58 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f2c446bf25c83e92e56210ac047c07e7.pdf bd8497e8c09f70bf8ffa0f7bff5aaadb PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Social Context of the Paradise Lost Nedžad Gudić International Burch University Bosnia and Herzegovina nedzad_gv@hotmail.com Shahab Yar Khan University of Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina shahabyarkhan@hotmail.com Abstract: In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized. At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. Keywords: Paradise Lost, Milton, Social Context Introduction One of the greatest poets of the English language, best-known for his epic poem PARADISE LOST (1667). Milton's powerful, rhetoric prose and the eloquence of his poetry had an immense influence especially on the 18th-century verse. Besides poems, Milton published pamphlets defending civil and religious rights. The year 1649 marked a decisive change in Milton’s life. Charles I was executed, with Milton probably in attendance. The murder of a king was shocking to the people of a country that had always lived under a monarchy and for whom the king had an aura of divinity. Milton attempted to justify the situation with his Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. This pamphlet, along with Milton’s other work for the Puritans, resulted in his being offered the position of Secretary for the Foreign Tongues. The classical influences in his work can be clearly delineated: Homer, Ovid, but especially Virgil. Shakespeare was the leading playwright of his day, and there are some references to his works in Milton's own poetry. The style and structure of the Spencer's "The Faerie Queen," was another influence on Paradise lost. Following the invocation and prologue, Milton continues in the epic style by beginning in medias res, in the middle of things. Satan is first seen lying in the pit of Hell. That great religious epic focuses on Satan, presents him first, and in many ways makes him the hero of the poem is certainly surprising and something of a risk on Milton’s part. Milton does not want his audience to empathize with Satan, yet Satan is an attractive character, struggling against great odds. Of course, Milton’s original audience more than his modern one would have been cognizant of the ironies involved in Satan’s struggles and his comments concerning power. The power that Satan asserts and thinks he has is illusory. His power to act derives only from God, and his struggle against God has already been lost. To the modern audience, Satan may seem heroic as he struggles to make a Heaven of Hell, but the original audience knew, and Milton’s lines confirm, that Satan’s war with God had been lost absolutely before the poem begins. God grants Satan and the other devils the power to act for God’s purposes, not theirs. In fact, unlike a classical epic which deals with a subject of national importance, with the war- like exploits of some hero of national stature, the theme of Milton′ s epic is vaster and of a more universal human interest . It concerns itself with the fortunes, not of a city or an empire, but of the whole human race, and with that particular 416 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo event in the history of the race which has module all its destinies. Around this event, the plucking of an apple, are rage, according to the strict rules of the ancient epic, the histories of Heaven and Earth and Hell. The study “The scene of action is Universal Space. The time represented is eternity. The characters are God and all his creatures.”(Khan, 2006, p. 148). And all these are exhibited in the clearest and most inevitable relation with the man and his destiny. John Milton was one of the great poets of England whose life spanned the most turbulent period of English history. His youth was spent in the dissolving reign of Charles I who desperately held on to his power by dissolving Parliament. “This foolishness could only last so long, and civil war broke out in 1642. This war would elevate an intensely religious and unboundedly ambitious, charismatic, and the man named Oliver Cromwell to the height of power; in 1649, after overthrowing the monarchy and taking over England, Cromwell executed Charles I and thus ushered in a new state which he called the Commonwealth and Protectorate that was, nominally, Puritan.”(Morton, A.L 1955, p 211) He was such capable military officer that he became a high ranking general and great inspiration for his society. Cromwell nominally subscribed to Calvin's principles of civil government, in which the best form of government is either an aristocracy (rule by the best) or a combination of aristocracy and democracy (rule by the people) & emdash; the latter would become the basis of American government. Cromwell, however, wanted to be king and ruled harshly, calling himself "Protector of England" and setting up in effect a military government. Milton meditated many subjects, from both British and biblical history, before he finally decided on the fall as the theme for his great epic. In the beginning there existed according to Milton God and Chaos. Milton′s imagery draws a contrast which helps us in understanding the Satan in the Book I. The Hell is portrayed as closely as possible to the nature of horror portrayed in Inferno. Lying on the lake, Satan is described as gigantic; he is compared to a Titan or the Leviathan. Next to Satan lies Beelzebub, Satan’s second in command. Satan comments on how Beelzebub has been transformed for the worse by the punishment of God. With effort, Satan is able to free himself from his chains and rise from the fire. He flies to a barren plain, followed by Beelzebub. From the plain, Satan calls the other fallen angels to join him, and one by one they rise from the lake and fly to their leader. The theme of freedom and independence is perhaps the most controversial one in the poem because it portrays Satan as the very embodiment of heroic energy. This energy is constantly expressed in his opposition to the will of god despite heavy odds. In fact, Milton′s own self esteem, pride and republicanism, are voiced by Satan. Milton believed in Cromwell and the civil war at first, but would later have second thoughts about Cromwell (in fact, Satan in Paradise Lost is clearly Oliver Cromwell). Milton would spend his later years during the reign of Charles II blind and distressed over the social problems of the seventeenth century, a distress which gave rise to his two great epic poems. Milton's distaste for the monarchy led directly to his embracing the rule of Oliver Cromwell. From 1630 through 1658 Milton wrote at least 24 sonnets. Many of these celebrate the rise of "Lord General Cromwell" and "New Forcers of Conscience." When Cromwell's government collapsed and Charles II ascended the thrown, Milton was imprisoned, fined, and his property confiscated. Yet Milton steadfastly accepted his decisions and the consequences. Three years after the fall of Cromwell's government, Milton began writing Paradise Lost. Readers of the epic often find Satan the most compelling character, especially at the beginning of the poem, which he dominates. Satan has used his free will to choose his role in the universe. The famous statement by Satan that it is "better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven" is an endorsement of individual rights and responsibility, versus serving authority. Satan describes his enemy as "the tyranny of Heaven." We can obviously see that Oliver Cromwell had influence on John Milton, because Cromwell proved most capable as a military leader and clothed conservatively , he possessed a Puritan fervor and a commanding voice, 417 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo he quickly made a name for himself by serving in both the Short Parliament (April 1640) and the Long Parliament (August 1640 through April 1660). Oliver Cromwell was known by his passionate speeches in the Parliament. And it is the most obvious that Oliver Cromwell was Satan from Paradise Lost. Conclusion "Ideology of the Paradise Lost has deep root in social situation of England and with realistic view mirrors state and political standpoint of its writer and his class of that time." (Puhalo, 1966, p. 203) "Satan’s speeches bring out the salient traits of his character-his realism, resourcefulness and foresight. He is not coward; but his courage is not rash and unthinking. Like clever politician, he would like to think before he leaps"(Khan, 2006, p. 153) We must admit how Satan is brilliant leader; he is telling his fallen angels that everything in our minds. Satan motivates them to continue their fight. Milton portrays the Satan as a rebel and God as a tyrant. It’s war between an autocrats and democrats. Seeing Milton′s own literary career and the impact of the civil war on his writing, it would be far fetched to say that Milton did see a touch of glory in Satan. “And Satan is introduced in this background- not as helpless victim, but as a character of ultra human dimensions”. (Kapetanović, 1973, p. 84) Milton devotes much of the poem’s early books to devolving Satan’s character. We can even see him as an innocent victim, overlooked for an important promotion. The first impression of the book I leaves us with clear picture of autocracy and democracy. God is autocrat. His whole world whirls around him. He is the center of his own world. On the other hand, Satan is democratic. Democratic elements among the devils: they had a council, the unique idea and army to fight to God. So Milton uses Satan to criticize the tyranny. In the context Satan’s war is ear for independence. At the end of Chapter II, I would like say that the speeches of Satan and his followers in book I and II are magnificent in their way, Miltonic. To see Satan as a hero because Milton goes out of his way to show the superficial seductiveness of this kind of evil is to show extraordinary naiveté. Many readers and myself have argued that Milton deliberately makes Satan seem heroic and appealing early in the poem to draw us into sympathizing with him against our will, so that we may see how seductive evil is and learn to be more vigilant in resisting its appeal. And then at very end Milton changes Satan from great war-leader into smooth-tongued and specious politician. References Primary sources Khan, S. Y. (2006). From Renaissance to Classicism, Fakultet humanističkih nauka Morton, A.L. (1955), Istorija Engleske, Veselin Masleša, Sarajevo Puhalo, Dušan, (1966), Milton i njegovi tragovi u Jugoslovenskim književnostima, Beograd Khan, S. Y. (2006). From Renaissance to Classicism, Fakultet humanističkih nauka, Kapetanović, Breda (1973 prepared by), Povijest Svjetske Književnosti, Mladost, Zagreb Secondary sources 418 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo -http://www.sparknotes.com/poetry/paradiselost (visited on May 14, 2010) -http://www.dartmouth.edu/~milton/(visited on May 09, 2010) -http://www.richmond.edu/~creamer/milton.html (visited on May 04, 2010) -http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi(visited on April 04, 2010) -http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Milton (visited on May 09, 2010) -http://www.luminarium.org/sevenlit/milton/(visited on May 11, 2010) (visited -http://www.online-literature.com/milton/paradiselost/ 419 on April 16, 2010) � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 728 Title A name given to the resource Social Context of the Paradise Lost Author Author Gudić, Nedžad Khan, Shahab Yar Abstract A summary of the resource. In the Paradise Lost, John Milton tried to explain how evil is seductive. It is one of the reasons why he portrayed Satan with ultra human dimensions in Book I and II. And what makes Satan so heroic is not the particular situation he is in or any facts about him: his magnificence comes from the inspired verse which Milton puts into his speeches. No one reading these speeches can miss their power and eloquence. It is no accident that when Winston Churchill was looking for something to rally the British people after the military disaster of Dunkirk, he used these lines on the radio. There is nothing in English literature to match the heroic determination, power, courage, and energy manifested here and throughout Satan's early speeches. And his followers are appropriately energized. At very end Paradise Lost was more than a work of art. Indeed, it was a moral and political treatise, a poetic explanation for the course that English history and Human kind had taken. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/da8464101ee95c473fcb45c074ec1c01.pdf ec9c7f2e97d1c26bc1dddeb096652858 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evaluation of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Prospective Primary School and Primary Science Teachers Salih Zeki GENÇ Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey szgenc@yahoo.com Abstract: This research, aims to assess the critical thinking abilities of prospective primary school and primary science teachers, was obtained by using California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale The inventory was applied to 560 randomly selected prospective teachers (ranged from 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year) in Faculty of Education at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in Turkey in 2006 and analysed using SPSS program. The students who answered entry incorrectly excluded from the study. Finally, the answers of 480 teacher candidates were taken into consideration. In the analysis of data t, variance and Tukey’s statistic tests were used. It was found out that the point of views of teacher candidates from both departments about the whole inventory were between 31 and 39 (they’re not sure about critical thinking disposition). On the other hand, a significant difference was not found between the gender, learning methods and critical thinking dispositions of teacher candidates. It was also found out that there is a significant difference between teacher candidates grade levels, their self confidence and their ways of searching for truth. Today’s teacher candidates who will become teachers of tomorrows are expected to improve ‘critical thinking skills’ through education process. Therefore, the teacher candidates should have critical thinking skills in order to contribute the development of their countries. Keywords: Critical Thinking Disposition, Teacher Candidate, Primary School Teacher, Science Teacher Introduction Critical thinking concept has become popular in the recent years in education. Reasoning and problem solving are the two common critical thinking skills which are supported by the educationalists in schooling process. Today, there are master and doctorate programmes on teaching critical thinking skills at many universities. Therefore, critical thinking is the core concept in education. Critical thinking has a number of definitions made by many researchers. Beyer (1983) defines critical thinking as the evaluation of the authenticity, accuracy and worth of knowledge, thoughts, beliefs or discussions. In addition, Norris (1985, p: 40-45) states that it supports teacher candidates to “apply everything they already know and feel, to evaluate their own thoughts and especially to change their behaviours…” Relatively, critical thinking disposition-as a part of our personality- is regarded as an approach to problem-framing problem solving through reasoning. Braman (1999) states that critical thinking is effective not only in academic studies or environments but also in solving every kind of problem. For this reason, teacher candidates are expected to teach the necessary information, skills and behaviours to their students for their future lives. According to Scriven & Paul (1996), critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness. The experts in teacher education claim that lifelong learning and professionalism should be the basic qualities of teacher education programmes. Therefore, teacher candidates should develop traits of intellectuality about teaching in order to become teachers who are good researchers. According to Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky experience encourages the development of cognitive processes (Rodriguez and Sjostrom, 1998). Although contemporary education curriculum is criticised, the educationalists agree on that a new curriculum should be developed which enables the students to think well and to think for themselves (Pithers, 2000). According to Ikuenobe (2001) critical thinking skills should be taught to students due to following reasons: (1) instructors motivate questioning by explaining to students its logic, functions and basis as an epistemic process- this may help to vitiate the negative attitudes and implications; (2) students have to see the 216 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo connections among questioning, critical thinking, inquiry and learning, and fallibilism; (3) instructors have to develop a constructive and non-threatening way to ask questions and teach students a process of asking questions so that one does not alienate and intimidate; and (4) the instructor must create, in general, a classroom environment that will allow students to express themselves, and they must be given the opportunity to actively participate in their own learning process, which involves acquiring the skills of questioning for the purpose of bringing about understanding, growth and progress in knowledge (Ikuenobe, 2001). A number of studies were carried out regarding the assessment of critical thinking disposition in the recent years (Brookfield, 1987; Costa and Lowery, 1989; Wade and Tavris, 1993; Facione, Facione and Giancarlo, 2000; Giancarla and Facione, 2001; Phillips, Chesnut and Rospond, 2004). As a result of the developments in the field of education in the world, the educational reform process has started in Turkey not only in the primary and secondary education but also in teacher training. No matter what the individual differences which exist in the vision of elementary education in Turkey might be, there are views such as inquiry-questioning, critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making skills. For this reason, changes have been made to the curricula of primary school education and science education programs and training primary school and science teachers who can guide students to gain the values mentioned above has become important. Therefore, evaluating critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates constitute the problem of the research. Purpose of the Research The primary purpose of the research is to evaluate the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. In this respect, answers to the following questions are of vital importance. 1. What is the distribution regarding the general status of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 2. Is there a significant difference between the genders and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 3. Is there a significant difference between the type of schooling and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 4. Is there a significant difference between the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? 5. Is there a significant difference between the class level they have received schooling and critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates? Method This study was conducted with 480 teacher candidates studying at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Primary School Teacher Training and Primary Science Teacher Training in 2009-2010 academic years. This study was limited to 51 articles used in California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale (CCTTS). Sampling 560 teacher candidates from 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th years studying at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Education, Primary School Education and Science Education Program (day and evening groups) were selected randomly and scales were applied. 480 teacher candidates were included in the sampling process after excluding the candidates who provided incomplete and wrong answers (see Table I). 217 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Student Teachers’ Common Characteristics f % Male 198 41.3 Female 282 58.7 480 100.0 Total Day Group 240 50.0 Type of Instruction Evening Group 240 50.0 480 100.0 Total Primary School Education 240 50.0 Department Science Education 240 50.0 480 100.0 Total First Year 120 25.0 Second Year 120 25.0 Class Third Year 120 25.0 Fourth Year 120 25.0 480 100.0 Total Table 1. Distribution of the Student Teachers in Relation to Gender, Type of Instruction, Department and Classes. Gender Data Collection and Analysis Data were collected by using the California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale. California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale was developed by Facione and Facione (1992) by considering the criteria mentioned in definition of critical thinking which was put forward by Delphi Project. Scale is composed of 6-options, 75 Likert type items and 7 sub-scales (Facione, Giacarlo, Facione & Gianen, 1995). The scale, which was originally written in English was adapted by Kokdemir (2003) into Turkish and factor analysis, validity and reliability studies were carried out. The new scale which was formed after these analyses were rearranged in the form of 51 items associated with 6 load factors and at the end of the application, reliability coefficient (Cronbach Alpha) of the whole scale was found as 0.88 6 sub-dimensions that take place in the Turkish form of California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale have been formed namely, Analytical Approach, Curiosity, Open-mindedness, Personal Confidence, Look for the Truth, Systematic Approach. Certain items which were listed in Cognitive Maturity sub dimension in the original scale, have been eliminated and some of them have been listed under the open-mindedness sub dimension (Hamurcu et al., 2005). The scale was applied to the sampling group in November 2006 by the researcher and the data were analysed by the SPSS program. In the analysis of the data obtained, distribution of the general status of critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates was evaluated by calculating their arithmetic averages. t-test, which was used to measure the differences between the averages was applied to examine whether there is a significant difference between their genders, type of schooling, departments, and their critical thinking tendencies. One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there is a difference between class levels they received schooling and critical thinking tendencies; and Tukey test was used to identify the classes those differences exist. Findings and Discussions Findings obtained in the research have been listed under five categories. Sub dimensions n Analytical Approach Open-mindedness Curiosity Personal Confidence Search for Truth Systematic Approach Total 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 Primary School Teacher Std. Deviation X 41.36 43.92 35.69 28.92 25.12 20.26 32.54 5.70 6.68 5.43 4.32 3.91 5.20 3.10 218 n 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 Science Teacher Std. Deviation X 41.32 43.84 35.12 28.75 24.99 20.17 32.36 6.11 7.08 5.10 4.85 3.64 3.57 2.71 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 2.General Status of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 2 provides the distribution regarding the general status of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. Prior to the preparation of the tables, standard points for every sub-scale, and total point calculations were carried out separately. According to Kokdemir (2003), the maximum score that can be obtained from the scales is 60 and the minimum score is 6. Giancarlo and Facione (2001) also state that while making calculations for every sub-dimension of the scale, people who receive a total of 30 points or less than 30 points for that particular subscale are considered as weak or in negative direction in terms of their tendency for critical thinking, people who receive a total of 40 points or higher than 40 points are considered as strong or in positive direction and people who receive a total score between 31 points and 39 points are considered as undecided. On the other hand, when the whole scale is examined, people who receive a total score of 180 points or less should be considered as having a weak or negative general critical thinking tendency and people receive 240 points or more are considered as having a strong or positive general critical thinking tendency. According to results shown on the table 2, it can be concluded that the averages of the opinions of the teacher candidates for the whole scale are range between of 31-39. Therefore, it can be put forward that teacher candidates in primary school education and science education departments are “undecided” in the critical thinking tendencies. In addition to this, it can also be stated that in dimensions of analytic approach and openmindedness, teacher candidates have a high and positive critical thinking tendencies as they have obtained points greater than 40. On the other hand, it is also remarkable that teacher candidates of both primary school education and science education departments have provided extremely similar opinions in all sub-dimensions. Low points obtained in search for truth dimension of teacher candidates participated in the study overlap with the findings of various studies carried out in the same field (Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Facione et al, 1995; Hamurcu et al, 2005). Facione et al (1985) have stated that it is worth examining these low points in “search for truth” dimension in terms of the quality of the university education and its possible effects on future generations. Sub dimensions Gender n X Analytical Approach Male 198 41.50 Female 282 41.23 Open-mindedness Male 198 43.17 Female 282 44.38 Curiosity Male 198 35.10 Female 282 35.62 Personal Confidence Male 198 29.08 Female 282 28.67 Search for Truth Male 198 25.06 Female 282 25.05 Systematic Approach Male 198 20.40 Female 282 20.08 * The main difference is significant at the .05 level. Std. Deviation 5.99 5.85 5.71 7.56 5.19 5.32 4.83 4.41 3.97 3.64 4.25 4.60 Df 478 t p 0.494 .621* 478 1.908 .057* 478 1.063 .288* 478 0.956 .340* 478 0.011 .991* 478 0.792 .429* Table 3. Findings Regarding the Differences Between the Their Sexes and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates The gender variable is considered as one of the factors in the studies conducted to measure critical thinking tendencies (Facione et al, 1995; Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Kokdemir, 2003; Hamurcu et al, 2005). In this study, Table 3 provides findings regarding the differences between the sexes and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The averages of the views of the male and female teacher candidates regarding their critical thinking tendencies show high similarities for all sub dimensions (Table 2). In this case, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the sexes and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. Therefore, these two variables can be considered independent. In the study carried out by Hamurcu et al (2005), a significant difference was observed for analytic approach, open mindedness, personal confidence and search for truth sub dimensions of the sex variable; and no difference was observed for the curiosity and 219 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo systematic approach sub dimensions. Therefore, it can be concluded that none of the studies were able to observe any differences in curiosity and systematic approach sub dimensions. Sub dimensions Type of Instruction n Analytical Approach Day Group Evening Group Open-mindedness Day Group Evening Group Curiosity Day Group Evening Group Personal Confidence Day Group Evening Group Search for Truth Day Group Evening Group Systematic Approach Day Group Evening Group * The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. X 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 41.74 40.94 43.87 43.89 36.10 34.70 29.17 28.50 24.89 24.52 20.14 20.29 Std. Deviation 6.45 5.29 7.19 6.57 5.50 4.94 4.18 4.95 3.63 3.91 4.85 4.03 t p 1.485 .138* 478 0.020 .984* 478 2.941 .003* 478 1.592 .112* 478 0.966 .334* 478 0.368 .713* df 478 Table 4. Findings Regarding the Differences between the Type of Schooling and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 4 provides findings regarding the differences between the type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. When the table is examined it is seen that averages of critical thinking tendencies of day and evening groups of primary school and science teacher candidates show similarities for all sub dimensions. In this case, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The critical thinking tendencies of both day and evening groups of teacher candidates are close to each other. This can be interpreted as that the type of schooling (dayevening group) is not an important factor in terms of their critical thinking tendencies. Sub dimensions Analytical Approach Department Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Open-mindedness Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Curiosity Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Personal Confidence Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Look for the Truth Primary School Teacher Science Teacher Systematic Approach Primary School Teacher Science Teacher The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. n X 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 240 41.36 41.32 43.92 43.84 35.69 35.12 28.92 28.75 25.12 24.99 20.26 20.17 Std. Deviation 5.70 6.11 6.68 7.08 5.43 5.10 4.32 4.85 3.91 3.64 5.20 3.57 df 478 t p 0.077 .939* 478 0.139 .889* 478 1.187 .236* 478 0.397 .692* 478 0.362 .717* 478 0.225 .822* Table 5. Findings Regarding the Differences between the Departments and the Critical Thinking Tendencies of Primary School and Science Teacher Candidates Table 5 provides findings regarding the differences between the departments and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The findings indicate that averages of critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates show similarities for all sub dimensions. Therefore, a meaningful difference at 0.05 significance level was not observed (at all sub dimensions) between the departments and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. The critical thinking tendencies of both primary school teacher candidates and science teacher candidates are close to each other. It overlaps with the results of the study conducted by Hamurcu et al. (2005) since these differences do not exist in open-mindedness, search for truth and systematic approach sub dimensions according to department. 220 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Source of Variance Sum of Squares Personal Confidence df Between Groups 3 Within Groups 476 Total 479 Search for Truth Between Groups 3 Within Groups 476 Total 479 The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. Mean Square 184.083 9925.883 10109.967 192.133 6646.233 6838.367 F p 61.361 20.853 2.943 Source of Variance .033* 64.044 13.963 4.587 .004* Table 6.Findings regarding the differences between the grade levels with regard to type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates Table 6 provides findings regarding the differences between the class level with regard to type of schooling and the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. It has been limited to the personal confidence and search for truth sub dimensions. Because, it has been found that the critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates have differentiated in these two sub dimensions. According to the results of the Tukey’s test that was conducted in order to identify the differences between the teacher candidates, it was found out that according to personal confidence sub dimension, there were significant differences in favour of 3rd year teacher candidates between the 1st and 3rd year teacher candidates, and according to search for truth sub dimension, there were significant differences in favour of 3rd year teacher candidates between the 2nd and 3rd year teacher candidates. Therefore, it can be concluded that 3rd year teacher candidates have more positive critical tendencies compared to other teacher candidates particularly 1st and 2nd year teacher candidates. The findings of the study overlap with the findings of the study conducted by Hamurcu et al (2005) with regard to personal confidence sub dimension. On the other hand, Facione and et al. (1995) have found out that new students tend to obtain higher points for curiosity and open mindedness and lower points for systematic approaches sub dimensions. Conclusion and Suggestions This research had aimed at evaluating the critical thinking tendencies of primary school and science teacher candidates. As a result; 1. It has been found that opinions of teacher candidates in both departments regarding the whole scale are in the range of 31-39 points. Therefore it can be concluded that teacher candidates are undecided in their critical thinking tendencies. 2. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the sexes of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies. In this respect, it can be concluded that these two variables are independent of each other. 3. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the types of schooling (day and evening group) of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies. Thus, there is a similarity between the critical thinking tendencies of day and evening group teacher candidates. 4. There is no significant difference (including all sub dimensions) between the departments (primary school teacher and science teacher) of teacher candidates and their critical thinking tendencies (including all sub dimensions). Thus, it can conclude that there is a similarity between the critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates in both departments. 5. Meaningful differences have been found in comparisons made according to class levels with regard to schooling type, particularly between the points obtained in Personal Confidence and Search for Truth sub scales and there are differences in higher class levels. 