58 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d971ae76a8c98dbff22979f1a6aa44f4.docx 1150376407df59f18f512ec855c9522e https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/988fb73595cbaeef004ee683c0b055a2.pdf 1c6a3bbda1ca3f3ff29bd5c58e36fe69 PDF Text Text Code-Switching in the Contemporary Dialects; a Case Study on Raji Dialect Regarding to Different Generations Vahid Asghari & Hamid Reza Najafi Islamic Azad University /Arak, Iran Key words: code switching, language loss, dialect, language shift, morphosyntactic ABSTRACT In the language shift situation, a dominant language is acquired perfectly. While the minority language is used less and less and is gradually forgotten. Its vocabulary decreases, and the speakers have to insert into their speech words and phrases from the dominant language. This is the situation with the Raji dialect. Only the oldest speakers preserve the language to full extent. Very few people under 40 know their parents' language or they can understand it, but do not speak it. During the interviews conducted in Persian, all informants can speak Persian without switching to Raji. But when speaking Raji, even the oldest speakers don’t use numerous Persian words, but the middle generation switch to Persian rather often, inserting Persian phrases and words that show no phonological or morphosyntactic integration into the Raji dialect. In the speech of the oldest speakers, no code switching pattern was found when they were speaking by Raji dialect while the code-switching pattern was more typical for representatives of the middle generation. They switch to Persian mainly to compensate the insufficiency of their Raji vocabulary. In their casual speech they often insert Persian words that are not integrated into the Raji dialect structure. On the other hand, the attempts of the middle generation to use "as much Raji as possible" during the interview with a researcher confirm that they are conscious of the insufficiency of their language competence. During the interviews they prefer to adapt Persian words to the Raji dialect phonologically and morphologically, sometimes they even try to use Raji numerals that are not used by older people. Such unpredictability of codeswitching, together with weakening of sociolinguistic motivation and insertion of Persian words and phrases as a result of the vocabulary reducing, seems to be one of the symptoms of the gradual language loss. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1958 Title A name given to the resource Code-Switching in the Contemporary Dialects; a Case Study on Raji Dialect Regarding to Different Generations Author Author ASGHARI, Vahid NAJAFI, Hamid Reza Abstract A summary of the resource. Key words: code switching, language loss, dialect, language shift, morphosyntactic ABSTRACT In the language shift situation, a dominant language is acquired perfectly. While the minority language is used less and less and is gradually forgotten. Its vocabulary decreases, and the speakers have to insert into their speech words and phrases from the dominant language. This is the situation with the Raji dialect. Only the oldest speakers preserve the language to full extent. Very few people under 40 know their parents' language or they can understand it, but do not speak it. During the interviews conducted in Persian, all informants can speak Persian without switching to Raji. But when speaking Raji, even the oldest speakers don’t use numerous Persian words, but the middle generation switch to Persian rather often, inserting Persian phrases and words that show no phonological or morphosyntactic integration into the Raji dialect. In the speech of the oldest speakers, no code switching pattern was found when they were speaking by Raji dialect while the code-switching pattern was more typical for representatives of the middle generation. They switch to Persian mainly to compensate the insufficiency of their Raji vocabulary. In their casual speech they often insert Persian words that are not integrated into the Raji dialect structure. On the other hand, the attempts of the middle generation to use "as much Raji as possible" during the interview with a researcher confirm that they are conscious of the insufficiency of their language competence. During the interviews they prefer to adapt Persian words to the Raji dialect phonologically and morphologically, sometimes they even try to use Raji numerals that are not used by older people. Such unpredictability of code-switching, together with weakening of sociolinguistic motivation and insertion of Persian words and phrases as a result of the vocabulary reducing, seems to be one of the symptoms of the gradual language loss. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available IBU Publishing Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-05-03 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a030da98e66507ab532e79fc289d3e5.doc 16da87608824f9805b50665749e3b6f9 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c6ba49a14a29752ab11d1fca8b18429c.pdf 8f1dbda8ac9a6473055a5f5a4c511c02 PDF Text Text COGNITIVE LINGUA-CULTURAL ASPECTS IN TEACHING TRANSLATION FOR INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (КОГНИТИВНЫЕ ЯЗЫКОВО-КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ В ПРЕПОДАВАНИИ ПЕРЕВОДA ДЛЯ МЕЖКУЛЬТУРНОЙ КОММУНИКАТИВНОЙ КОМПЕТЕНЦИИ) Abstract This article is dedicated to the application of cognitive lingua-cultural aspects in training future translators to come over the problems emerge form especially cognitive and cultural diversities of different origin societies. The essences of intercultural competence of an interpreter as well as its specific features are determined necessary for translation work. The features of future interpreters and translators education for the requirements of intercultural interpretation in the global world are revealed. Necessity of culturally centered linguistic, didactical and translational paradigm forcing us to seek new ways to improve the training translators for intercultural communication is also mentioned. The explanation and function of translation is stated as ‘Interpretation’, is a very important medium for cultural exchange between people using different languages. High levels of intercultural interaction for translation analysis of a source text in target language provide adequate translation activities and promote the act of dialogue between cultures. As for the education of translation it is determined that ‘A clear lesson to be learnt from translation studies is that the teaching and assessment of translation need to be based on a far wider range of criteria than those involved in simply labelling individual lexical and grammatical items as right or wrong. Keywords: intercultural communication, translation strategies, cross-cultural interpretation, didactic of translation. Introduction The world is getting smaller and smaller into a village with the effect of mess-media. The interrelations of the nations, countries and people have never been so intensive a long with the history as in our era. The free movement of goods and money, the international companies, investing and merchandising all over the world, the very intensive educational and cultural activities and interaction of the communities caused a new term occurred ―Globalization‖. In the village there is just one language that people use for communication but in the world numerous. As a result of globalization interrelations among people have become so immense that any level of communication is almost has become unavoidable. This situation needs cognition, language and culture for miscommunication not to occur. As translation is one of the ways of international communication, the importance of translation and education of it becomes rather clear. In teaching translation, just teaching two languages doesn‘t confront the requirements of the globalized world any more. So we need some new paradigms for this phenomenon. Iintercultural communicative competence of an interpreter – is the ability to cognate, recognize, understand and interpret his own and another picture of the world in their interaction with the aim of ensuring quality transformation the source text into target language text (Tareva, 1476). Teaching Translation Intercultural communicative competence as a concept of theory, practice and didactics of translation is the reality of today (Tareva, 1474). Thus, according to culture-centered approach, teaching translation necessitates acquisition of both real cultural and cognitive semantic facts of another cultural community. Hornby offers a new term ‗the cultural turn‘ in this filed including the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics translation (Hornby,1990) From these points of views it is generally known that trainees of translations departments express dissatisfaction with the translation classes they attend in their faculties. This alarming observation raised the following questions; ‘Does the 1 �problem lie with those teaching the curricula?, Have they been properly taught?, Have they been adequately trained?, Are there some defects in the translation programs in these departments?’(Gabr, 1) There is a concise survey of changing notions of equivalence, faithfulness, the importance of context and function, the need to adopt appropriate translation strategies for different types of text, and of translation as the locus for cultural interaction and the exchange of cultural capital between and within cultures (Levefere & Bassnett 1998). To overcome the problems in this area the contributions talk about the challenges and solutions in a translation and interpreting classroom by combining theory and practice, hence allowing for implementation of the different methods in real-life situations (Bogucki, 2010). Thus, in teaching translation taking cognition of students and socio cultural background of the target language into account gets great importance. As for our first object, students should be investigated from some angles. We believe that investigating the attitudes of the undergraduate students towards three basic elements in the translation programs and exploring the students' understanding of the theoretical aspects of translation and their personal efforts to develop their translation skills can be achieved by exploring along six axes as follows:  Students' understanding of the concept of translation and the process of translating  Students' personal efforts to improve their translation skills  Students' satisfaction with the course material  Students' satisfaction with the teaching methods used in the course  Students' satisfaction with the roles played by the translation teacher  Students' overall attitude towards the four-year translation program offered in the undergraduate Department of English Language and Literature or Translation Studies. (Offered by Gabr, 2010) In gaining the required skills in education of translation for intercultural communication, we should redefine the translation from the points of views of new paradigms. Vardar says that ‗Translation is transference of culture, concepts, ideas and thoughts form one language to another.’ (Vardar, 172) Marash indicates that ‗Translation is activity/event of understanding and having the audience to understand’ (Marash, 30). Komisserov gives the definition for translation that, ‗translation is functional interaction of language’ (Komisserov, 11). Thus, we can infer from the quotations that translation is cross-cultural and cross-languages and functional transference or in other words transference of any information from one language to another by providing its semantical, functional and cultural equivalence of source language in target language. According to Basnet, there are four equivalences that a translator should provide wile translating any information (Basnet, 25); 1. Linguistic Equivalence, 2. Paradigmatic Equivalence, 3. Stylistic Equivalence, 4. Textual/syntagmatic Equivalence The main aim of translation is to serve as a cross-cultural bilingual communication means among people. For this reason, translators play an important role as bilingual or multi-lingual cross-cultural transmitters of culture and truths by attempting to interpret concepts and speech in a variety of texts as faithfully and accurately as possible (Gerding, 2010). Hence, it gets quite clear that a poor translation can not only lead to hilarity or to minor confusion, but it can also be a matter of life and death. So, the importance of training translators, not only in acquisition of languages, translation strategies and procedures, but also in specific knowledge areas and professional ethics (Gerding, 2010). For these reasons, interpreters should, not only master source language, target language, relevant fields and different professional knowledge, but also be familiar with the two different kinds of cultures and the reflection of the differences in languages expression. Tareve mentions that, ‗translation is not only a translation between two languages, but also a kind of cross-cultural communication; interpretation is full of challenges’ (Tareva, 2011). We can understand that translation is not an easy event. Gerding states that ‗There are many thorns and difficulties that can mortify us during the translation process, whatever the nature of the text we face, and translators should be aware of them (Gerding, 2010). Some of them are; 2 �reading and comprehension ability in the source language, cultural difference, cultural untranslatability, linguistic difference, linguistic untranslatability and not found terms ans so on ... To a great extent, the quality of translation will depend on the quality of the translator, i.e. on her/his knowledge, skills, training, cultural background, expertise, and even mood! Newmark distinguishes some essential characteristics that any good translator should have to be able to overcome all these difficulties are; reading comprehension ability in a foreign language, knowledge of the subject, sensitivity to language (both mother tongue and foreign language), competence to write the target language, dexterously, clearly, economically and resourcefully (Newmark,1995b). In addition, Mercedes Tricás refers to intuition, or common sense as the most common of all senses; in other words, making use of the sixth sense, a combination of intelligence, sensitivity and intuition. This phenomenon works very well if handled cautiously: ...the transfer process is a difficult and complex approach mechanism, one in which one must make use of all one's intellectual capacity, intuition and skill (Tricás, 1995). A translator/interpreter plays great impotant role in trasference of any information or in uderstanding of it in target language. To provide all those equivalences he uses some mental and physical processes; Translation in source language, Paraprasing in target language, Expalantion in target language, Deletaion in both languages if necessary, Borrowing. There are also three translation models that a translator can apply any of them according to the type of a text in translation; the author-centered traditional model, the text-centered structuralistic model, the cognitive reader-centered model. A. Some approaches in translation; 1. The didactic translation approach: A methodology that allows the development of an effective and efficient transfer process from one language to another. As is widely known by those committed to the field, translation as a formal professional activity with a theoretical background is relatively new. Nonetheless, we teachers may facilitate our own task and that of our students if we take advantage of the appropriate tools and strategies (Gerding, 2010) 2. The cognitive translation approach: It perfectly applies to the transfer process of ideas from one language to another, which obviously implies a lot more than the simple reproduction model. (Kussmaul, 1995). 3. The psychological and social approach: From this point of view the translator, whose profile should be that of an intellectual worker with professional training characteristics such as the above-mentioned, will be more successful if her/his social-affective development is given more emphasis, for s/he may be better prepared for cooperative work, and s/he may reach a higher tolerance level, showing respect, self-criticism and sensitivity. (Adapted form Gerding, 2010) 4. The Global Approach: With regard to the principal approaches to a translation text, the most renowned translation theorists (Delisle, Newmark, Nida, Nord, Kussmaul) are in agreement on the following aspects:  Firstly, there is comprehension and interpretation of texts which implies the management of the approach principles to various types of texts, considering the textual, referential, cohesion and naturalness levels.  Secondly, re-wording is also important. It means the application of the various strategies for the restitution process of the message (re-coding) by choosing the appropriate method(s), techniques and procedures. (Newmark, P., 1995: A Textbook of Translation).  And thirdly, translation theorists give great importance to the assessment of the result. (Adapted form Gerding, 2010). 3 �B. 1. Some methods and techniques in teaching translation A Cooperative Work Procedure This method attempts to develop some workshop activities for the translation process—as a cooperative activity with the students—through a graded and sequential procedure.  The teacher makes a selection of the material to be translated. Texts must be chosen according to previously defined objectives for translation practice, taking into account the degree of difficulty of the texts (semantic, cultural, stylistic, etc.)  After browsing through the text (scan reading and/or skim reading), the students, assisted by their teacher, should identify the source, the norm, the type of text, the register, the style and the readership of the text selected.  The students should read the whole text at least twice: The first reading will be comprehensive and general, to become acquainted with the topic and to understand the original, always bearing in mind that meaning is context-determined. The second reading must be a "deep" reading, placing emphasis on items where translation problems may appear.  The teacher then divides the text into as many segments as students in the group. Depending on the degree of difficulty and the length of the text, these segments may be paragraphs, columns, pages or even whole chapters.  If the topic is already quite familiar to the students, they do a preliminary translation. ("one-to-one translation," Newmark, 1995a).  If the topic is completely unknown to the students, they should consult complementary literature.  Once the "one-to-one" version is accomplished, the students do a second version of their own translation—this time a written draft—handling the most suitable translation strategies and procedures and being faithful in the transfer of ideas.  With the original text in front of her/him and being careful to follow the same correlative order of the SL text, each student reads out her/his own version of the translated text, making the necessary pauses between sentences.  During this procedure, the students and the teacher need to set up all necessary conventions with regard to the homogeneity of the terms and the coherence and cohesion of the final version.  As Newmark states, "translation is for discussion" (Newmark, 1995b).  As a metacognitive activity, the students, assisted by the teacher, analyze the translation strategies and procedures used, and discuss the reasons taken into account in the choice of each analyzed criterion: , (Kussmaul, 1995).  The students hand in the final version of their revised and post-edited segments.  The teacher makes a final revision. (Adapted from Gerding, 2010) 2. Parallel texts Texts chosen for this exercise should be short and, over a complete year of study, taken from a variety of sources, including advertisements and other commercial material, as well as biographical, historical, political or literary extracts. In some cases, the ST will be in L1, in others in L2; texts produced by multilingual organisations such as the UN or the EU can also be included. Working in pairs, students can then pick out and discuss how particular words or phrases have been translated, and come up with suggestions as to the linguistic and other reasons for making a particular choice, and whether other alternatives would have been possible and effective. The rest of the group can intervene at any time; individual students are thus reassured by hearing of others' problems, but encouraged to think and discuss their way out of the difficulty (Adapted from Nott, 3) 4 �3. Retranslation (or 'double translation') Double translation, as practised in the sixteenth century, involved three stages: the close study of a (Latin) original, leading to the production by the student of an English version which, an hour or a day later, he translates back into Latin. This exercise was used for modern as well as classical languages, and became increasingly centred on stylistic, rather than syntactic, features (Kelly 1976: 177-180). Retranslation can involve listening as well as reading, as in the following exercise: students are given time to read through a printed L1 text which has been translated from an L2 original, noting its salient features in the usual way. They then hear a recording of the original L2 text, first of all straight through, then in short chunks, repeated, with short pauses during which they write down their L2 version of the chunk, using the printed L1 text as a guide. (Adapted from Nott, 3). 4. Summary translation (L2 to L1 or vice-versa) From the students' point of view, the advantage of summary translation as an exercise is that a TL equivalent does not necessarily have to be found for every SL word or phrase. On the other hand, students are required to be aware of the global features, and salient points of the text, and to make decisions as to how to reflect these in the TL version. As with all FL learning, the teacher will have spelled out the aims of the exercise, together with the necessity to form a rapid overview of the text, and to make strategic decisions about what to include, condense or exclude, and the over-riding importance of the transmission of content. The exercise could be done with source material from texts in L2, or in L1. The task (pairwork in class, or as an individual or pair assignment) is to produce a TL version of the story in the style of a specified TL newspaper or periodical. (Adapted from Nott, 4) It is assumed that the teacher is understood as a facilitator of the translation task, since the lion's share of the transfer process is accomplished by the students, mainly collectively, but also individually (Gerding, 2010). Therefore it is valid for students to consult all possible information sources, including the traditional written forms, the "live" sources or informants, e.g. their own teacher (the "client," in this case), experts in the topic, native speakers, translation software, term data bases and the international data processing nets. For this process to be efficiently carried out, the following minimum conditions should be met: C.        D.      