56 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/7467df0ea083016ffc4640aa08ed0529.pdf 536d1511df78ea3bdba7bacd7801d9ec PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Economics of Boron Mining in Turkey Bayram KAHRAMAN Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Müh. Fak., Maden Müh. Bölümü, Izmir, Turkey bayram.kahraman@deu.edu.tr Abstract: Boron minerals are one of the most important richness of Turkey. Turkey has a great potential in boron minerals regards to the reserves and the quality of these minerals. Boron minerals have an intensive and increasing usage ranging from glass to detergent industry and in metallurgical, agricultural and nuclear applications. Despite the important potential, Turkey gains only an average of 300 million US Dollars per year. Therefore, this income should be increased proportionally to the potential. In this study, production and export of ETĠBOR A.ġ. since 1978, future targets are reviewed. Introduction Boron, which has the world's most common application, is one of the most important elements. This is why the industry is one of the most important foundation stones. Boron minerals are structures in different proportions of boron oxide (B2O3) which are naturally formed. There are over 200 naturally occurring boron containing minerals which have major commercial importance; tincal, colemanite, kernite, ulexite, pandermite, boracite, szaibelyite and hydroboracite (Table 1). Boron minerals in Turkey, which are widely available, are tincal, colemanite and ulexite. These minerals are sodium, calcium and sodium+calcium boron-based compounds. First of these minerals can be physically processed enriched (concentrated boron) can be refined later converted to a variety of boron chemicals (Köse et al., 2002). Mineral Tincal (natural borax) Kernite (rasortie) Ulexite (boronatrocalcite) Probertite (kramerite) Colemanite Priceite (pandermite) Boracite (stassfurite) Szaibelyite (ascharite) Hydroboracite Table 1: Chemical composition Na2B4O7 .10H2O Na2B4O7 .4H2O NaCaB5 O9 .8H2O NaCaB3O9.5H2O Ca2B6O11.5H2O CaB10O19.7H2O Mg3B7O13Cl MgBO2OH CaMgB6O11.6H2O % B2O3 36.5 51.0 43.0 49.6 50.8 49.8 62.2 41.4 50.5 Production Place Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç, A.B.D Kırka, A.B.D., Argentina Bigadiç, Kırka, Emet, Argentina Kestelek, Emet, A.B.D Emet, Bigadiç, Küçükler, A.B.D Sultançayır, Bigadiç Germany B.D.T. (Old S.S.C.B.) Emet Boron mineral which are commercially important [2] Boron is consumed mostly in the form of boron chemicals. Moreover, the concentration of boron can be consumed directly. Boron products are used in many areas including aerospace and aircraft, nuclear applications, military vehicles, fuel, electronics and communications industry, agriculture, glass industry, chemical and detergent industries, ceramic and polymeric materials, nanotechnology, automotive and energy sector, metallurgy and construction. Nearly 75% of boron products are consumed in glass, ceramic, agriculture and detergent industry (Figure 1). 502 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Figure 1. World Boron Consumption in Sectors The important boron deposits are located in Turkey, USA and Russia. Turkey has 72 percent of world reserves of boron (Table 2). Total Reserve Turkey1 USA2 Russia2 China2 Chile3 Bolivia3 Peru2 Argentina2 Serbia5 Iran2 Kazakhistan4 TOTAL Table 2: 866,000 80,000 100,000 47,000 41,000 19,000 22,000 9,000 16,200 1,000 1,201,200 Percent in Total (%) 72 7 8 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 100 World Boron Reserve (x103 Ton - B2O3) [Boron Sector Report 2009] 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Eti Mine reserves information was used in 2006. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2009, was taken. USGS Mineral Commodity Summariers, January 2002, was taken. Satimola region of Kazakhstan on the basis of reserves of 102 million tonnes B 2O3 at www.borates.co.uk is given as the other sources are given very different and contradictory figures, these figures reflected in the table. Given this value is 67 percent of ETI shares. 5. http://www.riotinto.com/whatweproduce/17056_inferred_resource_at_jadar_lithium_project.asp The borate deposits known in Turkey are especially located in EskiĢehir-Kırka, Balıkesir-Bigadiç, Bursa-Kestelek, and Kütahya-Emet (Figure 2). From two main ores, tincal and colemanite, boron and boron compounds are obtained. The important tincal deposits are in Kırka while the colemanite deposits are around Emet and Bigadiç. Ulexite is located in Bigadiç. Since the boron minerals in Turkey are only run by Eti Mine Works General Management. Eti Mine‘s operating base consists of five competitive mining operations: Kırka, Emet, Bigadiç and Kestelek (Table 3). 503 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Production Place Natural Borates Kırka, EskiĢehir Bigadiç, Balıkesir Emet, Kütahya Kestelek, Bursa TOTAL Tincal Colemanite, Ulexite Colemanite Colemanite Total Reserve (Million Ton) 750,620 623,459 1,682,562 6,995 3,063,636 Grade %B2O3 26 29-31 28-30 29 Table 3: Turkey Boron Reserves and Types [BOREN web pages, 2010] Figure 2: Sources of boron distribution in Turkey Trade of Turkey’s Boron Products Turkey owns the biggest and highest quality boron reserves in the world. Turkey is the largest boron producer and seller of the world. The entire boron demand in the domestic market is met. The most important countries in the world production of boron are Turkey, USA, Argentina, Russia, China, Chile, Bolivia and Peru. In 2008, global boron production was about 1.91 million tons of B2O3. The production of these countries is given in Table 4 (BOREN web pages, 2010). Countries Market ratio (%) Turkey 42 USA 35 Chile, Argentina, Bolivia and Peru 11 Russia and China 12 Table 4: Position of Turkey in World Boron Market 504 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Boron ore in the country is converted to concentrated boron (colemanite, ulexite, Tincal) and refined boron (boric acid, borax pentahydrate and borax decahydrate) products are sold to domestic and foreign markets. Boron concentrate production is done in Emet Kestelek and Bigadiç. Refined boron products are made in Kırka Bandırma and Emet (EMW, 2009). In Turkey, selling high value-added product (boron chemicals and equivalent) was identified as the main policy. As a result, while reducing the share of exports concentrated boron, increasing constantly share of boron chemicals and equivalent products. In 1998, 53 percent of total sales consisted of the sales of concentrated boron and 47 percent of total sales consisted of from the sales of boron chemicals and equivalent boron (Figure 3). In 2009, 96 percent of Turkey's total borax products sales revenue consisted of foreign sales. Borax pentahydrate has the highest share in boron chemicals exports. Boric acid is the second coming one. Covering the period 2002-2009 in Turkey concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products export sales are given in Figure 4 (EMW, 2008). Figure 3. Concentrated boron and boron chemicals and equivalent products sales of percentage in total sales Figure 4. Turkey Concentrate Boron, Boron Chemicals and Equivalent Products Exports (as the value US$) 505 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusions Boron ore is easily and economically obtained in Turkey. Even the B2O3 grade of boron stored in waste dams is higher than the B2O3 grade in lake waters of world‘s locomotive countries. For this reason, high grade and easily mineable boron ores make Turkey an advantageous country. While the boron market share of Turkey in the world during 1980‘s was 25% in terms of production, it has been achieved as 37 % in the year 2009. As Turkey and USA meet the boron demand of the world at a rate of 65-70 %, in the forthcoming years countries like Russia, China, Chile and Argentina have begun to take share in the international boron market. In the year 2009, Turkey has met the need at a rate of 37 % whereas USA met the need at a rate of 28 %. On the other hand, Turkey has sustained its leadership in the past year which it gained back in 2005. The total sale income of Turkey from boron products in 2009 was achieved as 451 million US$, 435 million US$ of which were in the form of export. The sale income of exported boron chemicals and equivalence has increased by 232 % when compared to 2002 and happened as 402 million US$. The revenue of world boron market is 1.5 billion US $ annually. Turkey, which owns 72% of the world boron reserves, get revenue of an average of 300 million US $. Turkey aims to increase its capacity and profit with the help of new investments. References EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management), web pages, http://www.etimaden.gov.tr EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2009), Boron Sector Report 2009 EMW (Eti Mine Works General Management) (2008), Activity Reports 2008. BOREN (National Boron Research Institute) web pages, http://www.boren.gov.tr/ KÖSE, H., BATAR, T., KAHRAMAN, B. (2002), Dünya Bor Statejisi ve Bor‘un Türkiye için Önemi, EGĠAD GiriĢimcilikYönetim-Ekonomi AraĢtırmalar Dizisi. 506 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 266 Title A name given to the resource Economics of Boron Mining in Turkey Author Author KAHRAMAN, Bayram Abstract A summary of the resource. Boron minerals are one of the most important richness of Turkey. Turkey has a great potential in boron minerals regards to the reserves and the quality of these minerals. Boron minerals have an intensive and increasing usage ranging from glass to detergent industry and in metallurgical, agricultural and nuclear applications. Despite the important potential, Turkey gains only an average of 300 million US Dollars per year. Therefore, this income should be increased proportionally to the potential. In this study, production and export of ETĠBOR A.ġ. since 1978, future targets are reviewed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/cebb5257720f2ca18089eed046ec1dd2.pdf 415cbec2229e9b52ae365a60432330e6 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Effects of Implementing to Total Quality Management on the Busıness Performance and a Research Mustafa HOTAMIġLI Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey hotamisli@aku.edu.tr Feyyaz YILDIZ Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey feyyaz.yildiz@gmail.com Ali ELEREN Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Afyon Kocatepe University Turkey eleren@aku.edu.tr Abstract: Total quality management (TQM) has been mentioned to have positive effect on business performance considerable attention in the literature and researches. The aim of this study is to analyse the performance changes in a shopping center. A research model was composed of four performances dimensions. Qualification and quantitive data of the model were groupped and evaluated by using statistical methods. In the end of the study, after implementing of TQM the performance increase was observed in the all sized of the business by years . Introduction With the increasing competitive, business survival pressure and the dynamic, changing customeroriented environment, total quality management (TQM) has been recognized as one of the important issues and generated a substantial amount of interest among managers and researchers (Samson and Terziovski, 1999, p. 393-409;Adam at all.,2001,p. 39-43; Samson and Daft, 2005, p.250-265). Some authors conclude that TQM positively influences business performance through the development of a series of competencies (Powell, 1995, p 15-37; Douglas and Judge, 2001, p. 158-169; Brah et all, 2002, p.356-379, Garcı et all.2010, 363-382). Furthermore TQM has an impact on the way organization members apply their knowledge in the organization, and therefore it affects organizational performance. Firms that focus on continuous improvement, involve and motivate employees to achieve quality output and focus on satisfying customers' needs are more likely to outperform firms that do not have this focus (Seth, and Tripathi, 2006, p.811-826; Joiner, 2007, p. 617-627; Jitpaiboon and Rao, 2007, p. 78-102). Business performance management (BPM) is a key business initiative that enables companies to align strategic and operational objectives with business activities in order to fully manage performance through better informed decision making and action. In other words, BPM is a process that enables to meet business performance measurements and objectives. It enables to proactively monitor and manage business processes, and take the appropriate actions that result in meeting objectives (Ballard et all. 2005. p.27-29; Alfaro et all.,2007, p. 643; Kanjı, 2002, p.1116). Business performance basicly composed of three approaches. Those are; financial; financial and operational; and organisational effectiveness (Venkatraman and Ramanujam, 1986,p .801-14). From other side business performance reviews put in action and bring the firm's performance measurement models to life, such as balanced scorecards, performance prisms, budgeting systems, assessment frameworks and accounting systems. (Martinez and Kennerley, 2009, p.12-21; Sardana, 2008, p. 32). 193 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Study In this section, information on purpose, scope, method of the application and model is provided. The purpose of this study is that comparative evaluation of performance results before and after TQM applications in an organization and investigating to what extend TQM applications contribute to the organization. The scope of is limited to 2005-2009 data from an shopping center in Afyonkarahisar, is a province of Turkey is a gas station belonging to the shopping center out of the building. As of 2007, the shopping center started using TQM applications. Performance model; this model was first used in Eleren and Soba (2009:1309). Originally, there are six dimensions and scales of the model. The model included marketing, finance, internal and external customer dimensions. To determine the dimensions of the model, the organization‘s database was used and the most appropriate ones were selected. Availability of database including questionnaire data administered to the internal and external customer of the organization in pervious years and finance and sale data affected determining these four dimensions. Data collection: In evaluating first two dimensions, a scale composed of likert-type questions was used. In the other two dimensions, quantitative data was used. Data was gathered from a large database including years between 2005 and 2009. BASIC DIMENSIONS 1. External Customers 2. Internal (Employees) Customers INDICATORS Customer Satisfaction Fidelity, Productivite 3. Marketing Function Market Performance 4. Financial Function Financial Performance SUB INDICATORS Re-De Cost/Quality Diversity Flexibility ………… …………… Job Satisfaction Working Conditions Fee and Responsibility Quality of Work life Job Healty and security ………… …………… Sales Market Shares Sales Refund ………… …………… liquidity Loans Profitability Action/Effectiveness Table-1: Proposed New Performance Model and Its Dimensions Findings In this section, four dimensions of the model are separately reported. Those are; Customer Satifaction Dimention, Employee Satisfaction Dimention, Market Performance Dimention, Fınancial Performance Dimention. Customer Satifaction Dimension; a questionnaire including five-point likert-type items were administered to customers between 144 and 172 to measure customer satisfaction. The results are provided the table below. 194 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Performance Criteria We have been getting sufficient and quick answers to our problems and complaints Product game is wide The staff is friendly and well dressed The products ratio of price / quality are appropriate Quality performance of business is high at all products and services of it Service areas are, clear,regular and sanitary Business provides convenience on chancing of the faulty products Business takes into account of our choices and tastes on it products Product price, quantity, manufacturer, manufacturing and expiry dates availables on labels The design of our products are suitable fashion and our tastes. Brands offered by the business is reliable and I always prefer Introductions of product are reasonable and attractive It has been providing convenience at the shoppings Products packages are adequate and attractive. AVR. N=2500 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 AVR. 2,58 2,61 3,22 3,45 4,68 3,31 2,78 2,89 2,74 2,94 3,43 3,2 3,53 3,39 3,61 3,46 3,22 3,18 2,91 2,87 3,34 3,36 3,28 3,15 2,65 2,68 3,15 3,11 3,44 3,01 2,41 2,36 2,84 2,98 3,24 2,77 2,31 2,65 2,57 2,96 3,13 2,72 2,21 1,91 2,52 2,59 3,22 2,49 2,17 2,15 2,51 2,61 2,95 2,48 2,27 2,22 2,59 2,56 2,63 2,45 2,21 2,24 2,32 2,52 2,49 2,36 1,86 1,91 2,12 2,34 3,33 2,31 1,29 1,73 1,66 1,93 2,26 1,77 1,13 1,47 1,69 1,48 2,69 1,69 2,26 n=60 2,32 n=60 2,65 n=60 2,77 n=60 3,17 n=60 2,64 Table-2:Performance to Based on Customer Satisfaction As of 2007 when TQM was started to use, the averages were above the hypothetical average of 2.5 and has continuously improved. This shows that customer satisfaction improved. When propositions customers positively rated were evaluated it was seen that the following TQM applications were effective in the organization: qualities and varieties of products, quick response customer needs and compliance and friendly sales personnel. To measure employee satisfaction, a questionnaire including five-point likert scale was administered to 60 employees out of 67 excluding 7 mid-level managers. The results were reported in the table below. As given above, before and after TQM evaluation results were not be able to given here because there were not data available on employee satisfaction in previous years. The evaluation was provided only for a term for 2008. Responses of average as of 2007 are above hypothetical average of 2.5. This shows the positive views of participants after TQM applications. The propositions on the following issues show that TQM applications reach their goals: consultations before decisions, participation in management, fair work and fair pay. Market Performance Dimensions; international and domestic sale performances were considered. Two separate indices for two separate years were prepared. The sales of the organization were grouped in four categories. Based on 2005 sales, an increment index was created using data simplified by inflation rate. It showed that sale started to increase in and after 2007. 195 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo SALES (TL) (*) Textile& Home Application&Electronic Incrase (2005 base) Market Incrase (2005 base) Cafe&Restourant&Enter . Incrase (2005 base) Fuel Incrase (2005 base TOTAL Incrase (2005 base) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 1.256.172 1.268.949 1.688.320 1.844.997 1.746.584 1,00 1.010.127 1,00 1,01 1.008.965 1,00 1,34 1.101.918 1,09 1,47 1.372.173 1,36 1,39 1.201.328 1,19 323.878 338.842 372.751 528.519 540.120 1,00 139.462 1,00 2.729.640 1,00 1,05 161.919 1,16 2.778.674 1,02 1,15 127.703 0,92 3.290.693 1,21 1,63 183.674 1,32 3.929.363 1,44 1,67 241.205 1,73 3.729.237 1,37 Table-3: Marketing Performance Scores (*)The total value amounts belonging to years and rates have been corrected by inflation. TQM applications affected the sales positively. That increase in sales in 2009 was less than the increase in 2007 and 2008 shows the effects of the global crises. Financial Performance Dimension; the organization‘s 2005-2009 fiscal years financial tables were used for financial performance. Data firstly converted to financial ratios by ratio analysis was converted to financial accomplishment performance scores using Altmna‘s Zeta model. The basic evaluation of this model is based on Z-value calculations developed by Altman (Altman vd.., 1977:26-51). Although the Zeta model was designed to determine level of bankruptcy and accomplishment levels it helps compare organizations‘ financial performances by years. Z= + 1.2 * (Net business asset/total assets) + 1.4 * (distrubuted profits/Total assets) + 3.3 * (profit before Interest and tax//total assets) + 0,6 * (capital/debts) + 0.999 (sales/total assets) Altman Zeta Increases(2005 base) 2005 2,81 1,00 2006 2,89 1,03 2007 3,06 1,09 2008 3,45 1,23 2009 3,36 1,20 Table-4: Financial Performance Scores According to table, based on 2005, in 2007 and after, there was a significant increase in the financial performance. Although there was a little decrease in recent year it is projected the performance will increase after the global crisis. Results Total Quality Management affects organization competitive positions positively. Increase in internal and external customer satisfaction, marketing, production and financial performance as a result of successful application, is expected goal theoretically. While these developments are experienced that will affect competition positively the results of these developments will reach to other shareholders, such as associates, customers, society, government etc. In this study, the theoretic level of performance of an organization owning a shopping center was tested using a performance measurement model. The model is composed of internal and external customers, marketing and finance dimensions. Based on this relationship, the model was used to determine the expected performance increase of the organization. That a positive increase was observed in all dimensions when TQM was started to be used means that TQM positively contributed to organizations‘ performance. In a successful TQM application, a similar performance increase should be seen in other organizations. However, the position of the organization, professionalism in management, size, quality of technology and workforce etc. factors will affect performance reached. These differences have to be investigated in other studies. 196 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo References Adam, E.E., Flores, B.E. & Macias, A. (2001) Quality improvement practices and the effect on manufacturing firm performance: evidence from Mexico and the USA, International Journal of Production Research, Vol: 39, pp. 43-63. Ahmed S., Masjuki Hj. Hassan and Yap Hui Fen,(2005), Performance Measurement and Evaluation in an Innovative Modern Manufacturing System, Journal of Applied Sciences pp. 385-401. http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/jas/2005/385401.pdf, acc.date:5/5/2010. Alfaro J., A. Ortiz ; Poler R (2007) Performance measurement system for business processes, Production Planning & Control, Vol.:18:, no:8, pp.641-654, http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713737146, acc.date:5/5/2010 Altman, E., (1977) ―Zeta Analysis‖, Journal of Banking of Finance,pp.26-51. Ballard, , Colin White, S. McDonald ,Myllymaki J., McDowell S., Goerlich O., Neroda (2005),A., IBM Redbooks. Business Performance Management. Meets Business Intelligence, Durham, NC, USA: IBM,. p .27-29, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/afyon/Doc?id=10112499&ppg=1,acc.date:5/5/2010 Brah, S.A., Lee, S.L., Rao, B.M. (2002), Relationship between TQM and performance of Singapore companies, International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, Vol. 19 No.4, pp.356-79. Douglas, T.J., & Judge, W.Q., Jr. (2001). Total quality management implementation and competitiveadvantage: The role of structural control and exploration. Academy of Management Journal,44, 158–169. Eleren A.and Soba, (2009),Multı-Dımensıonal Performance Measurement In Organısatıons And An Ap Mplıcatıon In Usak Leather Industry, International Davraz Congress, 24 -27 September 2009,Isparta, Turkey,.pp.1309. Garcı J.´ Bernal_A- and Rez-Aleso´N Marisa Ramı,(2010),Increasing The Organisational Performance Benefits Of TQM:An Approach Based On Organisational Design, Total Quality Management,Vol. 21, No. 4,pp.363–382 Joiner, Therese A. (2007).The role of organization support and co-worker support, Journal: International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management,Volume: 24,Number: 6,School of Business, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia,pp. 617-627 Kanjı G.,(2002), Business Excellence: Make It Happen, Total Qualıty Management, Vol.. 13, No. 8, 1115-1124. Martinez, V.; Kennerley, M. (2009) Performance measurement systems: Benefits. EURAM Annual Conference, Munich, pp.11-21. Powell, T.C. (1995), "Total quality management as competitive advantage: a review and empirical study", Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 16 pp.15-37. Samson, D., Terziovski, M. (1999), The relationship between total quality management practices and operational performance, Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 17 pp.393-409. Samson, D., & Daft, R.L. (2005). Management, Second Pacific Rim Edition. South Melbourne: Thomson.pp.250-265. Sardana G. D.,(2008),Measuring Business Performance:A Conceptual Framework With Focus On Improvement, Performance Improvement, Vol. 47, no. 7, August 2008, International (www.interscience.wiley.com) Seth, D & Deepak T, (2006), A Critical Study Of TQM and TPM Approaches On Business Performance Of Indian Manufacturing Industry, Total Quality Management Vol. 17, No. 7,pp. 811–824. Venkatraman, N., Ramanujam, V. (1986), Measurement of business performance in strategy research: a comparison of approaches, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 11 No.4, pp.801-14. 