6. The low points for Search for Truth dimension obtained by the teacher candidates participated in the sampling also overlap with the various results obtained in similar areas (Giancarlo and Facione, 2001; Facione and et al, 1995; Hamurcu et al, 2005). Furthermore, Facione et al. (1995) have found out that new students tend to obtain higher points for curiosity and open mindedness and lower points for systematic approaches sub dimensions. 1. According to the above result the following suggestions could be made: Creating an environment which will enable today’s teacher candidates to gain “critical thinking” skills who will be training tomorrow’s students is of vital importance. The teacher candidates who will 221 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2. 3. 4. 5. become intellectuals and managers are primarily responsible for constructing the future of their country. For this reason they should have the ability to think critically about events and facts. Therefore, it may be sensible to arrange subject areas where they will obtain and develop critical thinking skills. It is also important for academicians at the universities to have critical thinking skills who train teacher candidates. Moreover, they should be able to use these skills and serve as role models for those candidates. For this reason, practices aimed at developing critical thinking skills of students should be included in the programs to train academicians. A similar study can be conducted which would cover different faculties and departments in different universities. In this study, teacher candidates from primary school and science education departments have been selected. Because, individuals first face primary school teachers and science teachers play a vital role to educate individuals to understand the society, and the world. Another study can be conducted to measure the relationship between the critical thinking tendencies and academic achievement of teacher candidates or university students. A research covering secondary education students, current secondary and primary school teachers and family members may even be carried out. In this study, complete California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale with its subscales analytical approach, curiosity, open-mindedness, personal confidence, search for the truth, systematic approach, and related questions were used and results were interpreted according to the sub dimensions. In another research, a more extensive analysis can be done by only including one or some other sub dimensions of the measurement tool. References Beyer, B. (1983) Common sense about teaching thinking skills. Educational Leadership Vol.41, EJ 289-719. pp. 44-49. Braman, O. R. (1999) Teaching peace to adults: Using critical thinking to improve conflict resolution. Adult Learning, 102 (2), 30-32. Brookfield, S. D. (1987) Developing Critical Thinkers: Challenging Adults to Explore Alternative Ways of Thinking and Acting. Josey-Bass Publishers. San-Francisco, CA. Costa, A. L.; & Lowery I, Lawrence F. (1989) Techniques for Teaching Thinking. Critical Thinking Press and Software. Pacific Grove, CA. Facione, P.A., Facione, N.C.& Giancarlo,C.A. (2000) The disposition toward critical thinking. It’s character, measurement, and relationship to critical thinking skill. Informal Logic, vol.20, no. 1, pp. 61-84. Facione, P.A., Giancarlo, C.A., Facione, N.C.& Gainen, J. (1995) The disposition toward critical thinking. Journal of General Education, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 1-25. Giancarlo, C.A. and Faacione, P.A. (2001) A look across four years at the disposition toward critical thinking among undergraduate students. The Journal of General Education, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 29-55. Hamurcu, H., Günay, Y., Akamca, G.Ö. (2005) Profiles of critical thinking dispositions of science and class students. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, vol.20, pp. 147-157. Ikuenobe, P. (2001) Questioning as an epistemic process of critical thinking. Educational Philosophy and Theory, vol.33, no. 3 & 4, pp. 325-341. Kökdemir. D. (2003) Belirsizlik Durumlarında Karar Verme ve Problem Çözme. Ankara Üniversitesi Social Science Faculty, Phd Thesis, Ankara. Norris, S.P. (1985) Synthesis of research on critical thinking. Educational Leadership, vol. 42, pp. 40-45. EJ 319-814. Phillips, C. R., Chesnut, R. J., Rospond, R. M. (2004) The California critical thinking instruments for benchmarking, program assessment, and directing curricular change. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, vol. 68, no. 4. Pithers, R.T., (2000) Critical Thinking in Education: A Review.Educational Research. vol. 42, no. 3, winter, pp. 237-249. Rodriguez, Y.E.G., Sjostrom, B.R. (1998) Critical reflection for professional development: a comparative study of nontraditional adult and traditional student teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, vol. 49, no. 3. Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (1996) “Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking”, Retrieved: March 12, 2007, from http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk Wade, C.& Tavris, C. (1993) Critical& Creative Thinking: The Case of Love and War. Harper Collins College Publisher, New York NY. 222 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 699 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Critical Thinking Tendencies of Prospective Primary School and Primary Science Teachers Author Author GENÇ, Salih Zeki Abstract A summary of the resource. This research, aims to assess the critical thinking abilities of prospective primary school and primary science teachers, was obtained by using California Critical Thinking Tendency Scale The inventory was applied to 560 randomly selected prospective teachers (ranged from 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th year) in Faculty of Education at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in Turkey in 2006 and analysed using SPSS program. The students who answered entry incorrectly excluded from the study. Finally, the answers of 480 teacher candidates were taken into consideration. In the analysis of data t, variance and Tukey’s statistic tests were used. It was found out that the point of views of teacher candidates from both departments about the whole inventory were between 31 and 39 (they’re not sure about critical thinking disposition). On the other hand, a significant difference was not found between the gender, learning methods and critical thinking dispositions of teacher candidates. It was also found out that there is a significant difference between teacher candidates grade levels, their self confidence and their ways of searching for truth. Today’s teacher candidates who will become teachers of tomorrows are expected to improve ‘critical thinking skills’ through education process. Therefore, the teacher candidates should have critical thinking skills in order to contribute the development of their countries. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f2eb735dcf32078d854345cc07a9a4d1.pdf f1b7e8c5feec3cb89d6184fb215ca95c PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Analyzing Prime Time News in The Context Of Uses And Gratifications Approach Funda Erzurum Anadolu University Turkey ferzurum@anadolu.edu.tr Abstract: Television as a product of modern technology is a magic box that deeply affects societies at all time and space. Television uses images and sounds to communicate at the same time, live as a witness to events and having advantages and the experience to viewers as opposed to pre-modern communication means. It has a different position over the other mass media because of transmitting video and sound simultaneously. In its early broadcasting times television content was mainly used for transmission of news and educational purposes. In the course of time, development of technology has paved the way for a change in the use of existing functions and made the television an important apparatus for entertainment and leisure time. The study’s main theme is to introduce audience preferences, especially receiving prime time news in context of uses and gratifications approach. Television is a medium which can bring up the news and the news events at the same time they occur. The time between the event and the broadcasting is ‘zero’. It is a medium that has an advantage to transmit and reach to its audience instantly. It is using this advantage in a wide range of ways. News has been described as prestigious program for any channel in television broadcasting. According to this approach television channels attribute extra attention to the news, news programs and newsrooms. In this study the motivations that derive viewer to watch television to satisfy their needs and in particular prime time news usage is analyzed through fieldwork conducted in Eskişehir. Introduction The first half of the century was determined by the diversification of the video and audio elements of the media. As the book and the newspaper did, the fictional movie goes beyond representing the individual and social relations it also performed the funcition of providing information. After the Second World War, television has emerged as direct heirs of the previous models ( Barbier & Lavenir, 2001, p.15-16). Between 1950 and 1960 the television has bocome a mass medium. After this period television has settle in the center of human life. This study is focused on prime time news on national television channels and the changes of the behavior of monitoring according to the SES ( Socio- economic Status) groups. The history of television broadcasting in Turkey is not as old as America and Europe. Since the 1970’s, television has had an important place in Turkey. At the first years only few hours of broadcast could be handled. People were watching it in their guest rooms with their neighbors and relatives, since then television has been an integral part of everyday life. Television affected individuals' lives, leisure activities and also the time that they were spending together. These affects has become even more attractive since the increase of the broadcasting hours of television. The Study Our era is the era of information and technology, as Castells (2005) noted that "networks" are living in a society. People are more vulnerable to the developments in the mass communication technology every day. As a result of technological developments life is much more easier. Today, automation has a potential to replace human and significantly more free time for people may occur. Increase of the leisure time has changed the social life understanding and the relations. Television surrounds all the parts of human life and space. According to uses and gratifications approach, people use media to meet their specific needs. As a result of this use audience have reached a certain satisfaction. Uses and gratifications approach, turn the audience and viewers in an active position over media, and defends that they are effective on choosing the message and the medium which meets his/her needs and expectations. While individuals are using the mass media actively they also constitute their own social reality. In this manner the social world of individuals and life become intertwined, and new values have been created for establishing social relationships, integration of family and 116 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo community(Lull, 1980, s.197).People use media generally to get information, to get ideas about daily life affairs, to be esteemed, and to feel that he/she is useful to someone or something. Media uses it’s power and effect on each other on satisfying those needs (Katz, Blumer ve Gurevitch, 1974, s.20) . The change of ratings of prime time news which are broadasted on Turkish national Tv channels is remarkable in recent years. Its obvious that comparing the TRT period and today will not provide meaningful results. However, to look at least in prime-time which has the most watched programs rates in the last five years can give an idea in order to reveal the change. In the context of uses and gratifications approach, the changes of the audience’s prime time news monitoring behavior / habits, the fundamental dynamics of change, the factors that are affecting the prime time news monitoring and the relationship between socio-economic status variables and the prime time news monitoring is the problem of this study. Quite a lot of researches about why people watch television, especially in western countries have been done. But this kind of researches are extremely limited in the economical and social developing countries. In Turkey today, as the television audience measurement is discussed more on AGB Nielsen, commercial organizations are based on these data, however relevant academic data are not sufficiently taken into consideration. In general, individuals' media use, the preferences about the news getting medium, in particular the expectations about prime time news and to put the current situation would be useful for the the program planning and audition phases. Evaluating the study’s results gives an idea about the mass audience expectations, and a guide to plan programs that fulfills the expectations. This study’s presumptions are; in the known conditions the selected sample represents the universe, the sources which are used for the study provides current, accurate and sufficient information, there is at least one television at home, the news monitoring habits have changed, whereas television is still the most effective and commonly used medium to get news, and araştırmaya konu olan değişkenler bakımından The variables that are the subject of research in terms of SES groups are homogeneous in itselves, but heterogeneous among the other group. This study’s limitations are; Eskişehir city center, 15+ age group television viewers and the prime time news on national broadcast television channels. Methodology Today the discussion about the research methods is which method provides or helps to achieve more valid and reliable information: qualitative or quantitative research methods Undoubtedly, both methods have advantages and weak points over the other. In this reseach a mixed approach was adopted as the research method. This universe of research is households residing in the City Center district and the 15 + age group. Universe of the universe is finite, volume is 724 849 people. This study sampled household and each household unit for the 15 + age group, each of the individual is the unit of observation. The "Systematic Sampling Method" is used. City's main street with houses on this street, which is based on randomly selected streets in the systematic selection of residential apartments with a specified number of buildings in a single sample, it was intended to. With the sampling of households fall into the 15 + age group interviews were done, who did not want to participate to the survey of households in the case of persons residing in a parent households / individuals have been sampled. Implementation of household surveys of participants by calculating the SES Score AGB Nielsen has a defined sub-sample of six SES groups have been formed. Survey was conducted on 600 people. When we look at gender of the participants of the 360 male participants and 240female participants. For this research, it is an acceptable rate (40% to 60%). Although the ideal is equal distribution of participants, but in this study, the essential criteria in determining the SES group, because of the relatively higher proportion of the population distribution of a gender difference has emerged. However, this can be considered as a tolarable difference. Socio-Demographical Characteristics of the Participants Research has been done on 15+ age group. Participants are mostly between the ages of 15-45. If we look at number of participants; 15-30 years in the range of 257 persons (42.8%), 31-45 age range of 215 people (% 35.8) and 46 and above is defined as the age range of 128 persons (21.3%). 62.8% of participants (377 people) were married. 204 people (34%), unmarried and remaining 19 people were widowed and divorced. More than half of the respondents have children. 242 people has no child. When we look at the number of children one, two and three children numbers were attracted our attention.Participants were asked the question; “How many people live at home?”, 45.7% of the responses have been in the direction that they are three and four people living in the house. 117 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo After evaluating the survey data, one person from each SES group were interviewed in depth Interview participants had freedom to choose the place and the time of the interview. Also their permission had been taken for the audio record, it has emphasized that this study is a voluntary and they can end it when ever they want and leave the research. SES Group A Group B Group C1 Group C2 Group D Group E Group Personal Information 22 years old, Female, University degree. Doing MS. There are three televisions in the house. Watching television more than two hours a day. 51 years old, Male, University degree. Working as a pilot instructor. There are two televisions in the house. Hours a day monitoring is not certain 69 years old, Male, High School graduate. Retired teacher. There are two televisions in the house. Watching television 3 hours per day. 53 years old, Male, High School graduate. Officer. There are two televisions in the house. Watching television more than six hours per day 35 years old, Female, primary school graduate. Mukhtar. Have a television at home. Watching television one hour a day. 39 years old, Female, Literate. Housewife. There are two televisions in the house. Watching television 6 hours per day. Table 1: Personal Information About In-Depth Interview Participants Validity and Reliability of Research 600 persons were examined in the reliability of survey results to questions about television viewing motivations Cronbach alpha value of 95%, Cronbach's alpha value of the main news related questions were found to be 90%. Alpha values, prepared according to classical test theory with multiple data structures and the scale is suitable for testing. Therefore, this study has been done with this method of reliability analysis. In-Depth interviewsas a qualitative research tool, to ensure the reliability of the study, one expert from the area has choosen. Texts groups according to the questions have given, and to be asked for reading the texts and list the themes. Moreover, researcher’s act in diligence in this process and cooperation with an expert in both areas are a step on behalf of the reliability and validity. Evaluation of the Data About Prime time News Monitoring and Motivations To see came before to speak. We replace ourselvelves in the world around us by seeing. We explain this world by words, but this does not change us to be framed with our world. What we think or what we believe affects our view objects (Berger, 1993, s.8). After entering the television to human life, to have fun, to relax and wonder at the purpose of the activity has undergone changes.Private television channels has changed the program formats to meet the audiences’s entertainment needs and they began to replace the need for going outside for entertainment. As with any tool, television should not be examined regardless of background. There is increase of the time spent in front of the television. Television becomes one of the most effective mass culture producer. The aim of the study ( in this context) is to expose the television watching habits, news viewing and the satisfaction gained from television. Survey participants asked to list the first three activities they are doing their free times. Total 1383 responses were received, 402 (29.1%) watch television,135 (9.8%), read books, 155 (11.2%) listen to music, 130 (9.4%), do housework, 179 (12% , 9) I'll be with my family, 52 (3.8%) to shop, 198 (14.3%) visit my friends, 55 (4%) sports, 7% (5) do additional business, 16 (1% , 2) spend the time on the Internet, 54 (3.9%) the other. For the sample group “ watch television” comes first in the leisure activities. This shows us how television become an important social phenomenon. 333 of 600 people surveyed (55.5%) have a television at home. In the remaining 267 households have more than one television. The highest number of television in the households is 5. Television is mostly located in the living room and in the guest room. These roomsare the common areas of the family. Average of three hours watching TV for an indefinite period. Weekday and weekend television viewing time has changed. Television viewing hours increases on weekends. Television viewing is an evening activity on weekdays for working classes and for students, while on weekends during the day the time of television viewing increases. When we look at the watching hours of television on weekdays and weekends, the great majority (over 50%), also known as prime time evening hours was observed. When we look at qualitative data about television viewing time to establish a significant association between SES group is not possible. 118 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Television Watching Motivations Entertainment, Relaxation, Habit Of survey participants 66% (396 persons) stated that they are watching television habittually, 8.7% (52 people) stated that they can not say television watching as a habit or not and that the 25.3% (152 people) expressed watching TV is not a habit for them. Assuming that the SES group members who have limited cognitive activities prefer to watch television over the others will not be wrong. The channel and the content of the program is not important for the viewer once it has turned on. At this point viewer’s communication is with the television as a tool. Rubin’s 1981 and 1984 studies puts the argument that there are two important kinds of television watching as a habit.First one is television watching motivation to spend time, and the second one is television watching motivation to get rid of loneliness and the motivation for the escape to socialize. In this context when we look the survey findings in a general manner it becomes clear the usage of television connected to the individual’s education and profession. University graduates who are workins do not see television as a leisure time activity. But people with lower levels of education spend their leisure time mostly by watching television. They see the luxury, new patterns of relationships, brands, entertainment and many things on television texts. Rules and structures of society is changing. By controlling the leisure time of people the consumption is encouraged, the new habits, life styles and behaviors are adopted. Sometimes unacceptable events becomes normal and legal when people watch it from television. This kind of television effect mostly seen on lower educated and uneducated viewers who are spending much more time by watching television ( Television Watching Tendency Research, http://www.rtuk.gov.tr/sayfalar/DosyaIndir.aspx?icerik_id=0ff756b8292d-4269-9dbc-2bbfe6782cf0, 21.04.2009). After the television comes to houses, into people's lives; to spend their leisure time, have fun, to relax and wonder at the purpose of the events has changed. Start of private television broadcasting, commercial weight increases, the entire program in order to attract more viewers to their format has started to organize such a fun program. Entertainment based programs so intense format has become to get to the audience meets the needs of the entertainment. According Postman entartinment is the top ideology of every discourse in television. To entertain and delight everyone on TV is not on any kind of discourse (Postman, 1994, s. 99). In this context, the sample group A, B and C1 groups generally did not participate the statement "Meets my need to go to fun place" other groups have indicated that their needs were met by television. Television texts are prepared and presented for the viewers the pleasure, enjoy and excitement. Television programs are organized according to the average viewer. A and B groups do not think of television is exciting, C1 group participants are the ones that they are undecided on this issue, and C2, D and E groups find television exciting. The television motivations that are gathered under the entertainment, relaxation and habit motivation head draws a general picture that, housewifes, retired, and unemployed workers often spend nearly all of their leisure time with their television will not be wrong to say. Entertainment, relaxation and leisure needs covered by watching television. The officers, professional and other occupational groups responses are also similar. They watch telelvision on a propose, and spend a little free time to relax and watch television with the stated motivation. Television, Family and Support Television is domestic and essentially it is watched at home with the family. Television, family and home is a part of our culture. Usage of television, watchin television and interpreting the televisual world gets it’s meaning by the family (Mutlu, 1991, s. 11). With the start of private television broadcasting,television broadcasting has experienced significant changes and impacts. Private televisions became legal in 1994, with increasing channel number and program number, technology rapid changes in parallel with the media in the field of developments in Turkey, it influenced the relation between the audience and the television text closely. At first glance, these rapid changes experienced in the field of media-television, the most important factors affecting family relationships, we think that the fact is the really important changes in family structure in Turkey. In short, TV changed the family institution in Turkey, while the technology and media that are serving as agents of change. In this context, to sample a series of questions about television viewing habits were asked. The purpose of this series of questions of family television viewing habits, what kind of socialization, morale and satisfaction is providing entertainment on the sample is measured. Obtained from data it will not be wrong that, with higher income and education level people do different activities that watching television. It can either be occupation-related activities or the other activities as the unifying element. So they do not use television to satisfy their being together need. C1, C2, D and E groups, are watching television to satisfy their being together, sharing the same experience and communicate over it needs. 119 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The act of watching television in the same physical environment keeps family together, but it also causes dissolution of the family. As a interest collector, television always talking about the outside world. There are no topics on television screens from inside the house, away from the interest of individuals and events covered in the cases when the facts and events near, people are away from individuals. While the close one becomes far, far bomes close. Dream becomes real and reality becomes dream (Türkoğlu, 2004, s.154). Assessment of News Monitoring Habits Today's busy world, a world of information,a different world from forty, fifty years ago; knowledge production and dissemination of information to the public is important for human welfare (Castells & Ince, 2006, s. 159- 162). The story about life of each incident, is largely taken from the mass media . Modern man, world, life, is interpreted through the media content. To find or learn anything pressing on the remote control is enough. Technologies integrate with each other and become more effective and are fast tools. Television gives non-stop information to it’s viewers. community learn the local, national and internatonlar events, political, geographic and social events through the television. In the multi-media environment,the borders between serious programs such as the information, entertainment, news and documentary has almost disappeared. Today information become a commodity that can be bought and sold. Information society, is a product of technological developments. Media with these developments, the individual's mental link with society has begun to play a determining role in shaping. This news and information of all kinds of popular culture industry has been prepared according to the format, found by individuals has led to important and valuable. Entertainment mixed with modern individuals tirelessly so that the information is accepted without realizing his own passiveness ( Güneş, 2001, s.15). Nowadays Television features have been increasing in a way of being the most effective, fast and widespread mass communication medium. Millions of people across the world who have lived in their immediate environment receive the information and news through television. The majority of survey participants (71%) stated that they receive the news from television. Another interesting point is the choice of the internet has been followed by television. 14% of the participants stated that they receive daily news from the internet, 11% from newspapers, 2% from radio and 2% said they also receive from other media. As a result of the survey, Television news that presents visual and audio stands out more. Some of the interviewed participant’s preference related to the medium that how they receive the news is as follows; A: “I most often receive the news from television. Because they can immediately deliver the news, you can instantly see if there is flash news. Or in the same day an hour before you can watch more recent updates visually. However, newspaper is not like this, you should wait till next day to read the news, as some news you can access the details of the news two days later. In fact internet is also very fast but I think the internet is still not practically used. Television is more practical; you can just switch on and watch it. " B: "we don’t have opportunities at work so generally we get the news from the internet. When I came home in evening, I glance over the newspaper. Then I get the evening news from television. I'm watching the evening news to see what happened up to that time to discover if something different. If possible I prefer to watch TRT evening news till ends. " Almost all of the participants watch news at least once a day. When we look at the television news monitoring prevalence ratios during the day, the table clarifies more clearly; % 64 prime time news, 18% Night News, 8% Afternoon, 7% morning, 3% Hourly monitors the news. Traditionally, watching the prime time news habit continues. At this point if the research is made in a city like Istanbul which has a heavy traffic, it is possible to get different results. 85% of the participants stated that they are monitoring the prime time news and 15% of them don’t. Television; not only meets viewers feelings of loneliness with its “so-called intimate relationships” but also offers more opportunities to resolve their loneliness. Audience members think and know that a large number of people watching the same program. Because the people who actually watch the same program, even they are in a different location they constitute a community that shares the same time. Even the audiences indirectly experience this feeling, knows that they are belonging to this community and this feeling eliminates the sense of loneliness. (Mutlu, 1999, s.82). So the main cause behind the frequent monitoring of Television prime time news can be considered the sense of belonging. When the question is turned to participants that doesn’t watch news; 41% of it said that it doest capture my interest, 24% of those hours they are not at their home, 11% do not trust news, 10% not satisfied, 5% don’t have time to watch, 5% other, 4% watching other news in different time. For the participants who do not watch the prime time news on TV, the survey has been terminated with the question. 120 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 67% of participants, who receives news from Television, follow the National Broadcast, 32% follows the news channel and 1% said that they follow news from the local channels. So National broadcasting channels news still the most tracked one. Thematic channels news format which are not appropriate exactly with the prime time news bulletin is the main factor of this result. Besides this, audience that watch the thematic channels might be different should be kept in mind is an important point. It is obvious that audience who follows the news channels all day will not be loyal as to the audience that follows only the prime time news.In order to extend the duration of Prime-time, TV channels aligns and pull in the news time. The audience still thinks that the best time for the prime time news hour is 8.00 PM. In accordance with this general trend, this has been followed by the midnight news. The daily routine of life changes is a result of the time that individuals spend it at home and outside the home. As a result of increase in working hours, increasing the time spent on the road, work that needs to be completed, additional overtime hours change individuals experience back home. In modern society, life hours have also been changed as a result of lifestyles and life habits changes. Therefore, the midnight news is becoming more important. The first five channels among the National Broadcast are ChannelD, Channel 7, Show TV, Star and Samanyolu. Thematic news channels have a different view; the preferred rate is 11,6 % for NTV, and 4.5% remained for CNNTurk. So NTV found more convincing by the audience. When the question asked to the participants in the way of why they like the channel that they regularly track the prime time news; 43.6% of it said that the prime time news of the channels that they watch regularly delivers accurate, reliable and real information. Following this, 24.3% of it said that the content is the full, 8.4% of it watches because of Speaker, 6.7% is because of the magazine news are not given, 4.7% of it said that it is just a habit, 4.7% due to the broadcast flow, 2.5% for political reasons, 1.7 % is because the magazine good news are good, 1.2% due to sports news are better, 1.2% of it said I like other news and 1% said I mostly like economy news. It was asked to participants that why they need to change the channel while they are watching a news on the TV if they are doing so. Nearly half of the participant expressed that they are receiving different perspective and opinions and becoming more satisfied when they watch the news from different channels. The second reason that forces the audience to change the channel seems to be the advertisements that take place in the News. Audience stated that they either change the channel or give up watching the Television, the time advertisements are started. Long duration and uninteresting news are also listed among the reason for change. Television is a dynamic instrument of mass communication. Consequently, the audience also has variable structure. To lose interest of the audience means lost of that audience. Therefore, employees who deal with program planning calculates even seconds to reach more audience. Motivations for Primetime News Monitoring Life is a constant stream and relationships are changing and developing among people and society in every each minute. People would like to be aware of the news and today media has undertaken the function delivering the news. Journalism, with regard to each incident, requires quick information from various sources. Today, information in other words is awareness has become a basic requirement that needs to be met. Communication technology has created an invisible network; everyone receives the information and influences each other immediately. Any political, economic or a social event occurring in any country, can affect a geographically distant country. Therefore responsibility of the messenger is considered as a public task. (Tokgöz, 2000, s.176). 