Profile of the Student Sound linguistic training in the two languages and knowledge covering a wide cultural spectrum High reading comprehension competence and permanent interest in reading Adequate use of translation procedures and strategies Acquaintance with translation software for MT and MT edition Improvement capacity and constant interest in learning Initiative, creativity, honesty and perseverance, accuracy, truthfulness, patience and dedication Capacity for analysis and self-criticism, developing team work and maintain constructive interpersonal relationships (adapted from Gerding, 2010) Profile of the Educator Clear assessment criteria Sound knowledge of the SL and the TL, translation theory, transfer procedures, cognition and methodology Comprehension of what translation is and how it occurs (Bell, 1994) Ability to communicate ideas clearly, empathically and openly Capacity to create, foster and maintain a warm work environment, "an atmosphere of sympathetic encouragement" (Kussmaul, 1995) 5 �  Permanent interest in reading various kinds of texts Accuracy and truthfulness; critical, self-critical and analytical capacity E. Evaluation As suggested by Kussmaul (1995), it is a good practice to classify the kinds of errors/difficulties. The most frequent types of difficulties arising from translation that I propose to assess in any translation are the following:  Comprehension, sense and ideas  Lexico-semantic level  Morphosyntactic level  Spelling and punctuation  Creative solutions to translation problems  Cohesion and coherence  Assessment of the result and post-edition  Format (adapted from gerding, 2010) In sum, translators must understand the original text, for which they must have wide general knowledge, handle the vocabulary of the topic in the SL as well as in the TL and, last but not least, write their own language well (Orellana, 1994). Conclusion Translators—like all "professional professionals"—must undergo permanent training (Gerding, 2010) Their productive capacity, however, should not always be measured in terms of pages or hours done, but by the quality of the output or finished work. In order to solve translation problems, a translator must use of his/her cleverness, creativity, curiosity, intuition, ingenuity, reflection, resourcefulness, and much more. It is asserted that the traditional approach to translation in the FL course, especially from L1 to L2, has not only done much to discourage generations of students as to their own proficiency and potential as FL learners, but has also offered them a wholly unrealistic set of notions about translation. In teaching translatoin a clear lesson to be learnt from translation studies is that the teaching and assessment of translation need to be based on a far wider range of criteria than those involved in simply labelling individual lexical and grammatical items as right or wrong. It is widely known that there is indispensable relationship between language and its culture. It is rather clear that translation is functioal interaction of languages. Hence, for effective, emotive and correct intercultural communication, translator training should include also cultural bacground, logic and mentaliy of the TL and cognition of them by trainees. РЕЗЮМЕ В этой статье автор говорит о важности и необходимости обучению переводам наряду с новыми парадигмами, современными подходами и методами в зависимости от интенсивного межкультурного взаимодействия. Он подчеркивает связь между языком и культурой, таким образом, важность познания, сознание менталитета и логики TL и обеспечения социальнокультурного фона его слушателей. РЕЗЮМЕ Берілген мақалада автор аударма жасауда жаңа парадигмалармен бірге оның маңызы мен қажеттілігі жайында және мәдениетаралық қарым-қатынастан туындайтын интенсивті, заманауи әдістермен оқыту туралы сөз қозғайды. Ол тіл мен мәдениет арасындағы байланысты, тыңдаушының әлеуметтік-мәдени тұрғыдан танымын және логикалық маңызын көрсетеді. 6 �Yakup DOGANAY M.A, PhD Candidate Suleyman Demirel University Almaty / Kazakhstan Bibliography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Bell, Roger T. (1994), ‗Translation and Translating’, Longman Group UK Ltd. Basnet, Susan, (2002), ‘Translation Studies’, Rutledge, London and New York Elena G. Tareva, Cross-Cultural Interpretation as the Strategy for Pre-Translation Text Analysis, Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 10 (2011 4) 1473-1480 Hervey, S. (1995). Thinking Spanish Translation. A Course in Translation Method: Spanish to English. London: Routledge. Hervey, S., I. Higgins & M. Longridge (1996). Thinking German Translation. A Course in Translation Method: German to English. London: Routledge. Hornby, Mary Snell, (2006), The Turns of Translation Studies, John Benhamins, Amsterdam, The Nertharlendas. Kelly, L. G. (1979). The True Interpreter. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Komisserov, V, (1981), Teaching Translation, Linguistica Pravda, Kiev Kussmaul, Paul. 1995. Training the Translator. John Benjamins Publishing Co. Vardar, 172, (2010), quoted from Kocaman, A., Boztash, İ. Aksoy, Z. , ‗İngilizce Çeviri Kılavuzu’ (A Guidebook for English Translation), Hacettepe tash, Ankara Marash, 30, (2010), quoted from Kocaman, A., Boztash, İ. Aksoy, Z. , ‗İngilizce Çeviri Kılavuzu (A Guidebook for English Translation)’, Hacettepe Tash, Ankara Lefevere, A. & S. Bassnett (1998). Where are we in Translation Studies? In Bassnett, S. & A. Lefevere: Constructing Cultures. Essays on Literary Translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Munday Jeremy, (200), ‗Introducing Translation Studies’(theories and applications), Routledge publishing house, London. Newmark, Peter. 1995. Manual de Traducción. Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd. Ediciones Cátedra, S.A. Newmark, Peter. 1995. A Textbook of Translation. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Nida, E. y Taber Ch. 1974. The Theory and Practice of Translating. Brill, Leiden. Sewell, P. & S. Higgins (eds) (1996). Teaching Translation in Universities: Present and Future Perspectives. London: AFLS/CILT. Tricás, Mercedes. (1995), ‗Manual de traducción francés-castellano’. Gedisa S.A. Related links 1. Schjoldager. Is translation into the foreign language dangerous for learners?, ‘A comparative analysis of translation and picture verbalization’, www.cbs.dk/departments/english/EST/cf/Schjoldager.doc 2. ‗Criteria for marking translations into English’, www.mml.cam.ac.uk/courses/part2/translation.html 3. Guide to Good Practice: Interpreting by Isabelle Perez, (www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/316) 4. Constanza Gerding-Salas, ‘Teaching Translation Problems and Solutions’, http://translationjournal.net/journal/13educ.htm 5. Gabr Moustafa, ‘A Skeleton in the, Closet Teaching Translation in Egyptian National Universities, http://translationjournal.net/journal/19edu.htm 6. Nott David, ‘Translation from and into the foreign language’, http://www.llas.ac.uk/resources/gpg/427 7. Bogucki Łukasz, ‘Teaching Translation and Interpreting’ http://www.c-s-p.org/Flyers/978-1-4438-2500-9-sample.pdf 7 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1039 Title A name given to the resource COGNITIVE LINGUA-CULTURAL ASPECTS in TEACHING TRANSLATION for INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE Author Author Doganay, Yakup Abstract A summary of the resource. This article is dedicated to the application of cognitive lingua-cultural aspects in training future translators to come over the problems emerge form especially cognitive and cultural differences of different origin societies. The essences of intercultural competence of an interpreter as well as its specific features are determined necessary for translation work. The author reveals the features of education of future interpreters and translators for the requirements of intercultural interpretation in globalized world. He also states the necessity of culturally centered linguistic, didactical and translational paradigm forcing us to seek new ways to improve the training of translators in intercultural communication. The explanation and function of translation is stated like ‘Interpretation must be instrumental in transmitting culture’ and ‘indeed, interpretation is a very important medium for cultural exchange between people using different languages’. ‘High level of intercultural interaction for translation analysis of a source text in target language provides adequate translation activities and promote the act of dialogue between cultures, an important role in which plays a translator of sense, expressed in one language, by means of another verbal code’. As for the education of translation it is determined that ‘A clear lesson to be learnt from translation studies is that the teaching and assessment of translation need to be based on a far wider range of criteria than those involved in simply labelling individual lexical and grammatical items as right or wrong. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05-04 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e75938e86f549c6600f6a21b8326780f.pdf d3b22b580186db5250000fd5e833b343 PDF Text Text Cognitive Mechanisms of Word-formation Process: Interrelation of Conceptual and Verbal Structures Shahriyor Safarov & Azamat Akbarov Samarkand State Institute of Foreign Languages, Uzbekistan & International Burch University, Bosnia and Herzegovina Abstract: This article deals with the peculiarities of mechanisms providing formation of semantics of compound words from the perspective of the cognitive approach. More to the point, it is a question of conceptual derivation, where meaning formation of compound words is carried out by the interaction of its component conceptual structures. The author has researched the main means which take part in the processes of conceptual derivation of both structurally motivated and structurally unmotivated compound words. Special attention is given to revealing the propositional structures correlated with the word formation meanings of compound words. Keywords: word-formation, conceptual derivation, cognitive mechanism, perspectivization, compositionality. 1. Introduction: Cognitive View of Knowledge Representation The understanding and knowledge of human cognitive abilities has been formulated as the main task of cognitive linguistics, and performing this task is closely connected with the concept of knowledge representation, with its one or other structures of consciousness reflecting the perceived world in the human mind. As is known, the work of the brain and thinking run through structures of consciousness. This is a kind of revitalization activity, the combination of verbal with non-verbal structures and the objectivization of both (Croft and Cruse 2004; Schwarz 1996). The main difference between cognitive linguistics and traditional linguistics is that the aim of cognitive linguistics is the investigation of new comprehensions of consciousness and language interconnection. Therefore, the main goals of the new scientific paradigm (branch) are to get into forms of various structures of knowledge by language understanding and to describe the differences between them and language relations. It is obvious that the linguist cannot and should not assume tasks connected with explaining how the human brain works. This requires the combined efforts of specialists in different sciences. At this stage of cognitive psychology, development of the existence of certain structures of consciousness in the brain has been confirmed and theoretically justified. The range of variation of these structures is very wide; they are diverse in type and complexity and also in the interrelationship of experience with language and figurative units. By the statement of linguists, the main function and role of language in human society is to serve as a means of cognition, which is understood as the process of getting scientific and everyday knowledge �about the world ( see, e.g. Kubryakova 2009: 5). Accordingly, the basis of the cognitive approach to the analysis of linguistic forms is to correlate them with the various forms of knowledge that those forms objectify. The importance of language structures lies precisely in the fact that they implement larger structures of knowledge in tangible and accessible form, putting them in the form of various kinds of linguistic signs that can be closely examined by a number of cognitive perspectives (Clark, 1997: 210). These mental structures are based on either concepts of different types (images, notions, concepts), or on their combinations (pictures, gestalts, charts, scripts, diagrams, propositions, frames, etc.). They are born and actualized in the process of world perception, and they are created in acts of cognition, reflecting and generalizing the human experience and reality, which can be conceptualized in various types of activities related to the world. This view of conceptual processing relies on the concept as something expressed by an expression, and in turn determines the object which serves as the denotatum of the aforementioned expression. (Church, 1985; Raclavsky & Kuchynka, 2011) This is in sharp contrast with the definition of concepts as predicative functions, (Tichy, 1988) which although popular for a while, has been largely superseded due to its inability to differentiate between empirical and non-empirical concepts. Consideration of linguistic and discursive patterns of representation of cognitive processes that take place in the thinking process of linguistic personality and its modeling of the linguistic picture of the world certainly defines the perspective of cognitive linguistics. According to one of the postulates of cognitive linguistics, language is the closest and most appropriate means of understanding the human cognitive sphere. However, the language code, and especially discursive fragment, is not a final and frozen form of verbalization of cognitive structures. W. Chafe was right with his slogan, “Language is the best window to knowledge,” but this slogan is only half true if “there are thoughts which are difficult to express in words” (Chafe 1987:109). I think it would be more accurate to talk about the stochastic (probabilistic) nature of the representation of mental formations, which themselves represent stochastic structures. After all, understanding the events taking place in the world, and indeed the world of concepts where a person lives, is largely conventional. At the same time, the language always remains as the main code system that embodies all the results and mechanisms of human cognition, regardless of stochastic character and, at times, the seeming limitations of this representative potential. And this is probably because, "Under normal conditions human thought is formulated beforehand on the basis of linguistic categories or even may be clothed in linguistic forms" (Berestnev 2008: 63). Everything that has been formed conceptually in the human mind can be expressed by the language and fixed in it. Conceptual tightness is an important condition of semanticization and verbalization of acquired knowledge. Epistemologically, conceptual categories can be traced to the very roots of modern day science and philosophy. In the philosophy of Ancient Greece, under the influence of Platonic dialogues, the view of concepts as forms external to the human mind that can be perceived mainly on a linguistic level has been influential for a considerable period of time. However, with the introduction of the Aristotelian infinite regress (Mure, 2016), the idea of isolated conceptual forms is soon abandoned for an internalized view of conceptual clusters. Field Code Changed �Ironically, we find this notion of prior epistemological categories in Aristotle’s Posterior Analytics. With the seminal work of Kant in the late 18th century, the delineation between a priori and a posteriori knowledge sharply divides scientific currents. In terms of a cognitive view of knowledge, we are obliged to classify all formation of conceptual categories as an a posteriori process, reliant on the experiential interaction of an individual with the world around them. This experience, as it is represented in modern day cognitive linguistics, forms the basis of prototypical and stereotypical categories which become one of the more essential tools in navigating meaning-making and interpretation. Thus, even if human thought is formulated on the basis of linguistic categories, those categories are a product of all prior thought formulation that has been salient in terms of frequency and repetitiveness. These linguistic categories have been subject to quite a lot of research beginning with Rosch in the 1970s. (Geeraertes, 2008) Furthermore, the research has been expanded to encompass the sociolinguistic aspects of the phenomena, primarily in the work of Putnam (1975)who returns to a Platonic view of meaning as existing outside of the individual who interprets it. In terms of the formation of conceptual categories, we follow the structural view of concepts as derived from the nature of the data at our disposal, which are then listed and categorized based on semantic constraints and inference rules. This view of categorization has been purported by a large number of researchers in the past decades. (Smith and Smith, 1977; Kent, 1983; Eick, 1984; Maciaszek, 1986) Conceptualization is a complex process that requires actualization of not only linguistic knowledge, but also the entire volume of encyclopedic knowledge of cognitive personality. In addition, human cognitive activity takes place in the context of a particular situation and cultural environment, and this will lead to the emergence of a certain kind of “national color” in the cognitive structures (Safarov 2006: 62-74). Really, conceptualization represents the many-folded mental activity of a person. It has a dynamic nature and it should be understood “as subsuming (1) both novel and established conceptions; (2) not just ‘intellectual’ notions, but sensory, motor, and emotive experience as well; (3) apprehension of the physical, linguistic, social, and cultural context; and (4) conceptions that develop and unfold through processing time (rather than being simultaneously manifested” (Langacker 2008: 31). Interaction of these categories ensures dynamicity of conceptualization, which consists of various mental operations around knowledge structures. These operations are regulated and governed by certain laws. In turn, the regularities of passing process and systemic relations of the most important operations under the knowledge structures in the mental space of linguistic personality are represented in the main derivational mechanisms taking place in the system of language. 2. Conceptual and Verbal Derivation It is necessary to note that the term "derivation" has different interpretations in linguistic literature. In most cases, the authors give narrow definitions to derivation as the process of adding affixes to the stem. In addition to derivation, according to their point of view, compounding and conversion represent three main types of word formation (Cambridge Grammar 2002 :1613; Crystal 2008: 138). In a broad sense, derivation is �understood as the factor of the dynamics of language units, because in the language system exists self-development potential, which promotes the formation of new semantic and linguistic constructs. It can be believed that the key of derivative functioning of the linguistic sign is first of all a dynamic, self-developing, and, most importantly, self-regulating nature of the individual’s mental sphere, in which the knowledge structures, which are formed as a result of certain cognitive processes, undergo modification, augmentation, fragmentation, restructuring, and other changes fixed explicitly or implicitly by the language units. Moreover, derivation by its linguistic nature may have different forms: word-formative, semantic, lexical, syntactic, etc., among which a special place should be given to conceptual derivation, because it is a source of both conceptual and linguistic systems. At the moment, within cognitive linguistics, special attention is being given to the study of derivatives because the word-formation system functions not only as a database, which is necessary for providing needs in selection and fixation of special knowledge structures, but also works "as a generative environment" (Kubryakova 2004:393). Derivative vocabulary allows fixing and verbalizing of knowledge structures, which appear in acts of cognition and world assessment as the result of human conceptual abilities. Internal development of the conceptual system occurs due to ongoing processes in the system, one of which is a conceptual derivation. Conceptual derivation represents a cognitive process, which provides the appearance of a new knowledge structure in the human conceptual system based on existing concepts. It presupposes that after the concepts in the language, which form the person’s conceptual system and which has already been in some way named, appear as backgrounds for their further combination in new mental structures which have new linguistic meanings. Concepts having been born in the process of cognitive activity, after linguistic representation, become an integral part of the conceptual system, creating, in turn, the basis for further development and keeping derivative relations with original structures. Investigation of the process of conceptual derivation involves description of cognitive mechanisms, which provide the construction of knowledge structures, objectified by derived words. It is important to show not only the results of the processes which are carried out on a conceptual level, the processes that give rise to new knowledge structures, on the ground of the original structure or structures, but also the realization of these processes in the dynamics, aided by the description of the mechanisms that lead to the emergence of a new conceptual structure. Among the cognitive mechanisms for the formation of the semantics of derivatives that have been offered are perspectivization, binding, rebuilding, and development. The cognitive mechanism, perspectivization, assumes the bringing up to the foreground of those sections or individual characteristics of the concepts related to derivative words that reflect the information necessary for the formation of the concept which is represented by a derivative word. The cognitive mechanism, binding, provides either agreement of perspectivized characteristics of the concepts correlated with generating units, or provides agreement of rebuilding concepts and concepts which are transmitted by generating words. The work of the cognitive mechanism, rebuilding, allows the recovery of the features missing to create the conceptual structure. In its turn, these features correlate with derivative words, by referring to the cognitive domain to whichreferdomain to which refers specific characteristics of the concepts, represented by generating or derived words. The work of the �cognitive mechanism, development, is understood as the emergence of a concept’s new features or their combinations; in turn, the concept is objectified by a derived word due to inferential and encyclopedic knowledge. It will be shown by the help of the above-mentioned mechanisms how knowledge structures, objectified by compound words, are constructed. Compound words represent concentrated expressions of human thought where semantic relations exist, marked by elements of predicativity, which can be classed to the message. Usually, in the formation of compound words, attention should be focused on generative stems and meanings correlated with them. The knowledge correlated with generatives (e.g. nouns) is proposed to consider as a concept consisting of a number of characteristics that have the following features: centrality, stability/variability, informative significance, and inferential power. Centrality of characteristics is determined by the degree of its importance for this mental structure. Immutability of a future reflects the degree of dependence on it all the internal structures of the concept. For example, a round shape is not the stable, immutable future of the orange, because our idea about oranges changes little, even if we imagine it in a somewhat different form. But a round shape is an unchanged, immutable characteristic of the wheel, and in our mind it can’t be imaged in another form (Sloman, et al. 1998:191). Features that are unique to a particular category of concepts have a high degree of informative significance. For example, the fact that the root system exists in the structure of the concept, "tree," doesn’t have great informative significance. However, even with a low degree of informative significance, it is a stable characteristic of this mental representation, since it is impossible to imagine a tree without a branched root system. Inferential potency of characteristics allows the help of certain features to predict the existence of others in this concept. It is