197 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 153 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Implementing to Total Quality Management on the Busıness Performance and a Research Author Author HOTAMIŞLI, Mustafa YILDIZ, Feyyaz ELEREN, Ali Abstract A summary of the resource. Total quality management (TQM) has been mentioned to have positive effect on business performance considerable attention in the literature and researches. The aim of this study is to analyse the performance changes in a shopping center. A research model was composed of four performances dimensions. Qualification and quantitive data of the model were groupped and evaluated by using statistical methods. In the end of the study, after implementing of TQM the performance increase was observed in the all sized of the business by years . Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/756fe7ae4dc3fbd452447cbee9795b94.pdf 7f56f2eb99ba4edde92e61029efda636 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo University Intellectual Capital: Measurement Model and Application Meliha HANDZIC International Burch University, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina Elif ÖZTÜRK International Burch University, Sarajevo Bosnia and Herzegovina elifozturk@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: There is the widespread recognition of the importance of intellectual capital (IC) as a major source of competitive advantage for any organisation operating in today‘s knowledge economy (KE). In particular, universities are recognised as being essential to the new economy as the prime producers and transmitters of knowledge in a society. Therefore, it is not surprising that the management and measurement of IC by universities is becoming an increasingly important issue in the knowledge management (KM) research and practice. It is argued that universities need to use the IC model as a tool to aid them in meeting new management challenges and diffuse their intangible resources and activities to their stakeholders and society at large. This study addresses this need by developing a specific model for measuring intellectual capital of universities and by applying it in the specific context of a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is hoped that the use of this model can help the university in reaching its scientific and educational goals. Keywords: Importance of Intellectual Capital, Competitive Advantage, Knowledge Economy, Knowledge Management, Intangible Resources. Introduction Intellectual capital has gained the increased prominence as a business and research topic principally due to the rise of the knowledge economy. Knowledge economy is described by OECD as the economic activities and systems which are directly established by creation, circulation and application of knowledge and information (Chen, 2008). Intellectual capital (IC) has been widely recognised as a major resource of organisations in the knowledge economy (KE). The concept of IC combines the idea of the intellect power with the economic concept of capital for the purpose of producing innovative or more efficient and effective goods and services. Typically, the term IC refers to all knowledge resources that determine the competitiveness of an organisation. It includes intellectual property such as patents and licences, as well as the skills and know-how of people, documents and information systems (Kleiner et al, 1996). Intellectual capital is synonymous with knowledge assets, intellectual assets or intangible assets (Guthrie, 2001). In recent economic and social developments, intellectual capital is implicated as the instrumental in the determination of enterprise value and economic performance. From the IC perspective, the aim of an organisation is to create and/or extract value from knowledge assets by maximizing the interrelationship between different types of its intellectual capital (Handzic and Zhou, 2005). It has also been widely recognised that the success of the knowledge economy or society depends on the effective utilisation of its intangible assets such as knowledge, skills and innovative potential (ESRC 2007, Critical 2009). In research, the current emphasis is on important theoretical and empirical contributions relating to the measurement and reporting of intellectual capital. Therefore, in this study, we address the issue of IC measurement by developing and applying a specific IC measurement model for universities. The paper is structured as follows. It starts with this introductory section. In the following section, we review relevant literature on universities and their IC models of interest to this study. Next, we describe the survey research method applied in the current investigation. Then, we present results of our quantitative and qualitative data 740 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo analyses. A discussion of our findings in the light of past literature follows. Finally, conclusions and contributions to research and practice are offered in the last section. Literature Review This section draws from past research and practice in order to develop a more comprehensive and holistic understanding of IC frameworks as a common ground for developing a specific IC measurement model for universities. First, the section looks into the place of universities in knowledge economy. Then it presents some recent efforts at developing IC models and examines their use in measuring and reporting human, structural and relational capital categories. In the end, it states the objectives of the present study. University and Knowledge Economy In his recent review, Ozlen (2010) states that the central task of universities is to create new knowledge and thereby engender innovations. Innovations are based on information and knowledge processes of various kinds. Such processes cannot take place without accurate, up-to-date knowledge in the focal areas of the universities‘ research interests and efforts. Alliances and social network theory provide one potent perspective for the analysis of relevant relationships. Networking is based on reciprocity and the exchange of the resources, ideas, information, knowledge, and social support that mediate all relationships. The purpose of internally driven networking is to break down internal barriers and boundaries, thereby allowing members to create quick and open person-to-person and group-togroup communications for exchanging information and sharing knowledge for the improvement of organizational performance. According to Ozlen (2010) IC is the most vital and strategic resource for universities. Actually, IC is at the core of the University‘s mission and reason of existence. Attracting and retaining qualified intellectual capital plays a vital role in reinforcing the University‘s educational standards. IC is not only an input resource for a University, but it is also a product in the sense that faculty members‘ IC is used to nurture that of its students. As an institution earns a reputation as a superior quality provider of education, it will be able to attract more local and foreign students which will contribute in turn to the institution‘s prosperous continuity. IC reports recognise that the ―the efficient use of IC is essential for a university‘s performance‖ University Knowledge Assets Portfolio There are many classification schemes which attempt to categorise knowledge assets or IC in organisations. Handzic and Zhou (2010) presented a widely-accepted scheme of three sub-categories: human capital, organisational (internal) capital and customer (external) capital. In addition to this, knowledge assets can be divided into core and supporting assets Core knowledge assets comprise a firm‘s core skills and competencies. They lie in the areas in which the firm has competitive strengths. In contrast, supporting knowledge assets are complementary generic and operational assets that support or enable the delivery, storage and acquisition of core knowledge assets. Every organisation possesses valuable intellectual materials in the form of data, documents, procedures, capabilities, etc. These can be found in people, organisational structures and processes, and customer relationships. To succeed, organisations need to have a clear understanding of which knowledge assets are important to their success and how these assets are distributed over different parts of the company and among different functions and workers. The portfolio of knowledge assets is typically determined by an organisation‘s strategic plan. The following sections present some examples of knowledge assets of universities under human, structural and relational subtitles. Typically, key indicators of human capital of universities include the ability to attract and retain staff of good caliber,, dedicated staff, implementation of effective staff and student equity measures. Indicators of structural capital (customer capital) include projecting a highly visible positive image, ability to attract good students, technological support, quality research, relevant tuition programmes, quality research, internationalization, visionary participative strategic management, adherence to mission, financial health of the institution. Study Objectives There is a growing evidence in support of the application of IC tools in universities and the potential benefit this would bring (Sanchez et al., 2009). Up to now, only a few universities have taken the challenge of trying to measure and report on intangible assets (Ramirez et al., 2007). In this study, we evaluate IC capital of the case university by assessing its human, structural and relational facets. Human capital was evaluated in terms of explicit 741 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and tacit knowledge of the universities‘ personnel acquired through formal and informal educational and actualization processes embodied in their activities; Structural capital captured the explicit knowledge related to the internal process of dissemination, communication and management of scientific and technical knowledge in the organization; and relational capital gathered the wide set of economical, political and institutional relationships developed and maintained by the university (Ramirez at al., 2007). A mix of objective and subjective, financial and nonfinancial measures can be used to assess these IC aspects. For the purpose of this study, we adopted the subjective nonfinancial measurement approach. The approach has been described in more details in the following section. Research Method This section describes the design of the study, the population and sample, the operationalisation of examined variables, and the instrumentation development, procedures, and data analyses employed. Research Design and Instrument Our intention in this study was to produce a broad picture of intellectual capital in the higher education institution. A new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina was chosen as a study case for convenience reasons and a descriptive survey was adopted as a preferred method for this research (Judd et al. 1991). The name of the case university has been concealed for the purpose of privacy protection. The survey design was based on a range of insights from the theoretical IC literature and the review of prior related survey research. The design of the survey took into account time requirements, emotional cost, trust, nature of the relationship between respondents and researchers. Thus the survey form was compact and no personal information was required. The questionnaire was written on a single page with 18 questions written in 10-point font. This layout was selected based on the time cost to the respondents. It was tested to take approximately 15 minutes to complete in the participants‘ own chosen time. The survey was also formatted for clarity. It was divided into 5 major parts, and included short starting instructions. The 5 sections of the survey comprised: (i) Demographic information (role, gender); (ii) Human capital (importance and actual status); (iii) Structural capital (importance and actual status); (iv) Relational capital (importance and actual status); and (v) Comments. Subjects and Procedure Participants in this survey included employees across the case university departments. Respondent demographics sought included employee role (academic or support) and gender (male or female). The names of the respondents were unknown and not required for the purpose of collecting data. The questionnaires were distributed to the recipients by one of the authors. Given that surveys receive the low fraction of responses, we tried to lift the response rate by personally contacting colleagues at the case university, handing out the questionnaires, reminding the recipients that the survey should be completed and collecting them when done. Data collection was carried out over a period of one week. A total of 32 responses were received. The maximum response rate was achieved. In replying to the questions and statements the respondents were required in most questions to tick appropriate responses using attitude questions in the questionnaire. This allowed respondents to rank their agreement to a statement relative to positive and negative end-points of a seven-point Likert scale. Some questions were multiple choice or required textual responses. The questionnaire responses were encoded, entered into a computer and then analysed using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet program. The survey responses were combined into one file and the descriptive statistics were calculated for each variable from the responses to each of the items. Relevant descriptive statistics and any uncharacteristic results are described in the following results section of this paper. Results This part presents the results of the analysis of the collected survey data. The first section examines the respondents‘ demographic information. The next three sections present respondents‘ views about the case university‘s human, structural and relational capital. The final section presents the most notable comments on all three IC facets. 742 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Respondent Demographics The profile of the sample is examined in terms of the respondents‘ role at the case university (academic staff, support staff) and gender (male, female). Of the total of 32 survey respondents, 72% were academics and 28% were support staff. Furthermore, 81% of the respondents were male and 19% female. This distribution suggests that the survey responses generated may reflect more closely the views of male academics (Table 1). Role Male Female Academic staff 56% 16% 25% Table 1: Respondent Demographics 3% Support staff Human Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of human capital at the case university. When asked about their opinion about the importance of human capital, 92% of the respondents agreed (rates > 4) and only 3% disagreed (rates < 4) with the given statements on a variety of aspects of human capital. The next table (Table 2). shows the distribution of respondents‘ opinions about existent human capital at the case university. Opinions were separated into those that agree (rates > 4) and those that disagree (rates < 4) with given statements. Thus, it was possible to identify more clearly positive and negative feelings about various evaluated aspects. Each statement was rated separately by the respondents. There was a shared view by 65% of the respondents that the case university provides high quality teaching in small groups (statement 5). Furthermore, 50% of the respondents held the view that the case university offered full administrative support for teaching and research (statement 4). In addition, 47% of the respondents recognised that the university had strong and visionary leadership (statement 1) and that academic staff were motivated to do research (statement 6). Finally, 45% respondents felt that the university hired high quality academic staff (statement 2) and 44% believed that academic staff were dedicated researchers and instructors (statement 3). Statements Agree Disagree 1. The university has strong and visionary leadership 47% 28% 2. The university hires high quality academic staff 45% 23% 3. Academic staff are dedicated full time researchers/instructors 44% 19% 4. The university provides full admin support for academics 50% 28% 5. Academic staff work with small groups of students 65% 26% 6. Academic staff are motivated to do research Table 2: Human Capital 47% 34% To eliminate any possibility of academic bias, the responses for human capital were cross-tabulated against the roles of the respondents. No major differences were found in ratings between respondents from academic and support staff. (Table 3). Role Agree Disagree Academic staff 70% 30% Support staff 55% 45% Table 3: Opinions about Human Capital by Role 743 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Structural Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of structural capital of the case university. With respect to respondent opinions about the importance of structural capital, 87% agreed (rates > 4) and 3% disagreed (rates < 4) with given statements on a variety of the structural capital aspects. Statements Agree Disagree 1. Wide variety of disciplines are taught at the university 38% 28% 2. The university has several specialty domains 34% 44% 3. The university has contributed to many scholarly outlets 16% 56% 4. Own research outlets have been started by the university 53% 19% 5. The university offers necessary library and info-services 38% 47% 6. IT provides reliable infrastructural support for teach/research Table 4. Structural Capital 25% 38% With respect to the existent structural capital at the case university, the respondents‘ opinions were divided. (Table 4). There was appreciation by 53% of the respondents that the university started own research outlets (statement 4) and agreement by 38% with the observation that a wide variety of disciplines were taught at the university (statement 1). However, 56% respondents disagreed with the assertion that the university contributed to many scholarly outlets (statement 3). Similarly, 44% respondents disagreed with the proposition that the university had specialty domains (statement 2). Furthermore, 47% and 38% of the respondents opposed the claim that the university offered necessary library/information services (statement 5) and IT support for teaching and research (statement 6). Relational Capital This section examines the respondents‘ opinions about the importance and actual status of relational capital at the case university. Regarding the importance of relational capital, 91% of the respondents agreed (rates > 4) and 4% disagreed (rates < 4) with the view that relational capital was important to the case university. The remaining respondents were unsure or provided no answers. Statements Agree Disagree 1. High quality students are being attracted to the university 56% 31% 2. University offers expertise to external stakeholders 16% 41% 3. There is close partnership established with other universities 25% 28% 4. The university is a member of scientific/professional assoc. 19% 44% 5. The university encourages academic networking 56% 28% 6. The university promotes positive public image Table 5: Relational Capital 41% 19% Respondents‘ opinions concerning the existent relational capital at the case university were divided. (Table 5). There was agreement by 56% of the respondents that the university encouraged networking (statement 5) and attracted high quality students (statement 1). There was also agreement by 41% of the respondents with the view that the university promoted positive public image (statement 6). However, 44% and 41% of the respondents opposed the claim that the university was a member of scientific and professional associations (statement 4) or established close 744 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo partnership with other universities (statement 3). Finally, 28% rejected the proposition that it offered expertise to external stakeholders (statement 2). Comments Respondents were asked to give textual comments about the three facets of intellectual capital. From the responses obtained, the most notable comments were: (1) barriers to research created due to teaching overload and lack of time and opportunity to attend conferences; (2) inadequate study space provided in the library; and (3) deeply felt belief that the case university would attain a position among top 100 universities in Europe. Discussion This section analyses and interprets empirical data from the survey of IC importance and actual status at the case university. It seeks to establish whether IC has developed adequately and whether and how it differs from the desired ideal state. Responses to survey questions and comments about human, structural and relational assets expose the following current IC status at the case university. Analysis of Key Findings In summary, the study findings for human capital indicate a positive overall picture. These findings reveal that there is the universal recognition of the importance, as well as the positive collective view of the existent human capital at the case university. This implies that human capital is the major strength of the case university. Such contention is reinforced further by deeply felt belief that the case university has the potential to attain a position among the 100 best universities in Europe. This is an important and encouraging finding. In contrast, the findings for structural capital are divided. Although there is a widespread acknowledgement of its importance, the distribution of current results implies a rather negative overall judgement of the case university‘s structural capital at present. Major shortcomings have been identified in the areas of (i) specialty research domains and scholarly contributions; and (ii) supporting information technology and library infrastructure and services. The first problem is reinforced by comments of teaching overload and the lack of necessary time and opportunity to do and present research. This suggests the need for the case university‘s leadership to find a way to eliminate current barriers to research by rebalancing teaching and research activities at the case university. The second (infrastructural) problem is currently being addressed through major construction work. With a new building construction well underway, it is expected that the sophisticated teaching and research infrastructure will be available to students and employees at the beginning of the next academic year. The findings with respect to relational capital are similarly divided. While they show a common understanding of the importance of relational capital at the case university, its actual status suggests the need for building closer institutional relationships with educational, professional and industrial segments. It appears that the case university‘s promotion of positive public image and networking enables it to attract high quality students. However, its institutional presence and involvement in academic and professional associations, government and industry sectors, as well as the society at large is lacking. the case university‘s leadership should take a closer look at the issue and find a way to contribute to national (BiH and/or Turkey) and regional (Balkan and/or Europe) development. The overall tone of this application case is mixed. The visualisation and analysis of key elements indicate some aspects of IC that are fairly well aligned with educational strategy and successful in the context of the case university. However, there is room for further improvement in a number of IC issues. There is also an opportunity for further development. The greatest challenge for the case university is to move in the direction of its mission of advancing learning and transforming life by consciously and deliberately addressing its strategic IC. Implications and Limitations The results of this IC model development and application have a number of important implications for university in continuing its education and research journey. The high number of unsure and no responses indicate the need for raising awareness of IC throughout the university. The proposed IC model may be helpful in this regard by creating a common understanding of the IC phenomena including basic components and indicators. It should also help to avoid any danger of misconception and misunderstanding by promoting the use of a common terminology. 