation can also help preservation of cultural heritage.  Sustainable tourism requires monitoring, assessment and management of tourism impacts. In addition, counters any negative impact. To remain sustainable tourism must be monitored and controlled by established regulatory institution. Thus development of different institutions is necessary. Besides, different measures encountering negative impacts of tourism should be constantly enlarged and improved. Although one can think that sustainable tourism is impossible dream, sustainability can be managed by application of different lows and regulations, policies, measures and methods. Trade-offs as well will be necessary in accomplishing this task. Conclusion The aim of this study was to explore the importance of planning process especially in relation to tourism industry and development. However the main aim was to underline the appropriate approaches and practices to sustainable tourism development Aims were accomplished through relevant literature review what broaden the discussion on mentioned issues. Based on this discussion it is possible to draw some general conclusions that can be understood as recommendations. Firstly, concept of planning should be deeply understood and learned by so called 612 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ―planners‖. This can help to avoid pitfalls in designing plans especially for tourism development. Second, tourism should be perceived from different perspectives but not only economical in order to forecast the possible social and environmental changes resulting form tourism development. Third, concept of sustainability should not be used to hide from view various unsustainable interests, goals, and objectives. In addition, sustainability should be at the center of human, environmental, social and economical development. Fourth, agreement should be achieved at all levels and among various stakeholders in order to carry on with tourism development. That is a way of ensuring broader involvement of local people what is at the same time prerequisite for sustainable development. . Fifth, appropriate approaches for sustainable development of tourism must be at place, developed according to all potentials, problems, social, cultural and environmental characteristics of particular destination. This ensures integration of home-grown values and their respect. Finally, benefits of sustainable tourism development should be ensured trough carefully designed practices, policies and methods. We like it or not, sustainability represents our future. It is hoped that this study will at least encourage some promising thoughts or likely brighter future for sustainable tourism development. References Baidal, I.J. (2004). Tourism planning in Spain; evaluation and perspective. Annals of Tourism Research, 31 (2), 313-333 Baud-Bovy, M. (1982). New concepts in planning for tourism and recreation. Tourism Management, December Burns, M.P. (1999). Paradoxes in planning; tourism elitism or brutalism? Annals of Tourism Research, 26 (2), 329-348 Burns, M.P. (2004). Tourism planning; a third way? Annals of Tourism Research. 31 (1), 24-43 Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the third world: problems for sustainable tourism development. Tourism Management, April Cook, A.R., Yale, J.L. and Marqua, J.J. (2002). Tourism; business of travel. (2 nd ed.). New Jersey, Person Education Inc. USA Coopock, J.T. (1982). Tourism and conservation. Tourism Management, December Davidson, R. (1993). Tourism. (2nd ed.). Harlow, Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd. Gilbert, D. (1990). Conceptual issues in the management of tourism. Progress in Tourism Recreation and Hospitality, vol.2 Getz, D. (1986). Models in tourism planning; toward integration of theory and practices. Tourism management, March Gunn, C.A. (1998). Tourism planning, (2 nd ed.). New York, Taylor and Francis Hall. C.M. (2000). Tourism planning. Pearson Education, Prentice Hall Huywood, M.K. (1988). Responsible and responsive tourism planning in the community. Tourism Management, June Hunter, C. (1997) Sustainable tourism as a adoptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research, 24, 850-67 Jefferson, A. and LIckorish, L. (1988). Marketing tourism-a practical guide. Harlow, Longman Jenkins, L:C. (1982). The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing counties. Annals of Tourism Research, 9, 229-249 Logar, A. (2010). Sustainable tourism management in Cirkvenica, Croatia , an assessment of policy instruments. Tourism Management, 31, 125-135 Matthieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982) Tourism; economic, social and environmental impacts. London, Longman Spanoudis, C. (1982). Trends in tourism planning and development. Tourism Management, December Swarbrooke, J. (1999).Sustainable tourism management. CAB International, UK Williams, S. (1998). Tourism geography. London, Rutledge 613 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo World Tourism Organization (1998). Tourism economic report 614 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 239 Title A name given to the resource Key Practices and Approaches to Sustainable Tourism Development Author Author DİZDAREVİC, Lejla Abstract A summary of the resource. In recent years, the central stage in tourism world is taken by sustainable tourism development. One could say that there is nothing left to say about sustainable tourism development since it has numerous conferences, textbooks and corporate policy statements. However, there are only few examples of successful sustainable tourism initiatives that inspire, mainly due to the failure of putting theory into practice. This study underlines main approaches and practices for more sustainable tourism development giving attention to environmental protection which can be with little willingness and effort easily accomplished. Impact of tourism is huge, it is positive and negative how on natural also on other environments, but it is manageable if the general policy and the aim is sustainable development. Responsible planning, consensus building, holistic thinking, encouraging good practices and regulation of negative impacts are just some of crucial steps toward approaching more sustainable way of tourism development. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/aa9d4d0c25aeb18e61ecf6d8e410d54e.pdf f61e4a5d537271f3cb34de9802f89eee PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Comparison of Ethical Perspectives in Business in Turkish Ahilik Society and American Marketing Association Muhammet Said DĠNC International Burch University Department of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina sdinc@ibu.edu.ba Teoman DUMAN International Burch University Department of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina teomanduman@yahoo.com Abstract: “Ahilik‖ is the name of a society which had played a crucial role on social, economic and cultural life of Anatolian people from 13th century to today. The ethical principles established by this society have had significant effects on commercial life in Turkish territories throughout history. The teachings of Ahilik can be found in ‗Futuvvetnames‘ which are the books that include basic moral rules and principles of commerce such as fellowship, helpfullness, honesty and tolerance. These set of principles are still significant in today‘s business life in Turkey. On the other hand, today‘s widespread ethical business principles in the world are mainly rooted in well-known marketing and business organizations. The Ethical Codes of American Marketing Association are one of the most well known ethical codes in current business terminology. The purpose of this study is to analyze the similarities and differences between the moral rules of ‗Ahilik‘ and ethical norms and values of American Marketing Association. Keywords: Business Ethics, American Marketing Association, Ahilik Society, Turkish Culture Introduction Ethics is ―a philosophy or a science of morality that investigates how human beings should manage their individual and social relationships in order to determine good and bad with respect to their behaviors‖ (Demir and Acar, 1997, p.14). Morality can be described as ―a guide that navigates the person and the society within the framework of good and bad‖ (Torlak, 2007, p.84-85). Although morals and ethics seem to have the same meaning, essentially they are different. While ethics, as a field of philosophy, is a philosophical thought about problems of moral judgements, morals are a sum of rules of behaviors in a society (Torlak, 2007) These rules of behaviors have always been very important for many societies in human history. It is commonly believed that societies that protected and applied ethical rules in governence and daily lives had reached higher social and economic standards for a long period of time, while those who did not apply these rules soon disappeared. Turks who had come from Middle Asia to Anatolia are one people that succeded to implement ethical rules based on morals of Islam in every segment of society. They founded the well-known Ottoman Empire that reigned 600 years in major parts of the world. Ottoman ruling was effective in three continents for about 600 years and this ruling shaped business life of many nations under them. The ethical bases of commerce in Ottoman State was largely determined with the effects of a society called ―Ahilik‖ (Demir, 1994). This society had certain norms and values that shaped business life in Ottoman Empire. Ahilik society has played a crucial role on social, economic and cultural life of Anatolian people from 13th century to today. Although ethical teachings established by Ahilik still have effects in lands where Ottoman State reigned in the past, ethical norms and values are changing fast all over the world especially with the effects of technology. 445 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Well-known approaches to today‘s business ethics all over the world is largely shaped by worldwide business organizations. These organizations, which represent great number of academics and business people, issue codes of ethics and ask its members to obey these rules in their business practices. One of most popular codes of ethics is issued by American Marketing Association (AMA), which has high credibility in today‘s business world (Kotler, 2009). AMA is the largest marketing organization in North America that represents most powerful academics, researchers and practitioners from a wide variety of industries. Its roots go back to 1900‘s and has been effective in American and worldwide business life since then (American Marketing Association, 2009). From this point, a comparison of the ethical understandings of Ahilik society and AMA will shed light into the historical evolution of ethical teachings in human history. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to analyze the similarities and differences between the ethical principles of Ahilik and the American Marketing Association. Literature Review Since the beginning of the last century, the concept of ethics has gained much significance in academia and in social life. Ethics is becoming even more important as technological advances allow businesses to manipulate most aspects of production and marketing of goods and services. Philosophical bases of ethics goes back in history but scientists put ethical approaches into two categories, one of which is the utilitarian approach and the other is the deontological approach (Beauchamp, 1980). In a brief discussion about these two approaches to ethics, Nantel and Weeks (1996, p.12) explain that the utilitarian approach relates the concept of ethics with the consequences of an action while the deontological approach relates the ethical behavior with the act itself without looking at the consequences of an action. According to utilitarian approach, managers attempt to maximize possible positive value or minimize possible negative value of their actions for the people they serve and manage. In that sense, most business actions directed toward certain positive outcomes are utilitarian in nature. These practices are largely evaluated based on their consequences. A typical example is that consumer satisfaction and loyalty are the two main outcomes of good business practices that represent a utilitarian perspective to business ethics. Deontological approach to business ethics, however, focuses on the act itself and value the way the act is taken. In a general sense, for example, lying and stealing are unethical practices regardless of their consequences. Similarly, the way the products are produced and presented to consumers reflect a deontological approach to business ethics. Nantel and Weeks (1996) argued that more and more companies are issuing codes of ethics and this shows the formalization of a deontological approach. Not only companies but also respected business organizations such as American Marketing Association publish codes of ethics in their web sites. Despite the popularity of ethics as a concept, companies today are accused of many unethical practices by the public. Some of these practices include harming consumers through high prices, deceptive practices, high – pressure selling, shoddy, harmful or unsafe products, planned obsolescence and poor service to disadvantaged consumers (Kotler (2009). Other writers categorized ethical problems studied in marketing under six categories (Murhy and Laczniak, 1981; Nantel and Weeks, 1996). These include ethical problems studied in the study of consumer behavior, in the product and services management, in advertising management, in marketing research, in price management and in international marketing. Misuse of consumer perception theories by some managers (Nason and Della Bitta, 1983), production of products with limited life span in order to able to benefit from premature repurchasing (Laczniak and Murhy, 1985), appearance of prestigious actors in advertising to endorse products that have little inherent value, abusive use of surveys in marketing research (Tybout and Zaltman, 1974), distortion of the perception of product‘s price and marketing practices of large tobacco firms towards adolescents were some examples of ethical problems studied previously by marketing researchers (Nantel and Weeks, 1996). Turkish Ahilik Society Turkish Ahilik Society was a public institution composed of voluntery members from general public whose main interest was to practice moral and ethical behavior in business. Although it is not active as it used to be, the society is still known well and respected in certain parts of Anatolia. From 13th to 19th century, the society had significant contributions to social life in Anatolia, in Balkans and in Turkistan. The society is known for developing its members in the fields of arts and profession (Demir, 1994). The main properties of Ahilik as a society were showing hospitality to others, giving charity to the poor, teaching profession to youngsters, and enlightening its 446 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo members socially and morally in benches and workshops at work during the day and in dervish lodges at night (Ekinci, 2001). The social norms of Ahilik society is largely rooted in the religion of Islam and they were published in the books called ''Fütüvvetname''. The basis of Ahilik society and its codes of business ethics were recorded in these books. There are two types of rules in Ahilik society: formal and informal rules. Formal rules, which are shaped by the 'futuvve' principles are reflection of Islamic values. For example, 'Striving to be truthful and trusty in work and life' is one example of these rules. As for informal rules, they are behavioral in content and they emerged from the necessity of professional solidarity and relationships within the society. These behavioral norms were determined by the authorities of customs and traditions (Gullulu, 1992). One example of informal rules is that 'Ahi should be honest and not deviate to the way in which he earns more than he deserves.' A person who would join this society had to obey religious and ethical norms that were written in these books. Methodology Ethical norms and values of AMA and Ahilik society were content analyzed and compared to each other in their respective meanings. Content analysis is used in qualitative data analysis to identify themes and recurring patterns of meaning (Merriam, 1998). The purpose of the comparison was to identify similarities and differences between ethical norms and values of AMA and Ahilik society. To achieve this purpose, ethical norms and values were cross-tabulated and items with similar meanings were matched in a table by the researchers. Table 1 shows ethical norms and values of AMA and Ahilik society. The ethical norms and values of AMA were downloaded from AMA website (American Marketing Asociation, 2010) while norms and values of Ahilik society were received from Futuvvetnames. As Table 1 shows AMA has 2 ethical norms and 6 ethical value dimesions with 24 value items in these dimesions. On the other hand, Ahilik society has 4 ethical norms and 39 value items in 6 ethical dimesions. The 39 ethical norms and values of Ahilik society were matched to those of AMA in Table 1 by the researchers based on their similarities in content. Following the categorization of these norms and values, expert opinion was received from 5 researchers as part of an internal validity analysis. Merriem (1998) proposes six methods to check internal validity of qualitative data one of which is peer examination. Researchers who are familiar with both English language and culture and Turkish language and culture were requested to measure similarities and differences between items in Table 1 according to a seven-point scale that ranged from completely the same in content (7) to completely different in content (1). Expertise of reviewers in both language and culture is necessary for valid scale adaptions (Savasir, 1994). The mean values from this analysis is given in Table 1. Finally, the items in ethical norms and values in Ahilik society were translated in English and are given in the last column of Table 1. To assure correct translation expert opinion on these translation were received and necessary adjectments were made. Results Table 1 shows the results of comparison between AMA ethical norms and values, and Ahilik society norms and values. As shown in the Table, items 1a and 1d in honesty dimension were considered similar in content with items 1a1and 1d in Ahilik society respectively (mean= 6,20; 6,00) whereas items 1b and 1c were found similar with none of the honesty values in Ahilik society. In responsibility dimensions, item 2d and 2d6 were found highly similar (mean= 6,00) while 2c was not found similar with 2c (mean 3,80). Items 2a, 2b and 2e were not found similar with any of the Ahilik society values. In fairness dimension, item 3a was found similar in content with 3a3 and 3a4 (mean= 5,20) as 3b was found highly similar with 3b2 (mean= 6,60). Furthermore, item 3c was found similar with 3c1 and 3c2 (mean= 6,40). In respect dimensions, items 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d were found highly similar with 4a, 4b, 4c and 4d2 respectively (means= 6,00; 6,20;6,00;6,20) while item 4e was found similar with item 4e (mean= 5,40). In transperacy dimension, item 5c was found highly similar with item 5c2 (mean= 6,40) whereas items 5a, 5b, 5d were found not similar with any of the items in Ahilik values. Finally, in citizenship dimension, item 6b was found highly similar with item 6b2 (mean= 6,20) while 6c was found somewhat similar in content with item 6c (mean= 4,80). Item 6a was not found similar with any of the items in Ahilik society. 447 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ETHICAL NORMS AHĠLĠĞĠN ETĠK NORMLARI ETHICAL NORMS OF AHILIK 1. Gözü haram olan Ģeylere,ağzı günah olan sözlere , eli zulümlere bağlanır . 2 Ahi görenek ve otoriteye bağlı olmalıdır. 3. Örf, adet ve törelere uymak. 4. Kapısı konuklara, kesesi kardeĢlerden ihtiyacı olanlara, sofrası ise bütün açlara açılır. 1. Ahi‘s eyes are closed to forbidden things, his mouth to sinful words, and his hands are tied to tyranny. 2.Ahi should be loyal to customs and authority. 3. To obey customs, habits and traditions. 4. His door opens to guests, his wallet to the needy and his table to all hungry. As Marketers, we must: 1. Do no harm. This means consciously avoiding harmful actions or omissions by embodying high ethical standards and adhering to all applicable laws and regulations in the choices we make. 2. Foster trust in the marketing system. This means striving for good faith and fair dealing so as to contribute toward the efficacy of the exchange process as well as avoiding deception in product design, pricing, communication, and delivery of distribution. Means AHĠLĠĞĠN ETĠK DEĞERLERĠ ETHICAL VALUES 1.Honesty – to be forthright in dealings with customers and stakeholders. To this end, we 4,67 will: 1.a.Strive to be truthful in all situations and at all times. 6,20 4,40 4,00 ETHICAL VALUES OF AHILIK 1.Ahi‘s interior, exterior, essence and words should be same. 1.Ġçi, dıĢı, özü, sözü bir olmak. 1.a.1. ĠĢinde ve güvenilir olmak, hayatında doğru, 1.a.1. Strive to be truthful and trusty in his work and his life. 1.a.2. Ahi doğru olmalı, emeğinin hakkı 1.a.2. Ahi should be honest,and should not deviate olandan fazlasını kazanma yoluna to the way in which he earns more than he sapmamalıdır. deserves. 1.a.3. Bir baĢkasının malını taklit etme. 1.a.3. Do not imitate somebody else‘s merhandise. 1.b.Offer products of value that do what we claim in our communications. 1.c.Stand behind our products if they fail to deliver their claimed benefits. 1.d.Honor our explicit and implicit commitments and promises. 6,00 1.d.Ahdinde, sözünde ve sevgisinde vefalı 1.d. Strive to be loyal to his promises, his words olmak. and his love. Table 1: A comparison of Ethical Principles of American Marketing Association and Turkish Ahilik Society (Continued) 448 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2.Responsibility – to accept the consequences of our marketing decisions and strategies. To this end, we will: 2.a.Strive to serve the needs of customers. 2.b.Avoid using coercion with all stakeholders. 2.c.Acknowledge the social obligations to stakeholders that come with increased marketing and economic power. 3,80 2.d.Recognize our special commitments to vulnerable market segments such as children, seniors, the economically impoverished, market 3,60 illiterates and others who may be substantially disadvantaged. 4,00 2.c.Emri altındakileri ve hizmetindekileri 2.c. Strive to protect and to look after his korumak ve gözetmek. employees and people under his service. 2.d.1.Yapılan iyilik ve hayırda hakkın 2.d.1. Should not observe anything other than hoĢnutluğundan baĢka bir Ģey gözetmemek. God‘s contentment in charity and kindness. 2.d.2.Herkese iyilik yapmak, iyiliklerini 2.d.2. Strive to help everybody and want their istemek. well-being. 3,60 2.d.3.Yapılan kakmamak. 5,20 2.d.4.Ahilerden ihtiyaç sahibi olanlara ihsan 2.d.4. Strive to help and be generous to the needy ve keremde bulunmak. among Ahis. 4,20 2.d.5.Aza dağıtmak. 6,00 iyilik kanaat, ve yardımı çoğa 449 2.d.3. Not to taunt kindness and assistance done. Ģükrederek 2.d.5. Strive to be content with less and distribute plenty with gratitude. 2.d.6.Cömert ve kerem sahibi olmak. 2.e.Consider environmental stewardship in our decision-making. baĢa 2.d.6. Strive to be genereous and kind. �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 1. A comparison of Ethical Principles of American Marketing Association and Turkish Ahilik Society (Continued) 3.Fairness – to balance justly the needs of the buyer with the interests of the seller. To this end, we will: 3.a.Represent products in a clear way in selling, 3.a.1.Hakka, hukuka uymak, hak ölçüsüne 3.a.1. To obey law, justice and to observe the advertising and other forms of communication; riayet etmek, measure of law. this includes the avoidance of false, misleading 4,60 and deceptive promotion. 3.a.2. Hileli ve çürük mal satma. 3.a.2. Not to sell fake and spoilt goods. 4,60 5,20 5,20 3.b.Reject manipulations and sales tactics that harm customer trust. Refuse to engage in price fixing, predatory pricing, price gouging or ―bait- 6,00 and-switch‖ tactics. 6,60 3.c.Avoid knowing participation in conflicts of interest. Seek to protect the private information of 6,40 customers, employees and partners. 6,40 3.a.3.Noksan tartmayacaksın, terazi kullanmayacaksın. bozuk 3.a.3. Should not measure deficiently and use broken scale. 3.a.4.Hakkı korumak, hakka riayetle 3.a.4. Strive to protect justice and prevent haksızlığı önlemek, injustice by being loyal to it. 3.b.1.Hakkı korumak, haksızlığı önlemek, hakka riayetle 3.b.1. Strive to protect justice and prevent injustice by being loyal to it. 3.b.2.Ahilik, mal biriktirme ve yığma peĢinde koĢan haris istirmarcı ticarete karºıdır. 3.c.1.Ayıp ve kusurlarını örtmek, gizlemek ve affetmek, 3.b.2. Ahilik is against goods accumulation and the ambitious and exploiter trade which attemps to heap up. 3.c.1. Strive to hide shame and faults and to forgive. 3.c.2. Strive to keep secrets and not to reveal 3.c.2.Sır tutmak, sırları açığa vurmamak, them. 450 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 1. A comparison of Ethical Principles of American Marketing Association and Turkish Ahilik Society (Continued) 4.1.Küçüklere sevgili, büyüklere karĢı 4.Respect – to acknowledge the basic human 4.1. Strive to love younger, to behave decently and edepli ve saygılı olmak, dignity of all stakeholders. To this end, we will: respectfully towards elders. 5,00 4.2.Kötü söz ve hareketlerden sakınmak, 4.2. Strive to avoid swearings and insults . 6,00 4.3.Ġnsanların iĢlerini içten, gönülden ve güler yüzlü yapmak, 4.3. Strive to serve people sincerely and cheerfully. 5,50 4.4.Hiç kimseyi azarlamamak, 4.4.Strive not to scold anybody. 6,25 4.5.Kötülük ve kendini bilmezliğe iyilikle 4.5.Strive to respond evil with goodness. 4,75 karĢılık vermek, 4.a.Value individual differences and avoid stereotyping customers or depicting demographic 4.a.Hizmette ve vermede ayırım 4.a. Strive to avoid discrimination in serving and groups (e.g. gender, race, sexual orientation) in a yapmamak. donating. negative or dehumanizing way. 6,00 4.b.Listen to the needs of customers and make all 4.b.Ġnsanların iĢlerini içten, gönülden ve reasonable efforts to monitor and improve their 4.b.Strive to serve people sincerely and cheerfully. güler yüzlü yapmak, satisfaction on an ongoing basis. 6,20 4.c.Make every effort to understand and 4.c.Dost ve arkadaĢlara tatlı sözlü, samimi, 4.c. Strive to be cheerful,soft-spoken and sincere respectfully treat buyers, suppliers, intermediaries güler yüzlü ve güvenilir olmak, and honest towards friends. and distributors from all cultures. 6,00 4.d.Acknowledge the contributions of others, such 4.d.1.Ahiler yanlarında çalıĢan çırak ve 4.d.1. Ahis treat apprentices and foremen not as as consultants, employees and coworkers, to kalfalara emekleri sömürülecek varlıklar assests whose labour should be exploited but see marketing endeavors. gibi değil yetiĢtirilecek ve ileride iĢyeri them as human beings who should be trained and temin edilecek birer insan olarak bakarlar. set up a workshop in future. 6,00 6,20 4.e.Treat everyone, including our competitors, as we would wish to be treated. 5,40 4.d.2.Emri altındakileri ve 4.d.2. Strive to protect and to look after his hizmetindekileri korumak ve gözetmek, employees and people under his service. 4.e.Daima iyi komĢulukta bulunmak, 4.e. Strive to be a good neighbour and to have komĢunun eza ve cahilliğine sabretmek, patience against neigbor‘s torment and illiteracy. Table 1: A comparison of Ethical Principles of American Marketing Association and Turkish Ahilik Society (Continued) 451 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 5.Transparency – to create a spirit of openness in marketing operations. To this end, we will: 5.a.Strive to communicate clearly with all constituencies. 5.b.Accept constructive criticism from customers and other stakeholders. 5.c.Explain and take appropriate action regarding significant 6,20 product or service risks, component substitutions or other foreseeable eventualities that could affect customers or their 6,40 perception of the purchase decision. 5.d.Disclose list prices and terms of financing as well as available price deals and adjustments. 6.Citizenship – to fulfill the economic, legal, philanthropic 5,40 and societal responsibilities that serve stakeholders. To this end, we will: 6.a.Strive to protect the ecological environment in the execution of marketing campaigns. 6.b.Give back to the community through volunteerism and 4,60 charitable donations. Contribute to the overall betterment of marketing and its reputation. 6,20 5,80 5,80 5,20 6.c.Encourage supply chain members to ensure that trade is fair 4,80 for all participants, including producers in developing countries. 5.c.1.Hileli ve çürük mal satmayacaksın. 5.c.1. Not to sell fake and spoilt goods 5.c.2.Sahte ve üretmeyeceksin. kalitesiz mal 5.c.2. Should not produce fake and poor-quality goods. 6.Ahi, kazancının geçiminden arta 6. Ahi should help poor and unemployed kalanının tümüyle yoksullara ve people with the earnings that remain iĢsizlere yardımda bulunmalıdır. apart from his livelihood. 6.b.1.Yapılan iyilik ve hayırda hakkın hoĢnutluğundan baĢka bir Ģey gözetmemek, 6.b.2.Cömert ve kerem sahibi olmak 6.b.3.Ahi, kazancının geçiminden arta kalanının tümüyle yoksullara ve iĢsizlere yardımda bulunmalıdır. 6.b.4.Ahilerden ihtiyaç sahibi olanlara ihsan ve keremde bulunmak. 6.b.5.Aza kanaat, çoğa Ģükrederek dağıtmak. 6.c.BaĢkasının malına hıyanet etmemek 6.b.1. Should not observe anything other than God‘s contentment in charity and kindness. 6.b.2. Strive to be genereous and kind 6.b.3. Ahi should help poor and unemployed people with the earnings that remain apart from his livelihood. 6.b.4. Strive to help and be generous to the needy among Ahis. 6.b.5. Strive to be content with less and distribute plenty with gratitude. 6.c. Should not betray the property of others. Note 1: Mean values are calculated based on the following seven point scale: Completely the same in content 7; For the most part, similar in content 6; Similar in content 5; Undecided 4; Different in content 3; For the most part, different in content 2; Completely different in content 1. 452 �Discussion and Conclusion This research analyzed similarities and differences between the ethical norms and values of Turkish Ahilik Society and those of American Marketing Association. Research results show that ethical norms applied by these two perspectives are very similar to each other as these norms set what is right and what is wrong for the members. In general, both perspectives set norms about avoiding harmful actions, instilling trust in business and adhering to authority in business conduct. In terms of ethical values, there are some similarities and differences between the perspectives. Similar values include, being truthful all the time, commitment to promises, helping vulnerable market segments, avoidance of false promotion, wrong sales tactics, protecting private information, valuing individual differences, treating customers respectfully, acknowledging others‘ works, producing best quality products and giving back to the community. Values that are stated in AMA principles but not found in Ahilik principles are related to issues such as practicing truthful marketing communications, meeting the needs of the consumers, avoiding using coersion with the stakeholders, showing concern for physical environment and disclosing list prices and terms of financing for customers. These issues may be considered as related to other ethical values of Ahilik society but they are not stated openly as done in AMA ethical principles. The differences found between the two perspectives may be related to time frame they are practiced as AMA guidelines represent values for the current century while Ahilik guidelines represent values of past centuries. Modern issues that affect population at large such mass communication, concern for environment, use of technology in business are considered part of business ethics by AMA and explicitely stated in the codes. Ahilik codes, on the other hand, are more related to business transactions at a personal level and directed toward self behavior. This research attempted to bring two perspectives of ethics in business coming from different cultures and show similarities and differences between them. Future studies can exemplify how these principles were and are practiced in business environments to better explain the similarities and differences between these two approaches to business ethics. References American Marketing Association. Retrieved on May, 9 2010 at <www.marketingpower.com>. Beauchamp, T.L. (1980), ―Ethical theory and its application to business‖, in Beauchamp, T.L. and Demir, G. (1994). Ahilik. Ahilik Yolu Dergisi, 86, Nisan, p.22. Demir, Ö and Acar, M (1997) . Sosyal Bilimler Sözlüğü, 3. Baskı. Ankara: Vadi Yayınları. Ekinci, Y. (2001). Ahilik. Talat Matbaası: Ġstanbul. Güllülü, S. (1992). Ahi Birlikleri. Ötüken Yayınları: Ġstanbul. Kotler P. (2009). Principles of Marketing Management. Pearson: New Jersey, USA. Laczniak, G.R. and Murphy, P.E. (1985). Incorporating marketing ethics into the Organization, in Laczniak, G.R. and Murphy, P.E. (Eds), Marketing Ethics: Guidelines for Managers, 97-105. Lexington Books, Lexington, MA. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education. Jossey-Bass: CA, USA. Murphy, P. E. And Laczniak, G. R. (1981). Marketing Ethics: A review with implications for managers, educators and researchers. In Kenneth and Roering, (Eds), Review of Marketing, 251-266. Nantel, J. And Weeks, A. W. (1996). Marketing ethics: Is there more to it then utilitarian approach? European Journal of Marketing, 30(5), 9-19. Nason, R.W. and Della Bitta, A.J. (1983). The incidence and consumer perceptions of quantity surcharges. Journal of Marketing, 59 (2), 40-54. �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Savasir, I. (1994). Ölçek uyarlamasındaki sorunlar ve bazı çözüm yolları. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 9(33), 27-32. Torlak, Ö. (2007). Pazarlama Ahlakı, 4. Baskı, Ġstanbul: Beta Yayınları. Tybout, A. and Zaltman, G. (1974). Ethics in marketing research: their practical relevance, Journal of Marketing Research, 11, November, 357-68. 454 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Research On Consumer Ethnocentrism and Consumer Boycotts HurĢit Ertuğrul DERE Afyon Kocatepe University Sultandağı Vocational School Turkey hursitdere@yahoo.com Abstract: The objective of this study is to investigate the consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycotts. Participiants who are consumers upper 18 age in 8 different cities of Turkey formed the sample for this study. For the emprical investigation consumer ethnocentric tendency and a new improved consumer boycott scales were used. Data collected were analyzed by using Anova, t-test and descriptive statistical techniques. Considerable findings in the matter of understanding consumer ethnocentric tendency and consumer boycot in Turkey market.End of this study it is found that significiant relationship between age and consumer ethnocentric tendency and significiant relationship between marriage status and consumer boycot tendency. Keywords: Consumer ethnocentrism, Consumer boycott behaviour, CETSCALE Introduction The aim of this study is to examine the correlation between the ethnocentric tendencies of the consumers and consumer boycott behavior. Consumer ethnocentrism provides emotional perception of the consumers towards national goods. On the other hand, it is seen that even ethnocentric consumers prefer the cheaper goods even if they are foreign originated ones when they are comparing the goods in terms of prices which is a rational qualification. Today, the increase of the competition, transformation of the world into a common market by transportation and information technologies, and the encountered economical difficulties have made the consumers more conscious and caring more about rational factors compared to old days. In fact, even consumer boycotts that are mostly done with emotional base don‘t last long because of the rational factors. Consumers end the boycott for the brand, good, or the country when they realize that they will get the maximum benefit from these goods. Although national goods which are bought as a substitution to the foreign ones, reach a high number of sales income during the boycott, they have dramatical decreases of sales income when the boycott ends. National manufacturers can have a constantly increasing sales income if they focus on the issues such as quality development and basing the market, rather than taking advantage of the cases like these. Consumer Ethnocentrism The concept of ethnocentrism means the tendency of the individuals to see their groups as the center of the universe and judging of the other groups that have cultural differences and blindly acceptance of the groups that are similar. In this context, the symbols and values of their own group are seen as a resource of pride while the values of the other groups are scorned. As a result of relating ethnocentrism with the consumer behaviors, the consumer ethnocentrism has appeared. In general concept, consumer ethnocentrism expresses the effects of consumers‘ national emotions on purchasing intentions. ( Uzkurt & Özmen,2004). Many scientific researches, mostly foreign, have been conducted about consumer ethnocentrism recently. In the research which was conducted in 2004 in EskiĢehir by Uzkurt and Özmen, data was obtained by interviewing the customers who were chosen using convenience sampling method. Analysis has been conducted over 172 surveys in total. As a result of the analysis, the old compared to the young, ones with a lower education level compared to the higher ones, ones who have lower income compared to the higher ones and married people compared to the bachelors have higher ethnocentric tendencies. In the research which is conducted by Güneren and Öztüre (2005) in Cyprus using CETSCALE ( Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies Scale), data is obtained from the survey applied to 114 people who were chosen with convenience sampling method. As a result of the survey, the participants with a high level of ethnocentrism were 455 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo mostly amongst women, people with lower education level and lower income. No remarkable correlation has been seen with the age of the participants and ethnocentrism. In the research which was conducted by Orth and Firbasova in 2002 in Brno, the second biggest city of the Czech Republic, and which was on ethnocentrism and yoghurts produced in Czech Republic, data was obtained using a survey applied to 297 people who were randomly chosen and four different correlation model were formed. As a result of the analysis it has been seen that, old consumers who have a high level of ethnocentric tendency, like Czech yoghurts more than the young costumers who have a lower level of ethnocentric tendency. It makes it hard to generalize the research that the number of the participants is low and it was only about yoghurt. Fang Liu and others examined the correlation between the brand names from different languages and customers‘ ethnocentric tendencies in 2007 in Guangzhou, the capital city of Guandog state in China. As a result of the research it has been found that there is a remarkable correlation between the ethnocentric tendencies of the customers and their ages and education levels. In the research that was conducted by Chakrabarty and Conrad in 1995, a survey was applied on the phone to 315 people who were chosen randomly. It has been found that ethnocentric tendencies decrease for good quality products. Consumer Boycotts The tendencies of consumers on not buying a brand or none of the brands of a country is called consumer boycott (Balıkçıoğlu and others, 2008). Consumer boycotts can be divided into various kinds considering the duration, scope, organization type and reasons to do. However, it is very difficult to consider a boycott in one class. For example, a boycott that is started because of political reasons may last for a long time or in contrast it may last for a short time. According to Balıkçıoğlu and others‘ statements, Friedman (1999) and Smith (2000) divide the consumer boycotts into four considering their functions. These are: instrumental, expressive, punitive and buycott. When boycotts in Turkey are examined, it is seen that products of Denmark were boycotted as the last one. As a result of the publication of Hz. Mohammed‘s cartoons one after the other negatively, not only in Turkey but also in the whole Islamic World they had confronted with enormous reaction and a boycott towards Danish products was started. However, the very little trading volume between Turkey and Denmark was resulted this boycott not to be so effective. Besides this boycott which was done as a result of religious exploitation, Italy and France were boycotted because of political reasons and enterprises in the public towards boycotting the products of these countries were started. Just like it was in Denmark sample, the little trading volume between Turkey and these two countries and employment of thousands of Turkish citizens in Italian and French originated corporations in Turkey with their national partners resulted these two boycott enterprises to fail. Besides country boycotts also brand boycotts have been made. Especially in 2005, an organized boycott on the Internet was started against Danone that is one of the biggest food companies, with messages distributed on the Internet telling that additional substances that cause mental deficiencies are used in the child-oriented products of this company and these statements caused dramatical decreases in the sales of the company. Danone firm, that had great damage because of this case, has started legal process for the responsible ones who distributed these messages on the Internet and for the next marketing works focused on the message that its products include no additional substances that may damage human health transmitting it in various medias. Research Method In the research data is obtained using a survey. Surveys were applied to consumers who live in eight different cities by interviewing them. 900 survey copies for consumers who live in 8 different cities were prepared and 514 of them returned, thus the analysis has been made using these 514 survey copies. The distribution of the participants according to the cities is given below. 456 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Province Ġstanbul Ankara Ġzmir Adana Afyonkarahisar Konya Samsun Gaziantep Frequency 98 99 85 71 63 49 20 29 % 19.1 19.3 16.5 13.8 12.3 9.5 3.9 5.6 Table 1: The Distribution of the Participants According to the Cities The survey used in the research has four parts. In the first part the participant‘s city, his/her attitude related to consumer behaviors and if he/she is a member of any kind of consumer organization or not are asked. In the second part basing on the February 2008 data of Turkish Statistical Institute (TSI) ten countries are given from which Turkey imported goods and the participants are asked to state their attitude towards these countries. In this part a fivefold likert scale has been used and attitudes are listed from (1) the country from which I can buy products with peace of mind, to (5) the country which must be boycotted the most. In the third part, five scales, which are in ―I certainly agree‖ and ―I certainly disagree‖ interval, are given for 19 attitude items that are prepared in accordance with likert scale. Six of these items are taken from CESTSCALE which was developed by Shimp ve Sharma (1987). 10 items are related to consumer boycott and final 3 items are asked in order to find out the attitudes of the consumers towards foreign goods and EU. In the fourth part the demographic features of the participants have been tried to evaluate. In addition, it has been asked the participants how do they defined themselves and whether they had any foreign product on at the moment when the survey was being applied. Research Findings Demographic Structure of the Participants 64.6 % of the participants are male and 31.3 % of the participants a female. According to the 2008 TSI data male-female rationale is equal in total population but it has been a limit of the study that female rationale is less than male one. Besides according to the 2007 TSI data, the ratio of the university graduates to the total population is C (vocational schools+faculties+masters degree and Phd) about 10%. In the sample the rato of the university graduates is 39.7%. This situation is the other limit of the research. 457 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Demographic Structure Gender Male Female Marital Status Married Single Widow-divorced Education Primary education High education University Age 18-24 25-31 32-40 40-50 51-60 Over 60 Income (YTL) Below 580 581-800 801-1200 1201-2000 Over 2000 YTL Occupation Officer Laboring Tradesman Retired Self-employed Housewife Student Frequency Current % 332 161 66,7 32,3 292 190 14 58.9 38.3 2.8 79 221 204 15.7 43.8 40.5 138 102 121 89 43 6 27.7 20.4 24.2 17.8 8.6 1.2 107 84 136 71 42 24.2 19 30.8 16.1 9.5 95 120 72 33 33 21 81 20.9 26.4 15.8 7.3 7.3 4.6 17.8 Table 2: Demographic Structure of the Participants The World View of the Participants At the end of the survey it has been asked the participants how they defined themselves and to choose one option out of six ones. 37% of the participants have defined themselves as patriots. View Leftist Social Democrat Conservative Religious Nationalist Liberal None Frequency 40 92 59 59 183 36 23 % 8.1 18.7 12 12 37.2 7.3 4.6 Table 3: The World View of the Participants. 458 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 67% of the participants have stated that they had foreign products on at the moment of replying the survey. It has been found out that the most common foreign product that the participants have on is the mobile phone. Research Findings About Consumer Boycott Behavior 46.5 % of the participants have stated that they had boycotted a country or a brand. In table 4 that is given below, the product groups that the consumers had boycotted are shown. As a result of the analysis it has seen that the product group which is boycotted the most is food group with a ratio of 44.7 % and the least is medical group with a ratio of 2.5%. Product Group Food Confection-textile Automative Personal care products Cleaning products Whiteware Newspaper-magazine Furniture-carpet-home products Banking-insurance group Medical Group Frequency 106 36 21 16 11 13 11 9 8 6 Current % 44.7 15.2 8.9 6.8 4.6 5.5 4.6 3.8 3.4 2.5 Table 4: Boycotted Product Groups. When the boycott durations are analyzed, 61.3 of the participants have stated that they have been still going on with the consumer boycotts. Boycott duration Below 3 mounths 3-6 mounths 6-12 mounths 1-2 years Over 2 years Still going on Frequency 25 25 19 14 8 144 Current % 10.6 10.6 8.1 6 3.4 61.3 Table 5: Boycott Duration Boycotted Countries and Brands With a ratio of 35.7% it has been found out that mostly boycotted country is USA and 39% of the participants believe USA to be boycotted constantly. Five of the participants have stated that they boycott Turkey. 459 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Country U.S.A France Israel Italy China Russia England Denmark Netherland Germany Iran Turkey Sweden Japan Frequency 74 38 28 16 13 1 4 16 12 6 1 5 1 2 Current % 35.7 18.4 13.5 7.7 6.3 0.5 1.9 7.7 1 2.9 0.5 2.4 0.5 1 Table 6: The Boycotted Countries It has been found out that the participants boycott 41 different brands. According to the results of the analysis mostly boycotted brand is Coca-Cola. As Coca-Cola is a food company that belongs to the USA, it is seen that research findings about the boycotted product group, country and brand are consistent. It has been found out that 11different Turkish brands are boycotted by the participants. 460 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Brand Coca-Cola Ariel Danone Mc Donalds Nestle Nescafe Rodi Motorola Gucci Ġpek shampoo Colgate Bosche Benetton Newspaper of Turkey Ülker Rosche Profilo Adidas Pınarsüt Fruko Leke Knorr Converse Amway Telefunken Vestel Ġstikbal Avon Beta Leman Newsweek Peugeot Renault Ford Fiat Scharzkopf Siemens Ġpana Philips Toyota Loreal Paris Frequency 49 10 5 3 7 2 1 5 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 Current % 36.6 7.5 3.7 2.2 5.2 1.5 0.7 3.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 2.2 0.7 0.7 3.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.7 0.7 1.5 2.2 0.7 0.7 1.5 2.2 0.7 0.7 0.7 3 0.7 0.7 1.5 0.7 1.5 0.7 0.7 0.7 Table 7. The Boycotted Brands 34.3 % of the participants have stated that they bought a product again later which once they had boycotted. 16.1 % of the participants have replied the question. The reasons of the re-purchasing these products are shown in Table 8. 461 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Reasons for Repurchasing Quality Chepness Obligation Reason of the boycott disappeared was Frequency 18 12 43 10 Current % 21.7 14.5 51.8 12 Table 8: Consumers Reasons for Repurchasing The Brands That They Boycotted. More than half of the participants who have replied to the question have stated that they re-purchased the products that they once boycotted because they had to do it. 21.7 of the participants have re-purchased the products because of its good quality. The attitudes of the participants towards ten countries from which Turkey had imported goods according to the February 2008 data of TSI have been evaluated. A fivefold scale has been used starting from the country from which you can buy goods in peace of mind (1) to the country that must be boycotted the most (5) In table 9 attitudes of the participants towards these ten countries are shown. Countries The counrty which shoul be boycotted most (%) The counrty which should be boycotted (%) Russia Germany China Italy U.S.A. France England Switzerland Ukrain Iran 9.7 8 35.6 10.9 55.6 42.8 28.8 12.5 5.4 10.5 17,3 13.6 24.7 22 24.5 26.1 19.8 11.5 8.4 5.1 The country which doesn‘t need to be boycotted (%) 27 28 15.6 27.4 7 11.9 19.5 30.5 35 29.4 The country which should be cooperated (%) 27 23.2 10.9 14.2 4.5 6.4 12.5 17.5 22.8 30.5 The country which we get their products with peace of mind (%) 3.5 13.6 1.8 3.5 1.9 1.6 2.7 7.2 5.8 8.6 The participants that have no informed (%) 15.4 13.6 11.5 22 6.4 11.3 16.7 20.6 22.6 16 Table 9: View of the Participants About Ten Selected Countries Only 1.8 % of the participants have been a member of any kind of a consumer organization. Evaluation results about the 19 items which are located in the third part of the research and which are prepared using a fivefold likert scale about the attitudes of the participants towards consumer boycotts are given in Table 10. 462 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Statement 1. Domestic products should be taken at any time instead of imported products. 2. The products not only in our country should be imported. 3. Foreign products should‘nt be bought because this will cause unemployment. 4. I prefer to support my country‘s product, even if the cost burden to me. 5. Access of the foreign products to Turkish market should be complicated 6. Consumer boycotts are effective on companies. 7. Local businesses organizate the boycotts that against to the foreign products. 8. Media orientate the consumer boycotts. 9. I boycott the products of companies which exploited my religious beliefs. 10. I boycott the products of companies which damaged my country‘s political interest. 11. People around me effect met to do consumer boycott. 12. I boycott the products with my own volition. 13. I never purchase a product of a country or firm which I boycotted before. 14. I try to orientate the other consumers to boycott. 15. Boycott is an individual reaction against the negative bahaviour. 16. Importation sholud be prevented because it is a big threat for domestic production. 17. Quality product should been in my country even if it is foreigner 18. I believe that EU membership would be useful for our country. 19. Imported products increases our quality of life. Mean 4.18 S.D. 1.03 3.94 3.64 1.03 1.14 3.72 1.15 3.71 1.07 3.73 3.26 0.92 0.92 4.01 0.87 4.19 4.33 0.99 0.89 2.35 4.04 1.15 1.61 3.85 3.57 1.02 1.1 3.96 0.94 3.97 1.02 3.49 1.12 3.35 1.34 2.82 1.24 Table 10: Average Values Related to the Participants‘ Ethnocentric Tendencies and Consumer Boycott Behaviors The correlation between the demographic characteristics of the participants and consumer ethnocentric and consumer boycott behaviors has been examined. T-test and variance analysis results are separately given in Table 11 and Table 12. Demographic Structure Gender Age Marital status Income Calculated Value 14.684 2.297 0.601 2.548 Significicance Level 0.188 (t) 0.048 0.549 0.02 (P= 0,05) Table 11: The Examination of the Correlation Between Ethnocentric Tendencies and Demographic Features of the Participants 463 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo As a result of the T-test it has seen that ethnocentric tendencies don‘t change according to the gender. As a result of the variance analysis no remarkable correlation is found between the consumer ethnocentric tendencies and marital status. Besides that it is seen that consumer ethnocentric tendencies differ according to age and marital status. Demographic Structure Gender Age Marital status Income Calculated Value 1.073 0.843 3.076 0.676 Significicance Level 0.451 0.519 0.047 0.669 (P= 0,05) Table 12: The Examination of the Correlation Between Consumer Boycott Behavior of the Participants and Their Demographic Features. In the result of the T-test it has been found out that consumer boycott behaviors tendencies don‘t differ according to the gender. In the results of variance analysis it has been found out that consumer boycott behavior tendencies differ according to the marital status. In addition to that it has been found out that consumer boycott behavior tendencies don‘t differ according to the age and income. Conclusion and the Limits of the Research Inadequate quantity of the sample group and because available sample group doesn‘t reflect the demographic features of the main group prevent the research results from generalization. Another limit of the research is because of the disparity of the number of the participants from 8 different cities compared to the number of each city‘s population. As a result of the T-test it has been found out that consumer ethnocentric tendencies don‘t differ according to the gender. As a result of the variance analysis no remarkable correlation has been found out between consumer ethnocentric tendencies and consumer marital status. However, it has been found out that consumer ethnocentric tendencies change according to the age and income. As a result of the research, the upper location of the countries and brands that are mostly boycotted in the list in terms of Turkey‘s exporting volume and intensifying of consumer boycotts in especially some definite countries and brands can be subjects of future researches. References Balıkçıoğlu, B., Koçak, A., Özer, A.