assumed that central and immutable features, which are reflected in the dictionary definitions, constitute the core of the concept, represented by a generative noun. It should be noted that when interpreting the semantics of the derivative word, we are dealing with compositionality, i.e., with semantic compositionality uniting at least two categorical meanings, having different degrees of concreteness. Such derivative meaning develops due to features of combined concepts. The correlation of the concepts involved in the act of derivation is an indicator of the integration rules of concepts, which are, on the one hand, determined by the position of the concept’s feature (strong and weak), and, on the other, stipulate the choice of the model on which develops a compositional meaning. If the feature of the concept refers to the strong position, it contributes to the fact that this feature of the concept is relatively stable in the process of semantic attraction, and in the process of semantic evolution becomes a nuclear component of the conceptual derivation. But, in various cases, it may be either the feature of the concept characterizing one of the concepts that structure the conceptual database of derived compositional sign or the feature of the concept reflecting the fusion of concepts that make up the composite. For example, in the formation process of the French compound word coupe-cigare which means, “a tool for cutting cigar tip before smoking," the feature that reflects the method "from top to bottom" becomes central. The indicated feature "method" correlates with the whole combined sign (composite), i.e., a cigar cutting is made by the tool, the blade of which moves downward; thus, guillotine is the subject, which by the method of action is similar to a cigar cutter. Correlatives of both components are removed from the main member of derivative Field Code Changed �combination by "qualifiers" similar to the device that demonstrate darkened motivation of this composite. Cognitive mechanisms come into play in the formation of both meanings of either structurally motivated or structurally unmotivated compound words. In this way, in the meaning formation of compound nouns such as the English, “flag-captain,” “kneebreeches,” “boatman,”“internet abuse,”“drug-abuse,”“night watch,”“helpline” ; the Uzbek,“murojoatnoma”(appeal), “toshko'mir” (charcoal), “temiryo'l”(railway); the Tadjik, “Muboraknoma”(congratulation latter), “simshub” (pole), “mehmonkhona” (sitting room), etc., are used as cognitive mechanisms for perspectivization, binding, and rebuilding. At that point, the concept, represented by the second generative noun, which is dominant in the creation process of the concept, is transmitted by the compound word, undergoes minor changes. Changes are defined as minor because most central and immutable features of the concept, transmitted by the second noun, are borrowed from the concept which defines the semantics of a compound word. That is why such compound nouns are considered to be structurally motivated. The role of cognitive mechanisms increases in the formation of structurally-unmotivated compound words. Formation of these composite meanings is carried out by actualization of cognitive mechanisms such as perspectivization, rebuilding, development, and conceptual metaphor and metonymy, and all these can be implemented with the help of either reference to generative components and the knowledge correlated with them, or by reference to contextual information. The concept represented by the second component undergoes minor changes. At the same time, this concept functions in many cases to determine the process of creating a concept which refers to a compound word. The changes are the result of accommodation, understood as (after R. Langacker) the adaptation of certain aspects of one component to the other during the formation of a complex structure(Langacker2002: 272273).The concept transmitted by the second component of the composite undergoes a certain transformation, where its features will be agreed with features of the concept, correlated with the first generative component. As a consequence, most central and immutable features of the concept lose perspectivization. The above mentioned concepts will be illustrated by the example of ananalysis of the structurally-unmotivated compound word manflu, in the following context: “Has Jim taken another day off? I bet he is suffering from manflu” [http://www.urban dictionary. com]. Dictionary definitions of the second generative noun, “flu, ”are:“an infection, illness like a bad cold, causing a high temperature, pains and weakness” (OALDCE 1995: 45); “an infectious disease which is like a bad cold but more serious.”(LDELC1992: 494). These interpretations reflect conceptual characteristics such as: "illness"; "features: infectious like a bad cold"; "symptoms: high temperature, pain, weakness." The above mentioned features are defined as the central ones at the initial stage of meaning formation of the compound word “manflu” with the help of the cognitive mechanism of perspectivization. Further, under the influence of these characteristics, steady features of the concept, “man,” such as, "human being," and "adult," "man" is put into perspectivization. These features begin to link to each other. Further meaning formation of the compound noun, “manflu,” takes into consideration contextual information. Field Code Changed �Conceptual information, transmitted by the linguistic expressions, “taken another day off, “and “suffering from,” as well as the consistent characteristics of concepts, refer to the cognitive domain, diseases, standing behind the concept and correlated with the generative noun, “flu.”The changeable feature, "wrong diagnosis," is restored in this domain with the help of the cognitive mechanism, rebuilding. Information, transmitted by linguistic units and the indicated restored feature, refer to the cognitive domain, male, standing behind the concept correlated with the generative noun, “man.” Changeable features such as, "the property of the male character is a tendency to exaggerate seriousness of the disease,” is restored due to the cognitive mechanism, rebuilding, from the cognitive domain, male. In the process of further coordination of changeable features with central features of both concepts, perspectivization and also transformation occur in the concept, correlated with the generating noun, “flu,” due to accommodation. The central characteristics "features— infectious"; "causing symptoms—high temperature, pains, weakness"; and "like a bad cold"; lose perspectivization, but the feature, "illness," is borrowed from the concept, represented by a compound word. Further, the derived concept, on the basis of consistent features, also gets an ironic connotation as a result of the work of the cognitive mechanism, development. Thus, the concept correlating with the compound word, “manflu,” in this context includes the following characteristics: "illness—cold''; “the wrong diagnosis, typical for men"; "perceived as a flu by virtue of exaggerating the seriousness of disease"; and "ironic attitude." This concept defines the semantic structure of the compound word, “manflu” as the ironic connotation, a bad cold, mistakenly self-diagnosed by a man as the flu, whose seriousness is exaggerated. Meaning formation of exocentric structurally-unmotivated compound nouns such as the English, “boozehound,” “buttercup,” “climate canary,” “queer-bashing”; the Uzbek, “tuyaqush,” “mingoyoq,” “sadbarg”; the Tadjik, “sartarosh,” in addition to the abovementioned mechanisms, involves the work of the cognitive mechanisms, conceptual metaphor and conceptual metonymy. The cognitive mechanism, conceptual metaphor, is the finding of the source areas and the target areas of metaphorical transfer. It also demands identification of features in both areas, which allows the establishment of similarities between identified areas and specific arrangement (combination) of features of both areas. The cognitive mechanism of "conceptual metonymy" supposes access to the cognitive domain, in which the metonymic transfer, determination of the concept instrument, the concept aim, and comparison and perspectivization of part to indicate the whole take place. Reference to the context and information transmitted by it, especially in the process of meaning formation of structurally-unmotivated compound words, is important, because information transmitted exactly by the context helps to determine the target area of metaphorical projection and the concept aim of the metonymic model. 3. Conclusion The analysis of the semantic structure of composites showed that the construction of knowledge, objectified by composites, requires consideration of cognitive mechanisms which provide the generation of new conceptual structures based on already existing ones and determine the meaning formation of compound words. It allows us to show not only the �results of the conceptual derivation, i.e. conceptual structure which has arisen as a result of interaction of original conceptual structures or due to the development of the original structure, but also the process of its creation. Therefore, moving from a static description of word-formation processes at the conceptual level to the dynamic requires description. The dynamic aspect of the language is the most promising area of study, as in this section we can identify the models and structures that are the basis in the process of language units’ evolution. Also, we can predict the direction of their future development and answer the question, “Why?" in certain circumstances when one or another direction of semantic evolution has been chosen. In this regard, the study of the semantic formation of a derivative word gains special importance, because such analysis provides some sense of how semantics are formed by its parts. 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By A.S. Hornby). – Oxford: OUR, 1995. Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: English (United States) Formatted: Russian � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3269 Title A name given to the resource Cognitive Mechanisms of Word-formation Process: Interrelation of Conceptual and Verbal Structures Author Author Safarov, Shahriyor Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. This article deals with the peculiarities of mechanisms providing formation of semantics of compound words from the perspective of the cognitive approach. More to the point, it is a question of conceptual derivation, where meaning formation of compound words is carried out by the interaction of its component conceptual structures. The author has researched the main means which take part in the processes of conceptual derivation of both structurally motivated and structurally unmotivated compound words. Special attention is given to revealing the propositional structures correlated with the word formation meanings of compound words. Keywords: word-formation, conceptual derivation, cognitive mechanism, perspectivization, compositionality. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2016-04-29 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed PE English Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 1032 Title A name given to the resource Cognitive Mechanisms Structuring Our Language and Thought: Theoretical Approach to Metaphor and Metonymy Author Author Mustafić , Almir Abstract A summary of the resource. Language makes it possible to use and understand complex language structures and cognitive mechanisms describing our reality. Scientists have made a number of attempts at understanding and using these conceptual mechanisms for various purposes. Phenomena which have fairly recently started attracting increasing attention in cognitive science are conceptual metaphor and metonymy. These linguistic mechanisms had for long been perceived as figures of speech in which one notion is understood trough another. However, taking into account that scientific disciplines exploded during the last century, linguists discovered interesting things which largely clarified conceptual processing of language as well as various language phenomena. What we know about metaphor and metonymy today tells us that they are not just figures of speech comparing and replacing one notion by another but rather specific phenomena in which one notion is used to present another in a different way or, in case of metaphor, to map some of the source domain features to a target domain creating completely new concept which is a mixture of both source and target domains. The aim of the paper is to present some of the major theories of metaphor and metonymy and clarify the understanding of differences between metaphor, metonymy and metaphtonomy. The first section of the paper deals with relationship between language, metaphor and metonymy and cognition. The notion of domain is presented in the second part of the paper which also presents notions of contiguity and similarity. The following section focuses on the theoretical approach to metaphor and metonomy as well as on relationships and mappings which occur as a result of cognitive processes. With the purpose of better understanding of metaphor and metonymy, the paper briefly touches on notions of polysemy and linguistic means. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/3c6ef6cc5e5a1c48fc788d38d2977cca.pdf 9cbf7d7ab5a6f93cac3a0ad38174419b PDF Text Text 1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Abdullah Pamukcu International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina pamukcu74@hotmail.com Dzenan Salihovic International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina dzeno19@hotmail.com Azamat Akbarov International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina aakbarov@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Introduction Writing is not only an innate skill that comes naturally. It is also an acquired ability learned or culturally influenced in an instructional setting in different environments. Writing skills need practice and studying with previous experience. Students who write and speak in a foreign language are socially and cognitively challenged. They are cognitively challenged because the language, the means of communication, is different. They are also socially challenged because of lack of adequate skills to build normal social relations with others. Vygotsky regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. (Berk & Winsler, 1995, p. 12) Vygotsky's (1978, 1986) socio-cultural framework of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) and scaffolding writing (Bodrova & Leong, 1995, 1996; Ross, 1976) are used as the theoretical basis to study the development of second language writing. Naturalistic approach, Krashen‘s (1982, 1984) theories, the way children learn their first language, and the apparent ease which they are able to pick up other languages with were acknowledged as relevant to SLA in general.. Furthermore, certain social and cognitive factors related to second language acquisition indicate that strategies involved in the language learning process also affect L2 writing. The culture-specific nature of schemata--abstract mental structures representing our knowledge of things, events, and situations--can lead to difficulties when students write texts in L2. Knowing how to write a "summary" or "analysis" in Mandarin or Spanish does not necessarily mean that students will be able to accomplish these in English (Kern, 2000). 8 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo Cognitive process of second language learners‘ writings Cognitive and psychological developments build the background of the individual knowledge is the first thing that comes to mind when talking about on individual‘s background. Knowledge was deal with the theory of Piaget‘s as mind and schema, that how infants function in the world surrounds them, how this influences their mental stability. Learning happens with environmental issues, especially equilibrium. When the infant figure out a problem, that‘s the infant learns, and the knowledge constructed by the action of that child. Learning comes with the environment, environment brings the knowledge, and then knowledge brings the acquisitions. According to the behaviorist school, as opposed to cognitive theory, learning happens through observable behaviors. The cognitive theory asserts that knowledge is acquired through communication and mind. Behaviorists come up with a different approach different view stating that learning is a product of stimulusresponse and environment. A neutral stimulus is not responded first. Then later on the organism learns to respond to stimuli with the help of reinforcement. If this is a positive reinforcement the response repeats. If the reinforcement is a negative, the response is not likely to repeat. Repetition of this process, that is the response given to stimuli, affects later learning. This is called positive and negative transfer .Effects of phonology and morphology of the first language means transfer. Both negative and positive transfer can help the second language learning. Positive transfer occurs when the rules are used correctly for the second language. Negative transfer, occurs when the rules are used incorrectly for the second language. Transfers affect the whole system of learning acquisitions. Cognitive Factors, acquisition is a product of the complex interaction of the linguistic environment and the learner's internal mechanisms. With practice, there is continual restructuring as learners shift these internal representations in order to achieve increasing degrees of mastery in L2 (McLaughlin, 1988). Children invent, interact, react, and extend writing activities throughout the process of literacy acquisition. Language transfer is another important cognitive factor related to writing error. Transfer is defined as the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (Odlin, 1989). The study of transfer involves the study of errors (negative transfer), facilitation (positive transfer), avoidance of target language forms, and their over-use (Ellis, 1994). As mentioned previously Vygotsky, regarded language as a critical bridge between the socio-cultural world and individual mental functioning. According to, Berk & Winsler (1995, p. 12), language is such an interesting tool that it both provides communication and learning simultaneously. One can communicate while trying to use a foreign language on the one hand and he/she constantly improves language skills on the other. Both social and cognitive factors affect language learning. Exploration of social factors gives us some idea of why learners differ in rate of L2 learning, in proficiency type (for instance, conversational ability versus writing ability), and in ultimate proficiency (Ellis, 1994). Writing also involves composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or description, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Perhaps it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of "writing down" on the one end, to the more complex act of composing on the other end (Omaggio Hadley, 1993). Much of the research on L2 writing has been closely dependent on L1 research. Although L2 writing is strategically, rhetorically, and linguistically different in many ways from L1 writing (Silva, 1993), L1 models have had a significant influence on L2 writing instruction and the development of a theory of L2 writing. However, a look at two popular L1 models will give us some insight into the problem of developing a distinct construct of L2 writing. [-2-] Cognitive writing process work Although it is often said that linguistic ―competence‖ in the sense defined by Chomsky (1965) involves some kind of ―knowledge‖ of the grammatical rules of a language, this ―knowledge‖ is ordinary out of conscious awareness … nevertheless, some adolescents and adults (and even some children) can be made to demonstrate an awareness of the syntactical structure of the sentence they speak … even among adults there are large individual differences in this ability, and these individual differences are related to successes in learning foreign languages, apparently because this ability is called upon when the student tries to learn grammatical rules and apply them in constructing and comprehending new sentences in that language. (pp. 7-8). Young children who learn a second language bring up all of the knowledge about language learning they have acquired through developing their first language. For these children, then, second-language acquisition is not a process of discovering what language is, but rather of discovering what this language is (Tabors, 1997, p. 12). And also we have to remember the existence of another impact on the L1 and L2 acquisition. The ―talent‖ for learning foreign language consists of three components. The first is verbal intelligence, by which is meant both 9 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo familiarity with words (this is measured in the Language Aptitude Battery by the ―Vocabulary‖ part) and the ability to reason analytically about verbal materials (this is measured by the part called ―Language Analysis‖). The second component is motivation to learn the language … The third component … is called ―auditory ability‖ … (Pimsleur, 1966, p. 182). There have been many researches that have come up with similar results. Edelsky (1982) analyzed the relationship between first language and second language writing of young writers in a bilingual contex.The texts writen by the same children in Spanish and English were analyzed.Edelsky found that a young writer knows about writing in the first language forms the basisi of new hypotheses for writing in another language. Furthermore Edelsky argued that certain L1 writing processesa are used in L2 writing .( Cahyono, B.2001) Moreover, several studies have looked at the effect of composing in the L1 and then translating into the L2 (Cohen & Brooks-Carson, 2001; Kobayashi & Rinnert, 1994). These studies have found that the lower L2 proficiency writers benefit from composing in the L1 and then translate into the L2, a result that highlights the importance of using L1 composing strategies for lower L2 proficiency writers. (Wolfersberger, M.2003) Besides, at present some thinkers explain the knowledge with intelligence. Especially they are discussing the concept of multiple intelligence. The capacity of an individual‘s mind and intelligence at the environment in which person grew up might contribute to person aptitude for literature. Discussion Younger children learn grammar of the L2 more slowly than older learners so that although they start earlier with language learning they make slower progress and overall gains are not straightforwardly link to the time spend learning (Harley et. al 1995) The "problem-solving activity" is divided into two major components: the rhetorical situation (audience, topic, assignment), and the writer's own goals (involving the reader, the writer's persona, the construction of meaning, and the production of the formal text). By comparing skilled and less-skilled writers, the emphasis here is placed on "students' strategic knowledge and the ability of students to transform information . . . to meet rhetorically constrained purposes" (Grabe & Kaplan, 1996, p. 116). Writing teachers should be aware of how the instrumental motivation of their L2 students will influence the effectiveness of their lessons. Common purposes for learners writing in an EAP context include writing a research paper for publication in an English-speaking journal or writing a business report for a multinational company. These learners may be less motivated to write stories or poetry, because they perceive that these tasks are not related to their needs. Even writing a standard research essay may seem like a waste of time for those who will need to write project reports and memos. ( Myles, 2002, vol, 2 no 6) Keeping in mind all these, young learners need to build up a sound vocabulary enriched with ones‘ culture and background to produce writing, that ways to help basic writers improve their writings. Furthermore, improving writing skills depend on detailed plan and grammatical knowledge. Cognitive strategies and working memory capacity became the central focus for analyzing how writing expertise develops. It became very apparent that the well-developed writing experience comes with working memory capacity and long-term memory knowledge. Memory capacity improves as writers mature or gain writing experience. New learners lack experience in understanding reader‘s purposes, they need the oral language foundation and, rhetorical skills in order to select the most appropriate pattern through which to present their content, young learners face with weird characters, vocabulary, grammar and punctuation or inappropriate content. Environmental factors may provide a good motivation for one who just begins writing. However, equally importantly, if not more, inner motivation is also a key for writing. CONCLUSION Writing is not an instinctive talent; rather it is acquired later on. During this acquisition process several factors come into play. Either the way Piaget explains through the solution of environmental problems or through receiving help, as Vygotsky explains, the most important factors are knowledge and its acquisitions. Acquisition of knowledge is mostly about individual‘s cognitive process. These primary acquisitions affect the learning process of the first language. These acquisitions also affect the way a person learns a foreign language as the individual bases the second language on them. Therefore, the importance of writing becomes clear in the process of learning a second language. For those who start writing in a second language, there should be inner and outer factors of motivation are needed along with socio-cultural impacts. 