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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Changing Educational Comprehension, Assessment of the Transition
Process from Library to Internet and Turkey as A Specimen
Res. Asst. Neslihan KARAKUŞ
Marmara University, Atatürk Education Faculty
Istanbul, Turkey
neslihanoksuz61@gmail.com
Res. Asst. Nurgül KARAYAZI
International Burch University, Education Faculty
nurgulkarayazi@gmail.com
Abstract: There are different ways to acquire knowledge in the present educational system.
This system aims to improve student’s research abilities, and is not concerned on the place
where the knowledge is acquired, but the way it is acquired. This present educational system
is basically centered in instructing the student in the class and telling him to make some
researches on the topics given instead of just teaching that actually requires student’s passive
learning. This method has brought the lack of library use. With the student centered active
learning that gives strong emphasis on research it was expected that libraries would win back
its former sign finance. Never the less this time libraries face another threat: internet.
In this research we will examine the extent changes in and change of research process. While
libraries became out of fashion day by day, we will assess how internet preferred for
efficiency could affect using public survey we will try to reach changes in acquiring
knowledge and changing roles of teacher\instructor and student in the context of educational
institutions.
Keywords: Education, Turkish education, book, teacher, library, internet.
Introduction
The child who, due to various reasons, has to survive in a small environment, will be probably learned
everything about that environment in a certain period of time due to the environmental limitations. Whereas
world of the kid possess some other worlds as well. There are billions of people living on the earth which s/he
does not familiar with, so many other living creatures that s/he does not know and various fellow beings who
present personal characteristics dissimilar to the ones around, wait him/her somewhere. The child will get to
know much more things throughout the life and this information will not be given by the environment s/he exists
but by the books s/he will read. “Children books are the sources which exemplify the answers to the problems
occur lifetime and reactions to them with the artist point of view. This source makes them perceive that people
may have different attributes and introduce distinctive types of life and human relations. It expands the life circle
and makes them meet numerous feeling and idea models.” (Sever, 2007: 47). So with such reasons if the child
manages to transform a reading action to a habit, s/he; enlarges existing life area, starts get the know
himself/herself, can distinguish similarities and differences between him/her and the other people.
The child, who has the tendency of being shaped, may build equality between himself/herself and the
character of the book s/he reads. S/He may consider the feelings, ideas and behavior for certain events of some
characters as if him/her and conclude common inferences. Thus when s/he adopts various sides of all imitated
characters, such an individual comes out who also constitutes contradictions inside, tries to know and become
himself/herself and presents in the evolution stage. In the course of time, child forms the personality when s/he
gets over all of those differences and attains the required maturity. Actions of those characters which conforms
children’s reality and supports their entrepreneurship, make way for similar reactions and behavior models on
children. So this process gives the possibility to access a group of important phase for the personality
development such as making them to know themselves, to believe that they are important and to respect others.
Sever (2007: 49) shares same ideas on this subject: It says, “Children books are the tools which have
important effects on children’s personality development. This effects which starts from the very beginning of
childhood period, continue till the end of primary education. The most decisive factor for those effects to be
appropriate for the purpose is to support and unite children with books suitable for personal characters of
children.”
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Problematic Situation
In the existing era of information and technology, shared method of the outstanding education
approaches, instead of changing learner’s behavior, provide the opportunity to control their behavior by using the
way of perceiving and modeling. There is a probability instead of order; preference instead of obligation. Day by
day renovation of technology which forces human intelligence obligates society to lots of modifications and
people to innovation. This obligation does not cause a gap between 50 years before and today but 5 years before
and today.
So it would be wrong to expect the books not to change which read by children who, together with the
mentioned wind of change, face a change in everything including their interest areas, expectations from the life,
school life, textbooks, models, aims, food and drinks they have, and cultural structure of the their society. In this
manner, world children classics such as Heidi, Pollyanna, Pinocchio, Gulliver’s Travels, From the Earth to the
Moon, are chosen less compared to past. It is possible to explain this reason with the decrease of the events in
those books that can reach with the children’s imagination. Because trip to moon is not a fantasy for them
anymore, Pinocchio is an ordinary hero whose nose is getting longer when he lies, Gulliver is a traveler who runs
into strange people in a world many different nations live in, Heidi and Pollyanna are the girls who walk around
countryside, graze lambs in a village life, pick up flowers from the garden of their house, eating fruit, climbing
trees, so they are extremely opposed to nowadays children.
Books children read is not only thing that have been changing. Places where they read those books and
resources that they refer to get information about the book are also share a portion from this change pie.
“Libraries lose their former importance and have been replaced by Internet libraries” is the opinion that
composes problem question of this research.
Research Objective
This study gives point to the dimensions of changing process of research. An identification to the
situation concerning the internet which is very widely used since it serves ease of research possibilities and saves
lots of time and the way it wrapped the world of children and youth and where libraries has lost their old
popularity. Libraries are not the only one that has changed the role and lost their former importance.
Concretizing the dimensions of this change which is valid for school and teachers as well by using a small
survey study and by doing so reaching quantitative data, take part in the objective of this research.
Constraints
1.
2.
Research is limited with; fifty three students in 6th grade from the second stage of primary
education in Turkey and,
Two primary schools in Istanbul which are depended on Ministry of Education.
Methodology
Combing research methodology is used in this study. Combing research; measures many variables and
lots of answers given to same questions, checks more than one hypothesis out, makes chronological conclusions
about the behaviors, experiences or characteristics of the past. (Neuman, 2006: 400) Within the framework of
this methodology a survey made among the certain students in determined primary schools and answers of the
survey are commentated with the help of SPSS software.
Collecting the Data
In this research, original data is acquired with combing document method and document analysis
together with collecting the surveys carried out to students. “Combing document is defined as collecting data by
analyzing existing records and documents. Addressed to certain purpose, combing document contains the
process of taking notes, finding and reading sources.” (Karasar, 2000: 183). “Document study contains analysis
of the written materials which includes information about the finding or findings of research area.” (Yıldırım ve
Şimşek, 1999: 140). Data, acquired by the survey study, is construed.
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Universe of Researches and Exemplification
According to Karasar(2000) there are two universes. One of them is general universe and the other one
is working universe. General universe is the completion of the units of research conclusions that are to be
generalized. So any object, fact, event and all of the individuals exist in the scope of any research is defined as
universe. (Yazıcıoğlu ve Erdoğan, 2004: 31). Working universe of the researcher is composed of a set which is
selected from universe according to certain rules and of which researcher study on it. So exemplification is a set
that is studied and has an ability to represent the universe. The working universe of this study is determined
according to purposive modeling which is one of the beside-probability modeling types. In purposive modeling
which is also called as judgment modeling, researcher uses his/her decision on who will be selected and takes
who are most appropriate for the purpose of the research into exemplification set (Balcı, 2005:90). So in
purposive exemplification; exemplification set is selected by separating the units representing characteristics of
which information is purposed to get inside of the main mass. In this manner 6th grade students refer to universe
and 53 students from the 6th grades refer to the sample of this research.
Findings and Comments
Tables are generated according to the information acquired from the survey carried out to the 6th grade
students from two primary schools in Istanbul. There are 14 questions in total. The scope of the questions
contain what kind of books that students read, with which frequency they read, whether they are encouraged to
read or not, from where they buy the books, whether they go to library or not, if not why is it so etc. Answers to
the questions are not so different than the expectations. There are some precautions that should be taken before it
is late and it shows some new executions may be done. Questions are as follows;
%79 of the students state that they like reading. %11 percent of them says that they do not; while %10
of them who are hesitant can be counted in the dislike group. So it is possible to conclude that %21 of the
students do not read with enthusiasm. It is quite pleasing that this portion is not very high.
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Autobiography
Memoir
Diary
Letter
Novel
Poetry
Story
Joke(humorous)
Joke(Article)
Tale
Trip writing
Causerie
Criticism
Article
Comic strip
Students are asked to choose which genre of the book that they mostly like. It is seen that novel is the
most read one. Humorous jokes come after novel. Story and comic strip follows it. Minimal interest goes to
criticism, essay, article and trip writing. If it is put in order novel %17; humorous jokes %12; story, comic strip
%11; newspaper text, tale, memoir %7; dairy %5; poetry, causerie, letter, autobiography %4; article, trip writing
%2; criticism, essay %2. The values are quite engrossing for 6th grade students, 12 years-old group who are in
the progress of a rapid development. Genres which would contribute for them in an educational and instructional
level are the least interested ones. 6th grade students have not passed to grown-up position yet and this might
have been an important factor for this result.
The table appears in this question is an expected table for the 6th grade students. It is very natural that
they have tendency to adventure books. Since survey does not ask gender of the student, it is not possible to
conclude which gender has more tendencies on which genres. However researches indicate that; generally girls
in those ages choose emotional and romantic books while boys use their choice on adventure books (Yalçın;
Aytaş, 2002).
� Girls are interested in works with dependence and self-sacrifice theme, books and magazines which
posses an artistic value while boys prefer works based on abstract and emotional thoughts, actual events
in the newspaper and sports articles.
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� Tendency to opposite sex and interest to art works increase in this period where gender distinction is
strictly set down.
� They start interested in researches and research articles about sport, entertainment, science and nature
� They like novels, movies and stories which contains secrecy. They see themselves in the books they
read.
There are %19 portion of the students who are considered as guided by their teachers at school. If we
add students who are not sure into this value, it makes %42 and which cannot be considered as insufficient.
Teachers, where new curriculum gives more weight to reading in comparison the previous curriculums, are seen
as unsuccessful.
Although it is pleasing that the percentage of students who thinks that reading is useful is %87, portion
of the not-sure students with %13, should not be ignored.
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Portion who says I buy to read book has more weight. %68 of the students chooses buying while %32
of them prefers borrowing. This percentage confirms the 12th question of the survey which concludes that the
portion of the borrowing from library.
%44 of the student stated that they are not interested in newly issued books. One of the reasons for that
would be the campaign of Ministry of Education in which 100 classics are purposed to be read by students. This
case is due to the fact that recommended books have the priority in comparison to newly issued ones.
%47 of the students does not think that they are influenced by something in their book selection.
Getting influenced by something is expected condition for the students in this age group whereas it is seen that a
high percentage think that they are not influenced by something.
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Students who state that they are affected in book selection accept that they are influenced mostly by
their friends. It is an engrossing result that teacher’s effect is only %13 while “Best Seller” list which is not
created with objective approach is %20.
The purpose of this question is to identify which sources students refer when they study. The outcome
is expected and should be carefully evaluated.
Percentage of the students who do not go to library is %48 and percentage of the ones who go is %35.
The outcome for the reason of the students who go and who do not is more interesting.
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%40 of the students goes to read, %26 of them to make a research, %21 goes to borrow a book and %13
of them goes to do something else.
Among the students who goes to library and keeps %35 portion, the percentage of the students who says
“rarely” when they are asked how frequent do they go to library is %78. %13 of this portion goes once in a
month, %3 once in a week and %6 once in a week?
Afterwards students who do not go to library (%48) are asked why they do not and different answers
came out. Following table occurs when those answers are grouped;
14. Soru: Could you explain the reason why don’t you go to library?
1. I don’t need it.
2. I make my researches on internet.
3. I read my books at home.
4. It is boring; I have some other things to do.
5. I think the atmosphere there is very boring.
6. I have internet and encyclopedia and internet.
7. There is no library in my neighborhood.
8. My family does not take me there.
9. There is no book I love in library.
10. There something called internet.
11. I cannot give an effort.
12. I have no time.
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Findings
Results derived from the findings are as follows:
1. Reading is not given required importance. It is seen that the change in education curriculum which is
made to encourage students to read more, there is more different results than expectation. The
percentage of the students who do not love reading cannot ignorable. For the one who like reading is
also another subject that should be given more importance.
2. Teachers cannot create expected positive influence on students. Teachers who should be one of the most
effective one on students are very ineffective.
3. The percentage of “friend” influence on book selection is %26. The percentage of Mass media and “best
seller” list is %23 in total. Interaction among the adolescent in those ages are very high. Media and
communication tools also make contributions to this. So it would not be wrong if we add bigger portion
of the friend influence on media. List which is not generated with objective point of view is something
real in Turkey. Sometimes, books which perform negative examples of behavior for students, are
chosen maybe just because it is on those lists. For instance; reading age of the “twilight” series which is
not even recommended for secondary schools is descended to the first stage of the primary education.
Those lists which are sometimes generated for commercial purpose should be evaluated carefully and
checked before it harms the society. Here, the subject is not “twilight’s” sale success but its possibility
of negative contribution to children and teenager with age below 15.
4. It should not be forgotten that this study is carried out on small amount of students and this kind of
studies never have %0 defect rate, so there may be some points ignored.
Proposal
1. In the existing era of information and technology, shared method of the outstanding education
approaches, instead of changing learner’s behavior, provide the opportunity to control their behavior by
using the way of perceiving and modeling. There is a probability instead of order; preference instead of
obligation. Day by day renovation of technology which forces human intelligence obligates society to
lots of modifications and people to innovation. This obligation does not cause a gap between 50 years
before and today but 5 years before and today. So it would be wrong to expect the books not to change
which read by children who, together with the mentioned wind of change, face a change in everything
including their interest areas, expectations from the life, school life, textbooks, models, aims, food and
drinks they have, and cultural structure of the their society. However, despite the speed of this change, it
is possible to canalize it to the positive direction. Hereby, fathers, mothers and teachers play very
important roles. It is also an important factor that living environment canalize student to the same
direction as well. Otherwise lack of one of them may transform the positive effect that is generated by
the other in to negative direction.
2. It should not be so difficult to make libraries the preferable places for studying, researching and reading.
It is so important that libraries and librarians face the transformation while this ideology is being told in
schools. Smiling face personnel and friendly staff are the top among the things that has to be done.
3. Libraries should posses various works belong to Turkish and World literature and all books should be
presented to everyone. Students who look for an answer should be welcomed and encouraged to ask
more questions.
4. Libraries should be transformed into safe places where students can meet after school and families can
let their children easily. For instance, cafeterias should welcome readers in some part of the library,
internet should be accessed inside the library and promotions should be allowed if it is needed.
5. Changes stated above can make libraries which are now old fashion, a preferable places of the students.
It should not be considered as use of internet need to be decreased during the process. Absolutely
student should be served sources which are fast and reliable information banks. This can be managed by
internet and can be managed by something else as well. Important thing is to contribute into the positive
transformation of the library concept in our country.
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Bibliography
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Neuman, W. L. (2008). Toplumsal Araştırma Yöntemleri. (3. Edition). Đstanbul: Yayınodası Yayıncılık.
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Sever, S. (2007). Çocuk ve Edebiyat. (3. Edition). Ankara: Kök Yayıncılık
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Yavuzer, H. (1985). Çocuk Psikolojisi. (2. Edition). Đstanbul: Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi.
Yazıcıoğlu, Y. ve Erdoğan, S. (2004). SPSS Uygulamalı Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara: Detay
Yayıncılık.
Yılar, Ö.; Turan, L. (2007). Eğitim Fakülteleri Đçin Çocuk Edebiyatı. (1. Edition). Ankara: Pegem A Yayıncılık.
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Title
A name given to the resource
Changing Educational Comprehension, Assessment of the Transition Process from Library to Internet and Turkey as A Specimen
Author
Author
KARAKUS, Neslihan
KARAYAZI, Nurgül
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
There are different ways to acquire knowledge in the present educational system. This system aims to improve student’s research abilities, and is not concerned on the place where the knowledge is acquired, but the way it is acquired. This present educational system is basically centered in instructing the student in the class and telling him to make some researches on the topics given instead of just teaching that actually requires student’s passive learning. This method has brought the lack of library use. With the student centered active learning that gives strong emphasis on research it was expected that libraries would win back its former sign finance. Never the less this time libraries face another threat: internet. In this research we will examine the extent changes in and change of research process. While libraries became out of fashion day by day, we will assess how internet preferred for efficiency could affect using public survey we will try to reach changes in acquiring knowledge and changing roles of teacher\instructor and student in the context of educational institutions.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
An Analysis of Environmental Costs for a Midlle Sized Printing and Packing
Company
Nurcan KARACA
Fatih University, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
nurcankaraca82@gmail.com
Ali COġKUN
Fatih University, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr
Abstract: In the past three decades, awareness of the companies towards the environmental
issues increased because of new regulations and increased public awareness. In order to satisfy
the public demand and accomplish the legal obligations companies initiated using environmental
friendly technologies and made changes in their manufacturing processes and material usage.
Implementation of environmental friendly manufacturing systems brings additional costs to the
companies. In this study the classification of environmental costs in small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs) are discussed and previously suggested environmental costs classification
system for SMEs were applied to a middle size printing and packing company. The share of
environmental management cost of the company was calculated as 2.7% of annual expenses
while the average annual cost of environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%. In
the main part of this study, we discussed how environmental costs are being done varies in a
number of respects and applications for a selected type of work sector, how they can be grouped
or classified, and what could be the magnitude of the environmental investment to fulfill new
national regulations established.
Key Words: Accounting, cost, environment, management, SME.
Introduction
However the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1969, environmental reporting in
company level was not required till the end of 1980s. In 1990s environmental disclosures appear in company reports.
The International Organization for Standardization (IOS) issued the first of the ISO 14000 family of standards in
1996. The ISO 14000 family addresses various aspects of environmental management. The very first two standards,
ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 deal with environmental management systems. Major milestones in the
development of external reporting on environmental performance appear as Figure 1 (Fleichman and Schuele 2006).
In recent years with increased public awareness on environmental issues environmental accounting is
became a popular research issue. Environmental accounting is mainly divided into two categories as environmental
financial accounting (EFA) and environmental management accounting (EMA). EFA focuses on financial reporting
and provides information to external decision makers and EMA provides environmental financial information for
internals. This study focuses on environmental costs issues within environmental management accounting. Xiaomei
(2004) defines EMA as ―the identification, collection, estimation, analysis, internal reporting, and use of materials
and energy flow information, environmental cost information, and other cost information for both conventional and
environmental decision-making within an organization‖. Jasch (2003) defines EMA as ―a combined approach that
provides for the transition of data from financial accounting, cost accounting and mass balances to increase material
efficiency, reduce environmental impacts and risks and reduce costs of environmental protection‖.
In order to satisfy the environmental requests of the public and to fulfill the legal responsibilities the
companies initiated to use environmental friendly manufacturing systems, material and processes. Implementation of
environmental friendly technologies brings additional costs to the companies. Companies should carefully
understand, measure, and control the environmental cost. Environmental cost are classified is different ways in the
literature.
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Figure 1. Major milestones in the development of external reporting on environmental performance
Source: Fleichman and Schuele (2006:45).
Coskun and Karaca (2008) classify the environmental costs for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs)
into three categories: environmental investment costs, environmental management and operating costs and
environmental risk management costs.
De Beer and Friend (2006) classify environmental costs as internal and external costs. Internal costs include
conventional costs, potentially hidden costs, contingent costs, and image and relationship costs. External costs
include environmental degradation costs, and human impact costs.
Steen (2005) defined costs and revenues associated with environmental issues as process costs, sales,
accidents and goodwill changes, and Taxes and fees on emissions and resource consumption. Process costs include
costs of control equipment, environmental permit, environmental monitoring, certification cost, labeling costs and
environmental management.
Jasch (2003) classifies environmental costs in four categories: conventional waste disposal and emission
treatment costs, prevention and environmental management costs, Material purchase value of non-product output,
and production costs of non-product output. In addition Environmental revenues can be derived from sales of waste
or grants of subsidies. Waste disposal and emission treatment costs includes depreciation for related equipment,
maintenance and operating materials and services, related personnel costs, fees, taxes, charges, fines and penalties,
insurance for environmental liabilities, and provisions for clean-up costs, remediation. Prevention and environmental
management costs includes external services for environmental management, personnel for general environmental
management activities, research and development, extra expenditure for cleaner technologies and scrap percentage of
operational plants, and other environmental management costs. Material purchase value of non-product output
includes costs associated with the raw materials, packaging, auxiliary materials, operating materials, energy and
water
Kumaran, et.al. (2001) developed a life cycle environmental cost analysis (LCECA) model is to include
eco-costs into the total cost of the products. They classified eco-costs of the cost breakdown structure (CBS) in eight
categories: eco-costs: cost of effluent/waste treatment (implementation, operation, and maintenance); cost of
effluent/waste control (implementation, operation, and maintenance); cost of waste disposal (collection,
transportation, and land fill or incineration); cost of environmental management systems - EMS (implementation,
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operation, maintenance, and certification); costs of eco-taxes (country- or product specific eco-taxes, levy, etc.);
costs of rehabilitation in case of environmental accidents (damages like health disorders, accidents, and production
losses caused by the damages); cost savings of renewable energy utilization; and cost savings of recycling and reuse
strategies.
Kirlioglu and Can (1998), classify environmental costs into three categories as mitigation / avoidance costs,
utilization costs, and impairment /damage costs.
Method
In order to determine the environmental costs for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in the
printing and packing sector, we used an environmental costs classification system previously suggested by Coskun
and Karaca (2009). One can obtain detailed information about this classification system from the related studies
(Karaca 2008; Coskun and Karaca 2009). Here, only some brief information about the method is summarized as
follows. Environmental costs of SMEs are divided into three categories: "environmental investment costs",
"environmental management and operating costs" and "environmental risk management costs". There are some
subcategories within these three main categories as they are summarized in Table 1. The total number of these
subcategories of environmental costs may vary depending on industry type. In this study all the classified
environmental costs and their share in total annual costs were calculated for a selected company.
Classification
Environmental Investment
Costs (EICs)
Environmental
Management and Operating
Costs (EMOCs)
Environmental
Management
(ERMCs)
Risk
Costs
Environmental costs
Environmental planning costs
Environmental management system and organizational costs
Wastewater treatment plant costs
Waste gas control and filtration systems costs
Solid waste storage (management) costs
Hazardous and toxic waste storage (management) costs
Waste monitoring and testing equipments and investments costs
Administrational costs
Environmental education costs
Consultancy and cost of other services received
Others
Test and analysis costs
Labor costs
Consumables (chemicals)
Legislation and management costs
Administrational costs
Consultancy and cost of other services received
Waste disposal and treatment costs
Wastewater treatment plant operational costs (electricity, water
consumption, etc.)
Taxes
Others
Punishment and indemnity costs
Costs for complain investigations and compensations
Air, water or soil treatment ( in the case of any fugitive or
accidental contaminations)
Bonding and guaranty costs
Selling or production cutback costs
Other unexpected losses and costs
Other
Source: Coskun and Karaca (2009).
Table 1: Possible environmental costs for SMEs
644
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Case Study
In this study a company in printing and packing sector was selected. This company is a typical one in the
related sector and can certainly be classified into one of the most active and modern corporation operation in Turkey.
They have large production capacity and they define themselves as an environmental friendly and responsible
company. The rationality of selecting such a company for our study is their eagerness in environmental investments
for upcoming environmental costs which had already appeared by new regulation period during the integration
period of Turkey to European Union. In the following part the possible treats or new regulations in which they
invested a certain amount of environmental budget are discussed.
The company reported that they have one typical waste which has been generated during printing operations
is wastewater. Thus, the costs and/or needs for wastewater treatment or discharge are the number one environment
related hot topic for this sector. Water and Sewerage Directorate for Istanbul Greater Metropolitan City (ISKI) is the
responsible authority who regulates and controls all the wastewater discharges and water demands of all bodies
located within the boundaries of Istanbul Megacity. Based on the related ISKI regulation; if any company does not fit
wastewater discharge limits two times in a sequential 6 months all activities of the company are stopped. This
regulation is actually an important environmental risk for companies, so they have to invest money and make certain
plans for sustainable production. In our case study, this regulation and related actions were the main legislative factor
for environmental costs and efforts invested by the company. In addition to that, there are other environment related
activities which not only result in costs but also benefits.
Annual costs of the company which are taken from the company‘s accounting records are summarized in
Table 2. In that table environmental costs of the company do not appear because under the uniform accounting
system of Turkey there is not a proper section that classifies environmental costs and environmental investments of
the company separately.