121 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 46,6% Agree Katılıyorum Unstable Kararsızım 25,9% 27,6% Katılmıyorum Disagree Agenda Gündem 43,7% Objective Tarafsız Eğlenceli Satisfactory Entertaining High Quality 28,8% 27,6% 65,4% Kaliteli 13,4% 21,2% 53,9% 21,7% 24,1% 58,5% 20,0% 21,5% 67,8% Educational Doyurucu Reliable Eğitici 15,1%16,8% 68,3% 75,4% Serious Güvenilir 12,2%19,5% Informative Ciddi 9,5%15,1% 4,6% Bilgilendirici 6,3% 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 89,0% News Monitoring Assesments Figure 1. Primetime News Monitoring Assesments Television is similar to human eyes and ears and calls them in this sense. It is also the human’s eyewitness that mediates them to see with their eyes and to hear with their ears even for the events that is occurring far away. Some questions were asked to the participants related to the characteristic of Prime time news and responses to these questions in the survey were assessed as follows: No significant differences were found related to the "Informative" expression via one-way of variance analysis with the stated evaluation criteria. All of the participants regardless to their SES groups, professions, ages, frequency of monitoring and education, they think that television news are informative. Statistically significant differences were found related to the "Serious" expression via one-way of variance analysis with the age group differences. While 46 and over age group’s answer to this question was “I agree”, 15-30 age group expressed that “I am undecided” and 31-45 age group responded as “I disagree”. Participants in 31-45 age groups that might be considered as relatively younger age group believe that television news which is not the only news source is not serious. This group differs from 15-30 age groups in terms of life experience and the well established world view. In the age groups that track internet, wap, etc.. apart from television news sources have the right to think more negatively about it. In way television programs in all genres care rating, prime time news have the same expectation as well. Therefore, the presentation of the news content is adjusted across the television viewers per the lowest level. Statistically significant differences were found in "It is reliable" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to professional groups. Workers, housewives, unemployed and retired professional groups were "agree" to this statement, while civil servants, self-employed professional groups were “disagree”, craftsmen and other professional groups were “unstable”. Variety of mass media and the time spent in front of the television are the factor that the television prime time news text found reliable. While groups that spend more time at home agrees to this statement, participation rate has fallen gradually for professional groups that have longer and tighter working conditions. Statistically significant differences were found in "It is reliable" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to age groups. 46 and over age group were “agree” to this statement, while 15-30 and 31-45 age groups have responded that they were disagree. It is understandable that the news text published in the television found unreliable for the age group that the television is not the only news source for them. Television is not indispensable for this group hence they monitor the news instantaneously. They receive the news from various sources and this gives them the opportunity to make comparison. Statistically significant differences were found in "It is reliable" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the news monitoring frequency. While the group that monitors news 3 days a week disagrees, group that monitors 1 to 2 days a weeks agrees the statement. 122 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo No significant differences were found related to the "Educational, informative" expression via one-way of variance analysis with any evaluation criteria. All of the participants regardless of their education level including SES groups, professions, ages, frequency of monitoring, think that television news is a tool that trained them and they learn something through it. Statistically significant differences were found in "It is Satisfactory" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the occupational group. Workers, housewives, unemployed and retired professional groups were "agree" to this statement, while civil servants, self-employed professional groups, craftsmen and other professional groups were “disagree”. It is obvious that the fact behind this, is the time spend at home and the heavily usage of television. Statistically significant differences were found in "It is satisfactory" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to age groups. 46 and over age group were “agree” to this statement, while 15-30 and 31-45 age groups have responded that they were disagree. For the age group that the television is not the only news source, get news from multiple sources and able to make comparison. Therefore television news text which calls each segment of the society does not satisfies the group who monitors other sources that requires more specific usage of technology. Statistically significant differences were found in "Entertaining" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the occupational group. Workers, housewives, unemployed and retired professional groups were "agree" to this statement, while self-employed and other professional groups were “disagree” and craftsmen and civil servants groups were “unstable”. At this point it is crucial to understand the main purpose of monitoring the prime time news and which needs are being met. If the case is to get pure news, it is not possible to think that television prime time news is providing this, hence the assessment result according to occupational groups support this argument clearly. Statistically significant differences were found in "High Quality" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the occupational group. Workers, housewives, unemployed and retired professional, craftsmen and other professional groups were "agree" to this statement, while self-employed groups were “disagree” and civil servants groups were “unstable”. Statistically significant differences were found in "High Quality" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to age groups. 46 and over age group were “agree” to this statement, while 15-30 and 31-45 age groups have responded that they were disagree. Statistically significant differences were found in "Objective" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the occupational group. Workers, housewives, unemployed and retired professional, craftsmen and other professional groups were "unstable" to this statement, while civil servants and selfemployed groups were “disagree”. Statistically significant differences were found in "Objective" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to age groups. While 46 and over age group’s answer to this question was “I agree”, 31-45 age group expressed that “I am undecided” and 15-30 age group responded as “I disagree”. In no way information can be objective. nformation is a power and the objectivity of power is indefensible. Each word, each concept, each sentence, each image of the news text has a meaning. While messenger is trying to be objective, he thinks that the objectivity problem is solved by introducing some mechanical rules. What the messenger does with this mechanical solution is to fill the gap in specific format with certain specific rules following with the practical application. The point that should be kept in mind is that objectivity can not be reached with this application but can be legitimate (Erdogan & Alemdar, 1990, s.58). Regardless of how it is done, objectivity can not be achieved hundred percent. Statistically significant differences were found in "Reflects the real agenda of the country" statement via one-way of variance analysis respect to the occupational group. Housewives were "agree" to this statement, while craftsmen, workers, unemployed, retired professional, and other professional groups were “unstable” and civil servants and self-employed groups were “disagree”. Conclusions This study analyzes Turkish audience prime time news monitoring motivations and the factors affecting to monitor prime time news in the framework of uses and gratifications approach Various data analysis method was used for two types of data that were collected as an outcome of the research findings. Quantitative data collected through surveys, were evaluated with SPSS 13.0 software package. As a method of data analysis, frequency analysis, cross tables, ANOVA and T-test were implemented. Significant relationships have contributed to obtain versatility data. Semi-structured interviews are deciphered and all speech and spelling mistakes were transcribed without any correction. Most of the significant part of the data obtained from in-depth discussions was used in 123 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo research where relevant. Data that were collected as an outcome of the research findings were analyzed in the framework of uses and gratifications approach. Thesis of cultivationtheory has also been used when necessary. This research shows that television audience in Turkey track similar motivations as carried out in other countries in the frame of uses and gratifications approach. Television audience watches TV mostly for entertainment, relaxation and information functions. Accordingly, it is possible to say television monitoring motivations are universal. News has a function as being informative, enlightening and effecting political developments via delivering world events and comments in a short time. Nowadays people are monitoring radio or television to get news, and in order to see the real one where event takes in its original place, audience watches television. According to the results of this research, three quarters of Turkish people are getting the news from television. Although this study shows that the prime time news is the most tracked one, when compared with the past years, it has been observed that evening news rate is also remarkably increased and the prime time news section of the audience is shifted. Participants who expressed that they don’t not watch news, that is because the news are not take their attention. At this point, the changing structure of television news has an impact. While the journalism concept is changing, it loses some of the audience and at the same time, some audience adapts to this new structure and continues to follow up heavily. It is right time to remember the education role of television. Television texts create audience that requires them and keep more audience in front of the television. Determination that was reached in the study related to the best time for the broadcast of prime time news is also interesting. The most appropriate time for the prime time news determined as 20:00 and 24:00 hours. Life boundaries and routines have been changed for modern individuals who adapted the changing life conditions of modern world. Thus individuals can not be at home straight after work. Therefore relatively it is not possible for those people to monitor prime time news broadcasted in early hours. As a result of this study, it is found out that Turkish audience found television news generally informative, serious, reliable and quality. The audience trusts the news on the screen. The important thing at a point is the audience don’t find others televisions news credible accept the one he monitors. While audiences express that news are informative, serious, reliable and quality, only half of the participants think that real agenda of the country is displayed. According to the uses and gratifications approach, hegemony of source has ended. According to this model, strong side is the recipient, in other words the audience. According to the results of study, audience actively selects the program. To receive the news, they consciously make their own choise and select mass communication tool and also the bottom unit (the television channel, the internet website, etc..) of the mass communication.The data of this study overlaps with the data conducted in the previous uses and gratifications researches. The results of the study support the thesis of the uses and gratifications approach. The vast majority of participants stated that they receive the news from television. And more than half of it stated that they watch prime time news every day. When we look at the AGB data, we found it interesting. We see drop in monitoring prime time news between years 2000 - 2007. When we look at the types of the program that mostly watched, only in the first half of 2000 and 2004 years carries prime time news in the first three programs. Discrepancies are worthy in this regard. An other interesting point related to prime time monitoring is the time that audience prefers to monitor; the number of participants who prefers to watch the prime time news at 24.00 is close to the ones who prefers to watch it in normal hours which is 8.00 PM . The increase of hard living conditions, sharing of household responsibility as a result of contribution of women in working life, allocation of time to children, shift the preferable news at a later time Data obtained from questions which based on Cultivation Theory, the audience watches television an average of three hours per day. When we look at the audience in Turkey, it can not be considered as heavy audience, but also this time can not be considered short. Television has a significant impact on thoughts and consciousness for many television audiences. In this respect this idea is also supported by the participant’s responses attended to this research. Socio-Economic Status group that this research was constructed on, as a basic indicator that shows the differences between monitoring level of prime time new came across the researcher. Television just after penetration to human life, it began to change and influence their culture, their lifestyle, beliefs and values. The integration of television with daily life within the family, it is meant to integrate with your spare time. The most important factor that television is step a head from other media is that it doesn’t require any education and breaks the limitation of time and place. Television monitoring behavior has becoming one of the most important among daily practices. 124 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Abercrombie, Nicholas. Television and Society. Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996. Akçalı, Selda Đçin. Gündelik Hayat ve Medya (Tüketim Kültürü Perspektifinden Okumalar), Đstanbul: Ebabil Yayıncılık, 2006. Alleyne, Mark D. News Revolution: Political and Economic Decisions About Global Information. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1997. Aydoğan, Filiz. Medya ve Serbest Zaman. Đstanbul : Om Yayınevi, 2000. Barbier, F. ve C.B. Lavenir. Medya Tarihi. Đstanbul: Okyanus Yayınları, 2001. Berger, John. Görme Biçimleri. Đstanbul: Metis Yayınları, 1993. Castells, Manuel. Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi. Çev. Ebru Kılıç. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2005. Castells, Manuel; Ince, Martin. Manuel Castells’le Söyleşi.Çev. Ebru Kılıç. Đstanbul: Đstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2006. Erdoğan, Đrfan ve Korkmaz Alemdar. Đletişim ve Toplum. Ankara: Bilgi Yayınevi, 1990. Fiske, John. Television Culture. New York: Routledge, 1997. Funkhouser, G.R. ve F. Shaw. “How Synthetic Experience Shapes Social Reality”. Journal of Communication, Spring, 1983. Güneş, Sadık. Medya ve Kültür. Đkinci Basım. Ankara: Vadi Yayınları, 2001. Katz, Elihu. “Communication research since Lazarsfeld”. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51:525–545, 1987. _______., Blumer,J. & Gurevitch, M. ‘Utilization of Mass Communication by Individual’ Đçinde J.Blume,r & E. Katz (ed.) The Uses of Mass Communications: Current Perspectives on Gratification Research. (s. 19-34). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1974. 125 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Koçak, A. “Televizyon Đzleme Motivasyonları, Türk Televizyon Đzleyicileri Üzerine Bir Kullanımlar ve Doyumlar Araştırması”, KÖK Araştırmalar Dergisi, 4(1): 51-69 2002. _______. Televizyon izleyici davranışları -Televizyon izleyicilerinin tercihleri ve doyumları üzerine teorik ve uygulamalı bir çalışma. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Konya Selçuk Üniversitesi, 2001. Mutlu, Erol. Televizyon ve Toplum. Ankara: TRT Yayınları, 1999. Mutlu, Erol. Televizyonu Anlamak. Ankara: Gündoğan Yayıncılık, 1991. Postman,Neil. Televizyon Öldüren Eğlence. Đstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınevi, 1994. Powers, S ve Neil Postman. How to Watch Television News. New York: Penguin Books, 1992. Tokgöz, Oya. Temel Gazetecilik. 4. Baskı. Ankara: Đmge Yayınevi, 2000. Türkoğlu, Nurçay. Đletişim Bilimlerinden Kültürel Çalışmalara Toplumsal Đletişim, Tanımlar, Kavramlar, Tartışmalar. Đstanbul: Babil Yayınları, 2004. Uğurlu ,Faruk, Öztürk, Şerife . Türkiye'de Televizyon Haberciliği Özel Televizyon Kanallarının Getirdikleri. Đstanbul: Tablet Basım Yayın, 2006. Televizyon Đzleme Eğilimleri Araştırması, RTÜK, http://www.rtuk.gov.tr/sayfalar/DosyaIndir.aspx?icerik_id=0ff756b8-292d-4269-9dbc-2bbfe6782cf0, 21.04.2009). 126 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 413 Title A name given to the resource Analyzing Prime Time News in The Context Of Uses And Gratifications Approach Author Author Erzurum, Funda Abstract A summary of the resource. Television as a product of modern technology is a magic box that deeply affects societies at all time and space. Television uses images and sounds to communicate at the same time, live as a witness to events and having advantages and the experience to viewers as opposed to pre-modern communication means. It has a different position over the other mass media because of transmitting video and sound simultaneously. In its early broadcasting times television content was mainly used for transmission of news and educational purposes. In the course of time, development of technology has paved the way for a change in the use of existing functions and made the television an important apparatus for entertainment and leisure time. The study’s main theme is to introduce audience preferences, especially receiving prime time news in context of uses and gratifications approach. Television is a medium which can bring up the news and the news events at the same time they occur. The time between the event and the broadcasting is ‘zero’. It is a medium that has an advantage to transmit and reach to its audience instantly. It is using this advantage in a wide range of ways. News has been described as prestigious program for any channel in television broadcasting. According to this approach television channels attribute extra attention to the news, news programs and newsrooms. In this study the motivations that derive viewer to watch television to satisfy their needs and in particular prime time news usage is analyzed through fieldwork conducted in Eskisehir. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/a1d1ed31c214668a71423b1618ecb77b.pdf 6a88562475cfea4f74b9f0bdfcd2f0a4 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Evaluation of Elementary Education 6th Grade Turkish Workbook from The Point of Constructivist Grammar Teaching Süleyman Eroğlu Uludag University Faculty of Education Turkey seroglu@uludag.edu.tr Abstract: The skill area of language covers listening/watching, reading, speaking and writing; the knowledge area covers grammar. Grammar is the set of rules supporting basic language skills. It is important for students to learn about the rules and knowledge composing the structure and function of a language so that they can support other skills. Undoubtedly, the way of functional and permanent grammar teaching is firstly to explain about the knowledge and rules of language and then to construct them. The presence of such an understanding in grammar teaching is possible primarily through the presence of a Turkish Course Teaching Program prepared as based on constructivist approach and the presence of teaching materials formed parallel to this. It is known that course books as a teaching material play an important role in having students acquire certain skills. At this point, it is obvious that there is a need to determine if course books possessing great importance were prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach. The present study aimed to evaluate the 6th Grade Turkish Workbook, one of the Turkish teaching materials and expected to have been prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach and still in use; it also aimed to determine the extent to which the various activities in grammar teaching area included in the book meet the requirements of the constructivist approach. Key Words: Elementary 6th Grade Turkish Course Workbook, Grammar Teaching, Constructivist Approach, Turkish Course Teaching Program Introduction Language is a natural means helping people communicate with one another and plays a key role in all educational activities. Language acquisition and teaching take place during a certain process. Individuals have a natural tendency toward learning and consolidating what they have learned and this can be developed when appropriate methods and techniques are used. A human’s world of thought that he or she sets up while trying to understand him/her and the events happening around him/her is shaped with concepts and the relations between these concepts. Humans become socialized through values that concepts acquire in language integrity and are involved in some thinking and expression activities such as learning with the help of language, practicing what they have learned and interpretation. Turkish learning is composed of comprehension, interpretation, and basic language skills such as listening/watching, speaking, reading and writing directed to the development of skills to set up communication and grammar (Turkish Course Teaching Program, 2006, p. 2). The main objectives of the use of language which is the most effective means of agreements between people are to help individuals transfer their own feelings and thoughts to others adequately and effectively, to understand others’ emotions and thoughts fully and correctly. In addition to the basic skills of language such as reading, listening / watching, talking and writing, the information forming the structure and identifying the functioning rules of Turkish is also important to have as well. The ongoing lifelong process of language acquisition avoids arbitrariness and becomes formal in the formal primary education period. Students in the first stage of the primary education are supported primarily with respect to language skills and then tried to be made competent in the knowledge level of the language. This situation, particularly in primary education, will be possible through a constructivist language teaching; because a learner learns and builds knowledge structures when he or she discovers his or her own answers and concepts and creates his or her own interpretation. This is undoubtedly possible through a constructivist teaching approach. Constructivism is the process in which students make sense of and construct new information they encounter under the guidance of teachers also by benefiting from their past learning experiences (Yapıcı, 2008). Constructivist approach is a learning approach in which individuals form their own knowledge, skills and 165 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo qualities as a result of their own experiences and thinking. In this approach, individuals participate in the learning process actively, question, inquire and associate the information they will get through their past experiences and construct it on their own (Shunk, 1996). Knowing the structure and opportunities of the means -language- enabling communication will undoubtedly affect the success of comprehending-expressing activity. And this entails a good grammar education. Language is a system composed of the units taking their values from interrelated relations, and grammar is the field of study aiming to put forward this system (Adalı, 1983, p. 35). The primary aim of grammar is to make students become aware of the basic rules of the Turkish language with respect to speaking, writing and reading and feel confident in using their mother tongue. In other words, the aim of grammar teaching is to make students acquire the skills of using their emotions, thoughts and plans correctly, clearly and effectively. Taken from this perspective, grammar can be accepted as a field of study aiming to make students comprehend meanings correctly and reach the awareness of expressing their own thoughts, emotions and desires properly (Calp, 2007, p. 304). The effective and permanent grammar teaching, a field of study helping individuals to acquire the skills of comprehending and expressing correctly is closely related to not only the constructivist approach but also the quality of textbooks. ”Just as it is impossible to perform any task without any tools, teaching a lesson without a textbook is not likely, too” (Cemiloğlu, 2004, p. 203). Textbooks are the basic sources used for both educational and teaching purposes. They are printed educational and teaching materials equipped with cognitive and sensory skills appropriate for students’ age and knowledge levels, composed of rich texts, prepared in the direction of the principles based on teaching programs, and transferring the information they include to students with the help of teachers. Textbooks have an important function, especially in Turkish lessons, in making students acquire basic language skills. This function originates from texts included in textbooks. For, in Turkish lessons, students are made to acquire all the language skills (reading, writing, speaking, listening and grammar) through activities prepared starting from these texts (Çeçen and Çiftçi, 2007, p. 39). Student’s textbook, student’s workbook and teacher’s guide are considered as indispensable complementary tools in the learning and teaching processes realized in the school environment of the Turkish course. Not only are texts included in textbooks the basic materials of grammar teaching, but also opportunities offered by the activities prepared according to the constructivist approach determine the quality of education. The quality of grammar teaching depends on not only textbooks but also a stage-wise programming prepared according to levels of students. In the Turkish Language Teaching Program prepared in 2006 and specifying the framework of grammar teaching, the basic grammar teaching is started in the 6th grade. In the program, starting with the 6th grade, the following acquisitions are included with the aims of supporting the basic language skills and making students comprehend the functioning properties of the Turkish language: 1. Comprehension and practice of the knowledge and rules with respect to the structural properties of words 2. Comprehension and practice of the knowledge and rules with respect to the types of words. As understood from the main acquisition headings of the program, the grammar teaching at primary education level is started on the basis of making students comprehend the properties that the Turkish language has on the word dimension. It is aimed to make students comprehend the knowledge and rules concerning the structural properties of words with the following sub-headings of the 1st acquisition: 1.1. Comprehend root and affix. 1.2. Distinguish between noun affix and verb affix. 1.3. Distinguish between derivational affix and inflectional affix. 1.4. Comprehend stem. 1.5. Comprehend the functions of derivational affixes and the meaning properties they attach to words. 1.6. Comprehend compound words. 1.7. Distinguish between simple, derived and compound words. And it is aimed to make students learn about the knowledge and rules concerning the types of words with the following sub-headings of the 2nd acquisition: 2.1. Comprehend the functions of nouns in a sentence; use nouns in accordance with their functions. 2.2. Perceive the functions of pronouns in a sentence; use pronouns in accordance with their functions. 2.3. Comprehend the functions of the affixes indicating aspect. 2.4. Comprehend the functions of the affixes indicating possession. 2.5. Comprehend the construction and meaning properties of noun phrases. 2.6. Perceive the functions adjectives in a sentence; use adjectives in accordance with their functions. 2.7. Comprehend the construction and meaning properties of adjective phrases. 2.8. Comprehend the functions of prepositions, conjunctions, exclamations and the meaning properties they attach to a sentence; use these words in accordance with their functions. 166 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 2.9. Use words in different positions in a sentence. These statements, included in the Turkish Language Teaching Program prepared in 2006, are an indication of the transition from behaviorist approach to constructivist approach. The evaluations that we have hitherto made indicate that the Turkish textbooks prepared within the framework of the Turkish Language Teaching Program need to be the tools of the constructivist approach. Starting from this thought, the basic aim of our study is to evaluate the opportunities that the Turkish textbooks offer to students in terms of the constructivist approach within the framework of grammar teaching. However, our study’s remaining within the boundaries of a paper has made it possible to evaluate only the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook. Contents of the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook includes chapters sectioned on the basis of six different themes considering students’ interests and needs and certain language acquisitions. Under these themes, there are a total of 247 activities depending on 26 texts in different types. And 61 – approximately 25%- of the 247 activities are grammar ones. At the end of each theme in the book, there are also six different review sections under the heading of Theme Review Questions. Examination of the Grammar Activities in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook The grammar activities of the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook consist of word, sentence and text level practices. In order to make students achieve the above-mentioned behavioral objectives related to language skills, there are activities in the processes of elicitation, comprehension and consolidation. In these processes, knowledge and rules are not offered to students, but instead elicitation and comprehension are realized through examples. When the activities that students are supposed to perform in the workbook are evaluated as a whole, it can be stated that they have been organized on the basis of the constructivist learning. Not offering knowledge or rules in any of the sample activities is an indication of the fact that the constructivist approach has been applied. Moreover, the activities’ having been given largely within the sentence integrity and context and supported with visual elements contributes to the realization of the constructivist learning. It is obvious that grammar, a field of learning which can be acquired through practice, needs to have some unique methods and techniques. In this context, in order to let students achieve the grammar-related acquisitions, the activities included in the workbook have been created using various methods and techniques. As a result of the present study made on the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook, it was observed that the activities are in the forms of analysis, grouping, completion, combining, matching, using in a sentence and explanation. Analysis The majority of the grammar activities included in the workbook is in the form of analysis. With this type of activities, it has been aimed to make students perceive similarities and differences through analysis and then comprehend them. In the following sample activity, students are asked to read the paragraph first and then analyze the underlined words in accordance with the example given. 