745 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo It is obvious that the results of this research are limited by a specific higher education context and a group of academic and support staff participants in which the evaluation of intellectual capital was investigated. In order to generalise the findings, further research is required involving other contexts and subject groups. Future research is also required to study the impact of various tasks, environment and people related contingencies on IC, and how they relate to performance outcomes. Only by systematically investigating fundamental aspects of IC, by cultivating better measures and by critically examining alternative theoretical models, can the IC field continue to progress. Conclusions This analysis provides some insights into Intellectual Capital (IC) at a specific case within the higher education sector: a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The study applied a subjective IC measurement approach to explore the importance and actual state of IC at the case university. From the conceptual point of view, the applied measurement model and terminology were adapted from a general IC framework. The assessment was performed subjectively, taking into account the employees‘ perspectives on importance and actual state of human, structural and relational capital at the case university. The findings reveal some interesting IC dynamics and identify current shortcomings. Most importantly, they point to human capital as the case university‘s major strength. They also identify several weaknesses in structural and relational capital. These points may define the agenda for future research in the field for the benefit of both theory and practice of IC reporting and management in universities. References Bullen, Elizabeth,Fahey,Johannah & Kenway, Jane, (2006)`The Knowledge Economy and Innovation: Certain Uncertanity and The Risk Economy,Vol.27,No.1.,53-68 Castrillo,Rocio,Elena Susana& Sanchez,Paloma M.‖Intellectual Capital Dynamics in Universities: A Reporting Model (2009), Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10, No.2, 307-324 Chen, Chih-Kai, (2008) `Causal Modeling of Knowledge- Based Economy‘, Management Decision, Vol.46, No.3, 501-514 Dumay,John C.,(2009),‖Intellectual Capital Measurement: A Critical Approach‖ ,Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10, No.2, 190-210 Farrell, Lesley, (2001) `Negotiating Knowledge in the Knowledge Economy: Workplace Educators and the Politics of Codification, Studies in Continuing Education, Vol.23, and No.2 Garg, Shalini, (2009) `Higher education-CMMI: Beyond the Software Frointier`, Pwaset Vol.41, 2070-3740 Johanson, Ulf, Koga, Chitoshi,Skoog,Matti & Almqvist, Roland,(2009) `Breaking Taboos` `Implementing Intellectual AssetsBased Management Guidelines Judd C.M., Smith E.R. and Kidder L.H. (1991), Research Methods in Social Relations, 6th ed., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Guthrie, J. (2001). The Management, Measurement and the Reporting of Intellectual Capital. Journal of Intellectual Capital, 2(1), 27-41. Handzic, M. and Zhou, A. (2005), Knowledge Management: An Integrative Approach, Chandos Publishing, Oxford, UK. Hellström, Tomas & Husted, Kenneth (2004),‖Mapping Knowledge and Intellectual Capital in Academic Environments‖, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.5, No 1,165-180 Kleiner H, Barian, Robinson, George, (1996) ‗How to Measure an Organization `s Intellectual Capital ` Managerial Auditing Journal, Vol.11, No.8, 36-39 Mckenna, Bernard & Rooney, David, (2005), (Should the Knowledge - Based Economy be a Savant or a Sage? Wisdom and Socially Intelligent Innovation, Prometheus, Vol.23, No.3 746 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Ozlen, K. (2010), Intellectual Capital: A Research Essay, Working paper, International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ramirez,Yolanda,Lorduy,Carmen & Rojas,Antonio Jose, Universities,Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.8,No.4,732-748 (2007) ‖Intellectual Capital Management in Spanish Roberts, Joanne,(2001) ` the Drive to Codify: Implications for the Knowledge- Based Economy‘, Prometheus, Vol.19, No.2 Roberts, Joanne, (2009),`The Global Knowledge Economy in Question`,(Critical Perspectives on International Business, Vol.5,No.4,285-303 Rodgers,Waymond & Housel,J.Thomas, (2009),Measures For Organizations Engaged in a Knowledge Economy, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.10,No.3,341-353 Sanchez, Paloma M & Elena, Susana, (2006)‖Intellectual Capital in Universities‖, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol.7, No.4, 529-548 Warhurst, Chris, (2008), `The Knowledge Economy, Skills and Government Labour Market, Intervention Policy Studies, Vol. 29, No.1, 71-86 Williams, Peter John, (2007) ‗Valid Knowledge: The Economy and the Academy`, Springer Science + Business Media B.V. Zeghal, Daniel & Maaloul Anis,(2009) `Analysing Value Added As an Indicator of Intellectual Capital and ITS Consequences on Company Performance (2010) `Journal of Intellectual Capital`Vol.11,No.1,39-60 747 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 225 Title A name given to the resource University Intellectual Capital: Measurement Model and Application Author Author HANDZIC, Meliha ÖZTÜRK, Elif Abstract A summary of the resource. There is the widespread recognition of the importance of intellectual capital (IC) as a major source of competitive advantage for any organisation operating in today‘s knowledge economy (KE). In particular, universities are recognised as being essential to the new economy as the prime producers and transmitters of knowledge in a society. Therefore, it is not surprising that the management and measurement of IC by universities is becoming an increasingly important issue in the knowledge management (KM) research and practice. It is argued that universities need to use the IC model as a tool to aid them in meeting new management challenges and diffuse their intangible resources and activities to their stakeholders and society at large. This study addresses this need by developing a specific model for measuring intellectual capital of universities and by applying it in the specific context of a new private university in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is hoped that the use of this model can help the university in reaching its scientific and educational goals. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2de3d610f8cf3b1edad6815d665e204d.pdf 9744b2b1044b4e55e7ee89d1df982317 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Turgay HAN Kafkas University, Faculty of Science and Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Kars, Turkey turgayhan@yahoo.com.tr Hüseyin EFE Atatürk University, Faculty of Letters, Department of English Language and Literature, Erzurum, Turkey hefe@atauni.edu.tr Erdinç Parlak Atatürk University, Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of English Language Education, Erzurum, Turkey erdincparlak@hotmail.com Abstract:In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Introduction Many researches based on assessing writing and error treatment incline some variables with regard to the scoring each ESL writing accurately. In the process of deciding the effects of any types of feedback given to the EFL students’ writings, there are some sorts of musts that researchers fulfil in the course of doing their statistical analyses related to the data obtained by their scorings methods. Even though several factors influence scoring and the process of raters’ decision makings, researchers in the field of ESL essay rating delve into varying issues such as task requirement, rater characteristics and essay characteristics (Barkaoui, 2010; p.54). Assessing L2 writing accurately is very important for the validity of the inferences. Therefore, essays judged by more than one examiner will be closer to the fair score than judgement made by only one rater (Hamp-Lyons, 1990; p.79). Writing assessment process involves a multi-dimensional evaluation; for this reason, clarity, coherence and grammatical quality are some of the core points to be assessed for a writing paper. In this context, inter-rater reliability, one of the components of writing assessment process, is considerably the critical issue in scoring EFL/ESL writings as there are a few interfaces that raters are prone to experience such as the idiosyncratic, rating methods, and criteria during assessment. Since it is a subjective phenomenon, the decisions made through the scores given have some potentialities that effect overall research. In this research, to assure objectivity in scoring, two types of raters were chosen. As Stemler (2004) emphasizes, “Raters are often used when student products or performances cannot be scored objectively as right or wrong but require a rating degree. The use of raters results in the subjectivity that comes hand in hand with an interpretation of the product or performances (cited in Bresciani, Oakleaf, et al, 2009; p.3)”. 74 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Potentialities of Writing Assessment Hyland (2003) states that there are four basic elements in the design of writing assessment: Rubric (the instructions), prompt (the task), expected response (what the teacher intends students to do with the task), posttask evaluation (assessing the effectiveness of the writing task) (cited in Coombe, Folse, & Hubley, 2007; p.71). Sudweeks et al (2005) explain the factors involved in the rating a particular writing paper as external and internal ones. Sudweeks et al advocate that as students vary in their writing abilities it is difficult to expect them to receive the same rating or they cannot be measured the same, and the external factors can be counted for receiving rating are: (a) the nature of the particular writing prompt or task posed, (b) the raters who judge students’ essays (c) situation-specific factors (d) students’ background and interests related to the topic that will be developed (e) interactions among these varying sources (p.240). Raters are the fundamental variables in the assessing process. According to Weigle (2002) there are two foci points in assessment: a consideration of what attributes of the compositions raters focus on and the effects of background rater characteristics and of the process of reading compositions and ultimately on the scores that raters use (p.70). Researchers in recent years have looked for the effects attributed to the raters on ratings. Sweedler-Brown (1985) realized that rater trainers were more unforgiving in their scorings when compared to the ratings of novice raters (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.71). There are also some methods developed for analyzing writings accurately. For example, Generalizability Theory and Many-Facet Rasch Model are used in some researches to (a) estimate the sources causing rating errors, (b) to achieve reliability estimates, and (c) to make recommendations for improving rating process (Sudweeks, Reeve, & Bradshaw, 2005; p.239). In this context, scoring involves defining the rating scale and ensuring that raters use the scale appropriately and consistently as two central considerations (Weigle, S.C. 2002, p.108). Stemler (2004) explains that inter-rater reliability requires consensus estimates, consistency estimates and measurement estimates approaches to assure the accuracy and consistency in scoring. Consensus estimates come into meaning that the degree to which markers give the same scores. Consistency estimate is a sign of the extent of the similarities of the high and low scores among the markers. Additionally, measurement estimates show the degree to which scores can be attributed to common scoring rather than error components (cited in Brown, Glasswell, & Hardland, 2004; p.106). Moreover, consistency in scoring requires two sub-processes to eliminate the sources causing unreliable scoring. Weigle(2002) indicates two main types of inconsistencies: “[…] (1) Inconsistencies in the ratings of a single scorer across different scripts of similar qualities or the same script on different occasions, and (2) inconsistencies between different scores…” (pp.128-129). The Aspects in Rating Two main aspects of reliability involve raters’ markings which are the indications of consistencies of scorings. Inter-Rater Reliability and Intra-Rater Reliability Subjective marking of writing requires a measurement of reliability within a rater’s marking and among raters. The term ‘inter-rater reliability’ refers to the self consistency and the extent of similarity of ratings of different markers, that is, scoring of a single writing of a rater has not significant difference when compared to the one of other independent raters (Weigle, 2002), whereas intra-rater reliability contrasts with inter-rater reliability. Bachman (1995) advocates that “Ratings given by different raters can also vary as a function of inconsistencies in the criteria used to rate and in the way in which these criteria are applied…” (p.180). Bachman (1995), further, explains that when several essays are given to some independent raters for their ratings, the results probably will not be the same. The variability of the criteria of the raters can be counted as the outstanding source for these inconsistencies as some raters may look for the quality of content and some other may look for the organization (p.180). On the other hand, “[…]intra-rater reliability refers to the tendency of a rater to give the same score to the same script on different occasions, while inter-rater reliability refers to the tendency of different raters to give the same scores to the same script…” (Weigle, 2002; p.135). Rationales for Holistic Scoring and Analytic Scoring Making inferences from the scores given to writings is variable as it depends on the method of scoring. In this context, “[...]Traditionally a student’s writing performance was judged in comparison with the performance 75 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo of others, but this norm-referenced method has largely given way to criterion-referenced practices where the quality of each essay is judged in its own right against some external criteria, such as coherence, grammatical accuracy, contextual appropriacy, and so on...” (Hyland, 2008; p.226). Moreover, scales that will be used for rating should cover objective characteristics as possible. Therefore, two questions can be raised to inquire a system for scoring a script: whether to give a single score to each script, or score each script depending on several different features. Three main approaches consisting of primary trait scales, holistic scales, and analytic scales are available in the composition assessment literature. Holistic scoring, or general impression marking, means that giving single scores to the writing by judging an overall impression. On the other hand, analytic scoring depends on several aspects of writing rather than a single score (Weigle, 2002; pp. 64-115). There are, of course, some probable limitations for both types of scoring. In holistic scoring, using the scale for analytic scoring bears some problems as it includes several sub-categories for rating. Then, again, the practicality of analytic scoring can be judged in terms of time consuming and difficulty of applying the criteria to each script (East, 2009; p.91). Furthermore, holistic scoring can be used to attract the attention of the readers to the strength of the scripts and not to the lack of it and thus, writers can be reinforced and awarded (White, 1984, 1985). Nevertheless, “analytic scoring schemes thus provide more detailed information about a test taker’s performance in different aspect of writing and are for this reason preferred over holistic schemes by many specialist” (Weigle, 2002; pp.114-115). There are some researches on the reliability of different scale types. In this context, Weir (1990) explains that analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002, p.73). Also, Bauer (1981) found that even though holistic scoring is more cost effective, analytic scoring is more reliable than holistic scoring (cited in Weigle, 2002; p.73). Additionally, in the scoring process, validity is another decisive factor referring to the writing course goals and outcomes. In order to ensure that writings are scored objectively and to obtain high inter-rater reliability, there are some internal and external factors in the setting for marking errors in compositions of subjects under questions. Therefore, as defined in the Standards for Education and Psychological Testing, “Validity… is a unitary concept. Although evidence may be accumulated in many ways, validity always refers to the degree to which that evidence supports the interferences that are made from the scores. The interferences regarding specific uses of a test are validated, not the test itself” (American Psychological Association, 1985, p.9). It must be noted that “…any type of assessment should reflect the course goals…” (Coombe, Folse, Hubley, 2007, p.70). Background In this study, scoring reliably the learners’ scripts by the researchers gains the importance. Participants of the present study are 8 experienced and non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers holding at least MA degree in language teaching. A writing paper was randomly selected from the administered writing exams given to the first year students studying English Language and Literature during the academic year 2010, and the paper was assessed by those 16 language teachers through scoring at two levels: holistic and analytic. Scoring processes of the paper were done according to a predetermined rubric. The scores of the participants got from holistic scale and analytic scale were statistically analyzed. Two research questions are addressed: 1. Is there any difference between the holistic ratings and analytic ratings of the participants in terms of inter-rater reliability? 2. To what extent do the mean of the scores of those 8 non-native English language teachers and 8 native English language teachers deviate? Methodology In this study, the raters used a “Direct Measures of Writing Assessment” approach while scoring the papers. In the direct approach, in contrast to indirect approach, students’ success in communicating through the written mode of texts is taken into consideration. This type of assessment process includes the quality of content, appropriate vocabulary, grammar and syntax (Coombe et al, p.71). Scoring Holistic Rubric The intermediate level ESL/EFL script was rated according to a pre-determined rubric for holistic scoring which includes 5 types of categories and in which general writing ability can be judged (see figure 1).Using such 76 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo a rubric, of course, has some advantages besides having disadvantages. Hyland (2003; p.227) compares and contrasts the gain and loss of Holistic scoring: Table 3.1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Holistic Scoring Advantages Disadvantages Global impression no a single ability Provides no diagnostic information Emphasis on achievement not deficiencies Difficult to interpret composite score Weight can be assigned to certain criteria Smooths out different abilities in subskills Encourages rater discussion and agreement Raters may overlook subskills Penalizes attempts to use challenging forms Longer essays may get higher scores One source reduces reliability May confuse writing ability with language proficiency The participants of the study, both 8 native raters and the other 8 non-native raters, scored the intermediate level script according to the holistic scale (see figure 1). The requirements of the settings for the raters, rater training, and others were supplied in the process of reading. Scoring Analytic Rubric The paper under question was also rated by the participant raters through using a multiple-trait scoring rubric (see figure 2). This type of rubric is considered to be an ideal compromise on account of requiring raters to provide separate scores for different writing features. Furthermore, it is like a multifaceted scoring and in particular contexts and purposes, such rubrics can address the traits that do not occur in more analytic score (Hyland, 2003, p.230). Hyland (2003, p.230) explains the advantages and disadvantages of analytic scoring in the below table: Table 3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Analytic Scoring Advantages Encourages raters to address the same features Allows more diagnostic reporting Assists reliability as candidates gets several scores Detailed criteria allow easier rater training Prevents conflation of categories into one Allows teachers to prioritize specific aspects Disadvantages May divert attention from overall essay effect Rating one scale may influence others Very time consuming compared with holistic method Writing is more than simply the sum of its parts Favors essays where scalable into easily extracted Descriptors may overlap or ambiguous Obtaining High Inter-rater Reliability In this study, to keep raters reliable in their scoring marks there are some requirements that should be applied in the setting. Therefore, the following practice was taken into consideration while preparing the raters for the large-scale assessment of the single paper given to each of them. • White (1984) puts forward some practice to maintain high reliability in large-scale assessment: • At least two independent raters must score each script, and if there is any discrepancy a third rater’s score may be taken into consideration. • Scoring should be done in a controlled reading, that is to say, a group of readers meets together to grade scripts at the same place and time. There are two advantages of doing so: (a) the circumstances under which scripts are read are controlled. Therefore there will be a low variance as unnecessary sources causing erroneous scoring will be eliminated, and (b) a positive social environment which helps to set the rating standards is formed. • Checks on the reading in progress by reading leaders (also called Table Leaders) help to ensure that every reader participated in the process is maintaining the agreed-upon standards for grading. Evaluation and record keeping are essential for the ongoing assessment program. So unreliable raters may be eliminated (cited in Weigle, 2002; p129). 