In Table 2 values were recorded during the year 2005 and all the records were originally in Turkish Liras
(TL). We converted all these TL based values in Euros (€) to present in European Union (EU) currency unit to have
a better understanding. In converting these values to original format, one can use conversation factors available on
the website of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkish (http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/kurlar/200505).
Total (€)
218,057
85,771
34,286
1,143
4,571
548,571
57,143
6,143
85,714
11,429
14,714
34,286
1,101,829
Costs
Direct materials
Indirect materials
Electricity
Water
Fuel
Labor costs
Maintenance and Repair
Copyright and patent
Marketing and sales
Packing
Depreciation
General overhead
Total
Table 2: Annual costs for a printing and packing company during 2005 in Turkey.
As it stated before, the most important environmental costs for the company is related to wastewater
discharge or treatment. ISKI regulation40, namely ―Wastewater discharge directive‖, defines some responsibilities for
the companies which result in environmental costs, are summarized as follows.
Wastewater discharge into sewage system is directly under the permission of ISKI, and companies should
obtain a ―discharge quality control permit‖ (item 11)
Bodies having a wastewater source should install a septic tank, preliminary treatment plant or treatment
plant to responsible of its operation (item 11.3)
4040
This regulation is available online on the web site of ISKI in Turkish
(http://www.iski.gov.tr/Web/UserFiles/File/mevzuat/pdf/Y_Atiksularin_Kanalizasyona_Desarji.pdf).
645
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
They should have an engineer as ―Technical Manager‖ which is responsible in wastewater treatment (item
13.2)
Industries are classified in two main groups based on their wastewater capacities; i) ones having less than
0.5 m3/day and ii) having more than the 0.5 m3/day flow rate. First group of companies can buy a service for
their wastewater from collective treatment plants. However second group of companies should have their
own treatment plants (items 16.3 and 16.4)
Based on the above mentioned regulations, the company decided to install a wastewater treatment plant (a
packed batch wastewater treatment plant with the capacity of 6~8 m3/day) at the begging of 2006. It was a typical
treatment plant used in this sector and it works based on the chemical coagulation and flocculation followed by a
sedimentation tank. Details of this treatment plant and design parameters can be obtained from Karaca‘s work
(2008). In the following part, cost analysis of the wastewater related investment is discussed.
Firstly, EICs are given in details. Initialization costs (cf. Table 1) of a packed wastewater treatment plant
can vary from thousands Euros to hundreds of thousand, this is up to size and capacity. This company bought one
small sized treatment plant about 52,000 € including setup and startup costs. Secondly, EMOCs (cf. Table 1) are
calculated. Annual EMOCs are generally expected to be higher than EICs (Coskun and Karaca, 2009). In this case
study, this rule was not broken and it was calculated about 56,000 €. All the details and subcategory costs are
summarized in Table 3. In addition to above mentioned costs, company was reengineered and started to collect or
recover used materials (waste paper) for trading. This is a typical environment friendly application and recorded as
an environmental benefit. Total income of this action was estimated about 5,700 € per year. Than practically EMOCs
were decreased about 10%. Finally, ERMCs were estimated based on the regulatory fines and penalties which is
based on the ISKI directive. It suggests a certain amount of Contribution Payment Charge (KÖP) if the discharge
limits are exceeded. ERMCs are expected to be 10% of EMOCs. No environmental damage or environmental health
risks were considered in this estimation.
As a result share of environmental costs of the company was calculated as 2.7% of all expenses while the
yearly environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%.
Environmental
Costs
Consumables
Monthly
Basic chemicals
Granule active carbon used in sedimentation
Granule active carbon used in filtration unit
Electricity
Waste disposal
Training costs
Labor costs
1,429
1,429
571
143
Combustion (this price is paid for the incineration of hazardous wastes
Transportation
Technical Manager (Engineer)
Operator
354
429
Total
Annual
Total
(€)
17,143
17,143
6,857
1,714
3,400
143
571
4,251
5,143
56,366
Table 3: Environmental Management and Operational Costs of a Printing and Packing Company.
References
Coskun A. and Karaca N. 2009. A Suggestion to the Classification of Environmental Costs in SMEs: An Application in Metal
Processing Sector. Ekoloji 18 (69), 59-65 (in Turkish).
De Beer P. and Friend F. 2006. Environmental accounting: A management tool for enhancing corporate environmental and
economic performance. Ecological Economics 58, 548-560.
Fleichman R.K. and Schuele K. 2006. Green Accounting: A Primer. Journal of Accounting Education 24, 35-66.
Jasch C. 2003. The use of Environmental Management Accounting (EMA) for identifying environmental costs. Journal of Cleaner
Production 11. 667–676.
646
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Karaca N. 2008. Küçük ve Orta Boy ĠĢletmelerde Çevresel Maliyetler (Environmental Costs in SMEs), Master Thesis submitted
to Fatih University, Department of Management, May 2008, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish).
Kirlioglu H. and Can A.V. 1998. Cevre Muhasebesi. Degisim Yayinlari, Adapazari, Turkey (in Turkish).
Kumaran D.S. Ong S. K. Tan R.B.H. and Nee A.Y.C. 2001Environmental life cycle cost analysis of products. Environmental
Management and Health 12 (3). 260-276.
Steen B. 2005. Environmental costs and benefits in life cycle costing. Management of Environmental Quality: An International
Journal 16 (2). 107-118.
Xiaomei L. 2004. Theory and Practice of Environmental Management Accounting. International Journal of Technology
Management and Sustainable Development 1, 47-57.
647
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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303
Title
A name given to the resource
An Analysis of Environmental Costs for a Midlle Sized Printing and Packing Company
Author
Author
KARACA, Nurcan
COŞKUN, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the past three decades, awareness of the companies towards the environmental issues increased because of new regulations and increased public awareness. In order to satisfy the public demand and accomplish the legal obligations companies initiated using environmental friendly technologies and made changes in their manufacturing processes and material usage. Implementation of environmental friendly manufacturing systems brings additional costs to the companies. In this study the classification of environmental costs in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) are discussed and previously suggested environmental costs classification system for SMEs were applied to a middle size printing and packing company. The share of environmental management cost of the company was calculated as 2.7% of annual expenses while the average annual cost of environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%. In the main part of this study, we discussed how environmental costs are being done varies in a number of respects and applications for a selected type of work sector, how they can be grouped or classified, and what could be the magnitude of the environmental investment to fulfill new national regulations established.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d2c20a8709a8ad8677d2688235c3586f.pdf
f200a11764c035b4b20db9910012e639
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
An Analysis of Environmental Costs for a Midlle Sized Printing and Packing
Company
Nurcan KARACA
Fatih University, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
nurcankaraca82@gmail.com
Ali COġKUN
Fatih University, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
alicoskun@fatih.edu.tr
Abstract: In the past three decades, awareness of the companies towards the environmental
issues increased because of new regulations and increased public awareness. In order to satisfy
the public demand and accomplish the legal obligations companies initiated using environmental
friendly technologies and made changes in their manufacturing processes and material usage.
Implementation of environmental friendly manufacturing systems brings additional costs to the
companies. In this study the classification of environmental costs in small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs) are discussed and previously suggested environmental costs classification
system for SMEs were applied to a middle size printing and packing company. The share of
environmental management cost of the company was calculated as 2.7% of annual expenses
while the average annual cost of environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%. In
the main part of this study, we discussed how environmental costs are being done varies in a
number of respects and applications for a selected type of work sector, how they can be grouped
or classified, and what could be the magnitude of the environmental investment to fulfill new
national regulations established.
Key Words: Accounting, cost, environment, management, SME.
Introduction
However the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established in 1969, environmental reporting in
company level was not required till the end of 1980s. In 1990s environmental disclosures appear in company reports.
The International Organization for Standardization (IOS) issued the first of the ISO 14000 family of standards in
1996. The ISO 14000 family addresses various aspects of environmental management. The very first two standards,
ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 deal with environmental management systems. Major milestones in the
development of external reporting on environmental performance appear as Figure 1 (Fleichman and Schuele 2006).
In recent years with increased public awareness on environmental issues environmental accounting is
became a popular research issue. Environmental accounting is mainly divided into two categories as environmental
financial accounting (EFA) and environmental management accounting (EMA). EFA focuses on financial reporting
and provides information to external decision makers and EMA provides environmental financial information for
internals. This study focuses on environmental costs issues within environmental management accounting. Xiaomei
(2004) defines EMA as ―the identification, collection, estimation, analysis, internal reporting, and use of materials
and energy flow information, environmental cost information, and other cost information for both conventional and
environmental decision-making within an organization‖. Jasch (2003) defines EMA as ―a combined approach that
provides for the transition of data from financial accounting, cost accounting and mass balances to increase material
efficiency, reduce environmental impacts and risks and reduce costs of environmental protection‖.
In order to satisfy the environmental requests of the public and to fulfill the legal responsibilities the
companies initiated to use environmental friendly manufacturing systems, material and processes. Implementation of
environmental friendly technologies brings additional costs to the companies. Companies should carefully
understand, measure, and control the environmental cost. Environmental cost are classified is different ways in the
literature.
642
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Figure 1. Major milestones in the development of external reporting on environmental performance
Source: Fleichman and Schuele (2006:45).
Coskun and Karaca (2008) classify the environmental costs for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs)
into three categories: environmental investment costs, environmental management and operating costs and
environmental risk management costs.
De Beer and Friend (2006) classify environmental costs as internal and external costs. Internal costs include
conventional costs, potentially hidden costs, contingent costs, and image and relationship costs. External costs
include environmental degradation costs, and human impact costs.
Steen (2005) defined costs and revenues associated with environmental issues as process costs, sales,
accidents and goodwill changes, and Taxes and fees on emissions and resource consumption. Process costs include
costs of control equipment, environmental permit, environmental monitoring, certification cost, labeling costs and
environmental management.
Jasch (2003) classifies environmental costs in four categories: conventional waste disposal and emission
treatment costs, prevention and environmental management costs, Material purchase value of non-product output,
and production costs of non-product output. In addition Environmental revenues can be derived from sales of waste
or grants of subsidies. Waste disposal and emission treatment costs includes depreciation for related equipment,
maintenance and operating materials and services, related personnel costs, fees, taxes, charges, fines and penalties,
insurance for environmental liabilities, and provisions for clean-up costs, remediation. Prevention and environmental
management costs includes external services for environmental management, personnel for general environmental
management activities, research and development, extra expenditure for cleaner technologies and scrap percentage of
operational plants, and other environmental management costs. Material purchase value of non-product output
includes costs associated with the raw materials, packaging, auxiliary materials, operating materials, energy and
water
Kumaran, et.al. (2001) developed a life cycle environmental cost analysis (LCECA) model is to include
eco-costs into the total cost of the products. They classified eco-costs of the cost breakdown structure (CBS) in eight
categories: eco-costs: cost of effluent/waste treatment (implementation, operation, and maintenance); cost of
effluent/waste control (implementation, operation, and maintenance); cost of waste disposal (collection,
transportation, and land fill or incineration); cost of environmental management systems - EMS (implementation,
643
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
operation, maintenance, and certification); costs of eco-taxes (country- or product specific eco-taxes, levy, etc.);
costs of rehabilitation in case of environmental accidents (damages like health disorders, accidents, and production
losses caused by the damages); cost savings of renewable energy utilization; and cost savings of recycling and reuse
strategies.
Kirlioglu and Can (1998), classify environmental costs into three categories as mitigation / avoidance costs,
utilization costs, and impairment /damage costs.
Method
In order to determine the environmental costs for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in the
printing and packing sector, we used an environmental costs classification system previously suggested by Coskun
and Karaca (2009). One can obtain detailed information about this classification system from the related studies
(Karaca 2008; Coskun and Karaca 2009). Here, only some brief information about the method is summarized as
follows. Environmental costs of SMEs are divided into three categories: "environmental investment costs",
"environmental management and operating costs" and "environmental risk management costs". There are some
subcategories within these three main categories as they are summarized in Table 1. The total number of these
subcategories of environmental costs may vary depending on industry type. In this study all the classified
environmental costs and their share in total annual costs were calculated for a selected company.
Classification
Environmental Investment
Costs (EICs)
Environmental
Management and Operating
Costs (EMOCs)
Environmental
Management
(ERMCs)
Risk
Costs
Environmental costs
Environmental planning costs
Environmental management system and organizational costs
Wastewater treatment plant costs
Waste gas control and filtration systems costs
Solid waste storage (management) costs
Hazardous and toxic waste storage (management) costs
Waste monitoring and testing equipments and investments costs
Administrational costs
Environmental education costs
Consultancy and cost of other services received
Others
Test and analysis costs
Labor costs
Consumables (chemicals)
Legislation and management costs
Administrational costs
Consultancy and cost of other services received
Waste disposal and treatment costs
Wastewater treatment plant operational costs (electricity, water
consumption, etc.)
Taxes
Others
Punishment and indemnity costs
Costs for complain investigations and compensations
Air, water or soil treatment ( in the case of any fugitive or
accidental contaminations)
Bonding and guaranty costs
Selling or production cutback costs
Other unexpected losses and costs
Other
Source: Coskun and Karaca (2009).
Table 1: Possible environmental costs for SMEs
644
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Case Study
In this study a company in printing and packing sector was selected. This company is a typical one in the
related sector and can certainly be classified into one of the most active and modern corporation operation in Turkey.
They have large production capacity and they define themselves as an environmental friendly and responsible
company. The rationality of selecting such a company for our study is their eagerness in environmental investments
for upcoming environmental costs which had already appeared by new regulation period during the integration
period of Turkey to European Union. In the following part the possible treats or new regulations in which they
invested a certain amount of environmental budget are discussed.
The company reported that they have one typical waste which has been generated during printing operations
is wastewater. Thus, the costs and/or needs for wastewater treatment or discharge are the number one environment
related hot topic for this sector. Water and Sewerage Directorate for Istanbul Greater Metropolitan City (ISKI) is the
responsible authority who regulates and controls all the wastewater discharges and water demands of all bodies
located within the boundaries of Istanbul Megacity. Based on the related ISKI regulation; if any company does not fit
wastewater discharge limits two times in a sequential 6 months all activities of the company are stopped. This
regulation is actually an important environmental risk for companies, so they have to invest money and make certain
plans for sustainable production. In our case study, this regulation and related actions were the main legislative factor
for environmental costs and efforts invested by the company. In addition to that, there are other environment related
activities which not only result in costs but also benefits.
Annual costs of the company which are taken from the company‘s accounting records are summarized in
Table 2. In that table environmental costs of the company do not appear because under the uniform accounting
system of Turkey there is not a proper section that classifies environmental costs and environmental investments of
the company separately.
In Table 2 values were recorded during the year 2005 and all the records were originally in Turkish Liras
(TL). We converted all these TL based values in Euros (€) to present in European Union (EU) currency unit to have
a better understanding. In converting these values to original format, one can use conversation factors available on
the website of the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkish (http://www.tcmb.gov.tr/kurlar/200505).
Total (€)
218,057
85,771
34,286
1,143
4,571
548,571
57,143
6,143
85,714
11,429
14,714
34,286
1,101,829
Costs
Direct materials
Indirect materials
Electricity
Water
Fuel
Labor costs
Maintenance and Repair
Copyright and patent
Marketing and sales
Packing
Depreciation
General overhead
Total
Table 2: Annual costs for a printing and packing company during 2005 in Turkey.
As it stated before, the most important environmental costs for the company is related to wastewater
discharge or treatment. ISKI regulation40, namely ―Wastewater discharge directive‖, defines some responsibilities for
the companies which result in environmental costs, are summarized as follows.
Wastewater discharge into sewage system is directly under the permission of ISKI, and companies should
obtain a ―discharge quality control permit‖ (item 11)
Bodies having a wastewater source should install a septic tank, preliminary treatment plant or treatment
plant to responsible of its operation (item 11.3)
4040
This regulation is available online on the web site of ISKI in Turkish
(http://www.iski.gov.tr/Web/UserFiles/File/mevzuat/pdf/Y_Atiksularin_Kanalizasyona_Desarji.pdf).
645
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
They should have an engineer as ―Technical Manager‖ which is responsible in wastewater treatment (item
13.2)
Industries are classified in two main groups based on their wastewater capacities; i) ones having less than
0.5 m3/day and ii) having more than the 0.5 m3/day flow rate. First group of companies can buy a service for
their wastewater from collective treatment plants. However second group of companies should have their
own treatment plants (items 16.3 and 16.4)
Based on the above mentioned regulations, the company decided to install a wastewater treatment plant (a
packed batch wastewater treatment plant with the capacity of 6~8 m3/day) at the begging of 2006. It was a typical
treatment plant used in this sector and it works based on the chemical coagulation and flocculation followed by a
sedimentation tank. Details of this treatment plant and design parameters can be obtained from Karaca‘s work
(2008). In the following part, cost analysis of the wastewater related investment is discussed.
Firstly, EICs are given in details. Initialization costs (cf. Table 1) of a packed wastewater treatment plant
can vary from thousands Euros to hundreds of thousand, this is up to size and capacity. This company bought one
small sized treatment plant about 52,000 € including setup and startup costs. Secondly, EMOCs (cf. Table 1) are
calculated. Annual EMOCs are generally expected to be higher than EICs (Coskun and Karaca, 2009). In this case
study, this rule was not broken and it was calculated about 56,000 €. All the details and subcategory costs are
summarized in Table 3. In addition to above mentioned costs, company was reengineered and started to collect or
recover used materials (waste paper) for trading. This is a typical environment friendly application and recorded as
an environmental benefit. Total income of this action was estimated about 5,700 € per year. Than practically EMOCs
were decreased about 10%. Finally, ERMCs were estimated based on the regulatory fines and penalties which is
based on the ISKI directive. It suggests a certain amount of Contribution Payment Charge (KÖP) if the discharge
limits are exceeded. ERMCs are expected to be 10% of EMOCs. No environmental damage or environmental health
risks were considered in this estimation.
As a result share of environmental costs of the company was calculated as 2.7% of all expenses while the
yearly environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%.
Environmental
Costs
Consumables
Monthly
Basic chemicals
Granule active carbon used in sedimentation
Granule active carbon used in filtration unit
Electricity
Waste disposal
Training costs
Labor costs
1,429
1,429
571
143
Combustion (this price is paid for the incineration of hazardous wastes
Transportation
Technical Manager (Engineer)
Operator
354
429
Total
Annual
Total
(€)
17,143
17,143
6,857
1,714
3,400
143
571
4,251
5,143
56,366
Table 3: Environmental Management and Operational Costs of a Printing and Packing Company.
References
Coskun A. and Karaca N. 2009. A Suggestion to the Classification of Environmental Costs in SMEs: An Application in Metal
Processing Sector. Ekoloji 18 (69), 59-65 (in Turkish).
De Beer P. and Friend F. 2006. Environmental accounting: A management tool for enhancing corporate environmental and
economic performance. Ecological Economics 58, 548-560.
Fleichman R.K. and Schuele K. 2006. Green Accounting: A Primer. Journal of Accounting Education 24, 35-66.
Jasch C. 2003. The use of Environmental Management Accounting (EMA) for identifying environmental costs. Journal of Cleaner
Production 11. 667–676.
646
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Karaca N. 2008. Küçük ve Orta Boy ĠĢletmelerde Çevresel Maliyetler (Environmental Costs in SMEs), Master Thesis submitted
to Fatih University, Department of Management, May 2008, Istanbul, Turkey (in Turkish).
Kirlioglu H. and Can A.V. 1998. Cevre Muhasebesi. Degisim Yayinlari, Adapazari, Turkey (in Turkish).
Kumaran D.S. Ong S. K. Tan R.B.H. and Nee A.Y.C. 2001Environmental life cycle cost analysis of products. Environmental
Management and Health 12 (3). 260-276.
Steen B. 2005. Environmental costs and benefits in life cycle costing. Management of Environmental Quality: An International
Journal 16 (2). 107-118.
Xiaomei L. 2004. Theory and Practice of Environmental Management Accounting. International Journal of Technology
Management and Sustainable Development 1, 47-57.
647
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
The size or duration of the resource.
250
Title
A name given to the resource
An Analysis of Environmental Costs for a Midlle Sized Printing and Packing Company
Author
Author
KARACA, Nurcan
COSKUN, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In the past three decades, awareness of the companies towards the environmental issues increased because of new regulations and increased public awareness. In order to satisfy the public demand and accomplish the legal obligations companies initiated using environmental friendly technologies and made changes in their manufacturing processes and material usage. Implementation of environmental friendly manufacturing systems brings additional costs to the companies. In this study the classification of environmental costs in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) are discussed and previously suggested environmental costs classification system for SMEs were applied to a middle size printing and packing company. The share of environmental management cost of the company was calculated as 2.7% of annual expenses while the average annual cost of environmental investments were about at the level of 0.6%. In the main part of this study, we discussed how environmental costs are being done varies in a number of respects and applications for a selected type of work sector, how they can be grouped or classified, and what could be the magnitude of the environmental investment to fulfill new national regulations established.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2fff888fcdde222dd32cf68ee5cb16f5.pdf
9b3b0e6320b88b61b9963f56d433e961
PDF Text
Text
Effects of HerbaGreen application on vegetative developments of some
grapevine rootstocks during nursery propagation in glasshouse
Zeki KARA
Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture
42003 Konya, Turkey
zkara@selcuk.edu.tr
Ali SABIR
Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture
42003 Konya, Turkey
asabir@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract:Substantial developments in wine and grape markets worldwide have resulted
in a gradual increase in vineyards planting. This case synchronously increased the
demand for grape planting materials. Environmentally healthy applications in the
production of vigorous planting material are basic subjects of adaptation in sustainable
agriculture. In this study, effects of HerbaGreen (a 100% natural product containing
40% CaO, 4% SiO2, 1% MgO and 1% Fe2O3 in 1 µm granules) spraying on shoot
development characteristics of one year old grape rootstocks 140 Ru, 99 R and 41 B
were investigated during nursery production in glasshouse. HerbaGreen pulverization
resulted in the formation of longer shoots across the rootstocks, varying from 51.4 cm
(99 R) to 53.4 cm (140 Ru) while shoot lengths of the control plants were 35.6, 38.5 and
39.1 cm for 41 B, 140 Ru and 99 R, respectively. Besides, certain vegetative features
such as shoot development level and lateral shoot number were also improved by
application, depending on the responses of genotypes. General observations suggest that
HerbaGreen would be beneficial in production of robust saplings by accelerating
vegetative development without environmental hazard and therefore would be
recommended to use in sustainable viticulture practices.
Introduction
In intensified agriculture techniques, chemical fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides, and herbicides
have become most common practices. However, these applications have had some undesirable results such
as the loss or depletion of topsoil, land becomes less fertile, and the excessive use of such chemicals has
resulted in pests resistant to the current chemicals resulting in the development of even stronger chemicals
(Denholm et al., 2002). Consequently, environment is being damaged by toxic materials, chemicals
leaching into rivers and water reservoirs are contaminating our drinking water, and the effect of global
warming is becoming a major part of the political agenda.
For a sustainable and environmentally healthy agriculture, the cultivated soil has to be protected by
working with natural sources. Such practices include the use of organic fertilizers to replenish the cultivated
soil (Doran et al., 1996). The principal aims of organic agriculture is to produce food of high nutritional
quality in sufficient quantity, to interact in a constructive and life-enhancing way with natural systems and
cycles, to encourage and enhance biological cycles within the farming system, to maintain and increase
long-term fertility of soils, to promote the healthy use and proper care of water, to help in the conservation
of soil and water, to use renewable resources in locally organized agricultural systems, to minimize all
forms of pollution that may result from agricultural practice, to maintain the genetic diversity of the
agricultural system and its surroundings, including the protection of plant and wildlife habitats, to consider
the wider social and ecological impact of the farming system (Ingels, 1992; Kara, 2007; Sabir & Sabir,
2009).
127
�Recently, researchers and developers have discovered many agents that promote plant growth
and/or restrict the attack of pest and diseases (Kara, 2009). Many are environmentally safe products that
contain different biocontrol agents. Plant growth stimulating products, such as HerbaGreen (100% natural
product containing CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, SiO2) are also beneficial substances for a vigorous and healthy
developments in both vegetative and generative respect to resist pests and diseases.
