53 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/be5004c9a8d65b98608c8897a9557268.pdf 6a434419c794aa6b21d61d2015d01f6c PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Effectiveness of Teaching English in a Foreign Country by a Non-native Speaker English Teacher (NNEST) Harun Baştuğ Sarajevo College, Sarajevo, Bosnia harunbastug@yahoo.com Melih Karakuzu Atatürk University, Erzurum, Turkey mkarakuzu@yahoo.com Mehmet Akdoğan International Burch University makdoga@hotmail.com Abstract: In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country, where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning English through a local nonnative English speaking teacher, an English Teacher from the inner circle, and a foreign non-native English speaking teacher, an English Teacher from the outer circle, in terms of effectiveness of learning English among the language learners. Keywords: English language teaching (ELT), nonnative-English-speaking teacher (NNEST), Target language, Outer Circle, Inner Circle Introduction Initially, we should mention the difference between Native Speaker and Non-Native Speaker in terms of Language Pedagogy. In an article on the differences between NTs and NNTs, Nayar (1994: 2) states that non native speakers are often regarded as language deprived, unreliable speakers in terms of language competence when compared to native speakers, who have phonological, linguistic, and communicative competence as well as linguistic identity. On the other hand, Medgyes considers that non-native speaking teachers have a ‘bright’ side (1994: 51). He points out that, even if non-native-speakers normally use bookish language and speak in a less confident way, they are more empathetic, attend to the students` real needs, show more commitment, have realistic expectations of the students and are more insightful (1994: 58-59). According to Medgyes, we should analyze the different areas of difficulty. Vocabulary: There are some problems with the English lexicon as well as with any other language: many words have different meanings according to the context, idioms, synonyms, etc. In short, vocabulary resists mastery. Fluency: Oral fluency requires many qualities, such as readiness to speak, speech rate, etc, in which non-native-speakers are in a disadvantage. Non-native-speakers' speech tends to be redundant due to the difficulty in finding the right structures at the right time. 32 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Pronunciation: It is obvious that non-native-speakers are marked by a foreign accent that in the worst cases interferes with other people's understanding. Grammar: Grammar is the favorite field for non-native-speakers. It is said to be more concrete and more learnable than vocabulary. The increasing demand for English all over the world and the ever-increasing number of NNTs in the field -about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide- (Samimy & Brutt-Griffler, 1999) has led to debates regarding to whether English should be taught by native (NT) or by non-native teachers (NNT) and whether NTs or NNTs are better in terms of teaching the language. If you ask anyone whether s/he wants to be taught by a native teacher (NT) or non-native teachers (NNT), most of the learners would say that by native teacher (NT) due to the fact that NTs have the advantage of having the cultural, phonetic and lexical knowledge of the target language. According to the one study aiming to present the attitudes of EFL learners towards NTs and NNTs, interview results were not surprising (Görsev, 2008). That is, the majority of the students (13/18) in the English prep school of a private university in Đstanbul in 2007-08 academic year chose natives as better English teachers when asked whether they preferred to have NTs or NNTs. The rest thought it would be more “suitable to have NNTs during the early stages of L2 learning process” as they “benefit from Turkish explanations a lot. We assume that that result would be nearly same in other countries in the same conditions. There is no doubt that there is inevitable difference between native teacher (NT) and non-native teacher (NNT) as mentioned above. However, I will try to show the differences between the non-native English speaking teachers who are local teachers and foreign teachers. We will also try to mention foreign teachers` effectiveness as non-native teachers. Status of the non-native English teachers There is no doubt that native speakers of a language have a feel for its nuances, are comfortable using its idiomatic expressions, and speak it fluently. Unfortunately, native English speakers without teaching qualifications are more likely to be hired as ESL teachers than qualified and experienced NNESTs, especially outside the United States (Amin, 2000; Braine, 1999). But many in the profession argue that teaching qualifications should be required of all English teachers, regardless of their native language (Nayar, 1994; Phillipson, 1996). Phillipson also considers NNESTs to be potentially the ideal ESL teachers because they have gone through the process of acquiring English as an additional language. They have