77 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Results The distributions of two groups of raters’ holistic and analytic marks given to a single paper were shown in the below tables. The scores were analyzed by the statistical software SPSS 16.00 v. Native Speakers’ Markings Table 4.1. The Comparison of Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Holistic Marks Analytic Marks 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.1. shows the marks given by 8 native English teachers. It can be easily realized that the marks given by analytic scoring is regularly a small amount higher than holistic scoring. NonNative Speakers’ Markings Holistic Marks Analytic Marks Table 4.2. The Comparison of Non-Native Speakers’ Holistic and Analytic Scores Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 In table 4.2., the marks given by 8 non-native speaker teachers of English depending on analytic and holistic scales were slightly different from those of native ones. It can be realized easily that the marks given by analytic scoring were to some extent higher than holistic scoring (the mean of holistic marks is 12.8750; the mean of analytic marks is 13.2500). The distribution of the marks given by native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) can be seen on the table 4.3 and table 4.4. B Table 4.3. The Marks Given by the Native Speakers Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 13 12 13 13 12 13 13 12 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 16 13 14 16 13 14 16 14 Table 4.4. The Marks Given by the Non-Native Speakers 78 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo B Analytic Marks Holistic Scores Content Organization Cohesion Vocabulary Grammar Punctuation Spelling Total Score Participants 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 15 11 11 16 13 15 11 11 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 12 13 14 16 12 12 13 14 The mean of holistic marks scored by NS raters was a little lower than analytic ones. Yet, it can be said that there was no significant difference between two types of scores (see table 4.5). Table 4.5. Paired Sample Statistics: Native Speakers’ (NS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. NSs’ deviation Error Scoring Marks Mean 8 12,00 13,00 1,00 12,6250 ,51755 ,18298 Holistic 8 13,00 16,00 3,00 14,5000 1,30931 ,46291 Analytic Table 4.6. shows that NNS gave more points in their analytic ratings than holistic ratings. And also this situation is similar to the results shown on Table 4.5. Table 4.6. Paired Sample Statistics: Non-Native Speakers’ (NNS) Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks NSs’ N Minimum Maximum Range Mean Std. Std. deviation Error Scoring Mean Marks 8 11,00 16,00 5,00 12,8750 2,16712 ,76619 Holistic 8 12,00 16,00 4,00 13,2500 1,38873 ,49099 Analytic Table 4.7. and table 4.8. show that there are high correlations between both groups raters’ holistic and analytic marks (p>0,05 level). Table 4.7. Paired Sample Correlations: Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,738 ,037 Pair Marks 1 Table 4.8. Paired Sample Correlations: Non-Native Speakers’ Scoring Holistic and Analytic Marks N Correlation Significance Holistic and Analytic 8 ,059 ,889 Pair Marks 2 79 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Discussion and Conclusion Assessing L2 writing, in fact, is a subjective process where there is no exact correct answer that could be given to any test item when compared to other types of testing language skills such as multiple choice tests. However, to obtain high level of objectivity in assessing writing there are some requirements that scorers must fulfil. Therefore, the term ‘inter-rater reliability’ gains importance in scoring marks to L2 written productions. In this study, the amount of consistency between the ratings of both the groups of native speakers and non-native speakers were statistically analyzed. Scoring marks depending on analytic and holistic scales showed that both groups of raters are consistent in their analytic and holistic ratings. The correlation of native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,738 and significance is ,037 at p> 0,05 level and the correlation of non-native speakers’ scoring holistic and analytic marks is ,059 and significance is ,889 at p> 0,05 level. However, the mean of native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than their holistic scoring marks. Similarly, the mean of non-native speakers’ analytic scoring marks is a little higher than holistic ones. Overall, native and nonnative raters rated the same paper consistently (12-15= good). In conclusion, the study is limited to 16 participant-raters and to replicate for confirming the outcomes of the present study, the participants and task may be varied in the further studies. 80 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo References American Psychological Association Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (1985). Washington, D.C: American Psychological Association. Bachman, L. F. (1995). Fundemental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford university Press. Barkaoui, K. (2010). Variability in ESL essay rating process: The role of the rating scale and rater experience. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7, 54-74. Bresciani, M. J., Oakleaf, M., Kolhorst, F., Nebeker, C., & et al. (2009) Examining design and inter-rater reliability of a rubric measuring research quality across multiple disciplines. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 14, 12, p.3. Brown, G.T.L., Glasswell, K., & Harland, D. (2004). Accuracy in the scoring of writing: studies of reliability and validity using a new zealand writing assesment system. Assessing Writing, 9, 106. Coombe, C., Folse, K., & Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners. US: The University of Michigan Press. East, M. (2009). Evaluating the reliability of a detailed analytic scoring rubric for foreign language writing. Assessing Writing, 14, p.91. Hamp-Lyons, L. (1990). Second language writing: assessment isssues. In Coombe, C., Folse, K., Hubley, N. (2007). A Practical Guide to Assessing English Language Learners (p.84). US: The University of Michigan Press. Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Stemler, S.E. (2004). A comparison of consensus, consistency, and measurement approaches to estimating, interrater reliability. Practical Assesment Research & Evaluation, 9, 4. Sudweeks, R. R., Reeve, S., & Bradshaw, W. S. (2005). A comparison of generalizability theory and Many-Facet Rasch Measurement in an analysis of college sophomore writing”. Assessing Writing, 9, 239. Sweedler-Brown, C. O. (1985). The influence of training and experience on holistic essay evaluation. English Journal, 74, 5, 49-55. TEEP Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984.Weir, C. J, (1990). Communicative Language Testing. NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987. Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. White, E.M. (1984). Holisticism. College Composition and Communication, 35, 4, 400-409. White, E.M. (1985). Teaching and Assessing Writing. San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. 81 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Appendix A. Holistic and analytic scales used in the study. Figure 1: Holistic Scale, Source: UCLES International Examinations in English as a Foreign Language General Handbook, 1987 Grade Excellent 18-20 Characteristics Natural English with minimal errors and complete realization of the task set. Very Good 16-17 More than a collection of simple sentences, with good vocabulary and structures. Some non-basic errors. Good 12-15 Simple but accurate realization of the task set with sufficient naturalness of English and not many errors. Pass 8-11 Reasonably Correct but awkward and non-communicating or fair and natural treatment of subject, with some serious errors. Weak 5-7 Original vocabulary and grammar both inadequate to the subject. Very Poor 0-4 Incoherent. Errors show lack of basic knowledge of English. 2. Some inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps some lexical inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. 3. Almost no inappropriacies in vocabulary for the task. Only rare inappropriacies and/or circumlocution. A. Relevance and Adequacy of content 0. The answer bears almost no relation to the task set. Totally inadequate answer. 1. Answer of limited relevance to the task set. Possibly major gaps in treatment of topic and/or pointless repetition. 2. For the most part answers the task set, though there may be some gaps or redundant information. 3. Relevant and adequate answer to the task set. E. Grammar 0. Almost all grammatical patterns inaccurate. 1. Frequent grammatical inaccuracies. 2. Some grammatical inaccuracies. 3. Almost no grammatical inaccuracies. B. Compositional Organization 0. No apparent organization of content. 1. Very little organization of content. Underlying structures not sufficiently apparent. 2. Some organization skills in evidence but not adequately controlled. 3. Overall shape and internal pattern clear. Organization skills adequately controlled. F. Mechanical Accuracy I (Punctuation) 0. Ignorance of conventions of punctuation. 1. Low standard of accuracy of punctuation. 2. Some inaccuracies of punctuation. 3. Almost no inaccuracies of punctuation. G. Mechanical Accuracy II (Spelling) 0. Almost all spelling inaccurate. 1. Low standard of accuracy in spelling. 2. Some inaccuracies in spelling. 3. Almost no inaccuracies in spelling. C. Cohesion 0. Cohesion almost totally absent. Writing is so fragmentary that comprehension of the intended communication is virtually impossible. 1. Unsatisfactory cohesion may cause difficulty in comprehension of most of the intended communication. 2. For the most part satisfactory cohesion though occasional deficiencies may mean that certain parts of communication are not always effective, 3. Some use of cohesion resulting in effective communication. D. Adequacy of Vocabulary for Purpose 0. Vocabulary inadequate even for the most basic parts of the intended communication. 1. Frequent inadequacies in vocabulary for the task. Perhaps frequent lexical inappropriacies and/or repetitions. 82 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 2. Analytic Scale, Source: Test of English for Educational Purposes, Associated Examining Board, UK, 1984. Appendix B. Sample section from the composition scored by 8 NS and NNS raters. 83 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 395 Title A name given to the resource An Inter-Rater Perspective for the Researches on Assessing Writing Author Author HAN, Turgay EFE, Hüseyin Parlak, Erdinç Abstract A summary of the resource. In assessing EFL students’ writings consistently, there are various factors that must be taken into consideration while rating. Especially those who want to make quantitative researches using raters or who aim to give suitable feedback to written productions should be responsible for fulfilling the requirements in marking and scoring process. In this context, this paper looks insight for some issues related to the raters, such as inter-rater reliability, analytic or holistic examinations, rating criteria, and others. This study includes 8 native raters and 8 non-native raters, each of whom rated an ESL essay both holistically and analytically. Every participant rater’s background of scoring ESL writings was similar. The result showed that there was no significant difference between raters, that is, participants’ grading of the essay is irrespective of their being native speakers. At the end of the study, some important implications for essay rating practices and both the researchers and language teacher were emphasized. Key Words: Rater, Reliability, Assessing Writing, EFL Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/69adf13fc5d96985705920fcf67b1224.pdf d0b62a86889edae3ff8d4da9b3de07b5 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo A Competitive Analysis Of Ski Resorts In Bosnia And Herzegovina Using Differential Advantage Proforma Mohammad HAMAD International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Edin SMAJIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina esmaijc@ibu.edu.ba Adisa MUJKIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Armin BECIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Armin SABOTIC International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Çetin YURT International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina Teoman DUMAN International Burch University Faculty of Economics Bosnia and Herzegovina tduman@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong brand image due to Winter Olympics conducted in Sarajevo in 1984. This image has been weakening due to lack of marketing efforts, especially following the war between former Yugoslav republics. Competitive analysis is an important part of marketing strategy for companies to identify strengths and weaknesses among various competitors. In this study, differential advantage proforma is used as a technique of competitive analysis to identify comparable positions and key customer values of ski-resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To identify competitive positions, a series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits – observation) are used. Research results indicate that five competing ski-resorts have unique differential advantages that can be used in marketing of these resorts. Keywords: Competitive Strategies, Differential Proforma Analysis, Ski Industry, Bosnia and Herzegovina 422 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Introduction Bosnia and Herzegovina (BH) is located in the central part of the Balkan and holds strategic seat in the eastern part of Europe. BH is a country in south-east Europe with an estimated population of four million people. BH is a country that measures just over 50,000 km2. Its diverse climate, contrast geographic landscape and multicultural and multi religious society may serve as magnet for tourist from around the Globe. The country is located in a beautiful mountainous location with many scenic vistas. Wilderness and untouched nature make it an ideal destination for adventurers and nature lovers. The central part of the country is covered with range of mountains and is a hikers and walkers paradise. Enchanted by both Mediterranean and Alpine climates, the range of diverse landscapes stun and amaze the county‘s visitors. Every mountain in BH can be utilized for winter tourism and they all are equally appealing and carry their peculiar charm. Mountains that are currently used for winter tourism are Bjelasnica & Igman, Jahorina, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres (Enjoybosnia, 2010). Bjelasnica and Jahorina Mountains once hosted the 1984 Winter Olympics. They are a popular tourist attraction for skiing, boarding, paragliding, mountaineering and hiking. These mountains are only 20 minutes outside of Sarajevo. During the 1984 Winter Olympics, Bjelasnica was used for a number of Olympic events, and has several structures dating from that time, including hotels and skiing areas. Hotel Igman served as a seat to International Olympic Committee presided by late Juan Antonio Samaranch. Bosnian mountains used to attract world famous sports figures, athletes and sport managers but also many famous political figures. They were arenas for famous battles during World War II but also during recent war in Bosnia. Winter Tourism In Bosnia and Herzegovina BH is endowed with beautiful mountains that are underutilized since there are only five winter resorts in the whole country. Those are: Bjelasnica and Igman, Jahorina, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres. Although, Bjelasnica and Igman, Jahorina and Vlasic stand out as better organized and better offer yet there is a huge prospect and immense potential to offer great many new products in winter tourism (FIPA, 2010). Table 1 summarizes winter tourism facilities for the five ski resorts in BH. 423 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Existing/Plan ned Facilities Igman & Bjelasnica Jahorina Vlasic Blidinje Kupres Accommodation 2250 beds (2 hotels with 342 beds, and the rest are private) 4000 beds ( 6 hotels with 1022 beds, the rest private) 6000 beds (6 hotels with 680 beds, and the rest are private) 2000 beds (1 hotel and private) 700 beds Ski lifts capacity 5000 person/h 22.200 person/h planned 1000 person/h 12.200 m 5 machines with capacity of 14.000m3 Exists 5400 person/h 15.000 person/h planned 14.000 m - 2500 person/h Alpine ski slope Snowmaking machines Night lighting system Ski jump 7500 person/h 13.800 person/h planned 25.000 m - 4.500 m - 14.000 m - Exists Exists - - 2 with; 70m – 90m - - - Cross country tracks Destination from Sarajevo Local population Future plans 35 km 5 km 3 with; 90m35m-15m 15 km - - 25 km from airport 30 km 100 km 80 km 140 km 425.000 10.000 total bed capacity, man-made lake, 80% of skiing infrastructure for children and beginners, 20% for advanced skiers, multimedia business facilities, health centers, more indoor and outdoor entertainment facilities 30.000 8 more hotels, 9580 total bed capacity, more facilities for families 70.000 10.000 total bed capacity, golf course (50 h) 17.000 2700 total bed capacity 4.000 One more private ski center is planned. Table 1: A comparison of winter tourism facilities of five ski-resorts in BH. BH was the symbol of winter tourism in former Yugoslavia. 1984 Winter Olympics secured many mountains international acclaim. XIV Winter Olympics (1984) were considered as one of the most successful of its time. Today, Olympic resorts host a new generation of skiers and snow-lovers, hitting the slopes with Olympic quality skiing without the outlandish prices and long waiting. However, these resorts are one of the last undiscovered regions with vast tracks and untouched nature of the Southern Alps. As such they represent an ideal tourism destination for hikers and walkers, as well as for adventurers and nature lovers (Bhtourism, 2010). The beauty of the Bjelasnica Mountain is augmented by the temper of its climate. Bjelasnica‘s highest part, 300 meters in length, towards the Adriatic Sea, represents a border of impact of two climates - Mediterranean and Continental that results in rain and snow precipitation in autumn and great amounts of snow in the winter which retains until late in the spring. The highest temperature is 24°C and the lowest is -41°C. Thick green grass covers the mountain in the summer while winters attract 4 meters. The greater area of Bjelasnica and Igman, including neighboring Visocica and Treskavica mountains (around 100,000 ha), has a long list of attractions such as mountain scenery with expansive vistas, river-cut limestone canyons, caves, rich forest, diverse flora, endemic and medicinal herbs and endangered fauna. However, the greatest, and most sustainable growth opportunities lie in attracting new visitors, who will seek out Bosnia‘s inherent appeals. These are primarily niche market segments, such as: ―soft outdoor adventurists‖, hikers, fishermen, river rafters, birders (migratory season only) and history/culture enthusiasts. Most of this growth will come from the more traditional tourism-producing markets in Europe, as well as neighboring regional markets. 424 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Bjelasnica is an ideal place for winter holidays especially in the period from November to May, with snow drifts of a couple of meters in height which are a particular challenge for winter sports lovers. Winter season is particularly interesting because of the landscape of the mountain under snow, which is somewhat like a white desert covered with rays of sunshine, above which there is nothing but the areal landscape. During the Olympics at Bjelasnica and Igman, the competitions in Alpine Skiing (Downhill, Giant Slalom and Slalom), Nordic skiing (Cross-country skiing, Nordic combined), Biathlon and Ski Jumps took place. Beside traditional disciplines, Bjelasnica is also trying to put up with the latest trends with night skiing. Ski run on 8345 meters is perfect for skiers and snowboarders of various skill levels, those looking for adventure or those with young children. Due to an increased market demand and interest in Bjelasnica and Igman resorts, the local authorities and a number of private companies have made considerable investments in the infrastructure and particularly in accommodation capacities in the last five years. This resulted in a huge increase in a number of beds (hotel with 240 beds) available at the mountain, and particularly in an increased number of condominiums (2,000 beds). Bosnia and Herzegovina developed an authentic gastronomy familiar to many, with which it enriches its tourism and represents its culture, tradition and mode of life Bosnian cuisine is influenced by Eastern and Western. Bosnian dish is tightly connected to Greek, Turkish, and other Mediterranean cuisines. Gastronomy on Bjelasnica is one of the main reasons that can assure an increase in the service quality. The richness of natural tastes, that became a brand for B&H (such are burek and čevapčiĤi) can make a pleasant stay and serve as a nice added value to those who came to visit mounting in BH. The other feature of the local cuisine is that local food producers can make supply from neighboring villages. The latest trends of organic food can be linked to the local economy, which should be able to ensure a 100% bio diet. This segment could be one of the future characteristics of future mountain tourism in BH. As initial trigger to be used for young and curious skiers and snowboarders, who are less attach to traditional ski centers could be attracted to Bjelasnica with the lower prices. BH and Bjelašnica can provide the expected level of service and tourism quality compared to the price. BH is relatively still not too expensive, and as such can attract tourists on budget, young people and backpackers. Bjelasnica has enormous potential for further developments, however, there is a need for overarching cooperation across different sectors that will trigger investment in infrastructure and superstructure. Having in mind that Bjelasnica ski resort has not developed long term strategy yet, nor has it fulfilled preconditions for mass tourism, they can focus on domestic clients, regional clients and for the beginning youth clients from Europe. At later stages, increased capacities in hotel accommodation and introduced preconditions for a more mass tourism, Bjelasnica has the potential to attract more tourists from Europe and the rest of the world, as well. Research Purpose The purpose of this research is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Identifying and analyzing competitors are two main steps to develop successful marketing plans (Kotler and Keller, 2006). Competitive analysis guides managers to differentiate their offering and devise focused product, price, promotion and distribution strategies. Although the ski resorts in BH have unique characteristics that can be used in their marketing, competition-based plans to attract target groups of visitors are still lacking. Detailed analyses of the competitive advantages of these resorts are necessary for future marketing planning. Current research aims to conduct a competitive analysis of these resorts and identify their relative strengths and weaknesses with differential advantage proforma technique. Methodology A series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits - observation) are used are used to identify the competitive positions and strengths of five ski resorts in BH. Initially, officials from ZOI‘84, legal successor of the Organization Committee of the XIV Winter Olympic Games with all its sport and leisure facilities, were conducted and personal interviews were conducted about ski-resorts in BH (ZOI84, 2010). Researchers from a marketing management class asked questions about past and current situation of winter tourism in BH in these personal interviews. Furthermore, researchers went on a site visit to Bjelasnica and Igman ski resort where they conducted a focus group with the site managers and technical personnel of the ski center. In this focus group, researchers asked structured questions about comparative positions of different ski-resorts in BH in terms of differential advantages and disadvantages of these resorts. Finally, researchers conducted personal interviews with the officials of one travel agency in Sarajevo. 425 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Findings received from personal interviews and the focus group study were analyzed with competitive positions proforma technique. This technique allows researchers to record competitive positions and strengths on a competitive positions proforma where relative market shares, key customer values, weaknesses and differential advantages of the competitors are recorded (Dibb and Simkin, 2008). Key customer values and differential advantages are two main attributes that are used in the analysis of competing brands (Dibb and Simkin, 2008). Dibb and Simkin state that ―A differential advantage is something a company or its marketing mix has which is desired by the target market, and is not currently readily matched by rival companies or products‖ (p. 52). Research Findings Table 2 shows competitive positions and differential advantage proforma for ski-resorts in BH. As shown in the Table, Jahorina is considered the market leader in skiing in BH, followed by Bjelasnica and Igman, Vlasic, Blidinje and Kupres. Winter tourism at Jahorina resort occupies the position of market leader, due to its highest lift skiing capacity and best quality in accommodation, health service center, and many other infrastructure and facilities that are not affected by the past war. The only disadvantage perceived to be challenging this resort is the limitation in the available space to meet the needs for any future potential expansion. Igman and Bjelasnica resort is occupying the challenger position with huge space that might be needed for any possible expansion in the future. This resort has the potential to occupy the position of market leader in the future as it has a great ski jumping venue ever since 1984 Olympics, a thick forest that allowing 200 skiing days, the steepest slopes in the region, the longest cross country tracks, and one of the highest peaks in the region. The very poor infrastructure and administrative difficulties of the resort being under the authority of the Sarajevo Canton and three municipalities (Hadzici, Trnovo and Ilidza) are the main disadvantages and challenges that facing this resort to become a market leader. While Vlasic resort is recently occupying the third position in the market, as a market follower, it has a huge capacity and lots of features that could bring it to market challenger. This resort is the hottest venue for celebration of New year and is popular since 1991 international ski jumping competition. The resort preserves the very old tradition of sheep breeding (Vlasic or Travnik cheese) and it houses hotels that maintain European standards. The resort is very close to the major markets of Croatia and Slovenia. The main disadvantage of this resort is its distance to the regional international airports, particularly from the Capital ―Sarajevo‖ (100 km.). Vlasic doesn‘t have the unique image that was created for both Jahorina and Bjelasnica & Igman resorts due to hosting the Olympic Games, which prevent it to compete on the position of market leader in the future unless similar opportunities offered to it too. Research results show that Blidinje resort occupies the position of the market fast mover because it has certain features that could improve its position in the future. The resort has a natural lake that helps a year-round tourism, rich variety of plant and animal life from Mediterranean climate and has one of the highest peaks in BH (2.227 M). Finally, Kupres resort occupies the position of market nicher with its shortest skiing days, as it has 300 days sun shine that makes it the all yearround tourism resort more than a winter tourism resort. It is attracting people from Croatia than anywhere else in the region. 