167 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 1: Sample analysis activity Grouping One of the types of activities frequently included in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is grouping activities. And with this example where students are asked to group by separating noun and verb roots into parts with different colors, it has been intended to make students consolidate the subjects of nouns and verbs that they have previously learned. Table 2: Sample grouping activity Completion Word formation occupies an important place among the grammar works of the Turkish language, an agglutinative one. The extent to which students can lexicalize the words they already know with different affixes will determine the ease of use of the language. In the activity given below, too, students are asked to derive new meanings by adding different derivational affixes to word stems. By this way, it is aimed to have students construct different meanings on their own through the use of different affixes. 168 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 3: Sample completion activity Combining Just as in many languages, words and additional combinations show unique features in Turkish as well. In the following sample, with this feature acquired through many experiences during the process of the use of language, it is aimed to have students elicit and comprehend the fact that not every affix is used with every word in Turkish, and affix-root combinations differ depending on the properties of affixes and roots. Table 4: Sample combining activity Matching In the Turkish Workbook, matching activities are less in number compared to those mentioned above. In the following examples, it is aimed to have students identify the persons to which affixes indicating possession that words derived from nouns bear correspond. 169 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 5: Sample matching activity Using in a sentence Making sentences, using words in different sentence patterns, is an important criterion indicating the language competence of individuals using the language. Developing students’ skills of making correct and effective sentences in different structures and constructions is among the important goals of the Turkish course. In the following sample, too, students are asked to use the words given in the forms of preposition, conjunction and exclamation in a sentence correctly. By this way, it is aimed to ask students to construct meanings on their own starting from the words given in the direction of their skills. Table 6: Sample using in a sentence activity Explanation In the sample activity below, students are asked first to perceive the semantic relationships between the underlined words in the whole sentence and then to explain them. With this type of activity, it is aimed to make students determine and express the functions of similar units in different sentences with the constructivist approach. 170 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 7: Sample explanation activity Conclusion One of the primary aims of grammar teaching is to make students comprehend the semantic and syntactic properties of the language as much as possible. For this reason, the Turkish Course Teaching Program and the Turkish textbooks prepared on the basis of this need to be introduced with a constructivist approach with which students explore knowledge and rules on their own. The findings obtained as a result of the investigations made starting from this thought indicate that the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is a product of such an approach and effort. In the studies and observations made on learning, it has been concluded that the knowledge and skills acquired through practice are more permanent. This situation can be observed more concretely in language teaching. To make this objective possible, it is no doubt necessary to make students frequently be exposed to sample practices. The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook as an activity-based teaching tool is of quality that will contribute to students’ developing their language skills. The Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook prepared on the basis of the constructivist approach put forward by the Turkish Course Teaching Program paves the way for students to reach information and rules on their own through various activities in the forms of analysis, grouping, completion, combining, matching, using in a sentence and explanation. The fact that the book does not include any kinds of information and definitions fits the very spirit of the constructivist approach. Moreover, the activities’ having been supported with visuals to concretize learning appears as a benefit as well. But in the meantime, we have some evaluations that should be included in the workbook in terms of the constructivist approach. For the 6th graders having newly met the knowledge area of the language following the skills area, the concrete learning should, no doubt, be started starting from the known elements. Structuring a grammar teaching over the texts about which students already know is rather important in terms of comprehensible and permanent teaching. In this sense, the arrangement of some of the activities in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook independently from reading texts may pose an obstacle in front of students’ developing their knowledge and skills. It will be appropriate to revise and re-evaluate the activities in the workbook within this framework. Another problematic point present in the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook is that some examples in the activities have been given independently from the sentence integrity. The examples to be given with respect to the subject should be given in sentence integrity. Such an approach will make students perceive the pieces of information as the parts of the language they use. Artificial and independent examples may not only make it difficult for students to structure their knowledge and skills but also pose an obstacle in front of their making sense of statements. In conclusion, although the Primary Education 6th Grade Turkish Course Student’s Workbook prepared based on the constructivist approach is regarded as an effective tool in the grammar field of the Turkish teaching, it should be re-evaluated under the light of the findings and suggestions specified and its quality should be increased in this direction. 171 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Adalı, O. (1983), Anadili Olarak Türkçe Ögretimi Üstüne,. Ankara, Türk Dili, S: 379–380, s. 34–35. Calp, M. (2007), Özel Öğretim Alanı Olarak Türkçe Öğretimi, Konya: Eğitim Kitabevi. Cemiloğlu, M. (2004), Đlköğretim Okullarında Türkçe Öğretimi, Đstanbul, Aktüel Yayınları Çeçen, M. A., Çiftçi, Ö. (2007). Đlköğretim 6. Sınıf Türkçe Ders Kitaplarında Yer Alan Metinlerin Tür ve Tema Açısından Đncelenmesi. Millî Eğitim, S: 173, s. 39–49. Đlköğretim Türkçe 6 Çalışma Kitabı (2008), Ankara, MEB Devlet Kitapları Müdürlüğü. Đlköğretim Türkçe Dersi (6,7,8. sınıflar) Öğretim Programı (2006), Ankara, T.C. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Talim ve Terbiye Kurulu Başkanlığı. Shunk, D. H. (1996). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. YAPICI, Mehmet. ”Yapılandırmacılık ve Sınıf”, (http://www.universitetoplum.org/pdf/pdf_UT_312.pdf, 05.05.2010. 172 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Roles and the Organization of University in the Context of Lifelong Learning Prof. Dr. R. Cengiz AKÇAY Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversity, Faculty of Education rakcay@comu.edu.tr Prof. Dr. Mehmet Durdu KARSLI Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversity, Faculty of Education mkarsli@comu.edu.tr Abstract:Universities have been criticized more for managing their functions and roles. A new determiner of the universities’ duties for the society is the concept of life long learning. The fact that the number of the people desiring to develop their level of education is increasing and age groups are changing by including not only the youth but also all age groups requires that universities should be supplied with the global necessities and should change their structures within the concept of LLL. Life is a singly process of learning. Every person needs constant, planned and institutive educational opportunities so as to be prepared for the changes around to activate the whole potential. Life long learning is the complete of the all educational activities including the information, abilities and competences related to personal, social and employment to be developed during the life period. The aim of this study is to put forward the effect of the LLL concept developing especially in EU on the universities; to redefine the aims, roles and duties of the universities changing with this effect; to determine the need of reorganization and discuss the differences emerging with the LLL effect in the new structures of the universities. In Europe, tranferring to information based economy and information society are obliged to be carried by the help of direction to the life long learning. The topic of life long learning has destroyed the understanding of where to perform the educational activities. Universities in need of education in order to be powerful against the changing preferences of customers and competition should change their aims and aim groups to serve the perpective of life long learning and accept people from all ages and levels. This change requires the change in the structure and educational methods. Organization should be more flexible and teaching method should be more students-centered and less formal. Problem The classical approach related to the imparting function of the school within the society has been criticized by many others and it is claimed that the school increases the inequalities. The universities have also been criticized ever increasingly for functioning and playing their roles. The new determiner of “where must the place of university be in the society?” in recent years is the concept of lifelong learning (LLL). The increasing number of the individuals with the wish of promoting their education level and the changing of age groups by containing not only youth but also everybody require a global provision of needs and a change in the structure of the universities according to these qualities and in the direction of the LLL concept. Life is a learning process on its own. Every person needs constant, planned and organizational opportunities of education for the purpose of being ready for the changes around him/her and activating his/her whole potential. Lifelong learning is all educational activities that include the lifelong development of all information, abilities and competence about personal and social employment. In recent years the developments which have largely influenced the higher education institutions can be ordered as: a) globalization, b) the increasing need for lifelong learning, c) the quick and compact developments in cognition and communication technologies (Yılmaz and Horzum,2005). Lifelong education (LLE) is adopted as an approach that responds the needs of being an information society, integration of formal and non-formal education, and the continuity of education. Ever increasing demand and requirement for lifelong learning lands higher education institutions with educational responsibilities to respond these requirements and demands (Erçetin, 2001). These new responsibilities make universities’ new construction and organizational alteration obligatory. 173 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The objective of this study is presenting the impact of LLL , which is improving in EU, on universities; redefining the changing objectives, roles, and tasks of universities with this impact; determining the need of reorganization and discussing the differences that have arisen by LLL effect in new university construction. LLL The Lifelong Education concept first became a discussion subject in an international ambiance as UNESCO, OECD and CE in 1970s. But it was used differently from its current meaning. Whenever lifelong education (LLE) is available in this period humanistic ideals, social and cultural objectives have primarily been accepted. Until 1990s humanistic objective had been lost because of the economic crisis and LLE came into prominence by economic discourses. In this period the concept was generally in an obscure and ineffective condition. Since 1990s LLE has widely lost its humanistic aspect and fallen into a pragmatic and economic understanding. In 2000s the concept has started to be handled with a new understanding by especially EU (Beycioğlu ve Konan, 2008). The LLL concept, by its meaning in developed countries, takes the individual as the centre and has a characteristic which asserts that non-formal learning must be accentuated and the state’s burden on education must be decreased (DPT,2001:2). LLE has made for three main objectives. These are: enabling individual’s personal development by creating opportunities in LLL, achieving the social integration and providing the economic growth (DPT, 200:15). In this point it is good to refer to the conceptual discussions of late years and their LLE policy and applications. Particularly from the point that globalization started to be effective to now the LLL concept has been preferred to the concept of LLE. According to common view LLL maintains a strategy development for post-school education and reshapes the education including adult education (Edwards and Usher; 2001). LLL has become more and more opt for LLE. The changing of interest to LLL leads the people to be a lifelong learner and the governments encourage the citizens to be more responsible and active in their own lives. The goals, processes, organizational structures and curricula of the educational institutions vary under the expression of LLL. The stream of LLL will break the monopoly of institutionalized education on information, production and evaluation and the authorities and capacities of these institutions will be able to be questioned. As it has begun to be accepted that learning consists a lot of activities apart from institutions, many activities including learning can be qualified as “educational” (Edwards and Usher; 2001). All these evaluations and claims will keep on being discussed. Because LLE will increasingly affect education systems. The concept of LLE is a notion that is impacted densely by the globalization that emphasizes individualism. Therefore, it requires a minimum individual development, the eminence of educational experiences and literacy, shortly it implies all society education’s coming to a minimal/ acceptable degree. In the countries without such levels of development LLL concept must be changed into LLE concept and understanding. Because institution and state efforts and breakthroughs are needed in these countries. The people must have a critical view and transformation will so as to form a distinctive future and life. LLE can only gain meaning under these circumstances (Ayhan, 2005:21). Otherwise brutal competitive conditions will swallow the individuals that experience educational and the other absences extremely. These individuals are in the need for protection. This protection must occur by means of LLE policies. As a result the scope of LLE is of importance in the sense of this concept’s provision of functional and expected benefits. We can order the scope of LLE as: a) Formal-non formal education b) Professional- general education c) Olds-youngs d) Employers – non employers and job seekers e) Lepers and the ones looking for speciality. LLL must be organized and developed in the form of including all these groups and structures. 174 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Globalization and LLL Globalization is on one hand perceived as market’s being more powerful than states and their proliferation, on the other hand it is a simple term that is used by the circles who intend to destroy welfare state and government. To transformists globalization is the main politic power behind the quick social, politic and economic evolutions that reshape modern societies and the world order. There is no clear difference between external affairs (international relations) and internal affairs any more (Bozkurt,2002 Güçlü, 2003). There are also ones who evaluate globalization as a new form of Americanization, capitalism, imperialism. Kızılçelik (2004) sees globalization as international economic relations that arose in the world after the cold war. Such that he asserts globalization can be thought with capitalist modernism and can only be declared within this framework. Accordingly it can also be said that there are some people who interpret globalization as the new form of capitalism or imperialism. Actually lots of evidences show that it is reportedly correct (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005). On the one part it is emphasized that globalization is necessary and it is a transition process, on the other part globalization is seen as a threat to the current order and values. At this point the evaluation of the probable results of globalization and cultivation of individuals being able to cope with these evolutions are of great importance (Yılmaz and Horzum,2005). Globalization has deep and permanent impacts on universities. Because globalization weakened two main assumptions behind university like “nation state” and “welfare state”. Now it is difficult to consider the problem of university independently from welfare state, nation state and similar problems. The declination of these two concepts exposed the result that the state decreased the resources reserved for universities (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005). Universities have been affected from these alternations positively or negatively. There are different inclinations that impact the development, management, and financing of universities as democratization, territorialization, polarization of the inequalities and marginalization. These developments ensure universities’ revision of their relationship with state, industry and society. While the reordering of the world higher education institutions have complicated in four dimensions: They are (Callan 2000; Scott 1999; Erçetin,2001): 1) The intimacy of cultural identities in the face of the expansion of national cultures. 2) The reduction of the connection between higher education and national structures by means of raising values. 3) The standardization of teaching owing to the quick expansion of cognition technology and global search networks. 4) The composed global markets’ causing a decrease in the incomes of developed countries and damaging public expenditures, thus higher education institutions. All of these evolutions enforce higher education institutions to change and respond new structures and organizations. In this sense it can be expressed that the higher education institutions of the future will survive only if they turn into the organizations that continue their existences globally, that are autonomous in a financial, managerial and academic sense, and that are integrated with global research cultures and networks (Erçetin, 2001). Globalization has caused a radical change in economic system and human life within the industrial and pre-industrial countries. Educational organizations need LLE in order to stay alive in the face of changing consumer preferences and competition (Glastra, 2004). EU and LLL In Europe the successful transition to information based economy and information society is not obligatory in company with orientation to LLL. The agenda of LLL has completely ruined the understandings about where the learning will be done. Emphasizing a transition to a information based economy first in 2000 in Lisbon, EU felt the absence of education and by seeing it as one of the basic goods of “integration with union” process they adopted LLE approach as common discourse (Beycioğlu and Konan,2008). LLL was defined by EU as all learning activities in every period of human life with the purpose of improving information, ability and proficiency, in the perspective related to personal, citizen, and social works. Within the EU process LLL was first seen in a report called White Paper in 1995 and with the title of “Towards a Learning Society” EU societies’ goals for LLL and things to do were handled (Yılmaz and Horzum, 2005; Akbaş and Özdemir, 2002). The developments seen with this history can be summarized orderly as: 175 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1995. The publication of White Paper by European Commission. In this paper the elements that have been defined as goals are: a) Encouraging individuals to gain new information, b) concentrating school and business sectors, c) fight against exclusion, d) improving the proficiency in three of the union’s languages, e) equalize the factory with the investment whose training is done. 1996. Declaration of Europe LLL year. This year’s three main goals are: a) inducing LLL concept, b) expressing its meanings and features, c) revising the reality of this concept for all European citizens (Akbaş and Özdemir, 2002). In the formation of LLL in EU, Lisbon strategy of the year 2000 has played an important role. EU’s desire for having a dynamic, competitive and information-based economy impacted LLL concept. For this purpose these were suggested in 2001 The Ministers of Education Conference (Hake,2005:21): a) Increasing the effectiveness and quality of EU education and upbringing systems, b) Being sure that education is public, c) Expanding education and upbringing to a wider world. 2000. Memorandum on Lifelong Learning. Two fundamental goals in this memorandum are: a) gaining the necessary professional skills to adapt new information based society and participate in social and economic life completely, b) introducing active European citizenship and fitting this in. This memorandum gives 6 important messages: a) gaining the information and skills that are needed by people for taking a part in information based society, b) increasing the investments for human resources, c) developing effective methods for LLL and introducing the innovations in the field of education, d) raising the status of education by developing new learning strategies, e) providing a full access to quality education easily for everybody, f) maintaining that people will benefit from the opportunities of LLL as soon as possible (Akbaş ve Özdemir, 2002). 2001. An action plan reflecting LLL memorandum and 6 key messages in 2000 was prepared. 2003. The Memorandum of Berlin. Within this memorandum the importance of higher education in actualizing LLL is taken into consideration. In the way of achieving this goal several steps were taken to conform national policies and to induce higher education institutions for developing LLL chances. They have stressed that some opportunities must be created for citizens to follow – in the direction of their abilities and expectations- the ways of LLL within and towards higher education (http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page =yazi&i=11). 2007. The Memorandum of London. It has been asserted that some elements related to flexible learning are available in many countries but the systematic development of flexible learning strategies that will support LLL is just on the onset. Therefore studying in respect of developing a common understanding about increasing the sharing of good applications and the role of higher education in LLL is required (http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page=yazi&i=81). It is thought that European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning that was accepted formally in April 2008 could be a reference tool, could enable the comparability of different countries’ education systems and could develop employment, mobility and social integration of employers, graduates and students (Higher Education National Qualifications Framework Draft Report of Turkey) (http://www.eqf-lll.eu/en/eqf_en). 2009. The Memorandum of Leuven . The expansion of participation must be actualized by means of LLL which is a supplementary part of education systems. LLL is a piece of public liability. Accessibility, quality assurance and information transparency have to be maintained. The application of LLL policies requires a strong association between relevant institutions and people. LLL will be supported by suitable organizational structures and financial resources. In the direction of LLL application the development of national qualifications framework is an essential step. In Europe the successful transition to information based economy and information society is not obligatory in company with orientation to LLL. The agenda of LLL has completely ruined the understandings about where the learning will be done. LLL includes acquiring qualifications, increasing knowledge, getting new skills and perfections for having personal development. LLL means the competence that can be acquired by flexible education strategies including the gathered information from half-time education and business. In the documents about LLL in Europe both the goals of learning, effective citizenship, personal/special satisfaction, social participation and the aspects/approaches about employment heve been pointed out. LLL applications can be established according to education steps as (EURYDICE, 2000; acc. Beycioğlu ve Konan, 2008): Pre-School Level: At this level the essential aim is to increase participation regarding with the philosophy of “LLL from cradle to grave”. Compulsory Education Level: Compulsory education must be perceived as the main step for LLL. In this step there are some approaches connected with LLL phenomenon like learning how to learn, personal 176 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo development, the education of citizenship and language learning. Similarly minimizing the school absence, supporting education technologies, new forms of education, teaching and management, communication with families are also evaluated as the supporting policies of LLL. Secondary Education Level: In this step the continuity of LLL phenomenon and policies are stressed. Professional and technical education are handled subjects in this level at the same time. Developing a positive attitude and environment towards LLL is targeted. Decreasing the school absence and failure is one of the interest areas. Higher Education Level: It is the level in which LLL emphasis particularly comes into prominence. It is intended that the learning individuals will prepare by using business resources more productively thus variety will be maintained. Using computer technologies LLL phenomenon is tried to be actualized by means of more flexible learning environments as distance education. Post- Higher Education: Developing adult education is attempted. It can be evaluated as the primary subject of LLL. Among member countries the support of finance and flexibility are given to this kind of institutions. To summarize, whichever education level it is, member countries emphasize LLL concept, they support and encourage that will settle this phenomenon, create improving environments and bring about several applications in this direction. As a result, since LLL concept has not been fit in a formal description in a general sense within EU countries no direct definition is preferred. This condition can be a reason for “why is LLL concept tackled in increasingly detailed way? ”. The concept keeps its actuality as still being considered and discussed as an “ambiguous” phenomenon. In most EU member countries there is directly no formal text to support this concept. LLL phenomenon is aimed to accommodate in education steps. LLL and Universities The universities which are in an urgent need of LLE to survive in the face of changing consumer preferences and competition, must change their target groups and goals in this direction to a form that serve LLL understanding and accept individuals of all ages and levels. This alteration brings with an obligation of change in structure and education methods. Organization has to be more flexible where the teaching method must be more student-centered and less formal. The problems and changing areas that globalization has created on EU process and LLL understanding are: 1. Taking an active part in solving global, regional and local problems emerged as an obligation. For universities territorial level is not seen adequate. 2. The dilemma of local-global preferences. The alienation of universities to their own society and problems going away from national and local area by means of globalization. 3. The problem of financing. Competition conditions in global economy pushed the universities into a big financing problem. 4. Presenting education services that people will benefit from. Universities’ liability and roles in LLE is the other important problem arising by the effect of EU process and globalization. 5. Using education technologies that are based on developed cognitive technologies. Distance education is a fundamental device for LLE. Student’s accessibility to these opportunities is of importance. It requires high investment costs for universities in order to improve cognition occasions. 6. Educating with parallel to the needs of labour market, preparation of individuals for life and maintaining his/her life. 7. Using flexible education programmes and methods in the direction of the requirements of different student groups. Universities’ problem of exclusion comes to the forefront and student groups must be reached with several reasons. Equal opportunity has to be the main goal in all cases. 8. The need for organization facing the arrangement of student’s education procedure and student’s participation in determination of the method. 9. The settlement of student centered education and learning culture gained importance. In the formation of this culture students must be encouraged to learn the learning. 10. The requirement of establishing a pivotal planning and coordination centre. Higher education institutions must actualize this transformation that will respond the responsibility of solving these problems. For this, the universities must put these into practice (UNESCO 2000) (Erçetin,2001): 177 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Creating a better future for society and individual by means of research, whole interaction and coordination activities of education and society. In the transition to information society leading for refreshing the society by performing analysis, production and consult which will maintain social transformation. Taking an active role in solving global, regional and local problems. Building a consciousness of LLE. Serving the education services that people will lifelong benefit from. Utilizing distance education technologies based upon developed cognition technologies. The responsibility of giving education to non-undergraduates. Education is an activity in which the individuals of all ages and amputations develop and integrate their personalized cognitive powers for their own and for the future of humanity (Erçetin,2001). As it can be seen the LLL responsibilities of the universities come into prominence now and will do so in the future. The university of LLL understanding must be organized and structured as: 1. Before the organization of the universities the necessity of a national LLL organization must be mentioned. Such an organization has primarily to be within The Ministry of Education but must be equipped with new authorization in the subject of cooperation with relevant institutions and organizations. At this point one important problem is the problem of a second institution responsible for common-public education apart from The General Directorate of Apprenticeship and Non-formal Education within The Ministry of Education. Instead of constructing a new organization the solution of this problem is to reorganize the present structure in the manner that responds the new understanding of LLL (General Directorate of LLL). 2. Establishing a committee that will describe LLL requirement and make the arrangement out of this structure. The tasks of the committee called “ National Committee of LLL” must be forming quality assurance system and standards of LLL and providing coordination also it must have an autonomous structure. 3. Taking an active part in solving global and international problems caused by globalization and EU process emerged as an obligation. Universities had to renew their visions for being more successful in global competition and increasing their support for the organizations like EU. For universities local and territorial levels are not seen as adequate and international expansions must enhance their global activities as the members of the unions. 4. Universities must be some kinds of organizations that must reach not only the registered students of formal education but also people of all ages and all environments especially the ones who are excluded and the ones deprived from education opportunities; they must serve everybody, everywhere, every time as flexible open and flexible organizations with all its dimensions like goal, structure and process. For this purpose, they must first go into a changing progress in organizational subjects. The understanding of flexible organization, particularly when it is thought that there is monotype university organization, is gaining importance. In terms of LLL, their structuring with a target of different groups is considered. Maybe, only the formation of LLL universities can be guessed. LLL requires the understandings that make the organizations more effective as continuing education centers. Certificate provider education and educational activities maintaining credit saving demand LLL structures which are able to be accredited and have standard credits and features. 5. LLL programmes also affect the education understanding and methods of the universities. Distance education and dense utilization of information technologies are of these methods. There are also some techniques to ease the settlement and development of new understandings and organizations ordered above. Lateral communication and dominance of democratic administration culture is of great importance on the settlement of these kinds of structures. The existence of administration culture based on the effectiveness of the committees and the management understanding leaning against the distribution of dole discretions are two of them. 178 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Akbaş, O. & Özdemir, S. (2002). Avrupa Birliğinde Yaşam Boyu Öğrenme. 