In this study, the effects of HerbaGreen applications on vegetative developments of young
grapevine plants were aimed to investigate under nursery conditions.
The Study
The grape rootstocks 140 Ru (V. berlandieri x V. rupestris), 99 R (V. berlandieri x V. rupestris)
and 41 B 41 B (Chasselas x V. berlandieri) were used as plant materials. The hardwood cuttings used in
this research were taken from dormant vines. Cuttings were prepared as about 35 cm long and 0.8 to 1.4 cm
thick, including four or five buds each. Perlite was used as the rooting media under glasshouse conditions
with intermitted mist units (about 10 s per 10 min interval). Cuttings were placed into Richter chests filled
with moistened perlite. The perlite was kept moist throughout the experiment. The chests were kept in
temperature-controlled room maintained at 20±5 °C. Four weeks after the cuttings were potted; all living
plants were transplanted to polyethylene bags and moved to a glasshouse. The plastic tubes contained soil,
perlite, peat and manure with percentages of 25% for each substance. A total of 30 plants were used for
application of each genotype, dividing into three replicates.
HerbaGreen, made of carbonate calcium, silica, magnesium and certain trace elements (Table 1),
were pulverized onto the plant in the concentration of 0.5% with weekly intervals, while no application was
performed to those belonging to control group. 5 g HerbaGreen was mixed with pure water (according to
the specifications of the company) and afterwards shake vigorously before pulverization for four time
intervals in 30 min. Applications were performed with a hand-pump pressure spray systems equipped with
an integrated swirl mechanism. Pulverizations were commenced when the first leaf on the cuttings was
half-open in rooting stage within the perlite medium. All the plants were irrigated with 2 or 3 days intervals
depending on weather conditions without using any supplementary nutritional matter.
Data were collected on shoot length (cm), shoot development level (0-4 scale), shoot diameter
(mm), lateral shoot number and leaf dry weight (g). Data were subjected to analyses of variance (TARIST)
and were separated using LSD multiple range test (level 0.01).
Main components warranted
CaCO3 (Carbonate calcium)
SiO2 (Silicium dioxide)
MgO (Magnesium oxide)
Fe2O3 (Iron)
pH
Percentage (%)
40
4
1
1
8-10
Table 1. Main components of HerbaGreen
Findings
Pulverization of HerbaGreen on young grapevine plants with a concentration of 0.5% promoted
the shoot elongation in varying degrees depending on genotypic aptitude (Fig. 1). Actually, effects of
HerbaGreen application on shoot elongation, leaf development and leaf color of entire plants were
noticeable when the shoots were approximately five cm (data not shown).
Differences between means of HerbaGreen treated and non treated groups with respect to shoot
length, shoot development level, shoot diameter, lateral shoot number and leaf dry weight parameters were
statistically significant at p<0.01 level.
128
�Figure 1. The effects of HerbaGreen application on shoot length (cm)
HerbaGreen applications resulted in the formation of longer shoots across the rootstocks, varying
from 51.4 cm (99 R) to 53.4 cm (140 Ru). On the other hand, shoot lengths of the control plants (35.6, 38.5
and 39.1 cm for 41 B, 140 Ru and 99 R, respectively) were significantly lower than those of applications.
Responses of grapevine rootstocks to application were different by means of shoot development
level (Fig. 2). HerbaGreen spraying significantly improved the shoot development levels of 41 B and 140
Ru rootstocks although control group of 99 R exhibited better shoot development. Such improvement in
vegetative development would be anticipated to promote vine resistance to stress conditions (Santalucia et
al., 2007) such as drought and cancerous conditions both of which are principal agriculture-restrictive
factors predominating in Konya province (Anonymous, 2007).
Figure 2. The effects of HerbaGreen application on shoot development level
The highest value with respect to shoot diameter was observed in HerbaGreen treated plants of 140
Ru although application was unable to enhance the thicknesses’ of other rootstocks (Fig. 3). Actually,
grapevine rootstocks exhibit significant variation in terms of physiological activities (Reynolds and Wardle,
2001), most likely because of the fact that they have been bred via complex hybridizations of a wide range
of North American Vitis species (Weaver, 1976; Pongracz, 1983). Different responses of rootstocks used in
this study are in agreement with that fact.
129
�Figure 3. Effect of HerbaGreen application on shoot diameter (mm)
Lateral shoot numbers were always higher in HerbaGreen treated plants than those of control
groups (Fig. 4). Especially, the response of 99 R to application regarding lateral shoot number was
noticeable. It is well known that lateral shoot emergence in grapevines could be influenced easily by
applications or climatic conditions, although response magnitude of such activity is genotype-dependent
(Tezuka et al., 1980). 140 Ru, in this sense, did not respond in the similar manner observed in 41 B and 99
R.
Leaf dry weight values of 41 B and 99 R were increased by HerbaGreen pulverization although
140 Ru did not respond in the same manner (Fig. 5). As stated by Howell (2001) previously, it is proposed
that response in achieving leaf weight of vines would vary with regard to cultivars or rootstocks. Regardless,
vine balance is most readily understood when based on the principles of leaf development balance as
mediated through well-understood factors such as gram dry weight at a certain stage of development.
Figure 4. Effect of HerbaGreen application on lateral shoot number
Besides the findings presented above, obvious vitalization of the green mass of vines was
noticeable. The leaves were of dark green color (data not shown). Such case would imply that HerbaGreen
might accelerate the photosynthetic activity in leaves.
130
�Figure 5. Effect of HerbaGreen application on leaf dry weight (g)
Conclusions
HerbaGreen application had obvious impact on the vegetative development by promoting shoot
elongation, leaf enlargement, thickening, and final take of plants. Furthermore, it helped the vines to
produce greenish leaves which ensure optimum photosynthesis process. Considering the overall findings
obtained in this study, HerbaGreen would be recommended a plant growth promoting agent for a vigorous
and healthy vine development in sustainable viticulture.
Acknowledgement
This study supported by Selcuk University of Scientific Research Board (BAP).
References
Anonymous. (2007). Report on the potential and problems in utilization of water resources in Konya plain p. 29. Konya
Regional Directorate of State Hydraullic Works, (in Turkish).
Denholm, I., Devine, G.J. &Williamson, M.S. (2002). Evolutionary genetics. Insecticide resistance on the move.
Science, 297 (5590): 2222-2223.
Doran, J.W., Sarrantonio, M. & Liebig. M.A. (1996). Soil and health and sustainability. Advances in Agronomy 56: 154.
Howell, G.S. (2001). Sustainable grape productivity and the growth-yield relationship: A Review. AJEV. 52(3): 165174.
Ingels, C.A. (1992). Sustainable agriculture and grape production. AJEV, 43 (3): 296-298.
Kara, Z. (2007). Sustainable viticultural activities in Turkey. Agricultura 1-2 (61-62): 1-11.
Kara, Z. (2009). Sustainable viticultural practices, Summer School Envirohort IP 19-31st July, 2009 TUM-WZW
Freising Germany.
Pongracz, D.P. (1983). Rootstocks for grapevines. David Philip Publisher, Cape Town South Africa, p 1-150.
Reynolds, A.G. & Wardle, D.A. (2001). Rootstocks impact vine performance and fruit composition of grapes in British
Colombia. Hort Technology, 11 (3): 419-427.
131
�Sabir, A. & Sabir, F.K. (2009). Postharvest treatments to preserve table grape quality during storage and approaches to
find better ways alternative for SO2. Advances in Environmental Biology, 3 (3): 286-295.
Santalucia, G., Barbagallo, M.G., Costanza, P., Di Lorenzo, R. & Pisciotta, A. (2007). Vegetative and reproductive
behaviour of Vitis vinifera L. (Cv. 'Cabernet Sauvignon') vines growing under non-irrigated conditions and moderate
water stress induced by different irrigation systems. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 754: 323-328.
Tezuka, T., Sekiya, H. & Ohno, H. (1980). Physiological studies on the action of CCC in Kyoho grapes. Plant and Cell
Physiology, 21 (6): 969-977.
Weaver, R.J. (1976). Grape growing. Publ. John Wiley and Sons- New York p 371.
132
�
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342
Title
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Effects of HerbaGreen application on vegetative developments of some grapevine rootstocks during nursery propagation in glasshouse
Author
Author
KARA, Zeki
SABIR, Ali
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Substantial developments in wine and grape markets worldwide have resulted in a gradual increase in vineyards planting. This case synchronously increased the demand for grape planting materials. Environmentally healthy applications in the production of vigorous planting material are basic subjects of adaptation in sustainable agriculture. In this study, effects of HerbaGreen (a 100% natural product containing 40% CaO, 4% SiO2, 1% MgO and 1% Fe2O3 in 1 μm granules) spraying on shoot development characteristics of one year old grape rootstocks 140 Ru, 99 R and 41 B were investigated during nursery production in glasshouse. HerbaGreen pulverization resulted in the formation of longer shoots across the rootstocks, varying from 51.4 cm (99 R) to 53.4 cm (140 Ru) while shoot lengths of the control plants were 35.6, 38.5 and 39.1 cm for 41 B, 140 Ru and 99 R, respectively. Besides, certain vegetative features such as shoot development level and lateral shoot number were also improved by application, depending on the responses of genotypes. General observations suggest that HerbaGreen would be beneficial in production of robust saplings by accelerating vegetative development without environmental hazard and therefore would be recommended to use in sustainable viticulture practices.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
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Conference or Workshop Item
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Attitudes and Motivation of Learners of French as a Second Language
towards Computer Assisted Language Learning
Assoc. Prof. .Dr. Şeref KARA
Uludag University
serefk@uludag.edu.tr
Abstract: This study focuses on computer assisted language learning and the
attitude of the learners who are enrolled in French department at Uludag
University. A total of 42 learners in French programme at Uludag University
participated in the study as subjects. They were given questionnaire in pre-test and
post-test at the beginning of the academic period and tree months later to observe
whether there were any changes in their attitude towards computer assisted
learning. The data were collected in the 2009-2010 education-instruction year. The
data obtained in the study was analysed using the SPSS statistics computer
programme. It was also found out that the CALL method supported with the
language learning programme was more effective in positive development of
achievement levels of learners. The results exposed that there occurred positive
changes in the attitudes of the subjects towards computer assisted language
learning during three months. Although most learners accept changes in teaching
delivery and welcome the enrichment provided by new educational tools, some
refuse them. Differences in learning styles exist, and will continue to exist, and
cannot be dismissed.
Key words: Computer Assisted Language Learning, French foreign language
teaching, attitude, computer, learner, test, assessment.
Introduction
Recently, computers have become so widespread in schools and homes and their uses have expanded so
dramatically that the majority of language teachers must now begin to think about the implications of computers
for language learning. With technological developments human life is getting easier day by day. Computers are
among the greatest devices presented us by technology. With the introduction of computers in education, there
seemed important changes in teaching and learning method. In recent years, the rapid evolution of information
and communication technology (ICT) has made great changes in societies and education. The Internet,
particularly, has become a useful tool for communication, a venue for experiencing different cultures and a
mediator in diverse political, social and economical situations.The teacher got the role of being a facilitator
rather than being authority. When the modern education conception is examined carefully, it can be seen that
implementation of computers in foreign language education and learner centred approach are practically at the
same time. This research aims to find out the changes in the attitudes of the learners in French programme at
Uludag University towards computer assisted language learning. Are there any differences between the attitudes
of the learners who have participated in French Programme in their previous life and after tree month exposure
process to computer assisted language learning?
A student's attitude and motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success within
computer-assisted language learning (CALL) environments (Brandl, 2002). Motivation, according to Winne and
Marx (1989), is both a condition for, and a result of, effective instruction. Based on these claims, it is plausible to
speculate that students' motivation plays an important role in successful CALL implementation and that, if used
effectively, the CALL environment can enhance students' motivation to learn a foreign language. This study
investigated the role of motivation and attitudes on student French foreign learning in an online course context. It
also examined how this new foreign learning environment affected students' attitudes and motivation, and how
this, in turn, affected students' foreign learning.
There are similar definitions of computer assisted language learning. CALL is defined as a method to language
teaching and learning in which computer technology is used as an aid to the presentation reinforcement and
assessment of material to be learned including a substantial interactive element. Most FLT specialists agree that
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CALL is a tool which helps teachers to facilitate language learning process. They think that CALL can be used
to reinforce what has been learned in the classrooms. It might also be used as an alternative help for the learners.
Although most research (Meskill, 1996), suggests that comprehension is aided by the conjunction of aural/visual
processing if there is congruence between the verbal and visual elements, some students may experience
(especially in a non-native language) perceptual/cognitive overload and feel that information in ready-made
multimedia lectures escapes them (Burston & Monville-Burston, 1996; (Monville)-Burston, 1997) )
There is no doubt that CALL has developed a lot since the day it was introduced to education field. Recently
teachers have started to consider the use of computers as an indispensable part of foreign language teaching and
learning process. Due to technological advancement, computer has the potential part of foreign language
teaching and learning. Communicative CALL gained praise among educationalists and communicative CALL is
largely based on communicative method in language learning. In this approach it is argued that computer based
exercises should focus more on using forms. There are many explications suggesting the importance of studentstudent interaction in communicative CALL among French foreign language specialists. In communicative
CALL the focus shouldn’t be on what students do with the computer but rather what they do with each other
while working at the computer.
Gardner's Socio-educational Model of Foreign Language Learning (FLL)
The role of foreign learning motivation has been intensively studied by social psychologists in Canada, where
French and English are the two official languages. Gardner (1985) hypothesized that foreign language learners
with positive attitudes toward the target culture and people will learn the target language more effectively than
those who do not have such positive attitudes. In their earlier studies, Gardner and Lambert (1959) found that
aptitude and motivation were the two factors most strongly associated with learners' second language
achievement. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) drew together the findings from many studies over several decades
and developed Gardner's “socio-educational model of FLL” (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: Representation of Socio-educational Model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993)
Proponents of this model of SLA (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1992, 1993) claim that individual-difference variables
interact with both formal and informal language acquisition contexts and influence both linguistic and nonlinguistic outcomes. Gardner and MacIntyre (1993, p. 9) argue that this model shows the importance of what
takes place in the learning contexts: “Teachers, instructional aids, curricula, and the like clearly have an effect on
what is learned and how students react to the experience.” The model also predicts that student' linguistic
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outcomes and affects their non-linguistic outcomes and that both types of outcomes will have an influence on
individual-difference variables including language attitudes and motivation.
The role of the computer in French Foreign Language (FFL)
There are diverse opinions among language specialists about the role of computer and the teacher in CALL
programmes. The difference between computer as a tutor and computer as instrument is the most ordinary
discussion in the field. When the character of CALL is examined carefully, it can be easily recognised that the
view of computer as instrument became more prevalent with the arrival of the multimedia computer and internet.
From the teacher’ position, the computer is totally dependant on the teacher in many ways. It is unable to create
educational materials without a human to direct it. The progressive view is that teacher should take a less
intrusive role in managing language learning with the arrival of multimedia. Teacher should take the role of
facilitator rather than being the unique authority. We can refer to the teacher as a mediator between the computer
and learners throughout the learning process, serving the role of keeping things running smoothly.
The computers have some specific advantage as organising of materials, including volume of material and
random presentation, scoring and record-keeping, graphics and animation, including allowing student control,
recording and storage of learner responses. Certain design issues affect just how interesting the particular tool
creates motivation. It must be surely accepted that CALL is a method in which four skills of the target language
can be practised effectively. By choosing the correct software programme, both productive and receptive skills
can be concentrated. Another advantage of CALL is that target culture could be transmitted to the learners
through authentic software programmes.
Computers have a useful contribution to the development of oral skills when they are used wisely. Computer
simulations are really motivating for the learners. For example dialogues studies can be done with the help of the
movie parts in computers and intonation exercises might be added to these activities.
For listening skills in CALL many techniques can be used to develop listening skills of the learners. By listening
to the speakers in software programme without any subtitles, learners will be exposed to natural sounds of the
target language. Learners will pay attention to pronunciation of particular words and compare their own
pronunciation with native ones.
There are a lot of books and research papers that discuss whether classic class lessons or CALL programmes are
more effective in foreign language learning. Several articles have been found which are trying to reflect learners’
feedback about CALL. For example the study of Ayres examines learner attitudes towards the use of CALL and
their perceived view of its relevancy to their course of study. This study reports whether there was any relation
between the perceived usefulness of CALL, and the students’ level of computer literacy, language level and the
age.
Methodology and Subjects of the study
There are two main purpose of this study. French language programme in French programme at Uludag
University is discussed with its main frames and its integration with CALL is focused on. The number of the
participants in the study was limited to the number of 4th grade class students. The attitude of the learners
towards computer assisted language learning and possible changes in their attitudes towards CALL in a tree
month process are examined. For this research, qualitative approach is considered to be the most convenient one
because it is based on the idea of making sense of the data. The data collected from the questionnaire were
evaluated with qualitative approach; but quantitative approach was also used to count and measure the data in
order to analyse the results.
The subjects of this study are the students of French programme at Uludag University during 2009-2010
academic year. It is a well-known reality that questionnaire are used data collection instruments in descriptive
studies. To learn the attitudes of the students who are enrolled in French programme at Uludag University
towards CALL, a questionnaire was applied to them twice in the format of pre-test and post-test. Questions in
both pre-test and post-test were the same so as to observe probable difference in their attitude towards CALL in
tree month process. The questionnaire was applied to the subjects in their mother language and a description
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
about the questionnaire was given to the learners. The questionnaire includes totally 7 questions. In the
evaluation phase of the questionnaire, all data were processed in SPSS and analysed using different analysis
programmes.
The purpose of the present questionnaire was to learn whether there occurred any changes in the attitudes of
Uludag University French Programme learner towards CALL in tree-month process. For this motive, the
questionnaire was applied to the learners twice to see the possible changes in their attitudes towards CALL.
The Results and Analysis of learner’s responses
When we examine the answers of the learners to item 1 “I believe that using computers in French foreign
language learning is a motivation”, they seem really positive in pre-test. The aim of this item is to learn the ideas
of the subjects about the motivational aspect of using computers in French foreign language learning. We can
say that the learners think that CALL is really a useful method in French foreign language learning. When we
look the answers of the learners in both pre-test and post-test, we can say that they believe that using computers
in French foreign language learning is a motivation way in many aspects. As well known, learners use computers
in many fields of their life; but it is not frequent to use computers in foreign language learning among the
learners. In item 2 “I think that CALL is really an effective method in French foreign language learning”, the
learners are relatively optimistic to CALL. The learners had a positive attitude towards computers assisted
language learning with arithmetical average more than 85% in both pre-test and post-test. In general, they
believe that CALL is an effective approach in French foreign language learning. It can be said that the learners
have the assumption that CALL can be an effective method. In item 3 “I believe that computers will give me
indispensable feedback when I make mistake”, the learners had the idea that the computers would not give
necessary feedback if they make mistakes and be a good guide for them to reach the right point during their
activities in tests. In pre-test, it can be seen that the learners had a negative attitudes towards computers’ giving
indispensable feedback when they make mistakes during CALL activities. In item 4 “I think that using
computers in French foreign language is more useful than coursebooks in terms of verbal and non-verbal
forms”, the aim of this item is to learn the idea of learners on transmission the target culture through computers
and comparing the use of computers and coursebooks from this perspective. We can conclude that the learners
have positive attitudes towards learning the target culture through computers after tree-month CALL exposure.
They consider that the computers realize superior work than coursebooks in transmission the target culture while
teaching the French foreign language. In item 5 “The studies in computer assisted French language learning are
mainly individual and there is no interaction among the learners”, when the arithmetical average of this item is
examined, it can be say that the learners don’t consider the studies in CALL boring. They don’t agree with the
statement in this item. The situation has not changed in post-test. We can say that the learners do not think the
studies in CALL boring after tree-month. In item 6 “CALL which is not maintained by classic classroom lessons
can cause learners’ teamwork skills to disappear”, from the results obtained in pre-test, it can be put forward
that the learners disagree with the idea that CALL is not supported by classical classroom lessons can cause
students’ teamwork skills to disappear. In item 7 “Can you suggest improvements that could be made to the
physical presentation of lectures?” The aim of the question was to elicit students' comments on various aspects
of the physical presentation of lectures which concerned the researchers. Overall it appears that students were
more tolerant than would have been expected. Two complained about the occasional flickering of the screen, two
about the necessity of having dimmed lights; except for one exception they considered that the larger than
necessary capacity of the lecture theatre was not problematic. Learner performance varied widely and showed a
not unexpected relation with the responses given for item 7. The most adventurous learner the explorers were the
ones who had the most thorough knowledge of the structure and working of the computer. Two felt that
sometimes the “technology got in the way” (i.e. created a distance) and did not make the interaction between the
teacher and the class as easy as it would have been if the lecture had been delivered in a more conventional
fashion.
Informal remarks as well as the end of semester questionnaire seem to indicate that the use of computer by
students became more frequent and varied after questionnaire. We believe too that the interview had the effect of
convincing the students that they were given special attention.
The learners of the corpus do not agree with the description in this item. They may have thought that activities in
computer are not the activities which will cause their teamwork skills to disappear. We can say that majority of
the subjects participating in this research are afraid of failure in CALL process.
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Conclusion
The aim of our research was to collect experiential data on CALL, its application areas, its advantages and
disadvantages. What was investigated was the initial attitudes and reactions of learners after a tree-months of
use. The present research was contextualized at Uludag University French section. It was aimed to examine the
learners’ ideas and attitudes towards CALL. The data for the answers of the research questions were obtained
from the learners of French section. The instrument to accumulate data was a questionnaire which was applied to
the learners in the format of pre-test and post test. The possible needs of the learners for CALL applications were
also taken into consideration. It was recognised that tree months CALL experience process had a positive
consequence in the attitudes of the learners. .According to the answers of the learners to the questions in the
questionnaire, we can recognize that the learners had favourable attitudes towards computer assisted French
language learning. What was obtained was some preliminary indications on the usefulness and efficiency as
perceived by learners of a completely new way of delivering a content course in our language departments and
an innovating tool aimed at facilitating self-study. Learners with aversions to technology also deserve our
attention and support, and need to be provided with learning tools that they prefer. Student attitude to towards
educational technology in the classroom was overwhelmingly favourable. In some cases this positive attitude
was accompanied by enthusiasm, but an instrumentalist reaction was much more the norm. In general, students
felt that, like it or not, they had to adapt to the fact that teaching and learning were bound to become increasingly
computer-based. It may be useful through a self-assessment questionnaire, for example to be aware from the
beginning of the course of the cognitive and learning differences
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Winne, P. H., & Marx, R. W. (1989). A cognitive-processing analysis of motivation within classroom tasks. In
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89
�
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The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Extent
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400
Title
A name given to the resource
Attitudes and Motivation of Learners of French as a Second Language towards Computer Assisted Language Learning
Author
Author
KARA, Seref
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This study focuses on computer assisted language learning and the attitude of the learners who are enrolled in French department at Uludag University. A total of 42 learners in French programme at Uludag University participated in the study as subjects. They were given questionnaire in pre-test and post-test at the beginning of the academic period and tree months later to observe whether there were any changes in their attitude towards computer assisted learning. The data were collected in the 2009-2010 education-instruction year. The data obtained in the study was analysed using the SPSS statistics computer programme. It was also found out that the CALL method supported with the language learning programme was more effective in positive development of achievement levels of learners. The results exposed that there occurred positive changes in the attitudes of the subjects towards computer assisted language learning during three months. Although most learners accept changes in teaching delivery and welcome the enrichment provided by new educational tools, some refuse them. Differences in learning styles exist, and will continue to exist, and cannot be dismissed.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism Sector in Turkey
Hasan KARA
Faculty of Science and Letters Geography Department
UĢak University
Turkey
hasan.kara@usak.edu.tr
Nurettin BILGEN
Faculty of Education Primary Education Department
Pamukkale University
Turkey
nurettinbilgen@gmail.com
Derya ACAR
Faculty of Science and Letters Geography Department
UĢak University
Turkey
derya.acar@usak.edu.tr
Abstract: One of the most crucial problems in the world is global warming. In recent years mean
temperature values are rising and downfall values are indicating substantial deviations as to years
and months. Even small changes in climates affect many sectors. The leading sector affected by
global warming is tourism sector. Tourism is one of the sectors in Turkey developing in the fastest
way. Numbers of tourists visiting Turkey have been increased beginning from 2000 and exceeded
27 millions in 2009. Tourism revenue of Turkey has passed over 16 billions dollar. A large
number of different sectors such as transportation, food and construction are connected with
tourism. Tourism sector is very interested in temperature rise and prolonging of summer season. In
sea tourism it is expected an expansion to west and north regions of Turkey as well as south
shores. Extreme summer hot will set off immigration from seaboard to uplands and hinterland as
well as increase water and electricity consumptions. Less cold in winter season, delay and decrease
of snowfall will affect winter sports centers negatively. In this study positive and negative effects
of climate changes caused by global warming on the tourism sector which one of leading sectors in
Turkey are discussed.