426 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Competitive Positions Differential Advantages Market leader (Jahorina) Market share 4.000 beds & the highest ski lift capacity up to 10.000 per/h. Entertainment, wellness, convenient location, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Market challenger (Bjelasnica and Igman) Market share Limitation in the available resort space to meet the needs for any future potential expansion Several hotels which are ideal for conferences and meetings, the highest lifts, skiing capacity up to 10.000 per/h, infrastructure is in good condition since not affected by the war, one of the most popular winter resorts in the region. 2.250 beds & 5.000 per/h ski lift capacity Challenging skiing experience, convenient location, entertainment, wellness, variety of skiing experience. Key Customer Values (KCV) Weaknesses Administrative problems due to multiple authorities responsible for the resort, poor infrastructure due to war, lack of multimedia business facilities and health centers. Differential Advantage (DA) A great ski jumping venue ever since 1984 Olympic, thick forest that allows the longest skiing season in the region (200 days), the steepest slopes in the region, horse-drawn carriage rides through the snow. Market Follower (Vlasic) Market share 6.000 beds & 5.400 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (100 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities. Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Market fast mover (Blidinje) Market share European standard hotels, close distance to other markets - Croatia and Slovenia, the hottest venue for celebration of new year, preservation of the very old tradition of sheep breeding (Vlasic or Travnik cheese). 2.000 beds & 2.500 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure Key Customer Values (KCV) Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (80 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities, the shortest alpine ski-slopes (4.500 m) compared to other resorts in the region. Weaknesses Differential Advantage (DA) Nature lake that helps a year-round tourism, one of the highest peaks in the country (2.227 m), rich variety of Mediterranean plant and animal species. Market Nicher (Kupres) Market share 700 beds & 1.000 per/h ski lift capacity Entertainment, wellness, leisure. Key Customer Value (KCV) Weaknesses Distance to Sarajevo and international airport (140 km), limited indoor and outdoor activities, limited accommodation and ski-lifts capacity. Differential Advantage (DA) 300 days sun shine that makes it the all year-round tourism resort, close distance to other markets – Croatia. Table 2: Competitive positions and differential advantage proforma for ski-resorts in BH. 427 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Conclusion BH Mountains, particularly the ski resorts of Bjelasnica & Igman and Jahorina which hosted Winter Olympic Games in 1984, have long known for their winter tourism opportunities. BH has a great potential for winter tourism due to a number of reasons including the natural beauty of its mountain range, proximity of major mountains to city centers and major airports, proximity to western European markets. Each ski resort in BH possesses unique characteristics that can be used to differentiate its offerings in marketing. Research results indicate that Jahorina can be promoted as a family vacation winter destination with its high accommodation potential and suitable skiing infrastructure for youngsters non-professionals. The main positioning theme for this resort can be entertainment and fun for families. On the other hand, Bjelasnica and Igman can be positioned as the resort for skiing professionals and learners considering its technical infrastructure that was used in winter Olympics. Also, close proximity of this resort makes the reach easy for ski-enthusiasts living in Sarajevo and nearby destinations. Vlasic resort has similar benefits with Jahorina as it has great accommodation potential and entertainment opportunities. Vlasic can also be presented as a family vacation and entertainment destination but it can target different markets compared to Jahorina such as Croatia, Slovenia and other European markets. Finally, Blidinje and Kupres can act as nich products in skiing and go after focused target markets. These resorts may consider developing a vacation theme that combines skiing and mountain sports which may attract specific target markets from various age groups. The common disadvantage between the five winter resorts is that only a fraction of their huge potential and opportunities for winter sports is being used due to insufficient infrastructure and facilities at the mountains including lack of vertical transportation, un-groomed ski slopes and too few overnight accommodations. These mountains and resorts have great opportunities for further development that require strong and experienced strategic partners that are able to provide the investment capital and introduce new managerial skills and marketing plans. If managed properly, winter tourism can impact BH‘s gross national income to a great extend by enjoying the benefits of invisible exports such as tourism receipts and revenues. In the due course, winter tourism can provide employment, generate income, liven up and preserve hundreds of beautiful villages with old traditional life-styles in the heart of Europe that are at the risk of extinction. To develop winter tourism in BH further in the future, a comprehensive strategy should be developed covering all necessary aspects with participation from all the stake holders. The implementation should be thorough and without exceptions. For more effective marketing and management strategies, collaboration and cooperation of all parties at stake is necessary. This is especially true for Bjelasnica and Igman resort which has suffered most from recent Bosnian war. Future strategies should give priority to the restoration of basic infrastructure and superstructure needed for tourism. Providing high quality services for European tourists should also be a priority to attract tourists from nearby European markets. Tourism is a beautiful mosaic and requires full cooperation and contribution from all to be successful. References Bhtourism (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <www.bhtourism.ba/eng/yournextadventure.wbsp>. Dibb, S, and Simkin, L (2009). Marketing Essentials. London, UK: Cengage. Enjoybosnia (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <www.enjoybosnia.com/page-al-Planine.html>. FIPA (2010). Winter Tourism Investment Opportunities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved on 10 March 2010 from <http://www.br-agency.org/UserFiles/File/SKI_CENTERS.pdf>. Kotler, P. and Keller, K. L. (2008). Marketing Management. Int. Ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson. ZOI84 (2010). Retrieved on 15 May 2010 from <http://www.zoi84.ba/index.php?lang=en&sel=1>. 428 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 226 Title A name given to the resource A Competitive Analysis Of Ski Resorts In Bosnia And Herzegovina Using Differential Advantage Proforma Author Author HAMAD, Mohammad SMAJIC, Edin MUJKIC, Adisa BECIC, Armin SABOTIC, Armin YURT, Çetin DUMAN, Teoman Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this paper is to conduct a competitive analysis of ski resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina using differential advantage proforma. Bosnia and Herzegovina has a strong brand image due to Winter Olympics conducted in Sarajevo in 1984. This image has been weakening due to lack of marketing efforts, especially following the war between former Yugoslav republics. Competitive analysis is an important part of marketing strategy for companies to identify strengths and weaknesses among various competitors. In this study, differential advantage proforma is used as a technique of competitive analysis to identify comparable positions and key customer values of ski-resorts in Bosnia and Herzegovina. To identify competitive positions, a series of qualitative techniques (focus groups, personal interviews, site visits – observation) are used. Research results indicate that five competing ski-resorts have unique differential advantages that can be used in marketing of these resorts. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6fe6d25e9d14b4b9c8a38bdbe102feb.pdf dddb0f30a834463078bca51acf52c835 PDF Text Text Water Management and Sustainable Development H. Đbrahim HALĐLOĞLU Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; hhaliloglu@hotmail.com Abdulkadir BAYIR Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; abayir@atauni.edu.tr A. Necdet SĐRKECĐOĞLU Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; nsirkecioglu@hotmail.com Mehtap BAYIR Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; mehtapcengiz@hotmail.com N. Mevlüt ARAS Department of Fisheries and Aquaculture Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Atatürk, Erzurum/Turkey; mevlutaras@hotmail.com Abstract: Water is the basis of life on earth; it is the main component of the environment and an essential element for human life. Water is also fundamental for sustaining a high quality of life and for economic and social development. Human health greatly has been affected by water. But water resources has been threaten by pollution, miss using, and industrialization. In this paper loads on water resources and water availability depending on factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discussed. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different conditions were argued. Keywords: Water management; Freshwater; Sustainable development Introduction Water is very important resources for sustainable development in human life. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The demand of water amount increased six times in 20th century when comparing with 19th century, but during this time the population of word increased only three fold. To know reliable assessment of water storage on the earth is essential but there is complicated problem because water is very dynamic. It is in permanent motion, converting among liquid, solid, and gaseous phases. In addition to the quantitative estimation of water storage, it is necessary to determine the form salt or freshwater and the other formation on our planet. It is estimated that the earths hydrosphere contains of water, 1,386 million cubic kilometers (km3). However 97.5 percent of this amount is salt water and only 2.5 percent is fresh water. Most of the fresh water 588 �(68.7 percent) is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctic, the Arctic, and mountainous regions. Fresh groundwater comprises 29.9 percent of fresh water resources. Only 0.26 percent of the total amount of fresh water on the earth is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs, and river systems (Korzoun 1978). Water storage in the hydrosphere permanently exchange among the ocean, land, and the atmosphere. This exchange is usually called the turnover of water on the earth, or the global hydrological cycle. This cycle is fully replenished according to hydrospheric water, for example 2500 year for oceanic water, 10000 years permafrost and polar ice, 1500 years deep groundwater and mountainous glaciers. On the other hand, water storage in lakes is fully replenished 17 years and in rivers only 17 days. So, river water is of great importance in the global hydrological cycle and in supplying humankind with freshwater. In hydrology and water management, two concepts are very important that are used freshwater storage and renewable water resources. Renewable water resources include the water yearly replenished in the process of water turnover on the earth. In the process of turnover, both the quantity of river runoff is replenished and its quality is restored. If we could stop the contamination of rivers, then, with time, water could return to its natural purity. It is the river runoff that is most widely distributed over the land and provides a major part of water use in the world. A discovery of the anthropogenic factors that effect change of the quantitative and qualitative parameters of river water, are very important aspects of the water resources appraisal and assessment. Reliable assessment and appraisal of water resources is very important for each country or region and serves as an important prerequisite for all other aspects of the utilization and operation of water resources, and development of measures to protect against depletion and pollution. So each country is responsible water use and assessment their water sources. There are many research and document about renewable freshwater resources published since the turn of the past century in the different countries of the world. During the last years, the results of global estimations have been published with varying degrees of comprehensiveness (Baumgartner & Reichel 1975; Berner & Berner 1987, World Resources Institute 1996; Gleick 1993 and 1998). For assess renewable water resources at the global scale it must be; 5. The availability of the long-term observation series; 6. Location of sites on large and medium rivers, uniformly spread across the region, 7. Observations should reflect the river runoff regime, natural, or close to natural. Also using water was primarily estimated for the countries of the world. Then the values obtained were generalized for large natural-economic regions and continents. Household Water The amount of public water use in their home depends on climatic conditions. In many well-equipped cities of the world, water withdrawals equal 300-600 liters per day per person (lcd). By the end of the 20th century, in industrially developed countries of Europe and North America, the per capita urban water withdrawal was expected to increase up to 500-800 l/day. On the other hand, in developing agricultural countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, public water withdrawal is 50 to 100 lcd; in individual regions with insufficient water resources, it is not more than 10 to 40 lcd of freshwater per person (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Gleick 1993 and 1998). When calculated the specific water withdrawal is 400 to 600 lcd, and consumption does not usually exceed 5 to 10 percent of total water intake. Water use by populations in cities and rural areas was estimated using population dynamics data (urban and rural) and per capita water withdrawal. Industrial Water Uses Generally water in industry is used for cooling, transportation, as a solvent, and as an ingredient of finished products. Mostly water user is thermal and nuclear power generation. They use water mostly for cooling system. Used water in industry withdrawal is quite different not only for individual branches of industry, but also within each kind of production, depending on the technology of manufacturing process. As a rule, in the northern regions, industrial water withdrawals seem to be considerably less than in southern regions with higher air temperatures. Some water is use in recirculation system after used. But new freshwater add to system. The amount of new freshwater intake water supply is insignificant. Extra water intake in most industries it is 5 to 20 589 �percent, reaching 30 to 40 percent in some industries (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Margat 1994; Shiklomanov 1997 In the future, most countries will need to continuously increase the transition to circulating water supply systems. Many industries will convert to water-free, or dry, technologies. In some countries and regions of the world, there is a tendency to increase the use of marine waters for industrial purposes. Agricultural Water Uses For all the countries and regions in the world, irrigation is the principal water user. At the beginning of the 20 th almost all developed and developing countries initiated intensive irrigation development. This intensive irrigation could provide for the growth of irrigated areas and increased crop production. But this increase in irrigated areas slowed considerably (Postel 1992; Shiklomanov 1997). The reason of this situation was the very high cost of irrigation system construction, soil salinization, the depletion of irrigation water-supplying sources, and the problems of environmental protection. Also some developed countries, the amount of irrigated lands has stabilized or even decreased. At the present time, about 15 percent of all cultivated lands are being irrigated. However, the food produced in irrigated areas amounts to almost half the total crop production. Irrigated areas would expand mainly in countries with an extremely rapid population growth and sufficient water and land resources. Water required for irrigation is determined water intake in cubic meters per hectare per year (m3/ha/year), and returnable waters in percentage of water intake. They depend on general physiographic conditions, serviceable condition of irrigation systems, watering techniques and crop composition. In the irrigation area the returnable water amount is change according to the area and climatic condition. This amount changes between 20-60% percent of total water intake. Therefore, the values of annual water withdrawal vary greatly, from 5,000-6,000 m3/ha to 1500017000 m3/ha, and in individual regions of Africa to 20000 or 25000 m3/ha. (Shiklomanov & Markova 1987; Shiklomanov 1997; FAO 1995 and 1999). A considerable water economy can be attained through use of the most efficient modern engineering methods and means of watering (sprinkling, drip irrigation, etc.) that increase crop productivity and decrease irrigation water volume. The largest water use in agriculture is irrigation. However, quantitatively, the total water contribution to other agricultural uses is insignificant when compared to those for irrigation (approximately, 5 to 8 percent). In estimating future water withdrawals for irrigation, the trend of irrigation to decrease due to improving technological procedures and engineering efficiency was considered. Solutions to the Water Crisis * Develop more water sources, while ensuring that environmental and community concerns are addressed; * Improve water infrastructure, including the installation of low-flow toilets and efficient drip-irrigation systems; * Improve water-use efficiency * Update the Clean Water Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act to include new contaminants, and actively enforce the standards already in place * Price water more accurately, with the understanding that water is a human right and should be subsidized for basic human needs * Improve and expand public participation in environmental decision-making; and Strengthen water institutions and improve communication between them. 590 �References Baumgartner A. & Reichel E. (1975). The world water balance. Vienna and Munich: R. Oldenboury Verlag. Berner E.K. & Berner R.A. (1987). The global water cycle: Biochemistry and environment. Reprint. Adapted by permission of Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. FAO (1995). Irrigation in Africa in Figures. Extract from Water Report 7, FAO, Rome, Italy. FAO (1999). Irrigation in Asia in Figures. Extract from Water Report 18, FAO, Rome, Italy. Gleick P.H. (1993). Water in crisis. Oxford University Press. Gleick P.H. (1998). The world’s water. Island Pres, Washington, DC, USA. Korzoun, V.I. (1978). World water balance and water resources of the earth. UNESCO. Margat J. (1994). Water use in the world: Present and Future. Paris, UNESCO. Postel S. (1992). Last oasis. The worldwatch environment alert series. New York & London: W.W. Norton and Company. Shiklomanov I.A. & Markova O.L. (1987). Problems of water availability and water transfers in the world. Leningrad: Hydrometeoizdat. (In Russian). Shiklomanov I.A. (1997). Assessment of water resources and water availability in the world. Geneva, Switzerland: SEI and WMO. World Resources Institute (1996). A guide to the global environment. Oxford University Press. 591 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 605 Title A name given to the resource Water Management and Sustainable Development Author Author HALİLOĞLU, H. İbrahim BAYIR, Abdulkadir SİRKECİOĞLU, A. Necdet BAYIR, Mehtap ARAS, N. Mevlüt Abstract A summary of the resource. Water is the basis of life on earth; it is the main component of the environment and an essential element for human life. Water is also fundamental for sustaining a high quality of life and for economic and social development. Human health greatly has been affected by water. But water resources has been threaten by pollution, miss using, and industrialization. In this paper loads on water resources and water availability depending on factors are analyzed; regions of water scarcity and water resources deficit are discussed. Possible ways of water supply improvement and elimination of water resources deficit in different conditions were argued. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/4eb4adf52c851970938bc0f113bc2fe0.pdf cd497140adfb75ba7cde6941df1e2dd7 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing (DW) - Models and Business Application Aida HABUL Prof. Dr., Sarajevo University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina aida.habul@efsa.unsa.ba Merdžana OBRALIģ Res. Assist., International Burch University, Faculty of Economics Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina mobralic@ibu.edu.ba Abstract: Fighting with competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantages in the market. Creating long-term policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information about the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In the DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in a format that suits the user and is available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. Introduction In the market there is growing competition that day by day globalizes. At the same time, buyers are more and more selective. All this is forcing manufacturers to constantly check their competitiveness in the market and to find a successful business strategy. Strategic advantage over competitors is sought by achieving the proper planning of market, product innovation, and proper relationships with customers and clients. It is necessity to have timely and relevant information on all aspects of the business and market situations. Data Warehousing is an important concept of effective decision support systems that are intensively developing in recent years. With this concept and the methods is wanted to achieve ''intelligent'' business of company in complex market conditions. For this already there is the name ''business intelligence''. The company, which analyzes the behavior of their customers, behaves ''intelligently''. For example, it has all the necessary customer data and captures every activity which is connected to that customer in the database. With the analysis of this data, for example; by analyzing what and when the customer purchased, how many complaints and for which products he had, all these analysis make the customer profile, or can be put into some category. With the analyses of their own business data and external factors, we get the information used in making optimal business decisions, and at the end make profit and ensure the further existence. Data Warehousing Data Warehousing is a set of data organization on which a decision support system is based. A small data warehouse that contains the data of only one area is called a regional data warehouse (eng. Data March). Data Warehouse is defined as a set of information organized so can be analyzed, extracted, merged and otherwise be used to understand their essence. 