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Glastra, Folke J. & Barry J. Hake& Petra E. Schedler. (2004) Lıfelong Learnıng As Transıtıonal Learnıng. Adult Educatıon Quarterly, 54 (4). 291-307. Güçlü, Nezahat. Küreselleşme ve Eğitim. (2003). G.Ü. Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 4( 2), 1–12. (Yılmaz, K. & Horzum, B. (2005). Küreselleşme, Bilgi Teknolojileri ve Üniversite. Đnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. 6 (10). Hake, B. (2005). AB Politikaları ve Bilgi Ekonomisi: Yaşamboyu Öğrenme Đçin Stratejik Bir Yol. Yaşamboyu Öğrenme Sempozyum Bildirileri ve Tartışmalar. Ankara: PEGEMA Yayıncılık. Harris, R. (1999). Lifelong learning in work contexts. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 4(2). Kızılçelik, S. (2004). Zalimler ve Mazlumlar: Küreselleşmenin Đnsani Olmayan Doğası. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Yılmaz, K. & Horzum, B. (2005). Küreselleşme, Bilgi Teknolojileri ve Üniversite. Đnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt: 6, Sayı: 10. Yılmaz, K. & Horzum, B. (2005). Küreselleşme, Bilgi Teknolojileri ve Üniversite. Đnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi. Cilt: 6, Sayı: 10. UNICE. (2006). Framework Of Actıons For The Lıfelong Development Of Competencıes And Qualıfıcatıons. Evaluation report. http://www.eqf-lll.eu/en/eqf_en . (erişim tarhi: 01.03.2010) YÖK. (2003). Bologna Süreci. BERLĐN 2003 " Avrupa Yüksek Öğretim Alanını Gerçekleştirmek”. Yükseköğretimden Sorumlu Bakanlar Konferansı Bildirgesi Berlin, 19 Eylül 2003. (http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page=yazi&i=11). (erişim tarhi: 01.03.2010) YÖK. (2007). 18 Mayıs 2007. Londra Bildirgesi. http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page=yazi&i=81 YÖK. (2009). Bologna Süreci 2020- Yeni On Yılda Avrupa Yükseköğretim Alanı. Avrupa Yükseköğretimden Sorumlu Bakanlar Konferansı Bildirgesi Leuven ve Louvain-la-Neuve, 28-29 Nisan 2009 http://bologna.yok.gov.tr/index.php?page=yazi&i=85 (erişim tarhi: 01.03.2010). 179 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo YÖK. (2009). Yükseköğretim Ulusal Yeterlikler Çerçevesi Komisyonu & Çalışma Grubu. Türkiye Yükseköğretim Ulusal Yeterlikler Çerçevesi (Tyuyç) Ara Raporu. www.yok.gov.tr/ index.php?option=com docman&task=doc. (erişim tarhi: 01.03.2010) 180 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 453 Title A name given to the resource Evaluation of Elementary Education 6th Grade Turkish Workbook from The Point of Constructivist Grammar Teaching Author Author Eroğlu, Süleyman Abstract A summary of the resource. The skill area of language covers listening/watching, reading, speaking and writing; the knowledge area covers grammar. Grammar is the set of rules supporting basic language skills. It is important for students to learn about the rules and knowledge composing the structure and function of a language so that they can support other skills. Undoubtedly, the way of functional and permanent grammar teaching is firstly to explain about the knowledge and rules of language and then to construct them. The presence of such an understanding in grammar teaching is possible primarily through the presence of a Turkish Course Teaching Program prepared as based on constructivist approach and the presence of teaching materials formed parallel to this. It is known that course books as a teaching material play an important role in having students acquire certain skills. At this point, it is obvious that there is a need to determine if course books possessing great importance were prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach. The present study aimed to evaluate the 6th Grade Turkish Workbook, one of the Turkish teaching materials and expected to have been prepared in accordance with the constructivist approach and still in use; it also aimed to determine the extent to which the various activities in grammar teaching area included in the book meet the requirements of the constructivist approach Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4c530a13d738bd493c20be609a6e4c8d.pdf e0c16b1c4fa785eff084066b85e93b45 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo A Key Concept in Effective School Development: Strategic Leadership S.Sule Ercetin Hacettepe University, Ankara ssule@superonline.com Ilknur Calıskan Maya Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale mayailknur@gmail.com Abstract: Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development. Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. This current research aims at handling the dynamics of effective school development within the framework of strategic leadership and thus evaluating and analysing them. Introduction Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development. The project, which contributes positively to students’ achievement, was implemented in the 1988-2001 period; and many EU countries such as Belgium, England, Finland, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain participated in the project (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005). Afterwards, similarities and differences between countries in terms of effective school development were discussed and comparisons were made. Because of the major differences between countries, especially in their educational context, it was virtually impossible to draw a general model that would act as an explanation of success or failure of improvement efforts and be applicable in all ESI (Effective School Improvement) countries. Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. Purpose of The Study This current research aims at handling the dynamics of effective school development within the framework of strategic leadership and thus evaluating and analysing them. Effective School Development Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development. The project, which contributes positively to students’ achievement, was implemented in the 1988-2001 period; and many EU countries such as Belgium, England, Finland, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain participated in the project (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005). Afterwards, similarities and differences between countries in terms of effective school development were discussed and comparisons were made. Because of the major differences between countries, especially in their educational context, it was virtually impossible to draw a general model that would act as an explanation of success or failure of improvement efforts and be applicable in all ESI (Effective School Improvement) countries. The framework shows that the concept of an improving school is firmly embedded in the educational context of a country. School improvement can never be studied seperately from that educational context. The 212 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo improving school is always confronted with contextual concepts such as pressure to improve, resources for improvement, and educational goals (Reezigt & Creemers, 2005): 1.Pressure To Đmprove: Ideally, schools (as organizational units) define their own improvement needs, design their improvement efforts, and evaluate them as to whether those needs have been met. Theories about schools as learning organizations often depict this kind of improvement (i.e learning). In practice, however, schools often need some form of external pressure to start improving. The research identified four factors which constitute pressure to improve: market mechanisms, external evaluation and accountability, external agents and the participation of society in education and societal changes. 2. Resources Support For Đmprovement: In order to make school improvement effective, the resources made available by the educational context are very important. Without these, schools are likely to experience difficulties in their improvement efforts. Resources can be material, but there are also other resources that may be essential for effective school improvement. The identified factors that together constitute the concept of resources are: autonomy granted to schools, financial resources and favourable daily working conditions for teachers and schools, and local support. 3. Educational Goals: Although schools tend to set specific goals for improvement, the context generally sets the wider educational goals and all improvement efforts have to fit within these. For some countries, these nationally set goals form a broad framework, whereas others they are detailed and prescriptive. Effective School Improvement Process Hargreaves & Hopkins (1991), outline a five-staged improvement process: getting started, conducting an audit of the schools strengths and weaknesses, setting priorities and targets, implementation or putting the plans in place, and evaluating the success of the plans and their implementation. 1.The First Stage: The first stage in ESIP involves activities and decisions leading to the adoption or beginning of the planning process. In some cases, the decision to engage in school developmental or improvement planning is mandated by a senior level of goverment. Commnications with stakeholders in the school community about the planning process is typically part of this stage. In many schools, a group or several teams are organized to participate in the planning process. Training in the process of school development planning may be undertaken. 2. Conducting An Audit Of The Schools Strengths and Weaknesses: Schools examine their strengths and weakness using achievement data and other pertinent information. A plan is established according to a framework that requires action to be taken over a period of time, usually 1 to 5 years. 3. Setting Priorities and Targets: During the “Design” stage, schools determine what should be included in their plan by incorporating requirements from district and senior levels of goverment with school needs and priorities. 4. Đmplementation or Putting The Plans: Plans are carried out at the classroom and school level. Responsibilities for implementation may be shared by the principal, teachers, school-based decision-making groups (or improvement teams), and other stakeholders. Monitoring is sometimes viewed as part of the implementation stage and is carried out for formative purposes. Monitoring the effects of the plan and the processes used for its implementation allows schools to see where they are succeeding or where they may needto make adjustments during the implementation process. 5. Evaluating The Success Of The Plans: Evaluation is sometimes undertaken by external bodies and by the school itself. Evaluation also may be less formal and limited to school personnel discussing progress towards goals as they have experienced it. Reporting on the results of the planning process within the school community or beyon to districts or goverments is also a feature of the evaluation phase in some settings. In addition to the stages typically associated with ESIP, our review uncovered considerable amounts of evidence of the factors determining the outcomes of school improvement processes, for example, the role principal, the teacher teams, district support and the like. Strategic Leadership Strategic leadership is a critical component in the effective development of schools. The key foci for those who led schools in the last two decades, in many countries, have been school effectiveness and school improvement. The emphasis now is shifting to focus on how short-term improvements can become sustainable. This study will put forward the view that renewed attention needs to be paid to the strategic dimension of leadership to ensure this sustainability. We have worked to isolate the strategic dimension of leadership by using two major categories that emerge from the research, which are: (1) what strategic leader do, and (2) characteristics that strategic leaders display. What Strategic Leaders Do? 213 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Davies & Davies (2006) revealed that those strategic leaders involve themselves in five key activities: Direction setting, translating strategy into action, enabling the staff to develop and deliver the strategy, determining effective intervention points and developing strategic capabilities. 1. Direction Setting: Strategic leaders are concerned with not just managing the now but setting up a framework of where the organization needs to be in the future, setting a direction for the organization. School leaders articulate the definition of the organiations moral purpose , which can be considered as “why we do what we do”. The values that underpin this moral purpose are linked to the vision considering “where we want to be and what sort of organization we want to be in the future”. 2.Translating Strategy into Action: The articulation of the strategy can take place in three ways: oral, written and structural. Oral articulation is the way leaders communicate, through strategic conversations the strategic purpose and direction of the organization. Written articulations are the formal statements and plans that are clearly distinguishable from operational short-term plans. Structural articulation refers to the organizational infrastructure that supports and develops the strategic approach, for example, setting up futures or strategy meetings seperate from the cycle of operational meetings. 3. Enabling the Staff to Develop and Deliver the Strategy: Wilson (1997), states “organizational change has two principal aspects-change in mission and strategy and change in culture and behaviour. This could be developed as: it is impossible fundamentally to change mission and strategy without changing culture and behaviour. Key to this is changing the mind-set and the behaviour of the people within the organization. 4. Determining Effective Đntervention Points: The leadership challenge of when to make a significant strategic change is as critical to success as choosing what strategic change to make. When individuals in the organization are ready for change, when the organization needs the change, and when the external constraints and conditions force the change all have to balanced one against the other. 5. Developing Strategic Capabilities: Strategic capabilities relate to the longer-term fundamental attributes of an organization rather than shorter-term specific skills. This capability building approach is a central factor in a strategically focused school and is one of the key activities of a strategic leader. Characteristics Strategic Leaders Display The NCSL (National College for School Leadership) research established significant characteristics of strategic leaders in schools. These were identified in the research as follows (Davies & Davies 2006): · Strategic leaders have a dissatisfaction or restlessness with the present, · Strategic leaders prioritize their own strategic thinking and learning, · Strategic leaders create mental models to frame their own understanding and practice, · Strategic leaders have powerful personal and professional networks. 1. Strategic Leaders Have a Dissatisfaction or Restlessness with the Present: This restlessness involves living the reality of having to manage the current situation and not being able to change it for some time until greater capacity and capabillity has been built. 2. Strategic Leaders Prioritize Their Own Strategic Thinking and Learning: A very significant number of the school leaders participating in the study referred to their own learning and stressed the importance of new knowledge to promote the strategic direction for the school. 3. Strategic Leaders Create Mental Models to Frame Their Own Understanding and Practice: One of the ways that school leaders can make of complexity is to create mental models and framework to aid their understanding. 4. Strategic Leaders Have Powerful Personal and Professional Networks: Strategic leaders constantly scan their environment locally, regionally and internationally. They seek both to develop new ideas and to benchmark current practice in their own schools with those of colleagues in the wider educational community. The ability to develop personal and professional networks that provide alternative perspectives from those prevalent in their immediate educational environment is a key skill of strategic leaders. Conclusion It is well known that leadership plays a key role in school improvement and school effectiveness. The evidence from the internetional literature demonstrates that effective leaders exercise an indirect but powerful influence on the effectiveness of the school and on the achievement of the students in most countries (Muijs et al., 2004). Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the 214 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. With schools under short-term pressure to deliver on the standards agenda the need also to build strategic processes to ensure longer-term success and sustainability gathers increased importance. References Besler, S. (2004). Đşletmelerde stratejik liderlik. Beta Basım A.Ş. Kırklareli. Davies, B. J. & B. Davies. (2006). Developing a model for strategic leadership in schools. Educational Management Administration & Leadership., Vol. 34(1), p:121-139. Hargreaves, D. H. & D. H. Hopkins. (1991). The empowered school: The management and practice of development planning. London: Cassell. Hitt, M., Ireland D. & R. E. Hoskisson. (1999). Strategic management: Competitiveness and globalization: Concepts and cases., Cincinnati: South_Western College Pub. Leithwood, K., Jantzi D. & C. M. H. Hopkins. (2006). The developmnet and testing of a school improvement model. School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 17, No.4, December, p:441-464. Muijs, D., Harris A., Chapman C., Stoll L. & J. Russ. (2004). Improving schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas-A review of research evidence. School Effectiveness and School Improvement Vol.15, No.2, p:149-175. Ranson, S., Farrell, C., Peim, N. & P. Smith. (2005). Does governance matter for school improvement?. School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 16, No.3, September, p:305-325. Reezigt, G., & B. P.M. Creemers. (2005). A comprehensive framework for effective school improvement. School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 17, No.4, December, p:441-464. Wikeley, F., Stoll L., Murillo J. & R. Long. (2005). Evaluating effective school improvement: Case studies of programmes in eight European countries and their contribution to the effective school improvement model. School Effectiveness and School Improvement., Vol. 16, No.4, December, p:387-405. 215 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 698 Title A name given to the resource A Key Concept in Effective School Development: Strategic Leadership Author Author Ercetin, S.Sule Maya, Ilknur Calıskan Abstract A summary of the resource. Effective school development is a project which links school effectiveness and school development. Research studies have shown that obtaining positive results in effective school development depends on the school’s strategy creation capacity (Leithwood, & Hopkins, 2006). Considering the fact that 21st century is uncertainty, risks and chaos; it will be undertood better how important it is to develop strategies and for the administration to undertake leadership roles. Therefore, it might be said that the leadership required by the organisations of the third millenium is strategic leadership. This current research aims at handling the dynamics of effective school development within the framework of strategic leadership and thus evaluating and analysing them. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6bc2f834c6505805fce26bd0597dc1f7.pdf c3b2633d0598eb44ea4f484f8687b338 PDF Text Text Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of Broccoli Okan ERKEN Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Irrigation oerken@comu.edu.tr Canan OZTOKAT Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture cananoztokat@yahoo.com Abstract: Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods (early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period. Keywords: Broccoli, drought stress, yield Introduction Among the winter vegetables of Turkey, production and consumption of broccoli from magnoliopsida class and Bracicacea family have been increasing during the recent years (Eşiyok, 1996). Broccoli is generally produced for sprouts but leaves of plant can also be consumed. There is an increasing interest in broccoli production in the world beside the cauliflower known all around the world. Average dry matter content of the plant is 10,3%. It has 24 cal nutritional value per 100 gram and contains 89,7% water, 3,3% protein, 0,2% fat ad 4,4-5,2% carbohydrate. Vitamin content is composed of 1542–2500 IU vitamin A, 0.07–0,1 mg/100 g B1, 0.12–0.23 mg/100g B2, 0.64–0,9 mg/100g Niacin ve 93,4–114 mg/100g vitamin C. Mineral content is composed of 48–105 mg/100g Ca, 0,9–1,3 mg/g Fe, 24 mg/100g mg, 66–82 mg/100g P, 325–464 mg/100g K ve 27 mg/100g Na (Vural et al., 2000). Plants of cabbage-group have significant benefits for human health with their rich vitamin C, vitamin A and follic acid contents. Since they are also classified in fibrous foods, they can regulate the intestinal processes. Among these groups of plants, especially broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, lady’s smock and Brussels have been proven to be affective in prevention of several cancer diseases (Young and Wolf 1988, Farey et al. 2001, Zhao et al. 2001). Their preventive impacts against cancer diseases is due to their glicozinolate contents (Seow et al. 2002, Fowke et al. 2003, Sarıkamış et al., 2006). Glicozinolates are secondary metabolism products containing sugar and sulphur. Glucosinolates also serve as a defense mechanism against various ecological and biotic stress factors in plants (Ratzka, 2002). Environmental conditions to which plants are exposed have significant effects on both yield and quality. These factors can be classified as climate factors, soil factors, artificial polluters, competition with animals and other plants. Optimum environmental conditions should be provided for a proper production with high yields. A deviation from these optimum requirements may cause a stress over the plants. Biologists adopted the word ‘stress’ for an unpleasant environmental condition for living organisms and called ‘stress resistance’ for ability to survive of plant against these unpleasant environmental conditions (Levitt, 1980). 231 �Abiotic stress conditions like high temperature, drought, salinity and chemical toxicity and oxidative stress threats agricultural activities all around the world. Abiotic stress is the most significant cause for yield loses and may cause more than 50% loss in yield. It can cause morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes and has negative impacts on plant growth and yield (Wang, 2003). Drought stress is also among the most significant stress component effecting the plant growth. Synonymous to drought stress, water stress arises when the transpiration of plants are not met from the environment. Water makes up almost 85-90% of several plants. Water taken by roots of the plants is delivered through upper sections of plants based on osmotic rules. A negative pressure (tension) develops within xylems in case of lower root water uptakes than transpirated water and a competition starts among various parts of the plant (Kaçar et al. 2006). Irrigation is an input in agriculture providing sustainability and stability, improving the efficiencies of other agricultural inputs and providing higher yields per unit area. The basic principle for receiving the desired benefit from irrigation is to provide the necessary amount of water to the root zones of the plants at proper times. Otherwise, plants get into stress due to water deficiency. Main reason for water stress is to have less water than the amount required for transpiration. Generally, the lower the water stress, the higher the yield (Reginato, 1983). Bandurska, (2004) investigated the variation of proline amounts in leaves of plants grown under water stress and found out that broccoli leaves had the highest rational water loss and barley leaves had the lowest. Meyer and Adam (2008) investigated the variations of glicosinote in red-cabbage and broccoli grown under organic and conventional conditions and concluded that glucoraphanine, glucobrassicine and neo-glucobrassicinine were dominant glucosinolates in broccoli. They also found lower amounts of glucobrassicinine in organic plants than conventional ones. Since drought will increase parallel to global warming, negative impacts of drought on qualitative and quantitative parameters of plants should be prevented. In this study, changes in plants under stress conditions will be investigated, the best proper and economical method of growing will be determined; and some physiological and biochemical changes and changes in yield and quality of broccoli will be determined. Material and Method This study was carried out at experimental research fields of Agricultural Faculty of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University during the fall season of the year 2008. Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar, able to reach harvesting maturity in 90 days from the seedling plantation, was used as the plant material of the study. Seedlings were planted into each 10 liter-pots with sieved soil inside. Each treatment was repeated in 5 pots. Four different water deficits were applied based on growing periods. Experiments were carried out in randomized block design with 5 replications. Statistical method used in this study was summarized below: Yijk = µ Li + αi + βj + αβij + εijk µ = General population average α = Water deficit levels (i:1,2,3,4) β = Effect of growing periods (j:1,2,3,4) αβ = Effect of water deficit x Growing period interaction ε = Error term To determine the amounts of water deficits, initially the pots with sieved soil were saturated with irrigation water. Then the pots were left for seepage with gravity for 24 hours and weighed. This created 100% (control) treatment. Following the start of experiments, the amount lost by evaporation and plant utilization were determined by weighing the pots every 3 days and this amount was applied to pots as irrigation water. Other water deficit levels were determined based on the weight of control treatment and irrigation water applied accordingly. The first irrigation was performed right after the seedling plantation. Irrigations were performed at the same fashion for all treatments until the seedlings adapted to soil. Following the adaptation period, water deficit levels were applied and continued until the last economically harvestable broccoli is harvested. Treatments and pot numbering were as follows: 232 �Early Vegetative 1I100 2I80 3I60 4I40 5I20 6I80 7I60 8I40 9I20 10I100 11I100 12I100 13I100 14I100 15I100 16I100 17I100 17*5=85 pots were used. Late Vegetative I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 Flowering I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I100 I80 I60 I40 I20 Total chlorophyll was determined by sampling 4 leaves from each plant. Samples were prepared by smashing the leaves in 90% 35 ml acetone solution. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No.2 filter paper. The filtered extract was completed to 50 ml with 90% acetone solution. Then, extracts were put into spectrophotometer tubes and readings were performed at 645, 652 and 663 nanometer wavelengths. In this way, amount of chlorophyll was determined in mg/100g (Holden 1976). Total sugar for samples was determined as g/100 g in accordance with dinitrophenol method specified by Ross (1959). A 5g sample was taken from each sample representing each treatment and 5 ml 15% potassium ferrosynide and 5 ml 30% zinc sulphate were added. Then samples were completed to 250 ml with distilled water. Solutions were filtered through Wattman No2 filter paper. Extract of 0,5 ml was taken into test tubes, 1,5 ml distilled water and 6 ml dinitrophenol were added to test tubes and they were kept in 1000C hot water bath for 6 minutes. Samples were then cooled under tap water for 3 minutes and absorbance readings were performed in T70 model PG Instruments brand spectrophotometers at 600 n wavelength. A 6ml dinitrophenol + 2 ml distilled water solution was used as the control of the method. Antioxidant activities and radical cleaning power were determined by DPPH method. This method is based on spectrometric transition of characteristic color purple into yellow under the presence of antioxidant chemicals yielding electron or hydrogen atoms by cleaning free radical 2,2- Diphenyl-1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) with these chemicals. The more the antioxidant power, the brighter the color of methanolic DPPH solution. In this method, solutions of test extracts prepared in various concentrations (2,5 – 160 mg) of methanol are mixed with 3 mL 6.10-5 M DPPH solution. Following 15 minutes dark incubation period, sample absorbances were measured at 515 nm wavelength. Absorbance values were then evaluated against control and curve (methanol). Extract % inhibition values were calculated by using absorbance values of extract and empty control tests as follows: A0 – (A – Ak) % Inh = x 100 A0 A0= DPPH absorbance at 515 nm. A= Extract absorbance at 515 nm. Ak= Metanol absorbance at 515 nm. Calculated % inhibition values were plotted against extract concentrations prepared in mg/mL and IC50 of extracts were calculated. BHT and Ascorbic acid were used as positive control. Total amounts of phenolic compounds were also determined in this study in accordance with Folin&Ciocalteu method. Gallic acid solutions at increasing concentrations were mixed with folin reactive and Na2CO3 solutions to draw the calibration curve. Solutions were then kept at 20 0C for 30 minutes, absorbance readings were performed at 765 nm and calibration curve was drawn. Extract was prepared as defined above by using the same reactives, kept under the same conditions for 1 hour and absorbance reading was made. Amount of total phenolic compound of plant methanol extract was calculated as Gallic 233 �acid equivalent (GAE) as follows: C=cxV/m C= Total amount of phenolic compounds, mg/g plant extract (GAE) c= Gallic acid concentration calculated from calibration curve, mg/mL V= Volume of plant extract m= Weight of plant extract Calculated phenolic compound amounts (as Gallic acid equivalent) were compared with standard antioxidants BHT, α-tocopherol and ascorbic acid. Results and Discussion It was observed that broccoli was sensitive against water stress. It was also observed that water deficit at some growth periods of broccoli didn’t statistically effect the yield values. Yield (g/plant), amount of applied irrigation water (L), leaf areas (cm2), number of days passed until the harvest was given in Table 1. It can be seen from the table that all water deficits applied at early vegetative and late vegetative periods decreased the yield of broccoli, however these decreased were placed statistically in the same group. Leaf areas decreased with the water stress. Schreiner et al. (2009) indicated the impacts of water stress over the leaves of mustard at every growth period. Treatments Yield (g/plant) 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 667,84 ± 29,72 a 473,12 ± 25,81bc 394,68 ± 33,43cd 195,68 ± 16,11ef 101,59 ± 10,51 f 591,01± 26,19 ab 583,89 ±22,10 bc 566,86 ± 19,16ab 573,61 ± 34,83 ab 528,52 ± 21,26 abc 521,83 ± 18,38ab 497,47 ± 21,74abc 359,83 ± 33,02ab 453,13 ± 13,26 bcd 475,92 ±40,40 bc 359,37 ± 26,75cd 301,18 ± 13,71de Irrigation Water (lt) 44,14 35,28 26,46 17,64 8,81 41,68 39,50 36,77 34,28 41,16 38,21 35,26 32,31 40,95 37,75 34,57 31,36 Leaf Area (cm2) 6424.94 ± 32,78 a 6058.97 ± 30,29 b 5421.89 ± 42,46 c 4825.54 ± 27,18 e 3429.35 ± 60,53 j 5055.91 ± 38,21 d 4784.82 ± 45,46 e 4337.51 ± 23,49 g 4147.75 ± 25,36 h 4662.83 ± 34,96 f 4622.16 ± 32,27 f 4608.61 ± 25,20 f 4296.85 ± 29,83 g 5327.01 ± 45,00 c 5083.02 ± 53,46 d 4676.38 ± 33,78 f 3998.64 ± 43,77 ı Ripening Time (day) 110 112 114 119 127 107 109 110 110 113 113 114 122 115 117 115 117 Table 1. Yield (g/plant), Amount of irrigation water (L), Leaf areas (cm2), Ripening time (days) Results of physical measurements made over broccoli plants were given in Table 2. Significant variations were not observed in diameter, height and perimeters of plants under water stress except the flowering period. The lowest values were obtained from 40 and 20% irrigation water applications at all growing periods. It was concluded that heavy water stress conditions exposed in flowering period could cause significant decreases in yield and quality. Treatments Head Diameter X (cm) Head Diameter Y (cm) Head Height (cm) 13.30 ± 0,644 a 12.65 ± 0,531 ab 10.89 ± 0,357 a 9.06 ± 0,375 ab 100% Irrigation 13.87 ± 0,475a 80% Irrigation 12.55 ± 0,704 abc 234 Head Perimeter (cm) 46.28 ± 2,066 a 41.68 ± 1,568 abc �60% Irrigation 12.23 ± 1,06 abc 12.00 ± 0,958 abc 8.87 ± 0,622d 8.91 ± 0,754 d 6.65 ± 1,06 e 6.31 ± 0,685 e 9.47 ± 2,325 cd 40% Irrigation 9.46 ± 0,744 ab 6.89 ± 0,681 cd 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 11.55 ±0 ,708 abc 12.60 ± 0,847 ab 12.13 ± 0,334 abc 13.29 ± 0,429 a 13.26 ± 0,985 ab 12.95 ± 0,738 ab 13.22 ± 0,442 ab 12.64 ± 0,654 ab 12.12 ± 0,409 abc 13.29 ± 0,402 a 13.09 ± 0,438 ab 12.72 ± 0,310 ab 12.76 ± 1,005 ab 11.66 ± 0,561 abc 11.77 ± 1,024 abcd 13.05 ± 0,978 ab 13.08 ± 0,679 ab 12.39 ± abc 11.74 ± 1,133 abcd 10.46 ± 0,977 bcd 10.12 ± 0,943 abcd 10.15 ± 0,735 cd 10.08 ± 0,487 bcd 5.64 ±0,466 d 8.59 ± 0,690 bc 9.59 ± 0,813 ab 9.20 ± 0,510 ab 10.13 ± 0,723 ab 9.57 ± 0,239 ab 10.17 ± 0,565 ab 9.96 ± 0,916 ab 8.58 ± 0,677 bc 10.17 ± 0,455 ab 9.63 ± 0,881 ab 8.49 ± 0,341 bc 8.28 ± 0,345 bc 39.82 ± 3,134 abc 29.98 ± 2,371d 20.70 ± 3,158 e 40.36 ± 3,204abc 42.30 ± 2,452 ab 44.94 ± 1,289 ab 44.66 ± 2,309 ab 41.44 ± 2,256 abc 45.04 ± 1,390 ab 42.14 ± 0,573 ab 38.16 ± 2,858 abc 42.86 ± 1,733 ab 40.20 ± 3,454 abc 35.28 ± 3,128 bcd 34.14 ± 1,984 cd Table 2. Canopy diameter (cm), canopy height (cm) and canopy perimeter (cm) Reduced and total sugar, total chlorophyll values of samples were given in Table 3 and Antioxidant activity (%), phenological compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoids (mg/L) were given in Table 4. An increase was observed in amounts of reduced and total sugar with increased water stress. However, a decrease was observed in amounts of chlorophyll with increased water stress. In a fertilization study for broccoli, Sanwal et al. (2006) determined reduced sugar values between 17,42 – 20,41 and total sugar between 34,07 – 43,63. Murcia et al. (2000) determined the amount of chlorophyll for broccoli as 0,3 g kg1 . Generally, amount of chlorophyll for broccoli varied between 0,32 – 0,75 g kg-1 in other studies (Hidaka et al. 1992, Hidaka Fukuda and Taniguchi, 1992). Treatments 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation Reduced Sugar (g/100g) 1,263 ± 0,318 j 1,886 ± 0,491 c 1,920 ± 0,461 bc 2,130 ± 0,288 a 1,436 ± 0,202 hı 1,530 ± 0,346 gh 1,773 ± 0,318 d 1,833 ± 0,260 cd 1,603 ± 0,375 fg 1,640 ± 0,346 f 1,663 ± 0,318 ef 235 Total Sugar (g/100g) 31,56 ± 0,260 ı 41,30 ± 0,346 f 41,66 ± 0,375 f 42,16 ± 0,375 f 44,20 ± 0,378 e 32,80 ± 0,404 ı 36,13 ± 0,433 h 37,53 ± 0,375 g 37,73 ± 0,466 g 29,76 ± 0,636 j 21,83 ± 0,433 k Total Chlorophyll (mg/100g) 7.90 ± 0,055 a 7.77± 0,070 ab 7.53 ± 0,125 bc 7.37 ± 0,140 c 7.63 ± 0,034 abc 7.06 ± 0,083 d 6.96 ± 0,488 e 6.11 ± 0,085 fg 5.97 ± 0,141 g 6.74 ± 0,087 de 6.14 ± 0,070 fg �L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation 1,746 ± 0,260 de 1,640 ± 0,288 f 1,273 ± 0,260 j 1,420 ± 0,404 ı 1,986 ± 0,260 b 2,123 ± 0,260 a 29,53 ± 0,638 j 32,10 ± 0,435 ı 49,40 ± 0,378 d 52,30 ± 0,635 c 59,66 ± 0,753 b 65,06 ± 0,523 a 5.95 ± 0,080 fg 5.47 ± 0,120 h 6.26 ± 0,100 f 6.03 ± 0,192 f 5.68 ± 0,336 h 5.17 ± 0,120 h Table 3. Amounts of reduced, total sugar and chlorophyll Antioxidant activity was investigated by DPPH method with radical cleaning effect. Based on DPPH method, radical cleaning powers between 8,1 – 17,3% were observed. It was found as significantly low. Varying percentages may be due to varying amounts of flavonoid and phenolic compounds and it was thought that these parameters could be analyzed by using other methods in future studies. Treatments 100% Irrigation 80% Irrigation 60% Irrigation 40% Irrigation 20% Irrigation E.V. 80% Irrigation E.V. 60% Irrigation E.V. 40% Irrigation E.V. 20% Irrigation L.V. 80% Irrigation L.V. 60% Irrigation L.V. 40% Irrigation L.V. 20% Irrigation Flowering 80% Irrigation Flowering 60% Irrigation Flowering 40% Irrigation Flowering 20% Irrigation Antioxidant Activity (%) Phenolic Compounds (mg/mL) 0,0020 0,0043 0,0098 0,0099 0,0102 0,0025 0,0032 0,0030 0,0034 0,0045 0,0051 0,0054 0,0059 0,0065 0,0072 0,0081 0,0093 8,1 10,3 11,8 15,9 17,3 9,3 10,2 10,8 11,5 10,8 11,2 12,0 12,6 13,6 14,8 15,1 15,6 Flavonoids (mg/L) 9,14 10,28 12,98 13,03 13,35 9,58 9,77 9,82 9,95 10,95 11,29 11,74 12,08 11,88 12,32 12,56 12,97 Table 4. Antioxidant activity (%), phenolic compounds (mg/mL) and Flavonoid (mg/L) amounts As a conclusion, water deficits applied at early and late vegetative periods will not cause significant decreases in yield and quality of broccoli plants grown under Çanakkale conditions. However, water deficit at flowering period will cause decreases in yield. Broccoli exhibits a tolerance against water deficit at early or late vegetative period. Deficit irrigation can be applied during these growing periods and production can be carried out over larger areas with the same amount o water and without causing significant losses in yield and quality. References Bandurska, E., Rutkowska, J., Klonowska, B., Charemska, D., Szymelfejnik, E., 2004. Incidence of type 1 diabetes Mellitus in 15-29 Age Group in Warmiz and Mazury Region Between 1994-2003. Betalogia 47:614-621. Eşiyok, 1996. Bornova Koşullarında Yetiştirmeye Uygun Brokoli Çeşitlerinin Belirlenmesi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. E.