first-hand experience in learning and using a second language, and their personal experience has sensitized them to the linguistic and cultural needs of their students. It might be true that non-native teacher can teach better English than the native speakers. That is because they have struggled themselves to learn that language. They know exactly where learners lack and where they make mistakes often. They are also aware of many more techniques of learning to speak which is not the case with the native speakers. Most non-native speakers have degrees in language teaching and many years of experience, whereas many native speakers either have little language teaching qualifications or little experience. Effectiveness of non-native English teachers in foreign countries I am a Turkish who was taught English as a foreign language by local Turkish teachers from middle to high school. Then, I graduated from one of the Turkish universities. Maybe I should confess something. While studying at university, we had no chance to use our target language out of the lessons. We were all Turkish students and we had mostly Turkish professors. Late 90s, we had no opportunity to access the Internet, as well. Thanks to the technology, there are now a lot of opportunities to reach the sources of English in order to improve your language. You can keep in touch with your friends worldwide through the Internet. I have been teaching English for ten years, and I have had the opportunity of living in a foreign country for three years. As a non-native speaking English teacher, I can clearly say that being in Bosnia as a Turkish man makes me happy in my classes and satisfies me that I am teaching English to my students. I have been working in a private school where the wealthier parents send their children to. It is similar to public schools, but since parents pay more for their child's education, classes are smaller, more teaching resources are available, and expectations are higher. However, as a foreign teacher you must meet higher requirements to land a job here. Furthermore, in the classes the only meeting point between you and your students is the target language English. I am not going to compare here effectiveness of native and non-native English teachers. But I can assume that there is difference between me who is a foreigner and local teacher who is from the same country, as well. 33 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo As it can be seen in the study (Görsev,2008) that learners tend to use their mother language in order to communicate with the teacher during the lesson. It may seem unnatural to talk to a Turkish man in English. The local teachers respond them inevitably in native language. During the class there is no way for me to use only the target language, English. In recess time, lunch time or in after school activities and field trips students feel like talking or using English to communicate with me. Thanks to the Internet I can keep in touch with them through the chat rooms, msn or facebook. There are also a lot of advantages being in the third country. Learning a new language, a new culture and new customs of people in this country makes me understand how the learners feel when they are learning English. For example, in Bosnian language -učiti- means both to teach and to learn. In order to understand what kind of difficulty a Bosnian learner has while learning those words it is good to experience Bosnian language. Conclusion As a foreigner, living in a third country may be considered advantageous and one can learn one more language, so that the difficulties learners may face while learning English are observed and experienced. Whenever a non-native language teacher tries to guess what a local foreign language learner feels, one can easily figure out that learning a language was not so easy. Long time ago I learned English and I had never considered that learners could have had problems. No matter the teacher is a native or non-native teacher, as long as he has interest, responsibility and willingness to help students he is a convenient teacher of a foreign language. Finally, it can be claimed that both native and non-native teachers should have gone through the process of learning at least one language. However this study is only based on some personal observation of a non-native language teacher of English in a third country it may contain subjective conclusions, it may lead to starting point for further comparative research studies carried out by other researchers, such as, on effectiveness of learning foreign language through non-native and native language teachers in a country where the language is considered to be foreign language for both teachers and learners. References Amin, N. (2000). "Negotiating nativism: Minority immigrant women ESL teachers and the native speaker construct" (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Canada, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, A 4579. Braine, G. (Ed.) (1999). "Non-native educators in English language teaching." Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. ERIC, D. "Nonnative-English-Speaking Teachers in the English Teaching Profession." Görsev, Đ (2008) "EFL Learners’ Interaction with Native and Non-native EFL Teachers" Medgyes, Peter (1994) "The Non-Native Teacher." London: MacMillan Publishers, Ltd. Medgyes, Peter. "Native or non-native: Who's worth more?" ELT Journal 46.4 (1992): 340-49. Nayar, P.B. (1994) “Whose English is it?”. TESL-EJ, vol.1, April. Nayar, P. B. (1994). Whose English is it? "TESL-EJ, 1(1)," F-1. Retrieved April 28, 2002, from http://wwwwriting.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej01/f.1.html. Phillipson, R. (1992). "Linguistic imperialism." Oxford: Oxford University Press. Samimy, K. & Brutt-Griffler, J. (1999). "To be a native or non-native speaker:" 34 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 364 Title A name given to the resource Effectiveness of Teaching English in a Foreign Country by a Non-native Speaker English Teacher (NNEST) Author Author Karakuzu, Melih Akdoğan, Mehmet Abstract A summary of the resource. In the field of English language teaching (ELT), a growing number of teachers are not native speakers of English. According to current estimates, about eighty percent of English teachers worldwide are non-native speakers of the language. The term non-native English speaking teacher (NNEST) has created a division among professionals in the ELT profession. English is taught commonly in many countries where English is spoken as a second language or spoken widely. Therefore, being a non-native English speaking teacher in your own country, where English is the target language between you and your own local learners and inevitably your mother tongue is used partly during the classes, is different from in a foreign country where English is mutual language between you and your learners. In that case, English is the only way for you and your learners in order to communicate in every part of school life, in school activities or even in your daily life. Learners feel like talking just the target language before, during, and after the classes unavoidably. We can see the differences of learning English through a local nonnative English speaking teacher, an English Teacher from the inner circle, and a foreign non-native English speaking teacher, an English Teacher from the outer circle, in terms of effectiveness of learning English among the language learners. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/966a674f5ab4a71c21f8b890cd375c97.pdf 3fa1f2d657d4797f949681627f6b79b4 PDF Text Text Adsorption of Sizing Emulsion on Various Cellulosic Fibres Arif Karademir Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering, Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey arifkarademir@yahoo.com Hulya Varlıbas Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering, Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey Selim Karahan Kahramanmaras Sutcuimam University Faculty of Forestry, Department of Forest Product Engineering, Bahcelievler Campus Kahramanmaras, Turkey Sami Đmamoğlu Artvin Coruh University, Faculty of Forestry Department of Forest Product Engineering, Artvin, Turkey, imamoğlusami@gmail.com Abstract: Adsorption of any chemicals over pulp stock during wet-end operations in paper manufacturing is extremely important for effectiveness, waste treatment, close system operation and so on. This paper investigates the adsorption characteristics of AKD emulsions over various pulp blends containing bleached, unbleached fibres and secondary fibres obtained from some waste paper grades. Fibre suspensions with different properties were mixed with various amounts of sizing emulsions under different conditions and the amount of adsorbed sizing agents were monitored by gas chromatography studies. The optimum amount of sizing adsorption needs to be achieved giving higher retention, clear drainage and good water repellent properties. Work is believed to offer some useful information to especially papermills utilising waste papers at neutral or alkaline conditions. Keywords: Paper making, adsorption, sizing, retention, waste water, GC. Introduction Many paper and paper products are required to show some degree of resistance to liquids, such as water, drinks and so on. Various water-repellent materials, called sizing agent, have been tried to bring such properties to papers and some of them are currently used in the industry. Sizing agents can be added into the pulp suspension before formation or can be applied over dry paper. The first one is known as “internal sizing” while the latter is called as “surface sizing”. Until recently rosin was the most commonly used sizing agent which had been introduced to paper industry around 1850 by Morritz Illig. Rosin emulsion is prepared by the saponification of resin which is extracted from stands of softwoods and/or obtained from some chemical pulping processes as byproducts. Rosin emulsion must be used with alumunium sulphate to maintain attachments of rosin over cellulosic fibres in a pulp suspension. System works best at pH between 4,5-5,5, hence it is called as acid system and the product produced is named as acid paper (Roberts, 1992; Karademir and Imamoglu, 2005). Around 1990’ies, a new