10 �1st International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics May 5-7 2011 Sarajevo References Berk, L., & Winsler, A. (1995). Scaffolding children.s learning: Vygotsky and early childhood education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. (ERIC Document No. ED384443) Cameron, L.( 2001) Teaching languages to young learners Cambridge University Press 2001 Cahyono, B. Research Studies in Second Language Writing And In Contrastive Rhetoric Volume 3 number 1 (p, 40) Grabe, W. (2001). Notes toward a theory of second language writing. In T. Silva and P. Matsuda (Eds.), On second language writing (pp. 39-58). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kaplan, R. (1987). Cultural thought patterns revisited. In U. Connor & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 9-21). Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley. Kern, R. (2000). Literacy and language teaching. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Krashen,S (1988) Second Language acquisition University of southern California McLaughlin, B. (1984). Second language acquisition inchildhood: Vol. 1. Preschool children (2nd ed.). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. (ERIC Document No. ED154604) Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. New York: Cambridge University Press. Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of the child. New York: Meridian Books. Piaget, J., (1983). Piaget‘s theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. History, theory, and methods. New York: Wiley. Tabors, P. (1997). One child, two languages. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. (ERIC Document No. ED405987 Srivani, N (Y0342) An integrated approach to how children acquire language Project report (p,7) Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 657-677. Wolfersberger, M (2003). L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers, Vol. 7. No. 2 A-6 September 2003 11 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 4 Title A name given to the resource COGNITIVE PROCESS OF WRITING FOR SECOND LANGUAGE YOUNG LEARNERS Author Author Pamukcu, Abdullah Salihovic, Dženan Akbarov, Azamat Abstract A summary of the resource. Writing is a pleasant and seminal task, but writing is used as multi-leveled teaching instruments, but instead difficulties, challenging and cognitively demanding. Writing requires different skills. Students can improve these skills with some outside support. In this paper, we will try to demonstrate that writing is not only self product of an individual, but also an outcome of socio-cultural activity, and a cognitive process. In particular, answers will be sought for the following questions: What factors do affect the cognitive process of second language young learners‘ writing? How does schema help in cognitive writing process? How can basic writers be helped to improve their writings? Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2011-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2e2b5329bd2f2fa1ee7368274c8e2590.pdf e24e0bdad8a3ef387827fbd6d5245501 PDF Text Text 1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo Global Financial Crisis and Its Impact on Balkans Ergin ĐSMAĐL President of COFER, Macedonia e.ismail@coferweb.org Semi ŞAHĐN Finance Director of COFER, Macedonia s.sahin@coferweb.org Abstract: The aim of writing this paper is to reveal that the implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers during the spring and summer seasons, expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. Keywords: global financial crisis; Balkans; growth; unemployment; remittances Financial Crisis in the World, Economic Crisis in the Balkans What started as a global financial crisis has become an economic crisis. The world financial crisis emerged from a property bubble and a credit boom. Bad debts soared and banking sector in the developed economies became insolvent. The implication of the crisis to the western Balkans has been not of a sort of financial crisis, but an economic turbulence which has occurred as a result of lack of demand in the world markets to the western Balkan products and falling sources of finance. Investments, remittances, industrial production, foreign exchange reserves and employment rates have fallen. As a result, growth has slowed down. Expansionary fiscal policies on top of external trade deficits growing at record levels, calls into question the ability of the western Balkan economies to finance the needs, that in turn increases their vulnerability and that may lead to a possible financial crisis in future if the global financial crisis continues to sustain until 2010. The governments of the region of the western Balkans, when the crisis hit in September 2008, argued that they were immune to the crisis. However, as their export-oriented economies began to slump in the autumn of 2008 due to the slid in the world commodity prices, which resulted in tens of thousands of citizens of western Balkan countries loosing their jobs, the governments of the region became more open about the difficulties of their economic situation, although continuing to argue that the effects of the financial crisis are least to be felt in western Balkans in comparison with other regional economies of Europe such as that felt in Iceland, Baltic states or Ukraine. The culprit many of the governments have now settled on is the world out of Balkans. Even wider publics took comfort of this argument due to relatively low exposure of the local economies to the world financial markets. Although the governments continue to predict that the economies would show growth and small contraction in 2009, the economic indicators show that the economies are in some degree of trouble at the moment with industrial output, foreign investment and remittances falling and unemployment rising.1 Growth forecasts are down across the region from 5 to 3%, investors are slowing projects and governments are drawing up rescue plans.2 Independent economists think that 3% growth of GDP for 2009 is wildly optimistic. Depending on the world manufacturing and commodity prices, they could show growth by 2 or even 1% of GDP. For the small economies of a scale of western Balkans that have boomed for the past seven-eight years, following the end of conflicts in the region in 2001 - that last one being the conflict of Macedonia in 2001 - with 1 2 The Economist, "The Balkans: A year in the life of Kosovo", 14 February 2009, p. 14. The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 381 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo annual average GDP growth reaching 5%, economic slowdown and contraction in GDP that has started to be seen starting from the autumn of 2008 is a particularly harsh blow to western Balkans. The whole region, except Serbia and Croatia, has escaped the global financial crisis however it has run into economic crisis due to the recession in its export markets, including EU. As small open economies the western Balkan countries are uncomfortably exposed to the world crisis and particularly to EU as their trade with the EU member states comprises their largest trade volume. Since the global financial crisis hit in September 2008 growth has turned to contraction and unemployment is mounting in the region. Also, any lingering hopes that the western Balkans might escape relatively unscathed from the global financial storms were dashed when managers of the foreign banks in the region, mainly those of Austria and Greece, sought support from the international finance institutions. This shows that, although the economies are small and relatively well protected, they are exposed to the global financial crisis that has been replicated in the region in the form of economic crisis. The falling manufacturing and commodity prices in the world markets are causing problems. Depended on steel and metal exports, the region has been hit hard by the global slump in commodity prices and by the expensive imported electricity, sending metal prices into a tailspin. The price of the metals has fallen by almost two-thirds since mid-2008 leading to slowdown in the region's economies. More than a fifth of economic output and employment are based on exports, making them particularly vulnerable to a fall in global growth and trade. Manufacturing and exporting economies are grinding to a halt, as demand across the world melts away. The western Balkan economies contracted further in last quarter of 2008, as a dispute between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices reduced energy supply to the region and forced the countries' heavy industries to go slow, cutting production or even halting assembly lines. For example, Silmak, a significant producer of ferro-nickel in Jegunovce, in the western part of Macedonia, has cut production and has laid 700 workers due to the drastic fall of the ferro-nickel's price in the world markets.1 The nearby brick factory Kiro Kucuk in Veles, in the central part of Macedonia, also exemplifies the gravity of the setback. On 1 March 2009 the employees turned up for their final day's work. The factory will not reopen until the economy recovers.2 A similar story could be told in many countries of the region. Macedonia is not alone depended on exporting metallurgical industries. Serbia has suffered far more as global demand for the goods in which its industry specialises has evaporated. For example, US Steel, one of Serbia's leading exporters, closed one plant.3 These examples are reflection of the data released for January 2009 that industrial production, which accounts for a fifth of total value added in Macedonia4 and Serbia has plummeted by 17%, its steepest fall in years.5 The Macedonian State Statistics Office reported that the local companies have been operating by using 50% of their capacities in the course of January 2009 and their situation has deteriorated on a monthly basis, which has led to a drop in employment rate as well as a large fall in production due to the reduced foreign demand for Macedonian products, insufficient domestic demand, uncertain economic situation and the financial problems. These are hotbeds that might be transferred to other economic sectors, such as the textile and leather industry and to the construction sector, which comprise large share in the country's GDP. The gloom reflects growing worries about underlying weaknesses that make the countries especially vulnerable to recession happening in the EU and other economies to which Balkan economies are depended. So companies have announced big lay-offs as demand has fallen and factories have closed.6 The official unemployment figure of Macedonia already stands at 33% (unofficially it is probably 35% or more) and is set to rise as the new basic salary estimates will only count employed those who pay social security benefits. Unemployment rate in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo are more than 40%. The unofficial unemployment rate is, however, much higher and many who say that they have jobs are in fact on indefinite unpaid leave. The economists forecast that unemployment region-wide will rise. Most of that rise will be the result of fall in trade (many exporting companies have laid off workers), and due to declining investments. Coffee streets from Knjez Mihajlova in Belgrade to Kej Vardar in Skopje to Bash Charshija in Sarajevo are busy during sunlight as young people, forming more than 50% of the unemployed force in the region, sip their coffees. Unemployment rates are soaring and offices of the Employment Agencies in whole region are full with people looking for work. The stock markets have plunged as well. The Zagreb stock exchange index lost 42% during the last quarter of 2008 and others such as Sarajevo Stock Exchange, dropped by 19% during the same quarter, leading 1 Dnevnik, "Silmak prekina so rabota", 2 Mart 2009, p. 7. Utrinski, "Rabotnicite od Kucuk izvisija", 3 Mart 2009. 3 European Commission, DG ECFIN, EU Candidate and Pre-Accession Countries Economic Quarterly, 9 January 2009, p. 30. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Utrinski, "Pad na proizvodstvoto za 16.7%", 27 February 2009. 6 International Monetary Fund, "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia: Staff Report for the 2008 Article IV Consultation", Prepared by Staff Representatives for the 2008 Consultation with Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, 11 November 2008, p. 11. 2 382 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo to an annual decrease of 67% in 2008.1 The Belgrade Stock Exchange tumbled and its index lost 75% during 2008.2 An important sector that waits to be affected is the real estate market as the credits have gone down and the borrowers are unable to pay back their monthly loans. The scale of the bubble in the region is as big as in troubling EU cities. House prices rose further in Belgrade than they did in Tirana. So did commercial-property prices. As a result, demand for new homes has dried up although prices have remained stable and over inflated, with Belgrade topping the prices where average residential square meter is sold at 2000 euros. The housing boom in the region is among the extreme, measured by real price increases and resulting overvaluations. This is a bubble which is waiting to burst. Another bubble which is waiting to burst is commercial property where office blocks and shops are overvalued. Both these booms have been fuelled by debt, another reason why the region looks particularly vulnerable now. There is much to suggest that the pain is felt most by small enterprises, labelled as small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) that are the backbone of the western Balkan economies. SMEs seem especially vulnerable to the downturn. Many specialise in textile and these are also the products whose orders are the first to be cancelled when economies slow and companies trim investment. These firms are finding themselves chronically short of orders and capital. The governments in the region have launched actions to stimulate their economies. Montenegrin government launched a plan with significant capital expenditures and other stimulus to businesses at some 10% of the projected GDP for 2009.3 In November 2008, the Macedonian government unveiled measures worth 5-6% of GDP.4 Other governments as well have unveiled packages that include extra billions to finance investment, infrastructure projects, extra benefits for poorer and tax cuts. The central banks as well have joined in tightening monetary policies and increasing controls of the credit markets. These measures mean the economy may suffer only a mild downturn. Tightening of control by the central banks has encouraged banks to drastically decrease the amount of lending. When there are no loans for companies and consumers, the consumption of domestic and foreign products decreases, leading towards economic stagnation. So officials are also trying to inject cash and confidence into the banking system, avoiding confidence crisis that in October 2008 hit Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Serbia where the lack of confidence led to a withdrawal of deposits by population.5 They have done this in various ways. Croatian central bank has abolished reserve requirements. The Bank of Albania has limited Banks' exposure towards their foreign parent companies.6 The National Bank of Serbia has eliminated the tax on savings income to help boost foreign exchange liquidity.7 The Bosnian central bank has increased the level of guaranteed savings deposits from 3500 to 10.000 euros and the Montenegrin government has given full guarantee to deposits. The Montenegrin government has also given capital boost to ailing Prva Banka to allow it to expand landing, especially for small businesses.8 The global crisis has slowed down western Balkans' credit-fuelled boom. Estimates of output have slumped and currencies have dropped as capital inflows have dried up. The bad debts have raised as local customers default particularly those that have borrowed in foreign currencies that have since risen relative to their own. One of the dirty habits from the boom is that as local loan growth outpaced deposit growth.9 There is likelihood that one or more of the ex-communist Balkan countries will default on its debt. The biggest weakness lies in a financial system that has combined badly run local banks with loosely overseen subsidiaries of western ones. Some local banks now depend on their parents' willingness to keep financing them – and those parents have plenty of problems at home. The Greek government has told its banks to draw back from their lending in the Balkans. Debt burdens are high today because so much was borrowed in the recent past. This began as a logical response to declining interest rates, low inflation, rising asset prices and less frequent recessions. Some countries have an extra problem of big external government debts (in Croatia's case, the gross figure is near 85% of GDP). For other countries, the strong Euro is a problem; they have pegged their currencies to it.10 Tumbling exchange rates raised the real burden of foreign-currency loans, forced policymakers to keep interest rates high. However, by boosting exports, a weaker currency can offer a route to recovery. In Macedonia, by contrast, denar stays strong as the economy slumps, deflation setting in which will lead debts to grow and possibly banking problems to grow. Possible threat of financial crisis has led the Euro to be seen as a shelter for western Balkan economies from the storms. The local currencies dinar of Serbia, kuna of Croatia, lek 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 23. Ibid, p. 31. 3 Ibid, p. 26. 4 Ibid, p. 10. 5 Ibid, p. 3. 6 Ibid, p. 18. 7 Ibid, p. 31. 8 Ibid, p. 27. 9 The Economist, "Eastern European banks: The ties that band", 21 February 2009, p. 73. 10 The Economist, "Eastern Europe: Argentina on the Danube?", 21 February 2009, p. 14. 2 383 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo of Albania have lost their value against the Euro. Kuna depreciated by 2.9% and lek 1% vis-à-vis the euro in the last quarter of 2008,1 where as the Serbia's dinar has lost close to 17% of its value against the Euro in the same period. The central bank of Macedonia has spent over 50 million euros of its reserves in January 2009 alone, largest since the introduction of denar in early 1990s, to cushion the devaluation of its currency and avoid public panic.2 Macedonia will suffer damages if the Euro loses its value in relation to the dollar as it would affect the Macedonian export to EU markets. The increase of the dollar value will also have negative implications for Macedonia as the country uses this foreign currency to purchase twice as much as it sells. The value of the Euro in comparison to the dollar has been declining since autumn 2008. The drop of the value of the Euro with this fixed course of the denar in relation to the Euro currency will damage the Macedonian economy and de-motivate exporters primarily exporting to EU states.3 The government in Macedonia also has shredded investor confidence by calling for decreasing the amounts given to private pension funds. Recovery is possible only through strong demand in the rest of the world (which is to lack for some time), that would lead exports to soar, allowing quick recovery. However, today demand is falling rapidly across the globe and most big developed economies buying Balkans products face simultaneous banking crises. With demand weak everywhere, the familiar route to recovery is blocked.4 For the largest trading partners of western Balkan economies, the EU countries, figures that came out in February 2009, showed that Euro-area GDP shrank at an annualised rate of around 5% in the fourth quarter of 2008. The IMF has forecasted that Euro-area GDP will decline by 2% in 2009 and barely recover in 2010. Countries with huge current-account deficits are most exposed in a credit drought. So the hope had been that weaker economies of Balkans would be offset by faster economic recovery in EU economies and support by the local banks mother banks' in EU. Unfortunately, the EU economies are facing recession and mother banks and mother countries have asked them to lend first to domestic businesses and households and not to transfer money to their subsidiaries in Balkans. The Greeks publicly advised banks to be more prudent about transferring bail-out funds to Balkan subsidiaries.5 The western Balkan countries face a current account deficit this year in average of around 14%. Nevertheless, the crisis for example has not stopped the Macedonian and Kosovar governments from doling out billions of euros' worth of cultural projects. Financial crisis is also having effect on remittances, a large share in GDP of the economies of Balkans. Foreign workers have been first to be laid off in the western economies. Remittances make up more than a tenth of the GDP of Balkan economies. Although they are likely to fall as a result of the slumping world economy, as it has been the case with Albania, where remittances' inflows have declined from 13% of GDP in 2007 to 11% of GDP in the last quarter of 2008,6 they may be less affected by the world economy.7 It is expected that people keep the cross border payments going even when their incomes fall. Migration from western Balkans to EU countries is expected to rise as the borders are getting opened through visa facilitation and liberalisation programmes. However, this rise will be balanced with the recession in the EU economies where it means fewer jobs for migrants. In surveys, the economy has leapt to the top of voters' concerns. Overall the public is scared and uncertain. So far, the Balkans has escaped the civic unrest seen in the Baltic States, Iceland, or elsewhere.8 There are not yet signs of discontent, except concerns expressed by politicians and economists. Thousands taking to the streets to protest against crises in Baltic States and Ukraine have not resembled in Balkans. However, pundits predict unrest in towns that rely entirely on one ailing factory or industry. But so far the signs are limited. The middle class in the whole region is under a great threat. The middle class flourished during communist times. As economy goes into reverse they may well be hit harder than the rich or poor. They work in export industries so their jobs are unsafe. The other part of the middle class, who are employed in the state administration, and whose jobs are relatively safe, they have started to borrow, so are hurt by the credit crunch. To End with a Negative and a Positive Note The economies of the Balkan region, except those of Serbia and Croatia, have escaped the financial crisis. However they are facing the biggest economic crisis since 1991, when they left the communism regime. Corporate profits have collapsed. Big manufacturers' output is down. Metal producers have halved or halted their 1 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 7. Biljana Krstevska, "Stopeni uste 53 milioni evra", Dnevnik, 27 February 2009; Utrinski, "Samo so dobra plata do kredit", 27 February 2009. 