(2008). Process of indirect consumer boycott as a non-violence movement and evolvations for Turkey. Journal of Faculty of Politic Sciences of Ankara University, 63(2), 79-100 Güneren, E.& Öztüren, A. (2005). A Pilot Survey on Effect of Consumer Ethnocentric Tendencies to Buying Trend of Domestic and Foreign Products of TRNC Citizens. 10th Marketing Congress, 2005, 169-188 Lui F., Murphy, J., Li, J., Liu, X. (2007). English and Chinese? The role consumer ethnocentrism and country of Chinese attitudes towards store sings. Australasian Marketing Journal, 14(2), 5-13 Orthu, R. & Firbasova, Z.(2002). Ethnocentrism and Consumer Evaluations of Czech Made Yoghurt. Agric. Econ.48(4),175-181 Turkish Statistical (10.05.2008) Institute.(2008). National Data Release Calendar. http://www.tuik.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?tb id=11. Uzkurt, C. & Özmen, M. (2004). The Effects of Consumer Ethnocentrism and Country-origin to Consumer Attitudes of Domestic and Foreign Products. Proceedings Books. Faculty of Administrative and Economic Sciences of Gazi University, 2004, 261-274 464 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing (DW) - Models and Business Application Aida HABUL Prof. Dr., Sarajevo University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina aida.habul@efsa.unsa.ba Merdžana OBRALIģ Res. Assist., International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mobralic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Fighting with competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantages in the market. Creating long-term policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information about the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In the DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in a format that suits the user and is available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. Introduction In the market there is growing competition that day by day globalizes. At the same time, buyers are more and more selective. All this is forcing manufacturers to constantly check their competitiveness in the market and to find a successful business strategy. Strategic advantage over competitors is sought by achieving the proper planning of market, product innovation, and proper relationships with customers and clients. It is necessity to have timely and relevant information on all aspects of the business and market situations. Data Warehousing is an important concept of effective decision support systems that are intensively developing in recent years. With this concept and the methods is wanted to achieve ''intelligent'' business of company in complex market conditions. For this already there is the name ''business intelligence''. The company, which analyzes the behavior of their customers, behaves ''intelligently''. For example, it has all the necessary customer data and captures every activity which is connected to that customer in the database. With the analysis of this data, for example; by analyzing what and when the customer purchased, how many complaints and for which products he had, all these analysis make the customer profile, or can be put into some category. With the analyses of their own business data and external factors, we get the information used in making optimal business decisions, and at the end make profit and ensure the further existence. Data Warehousing Data Warehousing is a set of data organization on which a decision support system is based. A small data warehouse that contains the data of only one area is called a regional data warehouse (eng. Data March). Data Warehouse is defined as a set of information organized so can be analyzed, extracted, merged and otherwise be used to understand their essence. 465 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing is also a database, provided that the information in it is organized in a special way. A Data Warehouse has a large amount of data that is organized into small logical units called March Data. Data Warehouse systems use abnormal (relaxed) data. Executing a query over the data organized this way is much faster. This kind of work is called OLAP (On Line Analytical Processing). Data that is embedded in the data warehouse is usually accessed through the March data. March Data usually represent a subset of logically related data from the data warehouse, which refers to a specific area. Business Intelligence is taken from data generated during the everyday business of firms. Because of the perimeter, this data is archived each year, deleted and only the data of the next year remains in the database. In addition, the data in the database must be updated so that old data is replaced with new data (e.g., old price, the old quantity in warehouses or in stores they are being replaced by new ones), and then the trail of the old data is erased in the database. For operational management of the old values businesses, for example, quantity in warehouse are not important, but they are important for the business intelligence that tracks the time sequence of events of individual business events. As a conclusion we can say that transactional bases are no longer enough, there is a need for data warehouse. Table 1. view of database and data warehouse Features of Database The data in related databases is organized into twodimensional tables that are mutually connected. The database contains information for each business period. After this period the data is archived and deleted from the current database. The data is constantly being updated and the old values cannot be seen. What is differet beteen a warehouse and a database? A warehouse does not accumulate all the data from the database in recent years. Only the data from the database that is thought to be important for the analysis is archived in the warehouse. The data in the warehouse is organized in a multidimensional cube, it is permanent and is related to the time of emergence. The aim of the data warehouse is not operational business, it is to create a richer sourse of information for various short and long term analysis and for forecasting. P W r a o r p e e h r o t i u e s s o f D a t a e The properities of the Data Warehouse are integration of Data Warehouse systems, the orientation of the Data Warehouse system threads, the time dependence of the Data Warehouse system and the permanence of the Data Warehouse system. Orientation of DW System on Topics The data is categorized and organized according to topics of business and not as a functional unit. Examples of possible themes are Sales-information about products, customers, spatial and organizational structure; Marketing-data about markets, products, customers, technologies, plans; Production-data about products, customers, technologies, plans; Financial operations; and Transportation. Time Dependence of DW System The data is organized by a series ''cross of state‘‘ of operational data; each cross refers to a time interval. How appear Data Warehouse ? 466 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2. Data Warehouse Basic Models of Data Warehouse When creating a data warehouse today in practice we face three basic models or basic architecture of data warehouse: (1) two-layer architecture with a common data warehouse (original data + data warehouse); this model is characterizing a single common centralized data warehouse. Data are received from various sources inside of the organization and external data sources available via the Internet or other means. Characteristic of twolayer architecture is that it serves a large number of organizational units of company as individual users. Such warehouses are large scale and very complex, and they are usually stored vast amounts of data. And the scheme of data that are used for storing data should support a wide range application request. From the above it is evident that the costs of maintaining such architecture are high and assume a substantial commitment and time of a certain number and profiles of experts. (2) two-layer architecture with multiple independent local data warehouse (original data + data march); Characteristics of this data warehouse architecture is the existence of large number of independent local data warehouse intended for support individual applications in the organizational units of companies. The result of this architecture is the large number of systems which each of them submitted their data from various transactional databases. The advantage of the above model of data warehouse is simpler construction and easier to use. But this model also has disadvantages such as: (1) Difficulties in communication among organizational units of companies. This model is not suitable for companies whose business requires the support of applications and projects that assume mutual communication and cooperation of a larger number of organizational units of companies. (2) Increasing the number of mutually independent data warehouse, slow growth and load themselves transactional systems. (3) Data Marches are designed to support only one application and subsequent addition of new applications in a specific warehouse represent difficulties. (4) Limited scalability of platform. And, (5) Uvid into actual state of information at the company level became difficult. (3) three-layer architecture with a common data warehouse and several affiliated local warehouses (original data + data warehouse + data march); This model consists of large number of local data warehouse and a common data warehouse that is located between the data warehouse and various data sources within and outside the company. Data warehouses rely on central data warehouse that delivers information in a form that provides uniform access to all segments of company business. Compared to the previous two models the advantages of three-layer architecture are higher accuracy of the information freely from which sources are affected, communication among organizational units is easier, the burden on IT specialists is reduced, stability and scalability of data warehousing platform is increased, and at the end, this architecture is offering possibility of using foreign applications allowing connection of all entities in the chain of value. This three-layer warehouse architecture, that is known as the most used one has it owns advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are: (1) The work load of IT specialists is reduced (because the data is already coordinated in the warehouse, so they are just taken in the warehouse); (2) More opportunities to add new application; (3) Improves the accuracy and precision of information (because everything is derived from one warehouse); (4) Less difficulty in communication and cooperation between organizational units and parts that has to 467 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo be performed together; and (5) The possibility of the use of applications that goes beyond the framework of operations (connecting with buyers and suppliers in the value chain). The disadvantages are: Relatively high cost of establishing a common warehouse at corporate level (to eliminate this disadvantage we have to make a gradual incremental construction of warehouses: first we have to create the first warehouse, then the mini-warehouse, than gradually add new warehouses and activate new applications, and finally comes the independence of the ''real'' warehouse). Implementation of Data Warehouse There are many ways to implement the Data Warehouse in a company. The implementation can be seen from several aspects: (1) An area that covers the data warehouse; DW can contain all the information of one company and for a period of several years. Also, DW can carry a personal character for a specific manager and can contain information from a short period of time (one year). (2) Volume of data redundancy; there are three levels of data redundancy that companies should consider when designing their own DW. (1) Virtual or ''Point to Point'' DW; (2) Central DW; and (3) Distributed DW. (3) Types of final users; when we look at the DW from the final user point, we can establish three categories of users: (1) CEOs and managers; (2) ''Powerful'' users (business and financial analysts, engineers, etc.); and (3) Users for support (operational and administrative staff) Levels of Analysis of Data in Warehouse 1. Generate static reports - If we only need a report in tabular or graphical format on the existing data from the data warehouse, report generators are sufficient tools (e.g. Microsoft Crystal Reports or Oracle Reports), which simply display data that is filtered, sorted or summarized by some criteria from the database. 2. OLAP (on-line processing analytical) - More complex, analytical processing of data by different dimensions is done at the relational base on OLAP technology (e.g.: if you want to get information about Mazda 323 cars for sale in Osijek Friday afternoon). To view OLAP we have to use the most frequent three-dimensional cubes. 3. Data Mining - The most complex part of data processing, means sophisticated Métis for searching hidden laws in data. Selection of DW Strategies Before the DW system is developed, it is necessary to choose a strategy that is as far as possible a guarantee that the ultimate solution will meet the specific demands at the time. Who are the final users? Which areas should be covered? What kind of information should the DW provide? These are just some of the issues raised in the selection of implementation strategies of a DW in a company. We should not ignore the fact that man is the main factor in the decision making process. Business Application of Data Warehouse Databases can be seen as the area where the company partners (customers, clients, service users) leave clues about their business relationship with the company. Every transaction, purchase, invitation addressed over the call center, seeking bids for certain set of items is being recorded in database. Company that are using Data Warehouses 1) Volkswagen AG - uses Business Object tools for monitoring all data - from finance, manufacturing, development, research, sales, marketing and purchasing. Users at all levels can access the statements in BI tools. 2) MasterCard International – uses the BI tools for monitoring data in the area of advertising and authorization and fraud detection. 3) Magma uses OLAP and BI tools to improve the reporting system on the sale of goods. 468 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Example of Applying DW in Textile Trades A typical retail shop sells textiles to a large number of customers whose needs are significantly different. Without adequate resources for the analysis of numerous data about clients, the shop would be doomed to failure. The biggest benefits for a business are functions, the contact point through which insight into the characteristics and behavior of clients is created. The development of information technology has enabled us to be informed about clients and also to fill our database with useful information. The value of a customer is very important data. During their entire life cycle, the value of the customers is always changing. All clients are not equally profitable, so the profitability of customers also changes over time. These are the reasons why it is important to identify the clients whose value during their entire life cycle is great and to establish close relationships with them. Our database should also contain answers to important questions about customers, such as customer loyalty, cross selling, determining target prices, but also about suppliers, the efficiency of suppliers, stock control, product flow, forecasting demand. The emphasis on the importance of logistics leads to specialization in providing logistics services exclusively. Textile makers are faced with the traditional approach of material offers which a user can feel and with the new generation of customers that manage in the virtual world almost as much as in the real. A well-made database enables the rapid development and progress in every sense. Also, the path from the manufacturer to the final consumers is reduced to the minimum. However, the possibilities of keeping the customer in this market are far greater than in others. Today we are witnessing estimates that the market of direct selling as it was known in years past will completely disappear, work on the DW and the content that is offered to customers with quality procurement and distribution channels can ensure the stability of textile makers in new times. Therefore we should not neglect the potential of the Internet, but we should consider target regional environment. Decisions taken should be closely connected with the database. The database should be well designed, created and filled with good information. That is the only way to guarantee life and successful business. Conclusion Fighting competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantage in the market. Creating a longterm policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information on the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In a DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in format that suits the user and available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. The DW is an information technology that simply imposes cooperative team work of professional information experts and economists, and links the technical and business worlds. Perhaps this will lead to better cooperation between designers and users of information systems and thus to greater success in the project of building company information systems. References Bojan C., Poslovna inteligencija, Beograd, 2006. Hanic H., Sistem informacija za upravljanje marketingom, Beogradska banarska akademija, Beograd, 2008. http://www.infotrend.hr/clanak/2009/7/temelj-procesa-odlucivanja,41,810.html John P., Model-Driven Data Warehouse, Integrate Burlingame, CA, 2003 469 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Kellet A., Integrated Business Intelligence, Butler Group, April 2003 Mladen V., Skladiste podataka. Mrsic L., Poslovna inteligencija kroz poslovne slucajeve, Zagreb, 2003 Mrsic L., Primjena metoda rudarenja podataka u trgovini tekstilnim i srodnim proizvodima, Magistarski rad, Zagreb, 2004. www.skladistenje.com www.znanje.org 470 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Public Expenditure and Political Business Cycles inTurkey Recep TARI Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Economics, Kocaeli University, Turkey rtari@kocaeli.edu.tr Filiz ÖZKAN Kaynarca Vocational School, Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences Sakarya University, Turkey fozkan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: According to the theory of ―Political Business Cycles (PBC)‖, politicians prefer to pursue opportunistic policies in order to increase their chance of election. For this reason, they apply expansionary policies before the elections. Hence, they start to do this by increasing public expenditures. There is an increase in the indicators of money parallel to the increase in public expenditures. In this study it is examined that whether there have been appropriate developments in terms of PBC theory during the elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980. In order to determine the effect of PBC ―the traditional opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is used to test the PBC effect. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. The results obtained as a result of the empirical analysis support the PBC theory. Introduction The history of economics is the history of debates between the ones who claim that the government intervention is necessary and who claim that it is unnecessary. In the framework of these debates, applications of both of these approaches are observed due to the economic conditions of each period. However, there is a fact which should be accepted that every day the state intervenes in the economic life with different reasons and through various legal and institutional regulations. If the economists are not able to put their developed theories into the application, then they just do brain gymnastic. Thus, this situation is seemed during many years and this distinction between economics and politics give the idea to the politicians that they can arrange the economic life according to their own vote calculations. This idea becomes widespread along with the economists isolate themselves from the legal and institutional structure of the society (SavaĢ, 1997). Especially in the developing countries with a less institutional and legal structure, the public share in the economy is more than others. Through the political instabilities it is understood that the financial issues are not the only reason of this situation. In the beginning the state is seem as maintaining the social order and it is associated with the Leviathan which is a superhuman being, whereas later it is seen that the state is transformed to a monster that gives harm to its environment. Especially, after the Second World War the rapid increase in the contribution of state in the economic life is defined as a very big danger (Erim, 2007). If being away from the economic life is impossible for the state, at least there should be a limit of this contribution. Politics and political institutions should be accepted as endogenous rather than exogenous in the economic theories. After the long historical development process from this view, the Political Economic Theory (PET) is developed. According to the PBC theory economy is manipulated by policy makers during the electoral periods since politicians behave with political interest mostly in these periods. If the politicians are not restricted enough with the laws in terms of their usage of economic policy tools, they prefer to pursue opportunistic policies instead of policies for the interest of the public. In order to affect electorates, they mostly increase public expenditures. The financing of the increased public expenditures is funded through increasing the money supply instead of increasing taxes since taxes are not pleased by the electorates (Azgün, 2006). In this study, it is examined that whether the PBC has an effect on the money variables of public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the general elections of six congressmen in the period after 1980 in Turkey. ―The traditional opportunistic model‖ of Nordhaus is used in order to test the effect of PBC. ―The opportunistic model‖ from Nordhaus is tested through the 471 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo autoregressive analysis method which is used by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991, 1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries. Political Business Cycles Models The concept of Political Business Cycles is firstly used by Nordhaus. According to Nordhaus, by aiming vote maximization politicians pursue expansionary policies before the elections in order to boost the economy whereas they pursue contractionary policies after the elections in order to remove the effects of these expansionary policies. Therefore, a cycle occurs in economy due to the electoral periods (Nordhaus, 1975). When the studies related with Political Business Cycles is examined it is observed that the literature regarding to this issue is developed on two cycles. The first one is ―traditional model‖ that is considered in two categories and the first of these is the opportunistic model developed by Nordhaus and the second one is the partisanship model developed later by Hibbs (Hibbs, 1977). According to opportunistic model, politicians do not have partisan objectives, they just appeal all kinds of manipulations in order to win elections. According to partisanship model, politicians try to gain votes of their own electoral group by implementing ideological policies. Secondly, in the framework of ―rational expectations theory‖ which is popular in 1980s, the PBC theory has been developed as a ―modern approach‖. With the acceptance of rational expectations theory, the PBC theory is criticized at the beginning. However, as a result of the empirical studies positive findings are obtained regarding to that the PBC theory can still be explanatory even though the rational expectations theory is valid. According to the modern PBC theory, because of the asymmetric information between the governments and citizens governments continue to exhibit opportunistic or partisanship behaviors. Methodology In this study, in order to determine whether the politicians pursue opportunistic policies or not in the electoral periods, the autoregressive analysis method is used which is applied by Alesina, Cohen and Roubini (1991,1992) in their studies for the OECD countries and industrial countries (Alesina, 1991). The autoregressive models are preferred instead of the structural models regarding each macroeconomic indicator which is due to the reason that by testing each variable with the same model it is aimed to decrease the probability of difference that can be arisen from modeling error in the determination of the effect of electoral periods. Furthermore, in the literature it is emphasized that structural models are mainly valid in the developed countries with strong economy whereas their validity is questionable in the less developed and developing countries with fragile economic system (Özkan, 2005). General notation of the autoregressive model which is used in this study is as in the following: Yt = α0 + α1 Yt-1+ α2 Yt-2+……+ αn Yt-n+PBCDUMMY + εt (1) Here, Yt represents each macroeconomic indicator. PBCDUMMY is the dummy variable that indicates the dynamic implications of the theory of political business cycles. PBCDUMMY is defined as ―1‖ for the election quarter and three quarters before the election, and defined as ―0‖ for other periods. εt represents the error terms. The lagged values of autoregressive model is determined through the ―from general to special theory‖. The stability of series is examined through the ADF unit root test (Dickey and Fuller, 1990). The Jarque-Bera(JB) test is used in order to test whether the normality assumption, which is one of the necessary assumptions to perform autoregression analysis, is satisfied or not (Bera and Jarque, 1981). After these models are tested, through the Breusch Godfrey (LM) test it is checked whether there is an autocorrelation between the error terms or not (Godfrey, 1988). For error terms having constant variance is another necessary condition for autoregression analysis. The ARCH LM test is used in order to determine whether the error terms have constant variance or not. Test Results Unit Root Analyses Result When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 472 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 12000000 150 10000000 100 8000000 50 6000000 0 4000000 -50 2000000 0 -100 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 KAMUHARREEL 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 KAMUHARREELSAYD Figure 1: Degree of Public Expenditures and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of public expenditures series in real terms is examined, seasonal effects are observed in the series. It is observed that the coefficients are significant in the regression analysis which is performed with the seasonal dummy variables. The seasonality effects are removed from the series and the stability of the series is checked with the ADF test. As seen on Table 1, the real public expenditures series which does not include seasonal effects is not stable as its degree. It is seen that the yearly percentage change of series is stable with 0.05% significance level according to the ADF model which has a constant term and trend. 50000000 60 40 40000000 20 30000000 0 20000000 -20 10000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 92 94 96 RELM1 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE LM1YD Figure 2: Degree of Real M1 and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics When the graphic of Real M1 series is examined, at first it is observed that the series is not stable. Furthermore, it appears that there can also be seasonal effect. It is seen that the coefficients are significant as a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables. However, when the yearly percentage change is considered the seasonality effect disappears. Furthermore, when Table 1 is examined it is seen that while the real M1 series is not stable, the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. 24000000 60 20000000 40 16000000 20 12000000 0 8000000 -20 4000000 -40 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 88 90 REELDOLPARA 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 RE ELDOLPARA YD Figure 3: Degree of Real Money in Circulation and Its Yearly Percentage Change Graphics 473 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When the graphic of real money in circulation is examined, it is understood that the series is not stable, however it is not certainly understood whether there is a seasonal effect or not. As a result of the regression analysis done with the seasonal dummy variables it is seen that the coefficients are insignificant, therefore it is understood that there is no seasonality effect. When the results of the unit root test is examined, it is observed that the series of real money in circulation is not stable in degree of level whereas the percentage change is stable in all ADF models in terms of various significance levels. The results of ADF unit root test, which is performed to determine the stability structures of series, are shown on Table 1. with constant term Public expenditures -2,04 Public expenditures % -1,80 M1 0,03 M1% -2,70*** Money in circulation 1,62 Money in circulation % -2,85*** %1 -3,51 Kritical values, %5 -2,89 %10 -2,58 Lag. 3 8 4 4 6 4 constant and trend -1,47 -3,79** -1,00 -4,08* 0,37 -4,90* -4,06 -3,46 -3,15 term Lag. 3 3 4 7 6 3 without constant term and trend -0,91 -0,76 0,98 -2,02** 2,12 -2,44** -2,59 -1,94 -1,61 Lag. 4 4 4 8 6 4 Table 1: ADF Test Results Autoregressive Model Analyses Results The summary of statistical values for autoregressive model examining public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is shown on Table 2. The autoregressive models which are estimated by lagged values are as in the following: Pub.Expen. = 2,53+ 13,6 Pub.Expen. (-2) + 0,18 Pub.Expen. (-4) + 0,39 PBCdummy (0,00) (0,03) (0,08) (0,00) M1 = 7,47 (0.05) (0.00) +0,79 M1(-1) (0,01) +0,42 M1(-5) (0,00) + 0,21 M1(-7) (0,04) – 0,22 M1(-8) (0,03) +8,22PBCdummy (0,06) M.Cir. = 2,95+ 0,49 M.Cir.(-1) + 0,20 M.Cir.(-2) - 0,33 M.Cir.(-4) + 26 M.Cir.(-5) + 11,79 PBCdummy (0,41) (0,00) (0,07) (0,00) (0,01) (0,00) Independent Varieble PBC 2 R Dummy DW F probably JB LM ARCH Dependent Variable Public Money Supply α t ist. t pro αi t ist. t ol. Harcamaları i 13,6 2,17 0,03 8,22 1,87 0,06 ** *** 0,25 0,62 2,07 2,07 0,00 0,00 47,47 (0.00) 1,40 (0,49) 0,85 (0,47) 0,53(0,58) 0,92 (0,40) 0,30(0,73) Money Circulation αi t ist. t prob 11,79* 3,07 0,00 0,44 2,05 0,00 17,10 (0,00) 0,56(0,56) 1,27(0,27) Table 2: Autoregressive Analyses Results According to the regression estimate results on Table 2, it is observed that there is no autocorrelation and changing variance problems in the LM and ARCH tests. Even the normality assumption is not satisfied in the model regarding money supply since the number of observation (80) is sufficient enough and since there is no changing variance problem the regression is highly confidential. 474 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo When coefficient estimate results regarding to the examined variables are concerned, it is seen that PBCDummy coefficient is positive and significant as appropriate to the theory. This acquired result confirms the argument of the PBC theory that when the politicians try to affect the electorates they mostly use the ―public expenditures‖ as fiscal policy tool. As a result of the increase in public expenditures there is an increase in money supply and money in circulation. Conclusion Manipulating the macroeconomic policies in the direction of politic interests is one of the significant problems of Turkish economy as in the economies of many countries. In order to come to power and to establish government, politicians do not avoid using macroeconomic policies as instruments. In this study it is aimed to determine whether politicians have opportunistic behavior or not. Therefore, it is analyzed that being appropriate to the PBC theory whether there is a significant change in policy instrument variables such as public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation during the electoral periods. When the obtained results are examined it is observed that the election dummy variable regarding public expenditures, money supply and money in circulation is positive and statistically significant which is appropriate to the theory. These findings assert that governments pursue opportunistic policies in electoral periods in Turkey. References SavaĢ, V.F., (1997), Anayasal Ġktisat, Ġstanbul: Avcıol Basım Yayım. Nordhaus, W,(1975), The Political Business Cycle, The Review of Economic Studies, 42(2), 169-190. Alesina, A., Cohen G.D. & Roubini, N., (1991), Makroeconomic Policy and Elections in OECD Democracies, NBER Working Paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge. Özkan, F., (2005), Döviz Kuru Öngörü Yöntemleri: Türkiye Uygulaması, Y. Lisans Tezi, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Erim, N., (2007), Ġktisadi DüĢünce Tarihi, Ankara: Palme Yayıncılık. Azgün, S., (2006), Kamu Açığı ve DıĢ Açıkların GeliĢimi: 1980–2004 Dönem Analizi, E-Akademi Hukuk, Ekonomi ve Siyasal Bilimler Dergisi, 53(7). Hibbs, D.G., (1977), Political Parties and Macroeconomic Policy, The American Political Science Review, 71 (4), 1467-1487. Dickey, D.A. & Fuller, W.A., (1979), Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74, 427–431. Perron, P., (1990), Testing for a Unit Root in a Time Series With a Changing Mean, Journal of Business Economic Satistics, 8(2), 19-25. Godfrey, L.G. (1988), Spesicification Test in Econometrics, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. Bera, A. & Jarque, C. (1981), Efficient est for Normality, Heterosedasticity and Serial Indepence of Regression Residuals: Monte Carlo Evidence, Economics Letter, 7, 313-318. 475 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Comparison of Islamic, Traditional and Alternative Utility Theories Sümeyye DEMĠRSOY International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Mehmet CAN International University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina mcan@ius.edu.ba Abstract: Decision making under uncertainty is always trying to be explained by utility theory. And utility theory‘s roots rely on moral philosophy. Moral philosophy is concerning concepts about good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, etc. It can be say that utilitarianism, which is a field of moral philosophy, is more directly about utility theory. Throughout the human history, from Prophet Abraham to Greek philosophers; Socrates, Aristotle, Epicurus, to Islam scholars al Kindi, al-Farabi, al-Razi, Ibn-i Sina, Ibni Rushd, Ibn-i Haldun, all discussed about ethics and utility concept. 1. Introduction Although utility is an economic term which measures the satisfaction or desirability in terms of the consumption of goods and services, its roots rely on moral philosophy which deals with the concepts about good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness. On the other hand, concepts of good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness was constituents of ethichs throughout history of humanity. Human concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness were the concern of human civilizations through millenniums. Historically the foundations of human ethics are laid by divine revaliations through prophets. Muslims identify the prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by Allah to teach mankind. Humans may rely on revelation or tradition to identify prophets. Each prophet brought the same basic ideas of ethics. They brought the belief in a single God and in the avoidance of idolatry and sin. Muslims regard Adam as the first prophet and Muhammad as the last. Islamic theology recognises as many as 124,000 prophets. The Qur'an identifies 25 prophets by name, starting with Adam and ending with Muhammad. Five of them, Rasuls, receive the highest reverence for their perseverance, Ibrahim (Abraham), Moosa (Moses), Dawud (David), Isa (Jesus), and Muhammad. 1.1 Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) Ibrahim was born in a house of idolaters, in the kingdom of Babylon. He announced to his people: O my people I turned my face towards Him Who created the heavens and the earth, and never shall I give partners to Allah. He has the power to make the stars rise and set. 1.2 Prophet Musa (Moses) Musa the son of Imran, was born in Egypt in which at that time the kings were known as Fir‘awns. First statement about working ethics in Torah is in Genesis part. ―In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground; for out of it wast thou taken: for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return.‖ (Torah, Genesis 3/19) In Torah it is suggested to respect neighbour rights and to behave in good way to them: ―When thou dost lend thy brother any thing, thou shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge. Thou shalt stand abroad, and the man to whom thou dost lend shall bring out the pledge abroad unto thee. And if the man be poor, thou shalt not sleep with his pledge: In any case thou shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in his 476 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo own raiment, and bless thee: and it shall be righteousness unto thee before the Lord thy God."(Torah, Deureronomy 24/10-13) Another statement about poor is as following and in this statement Torah mentioning about living together with brothers: ―And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen in decay with thee; then thou shalt relieve him: yea, though he be a stranger, or a sojourner; that he may live with thee. Take thou no usury of him, or increase: but fear thy God; that thy brother may live with thee.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 25/35-36) ―If thou lend money to any of my people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou lay upon him usury. If thou at all take thy neighbor's raiment to pledge, thou shalt deliver it unto him by that the sun goeth down: For that is his covering only, it is his raiment for his skin: wherein shall he sleep? and it shall come to pass, when he crieth unto me, that I will hear; for I am gracious.‖ (Torah, Exodus, 22/25-27) ―And when ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy field, neither shalt thou gather the gleanings of thy harvest. And thou shalt not glean thy vineyard, neither shalt thou gather every grape of thy vineyard; thou shalt leave them for the poor and stranger: I am the LORD your God.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 19/910) ―And if thy brother be waxen poor, and fallen in decay with thee; then thou shalt relieve him: yea, though he be a stranger, or a sojourner; that he may live with thee.‖ (Torah, Levitucus 25/35) 1.3 Prophet Dawud (David) Dawud (David) was not only an illustrious Prophet of the Israelites but he was also their king. The Holy Qur'an affirms: "And Allah gave him the kingdom! and wisdom and taught him of that which He willed." (2: 251). And it was said unto him: ― 0' Dawud!To! We have set you as a vicegerent in the earth, therefore, judge aright between mankind and follow not desire." (38:26) He lived in Bait-ul-Lahm which was situated at the distance of ten miles from Jerusalem. He prayed: "Our Lord! Pour out constancy on us and make our steps firm and help us against those who are disbelievers." (2:249) Allah revealed the Zabur (Book of Psalms) to Prophet Dawud. It contains lessons for the guidance of his people. 1.4 Buddha The evidence of the early texts suggests that the Buddha was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of fifth century BCE northeast India. This community seems to have had two categories of people, masters and servants. The Four Noble Truths of Budhism: 1. 2. 3. 4. Life as we know it ultimately is or leads to suffering/uneasiness (dukkha) in one way or another. Suffering is caused by craving. This is often expressed as a deluded clinging to a certain sense of existence, to selfhood, or to the things or phenomena that we consider the cause of happiness or unhappiness. Craving also has its negative aspect, i.e. one craves that a certain state of affairs not exist. Suffering ends when craving ends. This is achieved by eliminating delusion, thereby reaching a liberated state of Enlightenment (bodhi); Reaching this liberated state is achieved by following the path laid out by the Buddha. 2. The Greek Philosophers For ancient Greek philosophers the question ‗how should I live?‘ took a fundamentally prudential or selfregarding form. It amounted for them an inquiry searching how a man could secure his own happiness, fulfilment or perfection. Benevolence, altruism, philanthropy, a concern for happiness of others occupied a secondary position in their ethical recommendations. It is conceived as a condition of self-realisation of the individual. In general Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle in particular, found a place for restricted benevolence by emphasising the role of friendship in a fully satisfying life. Aristo somewhat made a disdainful liberality part of his conception of the ethically ideal or ‗magnanimous‘ man. It can be said that utilitarianism, which is a field of moral philosophy, is more directly about utility theory. Utilitarianism can be understood as a movement for legal, political and social reform that flourished in the nineteenth century. It can also be understood as the ideology of that movement. It is also a general ethical theory. As a theory of 477 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ethics, it provides a criterion for distinguishing between the right and wrong action, an account of nature of the moral judgements that characterise action as right and wrong. Utilitarianism can be expressed as the combination of two principles: (i) the consequentialist principle that the rightness, or wrongness of an action is determined by the goodness, or badness of the results that flow from it and (ii) the hedonist principle that the only thing that is good in itself is pleasure and the only thing bad in itself is pain. The doctrine can be expressed in the form of a single principle, the greatest happiness principle: the rigthness of an action is determined by its contribution to the happiness of everyone affected by it. (Quinton, 1973). Greek moralists unreflectively assumed a consequentialist position in developing their more or less prudential life-styles. The only way in which they conceived it to be possible to justify a type of conduct was by reference to the results to which it gave rise (Quinton, 1973). 2.1 Socrates (BC 470-399) Socrates' ethical intellectualism has an eudaemological character in which he asserted that the highest good for any human being is happiness. According to Socrates, people‘s true happiness is promoted by doing what is right. When people‘s true utility is served (tending own soul), people are achieving happiness. Happiness is evident from the long-term effect on the soul. According to him, whatever action a man chooses is motivated by his desire for happiness. All the concepts like knowledge, virtue, and wisdom are the same and man chooses an action according to what he thinks will bring him the greatest happiness. Therefore the more a man knows, the greater his ability to reason out the correct choice and the greater his ability to choose those actions which truly bring happiness to him. According to Socrates, to answer the question ‗what is happiness‘, the first question should be asked to an individual by himself: If all his needs were completed, or he had enough power to do anything, would he really be happy? When individual observe and attract attention to him, even all these needs mentioned above are completed, he sees that he is not happy enough. On the contrary he sees that he witnessed many disappointments, only when he is in harmony with himself he will really be happy. People who are not in harmony with themselves never be happy properly. Socrates believes that psychic harmony is the greatest good, and that the result of it is moral behavior. He also believes that if you have a healthy body and soul then you are in psychic harmony with yourself. In the ideal soul, the reasoning part and the feelings (desires for honour) rule over the appetitive part (desires for wealth, food, etc). A properly ordered soul experiences a sense of well-being or psychological health. Thus, psychological health is something distinct from psychological stability since it depends on psychic harmony. According to Socrates, immoral behavior is a result of an unbalanced personality and leads people to irrational behavior. Psychic harmony is a psychological condition and makes someone moral and this harmony has no motivation. Moral behavior comes from people‘s own beliefs and desires. If one is bad or unjust in the social sense it is because of his sensuality, greed, or vanity. According to Socrates where there is psychic harmony, the motives for injustice in the social sense will be eliminated. Socrates did not surpass the prejudice of Greek intellectualism in ethics. It is enough to know virtue in order to be virtuous. Everyone wishes to be happy and if someone does not attain happiness, it is because he does not know the way that leads to happiness. Consequently, so-called evil men are in reality only ignorant. Thus, vice is synonymous with ignorance, so knowledge of the good is synonymous with virtue. That is why Socrates, who intended to form a virtuous youth, restricted his teaching to the search for moral concepts. The foundations of Socratic system of ethics can be summarised as; i. a choice is rational if and only if it is a choice of what is best for the agent ii. something is good for an agent if and only if it is morally right. The cornerstone of Socratic ethics is the self-interested concern for happiness, that is, one's own good. But this concern requires that we act in accordance with what is just and noble, that is the moral good. The identity of one's own good with the moral good is the basis for specific Socratic foundations. Socrates shows in the book Gorgias that one's own good coincides almost completely with the moral good, since the utility of nonmoral goods, for example, wealth, depends on the possession of moral excellence. According to Socrates, the content of goodness/benevolence covers utility and pleasure. That is why some of the historians of ethics assume that Socrates is Epicurean, so he is utilitarian. However, pleasure, which Socrates implies, is not harmfull to intellect and soul. Here intellect has a role of being informative and determinant. Thus Socrates‘ pleasure is under control of intellect. And also Socrates‘ utility view is not individualistic, but public. 478 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2.2 School of Cyrene – Aristippus (BC 435-366) Cyrene school of philosophy is a kind of discipline of Socrates, founded in the 5th century by Aristippus. He was a hedonist and urging the pre-eminent claims of bodily pleasure as an end. This philosopher explains his thought, which he starts with a question ‗what is a happy life‘, by answering ‗life, which has as much as possible pleasure and as little as possible suffering, is a happy life‘. To make life happy, someone should include as much as possible pleasure and as little as possible suffering to his/her life. For to do this, he/she should decrease needs, so it will be adjusted to life with limited needs. So by doing with limited needs, it can be benefited from all pleasures of life. Aristippus teaches us kind of a life art that should be lived wisely. And this art can be gained by giving up desires which make people slaves of themselves. Thus, school of Cyrene derived hedonism from Socrates‘ eudaimonism. Later on, school of Cyrene‘s this hedonism concept was accepted by Epicurus (Aster, 2005) 2.3 School of Cynicism – Antisthenes (BC 455-365) Antisthenes, who outlined the themes of the school, is the first philosopher of school of cynicism. He had been a pupil of Socrates in the late 5th century BC. Antisthenes has severe discussions to Aristippus‘ pleasure assumption. According to Antisthenes, people should look for real happiness in desire of freedom and liberty inside. People, who reach to real happiness, know how to stay insensitive and disregarding in relation to either pleasure or suffering. This staying indifferent in relation to pleasure or suffering brings freedom from inside. 2.4 Plato (BC 427-347) Plato, founder of Academy in Athens, is a classical Greek philosopher. His mentor was Socrates and his student was Aristotle. According to Plato, nothing is fine without moderation, and the thing which is pleasant becomes as pleasant with this moderation. He also mentiones about moderation in between organic pleasures and intellectual benevolence. Unlike Aristotle‘s developed concept of happiness (will be mentioned below), Plato‘s happiness concept is more obscure. According to Plato, the Good is the source of intelligibility. He asserted that the highest goal in all of education is knowledge of the Good. According to him, human beings aim at the good, nobody voluntarily chooses evil. Plato thinks that the masses are incapable of grasping the truth. He illustrated this in his the allegory of the cave where Plato suggests that the masses cannot see the truth directly but they are satisfied with an illusion of reality. According to Plato, the good is the source of intelligibility and happiness is the attainment of intelligibility. Thus, Plato describes his happiness concepts as the goal of life. There is an important difference between Socratics and Plato. Both Aristippus and Antisthenes are individualists. For both of them, origin is individual. Both of them don‘t deal with super-individual fact as state, history, society. If people want to be really happy, they should be on their own, they should not depend on other people. In this point, Plato has disagreement with his other two schoolmates. According to Plato, people never be on their own but always live with other people. If we isolate an individual from the society he lives in, we exclude him from his own resources. Moreover, the institution called ‗state‘ is like a human. What condition social entire is in, individual lives in the same condition. Thus to understand human being, it should be looked into the state which he lives. Therefore Plato rejects Socratics‘ (Aristippus and Antisthenes) thoughts. Although they seem like the followers of Socrates, Plato thinks that they are not thinking in similar perspective. According to Plato, contrary to Aristippus and Antisthenes‘ individualistic tendency, Socrates did not only show his skillfulness about living, but he also became the first example of moral principle which took socialization as a base (Aster, 2005). 2.5 Aristotle (BC 384-322) Aristotle is a Greek philosopher who is student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His teaching about virtue and ethics is set forth in his Nicomachean Ethics. Greek philosophy accepts that human life‘s main purpose is ‗happiness‘. However they differentiate from each other about ‗what is happiness‘. Aristotelian method is different from others because, according to him, each existence has 479 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo its own activity. Knowing specific activity of human shows us that what kind of an objective this human wants to reach. So it will be learned what is the ‗real happiness‘. According to Aristotle, happiness (eudaimonia) is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue and it is the highest of all goods. Happiness is the first principle and cause of all goods and it is a self-sufficient activity always chosen for itself. Unlike other virtues, happiness is the only thing chosen only for itself and not for the sake of other things. Aristotle believes that amusement is not self sufficient like happiness and he distinguished between the life of amusement and the happy life. Aristotle proposes two possible paths to happiness as a life of virtuous activity and a life of theoria and asks which of the two is the best. The former path defines happiness as a practical vitue and in need of external goods. And the latter path theoria is contemplation of eternal truths for an entire lifetime which is the highest activity of reason. Aristotle chooses theoria. Becuase the life of practical virtue achieves happiness in a lesser sense because of the necessity of material goods in this life and the life of the theoria limits the need for material goods and perfect happiness (eudaimonia) is enjoyed by the Gods. According to Aristotle, human being is rational as his nature. If a rational man behaves rationally and moderate, he will be behaved parallelly to his nature. ‗Thinking‘ and ‗knowing‘ are human‘s highest activities. But what can be ratio/intellect‘s activity in practical life? Each of the virtues is a state of being that naturally seeks its mean. All virtues are in between of two extremes, virtues are means of the two extremes. This mean is not mathematical but it is a border which can be found by ratio/intellect. The virtuous habit of action is always an intermediate state between the opposed vices of excess and deficiency. For example; with respect to the enjoyment of pleasures, temperance (sophrosúnê) is a mean between the excess of intemperance and the deficiency of insensibility. Greek thought always searches for harmony and moderation, dislikes extremes. Aristotle is an opposer to all kind of extremes, too. Thus, Aristotle is against the thoughts that reject possessions like Cynics. Aristotle emphasizes on possessions‘ relative values. By using them moderately, they can bring even sense and value. One another thought of Aristotle is not to ignore desires and urges totally, they should not be ignored totally, but to keep them down by ratio. According to Aristotle, there is no direct connection between good/benevolence and pleasure. These three points should be taken into account: First pleasure is not main principle for a moral life, second pleasure occurs as a result of an action which targets virtue. And third virtue is in the action which results in pleasure. 