Introduction
Tourism, which is frequently referred to as ―flueless industry‖ is a substantial source of revenues and a
strategic sector for some countries. When we take the fact of across the globe over a billion people is in tourism
activity into consideration, we understand well how the tourism cake is so large and important. The number of
countries that are getting a large share of the cake is rather limited. The compenents such as climate, latitude, coastal
assets, cultural and historical values, transportation, safety, infrastructure etc. define the finiteness of tourism activity
and determine the number of tourists and revenues.
Some determinants that might affect tourism in next years are misinvestments in tourism field, pollution,
coasts turning into concrete jungles, dissolution of cultural values, destruction of vegetation cover, safety problems
might occur in tourism centers and verious global changes occured depending on climate change. Determinants
except for climate change are the problems caused by local causes in the countries and regions where tourism is
practised and their solutions are relatively easy. By means of correct planning and right management these problems
can be easily avoided. On the contrary some points that appeared as problems can be changed into attraction for
tourism as well. For example, cultural values under dissolution threat can be protected by restoring them and
historical ruins buried in ground may come into light by archaelogical studies. They all may gain advantageous
positions by improvement made by the resources of countries or regions.
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On the other hand, changes occured in climate caused by global warming are not problems resulting from
countries or tourism regions. They are global problems that are of particular concern to all over the world. Thereby,
global problem caused by wrong applications that was experienced in the past and is existing in present time, will be
a cause to more serious negatives as well as be a concern in our day.
Turkey is one of countries that might be affected by global warming at the most. Temperature rises and
deviations occured in downfalls affect a great number of sectors in Turkey directly or indirectly. Effects have been
seen for years in the sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry and water. Although tourism is not affected much at
present it is one of the sectors that will seriously experience results of global warming in the immediate future.
Global Warming and Turkey
Greenhouse gases hold infrared radiation reflected from globe and prevent them from escaping to space.
Accordingly, they affect energy balance of the earth and cause increasing of surface temperature (ArıbaĢ and Kara,
2009, p.130). Temperature on the surface of the earth rises distinctively. Accordingly, changes occur in climates and
the components of climate affect each other in a complicated way. Ultimately all living creatures take their shares
from changes. While expansion in deserts is seen depending on drought living spaces become narrow, forests and
vegetation cover are reduced, and living creatures migrate in order to keep pace with the new order.
As a result of global warming climate changes occur in the various regions of the world. Climate changes
can be briefly described as changes in climate parameters (downfall, moisture, air movements, drought etc.)
depending on global warming. As changes occured in any region of the world induce other regions, effects of global
warming are inclusive of not only certain countries or continents but all the globe. Turkey is one of the countries
affected by global warming. Effects do not make themselves evident in short time. They appear in a long time
period. Their boundaries are so wide that they affect all the fields from agriculture to animal husbandary, from
desiccation to immigration and from sea level rising to tourism. For example, according to different scenarios it is
estimated that average sea level rising in 2100 will be 15-100 cm in current climate modelling (Öztürk, 2002, Spence
2007 and Evans, 2009). Even only rising of 15-100 cm in sea level can make changes in the map of the earth and
make away with some small island states.
The countries that are much damaged by climate changes are the ones having resources at the very least
despite they have no negative contribution to climate changes. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reported that ―climate change will affect most developping countries in terms of loss of lives, investments and
economy‖ (Dunn and Flavin, 2002, p.89). Even the factors causing global climate change would completely be
eliminated the effects of the past will reveal themselves for 30-40 years.
Developping Tourism in Turkey
Turkey is a country industrializing rapidly in Western norms. Particularly in the last 20 years the aspects of
development and change have been felt in every sectors. As of 2009 Turkey which is the 16. country with large
economy in the world maintains development and targets to be in the first ten countries having strongest economies.
One of the leading sectors in Turkey is tourism in terms of growing economy. Turkey is one of the countries in the
world having highest tourism potentiality with its historical and cultural assets, unique nature, seas surrounding its
three sides, safety and the people who lean towards tourism. Unfortunately, tourism in Turkey, which is frequently
referred to as ―flueless industry‖, was scarcely any before 25 years. In last 25 years, particularly in last 10 years,
tourism in Turkey has gained substantial speed (Table 1). Number of tourists, which was 2 millions per year in 1985,
has
reached
10
millions
in
2000
and
27
millions
as
of
end
of
2009
(http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler). Revenues of tourism have increased in paralel
with the number of tourists and climbed over 16 billions dolar.
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Years
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Total
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
334
359
307
364
534
699
667
714
783
752
354
405
426
481
608
693
627
787
896
899
435
547
676
500
784
1.107
922
1.100
1.305
1.208
721
885
853
669
1.104
1.349
1.373
1.521
1.648
1.750
986
1.232
1.326
1.146
1.799
2.303
1.919
2.288
2.749
2.719
1.079
1.388
1.458
1.511
1.898
2.403
2.369
2.774
3.306
3.263
1.526
1.777
1.897
2.131
2.591
3.164
3.110
3.624
4.085
4.343
1.419
1.601
1.900
2.275
2.493
2.859
2.906
3.384
3.762
3.760
1.369
1.440
1.771
1.874
2.125
2.502
2.267
2.799
2.981
3.136
1.178
1.066
1.420
1.658
1.842
2.107
1.714
2.153
2.462
2.617
602
521
663
776
950
1.052
1.020
1.177
1.268
1.404
424
398
560
644
789
862
927
1.019
1.091
1.226
10.427
11.619
13.257
14.030
17.517
21.123
19.819
23.341
26.337
27.077
Table 1. Distribution of Tourists Visiting Turkey in Last 10 Years (a thousand persons).
In the ordering of countries attracting most tourists in the world Turkey was barely in the first 20 countries
in 1990‘s and was 11. in 2005. In last 5 years she has deserved to be in the first 10 countries. While the countries
such as France, Spain and the United States of America are by far in advance there is a little difference between the
countries such as Britain, Germany, Mexico, Austria and Turkey in turms of tourist number. In short, if Turkey
would keep the increasement pace and would not go wrong she will be of 5-6 countries attracting most tourists in the
world in next 10 years.
Figure 1: Turkey‘s Important Tourism Regions.
The sub sectors of tourism such as sea tourism (summer tourism), winter tourism, thermal tourism, upland
tourism and religious tourism have been developped in Turkey. While the weight in sea tourism is on South AegeanWest Mediterranean shore corridor, the locations such as Alanya, Antalya, KaĢ, Fethiye, Marmaris, Bodrum,
KuĢadası and ÇeĢme are the most important vacation centers (Figure 1). While Bolu, Uludağ, SarıkamıĢ, Erciyes and
Palandöken catch the attention in winter tourism, leading locations in religious tourism are Ġstanbul, Konya,
ġanlıurfa and Selçuk. The leading natural beauties that have been visited much are Ürgüp surroundings and
Pamukkale. In the Black sea region upland tourism has come into prominence in recent times and the provinces such
as Trabzon, Rize, Giresun, Bolu and Ordu developped much in upland tourism.
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Negative Effects of Global Warming on Tourism Sector
In recent times numbers of the studies on global warming have been increased as the effects manifest
themselves. We have general studies in regard with tourism sector and global warming. However, they are not
adequate in terms of Turkish tourism (Öztürk, 2002, Gülbahar, 2008 and Yıldız 2009).
Mean temperature rises have made evident themselves depending on global warming. According to the local
and general studies it is certain that mean temperature rises gradually. Mean temperature rises have been increased as
to the previous period. It has been revealed by various researches that mean temperature rises in Turkey in the last
period of 30-40 reach 0,5 oC (Kadıoğlu, 2008). It is predicted that in the following years glaciers will melt away and sea level
will rise about 1 meter. Undoubtedly, all glaciers will not melt away. However, it is certain that glacier dissolving
will be experienced and seal level will rise about 1 cm in every year.
In many climate modellings it is predicted that as a result of global warming downpours will increased. In
general terms, Turkey is located in Mediterranean climate zone in which–except for several areas- winters are rainy
and snowy and summers are dry. Dry summers are an advantage for the areas having dense summer tourism.
Summer precipitations affects tourism negatively. Deviations in precipitation despite dry summers, experiences
summer downfalls and floods caused by cloudbursts will affect tourism regions. Instant floods will damage not only
coastal areas but upland tourism, hunting tourism, golf tourism, mounting climbing and stream sports.
Number of tourists visiting Turkey has exceeded 27 millions. A large part of the tourists come from the
countries which are located in North of Turkey and have relatively colder climates. Tourists prefer Turkey for hot
summers, sea, sand and sun. Sea tourism focuses on Southern and Western coasts of Turkey such as Antalya, Muğla,
Aydın and Ġzmir. As beaches are small and narrow a part of them will be left under the sea level when a rise occurs
at sea level. Some small beaches might be disappeared completely and a part of large beaches might become smaller
by overflowing (Photo 1). Undoubtedly all beaches would not be disappeared by the effects of global warming.
There might be new bech extensions and formation while sea water is rising in a part of beaches. Beaches are
considered to be equivalent with tourism all over the world. Unfortunately beaces in Turkey under the threats of
erosion, climate change and sea level change. Rising in water level will affect not only beaches but settlements at
coastal regions and touristic facilities as well. Touristic facilities, roads, ports, summer residences and other buildings
at seaside and seafront will be at hazard by sea rising.
Photo 1: Small Beach in Southern Coast of Turkey Köyceğiz.
July and August in Turkey are the months in which sea tourism is very dense. About 30% of tourists who
visit Turkey ( 8 millions tourist) prefer July and August. At the same time both are the the hottest months all over
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Turkey. When June is added to them the rate of summer season exceed 40% (Figure 2). The more mean temperatures
the more electricity and water consumptions. In a large part of touristic facilities in South and West regions air
conditioners opererate much due to hot. This means greater costs for the managements. The more hot the more
electricity consumption and greater costs depending on airconditioning.
12000
(1000 Persons)
10000
8000
6000
Seasons
4000
2000
0
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Figure 2: According to the Seasonal Distribution of Tourists Coming to Turkey (2009).
The most serious problem experienced in coastal regions in summer season is water supply. Providing fresh
water in coastal regions is rather difficult. Water consumption contingent on temperature rise is highly increased in
summer season. Increasing consumptions of both fresh water and potable water give rise to a rise in the costs of
touristic managements. On the other hand, large green spaces and large gulf courses owned by many facilities will
give rise to more water consumption. Therefore, finding new water sources and bringing water from long distances
as well as new investments will be needed.
One of the tourism branches being in the ascendant in recent times in Turkey is winter tourism. Winter
tourism centers such as Uludağ, Kartalkaya, Erciyes, Palandöken and SarıkamıĢ have been rapidly developped.
Increasing in mean temperatures reduces snowfalls. As in some years snowfalls are so late maximum snow thickness
can not reach 50 cm (Gülbahar, 2008, p.180). For this reason, winter tourism is much damaged and reservations are
cancelled. Reduction of snow thickness and shortening time of snow staying on the ground deals death blow to
winter tourism (Spence, 2007, p.90). Danger is more serious at the winter tourism centers having lesser elevation.
The most important winter tourism centers in Turkey are in West regions. These centers take a risk as they have
lesser elevations (Photo 2). Although Turkey has great winter tourism potantiality she takes small share from winter
tourism as investments are not made in there due to the reasons such as important elevations are in East regions,
safety, transportation and underdevelopment. Shortening periods of snow covering due to temperature rise in Turkey
might give rise to instant snow melting and avalanches (Yıldız, 2009, p.83). Instant meltings are a great danger to
both tourism centers and regional settlements.
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Photo 2: Places Will be Affected More Than Most Global Warming (Uludağ Ski Center).
Together with summer hot rise some streams will be dried wholly that have already lower water levels or
their flow rates will be decreased. This will prevent some water sports such as rafting from practicing. Particularly, in
the shores of Mediterranian rafting over some streams is an activity that have been in demand in recent years (Ertin,
1998, p.204).
While some new tourism centers will appear due to rise in temperature some old tourism centers will be
diminished in importance. In this way, in the old tourism centers unemployment rate will be increased and this will
induce immigration towards other areas. Nature will be under the threat of damage from the pressure of people due
to the interest in new tourism spaces.
Thermal water might be affected as global warming will decrease water sources. Turkey is the most
advantageous country in the region in terms of thermal sources. Turkey has more potantiality than that of countries
which are more advanced in tourism than Turkey. Thermal sources of Turkey is a unique potantiality for the aging
population of Europe. As thermal sources will become more important in the future it must give consequence this
matter and the sources must be exploited productively.
Positive Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism in Turkey
Sea bathing duration in Turkey extends when we go towards Aegean and Black sea in North from the
Mediterranean shores in South. While the sea bathing duration in Mediterranean is over 100 days it reduces a little in
Aegean shores due to latitude and this figure is much shortened in Marmara and Black sea shores. While temperature
rise affect the Mediterranean shores negatively the case in the North of Aegean, Marmara and Black sea shores is
reversed (Yıldız, 2009, p.85). Rises in mean temperatures and sea water temperature particularly in Marmara and
Black sea shores will makr these shores an attraction center (Akıncı Kesim and etc., 2007, 465). In this way, new
tourism centers will appear and the weight on the provinces located in the Southern Turkey will slide towards the
shores of provinces located in the Northern Turkey.
The rise in sea water is an advantage for the shores in Turkey. In our days, due to the lower values in sea
water and air temperature having a sea bathing in Black sea shores is impossible for a long time. Global warming
will revers the case in the long run. While Black sea shores will be changed into the current form of Mediterranean
shores, sea bathing period in the Mediterranean shores will be further extended and spring and fall seasons will be
appraised. Tourism season in all regions of Turkey will be extended. Sea, sand and sun tourisms will go out of the
frame and extend towards spring and fall seasons. In this way, a large part of Turkey will enjoy benefaction of
tourism all the year round. Extension in tourism season will give an opportunity to the small tourism centers to grow
and to obtain more revenues.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
There are a lot of choices for tourism in Turkey in which average elevation is 1132 m. and land forms are
changed in short distances. While some coastal regions in Turkey are effected negatively by the temperature rise,
some regions in hinterland and some larger sections are effected positively. In this case Turkey will be a more
advantegous country by the effects of global warming.
As rise in temperature in Egypt which is located in South of Turkey and in other Southern Mediterranean
countries will create a sultry atmosphere the effects of global warming will be felt more seriously
Ġn these countries. The tourists who gave up to go to these countries probably would prefer to have their vacations in
Turkey. As global warming will not only affect Turkey‘s shores, the countries such as Spain, France, Italy and
Greece which attract more tourists and located almost in same latitudes as Turkey would be affected by temperature
rise negatively. As there are no seas in the Northern parts of these countries just like Black sea in Northern part of
Turkey, the most advantegeous country in the most developped countries in terms of tourism would be Turkey.
Turkey will be in with a chance to catch up with her important rivals in tourism field such as France and Spain.
Different tourism types will appear in Turkey which has a rich tourism potantiality by the effects of global
warming. As long as Turkey could appraise correctly tourism planning and investments the negative effects of the
global warming will be changed into positive effects in terms of tourism and will be in with a chance to obtain larger
share from tourism sector that that of present time.
Conclusion and Suggestions
Turkey is one of the countries in the world having great economy which is rapidly developped. Tourism is
in the leading role in her revenues. Tourism revenues of Turkey which is almost 20 billiards dollars are of
importance in terms of economy. Global warming and climate changes affecting all the world is also important for
Turkey and tourism sector takes its share from the effect. Number of people who participate in tourism activities is
increased in every year. While the number of people who participate in tourism activities is increased thanks to
economical improvements, transportation possibilities and organizations all over the world the tourism cake is also
enlarged accordingly. Countries all over the world compete for attracting more tourists. When planning regarding the
future is made global warming must be taken into consideration.
Turkey is bound to interest any more in the global warming which might affect particularly coastal areas
and winter tourism centers and exert more efforts to make researches regarding the matter by finding the possible
effects and taking necessary measures. It is possible to reduce the negative effects of climate changes and global
warming and to turn disadvantages into advantages in Turkey which has rich tourism possibilities. We can make
following suggestions regarding the matter:
Units have to be set up to research the effects of global warming, changes brought about at sea level, and the
matter of which regions to be under the risks.
Coordination has to be supplied among the Turkish Republic the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, local
administrations and the organizations related to tourism.
Development plans at the coastal areas have to be arranged again and revised according to the effects of
global warming.
Road, tourism facilities and port constructions in the coastal settlements must be performed by taking
consideration of the maximum sea level.
Planning in regard with tourism investments has to be made by taking consideration of global warming in
the future years and its possible effects.
By keeping in sight that Tourism might show a tendency to slide towards the Northern and internal parts of
Turkey the infrastructure of transportation network in these regions must be completed.
By appraising the facts of distorted housing and allowing immigrants in the regions where tourism might be
developped the previous defects and faults should not be repeated and necessary measures should be taken.
Water sources and thermal sources should be used with more attention and wastes in sources should be
prevented by showing regard to the source drought.
Changes in snowfall must be taken into consideration in the investments regarding winter tourism.
References
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(p.29-43).
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Akıncı Kesim, G., Çimen, H., Alatanlar, A. (2007). Ġklim değiĢikliklerinin turizm ve çevre ile etkileĢimi, I. Türkiye Ġklim
DeğiĢikliği Kongresi Bildiriler pdf, (p.462-469).
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Doğanay, H. (2001). Türkiye turizm coğrafyası, Çizgi Bookstore, Konya.
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Epstein, P.R., Mills, E. (2005). Climate change futures, Harvard Medical School.
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Güngördü, E. (1997). Türkiye‘nin turizm coğrafyası, Ankara.
Kadıoğlu, M. (2008). Günümüzden 2100 yılına küresel iklim değiĢimi, TMMOB Ġklim DeğiĢimi Sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı,
(p.25-45).
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Soykan, F. (2003). Kırsal turizm ve Türkiye için önemi, Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, Vol:12, (p.1-11).
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Yıldız, Z. (2009). Küresel ısınma ve alternatif turizme yönelim üzerine etkileri, Vizyoner e-dergi, Vol:1(1), (p.77-91).
http://www.tursab.org.tr/content/turkish/istatistikler/gostergeler(01.04.2010)
578
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Title
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Effects of Global Warming on the Tourism Sector in Turkey
Author
Author
KARA, Hasan
BILGEN, Nurettin
ACAR, Derya
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
One of the most crucial problems in the world is global warming. In recent years mean temperature values are rising and downfall values are indicating substantial deviations as to years and months. Even small changes in climates affect many sectors. The leading sector affected by global warming is tourism sector. Tourism is one of the sectors in Turkey developing in the fastest way. Numbers of tourists visiting Turkey have been increased beginning from 2000 and exceeded 27 millions in 2009. Tourism revenue of Turkey has passed over 16 billions dollar. A large number of different sectors such as transportation, food and construction are connected with tourism. Tourism sector is very interested in temperature rise and prolonging of summer season. In sea tourism it is expected an expansion to west and north regions of Turkey as well as south shores. Extreme summer hot will set off immigration from seaboard to uplands and hinterland as well as increase water and electricity consumptions. Less cold in winter season, delay and decrease of snowfall will affect winter sports centers negatively. In this study positive and negative effects of climate changes caused by global warming on the tourism sector which one of leading sectors in Turkey are discussed.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Local Evaluation and Efficiancy:
an Evaluation for VAN Municipality
BarıĢ KANDEĞER
Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Publica Administration
Ġstanbul University, Ġstanbul, Turkey
kandeger@istanbul.edu.tr
M. Akif ARVAS
Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Economics,
Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey
aarvas@hacettepe.edu.tr
Burak UYAR
Res. Assist.(PhD candidate), Statistics,
Ege University, Ġzmir, Turkey
burak.uyar@ege.edu.tr
Mehmet TEKĠNTAġ
Assistant Professor , Departmant of Business Administration
Gaziantep University, Gaziantep, Turkey
tekinkus@gantep.edu.tr
Abstract: This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the
responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its
importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at
a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the
study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local
governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and
seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a
synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined.
Keywords: Local Government, Local Autonomy, Efficiency, Municipality
Introduction
The local governments have been important in maintaining the progress and change in the historical
process. As a result of the projection of the central government‘s administrative graded ranks, they are able to define
their areas of existence. They have different functions and structures in Unitary and/or Federal State systems. From
this point of view, the local governments are shaped according to the state systems and form their administrative
structures according to the systems. In federal systems, there is a possibility of political and administrative autonomy
of for the local governments, whereas in unitary states the autonomy is in an administrative rather than a political
form. In this respect, the local governments are faced with the problem of autonomy in a unitary and centralist state
mentality. The answer for how and how much autonomy comes into prominence. In this respect, the efficiency and
the close supervision of the central government against the local governments‘ decisions and policies for local
services presents the level of autonomy.
Today, the local governments become significant actors for democracy, the public involvement in
administration and the local improvement. It is a space for the fulfillment of various functions such as the realization
of local services, the shaping of local politics, the organization for civil social movements and the formation of
socio-cultural politics. In this respect, maintaining the share of duty and responsibilities among the local and the
central governments and the use of local initiative would overcome the problem of autonomy.
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In this study, the concept of autonomy will be discussed with different viewpoints. The close relation
between the conceptual definitions of autonomy and the local government will be considered. According to these
explanations, the answers for the questions why the local autonomy is significant and why it is defended by
international organizations will be sought. Presenting the ideas against the dangers of the local governments, the
study will seek to identify the kind of a perception of autonomy that enables the local governments to have a more
functional, efficient and healthy form. Finally, in order to analyze the state of autonomy in municipalities which are
units of the local governments, the state of autonomy in Van Municipality and its functional practice will be
evaluated.
The Concept of Local Autonomy
Almost in every country, in the administrative ranks there is a separation as the central government and the
local government. Its purpose is to define the administrative realms of duty and responsibility and to provide services
in an efficient and productive way. Instead of the idea that favors the withholding of all duties and responsibilities in
the central government and the necessary active role of the state in each service, the idea advocating that the central
government is powerful with the local governments has gained importance. According to Nadaroğlu, ―The central
government fulfills the common needs of the community that lives within the national boundaries; watch for, secure
and represent their general interests. The local governments, on the other side, are defined as the organizations that
fulfills the local needs of the local public, whose overall decision-making bodies are elected by the public and who
are public corporate entities‖(1998:p.15-17). Here the significant points are the necessity of the state to execute its
principal duties through the central government and to define its national and international policies which are
compatible with these duties efficiently and productively while it is vital for the local governments to act in
accordance with the duties and responsibilities that are given to them by law and to fill the public‘s local needs.
According to Tekeli, local governments are defined as ―the institutions that fill the common needs of the individuals
in a local community, provides public goods and services, are administered by the bodies elected by the local public‖
(1983:s.6). In this context, the local governments also define the spheres of the local politics. For these institutions to
fulfill the local services, they should be given the authorization in parallel with their duties and responsibilities and
should be provided with the usable initiative. Its ability to elect its own bodies through local elections, to take local
decisions on its own, to provide financial resources to fulfill its local services and to make its own budget are among
the requirements of its administrative and financial authorities. Along with these concepts that are handled with the
local governments, the concept of autonomy also comes forward.