465 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Data Warehousing is also a database, provided that the information in it is organized in a special way. A Data Warehouse has a large amount of data that is organized into small logical units called March Data. Data Warehouse systems use abnormal (relaxed) data. Executing a query over the data organized this way is much faster. This kind of work is called OLAP (On Line Analytical Processing). Data that is embedded in the data warehouse is usually accessed through the March data. March Data usually represent a subset of logically related data from the data warehouse, which refers to a specific area. Business Intelligence is taken from data generated during the everyday business of firms. Because of the perimeter, this data is archived each year, deleted and only the data of the next year remains in the database. In addition, the data in the database must be updated so that old data is replaced with new data (e.g., old price, the old quantity in warehouses or in stores they are being replaced by new ones), and then the trail of the old data is erased in the database. For operational management of the old values businesses, for example, quantity in warehouse are not important, but they are important for the business intelligence that tracks the time sequence of events of individual business events. As a conclusion we can say that transactional bases are no longer enough, there is a need for data warehouse. Table 1. view of database and data warehouse Features of Database The data in related databases is organized into twodimensional tables that are mutually connected. The database contains information for each business period. After this period the data is archived and deleted from the current database. The data is constantly being updated and the old values cannot be seen. What is differet beteen a warehouse and a database? A warehouse does not accumulate all the data from the database in recent years. Only the data from the database that is thought to be important for the analysis is archived in the warehouse. The data in the warehouse is organized in a multidimensional cube, it is permanent and is related to the time of emergence. The aim of the data warehouse is not operational business, it is to create a richer sourse of information for various short and long term analysis and for forecasting. P W r a o r p e e h r o t i u e s s o f D a t a e The properities of the Data Warehouse are integration of Data Warehouse systems, the orientation of the Data Warehouse system threads, the time dependence of the Data Warehouse system and the permanence of the Data Warehouse system. Orientation of DW System on Topics The data is categorized and organized according to topics of business and not as a functional unit. Examples of possible themes are Sales-information about products, customers, spatial and organizational structure; Marketing-data about markets, products, customers, technologies, plans; Production-data about products, customers, technologies, plans; Financial operations; and Transportation. Time Dependence of DW System The data is organized by a series ''cross of state‘‘ of operational data; each cross refers to a time interval. How appear Data Warehouse ? 466 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Table 2. Data Warehouse Basic Models of Data Warehouse When creating a data warehouse today in practice we face three basic models or basic architecture of data warehouse: (1) two-layer architecture with a common data warehouse (original data + data warehouse); this model is characterizing a single common centralized data warehouse. Data are received from various sources inside of the organization and external data sources available via the Internet or other means. Characteristic of twolayer architecture is that it serves a large number of organizational units of company as individual users. Such warehouses are large scale and very complex, and they are usually stored vast amounts of data. And the scheme of data that are used for storing data should support a wide range application request. From the above it is evident that the costs of maintaining such architecture are high and assume a substantial commitment and time of a certain number and profiles of experts. (2) two-layer architecture with multiple independent local data warehouse (original data + data march); Characteristics of this data warehouse architecture is the existence of large number of independent local data warehouse intended for support individual applications in the organizational units of companies. The result of this architecture is the large number of systems which each of them submitted their data from various transactional databases. The advantage of the above model of data warehouse is simpler construction and easier to use. But this model also has disadvantages such as: (1) Difficulties in communication among organizational units of companies. This model is not suitable for companies whose business requires the support of applications and projects that assume mutual communication and cooperation of a larger number of organizational units of companies. (2) Increasing the number of mutually independent data warehouse, slow growth and load themselves transactional systems. (3) Data Marches are designed to support only one application and subsequent addition of new applications in a specific warehouse represent difficulties. (4) Limited scalability of platform. And, (5) Uvid into actual state of information at the company level became difficult. (3) three-layer architecture with a common data warehouse and several affiliated local warehouses (original data + data warehouse + data march); This model consists of large number of local data warehouse and a common data warehouse that is located between the data warehouse and various data sources within and outside the company. Data warehouses rely on central data warehouse that delivers information in a form that provides uniform access to all segments of company business. Compared to the previous two models the advantages of three-layer architecture are higher accuracy of the information freely from which sources are affected, communication among organizational units is easier, the burden on IT specialists is reduced, stability and scalability of data warehousing platform is increased, and at the end, this architecture is offering possibility of using foreign applications allowing connection of all entities in the chain of value. This three-layer warehouse architecture, that is known as the most used one has it owns advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are: (1) The work load of IT specialists is reduced (because the data is already coordinated in the warehouse, so they are just taken in the warehouse); (2) More opportunities to add new application; (3) Improves the accuracy and precision of information (because everything is derived from one warehouse); (4) Less difficulty in communication and cooperation between organizational units and parts that has to 467 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo be performed together; and (5) The possibility of the use of applications that goes beyond the framework of operations (connecting with buyers and suppliers in the value chain). The disadvantages are: Relatively high cost of establishing a common warehouse at corporate level (to eliminate this disadvantage we have to make a gradual incremental construction of warehouses: first we have to create the first warehouse, then the mini-warehouse, than gradually add new warehouses and activate new applications, and finally comes the independence of the ''real'' warehouse). Implementation of Data Warehouse There are many ways to implement the Data Warehouse in a company. The implementation can be seen from several aspects: (1) An area that covers the data warehouse; DW can contain all the information of one company and for a period of several years. Also, DW can carry a personal character for a specific manager and can contain information from a short period of time (one year). (2) Volume of data redundancy; there are three levels of data redundancy that companies should consider when designing their own DW. (1) Virtual or ''Point to Point'' DW; (2) Central DW; and (3) Distributed DW. (3) Types of final users; when we look at the DW from the final user point, we can establish three categories of users: (1) CEOs and managers; (2) ''Powerful'' users (business and financial analysts, engineers, etc.); and (3) Users for support (operational and administrative staff) Levels of Analysis of Data in Warehouse 1. Generate static reports - If we only need a report in tabular or graphical format on the existing data from the data warehouse, report generators are sufficient tools (e.g. Microsoft Crystal Reports or Oracle Reports), which simply display data that is filtered, sorted or summarized by some criteria from the database. 2. OLAP (on-line processing analytical) - More complex, analytical processing of data by different dimensions is done at the relational base on OLAP technology (e.g.: if you want to get information about Mazda 323 cars for sale in Osijek Friday afternoon). To view OLAP we have to use the most frequent three-dimensional cubes. 3. Data Mining - The most complex part of data processing, means sophisticated Métis for searching hidden laws in data. Selection of DW Strategies Before the DW system is developed, it is necessary to choose a strategy that is as far as possible a guarantee that the ultimate solution will meet the specific demands at the time. Who are the final users? Which areas should be covered? What kind of information should the DW provide? These are just some of the issues raised in the selection of implementation strategies of a DW in a company. We should not ignore the fact that man is the main factor in the decision making process. Business Application of Data Warehouse Databases can be seen as the area where the company partners (customers, clients, service users) leave clues about their business relationship with the company. Every transaction, purchase, invitation addressed over the call center, seeking bids for certain set of items is being recorded in database. Company that are using Data Warehouses 1) Volkswagen AG - uses Business Object tools for monitoring all data - from finance, manufacturing, development, research, sales, marketing and purchasing. Users at all levels can access the statements in BI tools. 2) MasterCard International – uses the BI tools for monitoring data in the area of advertising and authorization and fraud detection. 3) Magma uses OLAP and BI tools to improve the reporting system on the sale of goods. 468 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Example of Applying DW in Textile Trades A typical retail shop sells textiles to a large number of customers whose needs are significantly different. Without adequate resources for the analysis of numerous data about clients, the shop would be doomed to failure. The biggest benefits for a business are functions, the contact point through which insight into the characteristics and behavior of clients is created. The development of information technology has enabled us to be informed about clients and also to fill our database with useful information. The value of a customer is very important data. During their entire life cycle, the value of the customers is always changing. All clients are not equally profitable, so the profitability of customers also changes over time. These are the reasons why it is important to identify the clients whose value during their entire life cycle is great and to establish close relationships with them. Our database should also contain answers to important questions about customers, such as customer loyalty, cross selling, determining target prices, but also about suppliers, the efficiency of suppliers, stock control, product flow, forecasting demand. The emphasis on the importance of logistics leads to specialization in providing logistics services exclusively. Textile makers are faced with the traditional approach of material offers which a user can feel and with the new generation of customers that manage in the virtual world almost as much as in the real. A well-made database enables the rapid development and progress in every sense. Also, the path from the manufacturer to the final consumers is reduced to the minimum. However, the possibilities of keeping the customer in this market are far greater than in others. Today we are witnessing estimates that the market of direct selling as it was known in years past will completely disappear, work on the DW and the content that is offered to customers with quality procurement and distribution channels can ensure the stability of textile makers in new times. Therefore we should not neglect the potential of the Internet, but we should consider target regional environment. Decisions taken should be closely connected with the database. The database should be well designed, created and filled with good information. That is the only way to guarantee life and successful business. Conclusion Fighting competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantage in the market. Creating a longterm policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information on the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In a DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in format that suits the user and available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. The DW is an information technology that simply imposes cooperative team work of professional information experts and economists, and links the technical and business worlds. Perhaps this will lead to better cooperation between designers and users of information systems and thus to greater success in the project of building company information systems. References Bojan C., Poslovna inteligencija, Beograd, 2006. Hanic H., Sistem informacija za upravljanje marketingom, Beogradska banarska akademija, Beograd, 2008. http://www.infotrend.hr/clanak/2009/7/temelj-procesa-odlucivanja,41,810.html John P., Model-Driven Data Warehouse, Integrate Burlingame, CA, 2003 469 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Kellet A., Integrated Business Intelligence, Butler Group, April 2003 Mladen V., Skladiste podataka. Mrsic L., Poslovna inteligencija kroz poslovne slucajeve, Zagreb, 2003 Mrsic L., Primjena metoda rudarenja podataka u trgovini tekstilnim i srodnim proizvodima, Magistarski rad, Zagreb, 2004. www.skladistenje.com www.znanje.org 470 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 246 Title A name given to the resource Data Warehousing (DW) - Models and Business Application Author Author HABUL, Aida OBRALIĆ, Merdžana Abstract A summary of the resource. Fighting with competition requires innovative ways of achieving the advantages in the market. Creating long-term policy of doing business with the possibility of adjustment to unpredictable phenomena requires an enormous amount of quality information about the condition of the company, market, trends of state policies, international trends, etc. This is a huge amount of different data. In the DW this information is extracted, transformed, at the same time detailed and aggregated, processed in a format that suits the user and is available in real time. The Data Warehouse is a unique picture of business reality and ensures the comprehensiveness of the whole business system; coverage of external and internal data is the basis for defining the business strategy. The DW promotes the business of the company by enriching the business processes and their participants with information needed for making business decisions. It is forced to accurately define and describe the business processes that need to be rejected, imported or innovated. The DW contains rapid, accurate, aggregated, visually accessible information that contains a time dimension, which represents an important managerial resource. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/8c66c18b9cdf58d1bd21d93fde3d7314.pdf 98e3d4b056c6503165965cf89825cd0a PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Servant Leadership as a New Leadership Concept In Organizations And Distinguishing Between Transformational and Servant Leadership Ceren GĠDERLER ATALAY Dumlupinar University, Department of Administration, Turkey giderler_ceren@hotmail.com Abtract: Servant leadership is an increasingly popular concept in the repertoire of leadership styles. The concepts of servant leadership appear to underlie most of current literature on leadership theory and management practice. When viewed in a historical and scientific context, servant leadership proves to be the viable and sustainable option for organizational longevity. Servant leadership has been described as ―a transformational approach to life and work‖ that takes ―the transformation wrought in its followers to a new height‖. The servant leader‘s first priority is to serve others including customers, employees and the community involving shared decision-making, a holistic attitude toward work and comminity building.The servant leader belives in awareness, empathy and integrity and is most likely to engage in responsible reflection. He/She has been referred an active, empowering process in which the leader enables the followers to do their work and take responsibility for self-management. The result is as a synergy of shared vision, trust and responsibility that engenders a flexible organization and a deeply satisfying work life.The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. On the other hand, this study indicates that the functional attributes of servant leadership such as communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, visibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encourgement, teaching and delegation. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Key Words: Leadership, Servant Leadership, The Characteristics of Servant Leadership, Transformational Leadership. Introduction The topic of leadership in the wider organizational context has been attracting attention for some time; indeed, its history is almost as long as the history of management. The leadership domain has recently focused on the so-called "new leadership paradigm" such as transformational leadership and servant leadership. According to Greenleaf, the servant-leader first has the desire to serve others, and then learns to lead as a servant. Laub (1999) defined a servant leader as one who emphasizes the good of followers over the self-interest of the leader. Bass (1990) specified that transformational leadership; ―occours when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employeess, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group‖. The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Servant Leadership The paradoxical term, ―servant-leadership‖, which appears to touch an innate need in many of us, and which therefore harks back to the beginning of time, became popularized twenty-five years ago by Robert Greenleaf his books Servant Leadership (1977) and Teacher as Servant (1979). Greenleaf, who wished to stimulate thought and to develop a better, more caring society, compiled his observations on individuals in organisations who serve. According to Greenleaf, the servant-leader first has the desire to serve others, and then learns to lead as a servant. In Hamilton‘s (2008) view, however, Greenleaf never formally defined servantleadership; instead Greenleaf (1970) merely asked (Anderson, 2008, pp.4-5; Cunningham, 2004, p.2); 205 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo  Do those served grow as persons, do they, while being served, become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely themselves to become servants?  If one is a servant, one is always searching, listening, expecting that a better wheel for these times is in the making. In his view, servant-leadership ―begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then a conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead‖ (Anderson, 2008, pp.4-5). The notion of servant leadership has received growing attention and recognition in recent years. Various researchers have espoused servant leadership as a valid theory of organizational leadership with great promise for theoretical and practical development (Washington, Sutton, Feild, 2005, p.701). Laub (1999) defined a servant leader as one who emphasizes the good of followers over the self-interest of the leader. That is, according to Laub, servant leadership promotes development of people through (Washington, Sutton, Feild, 2005, pp.700-701);  the sharing of power;  community building;  the practice of authenticity in leadership; and  the provision of leadership for the good of followers, the total organization, and clients or customers of the organization. The Characteristics of Servant Leadership Spears (1995, 1998) listed, ten characteristics of a servant leader drawn from Greenleaf‘s writings, and Contee-Borders‘s (2003) case study confirmed these characteristics as being critical to servant leadership (Joseph, Winston, 2005, p.10; Speras, 2004, pp.2-3);  Listening: Servant leaders clarify the will of a group by listening receptively to what is being said,  Empathy: Servant leaders strive to understand and empathize with others,  Healing: Servant leaders have the potantial for healing self and others,  Awareness: Servant leadership is strengthened by general awareness and especially self-awareness,  Persuasion: Servant leaders rely upon persuasion, rather than positional authority, in making decisions within an organization,  Conceptualization: Servant leaders seek to nurture their abilities to deram great dreams,  Foresight: Servant leaders have the ability to foresee the likely outcome of a situation in the future,  Stewardship: Servant leaders‘ first and foremost cimmitment is to servet he needs of others,  Commitment to the growth of people: Servant leaders are deeply committed to the personal, professional and spiritual growth of each and every individual within the institution and  Building Community: Servant leaders seek to identify means of building community among those who work within a given institution. According to Gersh, characteristics of servant leadership are empathy, stewardship/trust, building community, empowerment of those served, servant as leader (Gersh, 2006, p.14). Whereas more emprical work is clearly needed to elucidate the model fully, leadership scholars do generally accept there are fundamental principles of servant leadership. Based on the reading of Greenleaf, Daft (1999) provided a summary of four underlying precepts associated with authentic servant leadership (Humphreys, 2005, pp.1414-1415);  Service before self: Consistent with the definition, servant leaders place serving others before their own self-interests. The desire to facilitate the needs of others takes precedent over the desire for a formal leadership position. The servant leader insists on doing what is good and right, even in the absence of actual or potantial gain in material possessions, status or prestige.  Listening as a means of affirmation: A second hallmark of servant leadership is listening first as a way of affirming others. Instead of providing answers, the servant leader asks questions of anyone having important knowledge or insight into a problem or oppurtunity. By promoting participative decision making, the leader enhances the confidence and self-efficacy of others as ―the primary mission of the servant leadership is to figure out the will of the group, to express that will, and then to further it…‖  Creating trust: Servant leaders create trust and inspire it in followers by demonstrating personal trustworthiness. They honestly share all information, positive and negative, to assure decisions will ultimately enhance the wellbeing of he group. Trust in the servant leader is augmented through freely trusting others and disseminating, not hoarding, power and incentives.  