2.6 Epicurus (BC 341-271) Two more schools joined to the list of schools of philosophy in about BC 300s. One is school of Stoa and the other one is Epicureanism that took its name from the founder Epicurus. These two schools have contradictory opinions about life and knowledge. As it is mentioned in former parts of this work, school of Cynicism and Cyrene have contradictory opinions about ethics, too. According to Cynics, it is important to exert perfect dominance on desires. After Cynics, we see some similar thoughts are repeated by Stoa. It is virtuous to exert dominance on excitements, desires because virtue gives us staying apathetic to life and death. School of Cyrene perceives life‘s real purpose as catching pleasure and escaping from pain. Kind of a dissidence, like between Cynics and Cyrenes, later on was seen in between Stoa and Epicureanism. These two schools, Stoa and Epicureanism, sustained their existence by keeping alive dispute among them. However at the same time they have some similar or common opinions. The first point they agree is that human being is subject of philosophy. First they draw portraits of ‗superman‘. However all these ‗superman‘ concepts were interpreted differently. For Stoa school, superman is man who beats demands and desires, knows to disregard to both life and death. They show apathy (lack of interest or concern) as a purpose to human. On the other hand Epicureanism finds its purpose on ataraxie (freedom from worry). However it can be noticed that there is no big difference between ataraxie and apathy. According to Stoa school, first principle is people‘s need to understand that they are organs of the unity called world. Second principle is people‘s need to know their own stand in the world and so to adopt themselves to destiny which is chosen for themselves. However Epicurus thinks that world processes with respect to blind and spontaneous necessity. If people‘s destinty is determined by coincidences which can not be seen before, then they can have interest in products which are their own will-power. Thus, people will stay disregard in respect to life and death and by behaving rationally they will know how to distinguish things which give happiness. Epicurus adopted the principle to attain pleasure and to escape from pain in ethics. But human should do this wisely. He should avoid from intense pleasures which bring pain at last. Human should not interest in anything more than its necessity because extremes cause to pain. People should know to keep away from temporary and 480 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo specious values such as fine and glory. Temporary values always direct people to more, and this more never ends, that is why people always stay in unrest. Thus, people should be interested in ―moral pleasures‖ which won‘t cause to dissatisfaction. According to Epicurus, for to be happy, it is necessary to live moderate, to tend pleasures which are moral, and to behave in accordance with all these. Epicurus established his school in Athens in 306 BC. In the surviving writings of Epicurus, there is little of direct relevance to the connection between utility and justice. However, virtue including justice, was not intended to limit pleasure. According to Bailey (Bailey 1928) Epicureanism is ‗a system of uncompromising egoistic hedonism‘. Scarre (Scarre 1994) put it, ‗just as the Epicurean community practiced economic self-sufficiency within the walls of its garden, the Epicurean man cultivates an inner self-sufficiency, a contentment in his own physical and mental states and a suppression of unnecessary desires‘. The only perfect pleasure was a condition of ataraxie where one lives quietly in bodily health and with little physical and psychological distress. (Rosen, 2003). Although none of the pleasure is bad, some (involving less pain) are purer than others. Epicurus made connection between pleasure and health, pain and disease. All pleasures were good in the sense that health was good, even though some pleasures were mixed. If health was good, with disease of body or soul it becomes greatest evil. In Epicureanism the greatest pleasure was defined by the removal of all pain, and hence the Epicurean lived quietly and peacefully in the real or metaphorical Garden (Rosen, 2003). The important virtue for Epicurus was prudence, and a considerable emphasis was placed on the egoistic pleasures connected with friendship. On the other hand, little attention was given to social values and instincts. When it comes to ‗justice‘ in Epicurus‘ system, it can be said that ‗justice‘ means achieving security from the attacks of other people. Epicurus‘ state on a conception of justice is that; a pledge of mutual advantage to restain men from harming one another and save them from being harmed (Epicurus,1926). At another point, Epicurus wrote about justice in terms of being of advantage in the requirements of men‘s dealings with one another (Epicurus, 1926). Epicurus used here a Greek phrase, ‗sumpherei en tais chreiais‘, for ‗advantage in the requirements‘. Rosen claims that Greek noun, ‗chreia‘, also possessed a range of meanings and might be translated as ‗need‘, ‗use‘ or ‗utility‘. For all societies in which to make compacts not to harm one another is not possible, nothing was either just or unjust. Although justice was applied potentially to all requiring, where contracts for one should not harm others, such a justice might be applied differently in different societies and under different circumstances. Where a law, which was previously considered, just, had no longer had usefulness or secured advantage, there was no longer just (Epicurus, 1926). According to Alberti (Alberti 1995) ‗justice is the realization of utility by means of a contract‘. The emphasis on utility allows for the separation of law from justice by rejecting the view found in Plato and Aristotle, that all law is just. And emphasis on utility leads to a notion of justice which is different from nomos (legal justice) and physis (natural justice) (Rosen, 2003). Justice was an invention of the wise for their own good. Epicurus summed up matters with brutal directness and claimed that the laws exist for the sake of the wise, not that they may not do wrong, but that they may not suffer it (Bailey,1928). Law and justice were matters of convenience which the wise person devised and approved. Epicurus had no reason to make justice a positive part of the human condition except enabling people to obtain ‗peace of soul‘ (DeWitt, 1954). ―It represented a painful burden, and in its application as punishment justice could be extremely painful. All that could recommend it was its utility to the wise. Other members of society might have less invested in justice, as they were not cultivating their gardens as were Epicureans, and might well gain less from rules concerning not harming others. However, so long as they accepted the compact, they would be assisting themselves, as well as not harming the wise in society.‖(Rosen, 2003). 3. Medieval Times Islam Philosophers In the seventh century, translation movements from Greek to Arabic language started and in the time of Caliph al-Mansur this movements reached its peak. The study of Islamic ethics began to take shape in the third century of Islam‘s emerge, with the influences from Greek ethics including Stoicism, Platonism and Aristotelianism. Al-Kindi, the first philosopher of Islam, influenced by Socrates and Diogenes the Cynic as seen in his ethical writings. Other influences can be seen in the work of Platonists such as Abu Bakr al-Razi or Neoplatonists such as al-Farabi, Aristotelian influences can be seen in the works of al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. 481 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 3.1 Al-Kindi (d.873) Abu Yusuf Ya‘qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (d.873) was the first philosopher of Islam and also the first author on philosophical ethics. In Baghdad, al-Kindi was involved in the scientific movement of the translation of Greek texts into Arabic. His starting point was Greek philosophy and he is reported by the classical bibliographers that he has a number of ethical treatises reflecting an interest in Socratic and Cynic thought. In al-Kindi‘s writings, the personalities of Socrates and Diogenes the Cynic are united and both emerge as ideal instances of virtue and asceticism (Fakhry, 1998). Moreover, the Stoic idea of apatheia (freedom from passion) and the indifference to the vicissitudes of fortune are set out in fluent terms. According to al-Kindi, the antidote of pain is to consider that pain results either from our actions of from doing the actions of others. In the former case, it is individual‘s duty to avoid from doing which is the cause of pain. In the latter case, averting the pain is either in our power or it is not. If it is in our power then we certainly ought to avert it, if it is not, we should not suffer at the prospect of injury with the hope that it might somehow be turned away. The suggestion, to avoid material possessions as temporary acquisitions, reflects the influences of the Stoic philosophers. 3.2 Abu Bakr al-Razi (d. 925) Another philosopher Abu Bakr al-Razi (d. 925), who is influenced by Plato, refers to Plato as ‗the master of the philosophers and their leader‘ and to Socrates as ‗the ascetic and spritual‘ sage in his book al-Tibb al-Ruhani (The Spiritual Physic). A Socratic-Platonic theme which takes place in al-Razi‘s writings is the foolishness of the hedonistic life which turns man into a slave. People‘s many of pleasures are temporary and unattainable and people are attacked by anxiety or pain. But according to al-Razi, true philosopher will not succumb to pain, because philosopher understands that nothing is permanent in this world. And that whatever cannot be turned away should be ignored, since it is the product of passion and not of reason. al-Razi says in his book al-Falsafiya that: 'For reason summons us only to what is susceptible of bringing about profit sooner or later; grief does not bring any advantage... That is why the perfectly rational man will only follow the summons of reason ... and will never follow the summons of passion or allow himself to be led by it or get close to it. Like Socrates and Plato, al-Razi believes that the soul, leaving the body, will return to its original residence in the intelligible world, after passing through an endless cycle of purifications. Death is a logical consequence of our being human and essential part of the definition of man. However, al-Razi adds another argument which derives from Epicurus that death is the deprivation of sensation and with his death man will be stripped of the sensations of pleasure and pain. Thus this is a better condition than living in pain. That is why 'according to the judgment of reason the condition of death is better than the condition of life' (Rasa‘il al-Razi al-Falsafiya). 3.3 Al-Farabi (d. 951) Abu Nasr al-Farabi (d. 951) was known as the ―second master‖ (muallim-i sani) amongst his peers, Aristotle being the first (muallim-i evvel). Al-Farabi was the first systematic writer on philosophical questions in Islam. He also contributed to ethical discussions and wrote a commentary on some parts of the Nicomachean Ethics which is translated into Arabic by Ishaq bin Hunayn. Al-Farabi follows Aristotle in ethics like dividing the virtues into moral and intellectual (Fakhry, 1998). According to him, moral virtues are perfections of the lustful part of the soul whereas perfections of the intellectual part are practical reasoning, good judgement, wisdom and sound understanding. Al-Farabi also follows Aristotle‘s arguments about justice which consists in the equitable distribution of ‗common goods‘ in the city or in the state. Every member of city or state is entitled to share this ‗common goods‘ such as security, wealth, dignity, public office, etc. Al-Farabi deflects from Aristotle and other Greek phlosophers believing in the life hereafter in Qor‘anic way. Accoring to al-Farabi, nations and citizens of cities attain happiness, worldly in here and supreme in the life hereafter, when four human needs are met. These are; theoretical virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts. Worldly happiness is necessary for the attainment of supreme happiness in the hereafter. According to him, happiness is the absolute good and achieving happiness is the purpose of life. Whenever the soul of the person reaches perfection, then happiness is achieved. According to al-Farabi, if individual‘s desire for happiness is weak and he/she has other purposes in his/her life, then the result will be evil. 482 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Theoretical virtues, the first one of the four themes mentioned above, consist of the sciences. The purpose is to have understanding of all the beings on these sciences. Deliberative virtues are voluntary intelligibles that vary across time and place such as events occuring accidentally or willingly, such as disasters or war. An individual cannot possess deliberative virtue without possessing moral virtue. A person has to have virtuous moral character who wishes the good for himself/herself or for others. And according to al-Farabi, theoretical virtues, deliberative virtues, moral virtues and practical arts are all inseparable. The his famous work al-Madina al-Fadila (virtuous city), in which people cooperate and help each other for the purpose of attaining happiness, al-Farabi reflects again his devotion to Islamic utility perception. To him, on the other hand, non-virtuous city is the city whose people do not know happiness. Al-Farabi discussed these two cities‘ souls of the citizens and he believed that the souls of the citizens of the virtuous city are immortal. However, the souls of the citizens of the ignorant city are mortal and their destiny is to suffer. As a result, al-Farabi believed that political association should be directed towards the attainment of happiness. Generally, it can be said that al-Farabi was greatly influenced by both Aristotle and Plato in his philosophy and his concept of happiness particularly. On the other hand, his thought was framed by Islam. He selected portions from each of these three different influences to form a complete description of happiness. So his concept of happiness is a product of his understanding of Greek philosophy and Islam. With his concept of happiness, he combines Plato‘s concept of the good, Aristotle‘s concept of eudaimonia (happiness) and Islamic concept of Jihad Al nafs (struggle of the soul). Plato and Aristotle‘s concepts were given above. On the other hand, the Islamic concept of Jihad Al nafs means the struggle of the soul. According to Islam, God created man to achieve bliss (happiness) in the next life through a clearly defined struggle in this life called Jihad. By the Quranic definition, ―And whosoever strives (jahada), strives (yujahidu) only for himself. Surely Allah is self sufficient, above need of His creatures.‖ (Quran 29:6). The person who struggles with turning his inner self into a new way of living that understands the true reality where material is only a small portion. 3.4 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (d. 980) Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (d. 980) is one of the foremost philosophers in the Medieval Hellenistic Islamic tradition and one of the most important practitioners of philosophy. He exercised a strong influence over the other Islamic philosophers and medieval Europe as well. Al-Farabi‘s successor Ibn Sina is the author of a very short tract on ethics and he follows closely the Platonic model in psychology. Ibn Sina speaks about the laws which are needed to be laid down as the moral habits (akhlaq) and traits (adat) which lead to justice. He divides the soul into different parts like rational, irascible, and concupiscent which correspond to the virtues of wisdom, courage and temperance respectively. Finally justice is the ‗summation‘ of all these three. According to Ibn Sina, enforcement of justice within the state (with the existence of caliph) is necessary as the sovereign of the world and God‘s vicegerent on earth. The virtues of temperance, courage, and wisdom are for the well-being of human beings in this world. They can be followed adequately without theoretical wisdom. Ibn Sina presents theoretical wisdom as being so important that one can attain happiness only by acquiring it as well as these three virtues, all of which add up to justice. Ibn Sina distinguishes himself from Farabi by insisting on the possibility of acquiring temperance, courage, and practical wisdom-or justice-without possessing theoretical wisdom. In other words, unlike Farabi, Ibn Sina does not perceive all the virtues to be intellectual or to be grounded in sound intellectual understanding. Make separation between the practical virtue and the theoretical virtue does not fully account for Ibn Sina's moral teaching. From what appears in his treatises that moral habits are directed to the liberation of the soul from the body. Thus they serve the ultimate goal of theoretical virtue, that is the soul achieving a free perception of God and the divine intelligences. It is not clear, however, how the moral habits lead to justice. The only explanation that comes to mind is that insofar as some human beings center their thoughts and activities on other worldly concerns. Ibn Sina differs here from al-Farabi too since he starts with the basic human needs and ascends from them to the larger issue of law- giving and providing for justice. On the other hand, Al-Farabi begins by thinking about ultimate human happiness. Ultimate human happiness is about the highest ends of human beings rather than their humblest beginnings or it is about their noble concerns rather than about their basic needs. 483 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 3.5 Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (d. 1198) Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (d. 1198) is regarded as one of the important Islamic philosophers. He set out to integrate Aristotelian philosophy with the Islamic thought in the twelfth-century of Islamic Spain. He produced commentaries on Aristotle‘s Nicomachean Ethics and also Plato‘s Republic which is relevant to his ethical theory as well. According to Ibn Rushd, the principal virtues correspond to the perfection of the three parts of the soul are the rational, the irascible, and the concupiscent. Then he describes justice along Platonic lines as the ‗harmony‘ of the three corresponding virtues of wisdom, courage and temperance. As Aristotle stated in the Nicomachean Ethics, it has two subdivisions which are common or universal, corresponding to ‗perfect virtue‘, and particular. However, Ibn Rushd does not identify happiness with the contemplative life, but rather with conjunction (ittisal) to the active intellect, which the Muslim Neoplatonists had regarded as man‘s ultimate goal. In Muslim thought, everything they need to know about moral behaviour is encapsulated in Islam. However, Ibn Rushd argued that a distinction should be drawn between moral notions and divine commands and here he follows an Aristotelian approach (Leaman). According to Ibn Rushd, the answer of question ―what is the purpose of a human being?‖ is that; one of the ultimate aims is to be happy and to avoid actions which lead to unhappiness. Moral virtue leads to happiness. If people do what they should do in accordance with their nature, people will be able to achieve happiness. This happiness may be interpreted as a mixture of social and religious activities or as an entirely intellectual ideal. However, neither religion nor philosophy would approve of entirely intellectual ideal as the ultimate aim for the majority of the community. It is possible for someone that he/she would try to live apart from the community with concentrating entirely on intellectual pursuits, but this way of living is inferior to a life in which there is a concentration upon intellectual thought but combined with integration within the practices of a particular society. Ibn Rushd, inspite of working within an Islamic context, does not identify happiness and misery with some aspect of the afterlife since he was unable to accept the traditional view of the afterlife. Here Oliver Leaman, who has many works about Ibn Rushd, claims that without religious imagery, ordinary believers may find it difficult to understand that our moral actions affect not only ourselves but the happiness of the whole community, not just at a particular time or in a particular place but as a species. With our bad behaviours, we damage our own chances of human flourishing, and this damage affects our personal opportunities for achieving happiness and maturing as people. It is also resulting to the weakening of society. According to Leaman, while it is possibly true that the misery of evil-doing may not follow us personally after our death, it may well follow the community. The notion of an afterlife points to the wider terms of reference in which moral action has life. 3.6 Ibn Khaldun Another philosopher Ibn Khaldun, who lived in 14th century, centred his economic ideas generally around the ideas of justice, hardwork, cooperation, moderation and fairness. He emphasises Al-adl (justice) as the bedrock of the economy, and lack of justice leads to the breakdown of the state. Some of his writings may appear as secular. For instance; ―Civilisation and its well-being as well as business prosperity depends on production and people‘s efforts in all directions in their own interest and profit‖ (Muqaddimah, Volume 2). However, Ibn Khaldun insisted that man must avoid from evils, must improve himself, and must give preference to matters of the next world against this world (Muqaddimah, Volume 1). According to Ibn Khaldun, extravagance and luxurious living lead to the destruction of the state. ―Sedentary people are much concerned with all kinds of pleasure. They are accustomed to luxury and success in worldly occupations and indulgence in worldly desires. Therefore, their souls are adored with all kinds blameworthy and evil qualities‖(Muqaddimah, Volume 1, 225). Another issue Ibn Khaldun emphasises is cooperation. He says that ―the power of the individual human being is not sufficient for him to obtain the food he needs through cooperation, the needs of a number of persons, many times greater than their own number can be satisfied‖ (Muqaddimah, Volume 1, 69) ( Ibn Haldun, 1977). Above the economic philosophy of Ibn Khaldun was mentioned shortly, but, his Muqaddimah covers a large number of other areas about economy like money, value, market, population, growth, international trade, etc. When dealing with micro or macro economic issues, he demonstrated perfect competence in generating theories. In his work, Ibn Khaldun synthesises the ideas learnt from the Qur‘an and Sunnah, and from other sources which were converted into powerful theories. 484 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 4. Conclusion Human concepts like good and bad, right and wrong, virtue, justice, and happiness were the concern of human civilizations through millenniums. Historically the foundations of human ethics are laid by divine revaliations through prophets. Then Greek phlosophers and Muslim scholars contributed to the theory till the begining of the modern times. With the begining of the 20th century industrial society began to transform into information society and risk and uncertainty became prior and diagnostic feature of human behaviour. And now with these changes new structure of society is multi-dimensional, more complicated and uncertain. While this theory became accepted and is using in economics, criticism voices started to become louder. Critics to economics‘ deductive, abstractive and pure rationalist method focused especially on uncertainty and risk that propelled from that analysis. Among them only one was seem as an strong alternative to expected utility theory: Prospect theory which was found by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in (Kahneman and Tversky 1979). They dealt with utility concept from the cognitive point of view, Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky‘s studies were the earliest studies of human decision-making by cognitive psychologists. Development of the theory through modern times may be the subject of another work. References Alberti, A., (1995). The Epicurean Theory of Law and Justice, in A. Laks and M. Schofield (eds) Justice and Generosity, Studies in Hellenistic Social and Political Philosophy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bailey, C. (1928). The Greek Atomists and Epicurus, Oxford: Clarendon Pres. DeWitt, N.,W., (1954). Epicurus and his Philosophy, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Epicurus, (1926). Epicurus, the Extant Remains, trans. C. Bailey, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ibn Haldun, (1977). Mukaddime, Ankara: Onur Yayinlari. Ibn Khaldun, (1967). An Introduction to History: The Muqaddimah, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kahneman, D., Tversky A., (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263-291. Quinton, A., (1973). Utilitarian Ethics, London: Open Court Rosen, F. (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill, New York: Routledge Scarre, G. (1994). Epicurus as Forerunner of Utilitarianism, Utilitas, 6:219-31. 485 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Contribution of University on Economic Development Ahmet DĠNC Economics Department Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq da29tr@yahoo.com Abstract: Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes: improvement in material, a decline in an agriculture‘s share of gross national product(GNP), increasing share of industry in GNP, increasing education level, substantial technical advance and etc. Human Development Index is one of the measurement of Economic development. Economist need skillful labor force is provided by universities to ensure qualified more production with value added for economic growth and development. We saw that universities contributed innovation to become monopol in world market, relationship between domestic private companies and foreing ones, ensuring sustainable development, to become guide for foreign and domestic firms. In addition, universites contributed as information office. In this study, we analyzed contribution of technology and internet to the university and contribution of universities to economic development of country. We have worked and searched in private university in foreign country for 12 years. So, we aimed productive study with work experience abroad, observing and interactive study with academicians in other universities. We analyzed our study under three main titles; Functions of universities and categorize of countries. How to improve level of economic lesson by using internet among countries. Contribution of universities to level of economic development Introduction During the last few centuries the western economies have experienced an economic growth never before seen in history. This change has mainly been caused by knowledge, compared to previous history where land, natural resources, labor or machines were the factors determining economic growth and development. Long run economic performance during the last few decades, known as the knowledge economy or the information age, has consequently been driven by innovation and technological change instead, so, The production of new knowledge plays an important role in economic growth, international trade and regional development. (Rindeskar, 2005) The central purpose of this study is to analyze the importance of human capital are educated by university for generation of economic development through its effect on knowledge production in the innovation. A key driver to achieve the economic, social and physical regeneration of city and region University makes environment where science and business work together. (Goddard, 2009) It was seen that there is impact of universıty on economic development. Innovation and research which are studied by universities are the main argument on development of any country. These are the key of ensuring welfare. Functions of University and Classification of Countries Functions of University The Universities are schools of education as well as research. But, main reason for their existence is not to be found either in the just knowledge conveyed to the students or in the just opportunities for research afforded to the academicians in faculty. These functions could be performed at a cheaper rate. ( www.jstor.org/pss/40218022) When we pay attention definition of economics we see two major topics: unlimited human wants and limited resources. The twenty-first century is universally recognized as a time for developing knowledge-based economies and digital information technologies. With the rapid socia-economic changes, the democratization of government, structural shifts in production and the rapid growth of value systems of recent years, serious new challenges have presented themselves, with regards to the maintenance and function of higher education. In order to meet these challenges, higher education must continue to advance through innovation, effective adjustments, planning and ability to predict 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the future or vision. Universities are not only a school of knowledge, culture and technological innovation but they are also important centers for the cultivation of a nation's resources. Therefore, by bringing the university's function into full play, can it provide an essential foundation for motivating academic and technological innovation and assist with the economic development of a country. It is also clear that university competitiveness is a major indicator of a nation's competitiveness and that the excellence of a nation's universities is an important key to increasing a nation's sense of competitiveness. (Mu-lin, 2002) The two poles of the social function of universities are the academics inherent in universities and the more diverse demands from society, which are dialectic unity. Academics are inherent in universities and the function of universities that focused on social demands is the sociality of universities. Academics are the internal cause of multiple functions of universities while social demands are the external one. The potential of universities finds expression in the external cause of social demands, without which the potential is only potential elements and will never turn into reality. On the contrary, without the potential of universities social demands cannot make the products which society is in need of. Exchange between universities and society is the bridge that connects the two parts. Universities as a social organization have basic characteristics of all social organizations. Sociality is one feature of human organizations, being that ―organizations composed of human all exist in society as part of it and for the sake of it.‖ The potential that enables universities‘ exchange is their academic activities, which underlie the functions of universities. Universities‘ function of criticism is closely linked with the objective, fundamental, and pioneering academic activities. ―It is the characteristic of universities‘ serving society that in addition to paying attention to the immediate demands of society, universities should be pioneers to be ahead of social progress and provide new thoughts and opportunities for sustained development.‖ It is the objective and pioneering academic activities that enable universities to correct the defects resulting from the pursuit of self-utility on the part of other social organizations and to criticize society. The university function of international communication is the product of the objective academic activities, which makes it possible for people from different countries and with different ideologies to make discussions and exchanges on objective issues in the contemporary world. (Liu, 2005) Classification of Countries We believe that there is a close relationship between function of university and economic development. We think that you will no doubt about the importance and broad applicable of economics after reading and studying this study. Let‘s take an example one branch in university as faculty of economics and administrative sciences. Our aim is to allow students to understand economic environment, And to show you how to apply economic principles to actual events. We tried to show most of our examples applications, and extensions are drawn from the real world. We can count some way to define economics: - is the social science that deals with such problems - is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life - is a broad-ranging discipline - is the study of the use of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants. Also we can count some definition of economists: are innovators, tinkers, and inventors in their own way. Societies face lots real world problems, and history shows that economic ideas can produce waves to solve these problems. When we categorize countries in the world we see three ones. These are: 1-Developed Countries 2-Developing Countries 3-The Least Developed Countries Each society requires to past upper level to live comfortably. For that Economic Growth and Economic Development should be at level required. The economy sometimes grows and sometimes shrinks. World faced with global crisis and reduced production speed, so, global GDP fell down from 3.7 per cent in 2007 to 2 per cent in 2008 (UN, 2009)When we compare developed and least developed countries we see that there is big gap each other. It is said that per capita income in developed country can be over 12 000 $ yearly. On the other hand a dollar a day means 365$ yearly. In addition society experiences such problems: Such as unemployment, price stability, unproductive production, unfair competitive, inequity distribution income, maximizing profit, shut-down point etc. to solve these problems economists use some instruments. To produce more and more production we increase input but this is not enough. We need time and high level technology. Latest technology gives a hand to understand easily. High level technology is ensured and used to reproduce by universities. For example let‘s analyse relationship between internet and a faculty. I mean university innovates technology then uses it to improve teaching‘s quality. 487 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo How to Improve Level of Economic Lesson by Using Internet Among Countries When you study economics, you are probably wondering, why should we study economics? Actually, people study economics for a number of reasons. Many people study economics because they hope to make money. Some of them are worry that they will be illiterate if they don‘t know or understand the laws of supply and demand. People are also concerned to learn about how we can improve our environment or why countries such as Russia and china are moving from a planned to a market economy. As a voter we are interested about economy. Because which party‘s way is better for us. By using our vote we become to select party‘s prior investment. At the same time if we understand economy we can put forward an idea about meaning of economic growth, per capita income, distribution of income, foreing direct investment, exchange rate, economic crisis (Faced with the current economic crisis, many governments have identified enhanced ICT use as a strategy to quicken recovery), and etc. The word economy comes from the Greek word oikonomos, which means ―one who manages a household.‖ At first, this origin might seem peculiar. But in fact, households and economies have much in common. Economics is social science concerned with the production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and services. Economists focus on the way in which individuals, groups, business enterprises, and governments seek to achieve efficiently any economic objective they select. Lesson of economy is presented at Universities, institutions of higher education that offer programs beyond the high school level. Colleges and universities provide necessary training for individuals wishing to enter professional careers. They also strive to develop students‘ creativity, insight, and analytical skills. To train good economist at universities, we can benefit from internet for teaching, systematic presentation of facts, ideas, skills, and techniques. (Samuelson & Nordhaus, 2001) Although human beings have survived and evolved as a species partly because of a capacity to share knowledge, teaching as a profession did not emerge until relatively recently. The societies of the ancient world that made substantial advances in knowledge and government, however, were those in which specially designated people assumed responsibility for educating the young. Internet or computer-based global information system is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information with one another and to share computational resources such as powerful supercomputers and databases of information. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet does not have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, make information available to others, find information provided by others, or sell products with a minimum overhead cost. The Internet has brought new opportunities to government, business, and education. (UN, 2005) Many individuals use the Internet for communicating through electronic mail (e-mail), for news and research information, shopping, paying bills, and online banking. Educational institutions use the Internet for research and to deliver courses and course material to students, for example distance learning (Distance services, dispensed by cell-phone, internet telephony or websites, can allow skills that are in short supply to benefit larger numbers of people.) (UNDP 2009) Scientists and scholars use the Internet to communicate with colleagues, perform research, distribute lecture notes and course materials to students, and publish papers and articles. As we look internet users by level of development 2000-2004 (see Table) we can see that developed countries is 73% in 2000 57% in 2004 years, developing countries are 25% in 2000 years 38% in 2004, South-East Europe and CIS 2% in 2000 years 5% in 2004 years. At the end of 2008, there were an estimated 1.4 billion Internet users around the world. In developing countries, the number of users grew by a quarter, or almost five times faster than in developed countries. As a result, developing countries now account for more than half the world‘s Internet users. A little over one fifth of the world‘s population used the Internet in 2008. (UN, 2009) Classification Developed Countries Developing countries South-East Europe and CIS 2000 285 429 829 96 367 167 5 982 116 2001 344 585 162 137 712 413 8 963 563 2002 402 012 514 204 925 742 13 653 481 2003 433 307 644 256 845 766 23 745 186 Table 1: Internet users by region and level of development Contribution of Universities to Level of Economic Development 488 2004 501 756 193 332 998 292 40 877 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes: improvement in material, a decline in an agriculture‘s share of GNP, increasing share of industry in GNP, increasing education level, substantial technical advance and etc. Human Development Index (HDI) is one of the measurement of Economic development. As we pay attention table below we see that HDI contains three parts such as life expectancy, adult literacy, and GDP. GDP measures the total output and total income of an economy. If we care about the happiness of a typical individual in an economy, it makes more sense to look at GDP per capita. We can understand whether income is shared equally between its citizens.(Begg & Fischer & Dornbusch 1997)We can measure level of country‘s economic development by looking HDI too. All three units in this index are related directly with education, talent, knowledge, and learning. All these activities happend and occur in university. According to Human Development Report 2009, all countries are classified if HDI of country is higher than 0.900 it is very high human development country, if HDI of country is between 0.899 and 0.800 it is high human development country, if HDI of country is between 0.799 and 0.500 it is medium human development coutry, if HDI of country less than 0.499 it is low human development. (UNDP, 2009) When we see table below we can say that Turkmenistan is medium human development country in 1998. Turkmenistan/ Human Development Index (HDI) Life Adult Combined Real Expectancy literacy gross GDP years above enrolment per 15 (%) ratio (%) capita $ Life Expectancy Index Educational Attainment Index Real GDP per capita $ HDI 1997 1998 0.690 0.665 0.897 0.875 0.427 0.493 0.671 0.678 64.7 64.9 98.8 98.8 71.0 65.0 2683 3162 Table 2 :Turkmenistan HDI It is accepted as inevitable that we live in a world accelerated change. As people, we can see creative opportunity, or we can be demoralized as we watch companies and people come and go. As a region, we are always going to be in the position of retention -- companies, people, and capital -- as we also search economic development opportunities for expansion and attraction. The reality is that regions like Central Upstate New York compete with regions around the world that are already organized to attract capital investment and jobs. If we look at regions that are considered economic powerhouses, it‘s easy to see a pattern of success. Such as; the availability of skilled labor, access to capital, investment in R&D, proximity to colleges and research institutions, transportation and information links to markets, networks of suppliers, favorable tax and cost of business structures, business-friendly local government climates and regulatory environments, and a high quality of life. They are also places that project success because they have mounted highly effective regional marketing programs based on their unique strengths. (Hartsock 2007) Most universities‘ primary economic roles are the training of highly qualified personnel and the production of new knowledge. While these roles are more important than ever in today‘s knowledge economy, universities have also moved to occupy a new and central role in regional innovation ecosystems. (TRRA 2007)Universities need to focus upon innovative research activities which improve the quality of the regional environment. This includes research that impacts the traditional areas such as tourism, or more broadly, the service sector, biomedical research, coastal/environmental issues, and oil and gas. (Trumbach & Lundberg p.3) None of this serves to prove that universities are unimportant. In fact they are crucial. The government has acknowledged that the most successful technology grouptas in the USA and UK are located in geographical proximity to centres of research excellence in universities, such as Stanford, University of California, Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge Massachusetts, Austin in Texas and Cambridge, UK. (Fazackerley, Smith &Massey 2009) New roles require new approaches. Universities are starting to move away from a narrow focus on patents and licensing to acknowledge knowledge flows out into the market, and to establish supportive policies, programs and infrastructure to make these processes more efficient. Universities are also starting to support entrepreneurship and to lead or partner with other regional stakeholders in regional economic development efforts. It was seen that universities have lots contributions, but here we will study three main key roles. The following sections provide a sample of the different roles universities can play with respect to innovation and economic development. 489 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo First; Development of highly qualified personnel Providing skilled graduates is one of the primary economic contributions of universities and a highly effective means of transferring knowledge and increasing the absorptive capacity of firms for innovative ideas and discoveries. Firms are attracted to the large pools of talent that universities generate and the availability of highly qualified R&D personnel is a key factor in R&D site selection. Regionally, the concentration of creative, highly skilled talent is a critical factor in cluster development and dynamic urban economies. Universities that are effective generators of technology-based growth are able to recruit and/or retain star researchers. Universities also play an important role through industry education and training partnerships, delivering non-degree educational programs targeted to different industry sectors. These may include graduate certificate programs in technical or management areas, executive development programs, weekend MBA programs, and corporate-focused distance education. (TRRA 2007) The increased importance of human capital is most evident in the well developed economies where the structure has undergone considerable changes since the 1980’s. According to Romer (1990) the output per worker increase that characterizes the western world during the last decades is explained by both technological progress and a more effective labor force. Some economists stress that a well functioning higher educational system is one of the most important elements of the modern economies. Not only because of the development and growth in the long run but also because of the necessity of being competitive in the globalized world and international market of today. (Gerdne, 2005) Also we should pay attention that economic growth and development is spreading to the east of world because of skillful labor force. Nations who understand importance of education improve their standard of living. Second; Research and knowledge production Universities benefit regional firms through knowledge spillovers – knowledge generated by universities at lower cost than firms can produce it themselves. As firms located by universities tend to obtain knowledge at lower cost than firms farther away, firms concentrate around universities creating beneficial cluster economies. While universities are not the main source of external knowledge for firms, high-technology regional economies are usually attached firmly by great research universities. These contribute patents, licenses, contract research, consulting and problem solving for industry, design, engineering and testing services, often early in the innovation cycle when firms and industries are seeking ideas. Strong industry-university connections are needed, however, to connect a region‘s research and industry strengths. Industry is rarely involved in the choices universities and their faculty make when it comes to building research strengths. Some state governments fund R&D, technology applications, and other programs to foster emerging industries or build stronger relationships between industry and universities. Overall, though, efforts to create critical mass in research areas critical to industry are important and do have an effect. Third; Technology transfer Most universities in North America today have some form of technology transfer office (TTO). However, commercialization indicators (patents, licenses, university spin-offs) show that significant and sustained commercialization success is concentrated among only a small number of institutions. Most technology transfer is actually informal, involving publications, conferences, and informal exchanges. Patents rank low in most industries except for pharmaceuticals, therefore, indirect mechanisms for the transfer of new ideas and innovations may be more important. Most favour licensing for cash, followed by licensing for an equity stake and sponsored research. This revenue maximizing approach tends to encourage a ―home run‖ mentality, focusing limited time and resources on the technologies that seem to promise the greatest and fastest payback. Technologies with longer-term potential or diffuse public benefit tend to be overlooked. Most universities experience technologies ―going out the back door.‖ Many researchers circumvent their TTO when they patent and patents with greater value are taken directly to the private sector more often. Firms express difficulty in dealing with TTOs, citing staff inexperience, lack of business knowledge, and a tendency to inflate the commercial potential of patents. As a result of this dynamic, the more fundamental goal – to maximize the potential for university-based inventions to result in commercialized new products and innovations – remains unmet in many cases. Successful universities seek to maximize commercialization volume and speed rather than revenue, 490 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo although their revenues often remain substantial. They have begun to codify a broader range of technology transfer pathways and to redefine the role of their TTO. There are different volume models of technology transfer but all: Provide rewards for moving innovations into the marketplace Focus on faculty as the key agents of innovation and commercialization Emphasize greater standardization in faculty and industry interactions. Universities are only one side of the technology transfer equation, however. Firms need the absorptive capacity to realize the commercial benefits of basic research. (TRRA, 2007) Universities in different countries Recent changes in the universities of developed countries suggest the emergence of an entrepreneurial model of academic research. The key feature of this model is acceptance by universities that they have a responsibility not only to provide teaching and carry out research, but also to contribute directly to economic growth of the society. This new model is being presented to developing countries as a way of encouraging entrepreneurship among their researchers, of making an awareness of the needs of businesses, and of attracting industry funding. Some successful examples to which this model has been applied in Mexico, and in Brazil. There are various obstacles to the widespread adoption of the entrepreneurial model of a university in the developing word. For example, universities can introduce changes to facilitate and promote relationships with industry, and indeed many have already done so. But if the demand from industry for local knowledge production is weak and unchallenging, the result will probably be an underdeveloped entrepreneurial university. Another source of difficulties, (see table 3), is that developing countries have few researchers, and, given the general lack of resources in such countries, these have to work with tight budgets. (http://www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/the-role-of-universities-in-knowledge production-.html) Developed countries Developing countries GDP 61.1% 38.9% Population 22.3% 77.7% R&D spending 84.4% 15.6% Researchers 71.6% 28.4% Table 3. Distribution of the world's GDP, population, research and development spending and academic researchers There are some 3 300 higher education establishments in the European Union and approximately 4 000 in Europe as a whole, including the other countries of western Europe and the candidate countries. They take in an increasing number of students, over 12.5 million in 2000, compared with fewer than 9 million ten years previously. They employ 34% of the total number of researchers in Europe, with significant variations from one Member State to another (26% in Germany, 55% in Spain and over 70% in Greece). In order for European universities to play a key role in achieving the strategic goal set at the Lisbon European Council, i.e. to make the European Union (EU) the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, this Communication is intended to start a debate on the role of European universities in the knowledge society and economy. (http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11067_en.htm) Conclusion There is a close relationship between universities and economic development. It was analyzed that to reach high level standard of living and to produce qualified goods and services country needs skilfull labor force and high level techonology. Those who pay attention HDI see three main legs ; production, education, and life expectations which are related with university and development. People in this century knew importance of competition and to be succeed in that race they are using latest technology for example rate of using internet is rising year by year. Perhaps, rate of using internet in developing countries is higher than developed countries. It is clear that the role of universities in innovation is great too. Universities that are active at the heart of successful technology groups do not just spin out companies. They develop highly-skilled people who move between industry and academia; they develope businesses and provide expertise; they produce knowledge that is used by technology businesses; they provide public space in which people from various overlapping branches of research meet. It was seen that universities contribute directly nations‘ economy, especially this impact was more in developed countries than developing countries. It is clear that the following sections provide a sample of the different roles, universities can play with respect to innovation and economic development. 491 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo First; Development of highly qualified personnel Second; Research and knowledge production Third; Technology transfer Time and technology is the main factor to produce more but both of these factors are used by skillful labor force who is talented in university. Secondly innovation can be done in university too and transfered to company or/and market. These functions of universities above should be reachable and cheaper too. Because this implements spirit of definition of economics. References Begg, D. & Fischer,S. & Dornbusch, R. (1997), Economics, McGraw-Hill, London,1997. P. 503 Cherie Courseault Trumbach, C.C.& Hartman, S.J. & Lundberg, O. The role of universities in attaining regional competitiveness under adversity – a research proposal, Research in Higher Education Journal, University of New Orleans, PDF, p.3 Discussion Document Prepared for Toronto region research alliance (TRRA) (2007). Research Working Group, The Role of Universities in Regional Economic Development, Fazackerley, A. & Smith, M. & Massey, A. www.policyexchange.org.uk (2009). Innovation and Industry: The Role of Universities, Gerdne, T.