waxy sizing agent took a significant attention from papermakers which is manufactured from a stearic and palmitic acid, alkyl keten dimer (AKD). AKD is melted and mixed with cooked 780 �cationic starch to produce a milky emulsion. AKD is accepted a widespread wellcome from papermakers since it works at neutral-alkali conditions and attach to fibres via cationic starches on its particle shell. During drying, tiny wax in its particle melt and spread over fibres then eventually develop ester bonds with cellulose. AKD is, therefore, called as reactive sizing agent. Detailed information on subject is available in the literature (Roberts, 1991; Karademir et al, 2004; Hubbe, 2006). Paraffin is also a water repellent chemical which consists of a long aliphatic hydrocarbon chain. Some fibreboard and particle board manufacturer normally use paraffin emulsion as surface application. It is also used paper manufacturing too. Retention of sizing chemicals used in a pulp suspension is a crucial mechanism which must be maintained at high degree. Sizing chemicals must be firstly adsorbed onto the stock, preferably fibres, and should be evenly distributed in the paper matrix. The chemical retention mechanism plays real important role in the retention of such paper additives when using pulps with long fibres. If pulps having lots of fines, fillers and small particles are used, then the mechanical retention too would be very important in addition to chemical one. In such situation, sizing particles normally tend to attach on small components of pulp due to their greater surface area. Therefore, it is critically important to maintained higher fine retention (first pass retention) to be able to hold sizing chemicals in the forming sheets (Roberts, 1991; Voutilainen, 1996; Jian and Deng, 2000; Karademir et al, 2005; Hubbe, 2006; Ravnjack et al, 2007). Mechanical retention is quite difficult in recycling papermills since pulps naturally contain lots of small ingredients, fines and chemicals. The problem should be solved to run a close up system efficiently where used water is circulated in a loop and offers many environmental benefits (Imamoglu et al, 2005a; Imamoglu et al, 2005b). Experimental Materials and Methods Fibres and Chemicals Bleached both long and short fibres and also unbleached long fibres were used as virgin wood pulps. Pulps from old office paper, newspaper and corrugated box were also prepared as secondary fibres. Just long fibres (bleached and unbleached) were beaten in a PFI mill in accordance with Tappi T 248 sp-08 method until 37 SR° values are reached. Three commercial sizing emulsions were used. AKD and rosin emulsions were obtained from Kahramanmaraş Papermill (Kahramanmaras, Turkey) and paraffin emulsion was obtained from Caran Chemical (Izmir, Turkey). The solid content of AKD was %25 while rosin and paraffin emulsions were at %40. Handsheets Making and Testing Pulp from old newspaper was used to compare the effects of three sizing emulsions on the both Cobb and breaking force values (TAPPI T 494 om-88) of resultant papers. Long unbleached fibres were also used to see the effects of beating and increasing sizing addition on the Cobb and tensile index of sheets (TAPPI T 494 om-88). Tappi 205 sp-95 method was followed for papermaking. Gas Chromatography Study Calculated AKD emulsions were added to various pulp slurries prepared at 0,5 consistency in a Dynamic Drainage System (DDS). Mixture was initially stirred at 500rpm for 3 minutes, then at 200 rpm for 1 minute. And then, the suspension was filtered on 200 mesh wire just after 10 seconds waiting without mixing. Filtered fibre mats were allowed to air dry, then retained AKD was extracted from samples according to method followed by Karademir (Karademir, 2002). Extracts were analysed in a capillary gas chromatography (Perkin Elmer, Clarus 500). Results Sizing Emulsions and Contributions Pulp from old newspapers was prepared at a laboratory disintegrator and a number of sheets were made in a British sheet former at 100 g/m2 grammage with different addition levels of three sizing emulsions. It is clearly seen in figure 1 that AKD and paraffin emulsions were quite effective in making handsheets hydrophobic compared to rosin emulsion. Retention levels of sizing chemicals on dry basis and also reaction mechanisms with cellulosic fibres need to be discussed here to be able to evaluate the sizing emulsions. What is known is that rosin and AKD can develop chemical bonds in sheets during drying stage if retained, whereas paraffin just physically covers the surfaces making a barrier to penetrating liquids. Unfortunately, we can only plot the Cobb values versus theoretical sizing addition levels rather then exact retained amount. 781 �100 Rosin 90 Paraffin 80 AKD Cobb (g/m2) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Sizing Agent Added (mg/g) Figure 1: AKD emulsion gave the best Cobb value with little dry content. Figure 2 shows the contribution of sizing agents on paper strength, represented as the breaking force. It seems that despite presenting in very small amount in papers, AKD molecules are thought to have developed extra bonds between fibres and pulp ingredients hence increasing sheets strength. Paraffin, however, remarkably reduced strength value. Paraffin probably wrapped up fibres in different intensities and just hindered the potential bond formation between fibres. Rosin emulsion was found to be almost stable showing no negative effects on sheet strength (Figure 2). 