3 Abdulmenaf Bexheti, "Experts on Fixed Course of Denar", Skopjediem, 25 February 2009. 4 The Economist, "America's banking crisis: Worse than Japan?", 14 February 2009, p. 76. 5 The Economist, "Charlemagne: Single-market blues", 7 February 2009, p. 30. 6 European Commission, DG ECFIN, p. 19. 7 The Economist, "Remittances: Trickle-down economics", 21 February 2009, p. 74. 8 The Economist, "The western Balkans: A stuck region", 14 February 2009, p. 36. 2 384 �1. International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 9-10 2009, Sarajevo production. Companies have slashed jobs and investment. Industrial output and employment have fallen at record levels not seen since 1991. What is expected to ease the conditions is the seasonally strong increase in construction, food exports and private transfers (workers remittances) during the spring and summer seasons. These seasonal effects are expected to close the gaps that are being established through growing external trade deficits. Increase in construction business, growing food exports and raising remittances may offset vulnerabilities of the economies and may limit further economic and financial crisis in the region. 385 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 279 Title A name given to the resource Collaboration of NGOs and Local Governments for a Sustainable Struggle against Urban Poverty in Turkey Author Author ÖZDEN, Kemal Abstract A summary of the resource. Poverty is among the significant issues that the governments should tackle with. This problem has social and cultural dimensions as well as the economic dimension. From day to day, so many international and national bodies apply policies to cope with this question. For the solution of urban poverty, two worldwide tendencies are critical turning points. One of them is that, throughout the world, there is a tendency that central governments delegate some of their duties and responsibilities to the local governments. This delegation of responsibilities requires the delegation of certain financial and administrative resources as well. Otherwise, a delegation of responsibility without necessary resources will result in growing crisis. Delegation of responsibility and resources, at the same time, to the local governments will prepare more successful solutions in coping with the problem of poverty. In general, local governments are closer to the citizens and therefore they may follow the needs and desires of citizens better than the central governments. Consequently, transfer of both responsibility and resources from central to local governments, most probably will solve the urban poverty problem more effectively. The other tendency is increasing role of NGOs in social issues including the elimination of urban poverty. In coping with poverty, local governments and NGOs engage in two kinds of main activities. One of them is the activities that directly produce a surplus value such as career creating courses. The second one is the solution seeking policies such as social aids in kind and in cash such as offering scholarship and free medical services. In this study, a general outlook for the poverty will be drawn and the “culture of poverty” will be briefly analyzed. Later, the policies of local governments and NGOs as dynamic actors in poverty alleviation will be discussed. Lastly, as a case study, a critical challenge to poverty, “Study Halls” established in the most underdeveloped region of Turkey will be analyzed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2009-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/386776829daae87425837568e8c433a3.pdf 54b9d501632b657ae9234a1ead1874e9 PDF Text Text Journal of Economic and Social Studies Collaborative Capacity Building for Community-Based Small Nonprofit Organizations Naim KAPUCU School of Public Administration University of Central Florida Orlando, FL 32816 kapucu@ucf.edu Fatih Demiroz Department of Public Administration Florida International University Miami, FL, 33179 fdemiroz@fiu.edu ABSTRACT This article focuses on the inter-organizational networks and adaptive capacity among nonprofit organizations in the State of Florida. Adaptive capacity is a function of the degree to which social institutions (e.g., government, civic institutions, and the private sector) possess a culture that empowers communities to make decisions and actions that support community-led initiatives. The article specifically focuses on network formation and sustainability among 40 nonprofit organizations and their networks with other cross-sector organizations identified as part of the asset mapping for the Strengthening Communities in Central Florida (SCCF) project in the state. Network relationships were strengthened and developed especially after the implementation of the capacity building program. Organizational factors such as leadership and the level of an organizations’ engagement with the community have a statistically significant relationship with the adaptive capacity of the organizational network. KEYWORDS Adaptive Capacity, InterOrganizational Networks, Network Analysis, Nonprofit Organizations, Capacity Building ARTICLE HISTORY Submitted:22 Jun 2012 Resubmitted:4 July 2012 Resubmitted: 24 September 2012 Accepted:21 October 2012 JEL Codes: D2, D4 Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 83 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Introduction1 Inter-organizational networks are becoming the new shape of governance as they bring more opportunities to increase the capacities of communities (Gazley, 2008; Koliba, Meek and Zia, 2010; Provan and Kenis, 2007). Large scope services such as health care delivery, disaster preparedness and response, or disease control exceed the capacity of single organizations and require community capacity for collective action (Bryson, Crosby and Stone, 2006; Stone, Crosby, and Bryson, 2010; Provan, Nakama, Veaize, Teufel-Shone, and Huddleston, 2003). Improving communities’ capacity to achieve service delivery goals increases their well-being. Fostering involvement of community stakeholders, especially nonprofit organizations, and other actors for service provision distributes the overall burden of individual organizations and benefits them (Bryce, 2005; Cruntchfield and Grant 2008). Developing community capacity, establishing strong networks, increasing the capacity of existing ones, and adapting them to changing environmental conditions remain important tasks. A broad range of literature discusses the experiences and methods used to foster community capacity, network adaptive capacity, and network effectiveness. Chaskin (2001) defines community capacity building as “the interaction of human capital, organizational resources, and social capital existing within a given community that can be leveraged to solve collective problems and improve or maintain the well-being of a given community” (p. 295). Organizational success and effectiveness is closely related to the effectiveness of the network that the organization participates with. In some cases the effectiveness of a network may be given precedence over effectiveness of the individual organizations since some organizations reach their goals through the success of the networks they are part of. Provan and Milward’s (1995, p.2) following statements highlight this point: “effectiveness must be assessed at the network level, since client well-being depends on the integrated and coordinated actions of many different agencies.” Network change and adaptation are critical for the success and effectiveness of service delivery networks as well as the individual organizations. In order to address network adaptation and capacity for better service delivery, the study aims to answer the following research questions as well as open new avenues for future research: 1 Acknowledgement: The capacity building program studied in this article was funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Grant Number “90SI0012.” We acknowledge the support of Leigh Broxton and the graduate students which were part of the capacity building project. We also acknowledge the support of the agency representatives which responded to the study surveys and interviews. 84 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations What is network adaptive capacity? What are the key characteristics of adaptive networks? What intervention strategies and incentives work to increase the capacity of networks and build relationships among community nonprofit organizations? This article focuses on inter-organizational networks and the adaptive capacity among nonprofit organizations at the local level. This article specifically focuses on network formation and sustainability among 40 nonprofit organizations and their networks with other cross-sector organizations identified as part of the asset mapping for the Strengthening Central Florida Communities (SCCF) Fund project in three counties in a southeastern state. This research is timely and critical as the funding for this project focuses on economic recovery and the role of nonprofits in counties that are located in a distressed part of the state. Literature Review A relationship similar to one between individuals and organizations exists between individual organizations and inter-organizational networks (Knight, 2002). Reviewing the literature on organizational learning and development, capacity building, and change is necessary for understanding how these functions work at the inter-organizational network level. Organizational change and adaptability are closely associated concepts that are widely discussed in the literature (Argyris and Schön, 1996; Denison and Mishra, 1995; Kapucu, Healy, and Arslan, 2011). Adaptation, learning, or coping might be a slow, constant evolutionary process or a reflex for the purpose of maintaining a successful organization (Weick and Quinn, 1999). They also occur as a response to changes in the organizational environment (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983; Fiol and Lyles, 1985) and to avoid failure of the organization (Kraatz, 1998). Pelling and High (2005) categorize adaptations in two ways. The first type of adaptation reinforces existing systems or organizations (e.g. bureaucracy), whilst the second one modifies institutions through flexibility and adds resilience to organizations (e.g. rural culture or livelihood). Some consider network and organizational survival a function of adaptive capacity which is highly associated with the initial design of the structure of the organizations as well as the networks (Aldrich, 1999; Boin, Kuipers and Steenberger, 2010). Staber and Sydow (2002) clearly differentiate between organizational adaptation and adaptive capacity. They argue that an adaptationist approach does not tolerate any unproven structures or changes within the organization that conflict with Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 85 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ organizational goals and drain organizational resources. Adaptation is relatively a predictable move and aims to create a best fit to the conditions for maximum exploitation. On the other hand, adaptive capacity can be considered “when learning takes place at a rate faster than the rate of change in the conditions that require dismantling old routines and creating new ones” (Staber and Sydow, 2002, p. 410411). Adaptive capacity goes hand in hand with learning and offers continuous development, institutional memory, knowledge acquisition, and connectedness and communication with other members in the community. Although change, learning, and adaptation do not connote the same meaning, there is a strong association between these concepts (Fiol and Lyles, 1985). Knight and Pye (2004) draw a line between learning and adaptation in a network or organization. They argue that strategic change represents a set of actions for change within a limited time frame and under the control of management, while network learning is a process that excludes hierarchy or formal administrative regulations. Adaptability and coping ability are imperative for effectiveness, organizational development and the general health of an organization (Knight and Pye, 2004). This means that every change in the organization may not stem from learning, some changes could result from imitation as DiMaggio and Powell (1983) note. However, learning may trigger change and development in the organization. Organizations learn when knowledge is learned by individuals, or an individual with new knowledge joins the organization. Some suggest that knowledge could be learned by an organization only if it is institutionalized and becomes an asset of the organization (Argyris and Schön, 1996; Crossan, Lane, White, and Djurfeldt, 1995; Knight, 2002; Knight and Pye, 2005). Knight (2002) argues that learning is not limited to a specific group and adds that individuals, group of individuals, organizations, and networks can learn. Organizational and network learning outcomes can be behavioral and cognitive (Crossan et al., 1995; Denison and Mishra, 1995; Knight and Pye, 2005). Inter-organizational Networks and Collaborative Capacity The type and structure of interorganizational relationships creates various impacts on the capacity of communities as well as the adaptive capacity of service delivery networks. For example, Paarlberg and Varda’s (2009) study shows that interorganizational networks may expand a community’s carrying capacity (i.e. scope 86 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations of the resources to feed organizations) and allow a greater number of organizations to function within a community. Interorganizational networks catalyze the flow of information, development of confidence, and publicity for smaller organizations which helps them to gain resource flexibility and survive. To explain this situation, Paarlberg and Varda note that “new or less visible organizations developing relationships with larger, more established organizations may build public confidence in new services, attracting customers and other investors” (2009, p. 600). Interorganizational networks not only help organizations to gain flexibility, but they are adaptable as well. Knoppen and Christiaanse (2007) discuss inter-organizational adaptation (IOAD) from technical and behavioral perspectives. According to them the technical dimension of IOAD “embraces explicit and visible relationship attributes which may be consciously decided upon and designed by both partners” (p. 219). The behavioral dimension, on the other hand, embraces the invisible and implicit relationships between the partnering organizations. The authors also integrate social capital into their theoretical discussions and highlight its positive impact on value creation, change, and organizational outcomes. According to Knoppen and Christiannse (2007), networks affect development and inter-organizational adaptation in three ways. First, IOAD touches upon the common cognitive structure of partnering organizations. This refers to the establishment of common values, operations, and resources that are operational for all partners through the mutual recognition of connectedness. Second, IOAD addresses the interconnectivity of networking organizations, the connectivity and multiplexity of their relations, and the density and structure of network relationships. Third, IOAD refers to the alignment of goals, motivations, attitudes, and expectations of the associated organizations. Other studies also emphasize social capital’s role in the reduction of transaction costs and strengthened connectedness of actors in a network (Pelling and High, 2005). Kraatz’s (1998) findings indicate that smaller, more homogeneous, and older networks promote high capacity information links between participating organizations and that social learning occurs as a way of intra-network imitation. This strengthening of ties between members of a network increases trust, interaction, communication, information sharing, and diffusion of innovative ideas which translate into increased adaptive capacity in a network (Bouty, 2000; Tsai and Ghoshal, 1998). For example, in a study examining the relationship between network ties and organizational growth, Galaskiewicz et al. (2006) found that nonprofits that depended on the financial and operational support of the community had a higher Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 87 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ rate of growth if they were associated with urban leaders. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) note that the internal and external network connections of an organization create an awareness of existing resources in the environment and can help that organization to strengthen its absorption capacity. Despite this, strong ties are necessary for managing the change under uncertainty so that the history of connections extends and the structure is more homogenous, in some cases weak ties can provide enough information for organizational change as well (Granovetter, 1973; Krackhardt, 1992; Kraatz, 1998). As opposed to weak ties in larger heterogeneous networks, small networks with strong ties provide more legitimacy in accepting information flowing from other network members and imitating them in terms of significant changes. Krackhardt (1992) notes that information is not enough for a major change in an organization but strong relationships provide the trust needed to propagator change and development. Intervention Strategies for Collaborative Capacity Management consultation, trainings, coaching, financial assistance, and technical assistance are some of the intervention strategies that are widely used and discussed. Consultations address process-related issues and improve the functioning ability of organizations. Strategic planning and employee-supervisor conflicts are examples of topics that are covered by consultations (Backer, Bleeg, and Groves, 2004; De Vita and Fleming, 2001). Trainings teach a variety of skills and abilities to managers and staff in organizations. Coaching includes efforts to clarify organizational goals, promote interactive learning, remove obstacles, and improve coachee’s performance through mobilizing their own potential (Clutterbuck and Megginson, 2008; Cummings and Worley, 2009). Efforts to develop community capacity focus on two different methods. The traditional way asserts solving community problems with external intervention while the alternative path focuses on development via the internal assets of the community. Asset-based development focuses on preserving and enhancing the values and potential of the community. It concentrates on effectiveness, building interdependencies, talent utilization of individuals, and empowering people in the community (Kretzmann and McKnight, 1993). Asset mapping is a method used in asset-based community development and can be defined as a systematic identification of tangible and intangible values and assets in a community (Kerka, 2003). 88 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations Varda (2011) finds that intervention strategies and “state society synergy” can strengthen community level social capital and networks. Literature on networks and organizational adaptive capacity suggests that organizational and network learning, inter-organizational ties and relationships, and social capital contribute to developing network adaptive capacity. Moreover, direct intervention strategies such as trainings and coaching also help to develop individual organizational capacity which contributes to developing overall network adaptive capacity. Figure 1. Conceptual Map of Network Capacity Organizational Learning (Organizational flexibility and change, knowledge generation and acquisition, technical skills, goal-oriented focus) Inter-organizational relations (Connectedness, trust, communication, information sharing, innovation) Intervention Strategies (Consultation, training, coaching, financial and technical assistance, strategic planning, network building) Collaborative Capacity (Capacity for network sustainability, adaptation and learning) Figure 1 visualizes the conceptual association between predictors of building collaborative capacity. Connectedness in inter-organizational networks and the social capital between institutions and individuals who represent the organizations play an important role in the distribution of information, and establishment of a cognitive structure. They also help organizations and networks build adaptive capacity via operating on a common ground, sharing resources, and leading the change as opposed to following change in the environment. Leading change is in line with organizational and network learning because adaptive capacity develops when knowledge building occurs at a greater pace than environmental change. In order to enhance adaptive capacity, intervention strategies might be helpful in injecting external support through trainings and coaching activities. This means intervention strategies can foster inter-organizational social capital, network learning, and organizational adaptation and change (i.e. cognitive change and innovation). Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 89 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Context of the Study The Strengthening Central Florida Communities (SCCF) Fund program was funded by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Agency was conducted by the University of Central Florida. The goal was to provide capacity building training, technical assistance, and financial assistance to 10 faith-based and community organizations to empower them to address the broad economic recovery issues in three distressed counties in the state. The SCCF offers training and technical assistance opportunities for nonprofits, to assist in the transformation and improvement of their service delivery systems, by addressing the broad economic recovery issues present in these counties. By the end of the project, the research center at the university aimed to assist these organizations in increasing their sustainability and effectiveness, enhancing their ability to provide economic recovery social services, and creating collaborative service delivery mechanisms to better serve those most in need. These ten organizations are the core of the program, there are other organizations which participated in the program but received different and less intense technical and financial assistance. Through a structured, but customized program, faculty, staff, and expert practitioners in the community provided over 30 hours of capacity building training to a total of 40 organizations. The trainers, plus graduate researchers, devoted over 430 hours of focused and customized technical assistance to 20 organizations which also received awards of financial assistance. The documented needs for improved nonprofit organization performance are in the critical areas of: organization development, collaboration and community engagement, and evaluation of success. Unemployment and poverty rates in the service area demonstrate two aspects of the distressed communities. Methodology The article focuses on the network formation and sustainability of 40 nonprofit organizations, and their networks with other cross-sector organizations, identified through asset mapping as part of the SCCF project in study area counties. During the first cycle of the program, 40 SCCF project participants were surveyed before and after the program. 