(2005), The Impor tance of Human Capi tal in Export Performance, Thesis in Jönköping University, Sweden Goddard, L. (2009), The Role of Universities in City and Regional Development, Newcastle University Hartsock, L.D. (2007). The Role of Universities in Regional and Local Economic Development, Cornell University Symposium – April 6, http://english.moe.gov.tw/content.asp?cuItem=315&mp=2 http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11067_en.htm http://www.jstor.org/pss/40218022 http://www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/the-role-of-universities-in-knowledge-production-.html Mu-lin, L. (2002). Vice Minister of Education 21st Century University Education March 20, Rindeskar, M. (2005) The Importance of Human Capi tal in the Product ion of New Knowledge, Master‘s Thesis in Jönköping University, Sweden Samuelson, P.A., & Nordhaus, W. D. (2001), Economics, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston, p.xxıı Turkmenistan Human Development Report, (1999). p. 72 UN, (2005). Information Economy Report 2005, Newyork and Genova, p.2 UN, (2009). Information Economy Report, p.27 UN, (2009). Trade and Development Report 2009, Newyork, p. 1 UNDP, (2009). Human Development Report 2009, New York, 2009, p.169 Zhiyun Liu, (2005). Mission of Modern Universities and Development of Modern Society, Volume 2, No.3(Serial No.4) USChina Education Review,ISSN1548-6613,USA, Wuhan University of Technology 492 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Importance of Numerical Flexibility In Turkish Labor Market and Competition Policy M. Akif ARVAS Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Economics, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey aarvas@hacettepe.edu.tr Suleyman ĠÇ Dr., Department of Business, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey icsuleyman@yahoo.com Mehmet AYGÜN Assoc. Prof., Department of Business, 100. Yıl University, Van, Turkey maygun@yyu.edu.tr Abstract: Numerical flexibility, which has been common since Atkinson (1984), can be defined as a situation where the number of staff and the number of hours worked can be increased or decreased depending on the demand for labour. Within the "flexible firm model", numerical flexibility is seen as being designed to facilitate a rapid adjustment in headcount, in line with short-term changes in the level of demand for labour so that the number employed equals the number required at any time. Based on Labour Law no 4857, Turkey has adopted this approach as a competition policy in order to provide flexibility into labor market and to promote the competition of Turkish firms. Therefore, in this study, flexibility-based tools are discussed and evaluated in terms of competition policy. Introduction The flexible firm model developed by Atkinson (1984) resulted from studies carried out on the changing nature of employment in the UK during the 1980s. Atkinson concluded that changes in technology, training costs, working time and labour supply were the factors influencing and driving change in UK employment policies and strategies. The changes in employment policies and strategies, Atkinson believed, resulted in the formation of two employee groups―the core and peripheral. The core group consisted of full-time permanent workers and the peripheral group consisted of part-time, temporary and contract workers ( collectively termed ―atypical‖ by Atkinson). Today, flexibility in labor market has been a new competition strategy for firms and there has been a significant growth in flexible or ―non-standard‖ forms of employment. Since laborforce is a variable factor of production and because of impossibility of perfect substitution of investment goods for laborforce using today‘s technology, forces dynamic conditions in goods and factor markets to have a more flexible structure in terms of employment forms of firms and restructuring the job schedule. Hence, flexibility in labor market as a competition strategy can be expressed in two ways; external flexibility and internal flexibility. External flexibility, which allows firms to adjust demand for labor to workload, and numerical flexibility which is called employment flexibility are strategic methods and policies for firms to harmonize to rapidly changing economic conjuncture. Firms who adjust the number employed to workload are defined as ―flexible firm‖ and together with core laborforce of these firms, they―depending on business conditions― employ other kinds of employment such as temporal worker, part-time worker and external service act, and peripheral labor (Felstead, 1999, p.10). Therefore, numerical flexibility will be obtained by firm from employment of peripheral laborforce. Numerical flexibility is defined an employment type which enables employment of part-time and temporary worker according to fixed-term non-standart employment contracts as well as full-time workers with open-ended employment contracts (Kutal, 2002, p.33). This aspect of numerical flexibility has been taken into consideration and 493 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo flexibility in competitive market economies means the required use of workers when needed (TĠSK, 1999, p.23). This definiton puts forward the importance of numerical flexibility to firms. On the other hand, it has been stated that the diffusion of flexible employment types helps developing countries to employ low-waged laborforce to accelerate their economic growth. Working hours flexibility known also as internal flexibility creates another dimension of labor market flexibility as a competition strategy. Flexibility in working hours, in case when normal work period does not response to labor supply and demand, is defined as flexibility in the period worked in response to a change in work load of employer and in workers‘ demand for income-leisure time―within normal working hours limits ( OECD, 1990, p.23-24). It is stated that working hours short-cut is a different application of working hours flexibility (Bosch, G, P. Dawkins and F. Michon, 1994, p. 25–27). This method enables firm to adjust its labor demand to a fluctuation in demand for its goods produced. According to the labor demand model, it is assumed that firm has to adjust its labor demand to a change in economic conditions ( Borjas, 1996, p.138). it is further assumed that working hours flexibility is a strategy in which firm aims to protect its competitive power accross firms (Kuzgun, 2005, p.34). Based on a OECD regulation in 1985, it is pointed out that flexible working hours constitutes the numerical aspect of laborforce flexibility and comes to the same manner with the flexibility in labor input costs (Bosch, G, P. Dawkins and F. Michon, 1994, p. 25). In the same point of view, flexibility in working hours gives an advantage to firm to give a quick response with a minimal input cost to fluctuations in demand in goods market. Further, while working hours flexibility allows firm to feasible use of laborforce in number and time needed ( Centel, 2002, p.239). On the other hand in terms of workers it means that ―...it is an aggrement between employer and employee so that working hours needs to be adjusted to employee‘s conditions‖ (Centel, 2002, p.243). 2. Flexibility in Turkish Labor Market As A Competition Strategy 2.1. Flexibility As a Firm’s Competition Strategy It has been seen that factors which determine managerial strategy of a firm are aggregated under the two headings as external and internal; across external factors the state of markets, competitive conditions, economic fluctuations and legal regulations are mentioned, as for internal factors the human source is pointed out (Ergin, 1992, p.50-56). In this respect, within the context of new Turkish Labor Law, regulation neccessity for numerical flexibility and flexible working hours constitutes the legal framework of firms‘ new competition policies. Within this framework, part-time working, on-call working, compensatory working, short working, temporary secondment and labor subcontractor applications are considered. Among these, though temporary working has been expensively applied in Turkish labor market, it had not been legaly arranged. On the contrary, on-call working, compensatory working and temporary secondment have found place within the new labor law context. In Turkey, the factor that improves the effectiveness of labor market flexibility on determining firm‘s competition strategy has been the legal permittance given to private employment aggencies to be established. In order to shorten the temporary unemployment period, importance is attached to the matching of unoccuppied jobs with the people looking for a job. Thus, the private employment agencies have been accepted as instruments of active employment policy for the improvement of the matching capability of the labour market besides the public employment institutions. ― The aim of the employment service is to enable employers to identify and employ workers who are equipped enough to perform their jobs, and to help individuals find their first jobs, change jobs during their career, and to find new jobs when they become unemployed.‖ (http://www.oas.org/udse/esponal/documentos/cancun/01developingefectivES-D,Fretwell-docum.pdf). As of April 2010, 277 private employment agencies have started to operate and they have been distributed among 19 provinces in Turkey. These provinces are Adana, Ankara, Antalya, Balıkesir, Bursa, Denizli, Diyarbakır, EskiĢehir, Gaziantep, Hatay, Ġstanbul, Ġzmir, Kayseri, Kocaeli, Konya, Muğla, Sakarya, Tekirdağ and Trabzon (http://statik.iskur.gov.tr/0252/iller/01T%c%3bcm%20Liste.pdf). Meanwhile, 126 of these private employment agencies have been closed and the licences of five agencies have been cancelled by ISKUR (http://www.iskur.gov.tr/loadExternalPage.aspx?uicode=statozeisthdamburodagi). These data show that private employment agencies in Turkey have created a new sector within the service sector. While there is no data on how many people are employed by private employment agencies in Turkey, it is supposed that they have created labor opportunities at a specific rate. The indirect contribution of private employment agencies appears at the stage of providing matching services. Structural unemployment is one of the features of the labor market in Turkey. It is considered that thanks to these agencies, the decrease in the period of looking for a job is a partial solution for the structural unemployment. It is possible to say that 1.5% of those applying to private employment agencies in Turkey are already engaged in a business (Kuzgun,2008:12). Life time of a firm is the outcoming factor and it is based on the economic activities in the effects on the employment level. It is observed that the fact that employment service is provided by private sector firms as well as public institutions has led to creation of a sub-sector within the service sector and to creation of new job opportunities. This sector has been accepted as 494 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo an emerging market by the EU countries and it is stated that new employment opportunities have been created for 1,3 million people in the European Union in this way and that this figure corresponds to 1,9% of total employment. (http://www.eurociett.org/fileadmin/templates/eurociett/docs /position_papers/EurociettPositionPaper_Lisbon_Staregy_March_2006.pdf) 2.2. The Reasons For Adoption of Flexibility in Labor Market As a Competition Strategy in Turkey These reasons can be classified into two sub-headings. 2.2.1. External Factors The first external factor is globalization and its effect on the decisions regarding productive organizations of firms in Turkey. The second is to adopt the flexible labor market approach as it did in EU in the adaptation process of Turkey to EU. 2.2.1.1. Globalization Since competition in domestic and international market has gained big importance, recent atypical or nonstandart job contracts are emerged as well as typical/standart or normally interpreted job relations and job contract concepts. It is pointed out that, in process of globalization, the effect of international trade on employment has been more improved ( Liemt, 1997: s.240). In terms of competition, in the short-run, benefiting from the nature of labor force being variable factor of production in order to enhance the competitive power , firms use peripheral labor force in which they employ labor force in accordance with the workload. In this regard, it is agreed that the types of PostFordist organizations has been recently appeared in developed and developing economies by the result of coercive nature of international trade (Felstead,1999, s.9). Taking into consideration further the fact that the pressure of globalization and competition leads firms to seek for reducing the costs, it is stated that flexibility in the general level of labor force costs is one aspect of flexibility in labor market ( Elliot, 1997, s.301). Notably in the stage of economic crisis, providing flexibility in adjusting the employment costs is critically important for competing firms. Furthermore, a relationship is constituted between the use of labor force and having a flexible position and, it is emphasized the importance of possessing a flexible structure during the crisis (Arıkboğa, 2001, s.54). In terms of Turkey, it is expressed that the flexibility in labor force has risen as a system driven by globalization (DPT, 2001b, p.38). 2.2.1.2. The Adaptation Process of Turkey to European Union (EU) According to Kuzgun (2004), another reason of introducing different types of flexible employment into the new Labor Law is the adaptation process of Turkey to EU and it plays an important role during this process. The same approach has also been followed in the Eight Five-Year Development Plan (DPT, 2001, p. 145). This adoption, globally, has proved the fact that the EU is influential in individualizing the work relationships by the case in Turkey. Besides that, together with some types of flexible employment, absence of legal regulations seemed to be a lack in Turkey. This lack is first put on the agenda in the project of improving employment and efficiency in labor markets. 2.2.2. Internal Factors These factors resource from the structural futures of Turkish economy and labour market. 2.2.2.1. The Ever-Growing Unemployment In the aftermath of World War II, the numerical flexibility concept in the labor market in industrialized economies is another factor in determining different types of flexible employment and subcontracting which enables labor market to become flexible. On the other hand, it has claimed that the oil crisis in the mid of 1970s had strengthened the relationship among flexible types of employment producing a new unemployment wave ( Tuncay, 1995, p.57) Therefore, a tie between widespreading flexible types of employment and unemployment is constructed and at the end of the 20th century, as types of flexible employment become widespread, so does the employment possibilities ( Felstad, 1999, p.3). Likewise the idea that holds that there is a linear correlation between flexibility and levels of unemployment rates and that reforms need to be done for a flexible labor market (Rodriguez, 2003, p.37) 495 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo runs parallel with the idea that maintains that reforms in job law which should make labor market more flexible in 2003 in Turkey comparing with the high level of unemployment rates. The reason of the ever-growing unemployment in Turkey is the long-lasting economic crisis as an influential factor stimulating unemployment ( Kazgan, 2002, p.19). Years Unemployment rate % Underemployment rate % Underutilisation rate % (Unemployment + Underemployment) 1995* 1999* 2008** 6.9 7.3 11 6.7 6.9 3,1 13.6 14.2 14,1 Source: * Obtained from 8th –Year Development Plan, DPT, p. 102, ** Obtained from Turkish Statistical Institute (TÜĠK) News Bulletin. Table 1: Changes in Unemployment and Underemployment rates in Turkish Labor Market (1995-2008) (15+ Age) As it can be seen from the Table 1, in the period of 2005-2008, as a consequence of effects of the global crisis and economic instability on Turkish economy, while unemployment rate was 6,9 % in 1995, it increased to 7.3% in 1999, and to 11% at the end of 2008. But, in contrast to realized rates of underemployment in 1995 and 1999―6.7% and 6.9%―, it decreased to 3.1% in 2008. Under these conditions, underutilisation rate of work force, which is the sum of unemployment rate plus underemployment rate, increased to 13.6 % and to 14.2 %, in 1995 and 1999 respectively, but in spite of a considerable decrease in 2008, it slightly decreased to 14.1 % at the end of 2008 ( due to increasing unemployment rates). 2.2.2.2. The Share of Service Sector in Total Employment It is stated that there is a linear correlation between flexibility and increasing share of service sector in total employment (Felstead, 1999, p.12). In Turkey, in the sectoral distribution of employment in urban areas, service sector ranks first and it is followed by industry and agriculture sectors. On the other hand, if we look at the long-run expectations of employment in Turkey, it is seen that service sector is leading sector which will create an employment capacity for labour suppliers (ĠġKUR, 2003, p.13). According to Household Work Force Survey results, in both 2008 and 2009, considerable part of employment is engaged in service sector. As of 2009, the share of service sector employment in total employment reached to 50 %. The economic crises has led industry sector to provide less employment comparing to the numbers of 2008 (Table 2). 2008 2009 Sectors Employment Share (%) Employment Share (%) 5016 23.7 5254 24.7 Agriculture 5682 26.8 5379 25.3 Industry 10495 49.5 10644 50.0 Service 21194 100 21277 100 TOTAL Source: http://bulten.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6198&tb_id=2, 19 April 2010 Table 2: Sectoral Distribution of Employment, 2008-2009 (in thousands, 15+ age) 2.2.2.3. The Share of Unregistered Employment in Total Employment Unregistered employment is generally keeping the workers away from awareness of the government, employing unskilled workers, violating the regulations such as minimum age level (child labour), minimum wage, overtime, workplace standards, health and security of workers. 496 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo It is generally agreed that, in Turkey, there is an informal economy as well as the informal one and an unregistered employment beside the registered. Today, it is obvious that one of the most challenging problems economies have faced is informal economy and unregistered employment (TUSIAD, 2002, p.96). In 2009, According to the latest published survey results, the ratio of persons who worked without any social security related to the main job inclined to 42.3 % with 1.5 percentage point increase. The share of persons who did not have any social security in agriculture increased from 84.5 % to 85.8 % and that in non-agriculture increased from 28.6 % to 28.7 % compared to the same period of the previous year (http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6229, 20 April 2010). By the expansion of types of flexible employment, employment of women, retired, young and handicapped labour force who are considered as secondary labour force have been increased, to participate in economic activities, in work place or at home. Besides that, it is observed that types of flexible employment are accumulated in product lines with low-demand of capital. For example, as a consequence of creating new job opportunities being restricted in Turkey, the labour force as unregistered are employed in product lines which do not require too much capital such as piece-rate wages system in return for producing at home (DPT, 2001a, p.46) Shifting production out of plant within the context of the organization of production means flexibility in organizing the job and provides an opportunity of reducing the production costs in terms of firm. Henceforth, flexibility in organization is seen by firm as a dominant competition strategy against its rivals (Ġġ KUR, 2003, p.35). In this respect, flexibility in production and in employment is an inevitable result of competition and is defined as realization of production out of plant employing outsider workers (TĠSK, 2004, p.34). Subcontractor application is another method to shift the production out of plant. The factors bringing about this application are changes in production process, expansion of small and medium-sized firms and the focus on privatization (Ekin, 2002, p.59). Since small and medium sized firms hold a near-position of subcontractor firm, they have a considerable share in total number of firms and in total employment and they emphasize the relationship between informal economy and firm size in Turkey. So, reshaping the subcontractor application within Labor Law carries considerable importance. Existence of small and medium-sized firms (SMEs) and shifting the production out of plant; are supported with the view of which classifies the capital system as dualist―primary and secondary― in acceptance of flexibility in labor market (Tai, 1994, p.16-17). When taking into consideration that subcontractor application enables firms to offset labor demand and to shift their production line into secondary sector, it would not be false to see the informal economy and subcontractor firms operating in this economy as secondary sector in Turkey. Furthermore, allowing for the operation of private employment agencies within this sector will speed up the tendency of firms towards the sector. In Turkey, basically, though subcontractor application became widespread in private sector, it also is becoming widespread in public sector. Among the reasons, decreasing the production costs in State Economic Enterprises (KĠT), willingness to work with problem-free worker groups and the thought in which easily privatizing the State Economic Enterprises are mentioned. Therefore, subcontracting is described the other way of privatization in public sector (Ekin, 2002, p.35). On the other hand, it is pointed out that subcontractor application is a key concept in international trade (Liemt, 1997, p.240). When looking at the examples of subcontractor applications in international field, it is observed that 32 percent of employers in excessively industrialized countries such as France, Germany and United Kingdom have shifted their own works to the subcontractors in the last three years and, in Turkey, the number of subcontractor employers and workers in the lines of business accounts for 15% of total labor force (Ekin, 2002, p.34) 2.2.2.4. Firm Size in Turkey Since small-sized firms have a more flexible structure, it possible to construct a relationship between flexibility in labor market and firm size. Firms having a flexible structure, in general, are small and medium sized. Owing to this structural feature, Firms in this size easily respond to changes in demand of goods and services. In this respect, the types of flexible employment as competition strategy are more important for these firms. According to the EU standards, firms employing 1 to 9 workers are defined as micro enterprise; and those employing 10 to 49 as macro enterprise (Kuruüzüm, 1998, p.37). But in Turkey, there is not a common standard on determining firm size taking number of workers employed as a basis. According to some determination, firms who employ 1 to 49 workers are considered small sized firms (http://www.kosgeb.gov.tr/kos.htm). Firms in this size, have a notably place in Turkish economy. In the same way, the abundance of small-sized firms in number is considered among structural features of Turkish economy (Bulutay, 1995, p.65). 497 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Size of Work Places (based on the Number of Compulsory Insured Person) 1-3 persons 4-6 persons 7-9 persons 10-19 persons 20-29 persons 30-49 persons 50-99 persons 100-499 persons 500-999 persons 1000+ persons TOTAL Number Compulsory Insured Person 1,228,315 855,295 613,074 1,198,952 699,524 898,516 848,127 1,753,236 408,122 371,805 8,874,966 of Share (%) 13.8 9.6 6.9 13.5 7.9 10.1 9.6 19.8 4.6 4.2 100 Source: www.ssk.gov.tr, Insured Person Statistics, January 2010, Table SS15, page 27, Table 3: Compulsory Insured Person Numbers According To Activity Branches and Work Place Size (4/a) According to Table 3, Firms, who employ 1-49 persons and defined as small sized in Turkey, account for 61 percent of total insured labor force. This founding shows, within the new Labor Law, the importance of arranging the types of flexible employment in terms of labor market in Turkey. Thus, in determining of employers‘ commitments, firm size is taken as basis and in general small firms have been legally protected ( Kuzgun, 2004, p.5-14). 2.2.2.5. Frequency of Cyclical Fluctuation In terms of firm, providing working hours to become more flexible during economic crises is crucial in relation with minimizing the labor costs. Because an anticipated crisis weakens the firms‘ adaptation and prevention mechanisms of cyclical fluctuations and threats firms‘ operational goals, values and predictions regarding sales and returns (Dinçer, 1998, p.385). The economic crises within the context of new Labor Law is accepted being one of the reasons of flexibilizing working hours and is arranged in scope of the article 65 in case of bringing short working in practice. In doing that, it is thought that cyclical and intense fluctuations experiencing in economic activities have been influential on this arrangement (Bulutay, 1995, p.87). In order to adopt a resolution for short working according to Labor Law, an economic crisis must be a general crises affecting the whole economy. By this approach, in paragraph (3) of article (3) in the act which regulates short working and the payment for short working, an economic crisis is defined as ―a situation in which events occurred in national and international economies give shock to the whole economy and establishments‖ (www.iskur.gov.tr/mydocu/mevzuat /yonetmelik45.html). A general economic crisis brings about changes in overall economic conditions in terms of firms. In this respect, it is argued that short working provides facilities to firms to cope with crisis and that short working during crisis is a key for feasible solutions in terms of firms (MESS, 1999, p.180). When analysing the demands for short working to Ministry of Labor and Social Security, as of 30 September 2004, it has seen that the whole demands have been made by firms operating in private sector, and that those firms according to the KOSGEB classification are mostly small and medium-sized (Kuzgun, 2005, p.45-46). According to Arıkboğa (2001), there is a relationship between the number of employees employed and firms‘ flexible structure and particularly in crisis period, flexibility is a feasible strategy. But, in arrangement of short working, firm size has not been taken a criterion (Kuzgun, 2005, p.47). This policy, regardless of how big firms are, is a result of the opinions to protect firms against economic crisis. While it has been aimed, by short working, to adjust firm‘s demand for labor to shrinking in the level of economic activities; the negative effects of employee‘s income loses caused by implementing of short working has been considered to be compensated by the payment for short working. The main determinant in employee‘s acquiring the rights of short working is the condition in that premium payment must be paid within the prescribed time limits. 498 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion Today, being connected to globalization, flexibility in labor market is adopted as a new competition strategy in terms of firm. By external and internal factors, the introduction of new regulations into the new Labor Law aiming at flexibilizing labor market has constituted the legal framework in determining firm‘s competition strategy in Turkey. The importance of new regulation based on numerical flexibility and flexibilizing labor market is vital in respect to determining competition policies. Labour market flexibility is seen as an important characteristic of a modern economy. Labor market flexibility decribes how labour markets function. A flexible and efficient labour market implies higher employment, and so an economy that is fairer (in terms of, for example, reducing social exclusion), as well as more competitive and more productive. It also implies an economy that is better able to adapt to the changing economic environment. External numerical flexibility refers to the adjustment of the labour intake, or the number of workers from the external market. This can be achieved by employing workers on temporary work or fixed-term contracts or through relaxed hiring and firing regulations or in other words relaxation of Employment Protection Legislation, where employers can hire and fire permanent employees according to the firms‘ needs. Internal numerical flexibility, sometimes known as working time flexibility or temporal flexibility. This flexibility achieved by adjusting working hours or schedules of workers already employed within the firm. This includes part-time, flexi time or flexible working hours/ shifts (including night shifts and weekend shifts), working time accounts, leaves such as parental leave, overtime. Arranging the both types of flexibility within the new Labor Law enables firms to determine their new competitive strategies. This arrangement, especially in private sector, will lead employment strategies based on the distinction between core and peripheral labor force to be emerged, and also will help this distinction to become common. Besides that, operations of private employment agencies and in general the demand for temporary employee by firms, both, will bring about a new expansion to the competition among rivals and will expand the application of the fixed-termed temporary working contracts. In this context, private employment agencies also will facilitate the applications of numerical flexibility as competition strategy. In the next stage, it is expected that expansion of flexibility would bring about a fragmented and more informal labor market in Turkey. References Arıkboğa, ġ. (2001). Business Management in Crises. Ġktisat Dergisi, Ġstanbul, p.410-411 Atkinson, J. (1984). Flexible manning – the way ahead. Institute of Employment Studies Bosch, G. (1994). Working Time in 14 Industrilies Countries. Edited by Gerhard Bosch, Peter Dawkins and Francois Michon.International Institute for Labour Studies, Switzerland, Geneva. Borjas,G. J. (1996). Labour Economics. McGraw-Hill,International Editions, Economic Series, Sigopore. Bulutay, T. (1995). Employment, Unemployment and Wages in Turkey. With introduction by Edmond Malinvand and Comments by Orhan Güvenen, ILO and State Instıtute of Statistics, Ankara. Çelik, N. (1986). ĠĢ Hukuku Dersleri. 8.Basım, Marmara Üniversitesi Eğitim ve Yardım Vakfı, Ġstanbul. Centel, T. (2003). Türkiye‘de Yeni Ġstihdam Türleri Ġle ĠĢ ĠliĢkilerinin EsnekleĢtirilmesi. ÇalıĢma Hayatında Esneklik, Türkiye ĠĢveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Yayını. Dinçer, Ö. (1998). Stratejik Yönetim ve ĠĢletme Politikası. 5. Baskı, Ġstanbul:Beta Basım ve Yayım Dağıtım A.ġ. DPT. (1995). Seventh Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000). Ankara. DPT. (2000). Long-Run Strategy and 8th Five-Year Development Plan 2001–2005‖ DPT. (2001a). Sekizinci BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı. Kayıt DıĢı Ekonomi Özel Ġhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Yayın No:2603ÖĠK:614, Ankara. 499 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DPT. (2001b). Sekizinci BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı. ĠĢgücü Piyasası Özel Ġhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Yayın No: 2548-ÖĠK:564, Ankara. Ekin, N. (2002). Ekonomik ve Hukuksal Boyutları Ġle Alt ĠĢveren. Ġstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayın No:2002-34. Ġstanbul. Ergin, E. (1992). ĠĢletme Politikası. Der Yayınları Ġstanbul. Felstead, A. (1999). Global Trends in Flexible Labour. Edited by Alan Felstead and Nick Jewson. Mac Millan Critical Perspectives on Working and Organization Series. U.K., Londan. Ġġ KUR. (2003). Ġstihdam Durumu Raporu. Türkiye‘de ĠĢgücü Piyasası ve Ġstihdam AraĢtırması. Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, Ankara Kazgan, G. (2002). 1990 Sonrası Yıllarda Türkiye‘de Krizler ve Yarattığı Sonuçlar (ĠĢçiler ve Sosyal Önlemler Açısından Bir Ġrdeleme. Ekonomik Krizin ĠĢ Hukuku Uygulamasına Etkisi, Ġstanbul Barosu, Galatasaray Üniversitesi, Ġstanbul Barosu Yayınları, Ġstanbul. Kuruüzüm, O. (1998). Turkish Small and Medium Sized Enterprises in the Integration Process of Turkey with the European Union Implication and Consequence. Edited by Prof.Dr. Yavuz Tekelioğlu, Friedrich Naumann Foundation and Akdeniz University, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Ankara. Kutal, M. (2001). MESS. ĠĢveren Gazetesi. Sayı. 739. Ankara. Kuzgun, (2000) Kuzgun, K, Ġ. Numerical Flexibility in Turkey Limited by Public Sector. www.comu. edu. Tr / silesian university/start.htm. Kuzgun, K, Ġ. (2004). Türkiye‘de Bireysel ĠĢ ĠliĢkilerinin Düzenlenmesinde Yeni YaklaĢımlar. T.C.Muğla Üniversitesi Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi, TartıĢma Tebliğleri No:2004/06. Kuzgun, K. Ġ. (2005). Türkiye‘de Kısa ÇalıĢma Uygulaması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, s.33–52. Cilt, 23 Sayı 2, Ankara. Liemt ,V.G. (1997). Labour in the Global Economy: challenges, adjustment and policy responses in the EU. Globalization of Labour Market Challenges, Adjustment and Policy Response in The European Union and Less Developed Countries, Edited by Olga Memedovic, Arie Kuyvenhoven and Willem T. M. Molle, Netherland Economic Institute, Kluwer Acedemic Publishers,U.S.A. OECD. (1990). Labour Market Policies for The 1990‘s. Paris. Rodriguez, (2003), Rodriguez Miguel, Pinero Bravo-Ferrer ve Miguel Rodriguez-Pinore Roya. ĠĢ Yaratma Politikalarında ĠĢ Hukukunun ve Endüstriyel ĠliĢkilerin Rolü. ĠĢ Yaratma ve ĠĢ Hukuku Korumadan Öngörülü Eyleme, (Job Creation and Labour Law. Kluwer Law International Edited by Prof. Marco Biagi, 2000) MESS, Türkiye Metal Sanayicileri Sendikası, Çevirenler: Zülfü Dicleli ve Ahmet Kardan, Ġstanbul. ġen, S. (2005). Esnek Üretim, Esnek çalıĢma ve Endüstri ĠliĢkileri. T.C.Ankara Üniversitesi, Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi, ÇalıĢma Ekonomisi ve Endüstri ĠliĢkileri Ana bilim dalı Doktora tezi. Ankara. Tai, T.L.(1994). The Social Organization of Industrial Outwok in Hong-Kong. England. TĠSK (1999). Türkiye ĠĢveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu. ÇalıĢma Hayatında Esneklik. Türkiye ĠĢveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Yayın No:190. Ankara, Kasım. TĠSK, Türkiye ĠĢveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu, (2003). 4857 Sayılı ĠĢ Kanunu ve Gerekçesi (Kabul Edilen DeğiĢiklik Önergeleri Ġle Birlikte). Türkiye ĠĢveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu Yayın No:234, Ankara, Temmuz. Tuncay, C. (1995). ÇalıĢma Süreleri ve Ġstihdam Türlerinde EsnekleĢtirme. ÇalıĢma Hayatında Yeni GeliĢmeler (Esneklik), Ankara, s. 57–74. TUSĠAD. (2002). Türkiye‘de ĠĢgücü Piyasası ve ĠĢsizlik. Yayın No:TUSĠAD-T/2002/12-354, Ġstanbul. www.iskur.gov.tr/mydocu/mevzuat /yonetmelik45.html, 2008 http://www.oas.org/udse/esponal/documentos/cancun/01developingefectivES-D,Fretwell-docum.pdf, 2008 500 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo http://www.kosgeb.gov.tr/kos.htm, 15 January 2009 http://www.eurociett.org/fileadmin/templates/eurociett/docs/position_papers/Eurociett_Position_Paper_Lisbon_Strategy_March_ 2006.pdf, 12 April 2010 http://www.iskur.gov.tr/loadExternalPage.aspx?uicode=statozeisthdamburodagi, 13 April 2010 http://statik.iskur.gov.tr/0252/iller/01-T%c%3bcm%20Liste.pdf, 15 April 2010 http://www.ssk.gov.tr, Insured Person Statistics, January 2010, Table SS15, page 27, 18 April 2010 http://bulten.tuik.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6198&tb_id=2, 19 April 2010 http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do?id=6229, 20 April 2010 501 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economics of Boron Mining in Turkey Bayram KAHRAMAN Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Müh. Fak., Maden Müh. Bölümü, Izmir, Turkey bayram.kahraman@deu.edu.tr Abstract: Boron minerals are one of the most important richness of Turkey. Turkey has a great potential in boron minerals regards to the reserves and the quality of these minerals. Boron minerals have an intensive and increasing usage ranging from glass to detergent industry and in metallurgical, agricultural and nuclear applications. Despite the important potential, Turkey gains only an average of 300 million US Dollars per year. Therefore, this income should be increased proportionally to the potential. In this study, production and export of ETĠBOR A.ġ. since 1978, future targets are reviewed. Introduction Boron, which has the world's most common application, is one of the most important elements. This is why the industry is one of the most important foundation stones. Boron minerals are structures in different proportions of boron oxide (B2O3) which are naturally formed. There are over 200 naturally occurring boron containing minerals which have major commercial importance; tincal, colemanite, kernite, ulexite, pandermite, boracite, szaibelyite and hydroboracite (Table 1). Boron minerals in Turkey, which are widely available, are tincal, colemanite and ulexite. These minerals are sodium, calcium and sodium+calcium boron-based compounds. First of these minerals can be physically processed enriched (concentrated boron) can be refined later converted to a variety of boron chemicals (Köse et al., 2002). Mineral Tincal (natural borax) Kernite (rasortie) Ulexite (boronatrocalcite) Probertite (kramerite) Colemanite Priceite (pandermite) Boracite (stassfurite) Szaibelyite (ascharite) Hydroboracite Table 1: Chemical composition Na2B4O7 .10H2O Na2B4O7 .4H2O NaCaB5 O9 .8H2O NaCaB3O9.5H2O Ca2B6O11.5H2O CaB10O19.7H2O Mg3B7O13Cl MgBO2OH CaMgB6O11.6H2O % B2O3 36.5 51.0 43.0 49.6 50.8 49.8 62.2 41.4 50.5 Production Place Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç, A.B.D Kırka, A.B.D., Argentina Bigadiç, Kırka, Emet, Argentina Kestelek, Emet, A.B.D Emet, Bigadiç, Küçükler, A.B.D Sultançayır, Bigadiç Germany B.D.T. (Old S.S.C.B.) Emet Boron mineral which are commercially important [2] Boron is consumed mostly in the form of boron chemicals. Moreover, the concentration of boron can be consumed directly. Boron products are used in many areas including aerospace and aircraft, nuclear applications, military vehicles, fuel, electronics and communications industry, agriculture, glass industry, chemical and detergent industries, ceramic and polymeric materials, nanotechnology, automotive and energy sector, metallurgy and construction. Nearly 75% of boron products are consumed in glass, ceramic, agriculture and detergent industry (Figure 1). 502 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 1. World Boron Consumption in Sectors The important boron deposits are located in Turkey, USA and Russia. Turkey has 72 percent of world reserves of boron (Table 2). Total Reserve Turkey1 USA2 Russia2 China2 Chile3 Bolivia3 Peru2 Argentina2 Serbia5 Iran2 Kazakhistan4 TOTAL Table 2: 866,000 80,000 100,000 47,000 41,000 19,000 22,000 9,000 16,200 1,000 1,201,200 Percent in Total (%) 72 7 8 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 100 World Boron Reserve (x103 Ton - B2O3) [Boron Sector Report 2009] 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Eti Mine reserves information was used in 2006. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2009, was taken. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2002, was taken. Satimola region of Kazakhstan on the basis of reserves of 102 million tonnes B 2O3 at www.borates.co.uk is given as the other sources are given very different and contradictory figures, these figures reflected in the table. Given this value is 67 percent of ETI shares. 5. http://www.riotinto.com/whatweproduce/17056_inferred_resource_at_jadar_lithium_project.asp The borate deposits known in Turkey are especially located in EskiĢehir-Kırka, Balıkesir-Bigadiç, Bursa-Kestelek, and Kütahya-Emet (Figure 2). From two main ores, tincal and colemanite, boron and boron compounds are obtained. The important tincal deposits are in Kırka while the colemanite deposits are around Emet and Bigadiç. Ulexite is located in Bigadiç. Since the boron minerals in Turkey are only run by Eti Mine Works General Management. Eti Mine‘s operating base consists of five competitive mining operations: Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç and Kestelek (Table 3). 503 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Production Place Natural Borates Kırka, EskiĢehir Bigadiç, Balıkesir Emet, Kütahya Kestelek, Bursa TOTAL Tincal Colemanite, Ulexite Colemanite Colemanite Total Reserve (Million Ton) 750,620 623,459 1,682,562 6,995 3,063,636 Grade %B2O3 26 29-31 28-30 29 Table 3: Turkey Boron Reserves and Types [BOREN web pages, 2010] Figure 2: Sources of boron distribution in Turkey Trade of Turkey’s Boron Products Turkey owns the biggest and highest quality boron reserves in the world. Turkey is the largest boron producer and seller of the world. The entire boron demand in the domestic market is met. The most important countries in the world production of boron are Turkey, USA, Argentina, Russia, China, Chile, Bolivia and Peru. In 2008, global boron production was about 1.91 million tons of B2O3. The production of these countries is given in Table 4 (BOREN web pages, 2010). Countries Market ratio (%) Turkey 42 USA 35 Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Peru 11 Russia and China 12 Table 4: Position of Turkey in World Boron Market 504 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Boron ore in the country is converted to concentrated boron (colemanite, ulexite, Tincal) and refined boron (boric acid, borax pentahydrate and borax decahydrate) products are sold to domestic and foreign markets. Boron concentrate production is done in Emet Kestelek and Bigadiç. Refined boron products are made in Kırka Bandırma and Emet (EMW, 2009). In Turkey, selling high value-added product (boron chemicals and equivalent) was identified as the main policy. As a result, while reducing the share of exports concentrated boron, increasing constantly share of boron chemicals and equivalent products. In 1998, 53 percent of total sales consisted of the sales of concentrated boron and 47 percent of total sales consisted of from the sales of boron chemicals and equivalent boron (Figure 3). In 2009, 96 percent of Turkey's total borax products sales revenue consisted of foreign sales. Borax pentahydrate has the highest share in boron chemicals exports. Boric acid is the second coming one. Covering the period 2002-2009 in Turkey concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products export sales are given in Figure 4 (EMW, 2008). Figure 3. Concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products sales of percentage in total sales Figure 4. Turkey Concentrate Boron, Boron Chemicals and Equivalent Products Exports (as the value US$) 505 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusions Boron ore is easily and economically obtained in Turkey. Even the B2O3 grade of boron stored in waste dams is higher than the B2O3 grade in lake waters of world‘s locomotive countries. For this reason, high grade and easily mineable boron ores make Turkey an advantageous country. While the boron market share of Turkey in the world during 1980‘s was 25% in terms of production, it has been achieved as 37 % in the year 2009. As Turkey and USA meet the boron demand of the world at a rate of 65-70 %, in the forthcoming years countries like Russia, China, Chile and Argentina have begun to take share in the international boron market. In the year 2009, Turkey has met the need at a rate of 37 % whereas USA met the need at a rate of 28 %. On the other hand, Turkey has sustained its leadership in the past year which it gained back in 2005. The total sale income of Turkey from boron products in 2009 was achieved as 451 million US$, 435 million US$ of which were in the form of export. The sale income of exported boron chemicals and equivalence has increased by 232 % when compared to 2002 and happened as 402 million US$. The revenue of world boron market is 1.5 billion US $ annually. Turkey, which owns 72% of the world boron reserves, get revenue of an average of 300 million US $. Turkey aims to increase its capacity and profit with the help of new investments. References EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management), web pages, http://www.etimaden.gov.tr EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2009), Boron Sector Report 2009 EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2008), Activity Reports 2008. BOREN (National Boron Research Institute) web pages, http://www.boren.gov.tr/ KÖSE, H., BATAR, T., KAHRAMAN, B. (2002), Dünya Bor Statejisi ve Bor‘un Türkiye için Önemi, EGĠAD GiriĢimcilikYönetim-Ekonomi AraĢtırmalar Dizisi. 506 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Effect Of Capital Movements Liberalisation On Economical Development: Boundary Test Approach Mehmet MERCAN ADÜ. Social Science Institute mmercan48@hotmail.com Osman PEKER Dr., ADÜ. Nazilli ĠĠBF ottopeker@Yahoo.com Abstract: In this study, liberalization of capital movements‘ impact on economic growth in Turkey has been investigated by the approach of the bounds testing. According to the empirical findings of study, in both long and short-term, capital movements impact on economic growth is statistically insignificant. This result is far from meeting our theoretical expectations. Key Words: Turkey, Capital Movement, Libarelization, the Bound Test Approach. 1. Introduction The view about that financial liberalisation would cause much higher economical development has been expressed firstly by Mc Kinnon and Show. According to this view known as Mc Kinnon and Show hypothesis in literature, the maximum rates applied to the deposit rates will cause a decrease in real interest rates in an economy repressed as financially. Considering the possibility of a decrease in real interest rates to the minus degrees in an inflationist atmosphere, the house hold could direct its savings to the unproductive investments like real estate, gold and hard goods instead of financial havings. By limiting the loanable fonds of banking sector, this situation will cause the credits pass to the preferred sectors and firms without being predicted on the objective criteria instead of their expected returns and will prevent the use of sources effectively. If the press on the interest rates is removed, it will be provided to be used the sources in productive areas via trending of savings to the banking sector. As the bank deposit will expand by this, much more credit possibility for investment will occur and economical growth will increase.(Mathieson, 1980; Melo ve Tybout, 1986; Dornbush ve Reynoso, 1989). In international capital flows mutual profits exist for the countries. As the direction of capital flows is generally from the country that have more capital to the country that have less capital, marginal product of the capital is in higher rates than the country that has the capital.Thus, the capital is directed to more productive and effective fields. In this process that means much more production will happen per capital unit, a welfare increase occurs also in the country giving the capital.(Eichengreen vd., 1998:12; Bacchetta, 1992: 474). When evaluated on this point of view, for the poor countries capital movements liberalisation can be seen as an economic policy that is necessary to use for increasing the investment possibilities and decreasing the capital costs. (Fischer, 1998; Summers, 2000). By the liberalasation of capital movements the market structure in financial sector changes in the direction of weaking the monopoly power of institutions. As this provides the chance to act in more suitable conditions in credit markets, it causes an increase on realizable real estates and a decrease on borrowing costs. (Kenen, 1976: 31). In this process that means the specializing in the financial services, the increasing specialization causes a development in international economic benefits. (Mathreson ve Suarez, 1992: 41). However, when the recent developments considered we can see that capital movements gradually act more independently than real ecenomy. While most of the total transations in currency markets consists of short period profit making commercial transations, very little part of this is directed to the commercial activities. This transactions is the main reason for the the weekness in the international currency capital markets. (Verghese, 1985). So in 1980‘s the foreign capital lost its function in the 1950‘s and in general it tended to speculative short termed portfolio investments. 507 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In this term portfolio investments contained most parts of the transations in financial markets. Much growth in portfolio investments caused some risks to occur in the economies of the countries firstly by decreasing the real investment possibilities. Especially the possible great fluctuations on the currency rates and financial asset prices resulted in crises by negatively affecting the macroeconomical balance. Since the capital flows occuring as portfolio investments can move fast and in a short time,UNCTAD warns for the possible risks. For instance, the determining factor in capital flows tended to Latin America wasn‘t economic and since it was shaped according the others‘ behaviors, it was speculative. In other words, investment owners behaved speculatively instead of behaving according to the economical reasons. This increased the prices of real estates while it made the currency of the country valuable irrationally. With this point of view the Mexican crisis was not a surprise. (Akyüz, 1995: 14).The Ex post point has revealed that some proofs of Ortodox economy is not realist. Today the countries having much financial crisis experience especially find it hard to pay their depts. It is anticipated to apply a program for depts in order not to delay in the system. In fact Bhagwhati (1998), Rodrik (1998) and Stiglitz (2002), draw attention that capital account liberalisation doesn‘t improve the growth as it is said; even it may cause crisis. Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999), Detragiache and Demirguc-Kunt(1998) and Glick and Hutchinson also have expressed the similar views (2001) and added that financial liberalisation has a tendency in increasing bank and money crisis.According to UNCTAD (1990) , in a system that has no exchange controls, credit allocation can not be directed to the fields to increase the effectivity.Because a banking system based on liberal market is less sensible to the persuasion and sources tend to the short term profits instead of the use for the economical development. As it is evaluated by the different poinf of views, it is difficult to say that there is an agreement about the effects of capital movements liberalisations on the econimical growth. Eichengreen and Leblang (2002: 1) point that it can‘t be estimated weather capital account deficit increases or prevent the growth and in general the proofs are not enough eventhough many researches are made on the subject. 2. Data And Methods This survey covers 1998:01 and 2009:09 variables have been used and all variables have been calculated in percentages. The variable vektör of the survey is: yt=[it, m2t, opent, tkt] y stands for Gross National Product (GNP), i stands for Treasury domestic borrowing interest rates, m2, stands for Money supply, open stands for opennes(export+import), tk stands for total capital movement liberalisation All data have been taken from the website of the Central Bank of Republic of Turkey(electronic data delivery system)( http://evds.tcmb.gov.tr). In this survey boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran vd.(2001) has been used in order to study the effect of capital movement liberalisation over economic growth. This method is considered to be more usable when comperad to cointegration method developed by Engle-Granger. Series have to be stable in the first differnce in the Engle-Granger and Johansen. Series can be in different stability levels in ARDL method. Another advantage of boundary test approach is that analysis can be made with only a few data. (Narayan and narayan, 2004:25) More over as the regresive variables included in analysis. The level and regressive values of independed veriables can be observed on depended variables. In boundary test apprach firstly whether series move together in long-term is analysized by means of ARDL cointegration method. Ġf there is conĢntegration relationship betwen series the coefficient and statistic of regression carried out with this serries will be meaningfull and reliable. If relationship can be pointed out whit be serries lon an short term analysis are held by means of ARDL method. 3. Analysis And Empirical Findings Before analysis, the certain tests and procedures relation variables used in the study are needed. tk, open ve y series have seasonal effect. Series were purifed from seosanal effect by means of Moving Avarage Methods. Stationary of series were tested with Augmented Dickey Fuller: ADF 3.1. ADF Unit Root Test If time serries is not stable, medyan, variance and covariance changeble in time. Shocks take place in a term can effect the others and it becomes permanent. The analysis carried out in this case includs fake regression and F and t statistics loos their meaning (Gujarati, 1999:2.712). The stability levels of serries and unitroot test have been studied with ADF test. DF test is carried out based on three regression equation (Dickey and Fuller, 1979). 508 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Simple situation: Yt  Yt 1  ut (1) Intercept: Yt   0  Yt 1  u (2) Trend and intercept: Yt   0  1 t  Yt 1  ut (3) As a result of this tests the DF statistic been compared Mac Kinnon crtitical values zero hypotesis is tested against the lternative hypotesis. Zero hypotesis showes that serries is not stable alternative hypotesis. Ġf error correction term is autocorrelated equation (3) is regulated as: m Y   0   1 t  Yt 1   i  Yt i u t (4) i 1 Here m stands for regression length and  stands for difference operator. Regression number depends on obtaining model without autocorrelation. A test which is carried out this way is called ADF test in short. Tests results obtained accordingly are shown in Table 1. Table 1: ADF Test Results Expanded for Dickey-Fuller Variables (ADF) Variables ADF Test Critical Values Y -1,06[11] -3,48 Δy -7,04[10] -3,48 İ -2,14[2] -3,47 Δi -9,86[1] -3,47 m2 -6,02[3] -4,02 o p en -3,14[12] -3,48 Δo p en -5,69[10] -3,48 Tk -3,07[5] -3,47 Δtk -10,39[4] -3,47 Note:The values in [ ] points out teh lag number. By taking the lag lenght which Akaike Lag is the lowest. Mac Kinnon test values pointed out without trend and intercept test values. In this test were used trend and intercept for m2 ve open variables, intecept other variables. For first difference of variables(Δ) were used intercept. 