Nourishing followers to become whole: Servant leaders desire for others to develop their full potential and become servant leaders as well. ―Greenleaf believed the final goal of servanthood was to help others became servants themselves…‖. Through openness and personal discussion of their trials and tribulations 206 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and those of others, they share their humanity with followers. Unafraid of showing vulnerability, they use frank and open disclosure as a way to awaken the human spirit of those around them. According the Patterson (2003), the servant leader leads and serves with (Dennis, Bocarnea, 2005, pp.602-604);  Agapao Love: The corner of the servant leadership/follower relationship that Patterson decsribes is agapao love. Winston (2002) states that agapao menas to love in a social or moral sense. According to Winston (2002), this love causes leaders to consider each person not simply as a means to an end but as a complete person: one with needs, wants, and desires. According to Winston, this love is alive and well today in organizations in which those who demonstrate it follow what Winston calls, not the Golden Rule, but the Platinum Rule (do unto others as they would want you to do unto them).  Humility: Humility, according to Sandage and Wiens (2001), is the ability to keep one‘s accomplishments and talents in perspective. This means practicing self-acceptance, but it further includes the practices of true humility, which means not being self-focused on others. Swindoll (1981) argues that the humility of the servant is not to be equated with poor self-esteem, but rather that humility is in line with a healthy ego. In other words, humility does not mean having a low view of one‘s self or one‘s self worth; rather, it means viewing oneself as no beter or worse than others do.  Alturism: Kaplan (2000) states that alturism is helping others selflessly just fort he sake of helping, which involves personal sacrifice, although there is no personal gain. Likewise, Einsenberg (1986), defines altruistic behavior as ―voluntary behavior that is intented to benefit another and is not motivated by the expectation of external reward‖.  Vision: Vision, according to Webster‘s Dictionary, is ―the act or power of imagination; mode of seeing or conceiving; or, unusual discernment or foresight‖. Blanchard (200) defines vision as ―a Picture of the future that produces passion‖. Vision is necessary to good leadership. Hauser and House (2000) posit that the ―development and communication of a vision is one explanation fort he success of charismatic/transformational leaders and their effect on the performance‖.  Trust: According to Hauser and House (200), trust is defines as ―confidence in or reliance on another team member‖ in terms of their morality (e.g.honesty) and competence. According to Story (2002), trust is an essential characteristic of the servant leader. Servant leaders model truth in the way they coach, empower and persuade. This trust exists as a basic element for true leadership.  Service: The act of serving includes a mission of responsibility yo others. Leaders understand that service is the center of servant leadership. Leaders model their service to others in their behavior, attitudes, and values. According to Block (1993), service is everything. People are accountable to those they serve whether customers or subordinates. Greenlaf (1996) posits that for leaders to be of service to others, they must have a sense of responsibility.  Empowerment: Empowerment is entrusting power to others, and for the servant leader it involves effective listening, making people feel significant, putting an empasis on teamwork, and valuing of love and equality. Covey (2002) believes that the leader serves as a role model for empowering others and for valuing their differences. Mcgee-Cooper and Trammell (2002) argue that understanding basic assumptions and background information on important issues empowers people to discover deeper meaning in their jobs and to participate more fully in effective decision making. Bass (1990), posits that empowerment is power sharing with followers in planning and decision making. Transformational and Servant Leadership Bass (1990) specified that transformational leadership; ―occours when leaders broaden and elevate the interests of their employeess, when they generate awareness and acceptance of the purposes and mission of the group, and when they stir their employees to look beyond their own self-interest for the good of the group‖ (Stone, Russell, Patterson, 2004, p.350). This section compares transformational and servant leadership theories. The facilitate this analysis, a matrix of leadership components was created. Transformational leadership is defined as having four conceptually distinct elements: charasmatic leadership/idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Servant leadership has six distinct components: valving people, developing people, building community, displaying authenticity providing leadership, sharing leadership (Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko, 2004, p.82). Smith et al. (2004) have proposed that transformational leadership would lead to an ―empowerment dynamic culture‖, whereas, servant leader behavior would create a more ―spiritual generative culture‖. Moreover, they suggest the context could determine which of these cultures, created by the leadership behaviors presented, might lead to greater organizational success. In other words, the context could determine the effectiveness of the leadership style offered (see Figure 1) (Smith, Montagno, Kuzmenko, 2004, p.86; Humphreys, 2005, p.1417). 207 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Parolini (2007) empirically investigated the assumptions in the literature about the distinctions between transformational and servant leaders including the moral, focus, motive and mission, development, and influence distinctions. Parolini found that transformational leaders were differentiated by their focus on the needs of the organization, inclination to lead first, allegiance toward the organization, and influence through conventional charismatic approaches as well as control. The study also identified servant leaders as differentiated by their focus on the needs of the individual, inclination to serve first, allegiance toward the individual, and influence through unconventional service as well as through offering freedom or autonomy. Through the data collection and analysis process, a high presence of transformational and servant leadership was found in organizational life (Parolini, Patterson, Winston, 2008, pp.288, 289). Figure 1: Transformational and Servant Leadership Conclusion The notion of servant leadership has received growing attention and recognition in recent years. Various researchers have espoused servant leadership as a valid theory of organizational leadership with great promise for theoretical and practical development. According to Laub, servant leadership promotes development of people through the sharing of power, community building, the practice of authenticity in leadership, and the provision of leadership for the good of followers, the total organization, and clients or customers of the organization. Spears (1995, 1998) listed, ten characteristics of a servant leader drawn from Greenleaf‘s writings, 208 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo and Contee-Borders‘s (2003) case study confirmed these characteristics as being critical to servant leadership; listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, building community. Finally, it have been compared that differences which exist between transformational and servant leadership in this study. Transformational leadership is defined as having four conceptually distinct elements; charasmatic leadership/idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration whereas servant leadership has six distinct components; valving people, developing people, building community, displaying authenticity providing leadership, sharing leadership. As a result, while transformational leadership has been well researched and has become popular in practice, servant leadership theory needs further support. Nonetheless, servant leadership offers great opportunities for leaders. References Anderson, J.A. (2008). When A Servant Leader Comes Knocking, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 30 (1), pp.415. Cunningham, R. (2004). Servant Leadership- An Introduction, Global Virtue Ethics Review, 5(3), pp.2-6. Dennis, R.S.&Bocarnea, M. (2005). Development Of The Servant Leadership Assessment Instrument, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 26 (7/8), pp.600-615. Gershi, M.R. (2006). Servant-Leadership: A Philosophical Foundation For Professionalism In Physical Therapy, Journal Of Physical Therapy Education, 20 (2), pp.12-16. Humphreys, J.H. (2005). Contextual Implications For Transformational And Servant Leadership: A Historical Inverstigation, Management Decisions, 43 (10), pp.1410-1431. Joseph, E.E.&Winston, B.E. (2005). A Correlation Of Servant Leadership, Leader Trust And Organizational Trust, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 26 (1/2), pp.6-22. Parolini, J.&Patterson, K.&Winston, B. (2009). Distinguishing Between Transformational And Servant Leadership, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 30 (3), pp.274-291. Smith, B.N.&Montagno, R.V.&Kuzmenko, T.N. (2004). Transformational And Servant Leadership: Content And Contextual Comparisons, Journal Of Leadership&Organizational Studies, 10 (4), pp.80-91. Spears, L.C. (2004). Practicing Servant Leadership, Leader To Leader, 34, pp.7-11. Stone, G.A.&Russell, R.F.&Patterson, K. (2004). Transformational Versus Servant Leadership: A Difference In Leader Focus, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 25 (3/4), pp.349-361. Washington, R.R.&Sutton, C.D.&Feild, H.S. (2006). Individual Differences In Servant Leadership: The Roles of Values And Personality, Leader&Organization Development Journal, 27 (8), pp.700-716. 209 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 156 Title A name given to the resource Servant Leadership as a New Leadership Concept In Organizations And Distinguishing Between Transformational and Servant Leadership Author Author GİDERLER ATALAY, Ceren Abstract A summary of the resource. Servant leadership is an increasingly popular concept in the repertoire of leadership styles. The concepts of servant leadership appear to underlie most of current literature on leadership theory and management practice. When viewed in a historical and scientific context, servant leadership proves to be the viable and sustainable option for organizational longevity. Servant leadership has been described as ―a transformational approach to life and work‖ that takes ―the transformation wrought in its followers to a new height‖. The servant leader‘s first priority is to serve others including customers, employees and the community involving shared decision-making, a holistic attitude toward work and comminity building.The servant leader belives in awareness, empathy and integrity and is most likely to engage in responsible reflection. He/She has been referred an active, empowering process in which the leader enables the followers to do their work and take responsibility for self-management. The result is as a synergy of shared vision, trust and responsibility that engenders a flexible organization and a deeply satisfying work life.The aim of this study is to describe the servant leadership that is an increasingly popular concept for organizations. On the other hand, this study indicates that the functional attributes of servant leadership such as communication, credibility, competence, stewardship, visibility, influence, persuasion, listening, encourgement, teaching and delegation. In the other words this article examines transformational leadership and servant leadership to determine what similitaries and differences exist between the two leadership concepts. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f8b5737c4ea55c5920ba92bf14690154.pdf 795bd4272630597e6eeec480856741a9 PDF Text Text Pistillate Flower Abscission in Turkish Walnut Cultivars and Its Reduction by AVG Ayşe Gün Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey aysegun2000@hotmail.com Veli Erdoğan Ankara University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture Ankara, Turkey verdogan@agri.ankara.edu.tr M. Emin Akçay Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey akcay11@mynet.com Ayşe Fidanci Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey aysefidanci66@hotmail.com Đsmail Tosun Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute Yalova, Turkey ismailtosun77@mynet.com Abstract: Level of pistillate flower abscission (PFA) in Turkish walnut cultivars was investigated in this study. Emasculated and bagged female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% pollen concentrations at receptivity. Control flowers left for open pollination. In addition, a whole tree was sprayed with 125 ppm ethylene inhibitor AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) when anthesis reached to 5-30% and a control tree was not treated for each cultivar. Number of aborted flowers at diameter of 3-4cm was counted and percent PFA was calculated. The results showed that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium (65.4%) to high (100%) levels of PFA including the leading cultivars ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ (94.8% and 93.4% PFA, respectively). Application of AVG reduced PFA from 82.4% to 43.6% in average and increased fruit set significantly in all cultivars except ‘Şen-1’. Keywords: Walnut, PFA, fruit set, amino ethoxy vinyl glycine, AVG Introduction Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is a monoecious and wind pollinated species. Pistillate flowers are produced terminally on shoots while staminate flowers (catkins) are borne laterally on one-year-old branches. Many fruit species exhibit flower and fruit drops which usually associated with competition phenomenon or lack of pollination. Walnuts present female flower drops called Pistillate Flower Abscission (PFA) (Catlin et al. 1987). Female flowers become receptive very shortly after emergence from the shoot apex when two stigma lobes begin to separate. However, ovary stops growing at 3-4mm in diameter, become necrotic, get brown and mumificated. These flowers drop with the peduncle attached from the shoot 2-3 weeks later (Catlin & 29 �Polito, 1989, Polito et al, 2005, Rovira & Aleta, 2006). In early studies, no association could be made with any known physiological, cultural, pathological or entomological influence (Catlin et al. 1987). Later, reports of Por & Por (1990) and McGranahan et al. (1994) showed that excess pollen was involved in PFA. Recently, the physiological mechanism leading to PFA was uncovered. When a pistillate flower receives high pollen load, pollen tubes growing down the style induce high rate of ethylene biosynthesis activating pre-formed abscission zones and resulting in flower abscission (Beede & Polito, 2003, Polito et al. 2005, Johnson et al. 2006, Lemus et al. 2007). Mechanically shaking catkins from pollenizer cultivars and main cultivar or removal of pollenizer rows altogether have been suggested to minimize PFA in existing orchards (Sibbett et al. 1995). An ethylene inhibitor amino ethoxy vinyl glycine (AVG) has been tested on walnuts to reduce PFA. The results showed increased yields especially on ‘Serr’ cultivar (Beede & Polito, 2003, Lemus et al. 2007). Severity of PFA varied among cultivars and ‘Serr’ was more seriously affected than others were. The yield could be reduced as much as 90% (Catlin & Olson, 1990). Many observations made in some countries such as Chile, France, Hungary, Spain, USA and Iran demonstrated that PFA exist in nearly all commercial cultivars (Rovira & Aleta, 1997, 2006, Hassani et al. 2006, Lemus et al. 2007). However, tendency of Turkish cultivars to PFA is not known. The objective of this study was to determine the level of PFA in Turkish walnut cultivars and to prevent PFA by applying ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor AVG. Materials and Methods Sixteen years old walnut trees of 11 Turkish cultivars and ‘Serr’ cultivar located at Atatürk Central Horticultural Research Institute, Yalova, Turkey were used in the study [Table 1]. Determination of the level of PFA in cultivars: Newly coming shoots with emerging female flowers were bagged with Tyvek bags before receptivity after emasculation. Female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% of walnut pollen when stigmas separated and reached to receptivity. Pollen mixtures were prepared with talc powder before application. Pollen numbers in each of concentration was determined under microscope. Control flowers left for open pollination. Dropping flowers due to PFA were distinguished by visual appearance (Rovira & Aleta, 2006); female flowers stopped growing at 3-4mm in diameter, became necrotic, got brown, and mumificated. The most distinct feature was the dropping of flowers with the peduncle attached to it from the shoot. Drops due to competition within flowers of the same inflorescence were different that flowers’ detachment occurred at the basis of ovary and the flowers dropped without peduncle. Number of healthy flowers and abscised flowers showing PFA symptoms were counted and the percent PFA was calculated after 3 weeks of pollinations. For each treatment, 25 bags were used on each of three trees. Number of female flowers in bags varied since multiple flowers could be produced at top of shoot apex. Determination of effect of ethylene inhibitor on reduction of PFA: AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) was used as an ethylene inhibitor. A whole tree was applied with 125 ppm of commercial product Retain® (Valent BioSciences, USA) when female flowers reached to 5-30% receptivity (Venburg et al. 2008). Second tree was not treated and used as control. Three branches were marked and approximately 100 flowers were counted on trees. Number of healthy and abscised female flowers due to PFA was counted and percent PFA was calculated after 3 weeks of AVG application. Cultivar ‘Kaplan-86’ gave inconsistent results that it was excluded from this experiment. In both of the experiments, the second set of counts was made nine weeks after pollination/AVG application to assess fruit set which gave the yield. Drops occurred at that period due to both PFA and other causes of drop such as nutritional deficiencies and competition phenomenon. 30 �Results and Discussion Determination of the level of PFA in cultivars: Percent PFA and percent fruit set values of cultivars, which were determined 3 weeks, and 9 weeks after pollination with different pollen concentrations, respectively are shown in Table 1. When female flowers pollinated with the lowest concentration of pollen (5%) PFA was the lowest (48.6%). As pollen concentration increased to 50% and 100% PFA incidence increased to 54.1% and 72.7%, respectively. Pollinations with 100% pollen concentration gave similar to open pollination. We counted the pollen number in the same amount of pollen sample, which was applied to the flowers under microscope. The average number of pollen grains was 17.6, 47.7 and 343.8 in pollen samples of 5%, 50 and 100% of concentrations, respectively. These findings indicated a positive relationship between pollen load and level of abortion of pistillate flowers as suggested by Por & Por, (1990) and McGranahan et al. (1994). Kaveckaja & Tokar (1963) reported that 10-18 pollen grains were necessary for regular fruit set on stigmas. McGranahan et al. (1994) counted 179 pollen grains on normally developing stigmas while there was more pollen grain (322) on flowers, which affected by PFA (ovary diameter was 3-4mm) in cultivar ‘Serr’. The researchers concluded that there was significant negative correlation between pistil size and number of pollen grains. Dose response curves of Polito et al. (1996) indicated that pollen doses in the range of 70100 grains per pistillate flower would induce 50% abortion in pistillate flowers; higher levels of pollen resulted in greater losses. The counts made after 9 weeks from pollinations showed that average fruit set was similar in all treatments being 17.6 to 20.2% that was unexpected. Although the reason for this is not known we thought that drops occurred at that period was due to both PFA and other causes of drop such as nutritional deficiencies and competition phenomenon. Polito et al. (2005) considered the drops at late stage primarily due to a lack of effective pollination. Rovira & Aleta (2006) reported that unfertilized flowers could reach advanced development stage without fecundation; they reach an appearance of small fruits, up to 8-10mm of diameter. They may remain attached for three weeks or longer. On the other hand, recently fertilized nut drops are usually attributed to nutrients competition and at this stage, fruit size is about 12-18mm in diameter. %5 pollen Cultivar Y-1 Y-3 Y-4 Şebin Bilecik Tokat-1 KR-1 KR-2 Şen-1 Şen-2 Kaplan-86 Serr Average %50 pollen %100 pollen Open pollination PFA (%) Fruit set (%) PFA % Fruit set (%) PFA (%) Fruit set (%) PFA (%) Fruit set (%) 21.9 24.1 54.9 59.4 51.9 63.1 55.5 16.8 47.6 77.1 83.3 26.3 25.1 27.8 0.0 17.4 34.6 29.5 16.7 48.1 17.0 0.0 12.5 14.1 28.5 49.2 76.6 54.1 55.1 68.6 33.3 16.0 54.6 73.6 93.3 46.8 35.7 10.3 0.0 26.9 34.9 13.8 37.5 36.0 36.5 2.1 0.0 13.7 65.7 72.2 83.6 62.8 71.8 54.5 77.1 85.0 77.8 82.8 78.8 60.9 22.6 10.7 12.8 30.6 19.5 27.3 19.4 10.5 18.6 0.0 21.2 33.6 87.9 67.9 68.8 88.4 88.9 63.0 81.7 85.2 53.8 59.8 100.0 53.5 10.6 25 9.3 11.6 7.6 37.0 10.1 13.7 30.8 18.9 0.0 36.5 48.6 20.2 54.1 20.6 72.7 18.9 74.9 17.6 Table 1. PFA (%) and fruit set (%) values of Turkish walnut cultivars and ‘Serr’ which were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after pollination with different pollen concentrations, respectively. 31 �Level of PFA in the cultivars to varied that it was the highest in ‘Kaplan-86’ followed by ‘Bilecik’, ‘Şebin’, ‘Y-1’ and ‘KR-1’ when the female flowers left for open pollination [Table 1]. The least affected cultivars were ‘Serr’ and ‘Şen-1’. These two cultivars also had about average values for PFA after pollinations with different pollen concentrations. In addition, these cultivars had very high fruit set values after open pollination. ‘Şen-1’ might have lower levels of PFA, while the results were unexpected for ‘Serr’ since it is highly affected by PFA. We observed that ‘Serr’ blooms later than most of Turkish genotypes. Thus, airborne pollen was drastically lower at the experimental site, which could result in lower PFA and higher fruit set compared to other cultivars. Researchers found that response of the cultivars to PFA varies with cultivars. ‘Chico’ showed the lowest levels of PFA, and ‘Chandler’ and ‘Vina’ were intermediate (Polito et al.1996). Similarly, Spanish selections were the most affected by PFA showing 73.4% of flower loss while Chilean selections had only 6.8% flower drop due to PFA. Californian and French cultivars showed medium values but closer to Chilean selections (Rovira & Aleta, 2006). PFA was found between 11 to 92% among Iranian genotypes (Hassani et al. 2006). Determination of effect of ethylene inhibitor on reduction of PFA: Percent PFA and percent fruit set values of the cultivars that were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after application of AVG, respectively are shown in Table 2. In general, PFA was very high (82.4%) in open pollination conditions (control). AVG is an ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor and it has been applied predominantly to control abscission and ripening in apples. Use of AVG in walnuts to reduce PFA is a novel application. 