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 33(1): 55–62, Bornova-Đzmir. Fahey, J.W., Zalcmann, A.T., Talalay, P., 2001. The Chamical Diversity and Distribution of Glicozinolates and Isothiocyanates Among Plants. Phytochemistry 56:5-51. 236 �Fowke, J.H., Chung, F.L., Jin, F., Qi, D., Cai, Q., Conaeay, C., cheng, J.R., Shu, X.O., Gao, Y.T., Zeng, W., 2003. Urinary Isothiocyanate levels, Brassica and Human Breast Cancer. Cancer Research 63: 3980–3986. Hidaka T, Fukuda N, Taniguchi K and Kanzaki J, Fat-soluble components of lateral ¯ower buds from different varieties of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L var. italica Plen). J Jpn Soc Nutr Food Sci 45:453±455 (1992). Hidaka T, Fukuda N and Taniguchi K, Contents of lipids, fatty acids, carotenoids and chlorophylls in broccoli (Brassica oleracea L var. italica Plen). Nippon Shokuhin Kogyo Gakkaishi 39:425±428 (1992). Kacar, B., Katkat, V., Öztürk, Ş. 2006. Bitki Fizyolojisi. Nobel Kitabevi yayınları. Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses. Volume II, 2nd ed. Academic Pres, New York. Meyer, M., Adam, S., 2008. Comparison of glucosinolate levels in commercial broccoli and red cabbage from conventional and ecological farming. Eur Food Res Technol, 226:1429–1437 Murcia, M.A. Ayerra, B.L. . Tome M.M and Carmona F.G. 2000. Effect of industrial processing on chlorophyll content of broccoli. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 80:1447±1451 (online: 2000). Ratzka, A., Vogel, H., Kliebenstain, D.J., Mitchell-Ols T., Kroyman, J., 2002. Disarming the Mustard Oil Bomb. Proceedings of The National Academy of Science 99: 11223–11228. Reginato, R.J. 1983. Field quantification of crop water stress. Trans. ASAE 26: 772–775. Sarıkamış, G., Roberts, J., Mithen, R., 2006. Brokolide Glukozinolat içeriğinin Belirlenmesi. VI. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu 19–22 Eylül 2006. s. 271–274. Schreıner, M., Beyene, B., Krumbeın, A. And Stutzel H., 2009. Ontogenetic Changes of 2-Propenyl and 3Indolylmethyl Glucosinolates in Brassica carinata Leaves as Affected by Water Supply. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 7259–7263 Seow, A., Yuan, J.M., Sun, C.L., Van Den Berg, D., Lee, H.P., Yu, M.C., 2002. Dietary Isothiocyanates, Glutathione S-Transferase Polymorphisms and Colorectal Cancer Risk in the singapore Chinese Healty Study. Carcinogenesis 23: 2055–2061. Sanwal, S. K. , Laxminarayana, K. , Yadav, D. S. , Rai, N. andYadav, R. K.(2006) 'Growth, Yield, and Dietary Antioxidants of Broccoli as Affected by Fertilizer Type', Journal of Vegetable Science, 12: 2, 13 — 26. Vural, H., Eşiyok, D., Duman, Đ., 2000. Kültür Sebzeleri (sebze Yetiştirme) Ders Kitabı. ISBN: 975–97190–0–2. Young, T.B., Wolf, D.A., 1988. Case-Control study of Proximal and Distal Colon Cancer and Diet in Wisconsin. International Journal of Cancer 42: 167–175. Zhao, B., seow, A., Lee, A.J., Poh, W.T., The, M., Eng, P., Wang, Y.T., Tan, W.C., Yu, M.C. Lee, H.P., 2001. Dietary Isothiocyanates, Glutathione S-transferase-M1, -T1 Polymorphisms and Lung Cancer risk Among Chinese Woman in Singapore. Cancer Epideiolpgy Biomarkers and Prevention 10: 1063–1067. 237 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 410 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Water Stress on Yield and Some Quality Parameters of Broccoli Author Author ERKEN, Okan OZTOKAT, Canan Abstract A summary of the resource. Under increasing impacts of global warming, effective water use and using minimum amounts of water for irrigation have become the most critical issues to be considered in irrigated agriculture. In this research, effects of water stress on yield and some quality parameters of broccoli were investigated. Three different growing periods (early vegetative, late vegetative and flowering) and four different water deficit levels (80%, 60%, 40% and 20%) were applied to Maraton F1 broccoli cultivar. Yield per plant, total leaf area, total chlorophyll, total sugar content, and antioxidant activity have been determined. While a yield of 667,84 g/plant was obtained from control treatment with 100% irrigation without any water deficit, a yield of only 101,59 g/plant was obtained from 20% irrigation treatment. However, a yield of 591,01 g/plant was obtained from 80% irrigation treatment applied at early vegetative period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/caf8b0c4518643950ba26e752bade1ba.pdf 27be261924be5c169a25448b73268631 PDF Text Text A Research on Heavy Metal Statues in Some Pasture Soil of Antalya Cengiz ERDURMUŞ Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya Semiha ÇEÇEN Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya cecen@hotmail.com Sadık ÇAKMAKÇI Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Field Crops Department, Antalya Ramazan TOKER Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya Abstract: Meadow and pasture resources fulfill many important tasks, besides feature of being a source of feed for livestock production. Being natural balance element, erosion prevention, clean water, air and food production and protection of genetic resources of many plant and livestock organism can be accepted among these. Because of rapidly growing urbanization, industrialization and tourism, meadow and pasture resources in the Mediterranean region have been polluted with different pollutants. In this study, soil pollution research was done in pastures near intensive industry and tourism region of Antalya. Concentration of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg elements were analyzed in 12 samples from 3 different pastures as 4 samples from each one. Results showed us that the concentration of Ni was higher than the limits written in Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation. The other concentrations are lower than the limits written in Regulation. This study is a precursor study which shows the needs of other detailed study. Key words: Pasture, Soil, Heavy metal Introduction Meadow and pasture are being one of the important natural richness of a country (Altin et al., 2005). According to last evaluations, nearly half of the land of the earth is taken in to pasture concept and these areas have been accepted as valuable part of the nature and they should be protected as tropic forest (Avcioglu, 1999). Meadow and pastures have important tasks such as protection of soil, protection of genetic resources and using as livestock feed (Avcioglu, 1983). It is known that increasing with industrial activity, energy production, transportation and urbanization is caused to environmental pollution. Environmental pollutants are dangerous to human health, plants and other goods (Hodges, 1977; Biggins and Harrison, 1980). The most negative effect of pollutants is carrying heavy metals which are toxic and carcinogenic (Lagerwer and Specth, 1970; Linton et al., 1980; Biggins and Harrison, 1980; Sakai et al., 1988). Pb, Cd and Ni pollution are more common in urban areas than rural areas because they are caused by industrial sources. Normally Pb and Cd are not found in plants. Whether if they are found trace amount in plants, it is accepted as a sign of pollutions (Foy et al., 1978). Heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Ni, Cr are toxic for human and animals (Lagerwerff et al Specth, 1970; Linton et al., 1980). These toxic heavy metals are spread out to environment by industrial activities and emissions of motor vehicles (Biggins and Harrison, 1980; Miller and McFee, 1983; Chow, 1970). Antalya is one of the provinces which has highest emigration rate in Turkey. This emigration causes to industrialization. In this study, soil pollution of 3 selected pastures which have great role as livestock feed source and near to urban and industry areas. 566 �Material and Method Ooil samples were taken from 4 stations of each 3 pastures, totally 12 stations. Each sample was formed by mixing 5 samples taken from 100 m2 representative areas of pasture. Samples were taken from 10 cm depth. Analyses were carried out at Atmosfer Agriculture Analysis Laboratory. Soil samples were prepared to analyses by sieving them through 2 mm sieves after making them as air dry at laboratory conditions (Jackson, 1967). In soil samples, structure analysis were done by hydrometric method (Bouyoucos, 1962), and water soluble total salt content were done by measuring electricity resistant in sature soil priming (U.S. Soil Survey Staff, 1951). Amount of CaCO were analysed by Scheibler calcimeter (Schlichting 3 ve Blume, 1966), organic materials were analyzed by crossing organic C percentage, which were evaluated by fresh burning method, with 1.724 factor (Reuterberg and Kremkus, 1951), total N was analyzed by modified macro Kjeldahl method (Bremner, 1965). In soil and ash samples, content of some trace elements (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) and heavy metals, which were extracted in aqua regia (HNO +HCl), were analyzed at ICP-OES after extraction by aqua regia 3 extraction methods. Result and Discussion Analysis results of researched pasture soil are given in Table 1, contents of some useful macro and micro nutrition elements are given in Table 2, results of some heavy metals are given in Table 3, changing of pollutant heavy metals according to each station are shown in Figure 1. Pb content of soil is changed from 1.8 ppm to 13.16 ppm. The lowest Pb content of soil is at the Aşağıoba 3 and the highest one is at the Yağca 1 (Table 3). According to values which were given by Kloke (1980) that shows the Pb pollution of soil (100 ppm), it can be said that there is no Pb pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1). Nickel contents of soils are changed between 12.76 ppm and 78.25 ppm. The lowest nickel level belongs to Aşağıoba 4 soils and the highest one is belong to Kovanlık 2 (Table 3). According to values which were given by Kloke (1980) that shows the Pb pollution of soil (50 ppm), some researched soil samples nickel contents are higher than Klokes’s data. They are also higher that the limits (75 ppm) written in the Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation (Figure 1). But according to Regulation, analysis results can be exceeded to this limit, if it is proven scientifically, that they are not dangerous for human and environment at the feed crop cultivated areas. Cupper contents of soils are changed between 0.7 ppm and 27.63 ppm. The lowest cupper level belongs to Yağca 4 soils and the highest one is belong to Yağca 2 (Table 3). According to values written in the Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation (140 ppm) there is cupper pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1). Station pH Aşağıoba 1 Aşağıoba 2 Aşağıoba 3 Aşağıoba 4 Kovanlık 1 Kovanlık 2 Kovanlık 3 Kovanlık 4 Yağca 1 Yağca 2 Yağca 3 Yağca 4 6,1 5,4 6,1 6,4 8,1 7,9 7,9 7,9 7,8 7,6 7,7 7,3 Total Nitrogen EC CaCO3 Organic materials (%) (%) (N), % (mmos/cm) 0,7 2,0 0,9 0,10 0,7 2,0 1,6 0,14 0,9 2,0 1,0 0,12 1,0 2,0 1,5 0,10 1,6 16,0 2,7 0,15 1,4 10,0 2,5 0,14 1,3 8,0 2,3 0,13 1,2 9,0 2,3 0,14 1,7 6,0 4,4 0,27 1,6 3,0 3,9 0,23 1,2 5,0 4,6 0,35 0,4 2,0 4,6 0,25 Table 1. Some soil properties of research area 567 Structure % 31 36 35 40 64 63 59 63 66 57 65 63 �. Station Aşağıoba 1 Aşağıoba 2 Aşağıoba 3 Aşağıoba 4 Kovanlık 1 Kovanlık 2 Kovanlık 3 Kovanlık 4 Yağca 1 Yağca 2 Yağca 3 Yağca 4 P 2O 5 (kg/da) 2,15 6,14 5,95 4,08 2,15 0,82 1,88 1,60 42,73 3,25 31,24 8,34 K 2O (kg/da) 21,02 32,40 56,64 33,60 41,04 37,44 37,68 40,80 158,16 188,16 206,40 262,56 Ca (ppm) 1559 2250 2492 3255 7310 7518 6301 7436 7813 7975 7485 6874 Mg (ppm) 249,00 348,00 366,00 417,00 367,00 468,00 339,00 416,00 358,00 383,00 330,00 434,00 Fe (ppm) 32,4 71,4 33,8 11,8 0,7 1,2 0,6 0,6 1,0 1,5 0,2 1,5 Mn (ppm) 35,78 55,74 29,19 34,93 0,39 0,08 0,44 0,04 0,04 3,88 2,84 2,94 Zn (ppm) 0,24 0,01 0,24 0,42 0,68 0,74 0,68 0,53 0,53 6,20 1,53 6,90 Cu (ppm) 0,87 1,62 1,28 1,69 1,76 1,24 1,20 1,72 1,66 1,19 0,39 2,43 Table 2. Some useful macro and micro nutrition elements in soil samples Pasture Aşağıoba Kovanlık Yağca No 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Cu 14.34 11.83 7.08 6.02 16.64 17.13 16.00 13.42 15.78 27.63 5.97 0.70 Ni 28.62 27.81 18.65 12.76 59.65 78.25 58.11 27.11 70.5 60.75 45.54 17.29 Heavy metals (ppm) Pb Zn Bor 3.42 5.95 5.24 1.8 3.35 5.96 6.19 31.83 6.08 31.01 4.44 27.52 3.34 5.37 13.16 76.85 7.7 147.86 2.73 52.17 33.98 - Table 3. Some heavy metals contents of soil samples, ppm 568 Hg - Cd - �Figure 1.Concentration values of polluted heavy metals according to stations Amount of Zn contents of soils are changed between 3.35 ppm and 147.86 ppm. Aşağıoba 3 has the lowest Zn level whereas Yağca 2 has the highest one (Table 3). According to values written in the Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation (300 ppm) there is cupper pollution at the researched soils (Figure 1). In this research, Bor, Cd and Hg, which were analyzed in the soils, were not found. Results Four elements (Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn) were found for soil pollution at the 3 pasture near to urban areas and industry centers. Heavy metal pollution of soil is now at low levels. But if any precaution does not taken, this pollution level can be increase. For this reason, this initiator research should be considered an than these type of researches should be replicated periodically (once a 3 or 4 year) and results should be taken in to consideration carefully. If it is thought, that large part of livestock feed needs are covered from pastures, pastures should be protected from non-returning soil pollution Acknowledgment This paper was supported by the Scientific Research Projects Administration Unit of Akdeniz University. References Altın, M., Gökkuş, A., Koç, A., 2005. Çayır Mera Islahı, Çayır-Mera Yem Bitkileri ve Havza Geliştirme Daire Bşk., Mart Matbaası, Đstanbul. Avcıoğlu, R., 1999. Çayır Mera Amenajmanı ve Islahı. TBK TÜGEM. Ankara. Avcıoğlu, R., 1983. Çayır - Mer’a Bitki Topluluklarının Özellikleri ve Đncelenmesi. Ege Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayın No : 466, Bornova-Đzmir. Biggins, P.D.E. and Harrison, R.M., 1980. Chemical specification of leaf compounds in street dusts, Env.Sci.Tech.14. Bouyoucos, G. J., A., 1962. Recalibration of the hydrometer method for making mechanical analysis of the soils, Agronomy Journal, 4(9) :434. Bremner, J. M., 1965. Total nitrogen, Editor C.A. Black. Methods of soil analysis part 2. American society of Agronomy. Inc. Publisher, Madison, Wisconsin, U.S.A 1149-1178. Chow, T.J., 1970 Lead accumulation in roadside soils and grass Nature London 225, 295. Foy, C.D., Chaney, R.L. and White, M.C., 1978. Physiology of metal toxicity in plants, Ann. Rev. Plant. Physiol. 29, 511. 569 �Hodges, L.,1977 Environmental Pollution, Holt-Rinehart and Winston, 2nd Ed., 496, New York. Jackson, M.L., 1967. Soil chemical analysis prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi. Kloke, A., 1980. Orientierungsdaten für Tolerierbare Gesamtgehalte einiger Elemente in Kulturboden Mitt. VDLUFA, H 1-3, 9-11. Lagerwer_, J.V. and Specth, A.W., 1970. Contamination of roadside soil and vegetation with Cd, Ni, Pb and Zn, Env. Sci. Tech. 4, 583, Linton, R.W., Natucsh, D.F.S., Solomon, R.L. and Evans, C.A., 1980 Physicochemical characterization of lead in urban dusts. A microanalytical approach to lead tracing, Env. Sci. Tech. 14, 158. Miller, W.P. and McFee, W.W.,1983. Disribution of Cd, Zn, Cu and Pb in soils of industrial Northwestern Indiana, J. Env. Qual. 12, 29. Reuterberg , E., Kremkus, F., 1951. Bestimmung von Gesamt Humus und Alkalischen Humusstoffen in Boden. Z.für Pflanzenernaehrung, Düngung und Bodenkunde, Verlag Chemie Gmbh, Weinheim. Sakai, H., Sasaki, T.and Saito, K., 1988. Heavy metal concentrations in urban snow as an indicator of air pollutions, The Sci. of the Total Env. 77, 163. Schlichting, E.; Blume, H.P., 1966. Bodenkundliches Practicum. Verlag Paul Parey. Hamburg, Berlin. 570 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 602 Title A name given to the resource A Research on Heavy Metal Statues in Some Pasture Soil of Antalya Author Author ERDURMUS, Cengiz ÇEÇEN, Semiha ÇAKMAKÇI, Sadık TOKER, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. Meadow and pasture resources fulfill many important tasks, besides feature of being a source of feed for livestock production. Being natural balance element, erosion prevention, clean water, air and food production and protection of genetic resources of many plant and livestock organism can be accepted among these. Because of rapidly growing urbanization, industrialization and tourism, meadow and pasture resources in the Mediterranean region have been polluted with different pollutants. In this study, soil pollution research was done in pastures near intensive industry and tourism region of Antalya. Concentration of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Hg elements were analyzed in 12 samples from 3 different pastures as 4 samples from each one. Results showed us that the concentration of Ni was higher than the limits written in Turkey Soil Pollution Control Regulation. The other concentrations are lower than the limits written in Regulation. This study is a precursor study which shows the needs of other detailed study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/65d9a2722ce3ad16c7f9e478d18ca8a9.pdf 63df4f2fd324ec0c378459946889cd5d PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Right to Information and Consultation of Employees: Evaluation of EU Directives in Turkey Ekrem ERDOĞAN PhD., Sakarya University, Labor economics and industrial relations department, Turkey eerdogan@sakarya.edu.tr Yasin Kerem GÜMÜġ PhD. Candidate, Sakarya University, Labor economics and industrial relations department, ykgumus@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: In Turkish, because of the definitive role of the state, attitude of employers and powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not effectively have a say. In the EU, the employees participate their workplaces in various methods as a part of European Social Model. However, in the reconstruction process in the EU, labour and its participation methods remained local in the European scale despite the globalisation of capital especially with the increase of activities and relationships of MNCs. At this point, to reduce the differences arising from national applications and the effects of the process of reconstruction, the Commission has created a number of directives in order to provide the right to information and consultation of employees. These directives became important also for Turkey as of membership negotiations. This article aims to examine the employee participation in Turkey and indicate the possible effects of EU information and consultation directives. Introduction Employees in Turkey are represented in their workplaces mostly by trade unions. Although there is no legal barrier, workplace participation methods are almost non-existing except for trade unions. Besides, unionisation density is reducing in Turkey and members of labour unions suffer several problems arising from implementation. In a general view, in Turkish Industrial Relations System, because of the definitive role of the state within the system, attitude of employers and powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not effectively have a say. When one looks at the European Union countries, although it is being said that the European Social Model has recently transformed within the framework of competitiveness in the global market, flexibility and adaptation to innovation, employees participate to the decisions which concern them in their workplaces with various methods as a part of this model. In the reconstruction process which appeared as a result of the European Union project, especially the activities and relationships of MNCs in the European scale facilitated the globalisation off the capital. On the other hand, employees of these businesses do not have difficulties in participating the decisions which concern them in the reconstruction process. In serious conditions such as replacement, closure, purchase, merger, etc. experienced in businesses in this reconstruction process, employees of businesses are affected by the decisions of head office which may be thousands of kilometres away from them. At this point, the European Commission has introduced a number of directives in order to provide the information and consultation rights of the employees in the European scale for the purpose of minimising the differences arising from national applications and decrease the effects of the reconstruction process. Taking into consideration the EU membership process, these directives will apparently have various effects on the current participation structure of Turkish Industrial Relations System. These directives should be evaluated in Turkey by taking into consideration the current structure. Employee Participation in General One of the most important subjects in the field of industrial relations is participation of employees and/or their representatives to decisions and the question of its scope, while the debates on what the best method of this could be are still ongoing (Hyman and Mason, 1995: 5). The term participation has survived throughout the years in various forms starting from the communities attempted by Owen (Owenite communities) who wanted to reorganise the society of 1800s on a 312 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo social basis until today. Most of the definitions of participation are ideological, and participation can shortly be defined as a process which allows employees to affect its working conditions and operations to some extent (Strauss, 2006: 779). Besides, below one can find the methods appearing concerning the participation of employees until today and the countries these emerged in. Type ( ı ) Self management of workers (2) Producer cooperatives Defined qualities Structural Features Implemented in socialist economies. Employees participate in the basic decision making structures, have wide range of rights, however do not own the property of the institution. There are representative organs in the management committees which include workers‘ councils and workers‘ assemblies. Based on the property ownership of workers. Most of the employees are property owners. Ownership is distributed widely. Employees participate in the business management, control and distribution of profit. It is as common decision making in business board of directors. Employees are represented in a certain ratio in single or double level boards of directors (audit and management). They have several rights such as veto. (3) Codetermination (4) Work Councils and Structures which may hold regular negotiations similar (meetings) with the management in matters which Institutions concern the business and represent the employees in various political economies. A-Local It is defined as the social dialogue structure based on the enterprise. The employees have the right to B-Regional European Work information and consultation when decisions which concern them are being taken. Councils It is seen is pluralist societies which accept the (5) Union Actions current clash of interests through unions. Unions, aSeparator which are the representation method of the worker through collective side is based on laws and volunteering on a certain bargaining basis. State socialism or corporatism. There is an b-Complementary environment in which state, employer and trade unions can determine several matters in cooperation. It is as the participation of employees to the (6) Workplace organisation of work in various political economies (autonomous work groups or work life quality participation programs). Effects of the workers are usually programs dependent on task-based programs. Countries (Key Examples) Algeria, Peru, Poland, Yugoslavia and several 3rd world and Eastern European societies (Yugoslavia) France, Italy, Spain, USA, Britain and most 3rd world countries (Mondragon, Basque region of Spain) Western Europe (Italy, Norway, Sweden, West Germany), Africa (Egypt) and South America (Argentina) (West Germany) Finland, Indonesia, the Netherlands, Spain Sri Lanka, West Germany, Zambia. (The Netherlands and West Germany) European Union, AEA Countries and other countries with a MNC active within the borders of EU. Australia, Canada, USA, Britain (USA, Britain) Russia, Eastern Europe Management techniques in first, second and third world countries Scandinavia, USA Table 1. Comparison of Basic Types of Industrial Democracy Source: edited from Poole, M. (2004): 156-157. As it can be seen from the table, the issue of employee participation is affected by various factors. These can mostly be defined as ideologies, or the parties which start the participation methods. Other than that, concerning participation methods, modern capitalism has created autonomous workgroups, profit sharing and co-partnership enterprises; liberal pluralist and social democrat thought has created collective bargaining, co-determination and work councils experiences; and democratic socialism has created the applications of self-management (Poole; 2004: 150). When the starting parties are taken into consideration, employee participation methods; employee attempts (for instance, employee (production unit) control on the production process), union attempts (negotiation and bargaining on employment terms and conditions), state attempts, and employer attempts arising from the workplace in order to increase the loyalty, effectiveness, productivity of employees can be mentioned (Poole et al., 2001: 492-493). 