3.2. Co-Integration Test The level values of many macroeconomic variables are not stable. If there is a co-integration relationship between series in other words if series move together in the long term, a fake regretion trouble will not be faced in an analysis to be carried out with level values(Pesaran etc, 2001:290;Gujarati 1999). However, the dynamic behaviors of variables moving together in the long term cause some deviations in the balance equation(Enders, 1996:151). This is one of the basic characteristic of co-integration variables and plays an important part in the short term dynamic. The dynamic model appearing along with this process is called error correction model(Enders, 1995: 365). An unrestricted error correction model is setup so that boundary test approach can be applied. (unrestricted error correction model: UECM) This model can be applied to our survey as fallows: m m m i 0 i 0 yt   0   1i yt i    2i i t i    3i m2t i  i 1 m m i 0 i 0    4i opent i    5i tk t i  6 yt 1  7 i t 1   8 m2 t 1   9 opent 1  10tk t 1  ut (5) Here, m; stands for optimum lag length, ∆ stands for difference operator, ut stands for error correction term, those which are given with other letter abbreviation stands fort he meanings in variable definitions. In this survey 509 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo optimum lag lenght has been determined by means of Akaike Criterion. According to Kamas ve Joyce (1993) there musn‘t be autocorelation between error terms of model‘s optimum lag length so that the test can give healthy result. If there is autcorolation in the lag lenght which Akaike Criteria lowest. One has to next lag. The test result of lag lenght are presented in Table 2. Maksimum lag lenght is 2 since the data in this survey is monthly. m 1 2* 3 4 5 6 7 8 AIC 4.86 4,71 4,77 4,80 4,86 4,86 4,91 4,96 LM Test 0,00 0,66 0,66 0,62 0,12 0,32 0,32 0.51 Table 2: The lag length is point out for boundary test The optiumum lag length determined as a two in the Table 2. In this lag length hasn‘t autocorelation. After lag length determined it passed testing process cointegration relationship between variables. In boundary cointegration relationship between values is made by mines of testing ziro hypotesis. (H 0:α4=α5=α6=0) Zero hypotesis accept or reject is determinated with F test. Calculate value contrasted Table conpered and contrast min and max value in Pesaran etc. 2001 Table. In the fisrt case if calculated F statistic value lover than min critic value. It is decided that there is coengration relation between series. In the second case if calculated F statistic value in between max and min critice value no definite commend can be made. In this case must be tried alternative coentegration methots. Finaly calculated F statistic value bigger than Table max critic it is decided that there is cointegration relationship between series. For testing H0 calculated F statistic value compared with critic value which taken Pesaran etc 2001 in Table 3. This critic values given fort 4 independed variable and mining full %1. k Calculated F Alt Sınır Üst Sınır 4 6,46 3,74 5,06 Note: k stands for variable number. Critical values are extracted from Table CI (iii) in Pesaran etc. Tablo 3: Boundary Test Results It is observed that calculated F statistics is higher than utmost critical value. In this case H0 hypothesis is denied and it is concluded that there is a co-integration relationship between variables. Since the existence of cointegration relationship between series is remarked, ARDL models started to be estimated to search the long and short term relationships between variables. 3.3 Long Term Analysis ARDL model which is used in order to analyse long term relations is formulated as: m n p i 0 i 0 yt   0  1i yt  i    2i i t  i    3i m2t  i  i 1 r k i 0 i 0   4i opent  i   5i tk t  i ut (6) Here m, n, p, r ve k is Lag length and determined with AIC. This transaction has been carried out with the method that Kamas and Joyce(1993) proposed in their causality analyses so as to determine Lag length. Therefore; first of all, regression according to dependent variables‘ own regressive values is made and the lag length of without 510 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo otecorelation model which gives the lowest AIC value. Then, regression models were formed by keeping the identified lag length of the dependent variable stable and all possible regressions of foreign direct investment variable which is the first independent variable and the regressive number of independent variables was found by taking AIC values into consideration. Optimum regression number was obtained by repeating similar transactions for other variables. As a result of the transaction carried out, it was decided that ARDL(7.1.1.0.0) was the long term ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented in Table 4. AIC m 1 2 3 4 5 6 7* 8 5,10 5,12 4,75 4,76 4,78 4,78 4,70 4,72 LM Test 0,00 0,00 0,21 0,08 0,00 0,00 0,76 0,39 n 0 1* 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 r 0* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 AIC LM Test 4,65 4,58 4,60 4,61 4,61 4,62 4,64 4,65 4,67 0,72 0,97 0,97 0,97 0,77 0,85 0,84 0,84 0,44 p 0 4,60 0,38 4,58 0,62 1* 4,59 0,47 4,59 0,61 2 4,61 0,39 4,60 0,68 3 4,62 0,38 4,61 0,70 4 4,64 0,33 4,62 0,81 5 4,64 0,37 4,63 0,83 6 4,65 0,24 4,64 0,81 7 4,65 0,97 4,66 0,71 8 4,67 0,97 4,67 0,79 k 0* 4,59 0,62 1 4,60 0,49 2 4,61 0,47 3 4,62 0,50 4 4,64 0,47 5 4,64 0,66 6 4,65 0,66 7 4,66 0,57 8 4,66 0,88 Tablo 4: Determination of Lag Length for Long Term Boundary Test The estimate results of long term ARDL(7.1.1.0.0) and long term coefficients calculated based on the results mentioned are available in Table 5. In Table 5; variables of Money supply, opennes and capital movement coefficient‘s signs accord with our teoric expects. 511 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Variables C i m2 open tk Diagnosis Tests R2=0.45 Coefficient 0,3481 0,0259 0,2049 0,0538 0,0005 t-statistic 0,8154 3,4533 1,3995 2,0456 0,7142 2BGAB(2 )=0,51(0.60) 2WDV=0,63(0.90) 2JBN=239,78(0.00) 2RRMKH(2)=0,73(0.48) 2 R =0.39 F ist.=7,71(0,00) DW=2,00 Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values Tablo 5: The Results of Calculated Long Term Coefficient of ARDL (7.1.1.0.0) Model Taking the results in Table 5 into consideration, capital movement and money supply can‘t be interpreted so that Theirs coefficient is meaningless as regards statistic value. Coefficient of interest variables increased positive unlike our teoric expectations. 3.4 Short Term Analysis Short term relation between variables again investigated by means of ARDL Error Correction Model based on boundary test approach. ARDL model which is used in order to analyse short term relations is formulated as: m n p i 1 i 0 i 0 yt   0  1ECt 1   2i yt  i   3i i t  i   4i m2t  i  r k i 0 i 0   5i opent  i   6i tkt  i ut (7) Here ECt-1 is error correction terms and it stands for one term lagged of error terms series which it is obtained from long term relationship. Coefficient for this variable is point out duration of sort term deviation. If this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long term balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value. In this model lag length of veriables determineted just like long term. As a result of the transaction carried out, it was decided that ARDL(5.1.0.0.0) was the short term ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented in Table 6. 512 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo AIC m 1 2 3 4 5* 6 7 8 5,29 4,71 4,71 4,72 4,69 4,70 4,70 4,68 LM Test 0,00 0,05 0,07 0,02 0,29 0,41 0,36 0,00 n 0 1* 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 r 0* 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 AIC LM Test 4,68 4,64 4,65 4,66 4,67 4,69 4,70 4,71 4,73 0,25 0,46 0,43 0,35 0,36 0,30 0,35 0,39 0,42 p 0* 4,65 0,52 4,61 0,48 1 4,66 0,44 4,62 0,50 2 4,65 0,43 4,63 0,60 3 4,69 0,42 4,64 0,15 4 4,69 0,48 4,65 0,65 5 4,71 0,45 4,66 0,66 6 4,69 0,41 4,68 0,63 7 4,71 0,31 4,68 0,70 8 4,73 0,27 4,70 0,67 k 0* 4,63 0,44 1 4,64 0,44 2 4,65 0,47 3 4,66 0,40 4 4,67 0,44 5 4,68 0,43 6 4,69 0,45 7 4,68 0,53 8 4,70 0,34 Table 6: Determination of Lag Length for Short Term Boundary Test The result of estimated ARDL (5.1.0.0.0) model given in Table 7. Coefficient of ECt-1 (error correction terms) is -0,72 in Table 7. This coefficient is negative and meaningful like expected. If coefficient‘s signs of error correction terms is negative, model is convergences to long term balance level. If this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long term balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value (Narayan ve Smyth 2006). Therefore error correction of model is works. Although capital movements impact on economic growth, like long term effect, is positive and according with theoritical expectation, statistically insignificant. 513 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Variables yt-1  yt-2  yt-3  yt-4  yt-5 it it-1 m2t opent tkt ect-1 C Diagnosis Tests R2=0,70 R 2 =0,68 Coefficient -0,3538 -0,3392 0,0961 -0,1636 -0,1825 -0,0319 0,0509 0,0152 0,0380 0,0002 -0,7274 -0,0587 t-statistic -2,0340 -1,8955 0,5281 -1,4758 -2,2912 -1,9067 2,9609 0,1873 2,5170 0,4738 -3,6701 -0,2843 2BGAB(2 )=2,56(0,08) 2WDV=0,62(0,89) 2JBN=228,78(0,000) 2RRMKH(2)=0,13(0,87) DW=1,98 F=26,80(0,00) Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values Table 7: The Results of ARDL (5.1.0.0.0) Model Results In this survey, capital movement impact on economic growth in Turkey has been investigated by using monthly datum term of 1998:01-2009:09. In survey, boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran has been obtained cointegration findings between variables and based on this has been formed long and short term ARDL models According to obtained ampirical evidence, although in long and short term capital movement impact on economic growth is positive, meaningless as regards statistic value. Therefore Coefficient of capital movement can‘t be interpreted. It is determined that opennes and interest variables positive effected on economic growth in the in long term. It is observed that effect of interest one term lagged and opennes on economic growth is positive in short term. In this study the relation between capital movement liberalisation and economic growth meaningless and this is not according with economic literature. This may be due to different reasons. Therefore this subject must be with other ampirical studies. So, It is thought that be made open to the outside of the capital account‘s effect in financial crisis happen Turkey is important. References Akyüz, Y. (1995). GloballeĢme: Risklerin Belirlenmesi, ĠĢletme ve Finans, 110(5): 12-7. Bacchetta, P. (1992). Liberalization of Capital Movement and of the Domestic Financial Sistem, Economica, 59(11): 465-74. Bhagwati,J.(1998). The Capital Myth: The Difference Between Trade in Widgets and Trade in Dollars, Foreign Afairs,77, 1998, pp.7-12. Melo, J. ve J. Tybout (1986). The Effect of Financial Liberalization on Savings and Investment in Uruguay, Economics Development and Cultural Change, 34(3): 561-87. 514 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Detragiache, E. ve A. Demirgüç (1997), The Determinant of Banking Crises: Avidence from Developed and Developing Countries, World Bank Working Papers, 1828. Dornbush, R. ve A. Reynoso (1989). Financial Factors in Economic Development, The American Economics Review, Papers and Proceeding, 79(2): 204-209. Eichengreen, B. vd. (1998). Capital Account Liberalization Theoretical and Practical Aspects, Occasioanl Papers, 172: 12-30. Eichengreen, B. ve D. Leblang (2002). Capital Account Liberalization and Growth: Was Mr. Mahathir Right?, www.nber.org/papers/w9427. Fischer, S. (1998) Capital Account Liberalization and the Role of the IMF, Princeton Enders, W. (1995). Applied Econometric Time Series, John Willey and Song, Inc Enders,, W. (1996): Rats Handbook for Econometric Time Series, John Willey and Song Inc. Engle, R. and Ggranger, C. W. (1987): ―Co-Integration and Error Correction: Represention, estimation and Testing‖, Econometrica, 55(2): 251 – 276. Johansen, S and Juselius, K. (1990): ―Maximum Likelihood Estimation And Inference onCointegration with Application to the Deman for Money‖, Oxford Bulletin of Economicand Statistics (52) 1990: 169-210. Johansen, S. (1988): ―Statistical Analysis of Cointegration Vectors‖, Journal of Economic Dynamic and Control (12) 1988: 231254. Kamas, L and Joyce, J. P. (1993): ―Money, Income and Prices Under Fixed Exchange Rates: Evidence from Causality Tests and VARs‖, Journal of Macroeconomics, 15(4): 747-768. Glick, R.and Hutchinson, M.(2001), Banking Crises and Currency Crises: How Common are the Twins, in Financial Crises in Emerging Markets, NewYork: Cambridge University Press. Kaminsky, G. And Kaminsky, G.and Reinhart, C. (1999), The Twin Crises: The Causes of Banking and Balance of Payments Problems, The American Economic Review, 89(3):473-500 Kenen, P. (1976). Capital Mobility and Financial Integration: A Survey, Princeton Studies in International Finance, No:39. Mathieson, D. ve R. S. Liliana (1992). Liberalizing the Capital Account, Finance and Development, 11:41-43. Pesaran, H. ve Shin, Y. (1995) ―An Autoregressive Distributed Lag Modelling Approach to Cointegration Analysis‖, S. Strom, A. Holly ve A. Diamond (Edt.), Centennial Volume of Ranger Frisch, Cambridge University Press. Pesaran, H., Shin, Y. ve Smith, R. J. (1996) ―Testing for Existence of A Long-Run Relationship‖, DAE Working Paper, No. 9622, Department of Applied Economics, University of Economics. Pesaran, M., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. J. (2001): ―Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships‖, Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16: 289-326. Narayan, P. and Narayan, S. (2004): ―Estimating Income and Price Elasticities of Imports for Fiji in a Cointegration Framework‖, Economic Modelling, 22: 423-438. Gujarati, D, N. (1999): Basic Econometrics, Mc Graw Hill, Literatür Yayıncılık, 3 rd edition, Ġstanbul. Dickey, D. and Fuller, W. A. (1979): ―Distribution of the Estimates for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root‖, Journal of the American Statistical Association , 74: 427-431. Rodrik, D. (1998). Who Needs Capital Account Convertibility? Princeton Essays in Stiglitz, E. J. (2002). Globalization and Its Discontents, W.W. Norton, New York, (2002). Summers, L. H. (2000) . International Financial Crises: Causes, Prevention, and 515 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo UNCTAD (1990). Trade and Development Report, Genova. Verghese, S. K. (1985). Functioning of Foreign Exchange and Financial Markets: Some Key Issues, Economics and Political Weekly, XX(18), 797-800. 516 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Determining the Districts That can be a Province in Turkey Using Analytic Hierarchy Process Ġbrahim GÜNGÖR Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University igungor@akdeniz.edu.tr Hakan BAKAN Research Asistant, Mugla University hkn_bkn@mu.edu.tr Muharrem AKSU Lecturer, Akdeniz University muharremaksu@akdeniz.edu.tr Serap KĠREMĠTCĠ Research Asistant Ġstanbul University serapy@istanbul.edu.tr Ali GÖKSU Assist. Prof. Dr., International Burch University Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration goksu@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: It is very important problem objectively determining districts which will become province. It will be appropriate to use AHP to search an efficient solution to this problem. In this study. In this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which is eligible to become a province in Turkey. According to the result of this AHP application, Alanya is the most eligible candidate district with 33% importance degree. The following districts based on the ranking are; Bandırma, Fethiye, Elbistan, Ereğli, Bergama, ÖdemiĢ and ErciĢ. Introduction There are many districts that desire to become a province in Turkey. Districts' desire for becoming a province have been continuing for a long time. This demand is also used for election argument by politicians and political parties before the elections. Some of these districts achieved their wants, and finally became a province. With the rapid development of Turkey, some districts growed much more than some cities. As a result of this growth, these districts have the potential of being a province. However, there are some criterias which districs must have in order to become a province. Factors, such as socio-economic development, population, geographical structures of districts, need to be taken into consideration. The aim of the study is to compare 10 candidate district which desire to become a province according to the criterias that researchers has determined, and to choose the best candidate based on this comparison by using The Analytic Hierarchy Process. According to 126. article of The Constitution of the Republic of Turkey 1982, in terms of central administrative structure, Turkey is divided into provinces on the basis of geographical situation and economic conditions, and public service requirements; provinces are further divided into lower levels of administrative districts. In accordance with the provisions of constitute article, in Province Administration Law 5442 criterias are determined to established provinces while stating that Turkey divided into provinces, provinces divided into districts, and districts divided into sub-districts. But there are not defined criterias about the issue of administrative status change of a place in Turkey. And also status change of provinces, particularly change to provinces, is not mostly 517 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo based on the detailed social, economical and demographical researchs . It was based generally on some properties of the places that were made provinces during the years 1989-1999, such as the economical development or undevelopment, geographical positon, the historical background, the migration, the population density, and the security of the place. But like all these and other factors also are valid for the districts38. As there are not clear and obvious laws concerning with establishing new provinces in Turkey, the reasoning of establishing new provinces mostly based on the mentioned Constitution Article, and related articles of Province Administration Law. Since mentioned articles state only three criteria which are on the initiative of the government, it is the role of the government to fill the content of those unclear concepts. Although the desire of the people, geographical position, transportation and security factors generally play very crucial role on establishing provinces in Turkey, some places which come to the position of being a province according to economical situation, and population have forced governments which have voting concerns. Those governments change administrative position of the places mainly based on their political objectives. It is asserted that the use of the demand of becoming a province in recent years as a political pressure and gain on politicians have much more influence on the increasing number of the provinces than the public service requirements in Turkey 39. It is very important problem objectively determining districts which will become province. The evaluation of this subject without making it as a domestic political argument, will be easier and more convincing for both political parties and governments. It will be possible to show more fairly, scientifically and objectively behavior with the use of AHP at the solution of this problem. In the second part of this study, a brief information was given about AHP. In the third part, how the application was implemented, how the data was prepared, how the criterias were determined, and the results of the study were explained and reported. Analytic Hierarchy Process When decision makers face with a multicriteria problem, they decompose it in hieararchic levels acccording to importance of criterias. The decision making process involves developing priorities for alternatives based on the decision maker's judgements and selecting the best alternative that satisfies the objective. One of the techniques used for this process is Analytic Hierarcy Process (AHP) which allows pairwise comparisons. AHP is widely used as one of the major methods in solving a wide range of problems that involve complex criteria accross different levels where the interaction of criteria is common (Hsu ve Pan, 2009, p. 2311). AHP, developed by Saaty, is a decision aiding method provides a way to rank the alternatives of a problem by deriving priorities (Saaty, Peniwati ve Shang, 2007, s. 1041). It is a very useful tool for multicriteria decision making where the objective is to select the best alternative taken into consideration. AHP performs pairwise comparisons to measure relative importance of the elements in each level of the hierarchy and evalutes alternatives in the lowest level of the hierarcy in order to make the best decision among multiple candidates ( Sipahi and Esen, 2010, p. 300) In AHP, the hierarchic structure must be built by determining important criterias and subcriterias belonging to each criteria according to the decision maker's objective. First of all, the objective is determined and then the criterias for this objective will be pointed out. After this, alternatives for each criteria will be determined. In this way the hierarchic structure for decision making has been constructed. (Scholl et all., 2005, p.763) AHP is a mathematical method which considers group's or individual's characteristics, and evaluates quantitative and qualitative variables together in the decision making process (Dağdeviren et all., 2004, p.132). At the same time, it provides more efficient decision making oppurtunities ( Ecer and Dündar, 2008 , p. 198). This method has been widely used in solving real life complex decision making problems in recent literature, especially in effectiveness analysis and performance measurement problems (Peters and Zelewski, 2008, p.1040). 38 Gökçen KILINÇ, Yeni Ġl Kurulması ve Siyaset, http://www.istanbulburda.com/haber_author.php?id=1967; Gökçen KILINÇ ve Nuran ZEREN GÜLERSOY, ―Türkiye‘deki Ġlçelerin KentleĢme Derecelerine Göre Ġl Olma Potansiyellerinin Değerlendirilmesi‖, ĠTÜ Dergisi, Cilt 6, Sayı 1, Mart 2007, s.72. 39 Selçuk YALÇINDAĞ, ―Yönetsel Etkililik, Demokrasi ve Ġl Sayısının Artırılması‖, Amme Ġdaresi Dergisi, Cilt 30, Sayı 1, 1997, s.12; Yasin SEZER, ―Merkezi Yönetimin Ġl ve Bölge Ölçeğinde Örgütlenmesi‖, Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, C.I, S.I, Afyon, 1999, s.205.; Yasin SEZER, ―Kamu Yönetimi Temel Kanunu Tasarısı Çerçevesinde Ġl Genel Yönetimi Hakkında Bir Ġnceleme‖, (Ed.), Nagehan Arslan, Türkiye‘de Kamu Yönetimi Sorunları Üzerine Ġncelemeler, Seçkin Yayınları, Ankara, 2005, s.22. 518 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The AHP approach was developed in the early 1970s in response to military contingency planning, scarce resources allocation, and the need for political participation in disarmament agreements (Yang and Shi, 2002, p. 30). AHP is not only a decision making method that decomposes a complex multi-criteria decision problem into a hierarchy but also a measurement theory that prioritizes the hierarchy and consistency of the judgmental data provided by a group of decision makers agreements (Hsu ve Chen, 2008, p. 46) The use of AHP in order to solve a decision making problem involves the following steps (Al-Harbi, 2001, p. 20): 1. Define the decision making problem and determine its goal. 2. Structure the hierarchy from the top (the objectives from a decision-maker's point of view) through the intermediate levels (criteria on which subsequent levels depend) to the lowest level which usually contains the list of alternatives. 3. Construct a set of pair-wise comparison matrices ( n x n square matrix) for each of the lower levels with one matrix for each element in the level immediately above by using the relative scale measurement shown in Table 1 The pair-wise comparisons are done in terms of of which element dominates the other. 4. The number of judgements equals to n(n-1)/2. Judgements required to develop the set of matrices which should be both transitive and reciprocal in step 3. 5. Hierarchical synthesis is now used to weight the eigenvectors by the weights of the criteria and the sum is taken over all weighted eigenvector entries corresponding to those in the next lower level of the hierarchy. 6. Having made all the pair-wise comparisons, the consistency is determined by using the eigenvalue, max , to calculate the consistency index, CI as follows: CI = (max - n)/(n- 1), where n is the matrix size. Judgement consistency can be checked by taking the consistency ratio (CR) of CI with the appropriate value in Table 2. The (CR) is acceptable if it is less than 0.10. Otherwise the the judgement matrix is inconsistent. To obtain a consistent, judgements should be reviewed and improved. 7. Steps 3-6 are performed for all levels in the hierarchy. Intensity of Importance 1 3 5 7 9 2,4,6,8 Definition Explanation Equal Importance Two activities contribute equally to the objective Moderate Experience and judgment slightly favor one activity over another Ġmportance Strong importance Experience and judgment strongly favor one activity over another Very strong or An activity is favored very strongly over another; its dominance demonstrated demonstrated in practice importance Extreme The evidence favoring one activity over another is of the highest importance possible order of affirmation Intermediate values when compromise is needed Table 1: The Fundamental Scale of Absolute Numbers ( Saaty, 2008, p. 125) 519 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo n Average random index 1 0 2 0 3 0.52 4 0.89 5 1.11 6 1.25 7 1.35 8 1.40 9 1.45 10 1.49 Table 2: Random Consistency Index ( Saaty, Vargas and Dellmann, 2003, p. 174) The Study People have troubles while making decisions about any issue in the time of they living. Contradictory results may also appear on the decisions about same issue made by people. The most important reason of for this is the intention of selecting best decisions over the alternatives. Same situation is also valid for the decisions taken by the government. Since the government must make the best decision for its public. Because of demand of individuals that live in the country about changing their districst in which they live to provinces, one of the most important decisions is which districts will become province. At this time, this decision is very important as it burden additional expenses to the budget. In this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which is eligible to become a province in Turkey. Candidate districts are determined by preselection with this application. Above mentioned criterias are taken into consideration for preselection: - Population of the center must be greater than 50 000, - Population of district must be greater than 100 000, - Distance from the province must be greater than 100 km. Values of above mentioned criteria for each of the candidate districts determined by preselection, are obtained from municipality‘s and governer‘s official websites and shown in Table 3. CRITERIAS DISTANCE (KM)* CENTER POPULATION** DISTRICT‘S POPULATION** SURFACE AREA(KM2) NUMBER OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF CONNECTED DISTRICTS CON.TOTAL POPULATION.** TEMPORARY POPULATION**** REAL WAGE*** ALANYA FETHĠYE ERCĠġ EREĞLĠ ELBĠSTAN ÖDEMĠġ BANDIRMA BERGAMA 138 100 102 124 103 153 158 113 134056 113851 58570 72003 74858 95056 85642 73310 241451 132077 100802 183184 158795 135008 135386 129260 1827 690 1688 3055 2115 2260 2546 1082 3 0 0 3 3 0 0 2 5 4 7 3 3 3 7 6 152649 208340 332353 95653 238131 63563 238450 312937 1377146 74548 21186 252726 3440 9500 5934 2935 84714 123754 21024 83628 91169 85191 558996 706831 Table 3: Quantitative values of criterias for each of the districts *http://www.kgm.gov.tr/Sayfalar/KGM/SiteTr/Uzakliklar/ililcelerArasiMesafe.aspx ** http://tuikapp.tuik.gov.tr/adnksdagitapp/adnks.zul *** http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/bolgesel/gosterge/2004/ilce.pdf **** http://www.turizm.gov.tr 520 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS DISTANCE NORMALIZED VALUE OF DISTANCE ALANYA 138,0000 0,1393 BANDIRMA 100,0000 0,1009 BERGAMA 102,0000 0,1029 ELBĠSTAN 158,0000 0,1594* ERCĠġ 103,0000 0,1039 EREĞLĠ 153,0000 0,1544 FETHĠYE 124,0000 0,1251 ÖDEMĠġ 113,0000 0,1140 TOTAL 991,0000 1,0000 Table 4: Distance Criteria According to distance criteria most appropriate district to become a city is Elbistan with approximately %16. Bandırma district is in the last rank with % 10. DISTRICTS ALANYA CENTER‘S CENTER‘S POPULATION NORMALIZED VALUE POPULATION 134056,000 0,1895* BANDIRMA 113851,000 0,1610 BERGAMA 58570,000 0,0828 ELBĠSTAN 85642,000 0,1211 ERCĠġ 74858,000 0,1058 EREĞLĠ 95056,000 0,1344 FETHĠYE 72003,000 0,1018 ÖDEMĠġ 73310,000 0,1036 TOTAL 707346,000 1,0000 Table 5: Center‘s Population Criteria Alanya district is in the first rank with %19 accoding to the center‘s population criteria and Bergama is the last with %8. 521 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS ALANYA DISTRICT‘S NORMALIZED VALUE OF DISTRICT‘S POPULATION POPULATION 241451,000 0,1986* BANDIRMA 132077,000 0,1086 BERGAMA 100802,000 0,0829 ELBĠSTAN 135386,000 0,1113 ERCĠġ 158795,000 0,1306 EREĞLĠ 135008,000 0,1110 FETHĠYE 183184,000 0,1506 ÖDEMĠġ 129260,000 0,1063 TOTAL 1215963,000 1,0000 Table 6: District‘s Population Criteria For district‘s population criteria the most important district is Alanya and the least is Bergama. DISTRICTS SURFACE AREA NORMALIZED VALUE OF SURFACE AREA ALANYA 1827,000 0,1197 BANDIRMA 690,000 0,0452 BERGAMA 1688,000 0,1106 ELBĠSTAN 2546,000 0,1668 ERCĠġ 2115,000 0,1386 EREĞLĠ 2260,000 0,1481 FETHĠYE 3055,000 0,2002* ÖDEMĠġ 1082,000 0,0709 TOTAL 15263,000 1,0000 Table 7: Surface Area Criteria According to surface area criteria most appropriate district to become a city is Fethiye with approximately %20. Bandırma district is in the last rank with % 4. DISTRICTS NUMBER OF NORMALIZED VALUE OF VILLAGE NUMBERS VILLAGES ALANYA 3,000 0,2727* BANDIRMA 0,000 0,0000 BERGAMA 0,000 0,0000 ELBĠSTAN 0,000 0,0000 ERCĠġ 3,000 0,2727* EREĞLĠ 0,000 0,0000 FETHĠYE 3,000 0,2727* ÖDEMĠġ 2,000 0,1818 TOTAL 11,000 Table 8: Number of Villages Criteria 522 1,0000 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Alanya , Fethiye and ErciĢ districts together are in the first rank with %27 accoding to the number of villages criteria. DISTRICTS ALANYA NUMBER OF NORMALĠZED VALUE OF NUMBER OF DISTRICTS TO DISTRICTS TO BE BE CONNECTED CONNECTED 5,000 0,1316 BANDIRMA 4,000 0,1053 BERGAMA 7,000 0,1842* ELBĠSTAN 7,000 0,1842* ERCĠġ 3,000 0,0789 EREĞLĠ 3,000 0,0789 FETHĠYE 3,000 0,0789 ÖDEMĠġ 6,000 0,1579 TOTAL 38,000 1,0000 Table 9: Number of Districts to be Connected Criteria According to this criteria, Bergama and Elbistan have the highest importance percentage with approximately %18. DISTRICTS CONNECTED TOTAL POPULATION NORMALIZED VALUE OF CONNECTED TOTAL POLULATION ALANYA 152649,000 0,0930 BANDIRMA 208340,000 0,1269 BERGAMA 332353,000 0,2024* ELBĠSTAN 238450,000 0,1452 ERCĠġ 238131,000 0,1450 EREĞLĠ 63563,000 0,0387 FETHĠYE 95653,000 0,0583 ÖDEMĠġ 312937,000 0,1906 TOTAL 1642076,000 1,0000 Table 10: Connected Total Population Criteria According to connected total population criteria, Bergama has the highest importance percentage with approximately %20 and the last is Ereğli. 523 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo DISTRICTS ALANYA TEMPORARY NORMALIZED VALUE OF TEMPORARY POPULATION POPULATION 1377146,000 0,7926* BANDIRMA 64548,000 0,0372 BERGAMA 21186,000 0,0122 ELBĠSTAN 5934,000 0,0034 ERCĠġ 3440,000 0,0020 EREĞLĠ 9500,000 0,0055 252726,000 0,1455 2935,000 0,0017 1737415,000 1,0000 FETHĠYE ÖDEMĠġ TOTAL Table 11: Temporary Population Criteria According to the temporary population criteria, the most eligible candidate is Alanya with % 79 and the last is ÖdemiĢ. DISTRICTS REAL WAGE NORMALIZED VALUE OF REAL WAGE ALANYA 558,9960 0,3185 BANDIRMA 706,8310 0,4027* BERGAMA 84,7140 0,0483 ELBĠSTAN 91,1690 0,0519 ERCĠġ 21,0240 0,0120 EREĞLĠ 83,6280 0,0476 FETHĠYE 123,7540 0,0705 ÖDEMĠġ 85,1910 0,0485 1755,3070 1,0000 TOTAL Table 12:Real Wage Criteria According to real wage criteria, Bandırma has the highest importance percentage with approximately %40, Alanya is in the second rank with %32 and the last is ErciĢ. 524 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo GENERAL DISTANCE CENTER‘S DISTRICT‘S SURFACE POPULATION POPULATION AREA NUMBER OF VILLAGES NUMBER OF DISTRICT‘S TO BE CON TOTAL POPULATION TO BE CON. TEMPORARY POPULATION REAL WAGE DISTANCE 1,0000 0,3333 0,5000 1,0000 0,5000 0,5000 0,3333 0,2500 0,1429 CENTER‘S POPULATION 3,0000 1,0000 2,0000 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 2,0000 0,3333 0,2000 DISTRICT‘S POPULATION 2,0000 0,5000 1,0000 3,0000 2,0000 2,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,2000 SURFACE AREA 1,0000 0,2500 0,3333 1,0000 0,3333 0,3333 0,2500 0,2500 0,1429 NUMBER OF VILLAGES 2,0000 0,3333 0,5000 3,0000 1,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,3333 0,1667 NUMBER OF DISTRICT‘S TO BE CONN. 2,0000 0,3333 0,5000 3,0000 1,0000 1,0000 0,3333 0,2500 0,2000 TOTAL POPULATION TO BE CON. 3,0000 0,5000 1,0000 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 1,0000 0,5000 0,2500 TEMPORARY POPULATION 4,0000 3,0000 3,0000 4,0000 3,0000 4,0000 2,0000 1,0000 0,2500 REAL WAGE 7,0000 5,0000 5,0000 7,0000 6,0000 5,0000 4,0000 4,0000 1,0000 19,8333 19,8333 Total 25,0000 11,2500 13,8333 30,0000 11,2500 7,2500 2,5524 Table 13: Pair-wise Comparison Matrix of Criterias These values are obtained from expert view of a vice governer. Consistency Ratio (CR) is acceptable if CR is less than 0,10 . Otherwise the judgements of the decision maker are inconsistent. T1 Distance Center‘s Population District‘s Population Surface Area Number of Villages Number of Districts to be connected Connected Total Population Temporary Population Real Wage Weights 0,0344 0,1213 0,0791 0,0295 0,0542 0,0543 0,1032 0,1715 0,3525 Table 14: Weights of criterias After calculating weights for criterias, it is come to stage of solving decision problem, in other words last stage of the AHP. At this stage, a matrix consists of calculated relative priority values (table 14) was created and then by multiplying with Matrix of Weighted Criteria (Table 16), Decision Matrix (Table 17)was created. 525 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Distance Center‘s Population District‘s Population 0,1895 0,161 0,0828 0,1211 0,1058 0,1344 0,1018 0,1036 0,1986 0,1086 0,0829 0,1113 0,1306 0,111 0,1506 0,1063 0,1393 0,1009 0,1029 0,1594 0,1039 0,1544 0,1251 0,114 Table 15:Final Table Number Number of of villages Districs to be conn. 0,1197 0,2727 0,1316 0,0452 0 0,1053 0,1106 0 0,1842 0,1668 0 0,1842 0,1386 0,2727 0,0789 0,1481 0 0,0789 0,2002 0,2727 0,0789 0,0709 0,1818 0,1579 Surface area Total Population to be conn. Temporary Population 0,093 0,1269 0,2024 0,1452 0,145 0,0387 0,0583 0,1906 0,7926 0,0372 0,0122 0,0034 0,002 0,0055 0,1455 0,0017 Real Wages 0,3185 0,4027 0,0483 0,0519 0,012 0,0476 0,0705 0,0485 Weight Points 0,0344 0,1213 0,0791 0,0295 0,0542 0,0543 0,1032 0,1715 0,3525 . Sij Eligibility ranking for becoming a province 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x T Districts Coefficients Alanya Bandırma Fethiye ÖdemiĢ Elbistan Bergama ErciĢ Ereğli % 33 % 18 % 11 %8 %8 %7 %7 % 6 Table 16: Order of Preference Results AHP is a mathematical method, which evaluates quantitative and qualitative variables together in the solution of decision problems and enables efficient decision making . This method has been widely used in solving real life complex decision making problems in recent literature, especially in effectiveness analysis and performance measurement problems. It is an important problem to determine the districts which are eligible to become province. To handle this issue without makig it a domestic politics material will be more easy and persuasive for both of the political parties and goverments. More fair, scientific and objective attitude can be possible by using AHP in the solution of this problem. Therefore in this study, AHP is used to determine priority ranking of districts which are eligible to become a province in Turkey. According to the result of this AHP application, Alanya is the most eligible district with %33 importance degree and Bandırma is in the second place with a 15 point difference. Fethiye has the third rank and ÖdemiĢ has the forth rank. Suggestions It is shown with this study that AHP method can be applicable to determine the priority ranking of districts to become province. When new provinces are in agenda, more current data and criterias must be used in a Project with Ministry of Interriors and other relevant govermental institutions in order to help political authorithy on decision making about this subject. 526 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo References DAĞDEVĠREN, M. vd. (2004), ―ĠĢ Değerlendirme Sürecinde Analitik HiyerarĢi Prosesi ve Uygulaması‖, Gazi Üniversitesi Müh. Mim. Fak. Dergisi, C.19. DÜNDAR, S. ve ECER, F. (2008), ―Öğrencilerin GSM Operatörü Tercihinin Analitik HiyerarĢi Süreci Yöntemiyle Belirlenmesi‖, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Ġ.Ġ.B.F Yönetim Ekonomi Dergisi, C.15. HSU, P. and CHEN, B. (2008), ―Integrated Analytic Hierarchy Process and Entropy to Develop a Durable Goods Chain Store Franchisee Selection Model‖, Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, V.20, N.1. KURUÜZÜM, A. ve ATSAN, N. (2001),―Analitik HiyerarĢi Yöntemi ve iĢletmecilik Alanındaki Uygulamaları‖ Akdeniz Ġ.Ġ.B.F. 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YANG, J. and SHI, P., (2002), " Applying Analytic Hierarchy Process in Firm's Overall Performance Evaluation: A Case Study in China", International Journal of Business, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 29-46. SCHOLL A., vd. (2005); ―Solving Multiattribute Design Problems With Analytic Hierarchy Process and Conjoint Analysis: An Empirical Comparison‖, European Journal of Operational Research, 164. SAATY THOMAS L., (1980), The Analytic Hierarchy Process, McGraw-Hill International Book Company, New York ADIGÜZEL, O., ÇETĠNTÜRK, Ġ. and ER, O., (2009) , ‗ Konaklama iĢletmelerine olan MüĢteri Tercihinin Analitik HiyerarĢi Prosesi Yöntemiyle Belirlenmesi‘ , Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Dergisi, C1. 527 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Determination of University Selection Based Upon Analytic Hierarchy Process Orhan ADIGÜZEL Assistant Prof., University of Suleyman Demirel Isparta, TURKEY orhanadiguzel@gmail.com Ali Cüneyt ÇETĠN Assistant Prof., University of Suleyman Demirel Isparta, TURKEY ccetin@iibf.sdu.edu.tr Abstract: The most important factor in career planning of a person is to direct him depending upon his features. The best way of choosing career is to compare the wishes of a person with the requirements of that career so that he can decide the best one. Particularly, those who think to have a university education for their careers come across difficulties while deciding on their career path on account of the fact that the global world can offer various opportunities for education in a great many places. The student must choose by taking into account some criteria. As an example, several factors play a crucial role in this process such as the academic success of the university, the working opportunities provided, the distance of the university to the hometown of the student, the economic status of that city, the facilities of accommodation. Considering all these factors, the student should give an optimal decision. In this context, the common decision including both the personal different opinions and convincing for all is strongly needed. AHP (Analytic Hierarchy Process) has gained a very big momentum at these kind of situations. Introduction The key to help to a student in the process of career planning is to give him an encouragement that will have an impact in the future for the career planning activities (Laker & Laker, 2007, p.138). The fact to be known about career is that the person is responsible for the career development himself (Walker & Levesque, 2006, p.28). The reason is that in terms of career development and management in the literature, much has been emphasized personally gained and experienced career instead of organization based career development .( Kidd & Green, 2006, p.229). The person in the personal planning stage while choosing his career, he has been affected by a number of factors. The best career choice is, to reach the best by comparing what he wants and what he needs. The matter is to decide upon the best among the alternatives and upon the methods by which the decisions will be taken. The selection of the department in high schools until the university exam, even the selection of the type of the high schools and the private courses for the preparation of the university exam is determined by the selections following the decisions. The selection of the university after high school is particularly significant for the students who are at the beginning of their careers. In this term, the students are a little bit confused due to the efforts to choose the best among a number of alternatives. In this case, the most important moment for decision is to choose the best alternative of the university. The student is supposed to choose by taking into account some criteria such as the academic achievement of the university, the chance of the graduates in having jobs, the distance of the university to the homeland, the economic status and the opportunities for accommodation of the city. Considering all these factors, the student should give an optimal decision. By means of this, throughout undergraduate study, some of the regrets should be prevented and motivation and concentration should be used for the productivity and the efficiency of the education. In this case, a common decision is needed by means of which both the differences of personal opinions can be assessed and everyone can be persuaded at the same time. From this perspective, AHP is a mathematical method which lays emphasis on the features of a person as well as group, and which assesses both the qualitative and quantitative variables together (Dağdeviren et al., 2004, p.132). At the same time, it provides opportunity for deciding effectively in the solution of decisional problems (Dündar & Ecer, 2008, p.198). AHP enables to modeling in a hierarchical way showing the relationship between 528 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo decision makers with complex problems, the ultimate goal of the problem, criteria, sub criteria, and the alternatives (Kuruüzüm & Atsan, 2001, p.84). Recently, this problem has captured attention a lot, and it is used in the solution of decision making problems in real life. Particularly, in the efficiency analysis, in the productivity analysis, and in the problems of performance asessment, the AHP is seen to be widely used. The Determination of University Selection There are many application processes all around the world in the higher education system. Recruitment structures and college admissions vary widely from country to country. For example, mostly, all British higher education institutions are members of the UCAS, therefore, nearly all those wishing to study for their first degrees in the UK have to apply through the UCAS. In the USA, students apply to one or more colleges or universities by submitting an application which each college evaluates according to its own criteria. For the graduate education, virtually all graduate programs require applicants to submit scores on standardized tests. In Turkey the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) prepares the centralized University Entrance Examination (Yamamato, 2006, p.59). In addition to the differences of the applications depending upon the countries, there are also some differences in the selection of the university of a student. In occurrence of these differences, the impacts of the opportunities are effective. While some of the universities bring forth the the quality of their education, the others mention about the technological facilities. At the same time, some of the universities are boastful about the employed students, but the others are important for their social opportunities in the campus. The students on the verge of choosing the university will be affected from all these differences and will need to search the reality of these opportunities and they will focus on the criteria and the factors determined well in advance. These factors and the criteria become more clear after collecting informations from many sources about the universities (Veloutsou et al., 2005, p.281). The location of the the university, local social life and campus, the future career prospects and opportunities, financial considerations, the quality of education, the institutions‘ infrastructure, job prospects, personal motives have impacts on selection (Keskinen et al., 2008, p.639-640; Soutar & Tourner, 2002, p.40-41; Veloutsou et al., 2005, p.161-162) The Analytic Hierarchy Process The Analytic Hierarchy Process is decision-making process that breaks complex problems down into levels of decision criteria that can be managed more readily. The AHP synthesizes information and evaluates decision criteria in a way that enables the use of both real data and qualitative evaluations of factors in one model (Liu et al., 2008,p. 437). As Saaty mentions that it also organizes the basic rationality by breaking down a problem into its smaller constituent parts and then guides decision makers through a serious of pairwise comparison judgments to express relative strength or intensity of impact of the elements (Varma et al., 2008, p.346). The AHP method can support managers in a broad range of decisions and complex problems including supplier-selection decisions, facility-location decisions, forecasting, risks and oppurtunities modeling, choice of technology, plan and product design, and so on. Further more the AHP approach also shows some interesting advantages (Costa & Evangelista, 2008, p.71):  Effectiveness also in presence of descriptive and evaluative lacks;  Effectiveness when there is a co-presence of qualitive and quantitive;  It overcomes the diffuculty of the evaluation of decisional factors;  Control of the answers consistency and the final results coherence;  Possibility to focus on every aspect of the problem always going down to a greater level of detail and stratifying the analysis; and  Dynamism and adaptability of the method The calculation procedure of AHP is presented below (Hsu and Chen, 2008, p. 46): Establishment of pair-wise comparision matrix A. Let C1,C2,C3,…..,Cn be the set of criteria, while aij represents a quantified judgement on a pair of criteria Ci, Cj. The relative importance of two criteria is rated using a scale with the digits 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9, where 1 denotes ―equally important‖, 3 for ―slightly more important‖, 5 for ―strongly more important‖, 7 for ―demonstrably more important‖ and 9 for ―absolutely more important‖. The digits 2, 4, 6 and 8 areare used to facilitate a compromise between slightly differing judgments. A n-by-n matrix A is derived as fallows 529 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  a11 a12 ... aj  a   21 a 22 ... aj   . .  A  .   .  . .     ai1 ai 2 ... aij  (1) Where aij = 1 and aji = 1/ aij, i,j = 1, 2, …..,n. In matrix A, the problem involves assigning a set of numerical weights W1, W2, W3, ……Wn to the n criteria C1, C2, C3, …….Cn that ―reflects the recorder judgments‖. If A is a consistency matrix, the relations between weights Wi and judgments aij are simply given by Wi / Wj = aij (for i,j = 1, 2, 3, ……n) Eigenvalue and eigen vector. Saaty suggested that the largest eigenvalue λmax If A is a consistency matrix then eigen vector X can be calculated by the equation (2): (A – λmaxI) X = 0 (2) Consistency test. Saaaty proposed utilizing consistency index (CI) and consistency ratio (CR) to verify the consistency of the comparison matrix. Additionally, CI and CR are defined as fallows: CI = (λmax – n) / (n – 1) (3) CR = CI / RI (4) Where RI denotes the average consistency index over numerous random entries of same order reciprocal matrices. If CR ≤ 0,1 the estimate is accepted; otherwise, a new comparison matrix is solicited until CR ≤ 0,1. The Study Imagine that any high school graduate student determined some of the criteria about the university planned by means of the decision either collectively or individually. These criteria are such as the image and the prestige of the university, the knowledge in education and the technological opportunities, the career opportunities, the possibility of employment of the university graduates, the atmosphere of the campus and the social life, the opportunities for accommodation, and transportation, yet still, let‘s consider that the student gives more paramount importance to the five of them more than the others. Let‘s say these are the criteria like ―the image and the prestige of the university‖, ―the knowledge in education and the technological opportunities‖, ―the career opportunities in the university‖, ―the possibility of employment of the university graduates‖, ―the atmosphere of the campus and the social life‖. The university alternatives and the results of these alternative universities out of 100 point in terms of the criteria are shown below in Table 1: 1. 1. UNIV. 2. 2. UNIV. 3. UNIV. 4. UNIV. 5. UNIV. 80 100 70 60 90 IMAGE-PRESTIGE 90 70 80 100 80 KNOWLEDGE-TECH. 50 80 90 60 70 CAREER 70 70 60 60 80 EMPLOYMENT 60 60 100 90 90 CAMPUS Table 1 In this stage of the application, initially, the comparison of the criteria was done in accordance with the method of AHP and indicated in Table 2. In the process of the determination of the level of importance, the opinion of the student and the environment left impacts, and comparisons were made depending upon these opinions. I-P K-T CAR EMP CAM I-P K-T CAR EMP CAM Table 2 1 2 1/2 1 3 2 1/3 1/4 5 4 1/3 3 1/5 1/2 4 1/4 1 5 1/3 1/5 1 1/7 3 7 1 530 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  1 1/ 2 3  2 1 2  1 / 3 1 / 2 1 A  4 5  3 1 / 5 1 / 4 1 / 3   1/ 3 1/ 4 1/ 5 1 1/ 7 5 4  3  7 1   0.184 0.195   0.094 W    0.481 0.044     The Consistency Ratio of Matris A = 0.0545 The calculated vector in the column W shows values of numerical importance. In the framework of these results, the most important criteria with the percentage of 48 % is ―employment‖ whereas the least criteria is ―the atmosphere of campus‖ with the percentage of 5 %. In the Table 3 below, the criteria‘s values of importance in percentage are given sequently. The Sequence of The Assessment Criterium Approximate Values of Importance Importance in Percentage Employment % 48 1 2 Knowledge-Technology % 20 3 Image-Prestige % 18 4 Career %9 5 Campus %5 Table 3 The formula used while finding W is, at the same time, used to compare and contrast the criteria of all the candidates with one another. In this context, the stages of finding out matris C such as C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 in the results of all the contrasts in every criterium is in the following: 3. UNIV. 4. UNIV. 5. UNIV. 1. UNIV. 2. UNIV. 1 1/5 3 5 1/3 1.UNIV. 5 1 7 9 3 2. UNIV. 1/3 1/7 1 3 1/5 3. UNIV. 1/5 1/9 1/3 1 1/7 4. UNIV. 3 1/3 5 7 1 5. UNIV. 1  5  1 / 3 V1   1 / 5 3   1/ 5 3 1 7 1/ 7 1 1/ 9 1/ 3 1/ 3 5 5 9 3 1 7 1/ 3  3  1/ 5   1/ 7  1    0.134 0.502   0.067  C1    0.034 0.260     The Consistency Ratio of Matris C1= 0.0541 The Comparison of the University in terms of “Image and Prestige” 531 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Assessing from the perspective of ―Image and Prestige‖, it can be stated that the university in the second order is much more preferable with the percentage of 50.2 %. 1. UNIV. 2. UNIV. 3. UNIV. 4. UNIV. 5. UNIV. 1 5 3 1/3 3 1. UNIV. 1/5 1 1/3 1/7 1/3 2. UNIV. 1/3 3 1 1/5 1 3. UNIV. 3 7 5 1 5 4. UNIV. 1/3 3 1 1/5 1 5. UNIV.  1 1/ 5  1/ 3 V2    3 1/ 3   5 3 1/ 3 1 1/ 3 1/ 7 3 1 1/ 5 7 5 1 3 1 1/ 5 3 1 / 3  4  5 1   0.245 0.046   0.105 C2    0.497  0.105     The Consistency Ratio of Matris C2= 0.0284 The Comparison of the University in terms of “Knowledge and Technological Opportunities” As for the criteria of ―Knowledge and Technological Opportunities‖, the university in fourth order is leading the others with the percentage of 49.7 %. The Comparison of the University in terms of “The Opportunites of Career in the Unıversity” 1. UNI. 2. UNI. 3. UNI. 4. UNI. 5. UNI. 1. UNI. 2. UNI. 3. UNI. 4. UNI. 5. UNI. 1 7 9 3 5 1/7 1 3 1/5 1/3     V3       1 7 9 3 5 1/ 7 1 3 1/ 5 1/ 3 1/9 1/3 1 1/7 1/5 1/ 9 1/ 3 1 1/ 7 1/ 5 1 / 5 3  5   1 / 3 1    1/ 3 5 7 1 3 1/3 5 7 1 3 1/5 3 5 1/3 1 0.034 0.260   0.502 C3    0.067  0.134     The Consistency Ratio of Matris C3= 0.0541 According to the criterium of ―The Career Opportunities in the University‖ the university in the third order is in a better state with the percentage of 50.2 %. The Comparison of the University in terms of “The Possibility of the Graduate Employment” 1. UNI. 2. UNI. 3. UNI. 4. UNI. 5. UNI. 1 1 3 3 1/3 1. UNI. 1 1 3 3 1/3 2. UNI. 1/3 1/3 1 1 1/5 3. UNI. 1/3 1/3 1 1 1/5 4. UNI. 3 3 5 5 1 5. UNI. 532 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1 1  1 1  1 / 3 1 / 3 V4   1 / 3 1 / 3  3 3   3 3 1 1 5 3 3 1 1 5 1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 5 1/ 5 1 0.195 0.195   0.073 C4    0.073 0.462              The Consistency Ratio of Matris C4= 0.012 The university in the fifth order is much more successful in the criterium of ―The Possibility of Graduate Employment‖ with the percentage of 46.2 %. The Comparison of the University according to the criteria of “The Atmosphere of Campus and Social Life” 1. UNIV. 2. UNIV. 3. UNIV. 4. UNIV. 5. UNIV. 1 1 1/9 1/7 1/7 1. UNIV. 1 1 1/9 1/7 1/7 2. UNIV. 9 9 1 3 3 3. UNIV. 7 7 1/3 1 1 4. UNIV. 7 7 1/3 1 1 5. UNIV. 1 1  9 V5   7 7   1 1 9 7 7 1/ 9 1/ 7 1/ 9 1/ 7 1 3 1/ 3 1 1/ 3 1 1/ 7  1 / 7  3   1  1    0.038 0.038   0.476 C5    0.222 0.222     The Consistency Ratio of Matris C5= 0.025 The results of the last criterium of ―Campus Life and Social Life‖ are as in the Matris of C5. In this criterium, the university in the third order is more likely to be preferred with the 47.6 % percentage. After this point, to calculate the sequence is of great significance. Depending upon the values, it can be mentioned that the decision about the university selection will be optimal. In this way, the decisions of the students would be rational, not regretful. The decision matris is seen in the last part of this application through this Formula [ Cij ] m×n ×[ Wi ]n×1. 