The concept of autonomy that defines the authority realms of the local governments plays significant roles
in the execution of services and efficient maintenance of the decisions. What is this autonomy? Is this the power and
authority of the local government to self-administer itself and do whatever it yearns to do or the authorities and
responsibilities that are given to it in order to provide local services within the constitutional boundaries. The
question whether it is an overthrow of the sovereignty of the central government or the share of the sovereignty
comes to mind at once. Local autonomy signifies neither the political independence and local sovereignty nor a unit
of the center that is tied to a close supervision and observation. It is a conception of administration that provides the
efficiency and productivity in the local services fulfilled by the local governments. Goldsmith comments on the local
autonomy as ― the situation defined by the local government as having the authority to collect taxes in order to
determine and fulfill the services is also a situation that self-defines the elected autonomies in the administrative
system (1995:p.228-229). The autonomy that can be perceived as the share of service among the central and the local
is the key for the local to produce and present the services. According to KeleĢ, ―Autonomy is the ability of a local
community to handle the local works on its own with its own units and to have the resources that would enable it. At
this point, there are two conceptions of local autonomy. The first one is corporate autonomy of the local government.
As a result of that kind of autonomy, the centre and the local have separate functions and the centre‘s supervision on
the local units is reduced to limited levels. The second group of autonomy is civic autonomy. Among its principal
traits are the determination of the activity realms of the local units by the local organs and the supervision of the local
governments not by the central government but by the people that forms this local community, that is to say by the
public‖(2000: p.49-50).
The corporate autonomy can be perceived as the execution of the local services by the administrative and
financial decisions taken by this local government in accordance with a decentralized administrative conception and
within the constitutional boundaries. The authority for decision making and exercising the decisions taken does not
mean being sole independence for the local governments. The significant point here is the execution of the activities
and operations subject to the local services by means of duty, authority and responsibilities defined within the
constitutional boundaries. The activities and operations peculiar to the local are subject to the supervision of the
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central government within certain bounds and this supervision is only the constitutional supervision and the
supervision of sunbsidiarity. The civic autonomy can be perceived rather as the local elections, the supervision of the
elected and the contribution to the administrative decisions. According to Weber, the idea that ―the necessity of the
local community‘s or the public‘s right to be administered by authorities whose self-administration or elections are
realized with the city dwellers‘ participations‖ supports this condition (2003: p.105). To maintain the participation of
the public in administration and to advance local democracy can be regarded as significant in terms of national
democratic achievements. When we have a look at the progress process of the nations, it is obvious that the existence
of the urban dynamics and the urban identities causes these processes to be healthy. The participation of the public in
the administration and the realization of its own autonomous organization in the medieval cities illustrate the
significance of the concept and identity of the city. For instance, Henry Piren in his study Medieval Cities
emphasizes this role of the city (2006: p.49).
Why Autonomy is Defended?
Civic autonomy emerges as the projection of the activity of providing services with the local governments
that are advanced and maturated in the historical process. In this historical process, providing the local governments
with constitutional status defines its frame of duty and responsibilities and its central-local boundary. In Europe
which is the birthplace of the concept, the local autonomy progresses and interacts along with the democratic state.
The concept of local government which blossoms with the French Revolution, makes progresses with the revolution
movements in 1830, 1848 and 1860 and demonstrates that the local autonomy can find an area of existence in the
axis of the democratic state (Koyuncu,2000:p.98). In this respect, in the countries where democracy blossoms and is
established, the subject of the local governments and autonomy turns into a legal quality and a vital sphere. The
autonomy which qualifies a significant argument in the vital practice of urban area and the attempts for a practice of
efficient subsidiarity can emerge as a dynamic process and can produce politics in this way. The factors such as the
blossoming and establishment of democracy, the local community‘s election of its own organs on its own, the
maintenance of their participation in the decision-making, the subsidiarity of the services and the regulation of the
financial affairs render the autonomy significant.
The autonomy is important since it brings up a form that determines the vital spheres of the local
governments. Today the understanding of providing subsidiarity, the redefinition of the authorities, duties and
responsibilities among the central and the local and the idea that the administrative autonomy of the local
governments should be increased have become important. The central government‘s conception of itself as the
authority in the local subjects leads to difficulties in the fulfillment of services. Over-centralization both leads to
resource dissipation and impedes the efficient and productive execution of services. As a result of the delay in the
bureaucratic procedures, the decision-making in long-terms and the invalid determination of the field of application,
the cost of services increases. The most significant arguments of the proponents of the local governments and
consequently of the autonomy are the release of the local jobs to the locals on the efficient and productive use of
resources and the maintenance of subsidiarity. Another argument of the proponents of the local autonomy is that the
most significant reasons for the overgrowth of bureaucracy are the existence of an over-centralized structure, the
bureaucracy‘s role in the formation of a significant structure for the state‘s execution of power and its effect on the
quality of the services. Actually, in the over-centralized countries, bureaucracy can have a negative function on the
execution of services and their qualities. As a result of the release of certain authorities and duties to the local
governments, not only the efficiency and productivity of the services can be increased and but also over bureaucratic
structure can be avoided and limited.
The local governments that are defined as the schools democracy are the realms where the public
participation in the administration is intense. The local government organs since they are elected by the participation
of the public and are the administrative units closest to the local communities turn into the institutions in which the
democratic values blossom and are established. The public participation, the pluralism principle, the leaders‘ focus
on the solidarity and their responsibilities towards the electorates are the values that emerge with the autonomy.
(Çukurçayır, 2000: p.110). In this respect, participation and democracy while can be an agent in increasing the
quality of the services done by the local governments, also provide the efficiency and productivity of national and
local politics and services.
The maintenance of the public participation in the decisions and policies of the local governments is a
situation that can be realized through the maintenance of the autonomy. The local community that elects its organs
on their own also has the opportunity to supervise these organs more efficiently. The maintenance of the public
participation in the administration brings forth certain advantages. Primarily, the decisions and projects in terms of
the local governments have the qualities to provide the needs of the local. Moreover, not only the constitutional
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supervision but also public supervision on the local governments is obtained. The local autonomy is an
administrative model that emerges by a more efficient and productive execution of the local services. The
monopolization of the authorities and the decision-making by high-level central organs lead to delays in the
execution and hold back the services. At least, the services slowdown and the reflection of the real experts‘ ideas into
the administration and taking right decisions become hard. However, the involvement of the autonomous
institutions‘ representatives in the administration enables the chance for finding useful solutions in terms of national
interests. The local governments that find areas of existence with the purpose of increasing the welfare level and the
quality of services are important actors of local development and progress. As a result of projects and investments
that are formed in accordance with the local potential, the local development is obtained and they can be transformed
into socio-economic power centers. Since the local development can also help national development, it is significant
in displaying the importance of the common projects and politics among the central and the local, as well. Thus, the
local governments while realizing the local development help the central government for national development and
for the avoidance of the regional instabilities.
The national organizations are endeavoring to bring forth universal principals related with autonomy in
order to enable the local governments to produce more efficient services. With these principals, the Congress of the
Council of Europe, under the title of European Charter of Local Self-Government sets standards for the conception
of local government. The European Charter of Local Self-Government which was approved in Turkey in 1991 with
Law 3723 (21 May 1991, Nr.21877) outlines the standards of autonomy of the local governments. This document
primarily gives legal autonomy to the local governments. The third article of the charter on autonomy defines the
right and opportunity of the local authorities to regulate and administer a substantial share of the public affairs within
the frames determined by the laws, under their own responsibilities and in accordance with the benefits of the local
population. According to The European Charter of Local Self-Government ―the principle of the closeness to the
public in services is significant in efficient and productive rendition of the services and making the administrations
more close to the citizens. The rights and authorizations set out on the local governments are principles for becoming
localized and for the maintenance of the active public participation. The rights and authorizations can be directly
used by the councils or the committee meetings that rests on equal and general ballot, that is formed with the
members elected independently by the system of secret ballot and that can have administrative organs that are
responsible to them. This clause, within the limits of the law, does not impede to consult to citizen councils,
referendum and direct participation in the administration.
It is possible to analyze the local autonomy in two dimensions such as the administrative and financial
autonomy. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decision-making of the autonomous institutions
with their own organs. On the other side, the financial autonomy envisages the autonomous institutions to have and
to spend separate assets and income resources (Ulusoy,2007:p.32). The financial autonomy refers to the local
governments holding sufficient income resources for an efficient and healthy execution of services. The insufficiency
of financial resources can play an obstructive role in the maintenance of autonomy since it can bring forth the
problem of nonproducing services along with the reality of financing itself through financial aids given the center.
Because the aids given by the center makes the local dependent on the center at the same time and consequently limit
its own scope. In this respect, it is significant for the local governments to have financial autonomy besides its
administrative autonomy. This principle is necessary for having its own incomes, regulating its own budget and
providing services peculiar to its own locality. In this context, when we have a look at the situation in Turkey, in the
centre-local relations, the supervision of trusteeship and financial dependency are prominent situations. While the
supervision in Europe is done within the frames of the compliance with laws, in Turkey the supervision is handled
both according to compliance with the laws and subsidiarity. This situation makes it difficult for the local to take and
carry out efficient decisions. The definition of the supervision boundaries can expand the scope of the local
governments. The supervision of the centre on the local in administrative and financial affairs should be within the
constitutional boundaries and the supervision should be carried out afterwards. Furthermore, the maintenance of the
items that provides local supervision (public, non-governmental organizations and local council) can also localize the
supervision (Tortop,1996: p.13). As a result of the local governments‘ generation of their own financial resources
their financial dependence on the central administration will be lessened and they maintain a more autonomous
structure. According to Kelly and Freeland, ―the fact that the local governments do not have enough initiative in the
field of local financial autonomy, in having resource, income, lobby, political power and responsibility and the
insufficient income resources explain the reasons for financial centralization‖(2004:p.5-6). The financial autonomy
can also be a result of a conception of efficient and sustainable administration and institutionalized local
organization. In the absence of such a structure, a part of the authorities and resources of the local can pass into the
hands of central government. When the local governments offer services directed to the local within the boundaries
set forth for itself, they have to act according to certain criteria. According to Nadaroğlu ―[T]here are three factors
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significant in considerable and efficient production of public goods and services. These factors are defined as the
quality of the services, the realm of services and the size of population. These factors demonstrate the fact that the
production of of public goods in local levels can be efficiently presented by the local production units (local
administrations). This is because if the population and the technology are regarded as data, it is natural that the local
administration produces a more qualified service in comparison with the central administration with the assumption
of the use of equal factors‖ (1998:p.39-40). In the maintenance of local efficiency, area restriction, the briefness of
decision-making process and the smallness of population scale are the items that increase efficiency. Moreover, the
local governments‘ production and presentation of services in parallel with local needs and appropriate to the locale
scale is significant in the maintenance of efficiency. According to Ulusoy ―public services should be left to the
administration that fulfills the needs of the individuals in the most efficient way. In the presentation of public
services, the economic efficiency is obtained when there is no decline in the costs in the situations of the increase or
decrease of the populations or the regional areas. According to economic efficiency criterion, if the cost per unit
decreases when the goods or services are presented by the administrations that serves to larger populations or
regional areas, the services should be presented by higher levels of administration; and if the administration and
coordination costs increases disproportional to the population and regional area, the services should be presented by
a smaller unit of administration‖ (2007:p.70-71). In this respect, the explicit definition of the central government‘s
service area and the local government‘s service area in the production of goods and services and the share of services
lead to a formation of the concept of efficiency in a positive way. The share of the services among the central and the
local also brings forth a function that decreases the cost of services and increases the quality and efficiency of the
service. For instance while the national security or justice services or general health and education services fall
within service areas peculiar to central government inclusive of national space; the city road construction, the
formation of joint-use in urban areas or the areas of water and sanitary services fall within service areas concerning
the local governments.
When the historical process is analyzed, it is possible to argue that the concept of democracy emerges from
the dynamics of the city. The local democracy that provides subsidiarity can be an agent of the formation of urban
participation culture. The local governments can be regarded as the basic item of democracy. In this respect, the local
governments have the most significant function in the political participation of the people in the cities and the
formation of democracy culture. The people‘s election of their own local administrators through elections and their
ability to supervise the elected administrators are closely related with the idea of democracy.
The local democracy is a necessary fact for the development of the public participation in administrative
decisions and of the relations with the civil society. According to Tortop, ―Local governments are the institutions
whose contributions in the development of the nation, in the establishment of a democratic understanding and in the
realization of the ideal of a clean society are et most. In order to provide this contribution, the central administration
should leave the authorities and duties related with the local services to the local governments‖(1996:p.13). The local
institutions which can be autonomous in their own affairs can take and carry out decisions in a better way. The
maintenance of the public participation in these decisions is seen as a reflection of the democratic culture and urban
participation. The relation between the local governments and democracy reveal not only the fact that the urban
problems and solution agents are ascribed to the people living in the local area but also the development of the habit
of self-administration (Kalabalık,2005:p.112-113). Since the people living in the local area have a voice in the urban
politics, the democratic culture should be developed. The democratic culture can only be possible if the individuals
can efficiently participate in the urban political processes, along with the administrators elected independently by
them. The close ties between the political regimes of the states and democracy also reveal the existence of the local
democracy. Furthermore the transparency of the administrations and the maintenance of the subsidiarity are closely
related with the democratic structure. It is necessary to take into consideration not only the thesis that the society
members who do not have an idea about the organizational structures and functions of the local governments cannot
be expected to have an efficient participation and supervision of the administration but also the reality that the public
awareness of the local governments and that the local governments are the vital spheres of the urban politics and the
democratic culture. (Gilbert,1975:p.108).
The access of the individuals living in the local area to information and the attainability of the
communication tools may increase the participation in decision-making processes. The individuals‘ interest in and
close track of the local politics can make them the actors for the solutions of problems and are significant factors in
the existence of the power for influence and the formation of local participation and the democratic culture
(Çukurçayır,2000:108-109). Consequently, it is possible to state that the local administrative areas are the spaces
where the urban dynamics are realized, the democratic culture and urban participation emerge and the nongovernmental organizations become shareholders in the policies and projects.
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The Ideas against the Dangers of Autonomy
Today, as a result of the political and economic developments in the world, the polities of the states and
their efficiency areas are changed and transformed. The globalization which penetrates the world and the consequent
increase of the capital‘s efficiency areas are also evident in the local structure. The positions of various international
institutions and current ideas against this situation lead to the examination of the state‘s giving more initiatives to the
local, the localizations and consequently the local improvement. In several reports of the World Bank, the
significance of localization is emphasized.
The neo liberalism and the new right wing movements that emerge after 1980, stress the significance of
localization by referring to local autonomy. They point out that with localization comes along regional development,
democratic participation and liberation. Here at this point, the problematic of the unitary structure of the state and of
its sphere of sovereignty become the projection of the criticism of autonomy concept. The criticisms of the autonomy
concept are generally related with the scope of boundaries. They are based on the idea that the empowerment of the
local governments and the increase of localization bring forth the change of some of the concepts that belong to the
center. This structure has the potential to define itself as decentralization. The basic argument of the opponents of the
autonomy is that the globalization starts a process that threatens the central administration and gives sovereignty to
the local and that the international organizations support this circumstance. They argue that as a result of these
organizations‘ transfer of the authorities of the center to the local with the expressions of the regional development,
the democratization and the local political participation, the national resources may become an agent of exploitation
by the international capital and the organizations that are tied to them. The 1999-2000 World Bank report displays
that both the globalization and the localization are inevitable and the future of the states are shaped by to what extent
they can manage these two powers (Güler,2000,p.25-26). As can be perceived in the report, it is necessary for the
nation state to transfer some of its authorities to the local and global capital. The criticism directed towards the
principle of subsidiarity that is introduced by the Council of Europe is based on the localization of the authorities and
the narrowing of the power area of the central administration. The reason why this principle is criticized is that it
would lead to decentralization and provide a wide space of autonomy. The opponents of autonomy outline that the
international capital and organizations, with the purpose of eliminating the administrative trusteeship of the central
on the local and maintaining the power space and liberty of the local, have produced certain concepts (subsidiarity,
decentralization) and consequently in this way strive to gain the control and sovereignty of the local resources and
market.
The idea that favors the restriction on the autonomy aims to limit the local governments‘ liberty to do
whatever they want on their own. In this respect, the center has the power to use some of its agents of supervision
efficiently. It is supported that the center‘s supervision of the local government according to the administrative
trusteeship principle is necessary for a unitary state. Thereby, absolute liberty is prevented and the integrity of the
administration is ensured. Here the crucial point is the necessity of the central administration‘s use of the
administrative trusteeship authority according to a constitutional framework. The use of administrative trusteeship on
the local government and its policies produced in its own boundaries and proper local services and its administrative
decisions can result in an unauthorized assumption of the central on the local. This situation has an impact that harms
the existence of the autonomy. For this reason, the criticisms on the concept of autonomy should be debated from
various viewpoints.
How Autonomy Should Be Used?
The share of authorities and responsibilities among the central administration and the local administrations
in the execution of the public services is an important condition for the contemporary administrations. Within the
constitutional boundaries, the efficient production and presentation of the national public services and the local
services are significant. Over-centralization may lead to disabilities in the presentation of services in the local area
and reduce the efficiency. The liberty of the local to do whatever it wants with an independency on the central can
result in troubles in the integrity of the administration and in the performance of supervision mechanism. From this
point of view, it would be wise to put the authorities and responsibilities among the central and the local into action
in a constitutional background and to give the local government a series of authorities and responsibilities that are
restricted to its own area.
The local governments are required to be provided with some resources and authorities in their production
of services in order to fulfill the local needs. The efficient presentation of the services also reveals itself in parallel
with the formation of the resources and the policies on the local. The insufficiency of the share that is reserved by the
central government from the general budget for the execution of the local services necessitates the local governments
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to form their own resources. The local administrators should have the liberty and the structure to take and execute
their own decisions related with the local. However, this liberty should be limited both by the judicial supervision in
light of the constitutional principles and by the social supervision. The local autonomy becomes important in the
circumstance when the local dynamics find vital support. The autonomy can be a significant agent as a result of the
use of some local values such as the achievement of the public participation in administration, the formation of a
democratic culture, the people‘s election of its own organs, and the local government‘s possession of a budget of its
own. This situation signifies a contribution to the unity and integrity of the vital spaces among the central and the
local.
The autonomy given to the local governments should not have a function or structure that limits the state‘s
sovereignty space. The autonomy should be within the constitutional boundaries, proper to the space of local service
and functional. The activities and conditions that would result in the liberty of the local government to do whatever it
wants with an utter independence from the central government should be restricted by the judicial supervision
according to the constitution. The central government‘s regulations which restrict the space of local governments
such as the supervision of trusteeship and subsidiarity should be eliminated and only the judicial supervision and
local public supervision should be provided. The financial initiative should be given to the local governments to
strengthen their financial opportunities and form their own income resources. Under this circumstance, both the
dependency of the local governments to the central administration in terms of financial resources may be reduced
and the trouble to find resources for the production of the local services may be avoided. Therefore, the local
governments should be autonomous enough to provide the local public with efficient services which are related with
their own service areas and there should be a compatible and unified structure among the center and the local.
The Analzsıs of Van Munıcıpalıtz as a Sample
The municipalities are autonomous administrative units that are required to fulfill the duties given to them
within the judicial boundaries and to execute the local services. This autonomy of the municipalities should be within
administrative and financial autonomy frameworks. The administrative autonomy refers to the independent decisionmaking of the municipality in fulfilling the local needs. In this context, it would be wise to analyze Van Municipality
as a sample within a concrete analysis framework of the autonomous structure of the municipality which is the most
authoritative and significant unit of the local governments. This part aims to illuminate the administrative and
financial autonomy of the municipality in the presentation of local goods and services. Taking into consideration the
reality that the production of services are realized in proportion to the municipality‘s financial resources, it is
necessary to question whether the municipality‘s financial resources are sufficient for the production of services or
not. Therefore, an emphasis on the question whether Van Municipality has trouble in finding financial resource for
fulfilling the public local needs would be a good approach in this study. It is significant to elaborate the question
whether Van Municipality‘s own resources or the shares given from the central administration are sufficient for the
presentation of the services and the realization of the local investments is vital. The roles of incorporation and
privatization in the execution of urban services will be investigated. Moreover, the analysis of to what extent the
public participates in the administration would provide us with the information on urban participation. Van
Municipality serves within its 10.500 hectare borders. Within the municipality‘s areas of service, there are 27
districts. Van Municipality has 7000 hectares of the adjacent area and 10.500 hectares of plan for zoning. According
to the results of 2008 population census, the population of Van is 332.000, and there are 65.000 buildings and 20.200
dwellings. Van Municipality, proper to Permanent Staff principles and essentials, with the Municipal Council‘s
decision numbered 347, dated 09.08.2006, with reorganization in the structure , fulfills its services with 28
administrative staff consisting of 4 Vice-Chairman and 24 Unit Manager. The Municipality staff consists of 326
officers, 657 workers and 32 contracted staff with a sum of 1015 personnel.
Van Municipality executes the local services under the sovereignty of the central government, with its own
incomes and shares given by the central government. It can use a part of the services and authorities proposed by the
municipality law and cannot use much initiative in overcoming the financial resource problems. Other than the share
given by the Bank of Provinces‘ General Budget Income, the most significant income resources for Van
Municipality are, the payments for public utilities, rents, estate tax, the tax on the environmental cleanup (ÇTV),
transportation, zoning fees and other different incomes (pecuniary penalties, tax penalties, several installment sales,
the taxes on the entertainment and advertisement, occupancy charge and several other taxes. The municipality should
fulfill necessary activities in order to find financial resources. For instance, utilities such as water, sanitation, road
construction are fulfilled by the municipality‘s own resources (Van Municipality 5 Year Strategic Planning 20062011). Today, in our country, the local governments (municipalities) in their execution of municipal services can pay
for the costs of services through several agents. They can fulfill these services especially by establishing its own
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firms, privatizing the services, and borrowing money from several national or international organizations. The
services should be provided by the municipality‘s own resources, the share from the central budget, the privatization
of limited services, grant from German Development Bank which is an international organization and a firm of its
own. An analysis of Van Municipality illustrates that the perception of the execution of services rest on the
traditional municipal income which are the share from the central budget and the income items given according to
municipal laws.
Van Municipality‘s income items of the year 2007 are illustrated below. When we have a look at the table, it
is possible to state that the municipality‘s income items are comprised of the traditional municipal incomes. The
Municipality could not perform activities which would strengthen its own financial structure, form its own resource
in the execution of services. In recent years, the formations such as municipal economic enterprise (sale of foodstuffs
directly by a municipality or indirectly through a firm awarded a contract by a municipality, bread factories) has
turned into methods that are frequently used by municipalities for the presentation of cheap and qualified services to
the public. Van Municipality has not introduced such a structure up to now.
BETWEEN THE DATES
01/01/2007- 31/12/2007
TABLE OF BUDGET INCOMES
Account
Code
Economic
Code
800
1
800
2
800
3
800
4
800
5
800
6
The
Percentage of
Realization
(%)
Explanation
Given from
The Budget
Collection
/Payments
Received
TAX INCOME
THE INCOMES OTHER THAN
TAXES
9.350.000,00
7.578.284,59
81%
0
0
0%
CAPITAL REVENUE
ENDOWMENTS
DONATIONS
OTHER INCOMES
COLLECTIONS
CREDITORS
TOTAL
25.546.000,00
18.018.349,48
73%
7.058.000,00
1.900.000,00
27%
53.044.000,00
40.268.018,44
76%
2.000,00
0
95.000.000,00
67.764.652,51
AND
FROM
71%
Table 1: 2007 Table of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
The Municipality unable to find a way for the formation of income falls to 71 % in the realization
percentage of the 2007 income budget. The reasons for the desired income realization are the socio-economic
situation of the region and the low level of public wealth. For this reason, the attempt raising incomes would be
essential. Therefore, the efficient and productive execution of the services is closely related with the sufficiency of
the financial resources. The low percentage of collections in the municipal tax income, and the limited income items
are among the negative influences. In this context, the formation of new income items would provide betterment in
both for the quality and proportion of the services and for the financial resources.