313 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Information and Consultation Methods of Employees in Europe Labour relations have a central role in the basis of European Social Model (ESM); because this field is a field which provides the balance of the model in general. In this area, on one hand economic growth and efficiency, on the other hand equality and security is balanced together (Koray, 2005: 129-130). Working class played an important role in the emerging of ESM and the labour relations play a central role in this social model. One of the basic pillars of ESM consists of employees and their participation in the workplace. Although the applications in Europe have an important place as a different model in terms of employee participation, it is not really possible to mention a single method of participation in Europe. This is because various systems emerged because of differences in the national applications, traditions and legal systems of the EU countries (Gülmez, 2008: 429). Trade unions as free and independent unions have been accepted in the EU in general. The traditional collective bargaining structure in Europe is a basic source for the employees to determine their wages policies and working conditions freely. This means that collective bargaining actors are very effective on the functioning of the labour market. Other than these, information and consultation methods in workplaces are officially established and strengthened with a legal framework in most of the European countries. This workplace representation can be organised by work councils and/or trade union representatives. Although workplace representation has too much diversity, it is a distinctive feature of today‘s EU industrial relations system. These systems of workplace representation have generally been developed in Western Europe after the World War II as a way of organisational and economic democracy. When the Central and Eastern European countries transitioned to modern market economy, they obtained these methods of participation. This trend caused this area of industrial relations to be more legally active in the EU (European Commission, 2006: 57). Recently, the issue of employee participation is perceived as an element of reconstruction of enterprises and providing required integration in this process in order to increase the competition, protect and increase the level of employment in Europe. The traditional model in Europe concerning employee participation used to be defined as employee representation in the business level (work councils or trade unions), triple structures, collective bargaining and strong trade unions. This traditional model which provided serious job security, generous welfare state conditions and relatively high wages was criticised on the grounds of causing instability, high level of unemployment and a decrease in competitiveness in the current economic and political period and caused discussions in questions such as how an increase in competitiveness, flexibility and efficiency be provided and how the current changes be adapted to. As a result of these discussions, it can be seen that a new European model which is based on increase in education, lifelong learning, job security, use of information technologies and the concept of flexibility; which is connected to worker ownership and profit sharing, indirect participation based on employer-employee confidence and partnership and empowering individual employees; and which includes direct participation (Gill and Krieger, 2000: 109-112). For the last 10 years, the basic issue in the political agenda of the EU is related to the regulation of labour market. In the process of cooperation on labour market policies, some concrete results have been achieved in matters such as part-time employment, employment periods, EWCs, sexual equality and work life environment. Social dialogue attempts performed in European level and resulted with several agreements between ETUC, CEEP and UNICE developed certain examples of cooperation among the labour market actors of Europe (Jensen, Madsen and Due, 1999: 118-119). As a result of this cooperation, the Council of Ministers agreed on some directives related to this matter. These directives are EWC Directive (94/45/EC), Information and Consultation Directive (2002/14/EC) and Directive supplementing the Statute for a European company (2001/86/EC) (Schwimbersky, 2005: 189). European Works Councils EWCs are structures which allow information and consultation of employees in businesses or groups of businesses in the community level. The importance of EWCs in terms of European industrial relations has increased since their emergence, as an institution representing the interests in the business level. EWCs indicate an acceptance that the need for ―Europeanization‖ introduced by European Single Market increased, beyond national information and consultation methods (Eurofound, 2010). Although all EWCs are established in a structure which does not have the role of negotiation and providing rights to information and consultation, they provide an institutional framework which may potentially support international bargaining. In relation to that, they have concluded framework conventions or more moderate joint texts. However, this condition was only effective when commercial decisions need to be taken (reconstruction and rationalisation) in the European level and when trade unions or works councils in different countries could strongly organise. In conclusion, Europeanization of industrial relations is seen as a part of the 314 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo process in which collective negotiations which are more appropriate for competitiveness and adaptability objectives of employers (Arrowsmith and Marginson, 2006: 255-263). The purpose of this Directive, as indicated in the official text, is to reinforce the rights of the employees who are employed in the undertakings active in the Community scale to information and consultation (2009/38/EC, art. 1-1). In line with this purpose, a European Works Council or another procedure which provides these rights should be implemented in undertakings or groups of undertakings active in the community level. Since it does not provide any participation other than information and consultation in terms of rights to participation, it has a limited participation structure. According to the purposes of this Directive, ―Community-scale undertaking‖ means any undertaking with at least 1000 employees within the Member States and at least 150 employees in each of at least two Member States. ―Group of undertakings‖ means a controlling undertaking and its controlled undertakings. ―Community-scale group of undertakings‖ means a group of undertakings with at least 1 000 employees within the Member States, at least two group undertakings in different Member States, and at least one group undertaking with at least 150 employees in one Member State and at least one other group undertaking with at least 150 employees in another Member State (Article 2/1-a,b,c). The European Works Council shall have the right to meet with the central management once a year, to be informed and consulted, on the basis of a report drawn up by the central management, on the progress of the business of the Community-scale undertaking or Community-scale group of undertakings and its prospects. (Subsidiary requirements art. 2). Other than these, the content of these meetings and information and consultation subjects will be related to the structures of community-scale undertakings and groups of undertakings, their economic and financial conditions, possible development and production conditions and wages. Information and consultation of EWC will especially be related to employment conditions and possible trends, investments and important changes concerning the undertaking, new work techniques or formation of production process, production transfer, closure of undertaking, institution or important parts thereof, mergers or downsizing conditions and collective redundancies. In this process, consultation will be conducted with a method in which personnel representatives can negotiate with the central management, have a right to answer and a negotiation environment in which they express their views is provided (Subsidiary requirements art. 1 (a)). Here, the basic principle is based on EWC informing the employees about developments on time and improve the dialogue and cooperation environment by introducing an alternative proposal by personnel representatives to the solution proposals recommended by the management (Hekimler, 2004: 324). Besides, other than the ordinary meetings in the subsidiary article 3, it is required in extraordinary conditions which affect the interests of the employees greatly such as collective redundancies and closure of undertakings or companies, change of location, etc. that the elected committee, or in the absence of such committee, EWC should be informed. Directive numbered 2009/38/EC which came into force with its publication on the Official Gazette in May 2009 combined the preceding directives and included EU-27 countries and countries within AEA. Member states are obliged to implement the required regulations in order to adapt to the provisions of this directive not later than June 5, 2011 (Article 16). Participation of Employees Employed in European Companies European Company, or with its Latin term, Societas Europaea, basically has the purpose that a company to be able to act in the union scale and to participate in the European industrial relations system with regard to the participation rights of the employees (Hekimler, 2006: 76). European legislator issued the regulation numbered 2157/2001 (O J, 2001a) and the directive numbered 2001/86/EC (O J, 2001b) in order to regulate this type of company. Here, while the regulation includes provisions required by the company law, Directive regulates the areas concerning the labour law. SE allows the companies active in more than one member states to be regarded as a single company under the union law and thus makes it possible for them to be subject to a single law within the EU and to be managed jointly. For the companies active in European Common Market, SE decreases administrative costs and a single legal framework adapted to the Common Market as a whole. This legislation gives the businesses the possibility to enlarge and reconstruct their international activities without costly and time consuming bureaucratic transactions in order to establish an inter-corporation network. This is a convenient step taken in order to encourage international activities of more companies and thus increase the competitiveness of Europe in accordance with the targets determined in Lisbon Conference (OUT-LAW, 2001). A European Company can be established in 4 ways (Europa, 2007);  Merger of two or more public companies which are active in at least two member states (two or more companies established and active subject to the legislation of more than two member states).  By establishing a holding by a public or private company active in at least two member states 315 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  By establishing subsidiaries of companies active in at least two member states  By transformation of a public company with a subsidiary for at least two years in another member state. Participation rights of employees in SE are secured and regulated with the Directive numbered 2001/86/EC. The existing participation rights of employees were protected in the Directive and it was attempted to prevent the limitation of these rights. The principle of regulating the participation rights of employees here was attempted to be secured regardless of the size of the SE or the number of employees (Hekimler, 2006: 87). According to the paragraph h of article 2, ―involvement of employees‖ means any mechanism, including information, consultation and participation, through which employees' representatives may exercise an influence on decisions to be taken within the company. This article also defined the meaning of the rights of ―information and consultation‖, as well as ―participation‖. It was expressed that participation to a decision occurs in two ways. First, by directly electing or appointing some members of supervisory or advisory organs of the company; second, by recommending or opposing the appointment of some or all of the members of the company's supervisory or administrative organ (Article 2, paragraph k). Framework Directive 2002/14/EC on Informing and Consulting Employees The incident that Renault company applied redundancies without informing the employee representatives in Vilvoorde near Brussels on the second half of 1990s had an important role in accepting this Directive. Here the directive 2002/14/EC was introduced by the commission since 98/59/EC (O J, 1998) collective redundancies, 2001/23/EC (O J, 2001c) workplace transfer and previous 94/45/EC (O J, 1994) ve yeni 2009/38/EC (O J, 2009) European Works Councils Directives could not provide the adequate security concerning information and consultation of employees (Hekimler, 2006: 103-104; Gülmez, 2008: 460-461). This Directive establishes a general framework in order to reduce the deficiencies within the provisions in force in national or community levels and fill in the gaps for rights to information and consultation of employees in the European Community (Europa, 2008). The purpose of the directive is to establish a general framework determining the minimum requirements in order to contribute to the information and consultation rights of employees (art. 1/1). Two important principles are emphasised here. Firstly, practical regulations concerning information and consultation should be determined and implemented in order to provide their effectiveness in accordance with the industrial relations applications in member states and national legislation (art. 1/2). Secondly; worker and employer representatives should work in line with mutual rights and obligations and within the cooperation spirit, taking into consideration the interests of each undertaking or institution and employee in defining and implementing practical legislations concerning information and consultation (art. 1/2). In line with the preferences of member states, undertakings with at least 50 employees or establishments which employ at least 20 employees can be selected to implement the Directive (art. 3/1). Here, undertaking is used in order to define the workplaces with a separate legal personality which have an economic activity regardless of whether profit-seeking or not, public or private, and establishment is used to define workplaces which have a constant economic activity, defined as workplace nationally, do not have a legal personality and registered to only one employer (TĠSK, 2006; art. 2/a-b). Information should be provided to employee representatives with an appropriate time, content and method which makes it possible for them to make required preparations and adequate studies for consultation. Consultation is defined as the dialogue and exchange of ideas between employer and employee representatives (art. 2/f-g). Information and consultation consists of three areas concerning undertakings. These are (art. 4/2, a-b-c); information concerning the activities or economic conditions of the establishment or information concerning the current status and possible development of undertaking; information and consultation related to any measures to be taken in advance concerning the conditions, structure and possible development of employment in undertakings or establishments; information and consultation on possible decisions which may cause important changes in contractual relations and labour organisation within the scope of the Community provisions expressed in article 9(1). The Commission accepted the Directive on March 11, 2002 and required the member states to adapt it to their national legislations at the latest on March 23, 2005. Other than this, according to article 10, in case that there are not any legal, general and continuous information and consultation methods which regulate the representation of employees on the date that the Directive comes into force, the member states may limit the application area of the Directive as undertaking with 150 employees and establishment with 100 employees until March 23, 2007. In the continuance of this article, it was indicated that these undertakings can be limited within one year as undertakings with 100 employees and establishments with 50 employees (Art. 10). Although it was said that almost half of all undertakings and establishments in the European Union would provide right to information and consultation to their employees and thus ensure the development of employee participation and social dialogue within ―European industrial relations system‖ with complete implementation of the Directive (Hekimler, 2006: 113), European Trade Union Confederation has some criticism 316 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo arguing that quantitative thresholds are too high. Accordingly, the threshold of undertaking employing 50 employees correspond to only 3% of all undertakings in Europe (Gülmez, 2008: 475). This fact seriously narrows down the area of application. Employee Participation in Turkey and Evaluation of EU Directives in Turkey When one looks at Turkish Industrial Relations System, it can be seen that detailed and restrictive legal arrangements, attitude of employers towards employees and unionisation, scale of the illegal economy and big role of the state within the system (Yildirim and Calis, 2008) have a restrictive effect concerning the participation of employees. These conditions affected negatively on the creation of methods which allow the employees to participate in the work life. Labour Laws in Turkey clearly include only those who are employed in large scale undertakings. In the Labour Law numbered 4857, it is indicated that Labour Law provisions will not be valid in workplaces and undertakings which employ less than 50 workers and agriculture and forest works are performed (art. 4) and the condition that more than 30 workers should be employed for the job security to be implemented (art. 18) (Resmi Gazete, 2003). Taking into consideration that according to SSK statistics, 2.300.000 of 5 million insured employees are employed in work places which employ less than 30 employees (Simonetti et al., 2008:4), it can be found that almost half of even the legally employed insured workers are not covered by the Labour Law. Also, the subject of unionisation of employees in our country appears quite problematical. Taking into consideration that the problems continue using the union rights and calculating the unionisation ratios, it is claimed that the ratio of unionisation is between 10 and 15% (Çelik ve Lordoğlu, 2006: 28). Besides, it should be mentioned that number of workers according to the scale of work place within the scope of collective labour agreements is very little compared to the collective labour agreements agreed in the large scale enterprises (ÇSGB, 2008:32). Although freedom of trade union is secured by the constitution and related laws in Turkey, there are several limitations in implementation. One encounters legal article breaches in actual use of this right and trade unions have difficulties in registering new members (Simonetti et al., 2008:3). Social policy in Turkey was created under the control of the state and independent from social and class dynamics because of reasons such as late capitalism, late working class and late democratisation. Delay in industrialisation in our country also delayed the emergence of working class and prevented the formation of social policy with pressure coming from below (Çelik, 2008: 185-186). In addition to the constitution (1982 Constitution) which introduced restrictive regulations to trade unions and union activities, Law of Trade Unions and Laws of Collective Bargaining, Strike and Lockout which came into force in 1983 introduced administrative control and extreme limitations on trade unions and imposed judicial and bureaucratic limitations on collective bargaining and strike activities. These laws are still in force without substantial amendments and constitute the main legal framework of industrial relations system. Although officially freedom of organisation and the right to collective bargaining and strike was recognised in these laws, they impose many anti-unionist applications as proved by ILO investigations and later ICFTU reports. Because of structural reforms imposed by the World Bank and the IMF since 1980 and acceleration of privatisation caused illegal economy and subcontracting to develop. Today, approximately 50% of those who work in unqualified and low-wage positions constitute the insecure and informal labour market. All those developments limited the realm of industrial relations and affected negatively on the employees, their organised power and the actual wage levels. Also, today the state continues to play the dominant role in determining the basic characteristics of industrial relations in Turkey; because despite the recent attempts and privatisation, the public sector employs nearly 40% of all wage earners. On the other hand, the role played by the state as a large employer places it in the centre of industrial relations in Turkey. Legal framework created in detail allows the state to be effective on the structure of industrial relations. Starting from the first years of the Republic of Turkey until 1940s, it has been expressed that the state was dominant in the economic and political agenda with a single party ideology, a kind of corporatist ideology, almost all industrial institutions were established and managed by the state while worker organisations were not allowed (Yildirim and Calis, 2008: 214-216). Concerning the representation and participation of employees in Turkey, although various methods which provide participation in work place and undertaking level with trade unions, institution of collective bargaining, new management techniques, various industrial democracy methods, this structure is heavily provided by the union representation method. Turkish trade unionism has the structure which obtains its power from legal supports and limits itself with collective bargaining activities. Unionisation of public employees also faces several problems and limitations. Moreover, there is an employer unionism with a week representative power (Kutal, 2005: 17). The application of participation to management through collective agreements mostly occurs as participation of labour or union representatives through commissions or committees. Common worker councils which regulate the participation of workers to management in collective labour agreements are established in 317 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo very different subjects and names. These are respectively, discipline councils, councils for settlement of disputes, occupational health and security councils, examination commissions, special arbiter councils, damage assessment councils, leave committees, central councils, worker-management cooperation committees, application and supervision councils, employee-employer cooperation committee and workplace councils or committees (Dicle, 1980: 265- 269; Erdoğan, 2009: 143). Management participation applications through collective bargaining method aims to provide common solutions in matters such as production, working conditions, wage, redundancies and discipline in the workplace (GörmüĢ; 2003). Also, the basic purpose is to check whether the collective labour agreement agreed in the workplace is appropriately working, and if not, to provide solutions for these problems. The reason for the emergence of these councils which have tasks in various areas is the desire of trade unions to increase their effects on workplace management. Taking into consideration the activities they perform, these councils supervise the unilateral applications of the employer and increase democracy. If the employees are not represented adequately in these councils whose proper functioning is dependent on the power of the employee party and the trade union, the councils may transform into a formal tool (Aslan, 1998a: 161). Although in principle the institution ―worker‘s representation‖ does not exist in the labour law, ―union representation‖ institution exists according to the Law of Trade Unions numbered 2821. However, since in our country the scope of collective labour agreement is quite narrow and it is not possible to conclude collective labour agreements in the wider sense, the ―worker‘s representative‖ councils are applied in a very limited area [Law of Trade Unions Art. 35] (Kayhan, 2007: 68). Workers have been represented in the minimum wage commissions in the rate of 1/3 since the year 1921. In the Labour Law numbered 3008, ―arbitration‖ discipline councils and worker‘s representation are important for our topic (Dicle, 1980: 239-240). In the Labour Law dated 1936, a council of ―worker‘s representatives‖ was established. However, since the law was regulated narrowly in terms of scope, only certain workers were granted this right. The law of trade unions numbered 274 and law of collective agreement, strike and lockout numbered 275 accepted after the constitution of 1961 on 1963 ended this worker‘s representation application and introduced union representation application instead. Workplace trade union representation institution is still in force with the law numbered 2821 (Hekimler, 2006: 195). Other than these, in 1934, in a state enterprise, Türkiye ġeker Fabrikaları A.ġ., the participation of employees in Turkey to the management with the demand of the employer occurred through ―management committees‖ established in the undertaking level (Dicle, 1980: 239–240). The law numbered 23 dated 1960 allowed the participation of employees to the management through election of a worker‘s representative to the Board of Directors in government business enterprises. Later, instead of this law, the law numbered 440 which allowed the membership of a worker in the board of directors of ―those who employ widely in industrial, agricultural and transportation sectors‖ and the management committees of similar establishments came into force in 1964. In this law, it was stipulated that 1 worker‘s representative should be elected to the Board of Directors in government business enterprises in which more than 10.000 workers are employed (Çelikkol, 1974: 248-249). The law numbered 440 and the regulations issued for its application was applied in a very limited sense since the establishment size was defined very high and therefore the number of representatives was inadequate (Tokol, 2005: 92). The law numbered 440 was abolished with the laws numbered 2929 on 1983 and the introduced law did not include any provisions concerning the representation of workers in the board of directors; and also the bylaw dated 1984 and numbered 23 did not introduce any provisions when it abolished the law numbered 2929 (Ünsal, 2006: 95). Either in the workplace level or enterprise level, a participation right has never existed in our country except for some exceptional cases (Hekimler, 2006: 196). Between 1960 and 1980, trade unions such as Asis, Dev Sağlık-ĠĢ, Sosyal-ĠĢ, Yer altı Maden-ĠĢ, Türkiye Gıda-ĠĢ, Devrimci Metal –ĠĢ, Dev Maden-Sen, Tekges-ĠĢ, TĠS, Devrimci Toprak-ĠĢ, Maden-ĠĢ, Tek Eğitim Büro-ĠĢ had an experience with their regulations and activities which included workplace council, committee or assemblies were established. These structures were regarded as improving the intra-union democracy, rather than being an alternative to trade unions. Also, the workplace committees which remained silent after September 12 came into the agenda once again after the end of 1980s. Harb-ĠĢ Union which is a part of Türk-ĠĢ had the workplace committees application which consisted of 2 representatives in larger undertakings and 1 in smaller undertakings and gathering every month around 1986 (Aslan, 1998b: 158-159). Recently, at least partially, some worker‘s council applications can be encountered. Some trade unions began to establish relations with the EWCs of the workplaces they are organised in. Also, there are EWCs in some of the workplaces in which the larger unions are organised. However, in very few of these workplaces a representative, in the observer status from Turkey is sent to the EWC. In this matter, Hak-ĠĢ Confederation and Konya Metropolitan Municipality have taken an important step with the ―Konya Workplace Information and Consultation Councils Project‖. With the project, an original model was attempted to be established which will constitute the basis for the legal regulations that our country 318 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo will perform in the future concerning ―Workplace Information and Consultation Councils‖ and it has been put into practice in Konya Metropolitan Municipality as of September 20, 2007 (Hak-iĢ and KBB, 2007: 51-52). As it can be seen in the development plans, as the EU membership efforts gained speed since 1990s, regulations concerning the participation of employees began to exist wihin the matters of adaptation to EU directives and ILO norms. Especially the plans numbered 6, 7, 8 and 9 include commitments for these purpose (DPT, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2006). When the commission report concerning the worker participation in Turkish National Program was examined (DPT, 2007: 89-90); while partial conformity to the directives concerning the cooperation between the parties of work life and information and consultation methods in EU acquis was established (for instance, establishment of triple consultation council, abolition of some limitations before unionist organisation with the amendment on the Law of Public Employees‘ Unions numbered 4688), it is required that current information and consultation mechanisms should be strengthened, triple social dialogue in the national level as well as bilateral dialogue in the sectoral and business level should be developed, and EU directives such as ―EWCs‖, ―participation of employees of European companies‖, and ―information of employees of undertakings‖ should be conformed to. When the Labour Law numbered 4857 concerning the participation rights of the employees related to information and consultation is examined, articles which formally or indirectly regulate this structure can be observed. Along with some articles concerning information and consultation in the Labour Law, there are also council structure which provide worker participation. Articles 8, 13, 17, 22, 29, 38, 39, 52 and 77 of the Labour Law numbered 4857 are related to the information and representation of the employees (Resmi Gazete, 2003). In the Labour Law numbered 4857, although there are some articles concerning information and consultation, it is somewhat difficult to say that they conform with the content of information and consultation as provided in EWCs. Although there is a regulation concerning giving information to employers and providing participation of employees in matters such as collective redundancies, wage cut penalties, minimum wage, percentage method, occupational health and security and formation tripartite consultation council, what attracts attention is that this obligation is given for workplace union representative and related trade union while nonunion employees cannot benefit from these rights. Moreover, employees in Turkey are also represented in various social dialogue structures. Among these, Tripartite Consultation Council, Work Assembly, Economic and Social Council; Minimum Wage Determination Commission and YHK focusing on a certain part of work life can be mentioned. Besides, Social Security Institution and Labour Institution of Turkey which work on the general assembly and the management councils of the institutions concerning the work life and Occupational Training Council, Council for the Disabled, Consumers‘ Council and Tax Council which concern the work life indirectly can be mentioned (Koray and Çelik, 2007: 395-396). The most important thing to be said about these institutions are that the employees are represented through the representatives determined by the trade unions only organised in their workplaces and having the most members. Besides, all these councils cannot reflect the social dialogue completely. In the Minimum Wage Determination Commission which has an important place among the councils of tripartite structure, decisions are not taken unanimously, and the minimum wage is usually determined despite the dissenting opinion of the workers‘ confederation. A similar condition is also valid for the ESC which became legal in 2001. The dominant role of the government within the structure of the council whose purposes are to provide social consensus and cooperation in establishing economic and social policies, to create a continuous and permanent environment, to transfer the opinions to decision making organs creates problems. In member states of the European Union, it can be observed that such committees are formed with an understanding in which social groups are widely represented distant from government domination (ġahin, 2003: 68-69). Social parties find the role of the government in the social dialogue inadequate and inefficient, and demand from it to change its oppressive role to a more listening stance which does not act on its own. In the matter of developing a behaviour code to which all parties would agree by the government, it has been expressed that DĠSK and Türk-ĠĢ has demands as well as TĠSK (Valk and Süral, 2005: 50-51). However, lack of cooperation culture between the government and social parties prevents agreement and weakness of social parties also weakens their negotiation skills (Kayhan, 2007: 72). Since ESC is unsuccessful in providing an effective consultation between social partners in the national level, it has been criticised by the EU and it is argued that the government should decrease its number of representation. For these reasons, the government expressed that it intends to review the composition of ESC and especially its own dominant position in 2005. Although all social parties have responsibility in the success of social dialogue, the actual responsibility belongs to the government in this matter. If the government contributes in the serious functioning of ESC, it would have taken a big step towards the development of social dialogue (Yildirim and Calis, 2008: 225). The decision to start the negotiations with Turkey in the Brussels summit in December 17, 2004 is a new phase in the EU process and it will probably be shaped within this framework in the following 10 to 20 years. Also, the least interested among two constitutional amendments and seven harmonization packages within 319 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo the EU harmonization procedure of Turkey were social law and policies (Çelik, 2005: 23-25). Lack of interest on this field in which the most enthusiastic debates should have occurred show that the problems still wait for solutions. EU candidacy procedure of Turkey develops on one hand with developments required for integration and on the other hand the conflict of interest among the parties which want to be effective within this development. In this phase of development and progress, the conditions which the preservation of status quo prevents protection of rights cause pauses and deviations. In countries where bilateral and tripartite agreements are used as effective social dialogue tools in the national level, matters such as protection and development of competitive power of agreements, balanced economic growth, establishment of economic stability, development of employment and decrease of unemployment, active employment policies, tax and income policies, social security, training and occupational training, labour laws, discrimination, etc. are involved. From this point, the developments in Turkey are not institutionalised, therefore deficient and lacks actual results. Procedures such as ESC efforts, labour law and social security laws could only be formally existent and virtually ineffective under the domination of government policies or the stronger party (Çelebi, 2007). According to Dereli (2007), it is required that conformity to EU Directives which regulate the participation of employees in workplaces should be provided in the process of conformity with EU acquis. Removal of the provision which allowed election of workers‘ representatives in workplaces which did not have union representatives from the draft law 4857 created a gap in the legislation especially in terms of information and consultation related to collective redundancies, transfer of workplace, etc. In this matter, Turkey is required to make legislations in line with the directives which include information and consultation of at least the employees employed in the undertakings of national level or establishing workplace councils. Also, an intensive process is expected in the future period. In our country, the legislations to which could not be harmonized with the EU acquis and will be introduced with the following directives would introduce new and important concepts and institutions in the Turkish work life; — Directive 2009/38/EC on the establishment of a European Works Council for the purposes of informing and consulting employees, — Directive 2002/14 establishing a general framework for informing and consulting employees, — Directive 2001/86/EC for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees. Political conditions peculiar to Turkey and competitive power discourses of Turkey are two important obstacles before the EU harmonization process. Although first one is partially overcome, the other discourse is difficult to overcome and it is only possible by distancing from the paternalist and neo-liberal line (Çelik, 2005: 43-45). However, Turkey generally accepts the EU directives with tactics such as nonconformity, extending over a period of time or delaying – as in ILO norms. It also accepts the current applications either late, or with reservations or not implementing them in the national law; thus is criticised in international supervision. Also, required steps concerning political rights and freedoms in the EU process are not conformed to because of excuses such as they do not conform with the dynamics of Turkey and would weaken the structure of the country. It is observed that wider social groups in Turkey (employer-employee unions, academics, government and EU organs) have varying opinions in this matter (Çelik, 2005: 26-27). Conclusion The fact that the scope of Turkish Industrial Relations system is narrow, that it includes detailed legal provisions and dominant role of the state within the system caused negative consequences in terms of participation of employees. It was quite difficult for the employees in Turkey to have power or legislation to have a say in determining the economic and social policies because of reasons such as late capitalism, late working class and late democratisation. As a matter of fact, even today, employees have difficulties in using their universal rights. When one looks at the rights to participation in Turkey, the basic method of representation is trade union and collective bargaining structure either in the micro (undertaking) or macro (national) level. Those who are represented within this structure constitute only 10-15% of the wage earners. Workplace participation methods other than this are almost nonexistent. Taking into consideration the non-unions, those who are not included within the Labour Law and those who are not legally employed, a great majority of the employees in Turkey lack the right to representation and say. 