0.134  0.502   0.067   0.034  0.260   0.245 0.046 0.105 0.497 0.105 0.034 0.260 0.502 0.067 0.134 0.195 0.195 0.073 0.073 0.462 0.038   0.184   0.171     0.221 0.038   0.195    0.476  ×  0.094  D= 0.136      0.222  0.481. 0.154 0.312 0.222   0.044            When the values in the Matris D are assessed regarding the Table 4, 5 th university is in the first sequence with the percentage of 32%. And this choice is the best and optimal one for the student. 533 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Sequence Importance 1 of Universities 5th UNIVERSITY Approximate Values Importance in Percentage 31% 2 2nd UNIVERSITY 22% 3 1st UNIVERSITY 17% 4 4th UNIVERSITY 16% 5 3rdUNIVERSITY 14% of Table 4 Conclusion and Suggestions All of us wants to have a very prestigous job at the end of our education for which we spend a great amount of time on account of the fact that a job that makes us happy enables our life meaningful and productive. The efficiencies of a certain job, perhaps, are presented to a great number of students in many universities. However, the universities have some ups and downs in terms of the opportunities. Even this is the case for the same faculties of the same university. To say in another way, the university that can offer opportunities should be prefered, not an ordinary one. From this perspective, the decision of university selection which is the most critical stage of the education should be given rationally. AHP is the method of mathematical decision by means of which the qualitative and the quantitative cases can be assessed together. As in the example of here, the university candidate ascertains some certain criteria both with group and individual decisions. These criteria are ―the image and the prestige of the university‖, ―the knowledge in education and the technological opportunities‖, ―the career opportunities in the university‖, ―the possibility of employment of the university graduates‖, ―the atmosphere of the campus and the social life‖. The candidate student decides the university of 5th university among the five university alternatives through the AHP method. It can be demonstrated that this result is the most optimal and rational one. This method enables the student to reach the most liked occupational efficiencies in the best and useful atmoshere. AHP can be used not only in the university selection, but also in all of the management and the organizational activities as the solution to the decisional problems. By means of this, the interested people, the workers, and the managers can find the opportunity to reach the most suitable decision in a shortest way and thanks to the consistency of the decisions, the unnecessary repetitions of the same procedures will be prevented. References Costa, R. & Evangelista, S. (2008). An AHP approach to assess brand intangible assets, Measuring Business Excellence, Vo.12, No.2, 68-78. Dağdeviren, M.,Akay, D., Kurt, M. (2004). ĠĢ değerlendirme sürecinde analitik hiyerarĢi prosesi ve uygulaması, Gazi Üniversitesi Müh. Mim. Fak. Dergisi, Vol.19, 131-138. Dündar, S. & Ecer, F. (2008). Öğrencilerin GSM operatörü tercihinin analitik hiyerarĢi süreci yöntemiyle belirlenmesi, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Ġ.Ġ.B.F Yönetim Ekonomi Dergisi, Vol.15, No.1, 195–205. Hsu, P. F. & Chen, B. Y.(2008). Integrated analytic hierarchy process and entropy to develop a durable goods hain store franchisee selection model, A Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, Vol.20, No. 1, 44-54. Keskinen, E., Tiuraniemi, J., Liimola A. (2008). University selection in Finland: How the decision is made, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 22, No.7, 638-650 Kidd, J. M. & Green, F. (2006). The careers of research scientists: Predictors of three dimensions of careeer commitment and intention to leave science, Personnel Review , Vol. 35, No.3, 229-251. Kuruüzüm, A. & Atsan, N. (2001). Analitik hiyerarĢi yöntemi ve iĢletmecilik alanındaki uygulamaları‖ Akdeniz Ġ.Ġ.B.F. Dergisi, No.1, 83-105. 534 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Laker, D. R. & Laker, R. (2007), The five- year Resume: A career planning exercise, Journal of Management Education, Vol.31, No.1, 128-141. Liu, L.B., Berger, P., Zeng, A., Gerstenfeld, A.(2008). Applying the analytic hierarchy process to the offshore outsourcing location decision, Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 13(6), 435-449. Soutar, G. N. & Turner, J. P.(2002). Student‘s preferences for university: A conjoint analysis, The International Journal of Educational Management, 16(1), 40-45. Varma, S., Wadhwa S., Deshmukh S.G.(2008). Evaluating petroleum supply chain performance, A Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, Vol.20, No.3, 343-356. Veloutsou, C., Lewis J. W., Paton R. A.(2004). University selection: Information Requirements and importance, The International Journal of Educational Management Vol.18, No.3, 160-171. Veloutsou, C., Lewis J. W., Paton R. A.(2005). Consultation and realibility of information sources pertaining to university selection, International Journal of Educational Management Vol.19, No.4, 279-291. Walker, H. F. ve Levesque, J. /2006). Climbing the career ladder : It is up to you , Quality Progress , Vol 39, No.10, 28-32. Yamamato, G. T. (2006). University evaluation-selection: A Turkish case, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol.20, No.7, 559-569. 535 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo AHP Modeling in Selection of Students for a Part-Time Work: International Burch University Case Ali GÖKSU Assist. Prof. Dr., International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration goksu@ibu.edu.ba M. KürĢad ÖZLEN Research Assistant, International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Department of Business Administration kozlen@ibu.edu.ba Murat ÇUHADAR Assist. Prof. Dr., Süleyman Demirel University, Turkey mcuhadar@sdu.edu.tr Abstract: Making the right decision for an enterprise is very important for its profit, efficiency, and effectiveness. For these reasons, Decision making in an organization takes a very important place. In this paper, the most appropriate selection of a student for a particular part time work in a university will be examined. There are several methods to make a decision. A multi-criteria Decision Making method will be used to select the most suitable student. The method for this selection will be Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). While making a decision many factors should be considered. And Analytic Hierarchy Process is a quite useful method to cover many determinants. Keywords: Multi-Criteria Decision Making, AHP, Part-Time work, 1. Introduction Decision Making is a very hard and complicated procedure in many cases through the life of human being. There are usually many factors affecting the decision problem. So some methods have been developed. These are all ‗Multi-criteria Decision Making‘ methods. 1.1. Multi-Criteria Decision Making Parallel to the progress of the science and technology, it is a well-known reality that one dimensional or one variable analysis is not enough to solve more complex problems. In one dimensional analysis, the most important assumption is to suppose all the other variables constant except the one which was analyzed. However, all the events in the universe happen with the influence of many inside and outside effects, and this forms a very complex structure. So the events and the objects should be defined with respect to many variables and collective effects of them (DaĢdemir, Güngör, 2002-2003-2004 Vol. I-II). Therefore the importance of Multi-Criteria Decision Making cannot be questioned. AHP is one of Multi-Criteria Decision techniques. 1.2. Personnel Selection Human Resources in an organization has an extremely important place (Werther and Davis, 1994). So the preliminary condition is to detect the need for qualified personnel and select them efficiently and effectively. This is the most crucial issue for the organization and the procedure should work fast and correctly (Özgörmüs, Mutlu, and Güner, 2005). And the scientific approach to the problem has a great account. So in this study for giving the decision scientifically Analytic Hierarchy Process will be used. 536 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 1.3. Part Time Work in a University As a result of Both Economic developments in the world and changes on the necessities of work environment, the need for and the importance of ‗Part-Time work‘ have been increased. Organizations employ regular and part-time workers at the same time. While employing a Part-time student, there are some points which should be taken into consideration. And both the university and the student should get benefit from this procedure. 2. Research Background: Analytic Hierarchy Process Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) was developed by Thomas L. Saaty in 1977. It is one of the methods which are used for Multi-criteria Decision Making. The main advantage of this method is that the multi-criteria can easily be managed. Additionally, AHP can be understood easily and it does not contain unnecessary mathematical operations (BaĢligil, 2005). Through AHP, The observations of Decision Maker‘s in different psychological and sociological situations can be taken into account and his decision making mechanism will be tried to define. So, the aim is to provide a better environment to Decision Makers (Dağdeviren, Akay and Kurt, 2004). The required steps to be satisfied via AHP are given below. The necessary explanations with formulas are done in each step. 2.1. Defining the Decision Problem This step is also known as Decomposition Phase. This phase is the process of decomposition of the problem into sub-problems. In short, this is the formulation of the decision hierarchy. First, the objective of the study is identified. Then the suitable criteria of the objective are indicated. There may be more than one criterion or suncriteria related with the problem. These criteria should be clear and understandable. At the top of the Decision Hierarchy, there is the main goal. At the bottom, there are decision alternatives. The hierarchy may contain more than one phase according to the degree of the details related to the criteria. 2.2. Comparison The pair-wise comparison matrix is formed by evaluating each criteria and sub-criteria with respect to each other (Kuruüzüm, 2001). There is a comparison matrix shown in Table 1 for four criteria. 1 1/a21 1/a31 1/a41   a21 1 1/a32 1/a42   1 a43 a31 a32 1   a41 a42 a43 1/  1  a21  a31  a41 1 / a21 1 / a31 1 / a41   1 1 / a32 1 / a42   a32 1 1 / a43   a42 a43 1  Table 1. Pair-wise Comparison matrix for four criteria While comparing the alternatives a comparison scale which is called Analytic Hierarchy Scale is used. It is given in Table 2. Intensity of Importance 1 3 5 7 9 2,4,6,8 Reciprocals of the above 1.1 – 1.9 Definition Equal importance Weak importance of one over other Strong Importance Demonstrated Importance Absolute Importance Intermediate Values If activity i has one of the above numbers assigned to it when compared with activity j, then j has the reciprocal value when compared with i. When elements are close and nearly indistinguishable Table 2: Analytic Hierarchy scale 537 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo 2.3. Synthesis After developing pair-wise comparison matrices, the calculations are done for the relative order of the criteria among each other. This section is called ―Synthesis Section‖. If the number of the criteria is five or more, the calculations are very hard in this step. While setting up the priority vectors, Linear Algebra techniques are used. This phase contains the steps: The calculations of maximum eigen-value and corresponding eigen-vector and normalization. There are several methods for normalization. According to the literature most common method is, first the percentages of each element according to its column are calculated and the average of each row is taken. Thus for every criteria priority vectors are found (Kuruüzüm, 2001). 2.4. Consistency Ratio An important subject for the quality of the resultant decision is the consistency of the evaluation of the decision maker. Being consistent is accepted as a prerequisite for rational thinking. But it is almost impossible to be fully consistent. To get new knowledge is possible by allowing some amount of consistency. AHP does not request perfect consistency. It permits consistency, but in each decision it measures the consistency level. To measure the consistency of the decisions, the Consistency Ratio which was developed by Saaty, is used. The formula for consistency is, CI  max  n n 1 To get consistent results, consistency ratio should be smaller than 0,1. The Random Index for 15 criteria is shown in Table 3. If the number of the criteria is greater than 15, then the probability of getting healthier results will be lessened (Kwiesielewicz and Uden, 2004). Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 R. Index 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49 1.51 1.48 1.56 1.57 1.59 Table 3: Random Index 3. Application In this study, the aim is to select the most appropriate student for a part time work by using a multi-criteria decision making method AHP. The selection is done among Economics Department students which applied for the work. The applied students have filled out application forms at first. The conditions in the application form are determined by the Administration of the university and also the criteria of Higher Education Committee of Turkey were considered. The information in the forms has been used in the selection. In addition to this, a survey was applied on the members of the administration. And the results of this survey were inserted to the decision matrix. Hence the criteria which have been considered in this study are,  Economic Situation  Psychological and Medical Situation  Mental problems  Medical problems  Good mannered  Clean wear and neat appearance  Work Qualifications  Work experience  Adaptability to the group-work  Adaptability to the work environment  Work discipline The hierarchical structure is shown in the Figure 1. At the top of the hierarchy, there is the decision problem. Then in the second step, there are the main criteria. And in the last step, there are sub-criteria. 538 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The selection of the most appropriate student Economic Situation Psychology and Medical Situation Clean wear and neat appearance Work qualifications Work Experience Mental Adaptability to groupwork Medical Adaptability to work environment Good Mannered Work discipline A B C D Figure 1: The hierarchical Structure of the model The following tables are obtained after the calculation of the means of the survey results. In Table 4, there are the normalized results of the main criteria and their weight vector. It can be easily observed that the most important criterion is Work quality. Criteria Economic Situation Psychology and Medical Situation Clean wear and neat appearance Work qualifications Weight Vector Economic Situation 0,136 0,313 0,214 0,083 0,187 Psychology and Medical Situation 0,136 0,313 0,357 0,417 0,306 Clean wear and neat appearance 0,045 0,063 0,071 0,083 0,066 Work qualifications 0,682 0,313 0,357 0,417 0,441 Consistency Ratio % 9,887 Table 4: The normalized matrix of the main criteria and their weights 539 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Then the rank of the criteria according to the importance is as follows. 1. Work qualifications 2. Psychology and Medical Situation 3. Economic Situation 4. Clean wear and neat appearance The results in the tables are obtained by using Microsoft Office 2007 Excel. But for easy calculations for AHP problems The Software program Expert Choice may be used. In Table 5, the sub-criteria of Psychology and Medical Situation are examined and accordingly, the importance of ‗Mental problem‘ is seen. Psychology and Medical Situation Mental Problem Mental Problem Medical Problem Good Mannered Weight Vector 0,714 0,714 0,714 0,714 Medical Problem 0,143 0,143 0,143 0,143 Good Mannered 0,143 0,143 0,143 0,143 Consistency Ratio % 0,000 Table 5: The normalized matrix of the criterion Psychology and Medical Situation and its weights In Table 6, the weights of sub-criteria of the criterion ‗Work qualifications‘ can be seen. ‗Work discipline‘ is the most important criterion and the least important criterion is ‗Adaptability to work environment‘. Work qualifications Work experience Adaptability to the groupwork Adaptability to the work environment Work discipline Weight Vector Work experience 0,125 0,188 0,125 0,107 0,136 Adaptability to the groupwork 0,125 0,188 0,375 0,179 0,217 Adaptability to the work environment 0,125 0,063 0,125 0,179 0,123 Work discipline 0,625 0,563 0,375 0,536 0,524 Consistency Ratio % 7,030 Table 6: The normalized matrix of the criterion Work qualifications and its weights 540 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo In the conclusion part, the pair wise comparison of alternative students according to the criteria was done. And the result which is shown in Table 7 appeared. As seen in the table, the most appropriate alternative is the alternative B. 0,187 0,306 0,714 0,143 0,143 ES MNP MDP GM A 0,229 0,491 0,25 B 0,343 0,291 C 0,326 D 0,103 0,066 0,441 Weight Vector 0,136 0,217 0,123 0,524 CWA EW AG WE WD 0,283 0,323 0,231 0,208 0,200 0,252 0,298 0,25 0,418 0,295 0,231 0,525 0,200 0,554 0,379 0,067 0,25 0,082 0,214 0,231 0,109 0,333 0,097 0,169 0,151 0,25 0,217 0,168 0,307 0,158 0,267 0,097 0,154 1,000 Table 7: The normalized matrix of the students and their weights 4. Result And Evaluation Decision making takes place in every part of the life. Especially in large organizations, there are many criteria to select staff. When the number of the criteria is increased, then it would be hard to select the worker. So the selection should be done in a more scientific way. AHP method offers the decision maker an alternative. A software program using AHP can be developed, to do multi criteria decisions. The same type of study can be applied on many decision cases in the life. The study shows that in many specific and complicated situations, Analytic Hierarchy Process can be easily done. And it can offer the best decision alternative to the Decision Maker. References BAġLIGĠL Hüseyin, 2005, ‗‗The Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process For Software Selection Problems‘‘, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Mühendislik ve Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, C.3, Istanbul DAĞDEVĠREN Metin, AKAY D., KURT M., 2004, ‗‗ĠĢ Değerlendirme Sürecinde Analitik HiyerarĢi Prosesi ve Uygulaması‘‘, Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik ve Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi, C.19, No.2, Ankara DAġDEMĠR Ġsmet, GÜNGÖR Ersin, 2002-2003-2004 Vol. I-II, Çok Boyutlu Karar Verme Metotları Ve Ormancılıkta Uygulama Alanları ZKÜ, Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi GÖKSU Ali, Güngör Ġbrahim, 2008, ―Bulanık Analitik HiyerarĢik Proses ve Üniversite Tercih Sıralamasında Uygulanması‖, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, S 3. GÜNGÖR Ġbrahim, ISLER BÜYÜKER Didar, 2005, ‗‗Analitik HiyerarĢi YaklaĢımı ile Otomobil Seçimi‘‘, Zonguldak Karaelmas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C.1, S.2, Zonguldak KURUÜZÜM AyĢe, 2001, ―Analitik HiyerarĢi Yöntemi ve Ġsletmecilik Alanındaki Uygulamaları‖, Akdeniz Üniversitesi Ġktisadi ve Ġdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, C.1, S.1, Antalya 541 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo KWIESIELEWICZ Miroslaw, UDEN Ewa Van, 2004, ―Inconsistent and Contradictory Judgments In Pair wise Comparison Method In The AHP‖, Computers & Operations Research 31 MANAP Gonca, 2006, Tourism Centre Selection with Analytic Hierarchy Process, Journal of Commerce & Tourism Education Faculty ÖZGÖRMÜS Elif, MUTLU Özcan, and GÜNER Hacer, 2005, Personnel Selection by Fuzzy AHP, V. Ulusal Üretim AraĢtırmaları Sempozyumu, Ġstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi SAATY T. L., 1980, ―The Analytic Hierarchy Process‖, McGraw-Hill Inc. SAATY T. L., 1994, How to Make a Decision: The Analytic Hierarchy Process, Decision Analysis— Systems/Decision Analysis—Applications. 542 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo An Application of Fuzzy Pairwise Comparison to Farmer Attitude toward Advertisement Techniques Used for Farm Tractors in Turkey Murat CANKURT Dr., Adnan Menderes University, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept of Ag Econ, Aydın, Turkey mcankurt@adu.edu.tr Bülent MĠRAN Prof.Dr., Ege University, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept of Ag Econ, Bornova/Izmir, Turkey Cihat GÜNDEN Dr., North Carolina University, North Carolina A&T State University, USA Ahmet ġAHIN Asist. Prof., Sütçü Ġmam University, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept of Ag Econ, KahramanmaraĢ, Turkey Abstract: It is the purpose of this study to elicit the priorities of advertisement methods in which the farmers takes into account while buying farm tractor. The data was gathered through a survey that is covering randomly chosen farmers in Aydın. Fuzzy pairwise comparison was used as the analysis technique. Mostly benefited advertisement methods such as field demonstrations, media commercials, fairs, brochures and factory trips were assumed to impact the farmers during their tractor buying process. The study showed that the most important advertisement method that stimulates the farmers to buy tractor is field demonstrations with a weight of 0.87. The subsequent methods are factory trips (0.50), exhibitions at fairs (0.41 and media commercials (0.15). Introduction The decision making mechanism of the farmers for buying has been the aim of many studies so far. A great amount of theories in regard with farmer attitudes were forwarded and discussed up to now. The most attractive theory which is also quite simple and applicable is the one suggested by Kurt Lewin, a psychologist (Figure 1) (Cankurt, 2008). This theory argues that attitudes are the function of personal and environmental factors which leads to developing a model so-called ―black box‖ or ―stimulation-response‖ (OdabaĢı ve BarıĢ, 2003). FigPicture1: The Black Box (Consumer Mind) Model (OdabaĢı ve BarıĢ, 2003). 543 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo It is presumed that a customer reacts to the events under the effect of a number of individual and surrounding factors. For the ease of analysing the mechanism, grouping of the effective factors on farmer behaviour was the widespread approach in the presumed models. The grouped factors are assumed to influence the decision making process of farmers and give rise to a final behaviour, either buying or non-buying (Çabuk ve Yağcı, 2003). The factories are as follows (OdabaĢı and BarıĢ, 2003):  Psychological factors,  Socio-cultural factors,  Demographic factors,  Conditional factors,  Marketing factors This study aims at eliciting the influences of advertisement methods on the tractor buying behaviour of farmers. As in many areas, marketing studies mostly compare alternative ways that may lead to the ranking of them with their weights or priorities. It has been an important goal for researchers to rank the objectives, products or information sources properly. There have been some techniques that the researchers used in determining the priorities or rankings of elements in question. One technique that was first used by the researchers is simple ranking in which respondents are simply asked to give rank numbers to the elements while 1 represents the most preferred element and n the least preferred one. Ranking or rating scales are used in areas such as preference list and consumer satisfaction. They typically let individuals rank a product or performance via a numerical scale. While ranking scales can make it easy to assemble and tabulate the results, there are some inherent disadvantages in the gathering of the information. Ranking scales allow for consistency in the tabulation of responses. Each subject is rated using the same standards, so there is fairness in the evaluation process. The results are measurable, which makes for easy comparison. Since ranking scales are numerical, the results obtained are completely objective. Those who examine the results are not swayed by subjective comments or opinions, and there is no way for personal prejudices to factor in. Several different methods can be employed to gather information through ranking scales. In product evaluation, surveys can be done over the phone, in person or by postal mail. In-person surveys can also be conducted at a location where a product is purchased by giving out free samples. In the age of the Internet, information from ranking scales can even be gather via email or online survey. A possible weakness of ranking systems is that the evaluator may rank based on perception. Although those who interpret the results use objective methods, the actual evaluators may rate the subject based on their opinions or prejudices without basing them on fact. The evaluators may also interpret the rating scales differently. For example, with a rating scale that assigns a number based on criteria such as "good," "average" or "occasionally" room is left for interpretation as to what those terms actually mean, which can result in inaccurate ratings. An individual using a ranking scale may be influenced by how a survey is conducted. If a survey is conducted in person, the responder be swayed by the survey taker's personal appearance or tone of voice. They survey taker may also have a personal agenda which influences how they ask the questions.. In fact, studies indicated that more than five information sources can not be efficiently compared by nonpreeducated minds (Baran, 2002). Another technique without such disadvantages that can be used in ranking is simple pairwise comparison. Simple pairwise comparison is a sort of divide-and-conquer problem-solving method. It allows one to determine the relative order (ranking) of a group of items (products). This is often used as part of a process of assigning weights to criteria in question. Pairwise comparison generally refers to any process of comparing entities in pairs to judge which of each pair is preferred, or has a greater amount of some quantitative property. The method of pairwise comparison is used in the scientific study of preferences, attitudes, voting systems, social choice and public choice. In psychology literature, it is often referred to as paired comparison. This study deals with eliciting how much farmers pay attention to each of the advertisement techniques while making decision on buying a farm tractor. The results from the study is expected to serve as a tool for using most effective advertisement techniques to get the best selling levels of farm tractors. Material And Method The data was gathered through a survey that is covering randomly chosen farmers in Aydın. The province of Aydın has 17 counties, including itself as Central County. There is a poli-cultural production structure in Aydın. Total sample size was computed as 121 by estimating the population proportion with 90% confidence level and 7.5% error (Newbold, 1995). Three of the 17 counties of Aydın were selected to represent Aydın and total sample size was distributed to these counties according to their respective shares. 544 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The data was analyzed by the FPC in which the farmers made pairwise comparisons of the five advertisement techniques. FPC presented weighted scores for each of the advertisement methods that enabled us to rank them. In the FPC, a farmer was asked to compare two advertisement techniques. The comparison includes not only a preference of one technique over the other technique but also drawing out the level or power of the preference. Fuzzy Pair-Wise Comparison Fuzzy theory began with a paper on ―fuzzy sets‖ by Zadeh in 1965. Fuzzy set theory is an extension of crisp set theory (Tanaka, 1997). Fuzzy sets are sets with boundaries that are not precise. Thus, fuzzy sets describe ranges of vague and soft boundaries by degree of membership (Lai and Hwang, 1994). The membership in a fuzzy set is a matter of a degree (Klir and Yuan, 1995). Fuzzy set is characterized by a membership function, which is allowed to choose an arbitrary real value between zero and one. FPC was first used by Van Kooten, Schoney and Hayward (1986) to study farmers‘ goal hierarchies for use in multiple-objective decision making. The first step of FPC approach in this study is data collection by using a unit line segment as illustrated in Figure 2. Two advertisement methods, D (field demonstration) and T (factory trips), are located at opposite ends of the unit line. Farmers are asked to place a mark on the line to indicate the degree of their affected advertisement method. A measure of the degree of preference for advertisement method D over T, rDT, is obtained by measuring the distance from the farmer‘s mark to the D endpoint. The total distance from D to T equals 1. If rDT<0.5, advertisement method D is preferred to D; if rDT=0.5, the farmer is indifferent between D and T and if rDT>0.5, then advertisement method D is preferred to T. RDT=1 or rDT=0 indicates absolute preference for advertisement method D or T. For example, if rDT=1, then advertisement method D is absolutely preferred to T (Van Kooten et al, 1986). Neutral D T Figure 2. Fuzzy method for making pair-wise comparison between advertisement methods (D)Demonstration and (T)Trip. The present study employs five advertisements used tractor advertisement. The number of pair-wise comparisons, λ, can be calculated as follows:   n   n  1 / 2 (1) where n = the number of advertisement methods. Thus, a farmer made ten pair-wise comparisons in a personal interview. In the second step of FPC, for each paired comparison (i,j), r ij (ij) is obtained. rij‘s values is collected directly from farmer. Also rij (ij) is a measure of the degree by which the farmer prefers advertisement method i to advertisement method j and rji=1- rij represents the degree by which j is preferred to i. Following Van Kooten at al (1986), the farmer‘s fuzzy preference matrix R with elements can be constructed as follows: 0 if i  j  i, j  1,..., n Rij   rij if i  j  i, j  1,..., n (2) Finally, a measure of preference, μ, can be calculated for each advertisement method by using farmer‘s preference matrix R. The intensity of each preference is measured separately by the following equation: 1/ 2  n   j  1    Rij2 /  n  1   i 1  (3) μj has a range in the closed interval [0,1]. The larger value of μj indicates a greater intensity of preference for advertisement method j. As a result, farmer‘s advertisement methods are ranked from most to least preferable by evaluating the μ values. To analyze advertisement methods derived from FPC, nonparametric statistical tests are used (BaĢarır and Gillespie, 2003). Friedman test is employed to establish whether the advertisement methods are equally important within a block which is a farmer‘s advertisement method rankings according to his/her preferences. Since five advertisement methods are presented to farmers, each row includes five values which are the degree of the preferences for the advertisement methods exposed from a farmer. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference in preferences over 545 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 237 Title A name given to the resource A Comparison of Ethical Perspectives in Business in Turkish Ahilik Society and American Marketing Association Author Author DİNC, Muhammet Said DUMAN, Teoman Abstract A summary of the resource. “Ahilik‖ is the name of a society which had played a crucial role on social, economic and cultural life of Anatolian people from 13th century to today. The ethical principles established by this society have had significant effects on commercial life in Turkish territories throughout history. The teachings of Ahilik can be found in ‗Futuvvetnames‘ which are the books that include basic moral rules and principles of commerce such as fellowship, helpfullness, honesty and tolerance. These set of principles are still significant in today‘s business life in Turkey. On the other hand, today‘s widespread ethical business principles in the world are mainly rooted in well-known marketing and business organizations. The Ethical Codes of American Marketing Association are one of the most well known ethical codes in current business terminology. The purpose of this study is to analyze the similarities and differences between the moral rules of ‗Ahilik‘ and ethical norms and values of American Marketing Association. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/632aaccbac8b34dbf06614483964d887.pdf 52a8822353b839cda10d9f4ea8c7e372 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Contribution of University on Economic Development Ahmet DĠNC Economics Department Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq da29tr@yahoo.com Abstract: Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes: improvement in material, a decline in an agriculture‘s share of gross national product(GNP), increasing share of industry in GNP, increasing education level, substantial technical advance and etc. Human Development Index is one of the measurement of Economic development. Economist need skillful labor force is provided by universities to ensure qualified more production with value added for economic growth and development. We saw that universities contributed innovation to become monopol in world market, relationship between domestic private companies and foreing ones, ensuring sustainable development, to become guide for foreign and domestic firms. In addition, universites contributed as information office. In this study, we analyzed contribution of technology and internet to the university and contribution of universities to economic development of country. We have worked and searched in private university in foreign country for 12 years. So, we aimed productive study with work experience abroad, observing and interactive study with academicians in other universities. We analyzed our study under three main titles; Functions of universities and categorize of countries. How to improve level of economic lesson by using internet among countries. Contribution of universities to level of economic development Introduction During the last few centuries the western economies have experienced an economic growth never before seen in history. This change has mainly been caused by knowledge, compared to previous history where land, natural resources, labor or machines were the factors determining economic growth and development. Long run economic performance during the last few decades, known as the knowledge economy or the information age, has consequently been driven by innovation and technological change instead, so, The production of new knowledge plays an important role in economic growth, international trade and regional development. (Rindeskar, 2005) The central purpose of this study is to analyze the importance of human capital are educated by university for generation of economic development through its effect on knowledge production in the innovation. A key driver to achieve the economic, social and physical regeneration of city and region University makes environment where science and business work together. (Goddard, 2009) It was seen that there is impact of universıty on economic development. Innovation and research which are studied by universities are the main argument on development of any country. These are the key of ensuring welfare. Functions of University and Classification of Countries Functions of University The Universities are schools of education as well as research. But, main reason for their existence is not to be found either in the just knowledge conveyed to the students or in the just opportunities for research afforded to the academicians in faculty. These functions could be performed at a cheaper rate. ( www.jstor.org/pss/40218022) When we pay attention definition of economics we see two major topics: unlimited human wants and limited resources. The twenty-first century is universally recognized as a time for developing knowledge-based economies and digital information technologies. With the rapid socia-economic changes, the democratization of government, structural shifts in production and the rapid growth of value systems of recent years, serious new challenges have presented themselves, with regards to the maintenance and function of higher education. In order to meet these challenges, higher education must continue to advance through innovation, effective adjustments, planning and ability to predict 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the future or vision. Universities are not only a school of knowledge, culture and technological innovation but they are also important centers for the cultivation of a nation's resources. Therefore, by bringing the university's function into full play, can it provide an essential foundation for motivating academic and technological innovation and assist with the economic development of a country. It is also clear that university competitiveness is a major indicator of a nation's competitiveness and that the excellence of a nation's universities is an important key to increasing a nation's sense of competitiveness. (Mu-lin, 2002) The two poles of the social function of universities are the academics inherent in universities and the more diverse demands from society, which are dialectic unity. Academics are inherent in universities and the function of universities that focused on social demands is the sociality of universities. Academics are the internal cause of multiple functions of universities while social demands are the external one. The potential of universities finds expression in the external cause of social demands, without which the potential is only potential elements and will never turn into reality. On the contrary, without the potential of universities social demands cannot make the products which society is in need of. Exchange between universities and society is the bridge that connects the two parts. Universities as a social organization have basic characteristics of all social organizations. Sociality is one feature of human organizations, being that ―organizations composed of human all exist in society as part of it and for the sake of it.‖ The potential that enables universities‘ exchange is their academic activities, which underlie the functions of universities. Universities‘ function of criticism is closely linked with the objective, fundamental, and pioneering academic activities. ―It is the characteristic of universities‘ serving society that in addition to paying attention to the immediate demands of society, universities should be pioneers to be ahead of social progress and provide new thoughts and opportunities for sustained development.‖ It is the objective and pioneering academic activities that enable universities to correct the defects resulting from the pursuit of self-utility on the part of other social organizations and to criticize society. The university function of international communication is the product of the objective academic activities, which makes it possible for people from different countries and with different ideologies to make discussions and exchanges on objective issues in the contemporary world. (Liu, 2005) Classification of Countries We believe that there is a close relationship between function of university and economic development. We think that you will no doubt about the importance and broad applicable of economics after reading and studying this study. Let‘s take an example one branch in university as faculty of economics and administrative sciences. Our aim is to allow students to understand economic environment, And to show you how to apply economic principles to actual events. We tried to show most of our examples applications, and extensions are drawn from the real world. We can count some way to define economics: - is the social science that deals with such problems - is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life - is a broad-ranging discipline - is the study of the use of scarce resources to satisfy unlimited human wants. Also we can count some definition of economists: are innovators, tinkers, and inventors in their own way. Societies face lots real world problems, and history shows that economic ideas can produce waves to solve these problems. When we categorize countries in the world we see three ones. These are: 1-Developed Countries 2-Developing Countries 3-The Least Developed Countries Each society requires to past upper level to live comfortably. For that Economic Growth and Economic Development should be at level required. The economy sometimes grows and sometimes shrinks. World faced with global crisis and reduced production speed, so, global GDP fell down from 3.7 per cent in 2007 to 2 per cent in 2008 (UN, 2009)When we compare developed and least developed countries we see that there is big gap each other. It is said that per capita income in developed country can be over 12 000 $ yearly. On the other hand a dollar a day means 365$ yearly. In addition society experiences such problems: Such as unemployment, price stability, unproductive production, unfair competitive, inequity distribution income, maximizing profit, shut-down point etc. to solve these problems economists use some instruments. To produce more and more production we increase input but this is not enough. We need time and high level technology. Latest technology gives a hand to understand easily. High level technology is ensured and used to reproduce by universities. For example let‘s analyse relationship between internet and a faculty. I mean university innovates technology then uses it to improve teaching‘s quality. 487 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo How to Improve Level of Economic Lesson by Using Internet Among Countries When you study economics, you are probably wondering, why should we study economics? Actually, people study economics for a number of reasons. Many people study economics because they hope to make money. Some of them are worry that they will be illiterate if they don‘t know or understand the laws of supply and demand. People are also concerned to learn about how we can improve our environment or why countries such as Russia and china are moving from a planned to a market economy. As a voter we are interested about economy. Because which party‘s way is better for us. By using our vote we become to select party‘s prior investment. At the same time if we understand economy we can put forward an idea about meaning of economic growth, per capita income, distribution of income, foreing direct investment, exchange rate, economic crisis (Faced with the current economic crisis, many governments have identified enhanced ICT use as a strategy to quicken recovery), and etc. The word economy comes from the Greek word oikonomos, which means ―one who manages a household.‖ At first, this origin might seem peculiar. But in fact, households and economies have much in common. Economics is social science concerned with the production, distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and services. Economists focus on the way in which individuals, groups, business enterprises, and governments seek to achieve efficiently any economic objective they select. Lesson of economy is presented at Universities, institutions of higher education that offer programs beyond the high school level. Colleges and universities provide necessary training for individuals wishing to enter professional careers. They also strive to develop students‘ creativity, insight, and analytical skills. To train good economist at universities, we can benefit from internet for teaching, systematic presentation of facts, ideas, skills, and techniques. (Samuelson & Nordhaus, 2001) Although human beings have survived and evolved as a species partly because of a capacity to share knowledge, teaching as a profession did not emerge until relatively recently. The societies of the ancient world that made substantial advances in knowledge and government, however, were those in which specially designated people assumed responsibility for educating the young. Internet or computer-based global information system is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information with one another and to share computational resources such as powerful supercomputers and databases of information. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet does not have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, make information available to others, find information provided by others, or sell products with a minimum overhead cost. The Internet has brought new opportunities to government, business, and education. (UN, 2005) Many individuals use the Internet for communicating through electronic mail (e-mail), for news and research information, shopping, paying bills, and online banking. Educational institutions use the Internet for research and to deliver courses and course material to students, for example distance learning (Distance services, dispensed by cell-phone, internet telephony or websites, can allow skills that are in short supply to benefit larger numbers of people.) (UNDP 2009) Scientists and scholars use the Internet to communicate with colleagues, perform research, distribute lecture notes and course materials to students, and publish papers and articles. As we look internet users by level of development 2000-2004 (see Table) we can see that developed countries is 73% in 2000 57% in 2004 years, developing countries are 25% in 2000 years 38% in 2004, South-East Europe and CIS 2% in 2000 years 5% in 2004 years. At the end of 2008, there were an estimated 1.4 billion Internet users around the world. In developing countries, the number of users grew by a quarter, or almost five times faster than in developed countries. As a result, developing countries now account for more than half the world‘s Internet users. A little over one fifth of the world‘s population used the Internet in 2008. (UN, 2009) Classification Developed Countries Developing countries South-East Europe and CIS 2000 285 429 829 96 367 167 5 982 116 2001 344 585 162 137 712 413 8 963 563 2002 402 012 514 204 925 742 13 653 481 2003 433 307 644 256 845 766 23 745 186 Table 1: Internet users by region and level of development Contribution of Universities to Level of Economic Development 488 2004 501 756 193 332 998 292 40 877 486 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes: improvement in material, a decline in an agriculture‘s share of GNP, increasing share of industry in GNP, increasing education level, substantial technical advance and etc. Human Development Index (HDI) is one of the measurement of Economic development. As we pay attention table below we see that HDI contains three parts such as life expectancy, adult literacy, and GDP. GDP measures the total output and total income of an economy. If we care about the happiness of a typical individual in an economy, it makes more sense to look at GDP per capita. We can understand whether income is shared equally between its citizens.(Begg & Fischer & Dornbusch 1997)We can measure level of country‘s economic development by looking HDI too. All three units in this index are related directly with education, talent, knowledge, and learning. All these activities happend and occur in university. According to Human Development Report 2009, all countries are classified if HDI of country is higher than 0.900 it is very high human development country, if HDI of country is between 0.899 and 0.800 it is high human development country, if HDI of country is between 0.799 and 0.500 it is medium human development coutry, if HDI of country less than 0.499 it is low human development. (UNDP, 2009) When we see table below we can say that Turkmenistan is medium human development country in 1998. Turkmenistan/ Human Development Index (HDI) Life Adult Combined Real Expectancy literacy gross GDP years above enrolment per 15 (%) ratio (%) capita $ Life Expectancy Index Educational Attainment Index Real GDP per capita $ HDI 1997 1998 0.690 0.665 0.897 0.875 0.427 0.493 0.671 0.678 64.7 64.9 98.8 98.8 71.0 65.0 2683 3162 Table 2 :Turkmenistan HDI It is accepted as inevitable that we live in a world accelerated change. As people, we can see creative opportunity, or we can be demoralized as we watch companies and people come and go. As a region, we are always going to be in the position of retention -- companies, people, and capital -- as we also search economic development opportunities for expansion and attraction. The reality is that regions like Central Upstate New York compete with regions around the world that are already organized to attract capital investment and jobs. If we look at regions that are considered economic powerhouses, it‘s easy to see a pattern of success. Such as; the availability of skilled labor, access to capital, investment in R&D, proximity to colleges and research institutions, transportation and information links to markets, networks of suppliers, favorable tax and cost of business structures, business-friendly local government climates and regulatory environments, and a high quality of life. They are also places that project success because they have mounted highly effective regional marketing programs based on their unique strengths. (Hartsock 2007) Most universities‘ primary economic roles are the training of highly qualified personnel and the production of new knowledge. While these roles are more important than ever in today‘s knowledge economy, universities have also moved to occupy a new and central role in regional innovation ecosystems. (TRRA 2007)Universities need to focus upon innovative research activities which improve the quality of the regional environment. This includes research that impacts the traditional areas such as tourism, or more broadly, the service sector, biomedical research, coastal/environmental issues, and oil and gas. (Trumbach & Lundberg p.3) None of this serves to prove that universities are unimportant. In fact they are crucial. The government has acknowledged that the most successful technology grouptas in the USA and UK are located in geographical proximity to centres of research excellence in universities, such as Stanford, University of California, Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge Massachusetts, Austin in Texas and Cambridge, UK. (Fazackerley, Smith &Massey 2009) New roles require new approaches. Universities are starting to move away from a narrow focus on patents and licensing to acknowledge knowledge flows out into the market, and to establish supportive policies, programs and infrastructure to make these processes more efficient. Universities are also starting to support entrepreneurship and to lead or partner with other regional stakeholders in regional economic development efforts. It was seen that universities have lots contributions, but here we will study three main key roles. The following sections provide a sample of the different roles universities can play with respect to innovation and economic development. 489 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo First; Development of highly qualified personnel Providing skilled graduates is one of the primary economic contributions of universities and a highly effective means of transferring knowledge and increasing the absorptive capacity of firms for innovative ideas and discoveries. Firms are attracted to the large pools of talent that universities generate and the availability of highly qualified R&D personnel is a key factor in R&D site selection. Regionally, the concentration of creative, highly skilled talent is a critical factor in cluster development and dynamic urban economies. Universities that are effective generators of technology-based growth are able to recruit and/or retain star researchers. Universities also play an important role through industry education and training partnerships, delivering non-degree educational programs targeted to different industry sectors. These may include graduate certificate programs in technical or management areas, executive development programs, weekend MBA programs, and corporate-focused distance education. (TRRA 2007) The increased importance of human capital is most evident in the well developed economies where the structure has undergone considerable changes since the 1980’s. According to Romer (1990) the output per worker increase that characterizes the western world during the last decades is explained by both technological progress and a more effective labor force. Some economists stress that a well functioning higher educational system is one of the most important elements of the modern economies. Not only because of the development and growth in the long run but also because of the necessity of being competitive in the globalized world and international market of today. (Gerdne, 2005) Also we should pay attention that economic growth and development is spreading to the east of world because of skillful labor force. Nations who understand importance of education improve their standard of living. Second; Research and knowledge production Universities benefit regional firms through knowledge spillovers – knowledge generated by universities at lower cost than firms can produce it themselves. As firms located by universities tend to obtain knowledge at lower cost than firms farther away, firms concentrate around universities creating beneficial cluster economies. While universities are not the main source of external knowledge for firms, high-technology regional economies are usually attached firmly by great research universities. These contribute patents, licenses, contract research, consulting and problem solving for industry, design, engineering and testing services, often early in the innovation cycle when firms and industries are seeking ideas. Strong industry-university connections are needed, however, to connect a region‘s research and industry strengths. Industry is rarely involved in the choices universities and their faculty make when it comes to building research strengths. Some state governments fund R&D, technology applications, and other programs to foster emerging industries or build stronger relationships between industry and universities. Overall, though, efforts to create critical mass in research areas critical to industry are important and do have an effect. Third; Technology transfer Most universities in North America today have some form of technology transfer office (TTO). However, commercialization indicators (patents, licenses, university spin-offs) show that significant and sustained commercialization success is concentrated among only a small number of institutions. Most technology transfer is actually informal, involving publications, conferences, and informal exchanges. Patents rank low in most industries except for pharmaceuticals, therefore, indirect mechanisms for the transfer of new ideas and innovations may be more important. Most favour licensing for cash, followed by licensing for an equity stake and sponsored research. This revenue maximizing approach tends to encourage a ―home run‖ mentality, focusing limited time and resources on the technologies that seem to promise the greatest and fastest payback. Technologies with longer-term potential or diffuse public benefit tend to be overlooked. Most universities experience technologies ―going out the back door.