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Graphic 1: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity
Report).
Graphic 2: 2007 Distribution of Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
Graphic 3: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Income (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
BETWEEN THE DATES 01/01/2007-31/12/2007
TABLE OF BUDGET COST
The Percentage
of
Realization (%)
Eco.
Co.
Explanation
Given from
The Budget
Collection
/Payments
Received
1
2
PERSONNEL EXPENSES
STATE PREMIUM COSTS
TO
SOCIAL
SECURITY
INSTITUTIONS
GOODS AND SERVICES
SALE COSTS
INTEREST EXPENSES
CURRENT TRANSFERS
FINANCIAL EXPENSES
CAPITAL TRANSFERS
BACKUP ALLOCATION
TOTAL
28.010.000,00
5.317.000,00
27.245.604,0
4.639.610,68
97,27%
87,26%
25.728.321,46
23.669.663,0
92,00%
5.779.599,66
4.287.500,00
14.273.434,00
8.841.250,00
5.831.403,00
98.068.508,1
5.601.000,00
1.761.022,03
1.965.569,37
8.010.000,00
5.831.403,00
78.723.872,1
96,91%
41,07%
13,77%
90,60%
100,00%
80,27%
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 2 : 2007 Table of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
Graphic 4: The 2007 Realization Percentage of the estimated Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
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Graphic 5: 2007 Distribution of Budget Cost (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report)
Graphic 6: 2007 Distribution of Spent Budget Expenditure (2007 Van Municipality Activity Report).
When we look at the budget expenditures the estimation fort he expenditures for 2007 has been eventualized
in a ratio of 80,27. When we look at the costs, the personnell expenditures and the purchase costs are the major ones.
Although the equality between the expenditures and the income is important the qualitative and quantitative
evaluation of the services are important as well.
As a wide perspective, in order to reduce the cleaning expenditures and provide an efficient public service
the municipality has privatised the cleaning services. Another privatised service is the urban transportation. By
tender bidding the urban transportation to the private enterprise the municipality has set up a foundation for rising the
public service standards and decreasing the expenditures. In a competitive market the urban transportation has been
privatised, and an effective and cheap service is planned to be provided via the private enterprise (Activity report of
Van Municipality, 2007).The municipality is supplying the environment monitoring with the help of Mavi Kent C.O.
which was built under the authority of the municipality itself. This company is working out to provide some of the
services with the help of the concrete-works staff and fullfilling the needs of the municipality such as materials.For
example, by producing and procuring the stone materials, the company is corresponding the needs of the
municipality.Especially in the districts where the basic facilities were set up, and the sewage and potable water
services are completed; with the help of this company, approximately 56 km of road planning, stabilization and
grading service was fullfilled and opened to public service. Moreover; constructing the pavement, median-strip
bridges and blacktopping the roads are fullfilled with a co-operation of the municipality and the Mavi Kent C.O., as
well. Nowadays, the municipalities can carry out and supply the services with the help of the companies which are
set up under the authority of the municipalities. Mavi Kent C.O. is such a company which was formed under the
constitution of Van Municipality with the regulations mentioned above.
With the influence of the new right-wing and neo-liberal movements the municipalities can hold
collaborations with international institutionsand vast investments can be made by using the financial and technical
aids which are given by these international institutions. The agreement made between the German development bank
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
(KFW) and the municipality covers the financing of some of the massive main facilities of the city. This donated
money is used in the investments to the basic facilities.(Türkçesi çok bozuk tümce) Since there is a serious financial
resource challenge arising from the increasing local service areas and service components; in order to present a
better, effective and efficient service it is best for municipalities to use the loaning, privatization, creating new
income instruments and applying to concerns - and this will reduce the financial dependence to the central authority.
Thereby, the municipality will serve effectively as an autonomous constitution.
Conclusion
Within the developing and changing principles of administration and under the principle of "localization in
services and subsidiarity" the local authorities should independently and freely take their decisions on the subjects
under their jurisdiction and can produce local policies. The local authorities should be in an autonomous construction
in order to fulfil these functions. The autonomy has a function as forming a safe habitat and private province, and
increasing the movibility in the radius of action for the local authorities. The local authorities which form the
democratic cultural areas that the municipal dynamics and the attendance of the public to the administration arise,
must have the needed resources and materials. Under the strict monitoring of the central authorities, the local
authorities can confront the problem of under-servicing or not using the local initiative. In the cases where this
monitoring is hold under the constitutional law and public itself, the movibility and effectiveness of the local
authority will increase and the presentation of the services will be more efficient. It would be better to evaluate the
affirmative and negative opinions on local autonomy in the reasonable limits, and constructing a local autonomy
form with the help of constitutional laws. On the other hand, under the view of localization in services, local services
should be taken in the frame of spatial proximity. This administration form which lets the public to attend to the
administration, which leads the diversification of democratic culture and civil movements will surely serve as a
significant function in the usage and application of policies in a more efficivent and effective way. As it is seen in the
Van Municipality, the municipalities which are totally dependent to the central authority in the areas of creating
finance and resources, the problems arise. In order to cope with the problems, some techniques such as creating new
income components, constructing new economic enterprises or privatization of some services are used.
References
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Güler, A. Birgül, ―Yerel Yönetimleri Güçlendirmek mi? Adem-i Merkeziyetçilik mi?‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, Cilt:9,
Sayı:2, TODAĠE Yayınları, 2000,Ankara.
Çukurçayır, M.Akif, Siyasal Katılma ve Yerel Demokrasi, Yargı Yayınevi, 2000, Ankara.
Doğan, M.Emin, ―Belediyelerin Denetimi‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayınları, 1996, Ankara.
Gilbert, William H., Public Relations in Local Government, Ġnstitute for Training in Municipal Administration by the
Ġnternational City Management Ad., Washington.1975
Goldsmith M.,
London,1995.
―Autonomy and City
Limits‖, Theories of Urban Politics, (edit)D. Judge-G.stoker-H. Wolman, sage,
Kalabalık, Halil, Yerel Yönetim Hukuku, Seçkin Yayınları,2005, Ankara.
KeleĢ, RuĢen, Yerinden Yönetim ve Siyaset, Cem Yayınevi, 2000, Ġstanbul.
Kelly, Janet M., PatriciaFreeland K., ―LocalGovernment Fiscal Autonomy: The Threat of Fiscal Centralization‖, www.fsu.edu.//statepol/conference/2004/papers/kelly-singer.doc
Nadaroğlu, Halil, Mahalli Ġdareler, Beta yayınları, 1998, Ġstanbul
Pirenne, Henry, Orta Çağ Kentleri (Çev.: ġadan Karadeniz), ĠletiĢim yayınları, 2006, Ġstanbul.
Reyhan, Cenk, ―Türkiye‘de Yüzyıllık Gündem: Federalizm‖, Memleket Siyaset Yönetim Dergisi, Cilt:2, Sayı:5, Memleket
yayınları,2007,Ankara.
397
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Tekeli, Ġlhan, ―Yerel Yönetimlerde Demokrasi ve Türkiye‘de Belediyelerin GeliĢimi‖, Amme Ġdaresi Dergisi, Cilt:6, Sayı:2,
TODAĠE Yayınları, 1983, Ankara.
Tortop, Nuri, ―Yerel Yönetimler ve Mali özerklik‖, ÇağdaĢ Yerel Yönetimler Dergisi, TODAĠE Yayını, Cilt:5, Sayı:5, Ankara,
Ulusoy, Ahmet, Mahalli Ġdareler, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2007,Ankara.
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Van Municipality; 2007 Annual Activity Report.
Van Municipality; 5 Year Strategic Planning 2006-2011
398
�
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211
Title
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Local Evaluation and Efficiancy: an Evaluation for VAN Municipality
Author
Author
KANDEĞER, Barış
ARVAS, M. Akif
UYAR, Burak
TEKİNTAŞ, Mehmet
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
This paper aims to define the concept of local autonomy in terms of the duty and the responsibilities between the central governments and the local governments, to present its importance and disadvantages and to determine what kind of a situation its practical application at a micro level for Turkey would create through an analysis of Van municipality. In this context, the study investigates the concept of the local autonomy in comparison with the European local governments‘ condition of autonomy, then evaluates it in terms of proponents and opponents and seeks an answer for what kind of an autonomy approach should be adopted. As a result, a synthesis of Van Municipality in terms of the local autonomy is determined.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e21fc09b718fa05b0d6463c492372a94.pdf
280a7953b7e1d66d8b87a96d0d7bd095
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development
Tuğrul KANDEMĠR
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
Afyon Kocatepe University
Turkey
kandemir@aku.edu.tr
Mehmet Emre GÖRGÜLÜ
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences
Afyon Kocatepe University
Turkey
egorgulu@aku.edu.tr
Abstract: For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to
adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development.
Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well
understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of
reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the
most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing
and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively.
Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of
resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As
effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy
economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper
promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives
of energy economics and sustainable development.
Keywords: Energy Economics, Sustainable Development, Effective use of Energy
Resources.
Energy Economics
For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy
resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. In this direction, most broadly,
energy economics is the field that deals with efficient usage of the energy resources. As Sweeney states (2001,
pp. 3-4), according to the energy economics standpoint, energy is neither created nor destroyed (except through
nuclear reactions) but energy can be transformed among its various forms. Moreover, energy comes from the
nature and ultimately is released back into the nature. Therefore, in Sweeney‘s own words (Sweeney, 2001, pp.
4-5) ―energy economics is the field of human activities using energy resources from naturally available forms,
through often complex conversion processes, to forms providing energy services‖.
Fossil fuels occupy a remarkable place in the energy economics field. Prior to the 1970s, particularly the
oil market worked unilaterally to the benefit of some major Northern oil companies. Seven large oil companies
known as the ―Seven Sisters‖ dominated the world oil market. The oil-producing countries, especially those in
the Middle East, should have been the rightful owners of their oil resources, but instead they found themselves
almost entirely dependent upon the ―Seven Sisters‖ for the revenues from their oil resources. This dependency
stemmed from the fact that none of those oil-producing countries had the necessary skills, technology or
marketing abilities to turn their resources into cash (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993; Van Suntum, 2005).
In the 1970s, however, the ownership rights of oil began to relay. Political situation in oil-producing
areas of the world gave rise to a boost of economic power of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC). In 1973, as a response to US and other Western support to Israel in Yom Kippur War against Egypt, the
Arab members of OPEC cut oil production in remarkable portions and announced an embargo on oil deliveries
to those countries. As a result of those actions, in a market with tight supply conditions namely tight worldwide
oil production capacity, it was inevitable to face with sharp increases in the world price of oil. This was a major
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indication of relaying ownership rights of oil in favor of oil-producing countries (Lairson and Skidmore, 1993;
Van Suntum, 2005).
It was 1973 Oil Crisis that marked a milestone in the pages of the history. It was that date the economic
system as we know today has been founded. The 1973 crisis was a major cause of the end of the previous
economic system of Bretton Woods. It changed the level of world price of oil and the prices remained in high
levels well after the crisis. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources and therefore,
energy economics has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the
undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the
most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed
world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. After this first crisis, particularly US had
realized how dependent she was to the imported oil. Then US decided to carry out policies to lessen the effects
of this dependency (Sweeney, 2001). Accordingly US approached to Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as a new
strategic partner. The importance of this act solely lies in the fact that Saudi Arabia is one of the co-founders of
OPEC and is the largest oil exporter. This partnership with Saudi Arabia led US to secure its oil importing future
free from any other embargos - at least not from Saudi Arabia, given that Saudi oil reserves would have met US
oil demands at that time. These developments after the first oil crisis are very crucial to understand the role the
energy economics played in shaping the new world order.
Today, energy economics is somehow underlies nearly every international political issue. Even though
those issues would seem to be political at the first glance, the energy needs are the motivating factor for almost
all of them. The First Iraq War (The Gulf War) and the ensuing Iraq invasion by US and the dangerous political
game that US plays with Iran nowadays are all point out the fact that depicted above. Even though the fight for
energy resources left its mark on the last century, it has been sharply intensified in the latest decades. As shown
in Figure 1 below world total energy consumption has continued to rise in the last three decades. Moreover fossil
fuels‘ share in world total energy consumption remains at top for the same period and gives us the strong
indication that they will remain as the primary energy resource for the next century. If world‘s energy demand
will continue to rise as it did in the last century - last three decades in particular - then this is going to be a clear
indication of increasing importance of energy economics field. Thus, Figure 1 particularly suggests that energy
economics gains importance within last three decades.
Figure 1 - World Energy Consumption Between 1980-2006
500
Petroleum
Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu)
450
400
Natural Gas
350
Coal
300
250
Hydro
200
Nuclear
150
100
Geothermal, Solar,
Wind, Wood and
Waste
50
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
19
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
Total Energy
19
82
19
80
0
Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006
In addition, energy economics is also related with the levels of development of the countries. As the
level of development of a country increases, her energy need will also increase accordingly. Figure 2 below
shows world energy consumption by regions. We can observe from the figure that in relatively more developed
regions such as North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania the energy demand is far more beyond than the need
of relatively less developed - or developing – regions such as Africa or the Middle East.
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Figure 2 - World Energy Consumption by Regions Between 1980-2006
180
North America
Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu)
160
Central and South
America
140
120
Europe
100
80
Eurasia (Eastern
Europe & Former
Soviet Union)
60
Middle East
40
Africa
20
Asia & Oceania
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
19
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
19
84
19
82
19
80
0
Source: EIA 2008, International Energy Annual 2006
Therefore, the effective use of energy economics whets developed countries‘ appetite on one hand, and
on the other hand, is of vital importance for developing countries in the long road of development. The new
technologies that developed for seeking new fossil fuel reserves, efforts to make existing resources more
efficient and investments in alternative energy resources are all indicators that shows us how dynamic the energy
economics field is. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run,
energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development.
Sustainable Development Perspective
United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development in their famous Brundtland
Report (1987, p. 43) defines sustainable development as follows: ―Sustainable Development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs‖.
In line with this definition sustainable development implies the effective use of finite resources aiming at
development not just for present but also for future generations.
Contrary to general conception, major part of the energy economics field particularly concerned with
fossil fuels or nuclear energy, when proposes procedures to improve the efficiency of their usage in a cleaner and
safer way, can make a remarkable contribution to sustainable development field.
As the countries continue to develop, their energy needs tend to increase directly proportional to their
level of development and to their population. World‘s total energy need is depicted below in Figure 3. According
to International Energy Outlook 2009 projections (EIA, 2009), world‘s energy demand will increase
substantially in the near future. However, as our primary energy resources are limited, how we will meet these
energy needs is a question of effective usage of energy economics in a sustainable development perspective.
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Figure 3 - World Total Energy Consumption Realized (1980-2006) & Projections (2007-2030)
Quadrillion (1015) British Thermal Units (Btu)
800
700
678
637
600
596
552
508
500
472
400
398
348
300
283
366
308
200
100
0
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2006
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
World Total
Source: EIA 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009
At this point, with the help of Table 1 and Table 2 below, we can have an idea about the remaining
lifetime of our primary fossil fuels, oil and natural gas respectively. If we keep our present levels of oil
production also in the future, then we can observe from Table 1 that on average remaining oil reserve lifetime
will be around 58 years.
Table 1: World's Top 15 Oil Reserves
Countries
Oil - Proved reserves Oil
Production Oil
Production Reserve Life in
bbl (2009 est.)
bbl/day (2008 est.) bbl annual
Years*
Saudi Arabia
Canada
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Venezuela
United Arab Emirates
Russia
Libya
Nigeria
Kazakhstan
United States
China
Qatar
Brazil
Total
266,700,000,000
178,100,000,000
137,600,000,000
115,000,000,000
101,500,000,000
99,380,000,000
97,800,000,000
79,000,000,000
43,660,000,000
36,220,000,000
30,000,000,000
21,320,000,000
15,550,000,000
15,210,000,000
12,620,000,000
1,249,660,000,000
10,780,000
3,350,000
3,707,000
2,420,000
2,274,000
2,643,000
3,046,000
9,810,000
1,875,000
2,169,000
1,528,000
8,514,000
3,795,000
797,000
2,422,000
59,130,000
3,934,700,000
1,222,750,000
1,353,055,000
883,300,000
830,010,000
964,695,000
1,111,790,000
3,580,650,000
684,375,000
791,685,000
557,720,000
3,107,610,000
1,385,175,000
290,905,000
884,030,000
21,582,450,000
68
146
102
130
122
103
88
22
64
46
54
7
11
52
14
58
* Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that
production remains constant.
Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010).
With same conditions in effect 62 years will be the approximate reserve lifetime for natural gas as
shown in Table 2. Thus, keeping present levels of energy production from limited resources becomes more
difficult each day. Consequently, more efficient, alternative solutions are urgently needed in the field of energy
economics.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Table 2: World's Top 20 Natural Gas Reserves
Countries
Natural Gas - Proved Reserves Natural Gas Production Reserve
cubic meters (2009 est.)
cubic meters (2008 est.)
Years*
Russia
Iran
Qatar
Turkmenistan
Saudi Arabia
United States
United Arab Emirates
Nigeria
Venezuela
Algeria
EU
Iraq
Indonesia
China
Kazakhstan
Malaysia
Norway
Egypt
Uzbekistan
Canada
Total
43,300,000,000,000
29,610,000,000,000
25,260,000,000,000
7,940,000,000,000
7,319,000,000,000
6,731,000,000,000
6,071,000,000,000
5,215,000,000,000
4,840,000,000,000
4,502,000,000,000
3,605,000,000,000
3,170,000,000,000
3,001,000,000,000
2,460,000,000,000
2,407,000,000,000
2,350,000,000,000
2,313,000,000,000
2,190,000,000,000
1,841,000,000,000
1,640,000,000,000
165,765,000,000,000
662,200,000,000
116,300,000,000
76,980,000,000
34,000,000,000
80,440,000,000
582,200,000,000
50,240,000,000
32,820,000,000
24,010,000,000
86,500,000,000
286,590,000,000
1,880,000,000
70,000,000,000
76,100,000,000
35,610,000,000
57,300,000,000
99,200,000,000
62,700,000,000
67,600,000,000
170,900,000,000
2,673,570,000,000
Life
in
65
255
328
234
91
12
121
159
202
52
13
1686
43
32
68
41
23
35
27
10
62
* Proved Reserves / Annual Production ratio gives the estimated remaining reserve lifetime, given that
production remains constant.
Source: All values have been taken from CIA, the World Factbook (2010).
In this context the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among nations, within nations and
most importantly among generations arises. If we leave the first two to international and domestic politics, then
sustainable development is the field to deal with the problem of fair allocation of energy resources among
generations. As Van Suntum (2005, p.133) indicates from a sustainable development standpoint, it should be
expected that all future generations should have the opportunity to access the energy resources that we use today.
But fair allocation of a depletable energy resource among generations is not easy as it sounds. Since depletable
energy resources - let say oil - are limited, even if the present generation consumes a little oil, it will nevertheless
consume some share of the future generation. Thus, Van Suntum (2005, p. 133) argues that only optimal
consumption of oil for the present generation to achieve sustainable development would be zero. However, he
also adds, zero-consumption would not generate any benefit for any generation. Therefore, as a theoretical
answer to the sustainable development question we can rule out the solutions based on absolute re-allocation of
energy resources among generations. Instead the solution lies in either promoting the usage of alternative nondepletable energy resources or making the usage of existing fossil fuels more efficient.
Making “It” More Efficient
The problem with alternative clean energy resources is that they are either too expensive or inefficient.
However, making widely used fossil fuel based energy resources much cleaner and improving safety regulations
on nuclear energy usage would definitely yield far more efficient results in energy economics.
Moreover, most processes of production and consumption of energy cost environmental damages.
Among those damages, most widely known and most notable one is the combustion of fossil fuels which causes
the release of greenhouse gases - in particular carbon dioxide - into the air. However, those environmental costs
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
are generally not reflected to the prices of energy consumption which in return generates unconscious
consumption of energy (Sweeney, 2001). As Sweeney suggests (2001, pp. 20-21), one solution could be
assigning monetary values of those costs and therefore, limit the unconscious consumption of energy.
From a sustainable development standpoint, as Bertel and Morrison (2001) state nuclear energy - as it
embodies long term commitments from decision makers - could also offer an attractive alternative way to
approach efficiently to energy economics field. Although investments on nuclear energy is expensive, once
ready to use they have low input and operating costs, which will enable them to amortize their initial investment
- generally more than two decades (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 14). According to Bertel and Morrison (2001,
p. 14), the technical lifetimes of nuclear plants can reach more than 60 years which is in fact in line with
sustainable development perspective of decision makers. Moreover, production of nuclear energy process needs
limited amounts of resources due to effective energy output of nuclear energy. Natural resources that are inputs
for the production of nuclear energy process - mainly uranium and thorium - are relatively cost efficient, easily
accessible and are generally only able to be used in the process of nuclear energy production. Easy access to
those resources and the opportunity to store nuclear energy for years enable us to overcome any potential supply
shortages in the near future. In addition, retrieval of energy from those resources - otherwise would be useless would entail decline in the demand for other energy resources that could inherent environmental damages and
thus, contribute more to sustainable development (Bertel and Morrison, 2001, p. 15).
Cogeneration process, on the other hand, can offer an effective way in energy use. In this process,
energy production is focused on simultaneously generate both thermal and electrical energy. The major
advantage of this process is that less input energy is needed to produce the same energy levels than in separate
processes (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). Additionally, by using less energy this process releases less waste to the nature,
which makes it more economical and safe (Rosen, 1996, p. 24). In his case study for Ontario, Canada, Rosen
(1996, pp. 24-26) finds evidence to support the energy efficiency of cogeneration process. He concluded that by
using cogeneration in Ontario, Canada, energy-utilization efficiency levels have increased more than they do in
independent processes. Due to cogeneration process, energy requirements to satisfy energy demands in the
province in question have significantly reduced and thus environmental emissions have reduced accordingly
(Rosen, 2001, p. 25).
Another viable option to use energy resources can be found in producing energy from coal waste. Prior
to this process, coal waste had no value and was stored in the coal mines as piles. High levels of sulfur are
inherent in these piles, thus when these piles come into contact with water, they generate acid rains. Today
technological advancements allow us to burn this coal waste without creating acid rains or any other
environmental damages and generate electrical energy.
To sum up, in the long road of attaining sustainable development, using alternative and cleaner ways to
produce and consume fossil fuels and applying nuclear energy with improved safety regulations and skilled labor
force would be valuable assets. Additionally, sound governmental institutions that will back up the efficient
energy economics policies in the long-run and altruistic politicians that will not decide policies based on whether
or not they will be re-elected in the next term, would be remarkably important to achieve sustainable
development.
References
Bertel, E., and R. Morrison, (2001), Nuclear Energy Economics in a Sustainable Development Perspective, NEA News, No.
19:1, pp.14-17.
CIA, the World Factbook, the online Factbook, (2010),
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/rankorderguide.html (accessed: May 09, 2010).
Lairson, T. D., and D. Skidmore, (1993), International Political Economy - The Struggle for Power and Wealth, Harcourt
Brace Collage Publishers.
Rosen, M., (1996), Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Development, IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, Winter
1996/1997, pp.21-28.
Sweeney, J. L., (2001), Economics of Energy, International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 4.9,
Article: 48.
United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development, (1987), Our Common Future (The Brundtlund
Report) Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008, International Energy Annual 2006,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/iea/wecbtu.html (accessed: May 09, 2010).
290
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2009, International Energy Outlook 2009,
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/index.html (accessed: May 09, 2010).