125 ppm of AVG has been suggested as an adequate concentration to improve fruit set. In our study AVG treatment was effective on reducing PFA and increasing fruit set compared to the control. PFA was reduced from 82.4% to 43.6% and the reduction was about 50 percent. Fruit set was increased from 16.3% to 46.8% and the increase was almost three fold. Some cultivars such as ‘KR-1’, ‘KR-2’ and ‘Tokat1’, benefitted more from AVG application than others that they had the lowest PFA (12 to 18%) and the highest fruit set (84 to 87%) values. Although AVG application reduced PFA in ‘Serr’, fruit set was higher than the control. ‘Serr’ blooms later than most of Turkish genotypes, which are fruitful on terminal shoots. Our observations showed that terminal buds responded quickly to warm temperatures and development of pistillate flowers progressed fast in Turkish genotypes. When female flowers of ‘Serr’ reached to receptivity airborne pollen was drastically lower at the experimental site, which could result in higher fruit set in open pollination conditions. Polito et al. (2005) reported 57 to 70% yield increase in California and Lemus et al. (2007) obtained 35 to 83% yield increase in Chile in ‘Serr’. There was no improvement neither for reduction in PFA nor for increase in fruit set in ‘Şen-1’. The results indicated that this cultivar had lower levels of PFA than the others did. Buchner et al. (2006) reported similar results that AVG application did not improve yield in ‘Chandler’ cultivar. Cultivars ‘Y1’, ‘Y3’ and ‘Y4’ (Yalova series) have been widely planted in early plantings in 1980s and 1990s in Turkey. However, there have been AVG Application Cultivar Y-1 Y-3 Y-4 Şebin Bilecik Tokat-1 KR-1 KR-2 Şen-1 Şen-2 Serr PFA (%) 45.7 31.5 47.6 71.1 74.5 12.0 17.0 18.0 65.0 46.0 51.4 Fruit set (%) 54.3 52.3 43.8 27.9 16.7 87.0 71.7 64.0 27.8 28.7 40.5 32 Control PFA (%) 87.0 68.6 98.1 94.8 93.4 66.7 82.9 100.0 65.4 80.4 68.7 Fruit set (%) 12.0 25.4 0.0 5.2 3.2 33.3 11.4 0.0 28.9 10.7 49.0 �Average 43.6 46.8 82.4 16.3 Table2. PFA (%) and fruit set (%) values of Turkish walnut cultivars and ‘Serr’ which were determined 3 weeks and 9 weeks after 125pp AVG application, respectively. complaints about low yields in these cultivars. Our results showed that they had high levels of PFA and AVG significantly reduced PFA and increased fruit set. One of the important findings of this study was to show PFA levels of ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ cultivars, which have a special place in Turkish walnut cultivation. Recently, there have been hundreds of orchards established with these two cultivars in the country; the former is main cultivar and the latter is pollenizer. The results highlighted that both cultivars are highly affected by excess pollen load and PFA occurs in large extend. On the other hand, AVG application was very effective in reducing PFA that fruit set increased 3 to 5 folds. Conclusions PFA is associated with excess pollen load on stigmas in walnuts. Excessive pollen tubes growing down the style of the female flower produce excessive amounts of ethylene, which is associated with organ senescence. Elevated ethylene levels are cause of flower abortion (Beede & Polito, 2003). PFA can be minimized in existing orchards by either mechanically shaking catkins from pollenizers, from both pollenizers and main cultivar, or removal of pollenizer rows altogether (Sibbett et al. 1995). However, in many cases these applications are not practical. Although the results are preliminary, we could be able to show that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium to high levels of PFA. Application of 125ppm AVG could effectively reduced PFA in all cultivars including the leading ones ‘Şebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ except ‘Şen-1’. Acknowledgement Authors thank Valent BioSciences, USA, for providing AVG (Retain®) chemical. References Beede, R.H., & Polito, V.S. (2003). Effect of ReTain® on reducing pistillate flower abortion in ‘Serr’ walnut. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. walnut research reports, p.197. Buchner, R.P., Fulton, A., Gilles, C.K., & Resch, K. (2006). Retain applications on Thema county ‘Chandler’ walnuts. University of California, Fruit and Nut Research Info Center, walnut research reports. p.113. Catlin, P.B, Ramos D.E., Sibbett G.S, Olson, W.H., & Olsson E.A. (1987). Pistillate flower abscission of the Persian walnut. HortScience, 22 (2), 201-205. Catlin, P.B., & Polito, V.S. (1989). Cell and tissue damage associated with pistillate flower abscission of Persian walnut. HortScience, 24(6): 1003-1005. Catlin, P.B., & Olsson, E.A. (1990). Pistillate flower abscission of walnut- ‘Serr’, ‘Sunland’, ‘Howard’ and ‘Chandler’. HortScience, 25 (11), 1391-1990. Hassani, D., Eskandari, S., & Jarrahi, K. (2006). Pistillate flower abscission of walnut genotypes. Acta Horticulturae, 705, 257-260. Johnson, H., Grant, J., & Polito, V. (2006). Pistillate flower abortion and ethylene production in walnut. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. walnut research reports, p.101. Kaveckaja, A.A., & Tokar, K.O. (1963). The unfavorable effect of large amount of pollen in the pollination of walnuts. Botanichnyi Zhurnal 48, 580-585. 33 �Lemus, G., González, C., & Retamales, J. (2007). Developing control of pistillate flower abortion in walnut trees as a novel usage of AVG, an ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor. IPGSA, 19th Annual Meeting. July 21-25, 2007, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico. McGranahan, G.H., Voyatzis, D.G., Catlin, P.B., & Polito, V.S. (1994). High pollen loads can cause pistillate flower abscission in walnut. The Journal of American Society for Horticultural Science. 119 (3), 505-509. Por, A., & Por, J. (1990). The effect of the excess pollen on the fruit set of walnuts in Balatonboglar. Acta Horticulturae, 284, 253-256. Polito, V., Coates, B., Grant, J., Hasey, J., Micke, W., Olson, B., & Pinney, K. (1996). Pollen, Pistillate flower abortion/ abscission. University of California, Fruit and Nut Research Info Center, walnut research reports. p.77. Polito, V., Grant. J., & Johnson, H. (2005). Walnut pollination and pistillate flower abortion. University of California Fruit and Nut Research Info Center. p.133. Rovira, M., & Aleta, N. (1997). Pistillate flower abscission on four walnut cultivars. Acta Horticulturae, 442, 231-234. Rovira, M., & Aleta, N. (2006). Flower drop by precocious abortion in walnuts. Nucis Newsletter, 13, 27-30. Sibbett, G.S., Polito, V., McGranahan, G., Kelley, K. Olson, W., Hendricks, L., Catlin, P., & Grant, J. (1995). Minimizing PFA in walnuts. Sun Diamond Grower. 14 (1), 16-18. Venburg, G.D., Hopkins, R., Retamales, J., Lopez, J., Hansen, J., Clarke, G.G., Schroder, M., & Rath, A.C. (2008). Recent developments in AVG research. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 43-49. 34 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 326 Title A name given to the resource Pistillate Flower Abscission in Turkish Walnut Cultivars and Its Reduction by AVG Author Author Gün, Ayse Erdoğan, Veli Akçay, M. Emin Fidanci, Ayse Tosun, İsmail Abstract A summary of the resource. Level of pistillate flower abscission (PFA) in Turkish walnut cultivars was investigated in this study. Emasculated and bagged female flowers were pollinated with 5%, 50% and 100% pollen concentrations at receptivity. Control flowers left for open pollination. In addition, a whole tree was sprayed with 125 ppm ethylene inhibitor AVG (amino ethoxy vinyl glycine) when anthesis reached to 5-30% and a control tree was not treated for each cultivar. Number of aborted flowers at diameter of 3-4cm was counted and percent PFA was calculated. The results showed that Turkish walnut cultivars had medium (65.4%) to high (100%) levels of PFA including the leading cultivars ‘Sebin’ and ‘Bilecik’ (94.8% and 93.4% PFA, respectively). Application of AVG reduced PFA from 82.4% to 43.6% in average and increased fruit set significantly in all cultivars except ‘Sen-1’. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/f6d5a57ba71de67502eff848692666f9.pdf f1cd51287a41ba495bb84415fc08a399 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Project Sample Which Provides Personal Development’s Sustainability in Lifelong Learning Assoc.Prof.Dr. Gülten Gümüştekin Dumlupınar University Kütahya Vocational School Abstract: People have to sacrifice from their budget in order to provide their personal sustainable development. This causes to decrease their life standards. However the institutions of the people used to cover this shortcoming with in-service training. Those in-service trainings are not for personal sustainable development thus they are made for covering institutional shortcoming. Whereas the people can provide their personal sustainable development without expending from their own budget by applying their projects to EU Education and Youth Programs so they provide donation. Barely many people have no information about such a program. The Lifelong learning program (LLP) which is included in EU Education and Youth Program donates these kinds of projects. Especially General Education and VET experts and managers study visit program has the quality to provide personal sustainable development. Therefore the project named “The VET in the Dimension of Europe” performed in October 2008 was approached as applied project sample. Keywords: Lifelong Learning, EU, Project, Application, Vocational Education, Study Visit Introduction It was participated to the studying visits called “European Dimensions in Vocational Education” realized in Kielce, Poland in the dates between 13th and 17th October 2008 in the extent of “Studying Visits of the Transversal Programmes in the field of Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) of the European Union Education & Youth Center Administration, in the name of the Chairman of the Vocational School of Kütahya, Dumlupınar University, Turkey. There were 6 participants of various countries of the studying visits in the topics of “European Dimensions of Vocational Education and Training; Attractiveness of Vocational Education and Training; Accommodation and food service activities”. The manager countries of the visits were; Holland, Turkey, Portuguese, England, Scotland and Bulgaria. Participating a studying visit is both an important tool of learning in the Life Long Education and an exciting experience for the participants. The main objective of a studying visit is sharing the best applications and experiences of both the visitors and the landlord. At the end of the visits the participants are invited to prepare a group report useful for summarizing the participants’ experiments and useful for Cedefop’s convincing what was taught to the non-participants. (Cedefop is the European Agency that promotes the development of vocational education and training (VET) in the European Union). According to the demand of the European Comission, these centres, which are known as National Recourses Centres for Vocational Guidance or shortly European Guidance Centre, are composed of 27 European Union member countries, 4 EFTA (European Free Trade Association) countries, and Turkey as a candidate country for EU membership. Euroguidance aims to contribute to improve the European dimension of General Education and Vocational Guidance and Consulting, to support the European dimension in the field of education, to provide cooperation among the consulting services in different countries, and to contribute to travel around countries in the field of education. It also significantly contributes the exchanges of information among the different countries in the field of Vocational Education and Guidance systems. The main purpose of European Guidance Centre is to contribute to support the European dimension and to prepare the ground for the dissemination of the circulation around Europe by disseminating the information concerning education, career, profession, and guidance.These activities have been carried out by the Centre for European Union Education and Youth Programmes; namely, Turkish National Agency since 2005. That is to say, Euroguidance is carried out by Turkish National Agency Lifelong Learning Programme. The study visits programme for education and vocational training specialists, part of the lifelong learning programme 2007-13 (Lifelong Learning Programme), is an initiative of the European Commission’s 156 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Directorate-General for Education and Culture. Its objective is to support policy development and cooperation at European level in lifelong learning. In terms of the study visits programme for education and vocational training specialists, short-term visit of 5 days, from 13th to 17th October, 2008, is conducted. This study visit is entitled as “ The Vet in the Dimension of Europe”, which is hosted by Kuratorium Oswiaty Association in Kielce, Poland. A particular aspect of lifelong learning, that is the Vet in the Dimension of Europe, is examined. These small group of specialists and decision-makers representing various groups of education and vocational training are from Holland, Turkey, England, Scotland, Portugal, and Bulgaria. They are stakeholders who want to examine a particular aspect of lifelong learning in another Member State. The profile of a participant corresponds mainly to directors of education and vocational training institutions, centres or providers, educational and vocational training inspectors. Study visits are organised locally or regionally and coordinated by the National Agency. They provide a forum for discussion, exchange and learning on themes of common interest and on European and national priorities. By exchanging innovative ideas and practices, participants promote the quality and transparency of their education and training systems. General Education and Study Visits For Education and Vocational Training Specialists The aim of the study visits is to facilitate the exchanges of knowledge and experience among the vocational training specialists around Europe. By exchanging innovative ideas and practices, participants promote the quality and transparency of their education and training systems. Study visits for education and vocational training specialists and decision makers support European cooperation to develop policies for lifelong learning anda re part of the EU’s Lifelong Learning Programme 2007-13 (LLP). Cedefop coordinates the programme at European level for the European Commission since the 1 January 2008. At national level study visits are coordinated by the National Agencies located in the participating countries. Participants are selected by National Agencies of participating countires based on their eligibility, relevance and expected impact. After national agencies have selected participants and communicated the results, Cedefop draws up groups trying to assign participants to groups of their choice, ensuring that the groups consist of representatives of various geographical regions, professional backgrounds and genders. Participants receive a grant from the LLP that contributes to their travel and subsistence expenses. Each group consists of 10 to 15 participants from different countries who represent different education and training systems. They also have different mother tongues and their level of skill in the group’s working language often differs significantly. To become a knowledge society, Europe needs more economic growth, more and better employment and a society that is socially cohesive. To achieve these aims, Europe needs to improve its performance in education and training. This means that all Europeans need to have the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills and competences throughout their lives. This has made education and training an important policy lever. Therefore, in 2001, education ministers agreed for the first time on a common strategy for education and training. Making learning accessible for all Europeans at all ages and improving the quality and efficiency of education and training were considered top priority. It was also decided to open education and training systems to the wider world. For this purpose, a work programme until 2010 was developed in 2002 known as the Education and training 2010 work programme. Education and training in Europe was to become a quality reference for the whole world. The Education and training 2010 work programme embraced a process which started in 1999 known as the Bologna process. It aimed at restructuring European higher education systems to make them more comparable and compatible. Lifelong learning was made one of the key objectives of the Bologna process in 2001. Recognising its value and important role in achieving the Lisbon objectives, the responsible ministers, the European social partners and the European Commission decided to cooperate closely in vocational education and training (VET). In the Copenhagen declaration (2002), they agreed to make VET more transparent and open and improve its quality. The Copenhagen process aims to make lifelong learning more easily accessible and promote educational, occupational and geographical mobility. VET plays a key role in ensuring lifelong learning and supplying a skilled workforce necessary for a competitive and dynamic economy. With the goal to improve the quality and attractiveness of VET and raise its profile among other fields of education, the following priorities were defined: • give VET a European dimension (improve cooperation between institutions and promote mobility); • make VET more transparent and improve information and gui -dance (develop a credit system to make learning outcomes of VET portable, strengthen policies, systems and practices for lifelong guidance); • promote recognition of qualifications and competences (develop a single framework to help translate qualifications and competences and make them more transparent, support deve - 157 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo lopment of qualifications and competences in economic sectors; develop common principles for validation of non-formal and informal learning); • develop quality assurance in VET (including attention to learning needs of teachers and trainers). In conclusion, a coherent framework for cooperation in education and vocational training has been put in place. As progress reports show, this framework has helped to support national reforms and develop several EU reference tools. Reaching out to all involved is crucial to progress in the areas where a lot remains to be done and to ensure that policy initiatives and tools are implemented across education and training systems. The study visits programme brings together a wide spectrum of education and training specialists and policy-makers to discuss, learn from one another and share experiences in implementing lifelong learning policies in their countries. European Dimension in Vocational Education: The Attractiveness of Vocational Education The study visit , entitled as “European Dimension in Vocational Education: The Attractiveness of Vocational Education”, was held in October 13 to 17 2008 in Kielce, Poland. During the visit, host institution states clearly the objectives of the visit, explains the logic and structure of the programme to the six participating countires; tells the group about the group report and invites the group to select a reporter; accompanies the group during the entire visit; provides opportunities for all partners to participate and share in discussions, make sure all participants are given room to contribute; issues attendance certificates to participants; exercises flexibility and tries to acommodate participants’ interests and needs into the content of the study visit, adapt the programme throughout the visit to ensure quality. In this manner, as a Turkish participant, education system in Turkey is explained; Dumlupinar University and Dumlupinar University Vocational High School are extensively introduced. This study visit in Poland summarizes the practices of host institution. With the contribution of this study visit, it is possible to learn about current vocational education policy in Poland in general and especially in hotel and catering; to learn about examples of good practice; to exchange experiences on vocational education policy; to learn from experiences of organisation and management in hotel and catering. European cooperation is a priority of the Polish educational system. Hotel and catering are dynamic sectors in Poland due to easy access to all European Union countries. Polish workforce is well qualified and is gaining more and more respect on the European market. Swietokrzyski Region with the capital city Kielce is situated in the heart of Poland and is a good example of problems and expectations of vocational education and training in Poland. Lifelong learning program and especially Leonardo da Vinci is a means to integrate the labour market in European Union. Quality and efficiency of vocational education and training, which have been in the focus of our study visit, are also in the focus of the EU policy agenda for education and training. The findings and outcomes of study visit on the quality and efficiency of vocational education and training as presented in the group reports and further discussed during the study visit show that there is a wide participation in vocational training- 16-20 years. Poland appears very open-minded towards European Union and exchanging educational policy and practice. However there is a lack of awareness, knowledge and information among many practitioners of European funding opportunities. Polish education is also undergoing huge change, currently developing improvement. However, education policy is stil traditional, planned, and centralised. Outcomes To sum up, Cedefop invites the participants tos hare the new ideas they acquired during the study visit with heads of their institutions, their colleagues and professional associations. It will be most beneficial if the outcomes of the seminar are communicated to decision-makers at higher levels, for example, to those setting policies at local/ regional or even national levels. Teachers, trainers and school leaders and decision makers should benefit more from the multiple opportunities for sharing good practice and cooperation that the Lifelong Learning Programme presents. The study visits programme as well as Comenius, Leonardo da Vinci and Gruntvig programmes should be more used for information exchange and continuous professional development. In this manner, the outcomes of the study visit will be presented as an academic article in several scientific and academic congress. In order to better disseminate the expected outcomes and results and create a larger network among policy makers and representative organizations, the web portal will be released as a cooperation tool between the partners and dissemination tool. Regarding the impressions and acquisition I got 158 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo during the study visit, lecturers at Dumlupinar University Vocational High School are encouraged to prepare projects particularly in the field of Lifelong Learning Programme. Project working groups have started preparing several projects in terms of Lifelong Learning Programme. References Avrupa Toplulukları Komisyonu, istihdam, sosyal işler ve Eğitim Genel Müdürlüğü, Brüksel, 15/3/85, Ortak Mesleki eğitim Stratejisinin uygulanması, mesleki eğitim uzmanları için eğitim ziyaretleri programı. CEDEFOP: European, Centre fort he Development of Vocational Training, 2008, Study Visit, Group No:378, 13-17 Ekim, Kielce, Poland. http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/, CEDEFOP; European, Centre fort he Development of Vocational Training. http://www.ua.gov.tr, T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı, Avrupa Birliği Eğitim ve Gençlik Programları Merkezi Başkanlığı, Türk Ulusal Ajansı, Hayatboyu Öğrenme Programı, Ortak Konulu (Transversal) Programları, Çalışma Ziyareti. 159 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 419 Title A name given to the resource The Project Sample Which Provides Personal Development’s Sustainability in Lifelong Learning Author Author Gümüstekin, Gülten Abstract A summary of the resource. People have to sacrifice from their budget in order to provide their personal sustainable development. This causes to decrease their life standards. However the institutions of the people used to cover this shortcoming with in-service training. Those in-service trainings are not for personal sustainable development thus they are made for covering institutional shortcoming. Whereas the people can provide their personal sustainable development without expending from their own budget by applying their projects to EU Education and Youth Programs so they provide donation. Barely many people have no information about such a program. The Lifelong learning program (LLP) which is included in EU Education and Youth Program donates these kinds of projects. Especially General Education and VET experts and managers study visit program has the quality to provide personal sustainable development. Therefore the project named “The VET in the Dimension of Europe” performed in October 2008 was approached as applied project sample. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)