‖ Many researchers circumvent their TTO when they patent and patents with greater value are taken directly to the private sector more often. Firms express difficulty in dealing with TTOs, citing staff inexperience, lack of business knowledge, and a tendency to inflate the commercial potential of patents. As a result of this dynamic, the more fundamental goal – to maximize the potential for university-based inventions to result in commercialized new products and innovations – remains unmet in many cases. Successful universities seek to maximize commercialization volume and speed rather than revenue, 490 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo although their revenues often remain substantial. They have begun to codify a broader range of technology transfer pathways and to redefine the role of their TTO. There are different volume models of technology transfer but all: Provide rewards for moving innovations into the marketplace Focus on faculty as the key agents of innovation and commercialization Emphasize greater standardization in faculty and industry interactions. Universities are only one side of the technology transfer equation, however. Firms need the absorptive capacity to realize the commercial benefits of basic research. (TRRA, 2007) Universities in different countries Recent changes in the universities of developed countries suggest the emergence of an entrepreneurial model of academic research. The key feature of this model is acceptance by universities that they have a responsibility not only to provide teaching and carry out research, but also to contribute directly to economic growth of the society. This new model is being presented to developing countries as a way of encouraging entrepreneurship among their researchers, of making an awareness of the needs of businesses, and of attracting industry funding. Some successful examples to which this model has been applied in Mexico, and in Brazil. There are various obstacles to the widespread adoption of the entrepreneurial model of a university in the developing word. For example, universities can introduce changes to facilitate and promote relationships with industry, and indeed many have already done so. But if the demand from industry for local knowledge production is weak and unchallenging, the result will probably be an underdeveloped entrepreneurial university. Another source of difficulties, (see table 3), is that developing countries have few researchers, and, given the general lack of resources in such countries, these have to work with tight budgets. (http://www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/the-role-of-universities-in-knowledge production-.html) Developed countries Developing countries GDP 61.1% 38.9% Population 22.3% 77.7% R&D spending 84.4% 15.6% Researchers 71.6% 28.4% Table 3. Distribution of the world's GDP, population, research and development spending and academic researchers There are some 3 300 higher education establishments in the European Union and approximately 4 000 in Europe as a whole, including the other countries of western Europe and the candidate countries. They take in an increasing number of students, over 12.5 million in 2000, compared with fewer than 9 million ten years previously. They employ 34% of the total number of researchers in Europe, with significant variations from one Member State to another (26% in Germany, 55% in Spain and over 70% in Greece). In order for European universities to play a key role in achieving the strategic goal set at the Lisbon European Council, i.e. to make the European Union (EU) the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, this Communication is intended to start a debate on the role of European universities in the knowledge society and economy. (http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11067_en.htm) Conclusion There is a close relationship between universities and economic development. It was analyzed that to reach high level standard of living and to produce qualified goods and services country needs skilfull labor force and high level techonology. Those who pay attention HDI see three main legs ; production, education, and life expectations which are related with university and development. People in this century knew importance of competition and to be succeed in that race they are using latest technology for example rate of using internet is rising year by year. Perhaps, rate of using internet in developing countries is higher than developed countries. It is clear that the role of universities in innovation is great too. Universities that are active at the heart of successful technology groups do not just spin out companies. They develop highly-skilled people who move between industry and academia; they develope businesses and provide expertise; they produce knowledge that is used by technology businesses; they provide public space in which people from various overlapping branches of research meet. It was seen that universities contribute directly nations‘ economy, especially this impact was more in developed countries than developing countries. It is clear that the following sections provide a sample of the different roles, universities can play with respect to innovation and economic development. 491 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo First; Development of highly qualified personnel Second; Research and knowledge production Third; Technology transfer Time and technology is the main factor to produce more but both of these factors are used by skillful labor force who is talented in university. Secondly innovation can be done in university too and transfered to company or/and market. These functions of universities above should be reachable and cheaper too. Because this implements spirit of definition of economics. References Begg, D. & Fischer,S. & Dornbusch, R. (1997), Economics, McGraw-Hill, London,1997. P. 503 Cherie Courseault Trumbach, C.C.& Hartman, S.J. & Lundberg, O. The role of universities in attaining regional competitiveness under adversity – a research proposal, Research in Higher Education Journal, University of New Orleans, PDF, p.3 Discussion Document Prepared for Toronto region research alliance (TRRA) (2007). Research Working Group, The Role of Universities in Regional Economic Development, Fazackerley, A. & Smith, M. & Massey, A. www.policyexchange.org.uk (2009). Innovation and Industry: The Role of Universities, Gerdne, T.(2005), The Impor tance of Human Capi tal in Export Performance, Thesis in Jönköping University, Sweden Goddard, L. (2009), The Role of Universities in City and Regional Development, Newcastle University Hartsock, L.D. (2007). The Role of Universities in Regional and Local Economic Development, Cornell University Symposium – April 6, http://english.moe.gov.tw/content.asp?cuItem=315&mp=2 http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/education_training_youth/lifelong_learning/c11067_en.htm http://www.jstor.org/pss/40218022 http://www.scidev.net/en/policy-briefs/the-role-of-universities-in-knowledge-production-.html Mu-lin, L. (2002). Vice Minister of Education 21st Century University Education March 20, Rindeskar, M. (2005) The Importance of Human Capi tal in the Product ion of New Knowledge, Master‘s Thesis in Jönköping University, Sweden Samuelson, P.A., & Nordhaus, W. D. (2001), Economics, McGraw-Hill Irwin, Boston, p.xxıı Turkmenistan Human Development Report, (1999). p. 72 UN, (2005). Information Economy Report 2005, Newyork and Genova, p.2 UN, (2009). Information Economy Report, p.27 UN, (2009). Trade and Development Report 2009, Newyork, p. 1 UNDP, (2009). Human Development Report 2009, New York, 2009, p.169 Zhiyun Liu, (2005). Mission of Modern Universities and Development of Modern Society, Volume 2, No.3(Serial No.4) USChina Education Review,ISSN1548-6613,USA, Wuhan University of Technology 492 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 256 Title A name given to the resource Contribution of University on Economic Development Author Author DİNC, Ahmet Abstract A summary of the resource. Economic development refers to economic growth accompanied by changes in output distribution and economic structure. These changes: improvement in material, a decline in an agriculture‘s share of gross national product(GNP), increasing share of industry in GNP, increasing education level, substantial technical advance and etc. Human Development Index is one of the measurement of Economic development. Economist need skillful labor force is provided by universities to ensure qualified more production with value added for economic growth and development. We saw that universities contributed innovation to become monopol in world market, relationship between domestic private companies and foreing ones, ensuring sustainable development, to become guide for foreign and domestic firms. In addition, universites contributed as information office. In this study, we analyzed contribution of technology and internet to the university and contribution of universities to economic development of country. We have worked and searched in private university in foreign country for 12 years. So, we aimed productive study with work experience abroad, observing and interactive study with academicians in other universities. We analyzed our study under three main titles; Functions of universities and categorize of countries. How to improve level of economic lesson by using internet among countries. Contribution of universities to level of economic development Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/149f3053fb38f51a82f287b86b32152e.pdf 944c99f43251ff1a420828d09132f028 PDF Text Text Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters of Some Production Traits of Holstein Friesian Cows Raised at the State Farm of Koçaş Murat Durnalı Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Ankara/Turkey muratdurnali@hotmail.com Ayhan Öztürk Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey yhan@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: In this researh, six reproductive and three milk yield traits were determined and genetic and phenotypic parameters were estimated for these nine traits in the Holstein Friesian cows reared at the State Farm of Koçaş in Aksaray (Turkey). The least squares means of fırst service age (FSA), fırst calving age (FCA), calving interval (CI), number of insemination per conception (NIPC), gestation length (GL), service period (SP), lactation milk yield (LMY) , lactation length (LL), and dry period (DP) were 560.80±3.07 days, 855.43±2.66 days, 382.30±6.42 days, 1.76±0.06, 285.05±1.66 days, 110.57±6.28, 6937.63±1 09.46 kg, 320.51±3.29 days, 69.51±3.08 days and respectively. Heritabilities of these traits were 0.55±0.151, 0.69±0.162, 0.06±0.086, 0.04±0.062, 0.11±0.085, 0.21±0.000, 0.20±0.11, 0.078±0.007, and 0.34±0.000, respectively. The repeatibilities of CI, LPC, GL, SP, LMY, LL, and DP were 0.12, 0.042, 0.32, 0.44, 0.37, 0.065, and 0.42, respectively. The year had a significant effect on the FSA, CI, SP, and LMY at (p<O.OI) levels. lt was shown that lactation number had a significant effect on NIPC, LMY, and DP, the sex of calf had a significant effect on GL, the calving season had a significant effect on LMY, and DP at (p<0.01) levels. Also, linear regressions of LMY to LL, SP to LL, and LL to LMY statistically significant. Keywords: Holstein Friesian, reproductivity, milk yield, heritability, repeatability Introduction Although the proportion of meat and milk production is high, the amount of yield per animal in Turkish breeds is low. Average milk yield obtained from per cattle is 2758 kg (Anonymous, 2008). Within imported cattle breeds, highest number is Holstein Friesian, and its average milk yield is up to 5000 kg. The objective of this study was to determine the milk and reproductive performances of Holstein Friesian cows reared at the Koçaş State farm in Aksaray. Also, phenotypic and genetic parameters for examined characteristics were calculated. Material and Method Material This study was carried out by using Holstein-Friesian cattle reared at the Koçaş state farm in the middle Anatolia region in Turkey. In this region, summers are hot and dry, winters are cold. The data used in this study were collected from Holstein Friesian cattle from records maintained between the 1995 and 2005. Method Reproductive performance was estimated by using the following animal model as an example first service age and the mathematical model for first calving age, number of insemination per conception, calving interval, service period and gestation length were estimated by adding or get out from this model according to the effective factors: 265 �Yij = µ + ai + eij Yij = is first service age i. year, j. cow µ = mean ai = effect of year (a1: 1996, a2: 1997,…….. a10: 2005) eij = random residual effect Lactation milk yield was calculated according to the following mathematical model; Yijkl = µ + ai + bj + ck + bxijk + eijkl Yijkl = is lactation milk yield of cow in i. year, j. calf sex and k. season µ = mean ai = effect of year (a1: 1996, a2: 1997,…….. a10: 2005) bj = effect of parity (b1: 2, b2: 3,……..b8: 9) ck =effect of season (k1: September, October, November, k2: December, January, February, k3: March, April, May, k4: June, July, August) bxijk=partial regression coefficient to parity of lactation milk yield eijkl = random residual effect Season was classified as first group (September, October, November), second group (December, January, February), third group (March, April, May) and fourth group (June, July, August). Calf sex was classified as 1 (male) and 2 (female). To estimate of genetic parameters, Mixed models which were take into account environmental factors effect on yields, were based. Data were analyzed both Mixed Model Least Squares and Maximum Likelihood (LSMLMW) in the computer program of Harvey (1990) and by Multiple Trait Derivative Free Restricted Maximum Likelihood (MTDFREML) according to (Boldman et al., 1995) for all traits. To ensure global convergence, the algorithm by Boldman et al., (1995) was restarted with estimates until the log likelihood did not change at the fourth decimal. Duncan multiple comparison test (Duzgüneş, 1993) was used to test the differences between factors. Variance structure of the model the fallowing matrix was used:  a   0 E   =    e   0  σ a2 a  V   =  0 e   0  0 Iσ p2 e 0 0   0  Inσ e2  σ a2 = additive genetic variance, 2 σ pe = Permanent environmental variance and σ e2 = The random residual effect associated with each observation. To estimate heritability (h2) and repeatability (r) the following equation was used: 2 2 2 2 h 2 = σ a /(σ a + σ pe + σ e ) 2 r = σ a2 + σ pe /(σ a2 + σ 2pe + σ e2 ) For each feature according to the model that considered the sire, dam and cows for breeding values were calculated. Breeding values were estimated with MTDFREML program (El-Arian et al., 2003; Khattab et al., 2003). The mixed model equations (MME) for the best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE) of estimablefunctions of b and for the best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) of a and p in matrix notation was as follows: X 'X Z'X W 'Z X 'Z Z ' Z + A−1α1 Z 'W W 'Z W 'W + Iα 2 2 Where X 'W 2 α1 = σ e / σ a ) b X'y ) a = Z'y p W'y 2 and α 2 = σ e / σ2 p 266 �Results and Recommendations Reproductive Traits First Service Age (FSA): The least square means of first service age belong to a total of 560 animals were 560.80 ± 3.07 days. The effect of Year was only statistically significant on first service age (P<0.01). The heritability of FSA was estimated as 0.55. First Calving Age (FCA): The least square means of first calving age belong to a total of 559 animals were estimated as 855.43 ± 2.66 days. The effect of Linear Regression on FSA of FCA was statistically significant (P<0.01). The heritability of FCA was estimated as 0.69 ± 0.162. Calving Interval (CI): Estimated CI value from a total of 1090 Holstein Friesian cows was 382.30 ± 6.42 days. The effect of year on CI was statistically significant (P<0.01). The heritability and repeatability values for CI were 0.06 and 0.12, respectively. Number of Insemination Per Conception (NIPC): The least square means of NIPC belong to a total of 1148 data were estimated as 1.76 ± 0.06. The effect of year and parity on NIPC was statistically significant (P<0.01). The heritability and repeatability values of NIPC were estimated as 0.04 ± 0.062 and 0.042, respectively. Gestation Length (GL): Gestation period was calculated from 900 data. The least square means of GL were estimated as 285.05 ± 1.66 days. The effect of age on GL was statistically significant (P<0.01). The heritability and repeatability values of GL were estimated as 0.11 ± 0.085 and 0.032, respectively. Service Period (SP): The least square means of SP belong to a total of 464 animals were estimated as 110.57 ± 6.28 days. The effect of Linear Regression on SP of LMY was statistically significant (P<0.01). The effect of linear regression of year, season, parity and lactation length was not significant. The heritability and repeatability values were estimated as 0.21 ± 0.00 and 0.44, respectively. Reproductive Traits Lactation Milk Yield (LMY): The least square means of LMY belong to a total of 1269 lactation were determined as 6937.63 ± 109.46 kg. The effect of year, season, parity and lactation length on LMY was statistically significant (P<0.01). The heritability and repeatability values were estimated as 0.20 ± 0.11 and 0.37, respectively. Lactation Length (LL): The least square means of LL belong to a total of 1269 lactation were determined as 320.51 ± 3.29 days. The effect of Linear Regression on LMY of LL and Parity was statistically significant (P<0.01). The effect of year, sex and season was not significant. The heritability and repeatability values were estimated as 0.07 ± 0.007 and 0.65, respectively. Dry Period (DP): The least square means of LMY belong to a total of 363 data were determined as 69.51 ± 3.03 days. The effect of season (P<0.05), parity (P<0.01) on DP was statistically significant. The heritability and repeatability values were estimated as 0.34 ± 0.00 and 0.42, respectively. In this study, calculated phenotypic parameters of reproductive and milk yield traits to the HolsteinFriesian cattle reared at the state farm of Koçaş when compared with the other Friesian cattle herds in Turkey was satisfactory. Examined phenotypic parameters belong to reproductive and milk yield characteristics in herd have been determined as 560.80 ± 3.07 days, 855.43 ± 2.66 days, 382.30 ± 6.42 days, 1.76 ± 0.06, 285.05 ± 1.66 days, 110.57 ± 6.28 days, 6937.63 ± 109.46 kg, 320.51 ± 3.29 days and 69.51 ± 3.03 days for FSA, FCA, CI, NIPC, GL, SP, LMY, LL and DP, respectively. Determined FSA value in herd in this study, 43 days is more than from 488-518 days being ideal value for FSA. Ideal value for first calving age is 793 days and calculated value for this study is more than 42 days from the ideal value. Obtained from the herd for calving interval value is close to ideal values. The Number of Insemination Per Conception values considered as normal values from 1.5 showed partial deviation. In practice the values calculated for the service period is acceptable, but 25 days are more than from being 85 days ideal value. Calculated LMY value is over the average in Turkey too. This value shows that closer to the desired level. Obtained value for the LS is 320 days. This value has shown that extended to 15 days from 305 days ideal lactation length. The values established for the Dry Period is ideal. In other words, to obtain the desired yields from the Holstein-Friesian cows, It is understood that necessary to provide of the environmental conditions in the farms like conditions Koçaş farm. In brief, with reduction of FSA both FSA and FCA can approached to the ideal values. If desired value for NIPC is reached, CI and SP can be reach ideally. This two obvious examples are show interaction with each other to the yields. 267 �Conclusion As a result, the milk and reproductive characteristics of the Holstein-Friesian cows reared at the state farm of Koçaş was found higher over the Turkey’s Holstein-Friesian’s average and these values reach the ideal Holstein-Friesian’s characteristics. In other words, the business environment in terms of providing adequate infrastructure have the capacity to uncover genetics of the herd, thus allowing yield characteristics have to be a positive influence. Opinion is formed that with additional environmental regulation will can reach the desired yield level. Acknowledgments This research was supported by a research project from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey. We are thankful to KOÇAŞ State Farm for providing data References Anonymous, 2008. Türkiye Đstatistik Kurumu. Access Date: 08.02.2008, www.tuik.gov.tr Boldman, K. G., Kriese, L. A., Van Vleck, L. D., Van Tassell, C. P. & Kachman, S. D. 1995. A Manual For use of MTDFREML. A Set of Programs to Obtain Estimates of Variances and Covariances (Draft). U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, pp:14. Düzgüneş, O., 1993. Đstatistik Metodları (Statistical Methods). Ank. Üniv. Zir. Fak. Yay: 1291, Notebook: 369, Ankara. El-Arian, M. N., H. G. El-Awady & A. S. Khattab, 2003. Genetic analysis for some productive traits of Holstein Friesian cows in Egypt through MTDFREML program. Egyptian J. Anim. Prod., (in Pres). Harvey, W.R. 1990. Users guide for LSMLMW PC-1 Version mixed model least squares and maximum likelihood computer program. Ohio State Uni. Colombus, Mimco. Khattab, A. S., H. G. El-Awady & M. N. El-Arian, 2003. Genetic analysis of some performance traits using an animal model in a herd of Egyptian buffaloes. Egyptian J. Anim. Prod. (in Press). 268 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 439 Title A name given to the resource Phenotypic and Genetic Parameters of Some Production Traits of Holstein Friesian Cows Raised at the State Farm of Koças Author Author Durnalı, Murat Öztürk, Ayhan Abstract A summary of the resource. In this researh, six reproductive and three milk yield traits were determined and genetic and phenotypic parameters were estimated for these nine traits in the Holstein Friesian cows reared at the State Farm of Koças in Aksaray (Turkey). The least squares means of fırst service age (FSA), fırst calving age (FCA), calving interval (CI), number of insemination per conception (NIPC), gestation length (GL), service period (SP), lactation milk yield (LMY) , lactation length (LL), and dry period (DP) were 560.80±3.07 days, 855.43±2.66 days, 382.30±6.42 days, 1.76±0.06, 285.05±1.66 days, 110.57±6.28, 6937.63±1 09.46 kg, 320.51±3.29 days, 69.51±3.08 days and respectively. Heritabilities of these traits were 0.55±0.151, 0.69±0.162, 0.06±0.086, 0.04±0.062, 0.11±0.085, 0.21±0.000, 0.20±0.11, 0.078±0.007, and 0.34±0.000, respectively. The repeatibilities of CI, LPC, GL, SP, LMY, LL, and DP were 0.12, 0.042, 0.32, 0.44, 0.37, 0.065, and 0.42, respectively. The year had a significant effect on the FSA, CI, SP, and LMY at (p<O.OI) levels. lt was shown that lactation number had a significant effect on NIPC, LMY, and DP, the sex of calf had a significant effect on GL, the calving season had a significant effect on LMY, and DP at (p<0.01) levels. Also, linear regressions of LMY to LL, SP to LL, and LL to LMY statistically significant. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/434a7bb04547c857aa6c0be275bcad5a.pdf 4e4e9402a2c228693e40db829be77dcc PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An Evaluation on English Language Education Process in Turkey from the Viewpoints of University Preparatory School Students Ali Dinçer Res. Assist., Erzincan University, Faculty of Education, English Language Teaching Department, Erzincan, Turkey adincer@erzincan.edu.tr Mehmet Takkaç Prof. Dr., Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, English Language Teaching Department, Erzurum, Turkey mtakkac@atauni.edu.tr Suna Akalın Assist. Prof. Dr., Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, English Language Teaching Department, Erzurum, Turkey sakalin@atauni.edu.tr Abstract: Many studies on effective language teaching process draw attention to the importance of teacher roles in this process, and give advice teachers to have prior knowledge about what their students know before beginning the instruction. This study is intended to draw an effective English language teacher profile by taking into consideration first year students’ readiness levels and their experiences during their former education periods. In order to fulfill this aim, 38 preparatory class students from Tourism Vocational College Preparatory Programs, Erzincan University, were chosen at the beginning of 20092010 academic year. Participants were asked to write a composition on the evaluation of their prior language education experiences during their primary and high school years giving examples from English teachers who they admired most or they were not satisfied with. The analyses of the student compositions showed that some frequently experienced problems negatively affect foreign language education process. The most common of the problems were related to English teachers and English courses at schools as well as those stemming from teaching environments and teacher characteristics in Turkey. Key Words: Effective Language Teacher, Experience, Foreign Language Education, English Teacher Introduction English language teaching has become important especially after 1980s in Turkey and from the beginning of those years its importance in national primary and secondary schools in our country has increased day by day. To reach the needs of the time and meet the aims of national educational administration, English language which is most spoken language and referred as lingua franca of modern world, has become compulsory in every step of educational curricula. During the last three decades, primary schools, high schools and university language teaching departments have also encountered many changes about English language position in their curricula. The current situation in Turkey is as follow: English language as a foreign language is included in every curriculum of educational centres. Officially, Turkish national schools start teaching English as a foreign language in fourth and fifth grades of primary schools. In addition, some private preschool teaching institutions aim at teaching English as a foreign language to children. In spite of its being mostly taught language and its being widespread in Turkey, using the language as a communication tool by the learners is unfortunately inadequate. 235 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In our country, it is widely asked why a foreign language has not been taught and the answer of this question has not been replied in spite of the applications and precautions done by the ministry of education yet. After the analyses of the studies on this issue (Demircan, 1988; Demirel, 1990; Gülmez, 1982; Gömleksiz, 1993; Harman, 1999; Demirel, 2003; Aydemir, 2007; Soner, 2007; Işık, 2009) foreign language teaching and learning exist as an important problem of Turkey today. One of these specialists, Soner (2007) summarizes main problems in foreign language education process in Turkey in her article and explains the reasons why ELT education is not successful in Turkey. According to her, main difficulties in ELT education stem mostly from limited number of teachers, teachers’ having lack of adequate foreign language knowledge and methods, teachers’ using old fashioned language approaches, students’ not giving importance because of the other courses’ heavy burden in school, insufficient language equipments in schools, students' lack of motivation and interest about foreign language, and students' not having chance of using the language outside the class. Before mentioning about effective language teacher and education process, it should be better to define the concepts “success, successful learner and successful teacher” in education. What is success, what makes a language learner successful and how can a language teacher become successful in the class? As a general meaning, success is to reach the aims and changes according to authority that puts the aims (Şahin, 2009). When the individual put some rules for the aims, the possibility of individuals' becoming successful becomes higher. Then the learner becomes intrinsically motivated. However, in educational settings, aims are determined before the educational process. Therefore, it can be said that learners are motivated generally in education extrinsically and students should replace extrinsic motivation with intrinsic motivation for achievement. This can be supported with proper arranged educational settings. Nikolov (2001) replies the second question by making a study including questions about the features of successful language learners. In her study, participants listed what they thought to be necessary for a learner to be good at foreign language. According to results of this study, majority considered that one should have persistence, strong will, hard work, patience, good aptitude and memory, a good teacher, great enthusiasm and motivation towards language. Also Brown (1978) draws an effective language learner profile by looking at mostly affective factors and says that a good learner should be field independent in communication, use feedback, and have proper distance with regard to native and target cultures and self-esteem. Successful teacher or in other words effective teacher is identified in many studies (Brown, 1978; Sanderson, 1983; Moon and Shelton, 1994; Vadillo, 1999; Çetin, 2001; Güven, 2004; Şeker et al., 2004; Malikov, 2006; Genç, 2007; Mohidin et al., 2009). All these studies used different criterion features changing situation to situation. Because there are a number of features about teacher evaluation which holds the effective teacher from different perspectives and the term “effective” is perceived and interpreted differently by the people. To make an evaluation of the teachers easier, Miller (1987) (cited in Vadillo, 1999, p.354) defines the qualities of effective teacher by separating in four areas: “1) affective characteristics: enthusiasm, encouragement, humour, interest in the student, availability, mental health; 2) skills: creativity, challenge; 3)classroom management: pace, pairness; 4) academic knowledge: grammar”. In addition, Çetin (2001) and Kücükahmet (2006, pp: 145-150) categorized the ideal teacher features in different parts focusing on the mostly cited Self-Evaluation Checklist for Teachers in literature. While Çetin says that there are three divisions each of which has also subdivisions, and these are about teachers’ individual characteristics, professional academic capabilities, and their attitudes towards teaching professions, Kücükahmet calling the effective teacher as democratic teacher explains the issue in four divisions by adding one more feature to Çetin’s division. That feature is about teachers’ knowledge on general culture. In the light of this complexity, it is interpreted that this complex situation in the definitions is the same for the concept effective language teacher. For example, while Brown (1978) defines effective language teacher in terms of affective factors, Sanderson (1983) explains effective language teacher phenomenon mostly by approaching from the perspective of classroom activities. Brown says that a good language teacher should “be able deal with field indepence, respond to the student with empathy, insure the presence of meaningful communicative contexts in classroom, provide optimal feedback, be sensitive to sociocultural alienation and encourage self-esteem in the student.” Sanderson’s study reveals that a good language teacher should use the target language predominantly, have clear and good pronunciation, stress and intonation, make students involve in activities, be flexible with regard to objectives, explain the classroom task clearly etc. Therefore, it is not easy 236 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo to make an exact definition of the phenomenon because of the wide variety of definitions and characteristics in literature. To make a general definition and understand the concept, Arıkan and his colleagues (2008) made a study on effective English teacher by looking at Turkish preparatory class school students’ perspectives. In that study, effective teacher qualities chiefly quoted by the students are respectively “possessing good knowledge of the English language, being open to innovations, behaving friendly, motivating, being aware of student needs, being good at classroom management, witty, and lastly limiting the use of mother tongue.” In addition to all these concepts and definitions, it can be claimed that it is not quite easy to define language learning process accurately and all knowledge. Because education is a complex experience, which has many components and each of them is very crucial for the success of education. Fundamental components of education are summarized as teacher, student, education programme and environment. These components were described in the many works (Novak and Gowin, 1984; Gömleksiz, 2002; McDonough and Shaw, 2003) and they can not be thought as separate parts. Each component is a part of a whole and affects one another. According to Fidan and Erden (1994), teacher is the person who supports and arranges learning process. In this process, the functions of teacher are to arrange learning experiences by utilizing different educational methods and techniques, and to evaluate whether desired behaviours are learned by the learners. Students are individuals who need learning and go to formal education institutions in order to meet this need. Education programme is a curriculum which shows all activities conducted for the aim of meeting the need of learner. It “comprises the knowledge, skills, and values of educative experience that meet criteria of excellence that make them worthy of study.” Environment, or in other words milieu is “the context in which the learning experience takes place, and it influences how teacher and student come to share the meaning of curriculum.”(Novak and Gowin, 1984). These four components should work in harmony and significant importance should be given to each one in order to reach desired level in education. In this study, it is aimed to analyse language-learning experiences in Turkey in retrospect through students’ own eyes by getting knowledge about their readiness towards English education according to main components of educational setting. By this study, questions why students enrolled to preparatory classes have not been able to live an ideal language learning process in their formal education period, and why they have not become successful language learners are answered from the viewpoints of them. Methods and Research Design The data in this study were obtained from 38 preparatory class students enrolled to Erzincan University Tourism Vocational College Preparatory Programs. At the beginning of the academic year 2009-2010, at students' first English course at the vocational school, participants were asked to write a composition on the evaluation of their prior English language experiences during their primary and high school years by giving examples from their English language teachers. The first course was specially chosen in order to get the correct knowledge from students not affecting their thoughts about the readiness towards English. Before this activity any English language education and course have not been taught to students in the department. To access the realist data, the compositions were written in Turkish and also two other activities were carried out for this study. For two other studies, first of all students were asked to write at least 50 English vocabularies which they could write correctly on a sheet and as a second activity they were asked to write a composition about themselves in English. During these entire activities participants’ names were anonymous, only the knowledge about their age and school type from which they graduated were asked. These two activities have not been included in the study; they were applied only to see students' writing skills and have an idea about their readiness for language. The written composition is a kind of interview method which aims at getting deep information on a specific issue. Each student composition’s descriptive analyses were made and these analyses were categorized according to main components of education. These are teacher, student, education programme and environment. 237 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results The results of this study have two dimensions. First is about participants’ school types and the second is about components of education. By looking at the findings, it is aimed to make relation between school types and students’ thoughts about components of the education. In order to determine their average age, 38 participants’ ages were added and then their arithmetic mean score was calculated. Students’ arithmetic mean score of age was found 20,4. Then knowledge about the participants’ school types was written in table. School types' frequencies and percentages are shown in Table- 1. School Type University General High School Vocational High School Anatolian High School Private High School Frequency (N=38) 1 25 9 2 1 Percentage 2,6 65,8 23,7 5,3 2,6 Table- 1: Frequencies and Percentages related to Graduated School types Table 1 illustrates that many of the participants graduated from General High Schools which had only English courses only in their first grade in previous years. Some of the students graduated from Vocational High Schools. Vocational High Schools mainly deal with courses about a specific kind of profession and teaching English always seems at second importance. These schools include Anatolian Vocational Schools, Vocational Schools for Hotel Management and Tourism, Vocational Schools for Girls and Vocational Schools for Commerce. Two participants graduated from Anatolian High Schools. In the past, these schools had a preparatory class aiming at teaching extensive English to students. One of the students graduated from four-year faculty and the other student graduated from private high school. In order to get knowledge about the components of education, students' compositions were categorized in four types. According to the compositions’ analyses, all of the students think that they were not thoroughly taught language at their education period and they failed to learn English because of some reasons. In their compositions, some students mentioned about problems more than one so that frequency number is not equal to the number of participants. Frequencies related to components of education are shown in Table- 2. Educational Problems Stemming from Teacher 30 participants Education Programme 15 participants Student Environment 13 participants 10 participants Table- 2: Frequencies related to the components of education Table 2 related to the content analyses of the student compositions illustrates that most of the participants think that main reason of their failure in English education stems from their English teachers. The percentage of them is 78,9. Because of the drawbacks in ministry of national education and teacher characteristics, students consider the teacher as the main factor of their failures. The second important and significant problem in terms of frequencies is Educational Programme. The percentage of students who report that Educational Programme is the source of failure is 39,5. According to student quotations, problems related to educational programme stem from educational curricula, selected materials and course hours. The problem in the third order is Student factor. 34,2% of participants think that they have failed because of themselves. Students think that they have failed because of inefficient studies, inadequate practice and negligence on English courses. Lastly, 26,3% of the participants believe that teaching environment affected their language learning process negatively. These problems are related to educational setting, teaching environment and peer factor. 238 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Discussion A big majority of the students in this study have graduated from General High Schools. In previous years, English language as a course was taught only in first year of high schools as four hours per week and an old-fashioned book titled as “Modern English Course for Turks” which does not pay attention to four skills in language learning was used as a main coursebook of the lesson. In the following years after first grade, there was no English course in curriculum except foreign language sections. In spite of the advances in educational curricula of these schools such as English courses’ becoming compulsory in second grade, third and fourth grades, English teaching is developed properly and students graduating from these schools stated negative thoughts while evaluating their prior language experiences. These schools have still common problems such as having crowded classes, being lack of sufficient number of teachers and language materials. An average student graduates from high schools between 17 and 18 ages in Turkish education system. By regarding students’ average age (20,3), it can be interpreted that these students’ average is two points more than the overall Turkish average. Therefore, it can be concluded that most of them enrolled to university at their second attempt in the university entrance exam. This knowledge identifies these students have not been taught formally in educational institutions for at least four years. In addition, the status of English course in vocational high schools is almost the same with general high schools. English courses become so-called lessons that appear as four hours a week apart from Anatolian vocational high schools de facto in educational curricula; but in reality, these courses are not so much effective because of the problems that general high school students have to cope with. In terms of course hours, Anatolian and private high schools give more importance English courses than other types of schools (look M.E.B, 2005). These can be viewed from their curricula, their language environments, English teachers’ quantity etc. In previous years, some high schools like Anatolian, Science and Teacher Training schools which had preparatory classes for extensive English evidenced fundamental changes about English courses in their curricula. As a result, their preparatory classes were abolished from their curricula, and they became four-year high schools like other types of high schools. One student had graduated from faculty apart from foreign language departments. English courses at universities except from a few universities, which have compulsory or intentional preparatory classes, are three or four credits or a non- credit lesson. By taking into consideration of course credits, it is concluded that ineffectiveness of the courses are clear (Gömleksiz, 1993). In order to get success in education, each of four components of education should study in coordination. As its’ being difficult to distinguish one from another in definite lines (Güven, 2004), any problem related to one of these components certainly affect the others negatively in this process. When looked at the analyses of the student compositions, it seems that main reason of the failure in education is teacher factor in foreign language instruction. In addition, other three factors have affected this process with having different frequencies. Many participants mentioned about problems with their English teachers. On supposing the role of teachers in education, it is clearly understood that problems stemming from this source would affect the whole education and the whole learners negatively. Mostly mentioned issue about the teacher factor is different branch teachers. Because of the insufficient number of trained language teachers, teachers from other branches have the permission of teaching these courses (M.E.B., 2006). Some of the participants stated this issue as follows: “As we did not have an English teacher in primary and secondary schools, teachers from different branches tried to teach English us.” Another student expressed that “Our Turkish teacher taught our English lessons in primary school.” The other one says, “In my high school years, we had a number of teachers from different branches such as Religion and Physical Teacher.” In addition, students mentioned that those teachers coming from different branches were inefficient in language teaching, so that they thought that English courses are easy courses to pass or free courses which they spent time inactively. Moreover, some students think that having an English language teacher is a luxury in high school. Student opinions are as follows: “I met with English course firstly in my high school years and my teacher was originally French language teacher, then he was not skillful in teaching.”; “ In my high school years our physical training teacher taught our course so that we were talking about sports during the course.”; “ There was no Mathematics teacher, let alone English.” 239 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In addition to these factors, foreign language teachers’ teaching capabilities, physical and individual characteristics affected students negatively. Teachers who are unaware of the current methods in language education and insist on teaching with old-fashioned methods such as GTM, and their reluctance and disregard towards the course make students distract from learning the language. Also, teachers who regard language learning as being good at grammar and memorizing all rules and make activities entirely different from real life reduce students’ motivation for learning the language. Participant opinions about these issues are as follows: “In my high school education, our teachers used to give papers about the course before the examination, so we memorized those sheets and became successful in examinations with high marks.” Another one says, “As our teacher had problems with classroom management and disciplining us, he always shouted and punished us. He did not get well with students, so he was totally useless in education.” The second problem causing the failure in language education results from Educational programme in this study. Curriculum and course materials have an important place in educational programme. Many students were not taught English or did not take inadequate courses in their primary school years. Participants many of whom are students graduating from general high schools state that they took English courses only in their first year of high school, and have not taken any special course or tutor then. In spite of some students’ sentences about having English courses at their second, third and fourth grades, their sentences were followed with negative explanations. When considered the new formations related to course hours in high schools’ curricula, it can be said that actually curriculum in itself is one of the main sources of the failure. One student mentions about the curriculum and says that he could not understand the lessons because of the fact that his teacher was curious about following the curriculum and he performed the lesson so quickly in order to reach the program. In addition to that, students were unpleased with course books and same topics in books. One participant writes, “I was taught same grammar topics again and again, this was very boring.” Third component is student factor. While addressing the reasons of failures, thirteen students confessed that they did not become successful because of their negative behaviors such as pseudo-listening, not attending courses and cheating. Some of the student sentences are as follows: “I did not listen effectively what the teacher was teaching during the course and I refused to join the courses consciously.”; “In spite of taking English course, I did not revise what I had learnt, and then I forgot everything.”; “My great fault was to ignore the importance of English.” The last and the least mentioned component is environment. Foreign language environment consists physical conditions of the school, classroom atmosphere, students, social environment and family. The use of existing school facilities or vice versa, and atmosphere in which language instruction is carried out become effective in determining the success or failure. Participants mentioning about problems about environment mostly stated that their friends in the class affected them negatively and decreased their motivation to participate in the activities. Furthermore, they are not pleased with not using the language itself as a communication tool outside classes. These situations are cited in student texts as follows: “Our teacher did not teach anything because he made us watch films and movies during the whole course.”; “Our classes were very crowded, and then I did not get much opportunity to join the lessons.”; “I did not have a chance of using what I had learnt in my daily life, so I forgot all.” To sum up, the general problems discussed in the study are about the numbers of teachers, their coming from different branches, teachers’ individual characteristics, their field knowledge and teaching capabilities, students’ not giving importance to courses and their low motivation levels, poor curricula, insufficient course hours and materials in schools, artificial language environments and lastly negative peer factor. These problems are also mentioned a number of studies and the results are parallel with some studies (Gömleksiz, 2002; Kuzeci, 2002; Gökdemir, 2005; Soner,2007; Günday, 2007; Bağçeci & Yaşar, 2007; Işık, 2008). When overviewed all problems especially related to teachers, students’ chance of being successful will certainly become higher. Because teachers have heavy responsibilities on coping with the failure in foreign language education and teacher is the most significant component in education process when each element has significantly tied up one within the other. Therefore, it is clear that in order to understand language teaching and learning process, one needs to understand teachers (Varghese et al., 2005). Because unique power in educational setting is the teacher applying education programme, affecting students’ learning and decreasing the negative effects of the environment. 240 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo This study was carried out with the help of only university’s one type of preparatory classes, which have students mostly getting negative thoughts about their former education, and written interview method, a qualitative research method, was used in gathering data process. Additionally, participants’ compositions were analyzed according to main components of education. Therefore, there are some limitations concerned with participants, method and analyses. With a larger group including other departments’ preparatory classes, mixed type method supported with questionnaires and interviews, and different kinds of evaluation criterions, more detailed results dealing with student failures in foreign language process can be gathered and then results can be generalized. By this study, the importance of teachers’ having knowledge on students’ readiness for language is emphasized by the perspective of them. Because in order to determine what to teach, initially a teacher should begin to determine what their students know (Güven, 2004). In a word, to reach success in foreign language process, one should try to decrease the problems related to teacher, educational programme and environment by a consideration of students’ prior language learning experiences. References Arıkan, A., Taşer, D. & Saraç-Süzer, H. S. (2008). The effective English language teacher from the perspectives of Turkish preparatory school students. 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Đstanbul: Pegem Yayıncılık. Fidan, N. & Erden, M. (1994). Eğitime giriş. Ankara:.Alkım Yayıncılık. Genç, S. Z. (2007). Öğrenci algılarına göre ideal bir öğretim elamanında bulunması gereken özellikler. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 173, 210-218. Gökdemir, C.V. (2005). Üniversitelerimizde verilen yabancı dil öğretimindeki başarı durumumuz. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6 (2), 251-258. Gömleksiz, M. N. (1993). Yükseköğretimde yabancı dil öğretimi ve sorunlar (Fırat Üniversitesi örneği).Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Gömleksiz, M. N. (2002) Üniversitelerde yürütülen yabancı dil derslerine ilişkin öğrenci görüşlerinin değerlendirilmesi: Fırat Üniversitesi örneği. Fırat Universitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 12 (1), 143-158. Gülmez, Y. (1982). Yabancı dil öğretiminde öğrenci başarısını etkileyen faktörler. Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi. 241 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Günday, R. (2007). Yabancı dil öğretiminde başarısızlığı neden olan etmenler üzerine bir araştırma. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, Sayı. 175, 210-228. Güven, Đ. (2004). Etkili bir öğretim için öğretmenden beklenenler. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 164, 127-141. Harman, K. (1999). Şanlıurfa ilköğretim okullarında yabancı dil dersi program uygulamalarıda karşılaşılan sorunlar. Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Harran Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Işık, A. (2008). Yabancı dil eğitimizdeki yanlışlıklar nereden kaynaklanıyor?. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 4 (2), 15-26. Işık, A. (2009). Yabancı dil nasıl öğrenilmez? Nasıl öğrenilir?. Ankara: Elma Yayınevi. Kuzeci, D. (2002). Yabancı dilin önemi, Yabancı dil öğreniminde karşılaşılan sorunlar ve çözüm önerileri. Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2 (28-29), 109-118. Küçükahmet, L. (Ed.) (2006). Eğitim bilimine giriş (6.baskı). Ankara: Nobel Yayınevi. Malikov, M. (2006). Effective teacher study. National Forum of Teacher Education Journal- Electronic, 16 (3E). (Retrieved on 20.04.2010 from http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Malikow,%20Max%20Effe ctive%20teacher%20Study.pdf) .. .. .. .. McDonough, J. & Shaw, C. (2003). Materials and methods in ELT: a teacher’s guide (2nd ed). Berlin: Blackwell Publishing. M.E.B (2006). Tebliğler Dergisi, Sayı 2528, date: 17.04.2006, item 33. M.E.B (2005). Tebliğler Dergisi, Sayı 2575, date: 07.06.2005, s.540-580. Mohidin, R., Jaidi, J., Sang, L.T. & Osman, Z. (2009). Effective teaching methods and lecturer characteristics a study on accounting students at Universiti Malaysai Sabah (UMS). European Journal of Social Sciences, 8 (1), 21-29. Moon, B. & Shelton, A. (1994). Teaching and learning in the secondary school. New York: The Open University Press. Nikolov, M. (2001). A Study of Unsuccessful Language Learners. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 149-170). Honolulu, HI: The University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center. Novak, J. D & Gowin, D.B (1984). Learning how to learn. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Sanderson, D. (1983). Modern Language Teachers in Action: A report on Classroom Practice, York: Language Materials Development Unit of the University of York. Soner, O. (2007). Türkiye'de yabancı dil eğitimin dünü bugünü. Öneri, 7 (28), 397-404. Şahin, Y. (2009). Yabancı Dil Öğretiminde Öğrenci Başarısını Olumsuz Yönde Etkileyen unsurlar, Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 13 (1), 149-158. Şeker, S., Deniz, S. & Görgen, Đ. (2004). Öğretmen yeterlilikleri ölçeği. Milli Eğitim Dergisi, 164, 105-118. Vadillo, R. San M. (1999). Research on the good language teacher, Expos, 15, 347-361. Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B. & Johnson, K. A. (2005). Theorizing language teacher identity: three perspectives and beyond. Journal of Language Identity, and Education, 4 (1), 21-44. 242 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 703 Title A name given to the resource An Evaluation on English Language Education Process in Turkey from the Viewpoints of University Preparatory School Students Author Author Dinçer, Ali Takkaç, Mehmet Akalın, Suna Abstract A summary of the resource. Many studies on effective language teaching process draw attention to the importance of teacher roles in this process, and give advice teachers to have prior knowledge about what their students know before beginning the instruction. This study is intended to draw an effective English language teacher profile by taking into consideration first year students’ readiness levels and their experiences during their former education periods. In order to fulfill this aim, 38 preparatory class students from Tourism Vocational College Preparatory Programs, Erzincan University, were chosen at the beginning of 2009- 2010 academic year. Participants were asked to write a composition on the evaluation of their prior language education experiences during their primary and high school years giving examples from English teachers who they admired most or they were not satisfied with. The analyses of the student compositions showed that some frequently experienced problems negatively affect foreign language education process. The most common of the problems were related to English teachers and English courses at schools as well as those stemming from teaching environments and teacher characteristics in Turkey. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/abe809ca90b9658db6e64444d9bbe85b.pdf 896e4a60c5a24eed54c659ee39494069 PDF Text Text The Utilization of Modified Rye Straws as Biosorbents for Cr (VI) Ions Huseyin Deveci Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Department of Chemical Engineering, Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey hdeveci@selcuk.edu.tr Erol Pehlivan Faculty of Engineering-Architecture, Department of Chemical Engineering, Selcuk University, Campus, 42079 Konya, Turkey erolpehlivan@gmail.com Abstract: The potential to remove Cr (VI) ion from aqueous solutions using modified rye straws (MRS), through adsorption was investigated in batch experiments. Rye straws were collected from vicinity of Konya, Turkey and modified with various amount of citric acid (CA). The parameter for modification was selected by trying different parameters such as time, temperature and citric acid quantity. The rate of adsorption was studied under a variety of conditions including initial Cr (VI) concentration (1.10-4-4.10-3M), amount of adsorbent (0.050.4 g), pH (1.5 to 7), and contact time (5-240 min). Adsorption of Cr (VI) uptake is in all cases pH-dependent showing a maximum at equilibrium at pH values of 1.5-2.0 for (MRS). The batch sorption kinetics has been tested and the applicability of the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms for the present system has been tested at 25°C. The experimental results inferred that adsorption, electrostatic attraction, complexation and chelation are major adsorption mechanisms for binding Cr (VI) ion to the (MRS). Compared to the various other adsorbents reported in the literature, the (MRS) shows very good alternative adsorbent for practical applicability for waste streams and the results indicated that MRS can be employed as a low cost alternative in the removal of Cr (VI) ion from wastewater. Introduction The increasing contamination of urban and industrial wastewaters by toxic metal ions causes important environmental pollutions. These inorganic micro-pollutants are of considerable concern because they are nonbiodegradable, highly toxic and have a probable carcinogenic effect (Madoni et al., 1996). The traditional techniques for the removal of toxic metals from aqueous effluents are incapable of reducing concentration to the levels required by law. Cr(III) and Cr(VI) are the chromium oxidation states usually encountered in the environment. The hexavalent form is of particular concern because of its greater toxicity. Several other methods are utilized to remove chromium from industrial wastewater. These include: reduction, ion exchange, activated carbon adsorption, electrolytic removal, reverse osmosis, membrane filtration (Cimino et al., 2000; Gode and Pehlivan, 2003; Lu et al., 2006). There are other systems for treating wastewaters containing toxic metal ions is today the use of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae but as yet not suitable for applications on a large scale (Ho et al.1995). Several studies have established the potential of peat and brown coal to capture dissolved metals from contaminated waters (McKay and Porter, 1997; Lakatos et al., 2002). Chromium, in its hexavalent form, is one of the undesirable heavy metals because it affects human physiology accumulates in the food chain and cause several ailments. Chromium exists in different oxidation states in aqueous solutions. Although Cr(III) is an essential element for humans, water soluble Cr(VI) is highly irritating and toxic to humans and animals. The main industrial sources of chromium pollution are leather tanning, electroplating, printing, mining, metal processing, wood preservatives, paint and pigments, particularly yellow road paints, textile, metallurgical engineering, battery manufacturing processes and as an anticorrosion agent in cooling waters (Raji and Anirudhan, 1996; Yu et al., 2003; Sharma and Forster, 1993). Biosorption is an emergent and low cost option to treat heavy metal pollutants that would otherwise create serious environmental hazard. A wide range of physical and chemical processes is available for the removal of Cr(VI) from wastewater. The lignocellulosic waste materials are accomplished requirements for good adsorbent, they possess some adsorption capacities, and they are locally available and have a low cost. Several natural adsorbents, including rice bran, soybean and cottonseed hulls (Marshall and Johns, 1996), sawdust (Bryant et al., 301 �1992), straw (Aderhold et al., 1996) have been investigated for their ability to sequester metal ion from water. However, limited information exists on the removal efficiency of anions (Achari and Anirudhan, 1995). New economical, easily available and highly effective adsorbents are still needed. The purpose of this research was aimed to gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical and physical phenomena associated with the binding of Cr(VI) to rye straw (RS) obtained as by-product from locally used wood. The modification of rye straws (RS) by citric acid with the highest sorption capacity was subsequently investigated for its potential as a sorbent for the removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions. This study reports the use of citric acid modified MRS as a biosorbent to remove hexavalent chromium from aqueous solutions. The effects of solution pH, contact time, adsorbent concentration, and initial metal concentration on chromium (VI) adsorption were investigated in detail. Materials and Methods Materials (RS) was collected from vicinity of Konya-Turkey. Straws were ground with Retsch RM 100 model grinding machine. They were ground and sieved to obtain size of 100 µm. Before the use, all the sorbents were washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried in air oven at 120°C for 24 h. All chemicals were of an analytical grade. Double distilled water was used to prepare all solutions throughout the experiments. Cr (VI) stock solution (from Merck) was prepared by dissolving K2Cr2O7 salt in double distilled water. Solutions were stored in plastic sealed beakers. Solutions of 0.01 M NaOH and HCl (from Merck) were used for pH adjustment. Modification of Rye Straws (Rs) with Citric Acid (Ca) First citric acid (10 g) was dissolved in water (50 ml), added over 100 µm 10 g (RS) thoroughly mixed and allowed to soak for 24 hours at 60°C in the oven. At this period, all surface moisture was removed and (RS) particles were coated with CA. Then, the dry sample was reacted for 2 hours by elevating oven temperature at 120°C. The oven temperature and reaction time were raised to the desired level (120°C) for 2 to 24 hours and mixtures were allowed for reacting. Reaction products were mixed with distillated water for 30 min, filtered and washed with water and the product was dried in the oven. Finally, the modified straws were vacuum oven dried for 24 h at 45 °C. The thermally treated sample was then cooled to room temperature and then ground. IR Spectra of RS and MRS To decide whether citric acid was esterified into RS, IR spectroscopic analysis of both untreated RS and MRS were studied. The two major changes in the IR spectrum of MRS could be observed by comparing it with that of MRS: a) a quite evidently increase in the carbonyl (C=O) stretching vibration absorbance in the range of 1730-1750 cm-1; b) a reduction in the hydroxyl (O-H) stretching band in the range of 3430-3440 cm-1. It reflected the result of citric acid etherification. For high amounts of introduced free carboxyl groups, it can be concluded that CA modified (MRS) presented an adequate physical and chemical characteristics to adsorb Cr (VI) ions. Carboxyl Determination 0.1 g dry sample was slurried in water and 0.1 N NaOH was added and stirred for 24 h. The mixture was back-titrated with 0.1 M HCl until the phenolphthalein end point. Conversion factors were determined using citric acid as standards. Untreated RS was used for comparison in carboxyl determination. Carboxylic acid (%) has been calculated as 11% for (RS)l and 17% for (MRS) respectively. Preparation of Cr(VI) solution An accurately weighed quantity of the K2Cr2O7 (purchased from Merck Company) was dissolved in doubledistilled water to prepare a stock solution (500 mg/L). Experimental solutions of the desired concentrations were obtained by successive dilutions (1x10-4- 4x10-3 mol/L). Experiments were carried out at initial pH values ranging from 1.5 to 7.0; initial pH was controlled by addition of dilute HCl or NaOH solutions. 0.1 M KNO3 solution is used for ionic strength. All chemicals used were of analytical reagent grade. 302 �Adsorption Experiments The sorption mixture was consisted of 0.1 g of sorbent in 50 mL of chromium solution from 1x10-4-4x10-3 mol/L K2Cr2O7 for 2 h at 25 °C. After equilibration, the sorbent-solution passed through a filter and was analyzed for Cr(VI) ion content using an UV- spectrometer. The sorbent dosage was changed in the range of 0.01-0.4 g. The chromium concentration (1x10-4-4x10-3 mol/L) was adjusted in the batch experiments. Contact time adsorption experiments were conducted at 25°C in a well-mixed Pyrex glass vessel with a cover. Cr(VI) removal is built up; equilibrium conditions are attained after nearly 2 h. To study the effect of pH on sorption, the pH of the chromium solution was adjusted to values in the pH range of 1.5-7.0 by the addition of 0.1 M HC1 or 0.1 M NaOH prior to experiment. All pH measurements were performed with a Crison Basic 20 Model pH meter. Time dependent experiments were carried out by shaking the adsorption mixture at various predetermined intervals and analyzing the Cr(VI) content at the end of the contact time. Results and discussion Effect of pH on Cr(VI) Removal There are methods available for contacting sorbent materials with solutions contacting metal ions. Batch contacting process has been employed to investigate the performance of the modified straws in removing Cr(VI) from aqueous solution. Lignocelluloses resources and the cell walls of RS mainly consist of polyphenolic compounds, hydroxyl groups such as tannin and lignin, which are believed to be the active sites for attachment of heavy metal cations. All those components are active ion exchange compounds. The lignin content of woods is usually in the range of 18–35%. Tannins are complex polyhydric phenols that are soluble in water and they occur chiefly in hardwoods, and are present in many barks, including softwoods barks. Lignin molecule is built up from the phenyl propane nucleus, i.e. an aromatic ring with a three-carbon side chain. Natural tannins are classified as either hydrolysable or condensed tannins. The hydrolysable tannins are esters of glucose with one or more polyphenolic acids, commonly gallic, digallic, or ellagic acid. The interactions of Cr(VI) ions with RS surface molecules are complex, dominated by adsorption, ion exchange and chelation. Hunt (1986) notes as a generalization the binding of Cr(VI) ions involved two mechanism, the first of these being simple ion exchange and the second through the formation of complexes, which may be chelates. According to the mechanism and the discussion of pH effect, the adsorption will lead to a decrease in pH as equivalent H+ will be released along with the adsorption. Hexavalent chromium existing as negative species in solution may release hydroxide (OH−) instead of proton (H+) when they are adsorbed by RS, and therefore result in an increase in pH. This is the case for most metal adsorption, but there is always exception. Because of the complexity of most biomaterials, it is very likely that both of these processes of Cr(VI) binding will take place in a system at the same time. The following equation (1) describes the chemical adsorption involving exchange with hydroxyl ions: R–CO + H2O + HCrO4− ↔ R–COHO3Cr+ + 2OH− (1) The effect of pH is presented in Fig. 1. The effect of pH on adsorption of Cr(VI) was studied at room temperature be varying the pH of metal solution–MRS suspension from 1.5 to 7.0. The percent adsorption decreases in the pH range of 2.0–7.0, showing the maximum adsorption at pH 1.5. The pH dependence of adsorption may suggest that Cr(VI) ions are adsorbed according to the ion-exchange mechanism, and deacetylation dependence of adsorption may indicate the chelation mechanism. The pH increase was lesser at lower initial pH values. It may be due to hydrolysis of the adsorbent in water, which will create positively charged sites (Dakiky et al., 2002). Percentage removal of Cr(VI) was maximum at the initial pH of 1.5 (92.21%, by MRS) and decreased at higher initial pH values. As described in Eq. (1), hydroxyl species are released from the process of Cr(VI) adsorption instead of hydrogen ions. 303 �Fig. 1. Effect of pH on the adsorption of Cr(VI) At initial pH of 1.5, the adsorbent surfaces might be highly protonated which favor the uptake Cr(VI) in the predominant anionic form (HCrO4-) (Srinivas Rao et al, 1992). With increase in pH from 2.0 to 7.0, the degree of protonation of carbon surfaces reduced gradually and hence removal was decreased. The rate of adsorption of Cr(VI) ion on (MRS) was great for pH changes from 1.5 to 2.0 for Cr(VI) ion. An increase in pH above pH 2 shows a slight decrease in adsorption in which the surface of the adsorbent is negatively charged. Decrease in adsorption at higher pH is due to the formation of soluble hydroxyl complexes. Different mechanisms, such as electrostatic forces, ion exchange, chemical complexation, must be taken into account when examining the effect of pH on Cr(VI) sorption. One of the common proposed mechanisms is electrostatic attraction/repulsion between sorbent and sorbate. Thus, the increase of Cr(VI) sorption at acidic pH should be due to the electrostatic attraction between positively charged groups of biomaterial surface and the HCrO4- anion, which is the dominant species at low pH. Moreover, the decrease of the sorption with increasing pH could be due to the decrease of electrostatic attraction and to the competitiveness between the chromium anionic species (HCrO4– and CrO42–) and OH– ions in the bulk for the adsorption on active sites of the sorbent. From these assumptions it can be suggested that Cr(VI) removal also takes place by physical adsorption. Speciation studies of Cr(VI) in aqueous solution, on the basis of spectrophotometer, electrochemistry, indicates the existence of the following equilibrium; H2CrO4 = H+ + HCrO4HCrO4- = H+ + CrO422HCrO4- = Cr2O72- + H2O (2) (3) (4) Equilibrium is dependent on pH, with HCrO4- and Cr2O72- existing primarily in acidic media and CrO42being the lone species of Cr(VI) above pH 7.0. At higher pH range, the fraction of Cr2O72- species rapidly decreases with increasing pH above 5. In the removal of Cr(VI) process, the anion is not a simple monovalent anion but rather a series of chromate anions depending upon the pH and concentration of the solution. The total chromate species will be represented as Cr(VI). In the neutral solution at low concentrations, Cr(VI) will be present in the form of HCrO4− and CrO42−. At acidic pH, HCrO4− is the predominant Cr(VI) species in the aqueous phase. The decrease in adsorption at high pH values may be due to the competitiveness of the oxyanion of chromium and OH- ions in the bulk. Processes of oxo group protonation and Cr(VI) reduction were lowering because both these reactions require protons. The decrease in the adsorption with increase of pH may be due to the decrease in electrostatic force of attraction between the sorbent and sorbate ions. At lower pH ranges, due to the high electrostatic force of attraction, the percentage of Cr(VI) removal is high. At very low pH value, the surface of sorbent would also be surrounded by the hydronium ions which enhance the Cr(VI) interaction with binding sites of the biosorbents by greater attractive forces. A decrease in adsorption above pH 4.5 may be due to occupation of the adsorption sites by anionic species like HCrO4-, Cr2O27-, CrO24-, etc., which retards the approach of such ions further toward the sorbent surface (Donmez and Aksu, 2002). 304 �Effect of time on the removal of Cr(VI) Cr(VI) adsorption by (MRS) was studied by mixing for a predetermined time interval. An initial concentration of Cr(VI) 2.10-3 M was tried and the concentration of Cr(VI) remaining in the equilibrated solution was plotted as a function of the equilibration period for the (MRS). The plots for Cr(VI) sorption (%) versus time for (MRS) (Fig. 2) showed that equilibrium was attained in 90 min for the adsorption of Cr(VI). The uptake of Cr(VI) is initially rapid then continues at a much slower rate. The concentration of Cr(VI) in the solution increased rapidly within 60-90 min and the sorption was virtually completed within 90-110 min. Fig. 2. Effect of contact time on the sorption of Cr(VI) The metal uptake versus time curves was single, smooth and continuously leading to the saturation suggesting the possible monolayer coverage of metal ions on the surface of the adsorbent. The capacity of (MRS) reached in this study is 0.89 mmol Cr(VI) per gram of (MRS) at pH 2.0. Therefore, in addition to other some natural sorbents, (MRS) provides relatively cheap alternatives for Cr(VI) ion removal . Effect of initial Cr(VI) ion concentration The effect of Cr(VI) concentration on the sorption by the (MRS) sorbents was investigated by varying the concentration (1.10-4 M to 4.10-3 M) at a pH of 2 for 120 min equilibrium time. The percent Cr(VI) ion removal efficiency of (MRS) increased with increasing metal concentration. At higher concentrations, more Cr(VI) ions are left unabsorbed in solution due to the saturation of binding sites. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms have both been used to describe observed sorption phenomena of various metal ions on sorbents (Madoni et al. 1996). The sorption data of Cr(VI) ion have been correlated with Langmuir and Freundlich models [Eqs. (5) and (6)]. These isotherms relate metal uptake per unit weight of resin qe to the equilibrium metal ion concentration in the bulk fluid phase Ce. Langmuir equation: Ce C 1 = + e q e K b AS AS (5) where, As and Kb are coefficients, qe is the weight adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent and Ce is the metal concentration in bulk solution at equilibrium. Fig. 4 conforms to the Langmuir and Freundlich models. Freundlich equation: n (6) q = Kf C e 305 �where, n is the Freundlich constant, and Kf is the adsorption coefficient, q is the weight adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent and Ce is the equilibrium metal concentration in fluid. Taking logs and rearranging the equation (6), equation (7) was obtained. log q = log Kf + n logCe (7) The linear plots of Ceq/q vs Ceq show that adsorption follows the Langmuir adsorption model and the correlation coefficients are calculated 0.97 for (MRS). The Langmuir-type sorption isotherm was suitable for equilibrium studies suggesting the formation of monolayer coverage of the adsorbate on the surface of adsorbent in the concentration studied. The data for the uptake of metal ions by the resin has been processed in accordance with a linear form of the Langmuir isotherm equation. Effect of Ionic Strength Ionic strength is one of the important factors influencing aqueous phase equilibrium. Generally, adsorption decreases with increasing ionic strength of the aqueous solution. The effect of the interfering ion KNO3 was evaluated. The electrostatic attraction at low ionic strength appears to play a negligible role in the removal of Cr(VI) for sorbents. The results indicate that there was no significant decrease in the removal of Cr(VI) ion for the interval of (0.0001-0.001M) KNO3 ionic concentration. Amount of sorbent The effect of variation of (MRS) amount on the removal of chromium by (MRS) is shown in Fig. 3. It is apparent that the equilibrium concentration in solution phase decreases with increasing (MRS) amount for a given initial chromium concentration. The fraction of metal removed from the aqueous phase increases as the sorbent amount is increased in the batch vessel with a fixed initial metal concentration (Fig. 3). This result was anticipated because for a fixed initial solute concentration, increasing amount of adsorbent provides greater surface area (or adsorption sites). 100 Sorption, % . 75 50 25 0 0 0,05 0,1 0,15 0,2 0,25 0,3 0,35 0,4 0,45 Adsorbent amount (g) Fig. 3. Effect of sorbent dosage on the sorption of Cr(VI) Conclusion The studies indicated that equilibrium in the adsorption of Cr(VI) on (MRS) was reached in 90 min of contact time between the (MRS) and the solution. The optimum pH corresponding to the maximum adsorption was found to be at pH 2.0 for (MRS). Cr(VI) adsorption on the (MRS) was described by the Freundlich isotherm model. The adsorption of Cr(VI) increased with an increase in the concentrations of these metals in solution. 306 �References Achari, V.S., Anirudhan, T.S. (1995). Phenol removal from aqueous systems by sorption on Jackwood sawdust., Ind. J. Chem. Technol. 2, 137-141. Aderhold, D., Williams, C.J., Edyvean, R.G.J. (1996). The removal of heavy-metal ions by seaweeds and their derivatives, Bioresource Technol., 58,1, 1-6. Bryant, P.S., Petersen, J.N., Lee, J.M., Brouns, T.M. (1992). Sorption of heavy metals by untreated red fir dust, Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 34-35, 778-788. Cimino, G., Passerini, A. and Toscano, G. (2000). Removal of toxic cations and Cr(VI) from aqueous solution by hazelnut shell. Water Research 34(11), 2955-2962. Dakiky, M., Khamis, M., Manassra, A., Mer’eb, M. (2002). Selective adsorption of chromium(VI) in industrial wastewater using low-cost abundantly available adsorbents, Adv. Environ. Res. 6: 533–540. Dönmez G. and Aksu Z. (2002). Removal of chromium (VI) from saline wastewaters by Dunaliella species. Process Biochemistry, 38(5): 751-762. Gode, F., Pehlivan, E. (2003). A comparative study of two chelating ion-exchange resins for the removal of chromium(III) from aqueous solution. J. Hazardous Mat. B100, 231–243. Ho, Y.S., Wase, D.A.J. and Forster, C. F. (1995). Batch nickel removal from aqueous solution by Sphagnum moss peat. Water Research 29(5), 1327-1332. Hunt, S. 1986. Diversity of Biopolymer Structure and its Potential for Ion Binding Aplications, In: Immobilization of Ions by Biosorption, Eccles, H. And Hunt, S. (Eds), Ellis Horwood, Chichester. Lakatos, J., Brown, S.D., Snape, C.E. (2002). Coals as sorbents for the removal and reduction of hexavalent chromium from aqueous waste streams. Fuel 81, 691-698. Lu, A., Zhong, S., Chen, J., Shi, J., Tang, J., Lu, X. (2006). Removal of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) from aqueous solutions and industrial wastewaters by natural clino-pyrrhotite. Environmental Science & technology. 40(9), 3064-3069. Madoni, P., Davoli, D., Gorbi, G. and Vescovi, L. (1996). Toxic effect of heavy metals on the activated sludge protozoan community. Wat. Res. 30, 135-142. Marshall, W.E., Johns, M.M. (1996). Agricultural by-products as metal adsorbents: sorption properties and resistance to mechanical abrasion”, J Chem. Techn. Biotech., 66, 192-198. McKay, G. and Porter, J.F. (1997). Equilibrium parameters for the sorption of copper, cadmium, and zinc ions onto peat. J. Chemical Technology and Biotechnology 69, 309-320. Raji, C., Anirudhan, T.S. (1996). Preparation and metal±adsorption properties of the polyacrylamide-grafted sawdust having carboxylate functional group. Ind. J. Chem. Technol. 3, 345-350. Sharma, D.C., Forster, C.F. (1993). Removal of Hexavalent Chromium Using Sphagnum Moss Peat, Water Research, 27(7), 1201-1208. Srinivas Rao, P., Shashikant, R., Munjunatha, G.S. (1992). Kinetic studies on adsorption of chromium by coconut shell carbons from synthetic effluents, J. Environ. Sci. Health A 27 (8) 2227-2241. Yu L.J., Shukla S.S., Dorris K.L., Shukla A., Margrave J.L., (2003). Adsorption of chromium from aqueous solutions by maple sawdust, J. Hazard. Mater. B 100 : 53–63. 307 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 445 Title A name given to the resource The Utilization of Modified Rye Straws as Biosorbents for Cr (VI) Ions Author Author Deveci, Huseyin Pehlivan, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. The potential to remove Cr (VI) ion from aqueous solutions using modified rye straws (MRS), through adsorption was investigated in batch experiments. Rye straws were collected from vicinity of Konya, Turkey and modified with various amount of citric acid (CA). The parameter for modification was selected by trying different parameters such as time, temperature and citric acid quantity. The rate of adsorption was studied under a variety of conditions including initial Cr (VI) concentration (1.10-4-4.10-3M), amount of adsorbent (0.05- 0.4 g), pH (1.5 to 7), and contact time (5-240 min). Adsorption of Cr (VI) uptake is in all cases pH-dependent showing a maximum at equilibrium at pH values of 1.5-2.0 for (MRS). The batch sorption kinetics has been tested and the applicability of the Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms for the present system has been tested at 25°C. The experimental results inferred that adsorption, electrostatic attraction, complexation and chelation are major adsorption mechanisms for binding Cr (VI) ion to the (MRS). Compared to the various other adsorbents reported in the literature, the (MRS) shows very good alternative adsorbent for practical applicability for waste streams and the results indicated that MRS can be employed as a low cost alternative in the removal of Cr (VI) ion from wastewater. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b517d0cfdf76eb9847da31af187e7aff.pdf cd8bdebe949276cdc1cab7fcd3416ae6 PDF Text Text Internet as a means of Developing Health Status: A Research on Internet Usage of Users and Their Expectations Mustafa Demirel Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, School of Health, Burdur -Turkey mdemirel@mehmetakif.edu.tr Ayşe Tekin Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, School of Health, Burdur -Turkey aysetekin@mehmetakif.edu.tr Sercan Özbek Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, School of Health, Burdur -Turkey sozbek@mehmetakif.edu.tr Esin Kaya Mehmet Akif Ersoy University, School of Health, Burdur -Turkey ekaya@mehmetakif.edu.tr Abstract: Internet is a communication network and source of knowledge used extensively in many areas. Its use in healthcare field is increasing day by day. Internet users search for a lot of subjects such as medical knowledge, diseases, treatment options, drugs, etc. Increasing number of health sites, whose numbers increase in parallel with those of internet users in healthcare field, is an important means of sustaining individual health and increasing healthcare quality of the individual. On the other hand, the quality, reliability of them and their possible potentials to harm ones health are being discussed. The aim of the research is to determine for why internet users use internet and what their expectations from these sites are. The research was conducted with 586 internet users over the age of 18 who applied to polyclinics of Burdur Public Hospital and Burdur Maternity and Pediatric Hospital between 10.03.2008 and 01.07.2008. Of 586 internet users participated in the research, 556 (94,9%) had searched for healthcare at least for a time. Internet users mostly searched for diseases (66,2%),food, nutrition and dieting (45,7%). 30,4% of internet users say that the information they get via internet is very influential on their decisions, 62,4% say them it is less influential, while 7,2% say it not influential at all. The most important expectations of internet users (73,6%); however, is that web sites be designed and arranged by doctors or specialist of the related fields. Keywords: E-Health, Health Related Web Sites, Internet Users 1. Introduction Internet is an interactive means of information and communication. Its basic feature is its accessibility and interactivity. Internet renders information to be universal via a computer with internet connection. At the same time, it enables to create a connection between people regardless of time and place and an interaction by which simultaneous communication and direct feedback are shaped. (Korp 2006) One of the main reasons for its use is its being an encyclopedic source of information. Incessantly carried out researches show that 60-80% of web users commonly search for healthcare sources of information via internet all over the world. Internet has the potential of healthcare services, self-aid groups and empowerment and education of its users by providing information on healthcare issues (Powell et al. 2003). The interest in internet, which is a means of information and interaction for healthcare issues, has greatly increased in recent years. As well as the number of the sites which provide medical information, the 373 �number of those that focus on healthy life style matters has also been increasing. General healthcare sites such as these which take peoples’ attention provide a large sum of information for various health issues (Korp 2006). Internet users prefers internet for many various reasons related to health. We can list the most important of these as follows (Craan & Oleske 2002): • To get information on some certain diseases and their treatments, • To gain information which will be helpful in the choice of doctors and hospitals, • To search for new or alternative ways of treatment, • To understand the reasons and phases of a diagnosed disease, • To get information about the drugs they use, • To search for support groups and interact with them, There are health sites on internet which any users of any age group or education level can understand easily in terms of language and content. People have the opportunity to easily reach any internet sites which are prepared with a clear and precise language as well as with the expert one. In developed countries where there are educated users, especially in USA and Europe, health web sites are the key targets for those who want to get information about diseases, treatment ways and drugs(Erdal et al.2004). The rise in the use of internet and other communication tools and carrying healthcare knowledge to home bring about changes in health systems (Erdal et al.2004). Internet is also an important source of information for health professionals. Clinists and researchers can provide benefits from the increase of proof, technique, guidance, experience and vocational developments. The continuous increase in health database and its getting easier provide an important support for researchers (Powell et al. 2003). Health information obtained via internet is also seen as an empowerment source for the patients (Jacobson 2007). Empowerment is defined as providing a group of people to be more effective by providing their attendance to decision making, giving them autonomy and with similar techniques (www.tkgm.gov.tr). In health field, empowerment is argued as a new notion which gives new roles to the patient in terms of sharing the responsibilities between health personnel and the patients. As Roberts stated in his work, “Patient Empowerment” is a term that refers to the patient’s interactions with health professionals and taking their own health responsibility, and it also refers to the role of the patient in a power-share varying between doctor and patient (Jacobson 2007). In traditional model, patients get information initially from the doctors about the progress of the disease, and its treatment. These patients are usually those who take the doctors’ advice as it is and don’t ask question about their determined treatment ways. In this hierarchic model, patients are in the pacific receiver position of the information that is filtered and given by healthcare providers. For the last decade, there has been a passage from paternalist model towards a mutual relationship model which shares decision-making process and in which there are “educated patients” who actively take part in their self-healthcare. The smoothening and prevailing facts for reaching information enables to search for clinical state of the patients, allow them to obtain materials that are necessary to evaluate medical data, and increasing patients’ autonomy contributes to the participation of the patients for decision making process about themselves (Woolf et al. 2005). As a result of this, we come across a new decision making model in which doctors participate as partner and a model in which necessities are accepted through “making choice by being informed” (Eysenbach & Jadad, 2001). Health information that is obtained via internet makes the patient more active in patient-doctor relations; since they know much about the disease and its procedure, the patients can discuss with doctors. This, usually, can be seen as a problem by doctors who are used to being in a position where they cannot be questioned in their superiority of knowledge (Pemberton & Goldblatt, 1998). Murray and his friends, in a scientific research to which 150 doctors participated, stated that while 75% of doctors think positively about the increase of health information via internet; only 38% of them stated that patients’ internet usage would create a positive effect for clinic interviews (Murray et al. 2003a). Health information on internet is explained to be able to make the patients more knowledgeable, make healthcare results better, and provide a more suitable use of health services, improve doctor-patient relationship in a better way. However, health information on internet, though, due to misdirection or misinterpretation, can result in health attitudes that will end up with danger or demanding unsuitable offers from doctors in clinical interviews (Murray et al. 2003b). Health professionals have anxiety such as the flexible and unreliable nature of medical information, loss of human touch, and at the same time, ant the problematic perceptions of educated patients (Akerkar 2004). Especially, the possibility of the risk that patients may obtain information from inaccurate and unreliable sources and being remote to medical terms, and since they are hard to understand or liable to misinterpretation increase the anxiety. Doctors say that health information on internet creates confusion with some patients or cause them t have problems or lead them self-diagnose which is harmful or an inclination for self treatment. Doctors attribute this to patients to self-evaluation of too much health information on internet sites, and limited abilities to be able to spare them for private use and to interpret. Doctors think that it is necessary to explain the information which 374 �the patients bring to their interviews. Doctors, thanks to their experiences, usually believe that they are on the best position to explain the patients the information they bring to the interview, do synthesis and link the information. They think they have important missions for educating them with an uncritical approach toward the patients who obtained information via internet. Although doctors feel that these effects load them with new roles in their clinic responsibilities, they usually dislike this newly added responsibilities since they see them as a load on them in terms of time, consumer and consequently on their routine clinical responsibilities(Ahmad et al. 2006). The anxiety on the insufficiency of online health information and its harmful effects on healthcare are increasing day by day. Internet can be an important source of information for users, at the same time it includes much information of various qualities. Anyone can send information via internet without specifying his/her private information, identity and aim. Web sites can be prepared by inexpert people of the field many times. As a result, people approach to the information with skepticism. In a work for the accuracy of the information, it was found out that, of 18 most popular web sites about healthcare; they have with a proportion of %63 precise and accurate information on chest diseases, 36% on infant asthma, 44% on depression and 37% on obesity (Berland 2001). In another work conducted over 60 sites published by traditional medical sources, only 12 sites (20%) have been found to show parallelism with current Pediatric American Academy’s suggestion about infant period diarrhea(McClung et al., 1998:2). The differences of the reliability of conducted researches in various sites justify the anxiety. The determination of guidance providing strategies in their choosing accurate and reliable web sites and creating mechanism to provide inspections by those who prepare these sites will help reducing the insufficient and inaccurate information. 2. Methodology The aim of this research is to determine why internet users use health-related sites and what their expectations are from. This work, which was planned to be descriptive, was conducted with 586 internet users over the age of 18 who applied to polyclinics of Burdur Public Hospital and Burdur Maternity and Pediatric Hospital between 10.03.2008 and 01.07.2008. In the research, sampling technique wasn’t employed, the research was carried out with 586 people aged of 18 and over who use internet and accepted to participate in the research. 546 (93,2%) people who applied to Burdur Public Hospital and 40 (6,8%) people who applied to Burdur Maternity and Pediatric Hospital have been interviewed. Questionnaire form which was developed by researchers as a means of Data obtaining method was employed in the research. Collected raw data was evaluated on computer environment with SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 15.0) program which was developed by social scientists. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1.Demographic Features of Participator Users n=586 Age 18-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 Age of 55and Over Gender Female Male Literacy Elementary School Middle School and Equal Level Number Percentage (%) Cluster Differentiation (%) 272 98 71 60 35 29 15 6 46,4 16,7 12,1 10,2 6,0 4,9 2,6 1,0 46,4 63,1 75,3 85,5 91,5 96,4 99,0 100,0 284 302 48,5 51,5 24 34 4,1 5,8 375 4,1 9,9 �High School and Equal Level Associate Degree * Bachelor Degree * Master Degree * Doctorate 185 108 204 30 1 31,6 18,4 34,8 5,1 ,2 41,5 59,9 94,7 99,8 100,0 Table 1. Demographic Features of Participator Users (* Graduated or still having education.) 3.2. Healthcare Information Searching Status via Internet of Users Who Participated in the Research N=586 Searched for healthcare information at least for once via internet Never searched health information Before Total Number Percentage (%) 556 30 586 94,9 5,1 100,0 Table 2. Healthcare Information Searching Status via Internet of Users Who Participated in the Research Among the participators, the proportion of those who “searched for healthcare information at least for once via internet” is 94,9%, while 5,1% “never searched” at all(Table 2). Our research’s being conducted by interviewing with those who applied to hospitals can be related to the fact that the rate of getting information about healthcare is high. In America, the rate of internet users for healthcare issues is 80% (Fox, Online Health Research 2006), in Europe, this rate was found out to be 66%. (Sillence et al., 2007) 3.3. The Aims of Internet Users in Using Internet for Healthcare Purposes N=556 Number Diseases Foods-nutrition and dieting Treatment techniques and options Individual healthcare Get some foreknowledge about existing diseases. Get information about the choice of doctors and hospitals Sports and keep healthy Alternative science (such as acupuncture, spa and herbal treatments) Child-care Reading published material and literature Pregnancy Get information about drugs with or without prescription. Get online advice about the disease and patient’s health state Communicate with the other patients Buy drugs with or without prescription Other* 368 254 252 207 202 172 171 132 96 58 54 53 41 24 20 23 Percentage (%) 66,2 45,7 45,3 37,2 36,3 30,9 30,8 23,7 17,3 10,4 9,7 9,5 7,4 4,3 3,6 4,1 Table 3. The Distribution of Internet Users’ Aims for Healthcare Purposes *Such as taking appointment from hospital, getting information about medical products. 66,2% of those who search for healthcare issues search information about diseases; 45,7% of them search for food-nutrition, dieting; 45,3% of them search for cure techniques and options; 37,2% of them search for individual healthcare. Of the participators, 36,3% use internet to get some foreknowledge about existing disease; 30,8% use it to do sports and keep healthy(Table 3). 376 �In another work, the proportion of getting information about a specific disease and problem is 64%; that of getting information about medical treatment or its procedure is 51%; for dieting-nutrition, vitamin, and dieting support, this proportion is 49%; sport and exercise is 44% and that of getting information about drugs with or without prescription is found 3.7%(Fox, Online Health Search 2006). 3.4. Factors which are Effective for the Choice of Internet Users on Healthcare Web-Site Preferences. N=556 Number Medical personnel advice Close-friends/relatives advice Visual-written media Internet search engine Forums, internet support groups Advertisement on other web sites 73 125 205 395 75 49 Percentage (%) 13,1 22,5 36,9 71,0 13,5 8,8 Table 4. Factors which are Effective for the Choice of Internet Users on Healthcare Web-Site Preferences. 71% of internet users reach internet sites by using internet search engines (Table 4). In the research conducted by Schwartz and the others (Schwartz 2006), the proportion of those who find information by using search engines such as Google or Yahoo is found 82,5%. In another similar work, internet search engines are turned out to be the most preferred way (66%) in searching information (Fox, Online Health Research, 2006;5). This proportions’ being high can be attributed to the fact that only “key words” are written in the search engine and the search are done in this way in a very short time. Furthermore, the lower proportion (13,1%) of users whom the medical personnel direct to use web sites shows that the users cannot obtain necessary support from medical workers and they make web sites preferences mostly thanks to the references of visual and written media. 3.5. The Reliance Status of Internet Users to the Information They Obtained from Healthcare Web Sites That They Visited N=556 I trust them all I trust some of them I trust none of them Total Number Percentage (%) 93 457 6 556 16,7 82,2 1,1 100,0 Table 5. Whether Internet Users Rely on the Information They Obtained from Healthcare Web Sites That They Visited In our work, internet users’ proportion being high (82,2%) for the proposition that “I trust some of them” gives us an idea that at least they do not trust to all internet sites related to healthcare (Table 5). Murray stated in his wok that 72% of the patients have doubts about the information that they obtained via internet (Murray et al. 2003b). In USA, the finding of a survey examining web sites, shows us there are web sites hard to comprehend, misdirecting, including missing information and this fact cause this doubts to be right. 3.6. The Reasons Which Set the Ground for the Doubts about Health Web Sites N=556 Internet site’s being imprecise Unspecified information in the site about where the information was obtained from. 377 Number Percentage (%) 143 273 25,7 49,1 �Commercial interest of the site rather than providing accurate information Site’s not being owned by a reliable organization (such as the Ministry of Health, WHO) The information obtained from those sites is not compatible with those obtained from the doctor. Site’s including information known to be wrong. Other* 172 30,9 138 24,8 70 12,6 67 1 12,1 0,2 Table 6. The Reasons Which Set the Ground for the Doubts about Health Web Sites * Directing to another site When we look at the reasons why the health internet sites create doubts, most of the participators (49,1%), state that the unspecified information in the site about where the information was obtained from create doubts. The second reason for the doubts is (30.9%) commercial interest of the site rather than providing accurate information (Table 6). In our research, the most important reason creating doubts is shown as the unspecified information in the site about where the information was obtained from (Table 6). Again, the reliability and quality of the information in the foreground is questionable. Two dimensions for the quality of the information on web have attracted notice: first, health materials are not prepared by health personnel; second, there is a border between approaches to health and other approaches. 3.7. The State of the Information Obtained Via Internet in Effecting Healthcare Decision Making N=556 Very effective Little effective Not effective Total Number Percentage (%) 169 347 40 556 30,4 62,4 7,2 100,0 Table 7. Whether the Status of the Information Obtained Via Internet Affects Healthcare Decision Making or Not In our work, 30,4% of internet users stated that the information they obtained via internet is “very effective”, 62,4% said “little effective”. The proportion of those who say that the information they obtained via internet is “not effective” is 7,2% (Table 7). According to another work, 68% of the internet users says that this has a little effect on their decisions in terms of health. (Fox and Rainie 2002). 3.8. Practicing Status of Internet Users In Accordance With the Information They Obtain From HealthIntended Internet Sites N=556 Yes No Total Number Percentage (%) 278 278 556 50,0 50,0 100,0 Table 8. Practicing Status of Internet Users In Accordance With the Information They Obtain From HealthIntended Internet Sites In our work, it is seen that half of the health-intended internet users pactice the information they obtain (Table 8). During the interviews, especially such practices as dieting, exercise, massage, skin care, balanced 378 �nutrition, quitting smoking, healthy herbal use have been specified to be done frequently. Such programs related to health problems as quitting smoking, weight control, diabetes, insomnia, depression and anxiousty have been shown in various works. (Strecher 2007). 3.9. The Expectations of Health-Intended Internet Site Users from Health-Care Web Sites N=556 Preparation of web-sites by doctors or field experts Arrangement by reliable foundations Availability of web-sites through which she/he can Communicate with her/his own doctor. More comprehensible information on web sites Web-sites’ design should be more attracting and easier to use Assurance for private information’s security on web sites Regular updates of information on the sites Other * Number Percentage (%) 409 382 210 73,6 68,7 37,8 212 128 182 219 10 38,1 23,0 32,7 39,4 1,8 Table 9. The Expectations of Health-Intended Internet Site Users from Health-Care Web Sites * Requirement for membership, swift reply, specifying sources. When we examine internet users’ expectation from health-care web sites, we see that, “preparation of web-sites by doctors or field experts” (73,6%) or “arrangement by reliable foundations”(68,7%) has importance for most of the participators. Among other expectations of users are “regular updates of information on the sites” (39,4%); “more comprehensible information on web sites” (38,1%); “assurance for private information’s security on web sites” (32,7%); “web-sites’ design should be more attracting and easier to use” (23%). (Table 9) The most important expectation of internet users about health is to set up a reliable ground. Site’s organizational identity, accuracy of the information on the site, updated information and specifying sources, security of private information and its use, privacy should all be provided at first hand for the users. Moreover, the internet sites which appeal at more educated and sophisticated users in comparison with the former ones should be at a satisfying level (Erdal et al.2004). Acknowledgements : This study has been supported by the Scientific Searching Projects Commission of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University (Project No: 0016-NAP-07) References Ahmad, F. et al., “Are Physicians Ready for Patients With Internet-Based Health Information?”, J Med Internet Res. 2006; 8(3), <http://www.jmir.org/2006/3/e22>, Date of Access: 23.03.2008. Akerkar, S.M.; Bichile, L.S., (2004). Doctor Patient Relationship: Changing Dinamics in the Đnformation Age, J Postgrad Med, 50, (2) 120-122. Berland, G.K. et al. 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Murray, E., et al.(2003a) The Impact of Health Information on the Internet on the Physician-Patient Relationship: Patient Perceptions, Archives of Internal Medicine, 163 (14), 1727-1734. Murray, E. et al.(2003b). The impact of health information on the internet on health care and the physician-patient relationship: national U.S. survey among 1,050 U.S. physicians”, J Med Internet Res, 5:e17 Pemberton, P. J.; Goldblatt, J. (1998) The Internet and the changing roles of doctors, patients and families, The Medical Journal of Australia, 169, 594-59. Powell J.A. et al.(2003). The Doctor, The Patient and The World-Wide Web: How The Internet is Changing Healthcare, Journal of The Royal Society of Medicine, 96, 74-76. Schwartz, K. L.(2006) Family Medicine Patients’ Use of the Internet for Health Information: A MetroNet Study, JABFM, 19 (1), 39-45. Sillence E., Briggs P., Haris iP.R., Fishwick L.(2007). How do patients evaluate and make use of online health information? Social Science & Medicine, (64), 1853-1862. Strecher, V.(2007). Internet Methods for Delivering Behavioral and Healtssassszszh-Related Interventions (eHealth), Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3.53-76. Woolf, S.H. et al.(2005). Promoting Informed Choice: Transforming Health Care to Dispense Knowledge for Decision Making, Annals of Internal Medicine, 143 (4), 293-300. 380 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 531 Title A name given to the resource Internet as a means of Developing Health Status: A Research on Internet Usage of Users and Their Expectations Author Author Demirel, Mustafa Tekin, Ayse Özbek, Sercan Kaya, Esin Abstract A summary of the resource. Internet is a communication network and source of knowledge used extensively in many areas. Its use in healthcare field is increasing day by day. Internet users search for a lot of subjects such as medical knowledge, diseases, treatment options, drugs, etc. Increasing number of health sites, whose numbers increase in parallel with those of internet users in healthcare field, is an important means of sustaining individual health and increasing healthcare quality of the individual. On the other hand, the quality, reliability of them and their possible potentials to harm ones health are being discussed. The aim of the research is to determine for why internet users use internet and what their expectations from these sites are. The research was conducted with 586 internet users over the age of 18 who applied to polyclinics of Burdur Public Hospital and Burdur Maternity and Pediatric Hospital between 10.03.2008 and 01.07.2008. Of 586 internet users participated in the research, 556 (94,9%) had searched for healthcare at least for a time. Internet users mostly searched for diseases (66,2%),food, nutrition and dieting (45,7%). 30,4% of internet users say that the information they get via internet is very influential on their decisions, 62,4% say them it is less influential, while 7,2% say it not influential at all. The most important expectations of internet users (73,6%); however, is that web sites be designed and arranged by doctors or specialist of the related fields. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General)