Van Suntum, U., (2005), The Invisible Hand Economic Thought Yesterday and Today, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
291
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182
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The Role of Energy Economics in Sustainable Development
Author
Author
KANDEMİR, Tuğrul
GÖRGÜLÜ, Mehmet Emre
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
For a growing country, the most needed stimulus is energy. Without any access to adequate energy resources it is hard for a growing country to sustain economic development. Especially after the 1973 Oil Crisis, the importance of energy resources has been well understood. Most of the developed countries took measures to avoid the undesirable effects of reliance on these energy resources since then. This page of the history has contributed the most to the evolution of the modern day energy economics field. Thenceforth the developing and the developed world rang the changes to manage their energy policies effectively. Sustainable development on the other hand - most broadly - implies the effective use of resources aiming at development not just for present but also for future generations. As effective managing of the energy policy would entail reaping benefits in the long run, energy economics becomes a field with crucial role in sustainable development. Therefore, this paper promotes the effective use of energy resources for a growing country from both perspectives of energy economics and sustainable development.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Outside the Homeland of the Turks Economic Potential of The Diaspora
Adem KALÇA
Associate Professor, Karadeniz Technical University,Trabzon,TURKEY
akalca@ktu.edu.tr
Atakan DURMAZ
Research Assistant, Bayburt University,Bayburt,TURKEY
adurmaz@bayburt.edu.tr
Abstract: Ethno-national diasporas occur from the homeland to one or a few countrıes that
accept guests mandatory or voluntary migration. These type of groups stay in the country
permanently. Diaspora is an ethnic unity that was created by people migrated by force or
voluntarily from the same ethnic origin of individuals in one or more countries to protect their
personal rights ts and to avoid losing their own identity. Diasporas, which were created for this
purpose at first, have become effective even in the administration of the country where they
exist, especially by gaining economic power. In the beginning of the purposes of the
diasporas, it comes not to lose their own identity and to secure them to get a regular
relationships with their home countries no matter where they live and no matter which country
they belong to. The possibility of foreign investment presented with this bond is so important
that it functions a lot in the development of the country. The possibility of foreign capital
which is offered by diaspoara is an important action in the development of home countries.
Countries have used the economic power of the diasporas with different instruments,and the
most common instrument is the diaspora debenture. Dispoara bond is a debenture which is
giyen to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company to increase funding from the
diaspora abroad. It is an important source for the developing countries that various diasporas
of countries whose citizenship they accepted and their financial situations increases quickly. If
the flow of forein currency claims to set diaspora income in a way of regular basis, the
interests of the bond issues that from the hard money(currency) is a way to raise capital
abroad. Up to this day, Israel and India have reached 35-40 billion dollars by bringing these
bonds out. In this context, when the situation in Turkey is examined, especially Europe and
European Union countries must be taken into consideration primarily. Today, in European
Union countries, approximately 4.2 million Turkish citizens are living; it is nearly 5.7 million
with the new countries participating in the European Union. Annual per capita GDP of this
population is approximately 19.700 Euros. In addition, 80.7 billion Euros in 2006, Turkish
people contributed EU GDP 80.7 billion euros. In European Union countries in 2006, there
were 101,000 Turkish entrepreneurs with Turkish origins who had invested 10.9 billion euros;
they had 43.9 billion euros giro and provided employment for 474,000 people. Taking this
data and the coming footsteps of successful examples of Turkish Diaspora in Turkey into
account, we can create a growing economy and political power to be able to make signifıcant
contributions. The aim of the article which was prepared from the movement of the thesis is
to show that one of the instruments which can be used in supplying the foreign capital is the
power of diaspora. When the diasporas of Israel and India are taken into consideration,
emphasizing especially on that economical diasporas have an important place is the
demonstration of the power of Turks who act like a diaspora and live in Europe.
Keywords: Diaspora, diaspora bond, foreign capital, nationalism
Introduction
At the present time when the wa11s collapsed, when boundaries gradually disappeared, when the
protection with custom walls are replaced in free trade, and when the world became a global village step by step,
the next one is mobilization of capital in the entegration process starting with the mobilization of goods and
services and with the ongoing mobilization of labor. The governments and private sector members which are not
satisfied with the markets in their own borders have turned their eyes to the world market. While exporting
goods and services are the main goal of foreign trade, importing foreign capital was also added to this goal.
However, nowadays when even human is having difficulties in trusting his closest ones, it is not that easy to
import this foreign capital . In such a situation, one of the biggest alternative of the countries is the investors who
live abroad and who are from the same race. The nationalist movements which was born in 1789 with the French
Revolution is used for different purposes by various countries. The purpose of using this in 21st century, on the
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other hand, is the same: to provide foreign capital in the development of the country. So how? Now, with this
question, the concept of diaspora has appeared.
Diaspora; Ancient Grek: διαζπορά – that means ―scattering, broadcasting, scattering particles (Bergsten,
Choin, 2003). In the political literature: it is the name which is given to the spread of a folk or a nation from their
homelands to other countries.
In the present time when countries are running after foreign capital to finance their development and
growth, countries with a high economic power of diaspora have kept one step ahead of other countries.
The purpose of this article is to present the economic power of the Turkish diaspora in Europe and the
contribution to Turkish economy by considreing the contribution of Israel and the Indian diaspora to these
countries.
The Concept of Diaspora
Ethno-national diasporas occur as a result of mandatory or voluntary migration from homeland to one or
a few countries which welcome guests. This type of groups stay in the country permanently. Over the years,
scientists have tried to reduce that broad concept to a more special definition. Social scientists who study on
diaspora today use the concept of diaspora as synonymous of ―Overseas‖, ―ethnic‖, ―exile,‖ ―Minority,‖
―refugee,‘ ―immigrant,‖ expatriate ― etc (Ketkar, Ratha, 2007).
In 21st century, like many other concepts, the concept of diaspora has been so closely linked with
economy that it cannot be considered as just politically. In a strong position in America, the Jewish Diaspora has
a major impact on the U.S. government undoubtedly because of its largest share in the American economy.
The countries in homeland are now trying to enter into a closer relationship with diaspora. Especially in
the 21st Century Economies when foreign investment has come to a very important position, investments
provided from diaspora have come into prominence.
As the forerunners, Israel and Indian did, many countries are now trying to provide the inflow of capital
from diasporas by using different methods. Especially India and Israel have increased their growing trend with
this capital they provided.
In the following section, the methods Israel and India have used to support the inflow of capital and
their success will be reviewed.
Diaspora Bonds, Israel and India Case
Diaspora bond is a debenture which is given to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company
to increase funding from the diaspora abroad (Ketkar and Ratha, 2007).
Various diasporas who accepted the citizenship of the countries where they live and the rapid rise of
their economic situation are both important financial resources and a kind of honor for developing countries. If
foreign exchange/currency demand claims on a regular basis diaspora income, diaspora is a way of securing
foreign capital in your country and to export the interests of the bond thanks to hard currency.
Diaspora bonds are not still widely used as an instrument of financial development. As mentioned
above, Israel, as of 1951, and India, as of 1991, have noted to increase strong currency finance from its own
diaspora. Bonds which were issued by Development Corporation for Israel (DCI) formalized and Israel has
secured foreign currency resources in a total of more than 25 billion dollars till today. The amount of bonds
which issued by Government-Owned State Bank of India (SBI) is today over 11 billion dollars.
Diaspora bonds are different from foreign currency deposits (FCDs) which many developing countries
uses to ensure the flow of currencies. Diasaora bonds are long-term bond guarantees (valuable paper) that are
typically paid back only over due date. However, FCDs, vice versa, can be withdrawn back at any time.
Certainly, this is valid for demand and saving deposits. Moreover, deposits can be withdrawn at any time by
giving up a portion of accrued interest. FCD is also tend to be more volatile (short term), so banks are required to
keep reserve in exchange for FCD commitments (debts). Thus, their likelihood of a fund investment (into
investment) is reduced. In contrast, diaspora bonds are long-term foreign financing sources. Therefore, income
of these bonds can be used to finance the investment (Ketkar and Ratha, 2007).
Buying the bonds issued by Development Corporation for Israel (DCI), the Jewish diaspora in United
States contributed to the economic development of Israel. DCI was established in 1951 with a public aim to
increase foreign currency sources of Israel through exportation of the bonds which cannot be endorsed. Israel
sees these financial intermediaries as an important instrument to continue the ties with the Jewish diaspora as
well as a constant foreign source in the cross sea countries. Diaspora can be also evaluated as a source of credit
especially when a country experiences debt distress from other extemal sources. We see time and amount
flexibility in bonds issued by DCI. DCI bonds are repaid at date of maturity and any kind of demand is not seen
before the date of maturity. Moreover, 200 million dollar of the expired bonds has not been demanded.
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In 1951, the Israeli Knesset passed a law authorizing the floatation of the country‘s first diaspora bond issue
which is also known as the Israel's Independent Export Issue. Since the beginning of the program, the export
volume of these bonds has reached to 25 billion dollars. In May 1951, David Ben-Gurion, the first president of
Israel, officially launched the the sales of diaspora bonds of Israel in with a rally New York, USA and then to
support the sales of the diaspora bonds, he traveled to many countries especially where Jewish Diaspora exists.
This effort was so successful that Israel raised $52.6 million in its bond sales. In September 2005, DCI bonds,
composed roughly 32% of the Israel's external debt of $ 31.4 billion (Romano 1998).
1800
$ million
1.569
1400
962
1.000
1.145
924
872
785
1998
1999
2000
1000
1.310
600
0
1996
1997
2001
2002
2003
(Development Finance via Diaspora Bond)
Table 1: Israel‘s Total Diaspora Bond
In the early 1970s, all DCI bonds were the 10-15 year term fixed rate bonds. In the mid-1970s, DCI
aimed to introduce the exports of diaspora bonds to small banks and financial companies in the United States by
issuing 10, 7 and 5 year notes in denominations of $150,000, $250,000 and $1,000,000 at prime-based rates. In
the following years, DCI changed its policy and chose to target Jewish Communities again rather than banks or
companies. DCI sold its floating interest rates of bonds between 1980 and 1999. The minimum amount on
floating rate bonds was set at $25,000 in l980 and reduced to $5,000 in December 1986. The maturity terms on
these bonds were set at 10 to 12 years and the interest rate was calculated on the basis of the prime rate. Of the
total DCI bond sales of $1.6 billion in 2003, fixed rate bonds comprised 89.5 percent, floating rate bonds 2.9
percent and notes 7.6 percent (Ketkar and Ratha, 2006).
Instead of commercial/investment banks or brokers in the marketing of Israeli diaspora bonds, these
bonds directly were sold by DCI to New York Bank which serves a fiscal agent role. Today, there are about 200
DCI employees who are in a close relationship with Jewish communities in different regions of the United State
and thus trying to understand the vision and expectation of the investors. Their main aim is to contact with the
Jewish communities by regulating their investment activities and to sell the bonds. (Ei Qorchi 2005).
To get a long-term debt assurance, India run debt from its non-residence of diaspora of India as a result
of Development Bonds (IDBs)($1.6 billion dollar) following the 1991 balance of payments crisis,Resurgent India
Bonds (4.2 billion dollar) with the burden of the sanctions in 1998 Nuclear explosion and India Millennium
Deposits (IMDs) in 2000 ($5.5 billion).State Bank of India_(SBI) played a role as a mediator. During the years
when the country experienced a balance of payment crisis, IDBs chose to use NRS, non-resident of India, as a
means of fund rather than the currency of foreign investors. IDB, RIBs and IMDs supplied investors a higher
return than they would have received from similar financial instruments in their country of residence.
Furthermore, India benefited as well, because the diaspora investors don't not seek a return as high as they
normally would have demanded from markets. When this may have reflected different assessments of default
probabilities, a more plausib1e explanation resides in investors of Indian origin viewing the risk of default with
much less trepidation(Murray 2006).
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Bond Type
Amount
Year
Maturity
Minimum
India
Development
Bond
USD
GBP
$1.6 bn
1991
5 years
Not available
Resurgent
India Bond
USD
GBP
DM
$4.2 bn
India
Millennium
Deposits
USD
GBP
EUR
$5.5 bn
Coupon
9.50%
13.25%
1998
2000
5 years
2,000*
1,000**
3,000*
7.75%
8.00%
8.25%
2,000*
2,000*
2,000*
8.50%
7.85%
6.85%
5 years
(Development Finance via Diaspora Bond)
Table 2. Diaspora bonds issued by India
The IDBs, RIBs and IMDs alI had fıve-year bullet maturity. The issues were done in multiple
currencies such as US dollar, British pound, Deutsche Mark/Euro. In contrast to Jewish diaspora, Indian diaspora
did not provided any patriotic discount on RIBs, except a small discount on IMDs. When‘RIBs were sold in
August 1998 to yield 7.75 percent on U.S. dollar-denominated bonds, the yield on BB-rated U.S. corporate
bonds was 7.2 percent. There was thus no discount on the RIBs. As for the IMDs, the coupon was 8.5 percent
while the yield on the comparably rated U.S. corporate bonds was 8.9 percent for a 40 basis points discount. in
any case, Indian diaspora
bonds provided much smaller discounts in comparison to Ġsrael‘s DCI bonds (Zakaria, 2006).
India
Israel
Annual issuance since 1951
Opportunistic issuance in 1991, 1998 and
2000
Development oriented borrowings
Balance of payments support
Large though declining patriotic discount
Small patriotic discount, if any
Fixed, floating rate bonds and notes
Fixed rate bonds
Maturities from 1 to 20 years with bullet
SBI distribution in conjunction with int'l
repayment
banks
Targeted towards but not limited to
Limited to diaspora
diaspora
SEC registered
No SEC registration
Non-negotiable
Non-negotiable
(Development Finance via Diaspora Bond)
Table 3. Comparison of diaspora bonds issued by Israel and India
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Structure of the Turkish Diaspora
In fact, it is not possible to say that Turkey has the official definition of diaspora. However, by taking
this definition from a broad angle, it is possible put Turkish people living outside of Turkey into this diaspora.
Most of the Turks living abroad accepted the citizenship of the country they live, gathered under the umbrella of
various associations and institutions; however, they could not transform their associations into to a economic
diaspora which will be in cooperation with homeland.
The capital flow which started the international workers‘ has emerged as a result of the labor migration
flow which was from Turkey to Western Europe in 1961 and it has importantly contributed to economy of
Turkey for many years. The economic, demographic and socio-economic conditions of Western Europe
Countries during the previous years has a great affect on the decision of Turks who went to Europe from Turkey
to find a job (Artukoğlu,2005).
As a capital flow, the currency which had been sent by the workers abroad, of course,cannot be
ignored; however, There are lots of people, whose number is quite enormous, live abroad especially in European
Union Countries and many of them have the citizenship of the country where they live and occupy themselves
with commerce. When the savings of those Turkish entrepreneurs is thought, the first question must be about
―how to take this savings into the homeland.‖ The method which first comes to mind should be about power of a
diaspora which will create a closely related economy with Turkey that is the homeland.
With the aim of indicating the importance of this topic, the structure of Turkish population, or the
economic and social conditions of them living in Europe , will be tried to unfurl in the digital data.
Turkish Population in EU Countries
According to the research made by Turkey Research Center, by the end of 2006, numbers of the
Turkish immigrants living in European Union countries has reached 4.2 million. This number reach 5.7 million
when the number of 150.000 Western Thrace Turkish of Greece citizenship, minorities living in Romania and
Bulgaria which are included EU from the date of January, 1 2007 is added. This number is more than 8 members
of EU which has totally 27 members.
Turkish origin immigrants are the largest national immigrant group in EU. Even if it is almost
impossible to determine the total immigrant population living in the EU, the various studies show that there are
about 25 million foreigners living in the EU. When the number of people who are immigrant origins are added
into this number, it reaches over 40 million.
Another feature of the Turkish immigrants in contrast to other immigrant populations is that they are
being intensified in almost all EU countries. Furthermore, 42.1% of that 4.2 million Turks living within the
borders of the EU has the citizenship of the countries where they live.
Datas
Turkish Origin Population(1000)
Total Population
Turkish Citizen
Turkey-based European Turks
130
Belgium
56
Denmark
2.710
Germany
380
France
365
Netherlands
233
Austria
63
Sweden
150
United Kingdom
130
Other 19 EU Countris
Total(1)
4.217
Minority Turks
150
Greek
750
Bulgaria
70
Romania
Total(2)
970
EU-27 Total(1+2)
5.187
(Turkey Research Center )
Citizenship
host country's
citizens
Naturalization
Rate
40
29
1.760
200
99
110
12
70
120
2.440
90
27
950
180
266
123
51
80
10
1.777
69,2
48,2
35,1
47,4
72,8
52,8
80,9
62,5
7,7
42,1
2.440
150
750
70
970
2.747
53,0
Table 4: The Turkish population in EU countries(2006)
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Economic Dimensions of Turkish households in EU countries
According to the research carried by Turkey Research Center, by the end of 2006, average size Turkish
households was calculated as 4 people, and the income of household was also calculated as 2.130 EURO. A big
part of this income (Euro 1800) is spent for the consumption and livelihood of a family and the savings are
approximately 330 euros for each person. The annual net income of all Turkish households in EU countries is
26.9 billion euros. 4.2 billion euros of this annual is being saved.
The labor migration, which was in the 1960s, became an important way of saving and this saving was
assessed in the homeland. European Turks can adopt themselves into the society they are living with their both
consumption and saving attitudes.
Data
Population
The total number
of Turkish citizens
Citizens of EU
Countries
EU'sTotalPopulati
on
of
Turkish
Origin
Household
Total households
Turkish origin
Average monthly
net
household
income(Euro)
The average net
annual household
income(Euro)
The total annual
net
household
income ( Billion
Euro)
Average annual net
consumption
expenditure
(Billion Euro)
Average annual net
savings
2000
2002
2004
2006
2.670.00
0
790.000
3.460.00
0
2.500.00
0
1.270.00
0
3.770.00
0
2.455.00
0
1.448.00
0
3.903.00
0
2.440.00
0
1.777.00
0
4.217.00
0
865.000
944.000
976.000
2.170
2.080
2.100
1.054.00
0
2.130
26.040
24.960
25.200
25.560
22,5
23,6
24,6
26,9
18,5
19,0
19,9
22,7
4,0
4,6
4,7
4,2
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 5:Turkish citizens and Turkish origin of households Economic power in the EU
Economic Contribution of Turks working in Europe Countries
A population of approximately 1.372 million out of 42 million living in Europe constitutes working
population. The unemployment rate among Turks is over unemployment rate in the country they are 1eaving.
The reason of this is that the average age of Turkish population is smaller and the rate of working women is
lower than the total population in EU countries.
In European Union countries, the 1372 million working Turks who makes up the 0.69 of the total
working population have contributed approximately 80.7 billion Euros to the EU‘s current prices Gross
Domestic Product(GDP)in the year 2006 (TAM,2006).
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Category
Total Datas
The data for Turks/contribution
Total Population EU-25(1000)
463.523,4
4.217,0
Total Population EU-15(1000)
389.432,9
4.100,0
Working
population
EU25(1000)
Freelance Staff EU-25(1000)
197.476,8
1.372,0
25.500,0
101
Rate of Freelance Staff EU25(%)
GDP EU-15(Billion Euro)
GDP EU-25( Billion Euro)
12,9
7,4
10.769,8
11.373,6
80,7
80,7
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 6: The total population of working in the EU and the Turkish population‘s income data
In 2006, the 80.7 million Euros contribution of 4.1 million Turks living in former UE countries with 15
members to AB GSYĠH exceeds the contribution of 8 counties out of 25 EU members to GSYĠH.
Country
Belgium
Denmark
Total
Euro)
313,0
221,4
GDP
(Billion
Contribution of the
Turks (Billion Euro)
2,2
1,6
Distribution( %)
Germany
2.307,9
53,4
66,2
France
1.781,1
7,5
9,3
Netherlands
528,0
8,1
10,0
Austria
256,4
4,6
5,7
Sweden
305,2
1,0
1,2
United Kingdom
1.892,7
1,8
2,2
Other EU Countries
3.767,9
0,5
0,6
GDP EU-15
10.769,8
80,7
100
EU-25
11.373,6
80,7
100
2,7
2,0
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 7: Turks working in the EU Contribution to Gross Domestic Product( 2006/current prices)
Turkish population working in former 1 5-member European Union countries had 0.75 percent share
from EGDP in the year 2006. European Turks rate in the population ratio remains at the level of 1 percent. The
main reason why their unemployment is twice bigger than the unemployment of the country they are living in is
that the economic contribution of the Turks is lower in population portion.
When compared with 25 EU Countries, European Turks leave 12 EU member countries behind in the
GDP.
Country
EU-15(Million Euro)
EU-25(Million Euro)
EU-15( Million Population)
EU-25( Million Population)
EU-15 per capital GDP(Euro)
EU-25 per capital GDP(Euro)
Total
19.769,8
11.373,6
389,4
463,5
27.600
24.500
Turks
80,7
80,7
4.1
4.1
19.700
19.700
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 8:Turks living in EU and EU countries in per capita Gross Domestic Product
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
When compared with per capita GDP figures, the annual 19,700 Euro and the Turkish workers reach 71
percent of overall 15 EU members (27 600 Euros).
Economic Power of the Turkish Eııtrepreneurs in the EU Countries
Among 1.372 million Turks working in EU countries, the proportion of entrepreneurs remains at 7.4
percent in 2006. The proportion of entrepreneurs in the European Union (excluding agriculture) is 13.1 percent
(Turkey Research Center)
Chart 1: Development of Turkish entrepreneurs in the EU countries (1996-2006)
Despite the big difference, the increase of the number of entrepreneurs among Turks is stand-out for our
future appraisal. These figures show a change from unemployment to self-entrepreneurship.
Data
Population
The total number of
Turkish citizens
Citizens of EU Countries
2000
2002
2004
2006
2.670.000
2.500.000
2.455.000
2.440.000
790.000
1.270.000
1.448.000
1.777.000
EU'sTotalPopulation of
Turkish Origin
Household
Total
households
Turkish origin
Average monthly net
household income(Euro)
The average net annual
household income(Euro)
The total annual net
household
income
(
Billion Euro)
Average annual net
consumption
expenditure
(Billion
Euro)
Average annual net
savings
3.460.000
3.770.000
3.903.000
4.217.000
865.000
944.000
976.000
1.054.000
2.170
2.080
2.100
2.130
26.040
24.960
25.200
25.560
22,5
23,6
24,6
26,9
18,5
19,0
19,9
22,7
4,0
4,6
4,7
4,2
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 9: Turkish entrepreneurs in the European Union's Economic Power(1996-2006)
According to the survey, results made by Turkey Research Center: While Turkish entrepreneurs in the
EU in 1996 are 56.500, in 2006 it has reached 101.000.
Periods between 1996 and 2006, the total annual of free Turkish entrepreneurs came to 43.9 billion
Euros from 21.8 billion Euros. The same growth can be seen in the volume of investment and employment
figure. Growth rates in investment increased from 5.6 billion Euros to 10.9 billion Euros during the same period.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The growth rate of the volume of the investment is 94.6 percent. In the same period, total employment number
increased to 474.000 from 232.000
Datas
Sum
Average investment per
business(Euro)
Total
Investment(Billion
Euro)
Average
turnover
per
business(Euro)
Total
annual
turnover(Billion Euro)
The average number of
employees per business
the
total
number
of
employees
1996
56.500
99.500
1998
67.400
104.800
2000
80.600
110.400
2002
82.300
112.000
2004
91.200
110.200
2006
101.000
108.000
5,6
7,0
8,9
9,2
10,1
10,9
386.500
425.400
432.000
425.000
417.600
435.000
21,8
28,7
34,8
35,0
38,1
43,9
4,1
4,8
5,2
5,0
4,9
4,7
232.000
323.000
419.000
411.000
446.900
474.000
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 9: Turkish entrepreneurs in the European Union's Economic Power(1996-2006)
According to estimates of the same center by taking into consideration of the historical data, in 2015,
the population of Turkish origin living in the EU-15 countries is expected to reach 5 million. Turks living in
Romania, Bulgaria and Greece are not included in this study. The estimations done with the help of existing data
claims that the number of Turkish entrepneurs will double in 2015. ıf it is thought that there are 91,200 Turkish
entrepreneurs in Europe, it is estimated that the number of Turkish entrepreneurs will be totally 160,000 in
Europe in 2015.