39 organizations responded to the pre-program survey (March 2010), and a total of 25 responses were collected for the post program survey (October 2010); the first network analysis was conducted to determine changes in 90 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations the overall network of 40 agencies. The second network analysis was conducted to analyze change in the network of 23 agencies that responded both to the first and the second survey. The third network analysis was conducted to analyze change in the network of 10 core organizations that responded to the two surveys and received training, financial and technical assistance. In the initial phase of the program, the project team intervened with different methods and incentives to increase the effectiveness of existing networks among community organizations and to build further relationships. Utilizing network analysis tools and procedures provides researchers with a useful means for measuring network structure and strength, as well as sustainability (Provan, Veaize, Staten, and Teufel-Shone, 2005). This research uses UCINET, a widely used social network analysis software program developed by Borgatti, Everett, and Freeman (2002), in the analysis of network data. UCINET is capable of providing visual and numerical representations of network relationships including cliques and subgroups, and major network centrality measures such as degree, betweenness, closeness, and eigenvector. Cliques and subgroups are nodes in a network which represent a higher connectedness to each other than the rest of the network. Subgroups can be considered the components of larger networks and it is argued that the study of large groups and social structures might start from smaller components such as cliques via a bottom up approach. Cliques and subgroups represent the structural patterns of a network and the behavior or preference of a node in the network. Degree centrality explains the connectedness of a node within the network. It lays out the number of incoming and outgoing connections that a node has within the network. Betweenness centrality focuses on the mediating role of an actor in the network. It identifies to what degree an actor lies between the pathways of other actors, or how many nodes it connects to each other (Scott, 2009). Closeness centrality represents an actor’s average path length to reach other nodes. The closeness of an actor is associated with the number of connections it has and the number of mediating actors it is connected to. A node’s closeness to others is associated with both the ties incoming and outgoing to other nodes. Eigenvector centrality focuses on not only how many connections a node has, but also whom it is connected to. This approach is useful for detecting a central actor in large network settings (Knoke and Yang, 2008). In addition to network analysis, a multiple regression analysis was conducted based on the survey responses of 39 organizations in the pre-program stage of the first Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 91 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ cycle. The analysis intended to analyze the relationship between human resources, the financial situation, community engagement, and leadership as independent variables, and adaptive capacity as the dependent variable. The main assumption, based on the literature, is that organizational and relational factors influence the level of adaptive capacity of organizations. This analysis was conducted using index variables created based on the item questions representing each index (see Table 14). Lastly, the study included the results of a survey of 10 core organizations that were participants in the first cycle of the SCCF program. This survey sought to attain additional qualitative insight about participants’ view regarding the impact of the program on their capacity, organizational effectiveness, and community engagement. Results and Analyses This section comprises of survey results and network analyses. First, a snapshot of descriptive statistics is provided, followed by the network analysis of responding organizations, reflecting the organizational relationships before and after implementation of the program. Third, the results of a multiple regression analysis were provided and discussed. The regression analysis helped to explore the relationship between organizational and relational factors, and organizational capacity. Lastly, a review of the results of a qualitative survey administered to10 core agencies that received both training, financial assistance, and technical assistance is provided. The response rate of the survey administered before and after the program was implemented varies. Thirty nine participants responded before the program, and the number of responses dropped to 25 after the program. Twenty three organizations were common in both surveys and the 10 core organizations also responded to both the close ended and open ended survey questions. The average number of board members and staff size for the 39 agencies before the program is 7.29 and 8.71 respectively, while the average number of board members and staff size for the 25 agencies after the program is 7.00 and 8.27. For the descriptive statistics of other relative questions chosen from the survey see Table 1. Generally, the descriptive statistics reveal that participants are not significantly dependent on collaborative approaches to sustain their organizational capacity. The results show that the SCCF program is a good fit for the participants, especially for those who are interested in increasing their organizational capacity through partnerships. 92 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Responses before and after Program Implementation (empty cells mean the response count is 0) Q. # Question/Statement Response Options Before Program (N = 39) Freq Q. 19 Q. 75 Q. 81 Q. 82 Q. 87 Q. 88 Valid % Cum. % 46.2 46.2 46.2 12 48.0 48.0 48.0 100,001-300,000 11 28.2 28.2 74.4 9 36.0 36.0 84.0 What is your total budget this fiscal year? 300,001-500,000 500,000+ 4 10.3 10.3 84.6 1 4.0 4.0 88.0 4 10.3 10.3 94.9 3 12.0 12.0 100.0 58.3 Which of the following Government provides the primary source of funding for Foundations your organization? private corporation Other Q. 49 % 18 not sure Q. 33 Valid % Cum. % Freq 0-100,000 Individuals Q. 28 % After Program (N = 25) Is your present level of No funding adequate for the number of projects and services you offer? Yes Do you presently work No with other community Yes organizations? strongly disagree My organization has a Disagree written plan in case of Neutral leadership transition or Agree turnover? strongly agree strongly disagree Changes in this Disagree organization are consistent with changes Neutral in the surrounding Agree community strongly agree strongly disagree The structure of this Disagree organization is wellNeutral designed to help it Agree reach its goals strongly agree strongly disagree Disagree This organization favors Neutral change Agree strongly agree strongly disagree Disagree This organization has Neutral the ability to change Agree strongly agree Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 2 5.1 5.1 100.0 20 51.3 57.1 57.1 14 56.0 58.3 8 20.5 22.9 80.0 2 8.0 8.3 66.7 3 7.7 8.6 88.6 3 12.0 12.5 79.2 1 2.6 2.9 91.4 2 8.0 8.3 87.5 3 7.7 8.6 100.0 3 12.0 12.5 100.0 32 82.1 86.5 86.5 23 92.0 92.0 92.0 5 12.8 13.5 100.0 2 8.0 8.0 100.0 1 2.6 2.9 2.9 1 4.0 4.0 4.0 34 4 8 8 8 8 87.2 10.3 20.5 20.5 20.5 20.5 97.1 11.1 22.2 22.2 22.2 22.2 100.0 11.1 33.3 55.6 77.8 100.0 24 2 8 5 7 2 96.0 8.0 32.0 20.0 28.0 8.0 96.0 8.3 33.3 20.8 29.2 8.3 100.0 8.3 41.7 62.5 91.7 100.0 8 14 12 1 2 10 10 12 20.5 35.9 30.8 2.6 5.1 25.6 25.6 30.8 23.5 41.2 35.3 2.9 5.7 28.6 28.6 34.3 23.5 64.7 100.0 2.9 8.6 37.1 65.7 100.0 4 12 8 16.0 48.0 32.0 16.7 50.0 33.3 16.7 66.7 100.0 7 7 10 28.0 28.0 40.0 29.2 29.2 41.7 29.2 58.3 100.0 4 4 12 15 1 1 2 18 13 10.3 10.3 30.8 38.5 2.6 2.6 5.1 46.2 33.3 11.4 11.4 34.3 42.9 2.9 2.9 5.7 51.4 37.1 11.4 22.9 57.1 100.0 2.9 5.7 11.4 62.9 100.0 4 1 7 12 16.0 4.0 28.0 48.0 16.7 4.2 29.2 50.0 16.7 20.8 50.0 100.0 2 8 13 8.0 32.0 52.0 8.7 34.8 56.5 8.7 43.5 100.0 93 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Network Analysis The surveys administered included questions for identifying friendship, actual work, and willingness to collaborate networks among the participating organizations. The analysis was conducted in both pre-SCCF and post-SCCF stages. This section is divided into three parts analyzing the networks with complete responses (39 for pre-program and 25 for postprogram), analyzing the networks of the 23 organizations that responded to both pre- and post-program surveys, and networks of the 10 core agencies. Based on the responses degree, betweenness, eigenvector, and closeness centralities were calculated for each network. Table 2 indicates the descriptive statistic results of the overall friendship network in the beginning of the program at both meso and macro levels. At the meso (average node) level, nodes have an average of 4 incoming and 4 outgoing connections with each other. This number is not quite high for a network of 40 organizations with 39 survey respondents. However, there is significant variation in the number of connections that a node has in the network. For Outdegree and Indegree, the range is 26 and 19 where standard deviation is 5.876 and 3.581 respectively. The range difference between the Outdegree and Indegree is important because it shows the homogeneity of the relationship structure within the network. The difference between these two ranges indicates an outgoing type of relationships which means that organizations are identified as friends by others without their knowledge. At the macro (entire network) level of analysis, network centrality for the Outdegree and Indegree is 48.724% and 33.176% respectively. These figures imply concentrated and heterogeneous relationships in the network. Betweenness centrality results indicate a significant variation in the nodes’ betweenness values. This is understandable as some actors in the network were isolated while some had a significantly high number of connections with others. Overall network centralization is relatively low implying that organizations can reach others without intermediaries. Eigenvector values indicate similar results in terms of the pattern of relationships and the structure of the network. The mean value is 0.109 with a standard deviation of 0.097, suggesting that there are inequalities in the actor centrality of power within the network. The network centralization index of eigenvector centrality is 52.33% indicating a heterogeneous structure in the network with respect to the centrality of power within the network. Closeness centrality figures in the table indicate an average Incloseness of 3.719 with an Outcloseness of 10.733. There is also a significant variation in Outcloseness measures of the network. The average distance of a random node to other nodes is measured as 3.155 implying that any node in the network can reach a random peer in the network through an average of 3 connections. 94 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 = 3.155 = 0.205 Average distance (among reachable pairs) Distance-based cohesion (Compactness) 47.000 =52.33% (eigenvector centrality) 50.000 0.418 Network Centralization Index Pre 47.000 113.083 0.000 0.009 5.115 0.097 0.109 = 15.79% (betweenness centrality) 50.000 364.417 0.000 652.536 505.000 25.545 10.100 Network Centralization Index 47.000 15.000 0.000 9067.450 2095.000 95.223 44.574 Pre = 0.0883 50.000 19.000 0.000 13.214 192.000 3.635 3.840 Post Network Density 47.000 Obs. 24.000 0.000 12.826 191.000 3.581 4.064 Pre Eigenvector = out: 48.724% - in: 33.176% 26.000 Max. 0.000 37.414 192.000 6.117 3.840 Post Betweenness Network Centralization (degree centrality) 0.000 Min. 191.000 Sum 34.528 5.876 Std Dev Var. 4.064 Pre Pre Post InDegree OutDegree Mean Q-48 50.000 0.000 -0.530 0.014 -3.735 0.120 -0.075 Post 50.000 3.091 2.000 0.148 117.572 0.385 2.351 Post 47.000 29.487 2.128 90.782 504.899 9.528 10.743 Pre = 0.168 = 2.075 =12.58% (eigenvector centrality) = 4.47% (betweenness centrality) = 0.0784 50.000 4.217 2.000 0.494 122.200 0.703 2.444 post OutCloseness = out:41.983% - in: 23.240% Post 47.000 4.152 2.128 0.127 174.808 0.357 3.719 Pre InCloseness Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Pre and Post-Program Friendship Network Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations 95 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ The post-program work network results shown in Table 2 indicate slight differences compared to the pre-program work network shown in the previous table. The average number of links between nodes and standard deviations has not changed much, only the betweenness centrality values reflect a significant increase from 3.149 to 8.580. This change is also captured in the network centralization indices which exhibit a move towards a more heterogeneous network after program implementation. Moreover, more nodes are now playing a mediating role in the network and are influencing the network’s homogeneity. Average path distance has also increased from 2.035 to 2.631, which validates the heterogeneity of the network since nodes need to use more mediators rather than direct links in the post-program network as shown in the centrality indices. Based on the four centrality measure results at the micro level (individual level), Spotlight Outreach Ministries, First Community Christian Pentecostal (F.C.C.P.) Church of God, and Simeon Resource and Development Center for Men (Simeon Resource) have the top three outgoing connections with other actors in the network respectively. Workforce Central Florida, United Way of Lake and Sumter Counties, and Heart of Florida United Way have the most incoming connections with other actors, reflecting that these organizations are most frequently identified as a friend by other actors in the network. X-Tending Hands has the strongest brokerage role in the network because it indirectly connects the most number of actors in the network. Workforce Central Florida is the most easily reachable agency in the network while Spotlight Outreach Ministries is the agency that is closest to other agencies because of the number outgoing friendship ties it has. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the friendship networks of participating agencies before and after the program. The friendship network specifies which organization knows or is affiliated with which organizations. Ties with arrows represent the direction of the relationship. Circle shaped nodes represent the core ten agencies in the study that received both training, and financial and technical support. Table 2 provides a comparison of pre and post program network structures. In the post program network, the average number of connections per node is 3.840 with a standard deviation of 6.177 which shows that there are a smaller number of connections and higher levels of variation in comparison to the pre-program friendship network. The table also indicates a decline in betweenness centrality 96 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations values. The values reflect a more homogenous network structure with respect to nodes’ betweenness and eigenvector centralization indices. There is also a decline in the average path distance between two random nodes in the network, changing from an average of 3.155 (pre-program) to 2.075 (post-program). Figure 2. Pre-Program Friendship Network (39 respondents) Figure 3. Post-Program Friendship Network (25 respondents) Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 97 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Other agencies, which were central players in the pre-program results, have not experienced a significant increase in connectedness in the post-program network. This may be attributed to the relatively low response rate of the second survey and the incomplete picture of improved relationships between organizations. Figure 2 captured the pre-program friendship network and only showed one isolate, while the new network in Figure 3 (due to a lower response rate) shows ten isolated nodes. Overall, the friendship network looks similar to the pre-program friendship network. Based on the individual node positions in the network, the New Vision for Independence, Hope International Church, Apopka Learning Center, Young Fathers of Central Florida, and X-Tending Hands have significantly increased their relationship ties with other agencies in the network. Table 3 summarizes the centrality results of the advice network of organizations based on survey responses relating to current work relationships between organizations. The table illustrates that there is an average of one link between organizations in the network. However, there is a substantial variation (2.347 standard deviation) in the distribution of the number of connections per node. The number of connections varies between 0 and 12. Betweenness centrality results indicate that the average betweenness score for a node is 3.149. This value is quite high when compared to degree centrality, although the overall centrality index (3.98%) is quite low. This implies that there is a homogenous distribution of betweenness centrality in the network. Similarly, the network centralization index of the eigenvector measure indicates a relatively homogenous network structure. The results also show that there is an average of 2 links between two random nodes within the network. Based on the centrality measures at the individual node level, F.C.C.P. Church of God, Simeon Resource, and X-Tending Hands have the highest outgoing connections, suggesting that they work with their peers more often than other organizations in the network. A majority of the organizations identified Workforce Central Florida as an agency that they work with. This shows that it is the most preferred partner with respect to work relations in the network. Simeon Resource has the highest bridging power in the network. Both incoming (four links) and outgoing (nine links) ties bear a strong connector role to the organization. Based on the connections it has, Workforce Central Florida is the most easily accessible (closest) organization to other agencies. F.C.C.P. Church of God is the agency that can reach others through the shortest path because of the high Outdegree centrality or outgoing links it has. 98 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 = 66.75% (eigenvector centrality) 2.035 0.041 Average distance (among reachable pairs) Distance-based cohesion (Compactness) 50.000 Network Centralization Index 47.000 127.600 = 3.08% (betweenness centrality) Pre 50.000 65.500 0.000 566.765 429.000 23.807 8.580 Network Centralization Index 47.000 7.000 0.000 119.574 148.000 10.935 3.149 = 0.0231 50.000 12.000 0.000 2.074 54.000 1.440 1.080 Post Network Density 47.000 Obs. 9.000 0.000 1.847 50.000 1.359 1.064 Pre = out: 24.291% - in: 13.185% 12.000 Max. 0.000 4.234 54.000 2.058 1.080 Post Betweenness Network Centralization (degree centrality) 0.000 Min. 50.000 Sum 5.507 2.347 Std Dev Var. 1.064 Pre Pre Post InDegree OutDegree Mean Q-49d Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Pre and Post-Program Work Network 47.000 0.485 -0.000 0.013 4.307 0.113 0.092 Pre Eigenvector 47.000 2.926 2.128 0.046 107.613 0.213 2.290 Pre 50.000 2.827 2.000 0.086 113.145 0.294 2.263 Post =0.053 = 2.631 =80.22% (eigenvector centrality) = 5.16% (betweenness centrality) = 0.0220 = out: 16.493%- in: 12.328% Post 50.000 0.541 0.000 0.016 3.210 0.126 0.064 Post InCloseness 47.000 4.440 2.128 0.182 109.270 0.427 2.325 Pre post 50.000 3.880 2.000 0.376 117.297 0.613 2.346 OutCloseness Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations 99 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Figure 4. Pre-Program Work Network (39 respondents) Figure 5. Post-Program Work Network (25 respondents) Figures 4 and 5 depict the work network of the participating agencies. Some of the nodes in the networks are isolated from others because they did not report partnering with others in their work environment. As shown in Figure 5, there are more isolated nodes when compared to Figure 4, this reflected pre-program results due to a lower response rate. The post-program network also depicts patterned changes in the relationships between agencies. There were an important number 100 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations of dyads and triads in the pre-program work network whilst more connections appear between organizations in the post-program network. Advice network results for individual nodes indicate changes in organization rankings. X-Tending Hands, Hope International Church, Center for Change, and Apopka Family Learning Center now have an increased number of work connections with other organizations which reflects a higher level of cooperation between them. Willingness to Collaborate Network Organizations were not only asked about their existing affiliation and work relationships but were also asked about the collaborative relationships they want to develop. Results in Table 4 indicate that there is an average of 2.382 incoming and outgoing links per node in the preprogram network. Similar to other networks measured, there is high variation in this network. Standard deviation in Outdegree (6.803) is nearly three times larger than the mean value; however the standard deviation is quite small for Indegree results. This is because one agency identified all other organizations in the roster as potential partners. Moreover, there is an average of a 4.149 betweenness value per node with a significantly high standard deviation (10.657) and a range of 43. The density of the network is measured as 0.0518 which means only nearly 5% of the potential network connections were actualized. Network centrality indices (1.92% and 9.08%) imply a relatively homogenous network structure. The average path distance between two random nodes is less than two (1.848) which means a node in the network can reach a random actor in the network through less than two links. In the post program network the average number of links per node has declined from 2.383 to 1.440 and there is also a significant decline in the variance of degree centrality. These changes might have occurred for two reasons: the lower response rate in the post-program survey, and the organization that identified all other nodes as potential future partners. There is an increase in the average betweenness centrality value which implies more mediators functioning in the post-program network as opposed to nodes having more direct links with others. This leads to an increase in the heterogeneity of the network and also leads to an increase in the average path distance between two random nodes in the network. Based on the analyses of the organizations which are seeking cooperation and are sought for cooperation, Hope Community Center is an organization which seeks Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 101 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ cooperation more than any other agency in the network. F.C.C.P. Church of God is the second organization that is most willing to cooperate with other agencies. Workforce Central Florida, Hearth of Florida United Way, and Community Foundation of South Lake are the top agencies that others are willing to work with. Figures 6 and 7 visualize the structures of willingness to work networks before and after the program. For the individual organizations seeking a high level of cooperation and being sought for cooperation, a dramatic change of in-degree centrality for Simeon Resource indicates a significant demand from other organizations to partner with the organization. Results also show that X-Tending Hands, Simeon Resource, Hope International Church, Young Fathers of Central Florida, and New Vision for Independence want to partner with other actors in the network. 