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Extent The size or duration of the resource. 186 Title A name given to the resource Right to Information and Consultation of Employees: Evaluation of EU Directives in Turkey Author Author ERDOĞAN, Ekrem GÜMÜŞ, Yasin Kerem Abstract A summary of the resource. In Turkish, because of the definitive role of the state, attitude of employers and powerlessness of the working class, the employers do not effectively have a say. In the EU, the employees participate their workplaces in various methods as a part of European Social Model. However, in the reconstruction process in the EU, labour and its participation methods remained local in the European scale despite the globalisation of capital especially with the increase of activities and relationships of MNCs. At this point, to reduce the differences arising from national applications and the effects of the process of reconstruction, the Commission has created a number of directives in order to provide the right to information and consultation of employees. These directives became important also for Turkey as of membership negotiations. This article aims to examine the employee participation in Turkey and indicate the possible effects of EU information and consultation directives. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/b8cdcd23b4983134e5800dec6c6b1df6.pdf b0da2ae361f3664c0af7253836640273 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo International English Abbreviations:Manifestation of Proficiency in English Assist. Prof.Dr. Gencer Elkılıç Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters Department of English Language and Literature, Kars,Turkey gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Instr. Hayrettin Köroğlu Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Erzurum, Turkey hkoroglu08@hotmail.com Abstract: English abbreviations used on an international scale are of vital importance in the daily usage of English not only speaking, but also in listening, reading and writing. In order to be proficient in English, besides knowing the structures, vocabulary and other aspects of the language, EFL learners should be equipped with standard uses of international abbreviations such as WHO, ILO, and UN. To this end, 45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced students, studying at Kafkas University, Turkey, were assigned as the subjects of the study. The participants were given 20 most commonly used international English abbreviations in written form and they were asked to write how much they know them. The results were evaluated using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, USA UK ,and NATO were known by the participants (100%) as they are encountered not only in the textbooks and materials but also in the media, however the least known abbreviations were ECHR 0(0%), RSVP 0(0%) and ILO 02(2,4%), respectively. The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students (p>0,05). Keywords: International, abbreviations, Kafkas University, EFL, proficiency. Introduction Foreign or second language learning is a process which relies heavily on a continuous study and practice. In this respect, there has been abundant research on the theories of language teaching and learning (Koike, 1980; Bloom, 2000; Foster-Cohen,2001; Diessel, 2004; Blommaert, 2006; Ellis& LarsenFreeman,2006;House, 2006; Lanksmanan, 2006) as well as language transfer (Selinker& Lanshmanan, 1993; Jarvis,2000; Pavlenko, 2000; Odlin, 2003;) and change (Hughes, 1988; McArthur, 1998; Croft, 2000; Fitch, 2005; ) in order to contribute to the acquisition of second or foreign language. In the last three decades English language has been very important all over the world due to partly the power of the US in the military affairs and to partly the scientific developments carried out in English. As Crystal (2003) maintains “you hear it on television spoken by politicians from all over the world. Wherever you travel, you see English signs and advertisements. Whenever you enter a hotel or restaurant in a foreign city, they will understand English, and there will be an English menu” (p.19). For Crystal “There is the closest of links between language dominance and economic, technological, and cultural power, too, and this relationship will become increasingly clear as the history of English is told” (p.7). Therefore, English language is almost the global language of the world. From health issues to environmental, technical matters and internet communications almost everything is in English. Crystal (2003) maintains that “without a strong power-base, of whatever kind, no language can make progress as an international medium of communication. Language has no independent existence, living in some sort of mystical space apart from the people who speak it. Language exists only in the brains and mouths and ears and hands and eyes of its users. When they succeed, on the international stage, their language succeeds. When they fail, their language fails” (p.7). According to McCrum et al., (2002) “today, English is used by at least 750 million people, and barely half of those speak it as a mother tongue. Some estimates have put that figure closer to one billion. 90 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Whatever the total, English at the end of the twentieth century is more widely scattered, more widely spoken and written, than any other language has ever been. It has become the language of the planet, the first truly global language” (pp. 9–10). As English language is so common in the world, it is inevitable that abbreviations of English are also used commonly all over the world. On the other hand, with the exceptions of dictionaries and a few Internet sources, it is difficult to encounter scientific studies on the common international abbreviations. Problem International abbreviations used in the textbooks and media are sometimes given in their long forms and can be understood by language learners easily, however, if they aren’t given in long forms they cannot be understood by Turkish EFL students. Purpose of the Study The aim of the study is to shed light on the importance of international English abbreviations for EFL learners and determine whether Turkish EFL learners know them sufficiently or not. Methodology Subjects 45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced-level students, studying at Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey participated in this study. Instrument A questionnaire, containing 20 commonly used international abbreviations, formed by the researcher was used in this study. The first part of the questionnaire aimed to solicit information related to the classes and genders of the participants. The second part aimed to elicit information on how much the participants knew the given twenty common international abbreviations and where they learned them from. To this end, a five-point Likert type scale was used (1.Know exactly, 2. Know, 3. Not sure, 4. Don’t know, and 5. Don’t know at all). For the statistics SPSS 17 was used. Data were evaluated through Descriptive Statistics and Independent Sample ttest. Procedure In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, a plot study was carried out on 30 students and the reliability Cronbach’s Alpha was computed as 0,67 reliable. As Özdamar (1999, p.522) maintains “if Alpha is higher than 0,60 and lower than 0,80, the scale is very reliable”. Research Questions 1.How much do the EFL students know common international abbreviations? 2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender? 3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level? Results and Dicussion The genders and levels of the participants have been given in Table 1. Level Intermediate Advanced Total Gender Male N 16 13 29 % 35,6 32,5 44,0 Female N 29 27 56 % 64,4 67,5 66,0 Table 1.Genders and Levels of the Participants 91 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo According to Table 1, 29 (44%) of the students were males and 56(66%) were females. Of 85 students 45(53%) were intermediate level, whereas 40(47%) were advanced level. Source Textbooks and materials TV and similar sources Friends and teachers Total Frequency 32 44 09 85 % 37,6 51,8 10,6 100,0 Table 2. Sources the Participants Learn the International English Abbreviations It is seen in Table 2 that students learn the International abbreviations from TV and similar sources 44(51,8%), textbooks and materials 32(37,6%), and friends and teachers 9(10,6%), respectively. It can be said that textbooks and materials do not contain enough information related with the abbreviations. Answers to the Research Questions Don’t Know Exactly Don’t Know Not Sure Know Abbreviation Exactly Know 1.How much do the EFL students know common international abbreviations? According to the results of the study, participants could mostly know the very common abbreviations used in the textbooks or media, however, they couldn’t know the ones which weren’t found in the textbooks. The frequencies and percentages of the participants responses have been given in Table 3. As seen in Table3, the highest frequencies of their awareness of common international abbreviations are USA 82(96,5%) exactly know, 03(3,5%) know, UK 81(95,3%) exactly know, 04(4,7%) know, NATO 72(84,7%) exactly know, 13(15,3%)know, respectively. F % f % f % f % f % WHO 35 41,2 19 22,4 09 10,6 18 21,2 4 04,7 ILO UN EU NATO UK USA FAO UNESCO PC CV NASA PM MA PhD OPEC VIP ECHR RSVP UNICEF 02 48 57 72 81 82 01 39 48 46 40 03 00 04 02 40 00 00 10 02,4 56,5 67,1 84,7 95,3 96,5 01,2 45,9 56,5 54,1 47,1 3,5 00 4,7 02,4 47,1 00 00 11,8 05 28 19 13 04 03 08 32 13 21 27 3 12 14 03 24 00 01 38 5,9 32,9 22,4 15,3 04,7 03,5 09,4 37,6 15,3 24,7 31,8 3,5 14,1 16,5 03,5 28,2 00 01,2 44,7 14 06 05 00 00 00 46 12 15 10 10 16 16 19 11 01 04 02 30 16,5 07,1 05,9 00,0 00,0 00,0 54,1 14,1 17,6 11,8 11,8 18,8 18,8 22,4 12,9 01,2 04,7 02,4 35,3 45 03 04 00 00 00 30 02 09 08 08 48 43 40 49 12 42 38 06 52,9 03,5 04,7 00 00 00 35,3 02,4 10,6 09,4 09,4 56,5 50,6 47,1 57,6 14,1 49,4 44,7 07,1 19 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 14 08 20 08 39 44 01 22,4 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 16,5 09,4 23,5 09,4 45,9 51,8 01,2 Table 3.Frequencies and Percentages of the Responses of Participants 92 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The lowest ones are ECHR 00(0%) exactly know, 00(00%) know, RSVP 00(0%) know exactly, 01(1,2%) know, and ILO 02(2,4%) exactly know, 05(5,9%) know, respectively. It is clear that the highest frequencies belong to the items used in daily life almost everyday in the textbooks, media and vice versa. However, even though used commonly in the world, the abbreviations ECHR, RSVP , and ILO do not exist in the textbooks so often, therefore participants mustn’t have learned them. 2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender? Gender N Male Female 29 56 X 52,21 52,00 S sd t p 7,07 6,12 83 ,140 ,89 Table 4.Aswers of the Students and their Genders It is clear in table 4 that there is no significant difference between male and female students in answering the abbreviations, t(83)=,140, p>,05. 3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level? Gender N Intermediate Advanced 45 40 X 53,27 50,73 S sd t p 7,10 5,33 83 1,85 ,07 Table 5. Aswers of the Students and their Levels It can be seen in Table 5 that there is no significant difference between intermediate and advanced level students, t(83)=1,85, p>,05. It can be inferred that since the same abbreviations are mostly given in the textbooks and materials implicitly, both intermediate and advanced students know similar, if not the same, abbreviations. Conclusion Knowing a language proficiently is a challenging process as it requires micro skills as well as macro skills. Therefore, Turkish EFL students learning English should learn the structures, vocabulary, cultural norms, proper pronunciations, dialectical variations, and formal and informal uses of English language in order to be proficient enough. The result of the study showed that Turkish EFL students could know the common English international abbreviations if they encounter in their textbooks and materials, yet if they do not encounter in the textbooks and materials, they couldn’t know. There was no significant difference between intermediate and advanced students (p>0,05) in relation to knowing international abbreviations. It is clear that students do not go beyond surface level of them even they study years. Therefore, in order for them to understand such abbreviations students 1. should be given abbreviations explicitly. 2. should realize the importance of them. 3. should be given textbooks and materials aiming to instruct such abbreviations. 93 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Bloom, P. (2000). How children learn the meanings of words. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Blommaert, J. (2006) Discourse: A Critical Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Croft, W. (2000). Explaining language change: an evolutionary approach. London: Longman. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a Global Language, second edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Diessel, H. (2004). The acquisition of complex sentences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, N. C. & Larsen-Freeman, D. (2006). Language emergence: Implications for applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics 27(4): 558–589. Fitch, W. T. (2005). The evolution of language: a comparative review. Biology and Philosophy 20: 193–230. Foster-Cohen, S. 2001. First language acquisition ... second language acquisition: ‘What’s Hecuba to him or he to Hecuba?’. Second Language Research 17: 329–344. House, J. (2006). Constructing a context with intonation. Journal of Pragmatics 38(10): 1542–1558. Hughes, G.(1988). Words in time. Oxford: Blackwell. Jarvis, S. (2000).Methodological rigor in the study of transfer: Identifying L1 influence. Language Learning 50: 245–309. Koike, I. (1980). Second Language Acquisition of Grammatical Structures and Relevant Verbal Strategies. PhD dissertation, Georgetown University. Lakshmanan, U. (2006). Child second language acquisition and fossilization puzzle. In Studies of Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition, Z. Han & T. Odlin (eds.), 100–133. Clevedon: MultilingualMatters. McArthur, Tom. (1998). The English languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCrum, R., Cran, W. and Macneil, R. (2002) The Story of English, third edition, London: Faber and Faber/BBC Books. Odlin, T. (2003). Cross-linguistic influence. In The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition, C. Doughty & M. Long (eds.), 436–486. Oxford: Blackwell. Özdamar, K.(1999).Paket Programlarla Đstatistiksel Veri Analizi I. 2.Baskı.Eskişehir: Kaan Kitabevi. Pavlenko, A. (2000). L2 influence on L1 in late bilingualism. Issues in Applied Linguistics 11: 175–205. Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. (1993). Language transfer and fossilization: The “Multiple Effects Principle.” In Language Transfer in Language Learning (rev. ed.), S.Gass & L. Selinker (eds.), 197–216. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 94 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 401 Title A name given to the resource International English Abbreviations:Manifestation of Proficiency in English Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer Köroğlu, Hayrettin Abstract A summary of the resource. English abbreviations used on an international scale are of vital importance in the daily usage of English not only speaking, but also in listening, reading and writing. In order to be proficient in English, besides knowing the structures, vocabulary and other aspects of the language, EFL learners should be equipped with standard uses of international abbreviations such as WHO, ILO, and UN. To this end, 45 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced students, studying at Kafkas University, Turkey, were assigned as the subjects of the study. The participants were given 20 most commonly used international English abbreviations in written form and they were asked to write how much they know them. The results were evaluated using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, USA UK ,and NATO were known by the participants (100%) as they are encountered not only in the textbooks and materials but also in the media, however the least known abbreviations were ECHR 0(0%), RSVP 0(0%) and ILO 02(2,4%), respectively. The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students (p>0,05). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ab5eb1ca628fc62598a9d64804bc80bb.pdf f2dceca9ad59e2fb8767b0ef96f8ccc2 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Turkish EFL Students’ Failure of the Use of Interjections Properly: The Example of Kafkas Univeristy Assist. Prof.Dr. Gencer ELKILIÇ Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters Department of English Language and Literature, Kars,Turkey Gencerelkilic1322@hotmail.com Assist.Prof.Dr.Bilal GENÇ Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters Department of English Language and Literature, Kars,Turkey bgenc@hotmail.com Abstract: Interjections in English are very complex and confusing elements of the language for EFL learners. However, EFL learners have to know enough number of them in order to carry out daily conversations English with native speakers as well as nonnative speakers properly. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the awareness of Turkish EFL learners of the use of interjections. To this end, 42 intermediate-level EFL students (10 males and 32 females) and 40 advanced students (9 males and 31 females) , attending to classes regularly at Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey, were the subjects of the study. The participants were given 36 types of interjections wanted to identify which interjections they knew. The responses of the subjects were assessed using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, interjection “good ” was known by 75(97,5%) participants, “hello” by 75 (92,7%), and “goodbye” was known by 69 (91,5%) participants. On the other hand, the least known interjections were As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 03 (3,6%), “alas” 3(3,6%) ,and “bah” 04 (4,8%). The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students in knowing interjections. (p>0,05). Keywords: Interjections, Kafkas University, EFL, conversations. Introduction Interjections are very important in daily conversations and, therefore, have a direct effect on the listener and speaker. As Hişmanoğlu (2010) states “…the functions expressed by interjections are typically emotional, such as pleasure, surprise, pity, hesitation, greeting, pain, pleading, etc.” (p.22). Such features of the language are considered among the pragmatic components. Therefore, in order for non-native speakers to be proficient in the target language, besides grammatical structures and vocabulary, they have to know the pragmatic components of that language. Çelik (2009) supports this idea as he maintains “sentences are only a part of the overall fabric of the verbal (or written). Therefore, in addition to the concepts of syntactic and semantic wellformedness, pragmatic well-formedness is also required. This is achieved through pragmatic competence”(p.236). According to Bachman, (1990, cited in Hişmanoğlu, 2010) “pragmatic competence includes both illocutionary competence and sociolinguistic competence. While illocutionary competence refers to the functional use of language, sociolinguistic competence refers to the appropriateness of an utterance to context “ (p.21). On the other hand, much as there has been much research on the different aspects of foreign and second language learning and teaching over the last two score years (Jones and Charlton, 1996; Andrews, 1998; Gewehr et al., 1998; Berk, 2000; Davies, 2000; Fischer, 2000; Brooke, 2001; Crystal, 2001; Colaizzi, 2002; Crystal, 2003; Dörnyei, 2003; Wierzbicka, 2003; Miller, & Endo, 2004; Erbe, 2007; Weeks, 2007), except for a few studies (Wilkins, 1992;Trask, 1993; Crystal, 1995; Li, 2005; Essberger, 2009; Hişmanoğlu, 2010; ) there is no detailed research on the interjections. 21 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Definition The Columbia Encyclopedia defines interjections as “part of speech consisting of exclamatory words such as oh, alas, and ouch”. According to vikipedia “The word "interjection" literally means "thrown in between" from the Latin inter ("between") and iacere ("throw"). Interjections are generally uninflected function words and have sometimes been seen as sentence-words, because they can replace or be replaced by a whole sentence (they are holophrastic)”. In vikipedia also it is stated that “in grammar, an interjection or exclamation is a lexical category used as a way to refer to some mentioned or understood noun without a grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence, by simply expressing an isolated emotion on the part of the speaker (although most interjections have clear definitions).” As the definitions indicate, interjections are not connected to other parts of the sentences in the grammatical sense, rather they are separate words or utterances showing emotion. Problem Interjections used in daily conversations and writing are very important as they indicate the emotions of the speakers and writers. Yet, in the foreign language situation, lack of interjections or improper use of them cause misunderstandings. Purpose of the Study The aim of the study is to show the importance of English interjections for EFL learners and determine whether Turkish EFL learners know them sufficiently or not. Methodology Subjects 42 intermediate-level EFL students and 40 advanced-level students, studying at Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey, participated in this study. Instrument A questionnaire, containing 36 interjections in English, formed by the researcher was used in this study. The first part of the questionnaire aimed to solicit information related to the classes and genders of the participants. The second part aimed to elicit information on how much the participants knew the given 36 interjections. A five-point Likert-type scale was used to elicit information (1.Know exactly, 2. Know, 3. Not sure, 4. Don’t know, and 5. Don’t know at all). For the statistics SPSS 17 was used. Data were evaluated through Descriptive Statistics and Independent Sample t-test. Procedure In order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, a plot study was carried out on 35 students and the reliability Cronbach’s Alpha was computed as 0,792 reliable, which is very reliable. Research Questions 1.How much do the EFL students know English interjections? 2.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender in knowing interjections? 3.Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level? 22 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results The genders and levels of the participants have been given in Table 1. Gender Male Female N % N % Intermediate 10 24 32 66 Advanced 09 22,5 31 77,5 Total 19 23,2 63 76,8 Table 1.Genders and Levels of the Participants In Table 1, it is seen that 19 (23,24%) of the students were males and 63 (76,8%) were females. Of 82 students, 42 (66%) were intermediate level, while 40(44%) were advanced level. Answers to the Research Questions Level Ah Aha Ahem Alas Bah Damn Eh Fie Good Goodby Goodness Ha Hello Hem Ho Hum Hurrah Lo My Now Ohh Ouch Pooh Pshaw Pugh Rot Shoo Shoot Shucks So There Ugh Well Whew Woow 43 52,4 28 34,1 07 08,5 02 02,4 38 46,3 24 29,3 06 07,3 08 09,8 08 09,8 05 06,1 14 17,1 17 20,7 02 02,4 01 01,2 05 06,1 24 29,3 02 02,4 02 02,4 06 07,3 20 24,4 24 29,3 09 11,0 07 08,5 11 13,4 22 26,8 22 26,8 15 18,3 11 13,4 05 06,1 02 02,4 05 06,1 27 32,9 71 86,6 09 11,0 02 02,4 00 000 66 80,5 09 11,0 04 04,9 03 03,7 51 62,2 23 28,0 04 04,9 03 03,7 17 20,7 30 36,6 18 22,0 06 07,3 71 86,6 05 06,1 02 02,4 01 01,2 12 14,6 16 19,5 11 13,4 15 18,3 05 06,1 04 04,9 23 28,0 14 17,1 02 02,4 12 14,6 19 23,2 11 13,4 20 24,4 18 22,0 09 11,0 13 15,9 10 12,4 04 04,9 09 11,0 23 28,0 62 75,6 13 15,9 04 04,9 02 02,4 63 76,8 11 13,4 05 06,1 02 02,4 54 65,9 11 13,4 11 13,4 06 07,3 17 20,7 07 08,5 09 11,0 17 20,7 07 08,5 04 04,9 17 20,7 14 17,1 01 01,2 02 02,4 12 14,6 11 13,4 01 01,2 01 01,2 10 12,2 22 26,8 03 03,7 04 04,9 10 12,2 15 18,3 04 04,9 03 03,7 16 19,5 16 19,5 21 25,6 14 17,1 20 24,4 10 12,2 17 20,7 07 08,5 06 07,3 19 23,2 57 69,5 12 14,6 05 06,1 06 07,3 54 65,9 09 11,0 11 13,4 03 03,7 22 26,8 10 12,2 13 15,9 16 19,5 60 73,2 09 11,0 05 06,1 06 07,3 05 06,1 04 04,9 24 29,3 22 26,8 51 62,2 06 07,3 03 03,7 12 14,6 Table 2. Frequencies and Percentages of the Responses of Participants 23 Not know at all Not Know Not Sure Know Exactly Know Interjection Research Question One: How much do the EFL students know English interjections? 02 06 38 50 52 31 12 43 00 00 01 11 03 28 36 38 22 36 01 01 00 32 40 56 48 50 43 17 33 02 05 21 02 27 10 02,4 07,3 46,3 61,0 63,4 37,8 14,6 52,4 00,0 00,0 01,2 13,4 03,7 34,1 43,9 46,3 26,8 43,9 01,2 01,2 00,0 39,0 48,8 68,3 58,5 61,0 52,4 20,7 40,2 02,4 06,1 25,6 02,4 32,9 12,2 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The responses of the students have been given in Table 2. According to Table 2, the highest frequencies of their awareness of interjections are “good” 71(86,6%) exactly know, 09 (11%) know, “hello” 71(86,6%) exactly know, 05(6,1%) know, and “goodbye” 66 (80,5%) exactly know, 09 (11%)know, respectively. As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 01(1,2%) exactly know, 02 (2,4 %) know, “alas” 02 (2,4%) exactly know, 01(1,2 %) know, “bah” (2,4 %) exactly know, 02 (2,4 %) know, respectively. It is clear in Table 2 that students know mostly the interjections they encounter very often in daily life situations. Research Question Two: Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their gender and knowing interjections? Gender N Male Female 19 63 X 96,79 97,33 S sd t p 15,18 14,29 80 ,143 ,87 Table 3. Answers of the Students and their Genders It is clear in table 4 that there is no significant difference between male and female students in knowing the interjections, t(80)=,143, p>,05. Research Question Three: Is there a significant difference between EFL students in relation to their level? Gender N Intermediate Advanced 42 40 X 99,52 94,77 S sd t p 11,77 16,55 80 1,85 ,137 Table 4. Answers of the Students and their Levels It is seen in Table 4 that there is no significant difference between intermediate and advanced level students in knowing the interjections, t(80)=1,85, p>,05. In this respect it can be inferred that since the same or similar interjections are used in the commercially prepared materials for classroom uses, they do not help students improve their levels. Discussion and Conclusion Interjections are very important in performing daily conversations, however, there are not enough number of studies on English interjections. In a study of interjections on EFL students at European University of Lefke, Hişmanoğlu found out that non-native first year students mostly misused the given common twelve interjections. According to Hişmanoğlu (2010)”Lack of pragmatic competence on the part of the learner may result in undesirable misunderstandings which can give rise to a breakdown of communication”(p.21). This study is in parallel with Hişmanoğlu’s study, as EFL students at Kafkas University know only the very common interjections well. When the genders of the students are taken into account, it is clear that there was no scientifically significant difference between the male and female students (p>,05). Another striking result was that there was no difference between intermediate and advanced students (p>,05). So, it can be concluded that the knowledge of interjections do not improve in parallel with the level of the students. As a result, there are some ways to help students improve their interjection knowledge. 1.EFL students should be taught interjections through authentic materials such as commercially made videos and type records. 2.New textbooks and audio-lingual materials containing all aspects of interjections should be prepared by professionals. 3. Cultural differences between the interjections of English and Turkish should be taught comparatively. 4.Non-native teachers should be given trainings on interjections. 5.Students should be encouraged to use interjections in their conversation classes as well as in other classes. 24 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References Andrews, L. (1998). Language Exploration and Awareness: A Resource Book for Teachers (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=35518801 Berk, R. A. (2000). Does Humor in Course Tests Reduce Anxiety and Improve Performance?. College Teaching, 48(4), 151. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com /PM.qst?a=o& d=5001119301 Brooke, S. (2001). GENDER AND WORKING CLASS IDENTITY IN BRITAIN DURING THE 1950s. Journal of Social History, 34(4), 773. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001028678 Çelik, M.(2009). Linguistics for Students of English .Volume II. Lecture Notes. Ankara: EDM publishing. Colaizzi, P. F. (2002). Psychotherapy and Existential Therapy. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 33(1), 73+. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d= 5000610887 Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP. Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Retrieved March 11, 2010 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-interjec.html. -------- (2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105004792 -------- (2003). English as a Global Language (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=107346225 Davies, C. (2000). 7 ‘correct’ or ‘appropriate’?. In Issues in English Teaching, Davison, J. & Moss, J. (Eds.) (pp. 105-118). London: Routledge. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102759344 Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in Second Language Research: Construction, Administration, and Processing. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104938821 Erbe, B. (2007). Reducing Test Anxiety While Increasing Learning: The Cheat Sheet. College Teaching, 55(3), 96+. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=5022433577 Essberger, J. (2009). Interjections. Retrieved February 10, 2009 from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/ interjections.htm. Fischer, K. (2000). From Cognitive Semantics to Lexical Pragmatics: The Functional Polysemy of Discourse Particles. New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=114475025 Gewehr, W., Catsimali, G., Faber, P., Raya, M. J., & Peck, A. J. (1998). Aspects of Modern Language Teaching in Europe. London: Routledge. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102955357 Hişmanoğlu, M. (2010). Interjectıons in Englısh: Neglected but Important Aspect of Foreign Language Learnıng and Teachıng.Journal of Theory and Practice in Education.6(1), 17-35. Jones, K., & Charlton, T. (1996). Overcoming Learning and Behaviour Difficulties: Partnership with Pupils. New York: Routledge. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103077325. Li, Conghe. (2005). A cognitive-pragmatic account of interjections. US-China Foreign Language, 3(9), 65-70. 25 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Miller, P. C., & Endo, H. (2004). Understanding and Meeting the Needs of ESL Students. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(10), 786. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d= 5006720321 Trask, R.L. (1993). A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. London: Routledge. Vikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interjection (date 10.03.2010) Weeks, S. (2007). Instruction and Imagery in Proverbs 1-9. New York: Oxford University Press. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=116119890 Wierzbicka, A. (2003). Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: The Semantics of Human Interaction (2nd ed.). New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved May 17, 2010, from Questia database: http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=116134351 Wilkins, D. (1992). Interjections as deictics. Journal of Pragmatics,18, 119-158. 26 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 356 Title A name given to the resource Turkish EFL Students’ Failure of the Use of Interjections Properly: The Example of Kafkas Univeristy Author Author ELKILIÇ, Gencer GENÇ, Bilal Abstract A summary of the resource. Interjections in English are very complex and confusing elements of the language for EFL learners. However, EFL learners have to know enough number of them in order to carry out daily conversations English with native speakers as well as nonnative speakers properly. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the awareness of Turkish EFL learners of the use of interjections. To this end, 42 intermediate-level EFL students (10 males and 32 females) and 40 advanced students (9 males and 31 females) , attending to classes regularly at Kafkas University, Kars, Turkey, were the subjects of the study. The participants were given 36 types of interjections wanted to identify which interjections they knew. The responses of the subjects were assessed using SPSS 17 for windows. Descriptive statistics and Independent t-test were used for the assessment of the results. According to the result of the study, interjection “good ” was known by 75(97,5%) participants, “hello” by 75 (92,7%), and “goodbye” was known by 69 (91,5%) participants. On the other hand, the least known interjections were As for the lowest frequencies, they are “pshaw” 03 (3,6%), “alas” 3(3,6%) ,and “bah” 04 (4,8%). The results showed that there was no significant difference between male and female students as well as between intermediate an advanced students in knowing interjections. (p>0,05). Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)