The estimations show that today 447.000 people are employed in the workplace of 91.200 Turkish
entrepreneurs in EU-15 countries and that this number will be probably 960,000 in 2015.
Datas
Germany
EU
Sum
120.000
160.000
Total Investment(billion Euro)
15.3
20.5
Total annual turnover(billion Euro)
66.5
87.0
Total number of employees
720.000
960.000
(Turkey Research Center)
Table 10: In 2015 the Turkish entrepreneurs in Germany and EU Economic Power
The Result
In the development of the country, it is understood that resting only the internal resources and making
the foreign trade only with export of goods are not suflicient. Countries depends on foreign capital more than
ever while improving their development. Even the world‘s most powerful economies cannot help being caught
up with the magic of foreign capital. Turkey needs foreign capital in order to increase a position to cornpete with
the strong economies. However, the countries with very delicate balance like Turkey and with high rates of risk
have to be much more careful to obtain these investments which are extremely scary.
In such a situation, having a world wide population which cannot be underestimated, Turkey‘s heading
towards this source seems very reasonable. The interest payments which takes almost 60% of the budget of
Turkey are the result of the debt to payments with high interest rate is known by everyone. A diaspora which will
be created by Turks living abroad will be able both to help in economical development of Turkey by moderating
this heavy burden and to support from inside during the EU process.
It is tried to be explained how this unity can be established and how to take economical support from the
examples of Israel and India in this article. When the economic data in Europe is examined, it can be seen the
investment potential of Turkish diaspora is aproximately 40 billion TL. When it is thought that Turkey‘s budget
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
deficit is 52 billion TL and if this investment potantial is transferred into Turkey, it is obvious how much it will
contribute to the national economy.
But the thing that should not be forgotten is that such a process must be established not by the private
sector, but by the government‘s plan and its the active role. Even this process is left to private companies, every
stage of government formation should be monitored closely and be interfered when necessary. This will both
increase the confidence of citizens and prevent the repetition of frauds carried out in account of personal interests
in the past.
References
Chander, Anupam. 2005. ―Diaspora Bonds and US Securities Regulation: An Jnterview‖, Business Law Review, University
of California, Davis, School of Law, May 1, 2005.
Chander, Anupam. 2001. ―Diaspora Bonds,‖ 76 New York University Law Review 1005, October.
C. Fred Bergsten and Inbom Choi,‖The Korean Diaspora in The World Economy‖,Washington,D.C,January 2003
El Qorchi, Mohammed. 1005. ―lslamic Finance gears Up,‖ Finance c Development, Volume 42, Number 4, international
Monetary Fund, December.
Fred W. Riggs,‖Diasporas and Ethnic Nations causes and consequences of Giobalization‖,
www2.hawaii.edulftedr/diaglo.htm, 15 Nisan 2001
Gallya Lahav and Asher Arian,‖Jsraelias in ajewish Diaspora: The Multiple Dilemmas of a Giobalized Group‖,
www2.hawaii.edulfredr/lahav.htm, 19 Nisan 2001
Oğuzhan Sokmen Artukoğlu, YurtdıĢı ĠĢçi Tasarruflarının Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası, Banka Sistemi Ve Türkiye
Ekonomisi Üzerine Etkileri, Uzmanlık Yeterlilik Tezi, Ankara, 2005 Kasım
Rehavi, Yehiel and Asher Weingarten. 2004. ―Fifty Years of External Finance via State of lsrael Non-negotiable Bonds,‖
Foreign Exchange Activity Department, Assets and Liabilities Unit, Bank of Israel, September 6.
Romano Roberta. 1998. ―Empowering investors: A Market Approach to Securities regulation,‖ 107 Yale Law Journal 2359,
2424.
Suhas L. Ketkar And Dilip Ratha, Development Finance Via Diaspora Bonds Track Record And Potential, Paper Presented
At The Migration And Development Conference At The World Bank, Washington DC. May 23, 2007.
Gabi SHEFFER, ―Middle Eastern Diasporas: Introduction and
Readings‖,wwwc.cc.columbia.edulsec/dlc/ciao/olj/merialmeria797sheffer.htm, 17 Nisan 2001
Türkiye AraĢtırmaları Merkezi Vakfı, Hollanda ve Avrupa Birliği‘ndeki Türk Nüfusu, Hane verilen ve giriĢimcilerin
ekonomik gücü, Nisan 2007, Essen
World Bank. 2005. Global Economic Prospects 2006: Economic Impiications of Remittances and Migration, Washington,
D.C.
http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaspora
www2.hawaii.edulgredr/diacon.htm
Zakaria, Fareed. 2006. ―How Long Wiil America Lead the World,‖ Newsweek, June 12.
301
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Title
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Outside the Homeland of the Turks Economic Potential of The Diaspora
Author
Author
KALÇA, Adem
DURMAZ, Atakan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Ethno-national diasporas occur from the homeland to one or a few countrıes that accept guests mandatory or voluntary migration. These type of groups stay in the country permanently. Diaspora is an ethnic unity that was created by people migrated by force or voluntarily from the same ethnic origin of individuals in one or more countries to protect their personal rights ts and to avoid losing their own identity. Diasporas, which were created for this purpose at first, have become effective even in the administration of the country where they exist, especially by gaining economic power. In the beginning of the purposes of the diasporas, it comes not to lose their own identity and to secure them to get a regular relationships with their home countries no matter where they live and no matter which country they belong to. The possibility of foreign investment presented with this bond is so important that it functions a lot in the development of the country. The possibility of foreign capital which is offered by diaspoara is an important action in the development of home countries. Countries have used the economic power of the diasporas with different instruments,and the most common instrument is the diaspora debenture. Dispoara bond is a debenture which is giyen to a country by a sub-dominant party or a private company to increase funding from the diaspora abroad. It is an important source for the developing countries that various diasporas of countries whose citizenship they accepted and their financial situations increases quickly. If the flow of forein currency claims to set diaspora income in a way of regular basis, the interests of the bond issues that from the hard money(currency) is a way to raise capital abroad. Up to this day, Israel and India have reached 35-40 billion dollars by bringing these bonds out. In this context, when the situation in Turkey is examined, especially Europe and European Union countries must be taken into consideration primarily. Today, in European Union countries, approximately 4.2 million Turkish citizens are living; it is nearly 5.7 million with the new countries participating in the European Union. Annual per capita GDP of this population is approximately 19.700 Euros. In addition, 80.7 billion Euros in 2006, Turkish people contributed EU GDP 80.7 billion euros. In European Union countries in 2006, there were 101,000 Turkish entrepreneurs with Turkish origins who had invested 10.9 billion euros; they had 43.9 billion euros giro and provided employment for 474,000 people. Taking this data and the coming footsteps of successful examples of Turkish Diaspora in Turkey into account, we can create a growing economy and political power to be able to make signifıcant contributions. The aim of the article which was prepared from the movement of the thesis is to show that one of the instruments which can be used in supplying the foreign capital is the power of diaspora. When the diasporas of Israel and India are taken into consideration, emphasizing especially on that economical diasporas have an important place is the demonstration of the power of Turks who act like a diaspora and live in Europe.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/648193b6539277a06ff045e02c37e034.pdf
ce3eac240d0e99f81810a4c1216bcb4d
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Analyzing the Sustainability of Current Account in ASEAN Countries: Test
of Intertemporal Borrowing Constraints
Hüseyin KALYONCU
Department of International Trade and Business
Meliksah University
Turkey
hkalyoncu@meliksah.edu.tr
Muhittin KAPLAN
Department of Economics
Meliksah University
Turkey
mkaplan@meliksah.edu.tr
Abstract: The objective of this paper is to investigate the sustainability of current account
imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand over the 1981-2008 periods. Sustainability of current account for ASEAN
countries is analyzed under intertemporal borrowing constraint (IBC) approach by performing an
empirical analysis of Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration between exports and imports plus net
transfer payments plus net interest payments. The empirical results of panel cointegration test
show that these variables are cointegrated for whole period and two sub-periods. To find
regression coefficient we use panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. It is found that the coefficient
is not significantly equal to one but very close to one. The overall results provide evidence in
favour of the sustainability of the current account for five ASEAN countries as a group.
Keywords: panel data unit-root test, current account, solvency
Introduction
The sustainability of current account has been receiving increasing attention from economist. Since current
account represents an indicator of a country‘s economic performance, it is an important barometer to both
policymakers and investors. As Fountas and Wu (1999) stated that short-run current account deficits may not be
considered bad, as they may reflect reallocation of capital to the country where capital is more productive. However
persistent payment imbalances can have serious effect. One of them is that they might increase interest rates to attract
foreign capital to sustain an increasing current account deficit. Other effect is that these measures impose an
excessive burden on future generations as the accumulation of larger debt will imply increasing interest payments
and thus lower future standards of living.
The importance of the current account is witnessed by its widespread use in early warning indicators of currency
crises (Aziz et al., 2000 and Edwards, 2001)). Large and persistent external imbalances are often assumed to lead to
financial /currency crises. For example, the currency crises in Chile and Mexico (early 1980s), the UK and Nordic
countries (late 1980s), Mexico and Argentina (mid 1990s), East Asian countries (late 1990s) and more recently in
Turkey (2001) are often associated with large and persistent current account deficits.
In the empirical literature on current account sustainability there have been basically two main approaches. Both
approaches suggest possible techniques to test the sustainability of a current account under intertemporal borrowing
constraint (IBC) approach. The first approach is based on the univariate time series properties of the current account;
the second approach is based on the long-run relationship between exports and imports (bivariate approach). In this
paper we followed second approach.
The question of sustainability of current account has been studied in recent years by a large literature. Unit root
and cointegration tests have provided useful tools in gaining insight into the long-run implications of current account.
Husted (1992), Wickens and Uctum (1993), Ahmed and Rogers (1995), Milesi-Ferretti and Razin (1996), Wu et al.
(1996), Cashin and McDermott (1998), Fountas and Wu (1999), Ho-Don Yan (1999), Apergis et al. (2000), Wu
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
(2000), Wu et al. (2001), Baharumshah et al. (2003), Onel and Utkulu (2006), Kalyoncu (2005,2006) are examples
of these large literature.
In this study we investigate sustainability of current account imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN
countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. The remainder of the paper is
organized as follows. Section 2 defines the analytical framework. Section 3 explains econometric methodology.
Section 4 describes data and presents empirical results. Section 5 concludes.
Analytical Framework for Testing
Husted (1992) present a theoretical framework to test for sustainability based on Hakkio and Rush‘s (1991)
procedure. Husted‘s approach began by noting that an open economy faces the following budget constraint for each
period t:
(1)
C Y B f I (1 r ) B f
t
t
t
t
t
t
where Ct is current consumption (public and private) in period t, Yt is the output in period t, It is investment in
f
period t , rt is the one period world interest rate, Bt is the size of international borrowing which could be positive or
negative.
Since this budget constraint must hold for every time period, the period by period budget constraint can be added
up to form the intertemporal budget constraint is given by
(2)
Bt f i Yt i Ct i I t i lim i Bt f
i
i 1
where
TBt X t M t Yt Ct I t . Here TB denotes trade balance.
Therefore the economy‘s budget constraint can be expressed as
(3)
Bt f i TBt i lim i Bi f
t
i 1
Equation (3) says that when the last term (limit term) equals zero, the amount that a country borrows (lends) in
international market equals the present value of the future trade surpluses (deficits). If, for example, the current stock
of foreign debt is bigger than the present value of future trade balances, then the country‘s debt is in a ―bubble‖ and
thus the current account is not sustainable.
In order to derive a testable model, Husted (1992) makes several assumptions following Hakkio and Rush (1991).
Assuming that the world interest rate is stationary with unconditional mean r and making further manipulation
equation (3) may be expressed as
X t i Z t i
Bt fi
Xt
lim
i (1 r ) i 1
(1 r ) i 1
i 0
M t rB
f
t 1
(4)
where Zt M t (rt r ) Bt 1 . Now, subtracting Xt and then multiplying both sides of the later equation by minus
f
1, we get
CAt X t M t rBt f1
i 0
Z t i X t i
Bt fi
lim
i (1 r ) i 1
(1 r ) i 1
(5)
Assumed that X and Z are both I(1) processes, equation (5) becomes
B f t i
t
i (1 r )i 1
X t MM t lim
where MM t M t rt Bt 1 .
f
Assuming that the second term in (6) equals zero, then (6) can be written as a simple regression equation
(7)
X bMM
t
t
t
136
(6)
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Under the null hypothesis that the economy is satisfying its intertemporal budget constraint, b should be equal to 1
(b=1) and t sould be stationary. In other words, as shown by Hakkio and Rush, if X and MM are I(1), then under the
null, they are cointegrated.
In this study we follow Husted (1992) model. In the empirical analysis we estimated
X t bMM t t co-integration regression. In this equation, X is exports of goods and services and MM is
imports of goods and services plus net transfer payments and net interest payments.
The empirical results may allow establishing several conclusions related to the sustainability of the current
account:
- if there is no co-integration the current account is not sustainable;
- if there is co-integration with b = 1, the current account is sustainable,
- if there is co-integration, with b < 1, economies exports growing lower than economy‘s imports, and the current
account may not be sustainable.
As Hakkio and Rush (1991) demonstrate in the context of government finance also if MM and X are non
stationary variables in level, the condition 0 < b < 1 is a sufficient condition for the budget constraint to be obeyed.
However, when X and MM are expressed as a percentage of GDP or in per capita terms, it is necessary to have b = 1.
Methodology
Panel Unit Root and Panel Cointegration
In this paper, current account sustainability in the five countries is studied by testing the existence of cointegration between exports and imports plus net transfer payments and net interest payments. Co-integration
analysis developed in the mid-80s introduced the idea that even if underlying time series are non-stationary, linear
combinations of these series might be stationary. Therefore, before employing panel co-integration techniques, it is
essential to verify that all variables are integrated of order one in levels. In recent years some tests for unit root
within panels are developed in the literature. Levin and Lin (1992, 1993), Im, Pesaran and Shin (1997), Maddala and
Wu (1999), Kao (1999) and Quah (1994) have developed panel unit root tests. In this study Im, Pesaran and Shin
(hereafter IPS) tests are used. The IPS test is more important because it is appropriate for a heterogeneous regressive
root under an alternative hypothesis. We briefly describe the IPS model:
Suppose that there is a group of N series, Xit, which have the following time-series representation:
wij
X it i i X it 1 ij X it j it , i 1,...., N and t 1,....., T .
(8)
j 1
The IPS test examines the null hypothesis:
H 0 : 1 2 ...... N 0, against
H a : i 0, for some i.
The IPS statistic is defined as:
z N t E (t )/ Var (t ) ,
(9)
N
where
t (1 / N ) t i . ti is the t statistics of ˆi 0 , E( t ) and Var( t ) are the mean and variance of t ,
i 1
respectively.
In recent years some tests for unit root within panels are developed in the literature. Pedroni (1995, 1999, 2000),
Phillips and Moon (1999), Kao (1999) and Kao and Chiang (2000) have developed panel cointegration test. This
paper uses the panel cointegration test of Pedroni (1999) to research the relationship between X and MM. The
equation for the panel cointegration tests for Pedroni (1999) is as follows:
(10)
X MM , i 1,...., N and t 1,....., T .
it
i
t
i
it
it
This formulation allows the investigation of heterogeneous panels, in which heterogeneous slope coefficients ( i ),
fixed effects ( i ) and individual specific deterministic trends ( i ) are permitted. This framework provides
cointegration tests for both heterogeneous and homogenous panels with seven regressors based on seven residual-
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
based statistics. Pedroni proposes these residual based tests for the null of no cointegration. Rejection of the null
hypothesis means that the variables under consideration are cointegrated.
The between-group panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators
To estimate the cointegration vector we will examine two panel cointegration estimators: the between group
fully modified OLS (FMOLS) and dynamic OLS (DOLS). Pedroni (2000, 2001) suggested two methods to apply
fully modified method to panel cointegration for FMOLS. One of them is the within-group (or pooled) panel
FMOLS estimator and the between-group (group mean) FMOLS estimator. In this study between-group FMOLS
estimator will be used.
Between group FMOLS estimators for equation (10) can be written as:
1
T
T
*
2
N
(
MM
MM
)
(11)
i
1
GMF
it
( MM it MM i ) X it Tˆi
t 1
t 1
ˆ
ˆ
*
21i
ˆ 0 21i (ˆ
ˆ 0 ) . Between dimension
MM it and ˆi ˆ 21i
where X it ( X it X i )
21i
22i
22i
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ *
1
N
22i
*
1
estimator is ˆGMF N
22i
N
i 1
*
CFM ,i
where
*
CFM
,i
is conventional FMOLS estimator applied to ith country of the
N
panel.
t-statistics
are
calculated
as
tˆ * N 0.5 t *
GMF
i 1
where
CFM ,i
0.5
t ˆ *
CFM , i
(
*
CFM ,i
1 T
2
o ) 11
.
i ( MM it MM it )
t 1
Next, we construct the group mean panel dynamic ordinary least square (DOLS) estimator as:
N
1
t 1
1
T
T
~~
*
̂ DOLS
N 1 Z it Z it' Z it X it
where
Z it is a
t 1
(12)
2( K 1)1 vector of regressors
Z it MM it MM it , MM it K ,.., MM it K
and
~~
N
*
*
X it X it X it . Between dimension DOLS estimator can be constructed as: ˆ DOLS
N 1 CD
,i where
i 1
*
CD,i
is conventional DOLS estimator applied to i
th
country of the panel. The associated t-statistics can be
T
o ) ˆ i2 ( MM it MM it ) 2
constructed as: t ˆ *
N t * where t ˆ * (
CD , i
DOLS
CD , i
t 1
i 1
T
1
2
2
long-run variance of the residuals from the DOLS regression i lim T E T (it ) .
t 1
Data and Empirical Results
0.5
N
*
CD,i
0.5
and the
Data
We use annual time series data, and the sample period is begin in 1981 and ends in 2008. The sample consists of
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. All data are taken from the IMF‘s International Financial
Statistics. Exports (X) include exports of goods and services, while our measure of imports (MM) includes imports
of goods and services plus net transfer payments and net interest payments (see Husted, 1992). The consumer price
index (CPI) is used as a proxy for the national price level.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Empirical Results
In the first step, IPS panel unit root tests are applied. The results of panel unit root tests are presented in Table 1
and reported intercept and intercept with a trend both in levels and in first differences. It can be inferred from the
Table 1 that the unit root hypothesis cannot be rejected when the variables are taken in levels. However, when the
first differences are used, the hypothesis of unit root non-stationary is rejected. These results enable to test the
cointegration among variables in I(1) level.
Level
Variables
X
MM
*
z INT
Individual intercept
Individual trend and
intercept
Individual intercept
Individual trend and
intercept
First Difference
P**
*
z INT *
P**
z INT
2.30413
0.33663
0.9894
0.6318
-6.82184
0.0000
2.68661
-0.41857
0.9964
0.3378
-7.25144
0.0000
is the test statistic of Im et al. (1997)
** Probabilities are computed assuming asymptotic normality
Table 1. Panel unit root test for X and MM, 1981-2008.
Having established that all variables are integrated of the same order, we proceed with the panel cointegration
tests, which allow us to test for long-run relationship. Of the seven tests, the panel v-statistic is a one-sided test where
large positive values reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration whereas large negative values for the remaining
test statistics reject the null hypothesis of no cointegration. Table 2 shows both the within and between dimension
panel cointegration test statistics. With the exception of the group p-statistics, the other six test statistics reject the
null hypothesis of no cointegration. Null hypothesis of no cointegration is rejected at the 10% significance level for
panel v-statistics, 5% significance level for panel p-statistics, panel PP-statistics, panel ADF-statistics, group PPstatistics and 1% significance level for group ADF statistics. Therefore X and MM series appear to be cointegrated at
a reasonable significance level.
Within dimension Test statistics
Panel v-statistic
2.0133 ( 0.0526)
Panel p-statistic
-2.6650 (0.0114)
Panel PP-statistic
-2.6266 (0.0127)
Panel ADF statistic
-2.5619 (0.0150)
Between dimension Test statistics
Group p-statistic
-1.5757 (0.1153)
Group PP-statistic
-2.5097 (0.0171)
Group ADF statistic
-2.8055 (0.0078)
Note: the value in parentheses indicates probability values.
Table 2: Panel cointegration tests, 1981-2008
Finally, we estimate the cointegrating vector using two methods: the group-mean FMOLS and DOLS estimators.
We consider two cases: with and without common time dummies. Also respective t-statistics for Ho: βi=1 are
provided. Table 3 shows the estimate of cointegrating vector by period, using the between-group panel cointegration
technique. First, we look at the case of a without time dummy for each period. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of
regression coefficient is 1.11 and the DOLS estimate is 1.08 for the whole period. The coefficient is not significantly
equal to one for either method. When we consider two sub-periods (1981-1998 and 1999-2008), Table 3 also shows
that the coefficient is not significantly equal to one. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is
1.07 and the DOLS estimate is 1.02 for 1981-1998 and FMOLS estimate of regression coefficient is 0.97 and the
DOLS estimate is 1.06 for 1999-2008.
Period
1981-2008
1981-1998
1999-2008
FMOLS
1.11 (8.12)*
1.07 (6.47)*
0.97 (2.20)*
Without Time
Dummies Between DOLS
1.08 (23.10)*
1.02 (6.72)*
1.06 (58.18)*
FMOLS
0.93 (-1.83)*
0.87 (-3.45)*
0.93 (-3.54)*
With Time
Dummies Between DOLS
0.74 (-2.41)*
0.83 (-4.20)*
0.91 (-8.37)*
Note: the value in parentheses indicates t-statistics for Ho:βi=1. * indicate rejection of null hypothesis. Between reports Pedroni
(1996) group-mean panel FMOLS and the group-mean panel DOLS introduced in this paper.
Table 3: Panel FMOLS and DOLS test results
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
We also look at the case of a time dummy for each period. The group-mean FMOLS estimate of regression
coefficient is 0.93 and the DOLS estimate is 0.74 for the whole period. When we consider two sub-periods we can
see that the coefficient using FMOLS is 0.87 for the period 1981-1998, whereas it is 0.93 for 1999-2008. The DOLS
estimate is 0.83 in the first sub-period and 1.06 in the second sub-period. The coefficient is not significantly equal to
one for all period and either method.
The presence of cointegration means that there are long run relationship between exports of goods and services
and imports of goods and services plus net transfer payments plus net interest payments. The coefficient is not
significantly equal to one but very close to one. These results show that the current account of these countries as a
panel is sustainable in the long run.
Conclusion
There is a growing literature that examines the sustainability of current account. Unit root and cointegration tests
have provided useful tools for the sustainability of current account. In the literature various type of unit root and
cointegration test are used for individual country or panel country group.
In this study, we use the panel data of export and import for five ASEAN countries using annual data from 1981
to 2008 and also two sub-groups (1981-1998 and 1998-2008). A relationship between export and import is
investigated by employing Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration method.
The empirical results of panel cointegration test show that export and import are co-integrated for whole period
and two sub-periods. In addition we apply panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. Panel FMOLS and DOLS test
results show that the estimated cointegration factor, , is close to 1 but not significantly equal to 1. As a general
conclusion the finding show that ASEAN countries are likely to be sustainable countries in terms of current account.
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Analyzing the Sustainability of Current Account in ASEAN Countries: Test of Intertemporal Borrowing Constraints
Author
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KALYONCU, Hüseyin
KAPLAN, Muhittin
Abstract
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The objective of this paper is to investigate the sustainability of current account imbalances by using the data of five ASEAN countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand over the 1981-2008 periods. Sustainability of current account for ASEAN countries is analyzed under intertemporal borrowing constraint (IBC) approach by performing an empirical analysis of Pedroni (1999) panel cointegration between exports and imports plus net transfer payments plus net interest payments. The empirical results of panel cointegration test show that these variables are cointegrated for whole period and two sub-periods. To find regression coefficient we use panel FMOLS and DOLS estimators. It is found that the coefficient is not significantly equal to one but very close to one. The overall results provide evidence in favour of the sustainability of the current account for five ASEAN countries as a group.
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2010-06
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HB Economic Theory