102 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 47 = 0.075 50 -0.067 Distance-based cohesion (Compactness) Pre 47 113.083 -0.617 = 1.848 50 43.000 0.000 0.007 Average distance (among reachable pairs) 47 8.000 0.000 652.536 -5.676 = 9.08% (eigenvector centrality) 50 9.000 0.000 113.563 505.000 0.082 Network Centralization Index 47 Obs. 10.000 1.000 3.286 195.000 25.545 -0.121 = 1.92% (betweenness centrality) 46.000 Max. 0.000 3.045 72.000 10.657 10.100 Network Centralization Index 0.000 Min. 5.526 112.000 1.813 4.149 Pre = 0.0518 46.279 Var. 72.000 1.745 1.440 Post Network Density 112.000 Sum 2.351 2.383 Pre Eigenvector = out: 96.881% - in: 14.698% 6.803 Std Dev 1.440 Post Betweenness Network Centralization (degree centrality) 2.383 Pre Pre Post InDegree OutDegree Mean Q-69 50 0.000 -0.530 0.014 -3.735 0.120 -0.075 Post 50 3.091 2.000 0.148 117.572 0.385 2.351 Post 47 100.000 2.128 245.207 256.148 15.659 5.450 =0.068 = 2.535 =12.58% (eigenvector centrality) = 4.47% (betweenness centrality) = 2.5350 Pre post 50 4.217 2.000 0.494 122.200 0.703 2.444 OutCloseness = in: 17.826%- out: 13.661% Post 47 2.850 2.174 0.041 112.141 0.202 2.386 Pre InCloseness Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Pre and Post Program Willingness to Collaborate Network Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations 103 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Figure 6. Pre-Program Willingness to Collaborate Network (39 respondents) Figure 7. Post-Program Willingness to Collaborate Network (25 respondents) As the environment changes overtime, the motives for cooperation change as well. Agencies were also asked about their previous collaborative and partnership experiences. Results show that service program compatibility is the primary reason why organizations partnered with others in the past. Grant proposals, statutory 104 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations issues, and advising are the least important motives of partnerships for the responding organizations. Organizations were also asked about their current and previous motivations for cooperating with other organizations. Organizations reported that they mostly cooperate with other organizations because they share a common mission with them, have common economic recovery programs, enjoy service or program compatibility, or because they need advice from others. Less popular motivations included working on grant proposals together and seeking financial help and support. Agencies were also asked about the resources they compete for with each other. All resources, except employees and volunteers, are almost equally important motives for organizations to compete. Funding resources are reported as the most important and common resource for which organizations compete with each other. Employees and clients are reported as more field specific resources which trigger competition but with a lower impact. Pre- and Post-Program Comparision To capture a complete comparison between pre and post-program implementation, results of the 23 organizations which were common in both pre and post-survey results, were analyzed separately. Figure 8 shows the comparison of pre and post program friendship, work, and willingness to collaborate networks. Figure 8a indicates the pre-program friendship network, which illustrates a relatively sparse network of relationships. Organizations are tied to each other with few links. Simeon Resource has the most central position in the network and it serves as a broker between organizations, while N’Sprie Training and Development Center is an isolate. The figure also indicates that there are two major cliques in the network which are tied to each other through two links (first link between Parsons Circle Community Outreach – Young Fathers of Central Florida and the second link between New Vision for Independence – Hope Community Center). Figure 8d shows the post-program friendship relationships between the 23 agencies. The network represents a denser network rather than a sparse network. The connections between organizations have increased and the network stands as one large structure as opposed to two pieces of a network as reflected in the pre-program results (Figure 8a). Also, the connectedness of each organization has increased significantly implying that organizations are able to reach their peers in the network via multiple Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 105 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ paths. Figure 8b shows the pre-program work network. The figure indicates that participants were significantly separated before the program in terms of their work relations. Three of the organizations were not tied to others. Simeon Resource continues to have a connecting role in this network. If Simeon Resource is excluded, the majority of agencies will become isolates. The post-program work network in Figure 8e shows an increase in the connectedness of organizations. Simeon Resource continues to play a critical role for connecting the organizations in the network, but eliminating it does not dissolve the entire network. The networks indicate that organizations have developed work relationships during the program, and they now have more sustainable work relationships when compared to pre-program conditions. 106 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Number 1 Spring 2013 Post Volume 3 Pre d a Friendship Network e b Work Network f c Willingness to Cooperate Network Figure 8: Comparison of pre and post program of friendship, work, and willingness to cooperate networks of 23 organizations Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations 107 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ The willingness to cooperate in a network is important since it is a projection of future work relationships. Figure 8c indicates the pre-program willingness to cooperate network. Hope Community Center responded that they are willing to work with all organizations in the given roster. If this organization is ignored, other organizations in the network represent a sparse and disconnected network. Some of the organizations will also be isolated. Figure 8f illustrates a significant change in the willingness to cooperate network of organizations. Interestingly, Hope Community Center gave a different response this time and identified one organization with whom they are willing to work. Also, other organizations in the network identified their potential partners based on their compatible needs and interests. This figure projects potential healthy work relationships for the future which is a key outcome of the SCCF program. 10 Core Organizations: Pre- and Post-Program Results Figure 9 presents the comparison of friendship, work, and willingness to cooperate networks before and after the program. Figure 9a shows the friendship network for the 10 core organizations that participated in the program, and received training as well as financial and technical assistance. The pre-program network is dispersed and organizations are weakly connected to each other. Six organizatons are tied to more than one peer in the network, while four have only one connection. Hope Community Center is a broker in the network which connects six organizations to other actors in the network. The friendship network after the program (Figure 9d) is significantly different from the pre-program situation in Figure 9a. There is a dense network of relationships after the program as organizations are tied to others by multiple connections. The work relations of the ten core organizations are different as opposed to their friendship relations. Figure 9b shows a star network in which one organization has a central position and the rest connect to each other through this central organization. The figure shows that Simeon Resource is in the center of the network and five organizations are connected to each other through their ties with Simeon. Four organizations are isolated from the network as well, implying that they were not connected to others for work purposes before program implementation. Figure 9e shows a change in the work relations between the ten organizations. The star network in Figure 9b turns into a network consisting of three cliques in 9e. There are two organizaitons which are isolated as they did not respond to the survey. 108 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations Even with two nonresponses, the work network looks more connected than the pre-program state. Figure 9c shows the pre-program willingness to collaborate network. The figure shows a star network with Hope Community Center as a central player since it identified every other organization in the roster as potential work partners. If Hope Community Center is taken out of the network, there would be only two small separated networks and three isolated nodes. Figure 9f shows that the postprogram willingness to collaborate network is more connected when compared to pre-program results. Even though this network is not as dense as the friendship network, it reflects a general agreement between networking organizations to work together in the future. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 109 �110 Post Pre d a Friendship Network e b Work Network f c Figure 9: Comparison of networks of friendship, work, and willingness to cooperate before and after the program Willingness to Cooperate Network Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations Regression Analysis To understand the relationship between several factors such as organizational development, program development, collaboration/community engagement, and leadership, with the perceived level of adaptive capacity of the respondent organizations’, a multiple regression model was formed and analyzed. Data from the pre-program survey responses (39 first-cycle organizations) was used for analysis. Missing values in survey responses were replaced with mode values since the sample size was small. The next step was to create index variables for the constructs selected for analysis. Table 17 shows the list of index variables with their respective items and Cronbach’s Alpha values. The table shows items that were left after the reliability analysis was conducted using SPSS, unrelated items were deleted to get the highest Cronbach’s Alpha values. Several assumptions were also checked to ensure the validity of results. Table 5. Summary Statistics for Multiple Regression Analysis Model dimension0 1 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate DurbinWatson .673a .453 .370 .59082 2.155 Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. b. Dependent Variable: ADACAP Model Regression 1 9.529 5 1.906 Residual 11.519 33 .349 Total 21.048 38 5.460 .001a a. Predictors: (Constant), LEADER, COLLAB, HUMRES, COMENG, FINSIT The summary model adjusted R-square shown in Table 14 tells us that the model explains 37% of the variance in the dependent variable, which is Adaptive Capacity. According to the ANOVA statistics, the proposed model is statistically significant (F5, =5.46) at the p value of .05. Table 16 below shows whether the model coefficients 33 are statistically significant as well as their impact on the model. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 111 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ Table 6. Coefficient Statistics for the Model Model (Constant) HUMRES FINSIT COLLAB COMENG LEADER 1 Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error 1.006 .684 .453 .279 -.071 .386 .520 .440 .332 .163 .317 .131 Standardized Coefficients Beta .230 -.026 .159 .287 .353 t Sig. 1.471 1.627 -.183 1.182 2.031 2.429 .151 .113 .856 .246 .050 .021 Table 7. Index Variables created for Multiple Regression Analysis (N=39) VARIABLE ROLE INDEX Dependent Adaptive Capacity (ADACAP) Independent Human Resources (HUMRES) Independent Independent Independent Independent 112 Financial Situation (FINSIT) ITEMS Changes in this organization are consistent with changes in the surrounding community The structure of this organization is well-designed to help it reach its goals This organization favors change Does your organization have a formalized Board of Directors policy manual Does your organization have a formalized Human Resources policy manual Does your organization have dedicated Human Resources personnel Does your organization have individual donors Is your funding closely tied to the number of projects or services offered Is your funding closely tied to the number of people you serve Is your present level of funding adequate for the number of projects and services you offer Do you presently work with other community organizations Collaboration/ Have you worked with other community organizations in the past Partnerships Do you plan on working with other community organizations in the (COLLAB) future Do you feel that cooperating with other organizations helps your organization This organization has responded in light of the community’s changes in needs Community This organization solicits feedback from its clients on ways to serve better Engagement them This organization provides programs or services that were suggested (COMENG) by its clients This organization is viewed by its clients as an “agent of change” My organization has a board that reviews progress on the strategic plan (e.g., goals, strategies) My organization helps the executive director or other staff improve their leadership abilities My organization has board members with diverse experiences Leadership My organization runs effective board meetings (i.e. keeping minutes, attendance, commitments) (LEADER) My organization has a written plan in case of leadership transition or turnover My organization has a board and executive director with distinct roles and responsibilities My organization has board members who fulfill their commitments and responsibilities CRONBACH’S α .706 .692 .624 .744 .665 .823 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations The coefficients statistics reveal that only community engagement (COMENG) and leadership (LEADER) are statistically significant coefficients at the p value of .05. In light of the results described above, it is possible to conclude that the adaptive capacity of an organization is closely related to the level of community engagement and leadership in that organization. While this analysis was performed based on the data from 39 respondents before the program was implemented, a larger sample might provide additional insight and a more accurate picture of the model representation. In addition to the regression analysis, 10 core agency representatives in this study were surveyed to get their insight about the perceived impact of the SCCF program. The following questions/statements were administered to the participants, and they were asked to respond to the questions and elaborate if they agreed with the statements provided: 1. As a result of my organizations participation in the SCCF, my organization is better equipped with the tools necessary to form successful partnerships and collaborations with other organizations. 2. As a result of my organizations participation in the SCCF, my organization formed more successful collaborations than before the start of the SCCF. 3. As a result of my organizations participation in the SCCF, my organization formed more successful collaborations than before the start of the SCCF. 4. What tools did the program provide you that supported these successes? 5. We learned a great deal of knowledge from the program that will assist us in forming new partnerships in the future and help sustain existing programs. 6. As a result of my organizations participation in the SCCF my organization is now included in a greater formal network of organizations. 7. As a result of my organization’s participation in the SCCF my organization is able to leverage resources from non SCCF participants, i.e. Community Foundation? 8. Please provide any other comments related to collaboration and community engagement. Table 8. Open ended statements In regard to the first statement, all 10 agencies agreed that they are more prepared for and aware of the opportunities entailed by the collaborations/partnerships. The main tenet of the responses can be summarized by the following statement of an organization: “I’ve learned to be very strategic in seeking and developing partnerships”. In regard to the second statement, organizations generally agreed that they increased either the number or the quality of their collaborations/partnerships. The main tenet of the responses can be summarized by the following statement of Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 113 �Abderrazak DHAOUI & Fatih DEMIROZ an organization: “We have had the opportunity to meet and interact with many organizations that we were not even aware of. This gives us the opportunity to share ideas and form partnerships that help all of us provide increased services through referrals and with increased knowledge.” In terms of the third and fourth statements, organizations specified the tools of the SCCF that were part of their success. Fundraising, volunteer management, board development, strategic planning, networking, needs assessment, bookkeeping, data collection, and marketing strategies are among the tools that benefited participants of the program. In response to the fifth and sixth statements, organizations agreed with the fact that SCCF increased their networking capabilities and vision, which also led to newly developed or enhanced relationships with other nonprofits. In addition, they specified the importance of SCCF’s grant-writing and fundraising trainings for increasing their financial capacity. In terms of the last statement, organizations acknowledged the benefit of the program in terms of increasing collaborations/partnerships with others as well as in terms of an increase in technical capacity. The following statement of an organization summarizes organizations’ views: “I know that our participation in the SCCF has provided [us] with greater skills and knowledge for capacity building overall, including increased collaborations and community engagement. I believe that additional opportunities for collaboration will continue to present themselves, and that we are better equipped to pursue collaborations.” Conclusion This study was carried out to explore and understand the relationship between organizational factors, network relationships, and collaborative capacity. The results of the network analysis show that network relationships were strengthened and developed especially after the implementation of the capacity building program. Thus this program has been beneficial in terms of capacity building through network relationships. The main assumption that network relationships impact the level and quality of organizational and collaborative capacity are mainly supported from the analysis. In terms of network analysis, affiliation and cooperation networks provided an understanding that collaboration with others is beneficial for developing organizational capacity. 114 Journal of Economic and Social Studies �Collaborative Capacity Building for CommunityBased Small Nonprofit Organizations Organizational factors such as leadership and the level of organizations’ engagement with the community have a statistically significant relationship with the adaptive capacity of the organizational network. This implies that organizations need to invest in developing leadership and stronger relationships with the community in order to develop their capacity. Lastly, qualitative responses from the core 10 organizations that received both training, and financial and technical assistance support the previous analyses by confirming that collaboration is and should be a part of organizations’ long-term strategies. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of relationships between networks and organizational capacity. Future research will be conducted in the following years to see the long term impact of the capacity building programs on network formations and sustainability for small nonprofit organizations. Even though the study focused on a region in a southern state, results of the study can be applied to other similar capacity building programs, with the aim of achieving collective action in response to challenging complex problems. References Aldrich, H. E. (1999). Organizations Evolving. London: Sage Publications. Argyris, C. & Schön, D. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method and practice. 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Organizational Change and Development. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 1, 361-368. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Volume 3 Number 1 Spring 2013 117 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2377 Title A name given to the resource Collaborative Capacity Building for Community-Based Small Nonprofit Organizations Author Author Kapucu, Naim Demiroz, Fatih Abstract A summary of the resource. This article focuses on the inter-organizational networks and adaptive capacity among nonprofit organizations in the State of Florida. Adaptive capacity is a function of the degree to which social institutions (e.g., government, civic institutions, and the private sector) possess a culture that empowers communities to make decisions and actions that support community-led initiatives. The article specifically focuses on network formation and sustainability among 40 nonprofit organizations and their networks with other cross-sector organizations identified as part of the asset mapping for the Strengthening Communities in Central Florida (SCCF) project in the state. Network relationships were strengthened and developed especially after the implementation of the capacity building program. Organizational factors such as leadership and the level of an organizations’ engagement with the community have a statistically significant relationship with the adaptive capacity of the organizational network. Publisher An entity responsible for making the resource available International Burch University Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2013-03-10 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 3525 Title A name given to the resource COLLABORATIVE LEARNING -AN EFFECTIVE METHOD FOR TEACHING NATIVE ARABIC SPEAKERS Author Author Mathew, Reena Abstract A summary of the resource. Native Arabic speaking students of the Gulf Middle East region are descendants of tribes and nomadic families which may be a possible reason why they are social constructivists when it comes to learning. Most prefer a learning environment in which they are actively engaged learners within a group. Native Arabic speaking students are social so best benefit from collaborative learning methods in particular from cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. (Lejeune, 1999). Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal (Kagan,1994). According to Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory; social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate why collaborative learning is an effective teaching method in language education with non-native English speakers (with focus on native Arabic speakers). Collaborative and cooperative learning styles are effective in the ESL classroom with native Arabic speakers because it helps students to share ideas, stimulates critical thinking, helps students to take control and invest in their learning with structural guidance from their teachers, teachers take the role of learners, students can become teachers, and every student gets to be an equal participant in the given task. Collaborative learning is also an effective teaching style that promotes social skills amongst students that can be used both in the classroom and outside in natural situations. It helps introverted students feel more confident about socializing with their peers. When I divide my students into groups or pairs using collaborative or cooperative learning styles; work is done with deeper concentration along with higher critical thinking skills. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2014 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed PE English https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c02cbef3a3400762b20b653d509739c1.pdf a3ff34f9423fa394c63b6b75cea674a8 PDF Text Text Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers Reena Mathew American University of Kuwait, Kuwait Submitted: 15.04.2014. Accepted: 21.11.2014. Abstract Native Arabic speaking students of the Gulf Middle East region are descendants of tribes and nomadic families which may be a possible reason why they are social constructivists when it comes to learning. Most prefer a learning environment in which they are actively engaged learners within a group. Native Arabic speaking students are social so best benefit from collaborative learning methods in particular from cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. (Lejeune, 1999). Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal (Kagan,1994). According to Vygotsky’sSocial Development Theory; social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate why collaborative learning is an effective teaching method in language education with non-native English speakers (with focus on native Arabic speakers). Collaborative and cooperative learning styles are effective in the ESL classroom with native Arabic speakers because it helps students to share ideas, stimulates critical thinking, helps students to take control and invest in their learning with structural guidance from their teachers, teachers take the role of learners, students can become teachers, and every student gets to be an equal participant in the given task. Collaborative learning is also an effective teaching style that promotes social skills amongst students that can be used both in the classroom and outside in natural situations. It helps introverted students feel more confident about socializing with their peers. When I divide my students into groups or pairs using collaborative or cooperative learning styles; work is done with deeper concentration along with higher critical thinking skills. Keywords: Native Arab students, language learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning Introduction �Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the collaborative learning method in particular the use of cooperative learning in the English as a Second Language (ESL) classroom among native Arabic speaking students in the Intensive English Program at the American University of Kuwait. Arabic students are strong oral communicators and work well when placed in groups in the classroom. Cooperative learning is particularly helpful for students learning a second language. Cooperative/collaborative learning activities encourage peer interaction, which aids the development of language, sharing ideas, gender equality, equal participation from all students, positive classroom environment, higher critical thinking skills, peer support, and increased participation. Other benefits of collaborative learning in the ESL classroom among native Arabic speaking students include students taking control and investing in their education, improved social skills, building of confidence, getting classwork done with better focus and results. Local populations in present day UAE, Kuwait, Bahrain etc. are tribal in origin. The students in my study mainly come from a country in the Gulf region of the Middle East called Kuwait. Gulf Arabs came from a tribally structured highly organized culture and have managed to retain their tribal structures and their community. To me this tribal structure can be observed when native Arabic speaking students are placed into cooperative learning groups in the ESL classroom. Purpose of the study This study examined the effectiveness of the collaborative learning method in particular the use of cooperative learning style in the ESL classroom with native Arabic speaking students in the Intensive English Program at the American University of Kuwait, in Kuwait. Research Questions The research questions examined in this study were: 1. Is cooperative learning as a part of collaborative learning an effective method to use in an ESL classroom with Native Arabic Speakers who are part of a foundational pre -university English program? 2. Does collaborative learning produce better results, critical thinking, and more focus among native Arabic speakers in the ESL classroom? 3. Does collaborative learning promote a positive learning environment among native Arabic speakers where students develop better socialization skills with their peers? Literature Review �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Research relevant to the study has been divided into four sections. The first section describes what cooperative/collaborative learning means to different theorists. The second section describes how collaborative learning is an effective method in the ESL classroom. The third section describes how collaborative learning produces better results, critical thinking, motivation, and more focus. The fourth section explains how collaborative learning is an effective instructional method that can be used to support social development. Section 1 - What is Cooperative/Collaborative Learning? Whatis collaborative or cooperative learning? These terms have different meanings to various theorists and educators. Cooperative learning is referred to as collaborative learning or small groups of students working together. “Vygotsky viewed collaborative learning as part of a process leading to the social construction of knowledge” (as cited in Mueller & Fleming, 2001, p. 259). Some theorists perceive it as “a strategy to help students improve intellectual and social skills” (Burron, James & Ambroing as cited in Mueller & Fleming, p. 259). According to Johnson and Johnson, cooperative learning “involves students working together in small groups to complete shared academic tasks and is characterized by division of labor, interdependence to reach a mutual goal and group rewards for goal attainment” ( Siegel, 2005, p. 220). Section 2 - Effectiveness of Collaborative/Cooperative Learning in the ESL Classroom Collaborative learning has been an effective method to use with native Arabic speaking students in the ESL classroom of the intensive English Program at the American University of Kuwait. Small groups are used so that students work collectively to achieve individual and common goals. During cooperative activities, students seek results that are beneficial to themselves and to all the group members. The results of most studies reveal the following; academic gains, enhanced positive relationships among students, and improved social and affective development (Johnson et al., 1998 & Kagan, 1994). According to ColorinColorado (2007) cooperative learning is effective for students learning a second language because this method encourages peer interaction which helps with language development, allows ELLs to pick up vocabulary and observe how their peers learn and solve problems. Section 3 - Collaborative learning promotes better results, critical thinking, higher motivation and student focus When students are placed into cooperative learning groups they share more ideas, learn from each other, teach each other and are more actively engaged in their learning. �Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers When students work in pairs one person is listening while the other is discussing the question under investigation. Both are developing valuable problem solving skills by formulating their ideas, discussing them, receiving instant feedback and replying to questions and comments (Johnson, D.W. 1971; Peterson & Swing 1985). Collaborative learning promotes learner autonomy and less dependence on the instructor. They are not simply sitting in their classroom seats passively absorbing whatever the teacher says and it helps them to not depend on the teacher as their only source of knowledge and understanding (Felder 1997).Through collaboration or cooperation with their peers they are building independence, critical thinking skills, have more motivation to learn and focus more on the content being learned. Cooperative learning adopts higher levels of performance (Bligh 1972). Critical thinking skills grow and retention of information and interest in the subject matter improves (Kulik & Kulick 1979). Felder (1997) believes that cooperative learning leads to the generation of more and better questions. Cooperative learning creates a positive cycle of good performance building higher self-esteem which in turn leads to more interest in the subject and better performance (Keller, 1983). Students are less likely to be bored and are more likely to complete their assignments with greater enthusiasm. Cooperative learning increases students' perseverance in the completion of assignments and the possibility of successful assignments (Felder 1997). Section 4 - Collaborative Learning and Development of Social Skills and Creation of a Positive Learning Environment Cooperative learning is an effective instructional strategy that can be used to support the social development of ESL students. Social skills developed in class though collaborative learning can be used in authentic settings. For example, these social skills can be applied when they join the work force, during social gatherings, and while traveling. Collaborative learning has helped my students to learn about being patient, waiting turns to speak, to interrupt politely, not to cut a person when he/she is speaking, to respect each person’s thoughts, to help guide each other, and to work as a team. Students help each other and in doing so build a supportive community which raises the performance level of each member (Kagan 1986). There is less competition and all students have the chance to participate in class. Collaborative efforts among students result in a higher degree of accomplishment by all participants as contrasting to individual, competitive arrangements in which many students are left behind (Slavin 2010). Methodology For this study 40 of my spring 2014 students participated. The students participated by answering survey questions, having pictures taken during cooperative group work, �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics informal teacher observations, and general feedback from questions I asked them about group work. The students were awarded classroom participation points for completing the survey. All participants are native Arabic speakers from Kuwait with a few students from Syria, Egypt, Lebanon, and Palestine. The participants consisted of 20 males and 20 females with ages ranging from 17-24 years. The students were tested into level 020 section (high-intermediate English proficiency) of the intensive English program at the American University of Kuwait. The results in this study are based on classroom observations of my IEP students and the survey responses. All observations were done during class time throughout the semester and students responded to the survey on their computers in class after completing a grammar quiz. Activities Used for collaborative learning A. Grammar - groups of 3-4 students were given a picture. Students create as many sentences as possible using the present progressive tense in 8 minutes. B. Group Presentations- Students are given a topic based on the unit theme and create a group presentation C. Vocabulary- students define the word, put it in a sentence, then create a non-linguistic representation of the vocabulary term Survey Questions and Results Survey Question Response A- Response BNumber of Number of students and students and percentage percentage OtherNumber of students and percentage 1. I like working in groups to complete assignmentstrue/false/other  True=34,85%  False= 10% 5,  Other= 5% 2, 2. I prefer working alone on classroom assignmentstrue/false/other 3. I share and get more ideas when I – work  True=9, 23%  False= 27, 68%  Other= 10% 4,  Work in group=36, 90%  Work alone= 10%  Other=0, 0% a 4, �Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers in a group/work alone/other 4. I participate more and feel less left out of class when I – work in a group/work alone/ other 5. Group work helps shy students build more confidence – true/false/other 6. I have more control over my learning when I –work in a group/work alone/other 7. I concentrate better when I – work in a group/work alone/other 8. I think more critically when I –work in a group/work alone/other 9. Which do you prefer in the classroomgroup work or working alone  Work in group=27, 71% a  Work alone= 11, 29%  Other=0, 0%  True=38, 97%  False=1, 3%  Other=0, 0%  Work in a group= 22, 55%  Work alone= 18, 45%  Other=0, 0%  Work in a group= 17, 43%  Work alone= 22, 55%  Other=1, 3%  Work in group=31, 78% a  Work alone=7, 18%  Other= 5%  Group work=35, 92%  Working alone=3, 8%  NA 2, �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. on an assignment? Group work creates a “friendly” classroom environmenttrue/false/other I discuss more ideas when I – work in a group/work alone/other Group work allows me the chance to be the teacher and teach other members in my grouptrue/false/other I feel that I learn more when I –work in a group/work alone/other I have better results on assignments when I- work in a group/work alone/other Do you prefer mixed group of males and females or unmixed groups of males or females only?  True=38, 95%  False=2, 5%  Work in group=38, 95%  Work alone= 5% a  Other=0, 0%  Other=0, 0% 2,  True= 34, 87%  False=3, 8%  Other=2, 5%  Work in a group=35,88 %  Work alone=5, 13%  Other=0, 0%  Work in a group= 32, 80%  Work alone=6, 15 %  Other=2, 5%  Mixed groups= 63%  Unmixed groups=5, 13 %  Either=9, 23% 25, �Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers 16. Does group  Yes=25, 63%  No=9, 23% work help you feel more comfortable when working with the opposite gender?yes/no/other 17. Has group  Yes=38, 95%  No=1, 3% work helped you build better communicatio n skills in the English language?Yes/No/Other 18. I have  Group  Working improved my work=37, 93% alone=3, use of the 8% English language and sharing ideas in English through- group work/ working alone/other 19. Rate: I like  1->3, 8%  3->2, 5% working in  2->0,0%  4->15, groups in class 38% – 12345 1= it’s ok, 5= I love it 20. Rate: I like  1->14, 37%  3->9, 24% working alone  2->9,24%  4->3, 8& in class -12345, 1= it’s ok, 5= I love it 21. What is the  Friends help  Discuss and main reason each share new you like group other=11,28%  Other=6, 15%  Other=1, 3%  Other=0, 0%  5->20, 50%  5->3, 8% �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics work?- friends  help each other, learn from other group members, discuss and share new ideas, assignment is easier 22. From you experience this semester what is the best part of working in groups?-open answer 23. List one activity you that you do outside of the university that involves you being in a group.- open answer ideas=22, 55% Assignment is easier=1, 3% Learn from other group members=6,  15%      Sharing ideas Discussing  Go to the gym Study group Playing soccer     Speaking in English Learning from each other  Diwaniya Soccer Sharing ideas on Whatsap p   Fixing mistakes Helping each other Family gathering s Conclusion Collaborative learning is a widely used method that has been extensively researched and due to positive results it is a method that I believe should be used with ESL students. From my classroom observations, survey responses, and collected classwork assignments I can conclude that for my native Arabic speaking ESL students in the IEP program collaborative learning is an effective teaching method that helps them to be active learners in the classroom. From the survey responses85% of the students prefer group work, and 78% agree that working collaboratively promotes critical thinking through discussion, explanation and evaluation of ideas, better results and social skills, and a positive learning environment. Based on the survey, 55% of the students enjoy working in groups because they have the opportunity to discuss and share ideas which in turn leads to higher critical thinking, better understanding and �Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers results. Using collaborative learning in the ESL classroom is also beneficial because students have the chance to practice and think in the English language. One negative aspect of collaborative learning according to the survey is less concentration. 55% of the students feel that they focus better when working alone. When asked why, students said that sometimes group work wastes time because they go off topic, certain students are hesitant to participate, or the group gets noisy. I find it useful to shuffle students between groups and mix male and female students so that they are comfortable with the opposite gender. It is important to walk around, monitor students, and provide guidance and support. Along with creating a friendly classroom environment my students always seem happier after working in a group because they had the chance to socialize through learning. Collaborative learning is also helpful in developing social skills among ESL students. It helps shy and introverted students build confidence, and it creates a sense of security among my native Arabic speaking students; especially my female students who are shy to communicate with their male counterparts. It decreases gender segregation in the classroom which is common in the Arab culture and increases gender tolerance. My students feel a sense of securitythrough collaborative learningwhich increases their class participation as well. I highly recommend ESL teachers to incorporate collaborative learning as an effective method for teaching nonnative Englishspeakers into their daily teaching so that we move further away from the traditional and give way for the transformative classroom. References Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: An historical and conceptual perspective. Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives, 21-34. London: Cambridge University Press. Colorín Colorado (2007).Cooperative learning strategies. Retrieved from ¡Colorín Colorado! Website: http://www.colorincolorado.org/educators/content/cooperative Felder, R. (June 1997). Beating the Numbers Game: Effective Teaching in Large Classes. 1997 ASEE Annual Conference, Milwaukee, WI, viewed on the web 05/10/2006, URL: http://www.ncsu.edu/felderpublic/Papers/Largeclasses.htm Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1999).Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning (5th Ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon Johnson, D.W. (1971). Role Reversal: A summary and review of research. International Journal of Group Tensions, 1, 318-334 �Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics Kagan, S. (1994).Cooperative Learning. San Clemente, California: Kagan Publishing Keller, J. M. "Motivational design of Instruction." in C. M. Reigeluth (ed.) Instructional Design Theories and Models: An Overview of their Current Status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 386-434, 1983 Kulik, J.A., and Kulik, C.L. "College Teaching." In P. Peterson and H. Walberg (Eds.) Research in Teaching: Concepts, Findings and Implications. Berkeley, CA: McCutcheon Publishing, 1979 Mueller, A., & Fleming, T. (2001). Cooperative learning: Listening to how children work at school. Journal of Educational Research, 94(5), 259–265 Peterson, P.L and S.R Swing (1985) Students’ cognitions as mediators of the effectiveness of small group learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77,218-312 Siegel, C. (2005). Implementing a research-based model of cooperative learning. The Journal of Educational Research, 98 (6), 339-349. Slavin, R. (2010), "Co-operative learning: what makes group-work work?", in The Nature of Learning: Using Research to Inspire Practice, OECD Publishing. � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 2822 Title A name given to the resource Collaborative Learning –An Effective Method for Teaching Native Arabic Speakers Author Author Mathew, Reena Abstract A summary of the resource. Native Arabic speaking students of the Gulf Middle East region are descendants of tribes and nomadic families which may be a possible reason why they are social constructivists when it comes to learning. Most prefer a learning environment in which they are actively engaged learners within a group. Native Arabic speaking students are social so best benefit from collaborative learning methods in particular from cooperative learning. Collaborative learning is an educational approach that involves groups of learners working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product. (Lejeune, 1999). Cooperative Learning is a teaching arrangement that refers to small, heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common goal (Kagan,1994). According to Vygotsky’sSocial Development Theory; social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. The purpose of this paper is to illustrate why collaborative learning is an effective teaching method in language education with non-native English speakers (with focus on native Arabic speakers). Collaborative and cooperative learning styles are effective in the ESL classroom with native Arabic speakers because it helps students to share ideas, stimulates critical thinking, helps students to take control and invest in their learning with structural guidance from their teachers, teachers take the role of learners, students can become teachers, and every student gets to be an equal participant in the given task. Collaborative learning is also an effective teaching style that promotes social skills amongst students that can be used both in the classroom and outside in natural situations. It helps introverted students feel more confident about socializing with their peers. When I divide my students into groups or pairs using collaborative or cooperative learning styles; work is done with deeper concentration along with higher critical thinking skills. Keywords: Native Arab students, language learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2015-04-15 Keywords Keywords. Article PeerReviewed L Education (General),LG Individual institutions (Asia. Africa),LT Textbooks,P Philology. Linguistics,PE English,PI Oriental languages and literatures Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 798 Title A name given to the resource College Students on College Teaching: A Case Analysis of a Teaching - Learning Exchange Process Author Author Ervin, Kovacevic Abstract A summary of the resource. Designed to teach rhetorical reading and advanced academic writing, Freshman English II (ENG102) is a required course for all International University of Sarajevo (IUS) students, regardless of the program they are enrolled in. During this course, students were required to write a research paper for which they had to explore the concept of ‘Teaching Style’, come up with effective teaching criteria, observe the teaching actions of a Freshman English teacher, and define the effective and ineffective ones calling on the referred literature and their own intellectual reasoning. More than a hundred students revealed that they are intellectually excited and pleased by the teaching actions displaying teacher – centered style (i.e. Expert, Formal Authority, and Personal Model), while they are, however, extremely appreciative of and motivated by artful teaching performance, teaching behaviors which project high interpersonal rapport, and learner – centered teaching approach. For the purpose of reaching more valid and reliable conclusions, the remarks were complemented with the results obtained through a formal survey assessing teaching performance at the end of every semester. Consequently, it might be inferred that in order to meet the needs of IUS Freshman English student profiles, a teacher should be able to deliberately apply teaching techniques associated with every and any style; a style driven by both andragogical and pedagogical reasoning. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2012-05 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed P Philology. Linguistics