782 �30 AKD Rosin Breaking Force (N) 26 Paraffin 22 18 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Sizing Agent Added (mg/g) Figure 2: Sizing agents effecting sheet strength. Beating and Addition Levels on Cobb and Strength Increasing beatings were performed on the pulp of long unbleached fibres at PFI mill to see the changes on the sheet strength and Cobb value at %0,5 AKD emulsion level. As seen in figure 3, the beating represented, as Shopper Riegler value, improved tensile index of sheets to some degree, then level out. Cobb values show a rapid drop at the first beating, and then headed to gradual increase parallel to beating (Figure 3). 120 100 Cobb&Tensile Ind. 80 60 40 Tensile Index 20 Cobb 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Shopper Riegler Degree Figure 3: Effects of beating on Cobb and tensile index of sheets. 783 �Moderate beating makes fibres flexible and produces new surfaces as a result of both internal and external fibrillation. These all favour in making stronger, denser and smoother sheets. Excessive beating, on the other hand, causes damages on fibres and produces lots of fibre breaks, fines which may lead to retention problem and weak sheet formation. These depend on the intensity of beating and the real damages generated on the fibres. Fines having greater surface area adsorb huge amounts of sizing chemicals compared to fibres and may not be retained in the sheets. Therefore, sizing degree would be expected to drop in any case if fines in pulps are increased. 100 90 Tensile Index Cobb 80 70 Cobb&Tensile Ind. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0,0 1,0 2,0 3,0 4,0 5,0 6,0 % AKD Addition Figure 4: Effects of beating on Cobb and tensile index of sheets. AKD addition made positive changes on both paper strength and cobb value as seen in figure 4. Findings are in agreements with those presented in both figure 1 and 2 that AKD addition creates new chemical bonds between fibres. It is noted that excessive addition level of AKD above % 1 did not make a significant change. AKD Adsorption on Pulps Various pulps were mixed with %0,5 AKD emulsions, filtered, air dried and extracted with dichloromethane for 12 hours. It is known that air drying did not develop any chemical bonds between AKD molecules and cellulose (Ref) since AKD melting point is over 60°C. Therefore it was expected all AKD retained in filtered fibre mat to be extracted. Results plotted in figure 5 as extracted percentage of total added emulsion. Results suggest that most of the emulsion mixed with bleached short fibres were lost to back water. The retention in old office paper was also seen very poor. Newspaper on the other hand, despite being quite dirty pulp, was noted to keep most of the AKD emulsion in it. The adsorption of AKD emulsion in studied pulps were governed by the opposite charge attractions, between cationic starch molecules around AKD droplets and pulp ingredients. Retention of adsorbed AKD particles however depends on how good or bad papermaking ingredients stayed over wire. Flocculation and coagulation in fibre slurry, in this respect, directly increased the AKD retention. It is suggested that fibre suspensions poor in AKD retention should be adjusted in terms of charges and supported by retention aids. 784 �120 % Retained&Extracted 100 80 60 40 20 0 Bleached Short Office Newspaper Corrugated Bleached Long Control Pulp Sample Figure 5: Amounts of retained AKD as extractable portion from filtrated pulps. Conclusion Some degree of sizing is required for many papers. Sizing agents should not reduce paper properties other then Cobb value. AKD works well at small addition levels compared to other sizing agents studied here. Beating improved paper strength to some extend and improved Cobb value too. Severe beating, however, may not develop paper strength; but actually may reduce it due to destructive effects over fibres. AKD adsorptions over fibres are improved by opposite charge attractions. Adsorbed AKD on stock may be lost to back water if especially fine retention is not well enough. Acknowledgement This research was partly carried out under the Project (No:105M273) granted by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK). Authors sincerely thank to TUBITAK for this support. References Roberts, J. (1992). Neutral Sizing, PIRA Review of Pulp and Paper Technology, PIRA International, Leathered, Surrey, U.K. Karademir, A. and Imamoglu, S. (2005). Sizing of Lignocellulosic Fibres in Papermaking. Proceeding of First International Workshop, Novel Technologies in Pulp and Paper Industry Turkey, 28th-29th September 2005, Kahramanmaras, Turkey, pp. 1-13. Roberts, J. (1991). Alkyl ketene dimers-Reactivity in Paper Chemistry (J.C. Roberts, ed.), Chapman and Hall, New York, p.121. Karademir, A., Hoyland, R.W., H., Xiao, H. and Wiseman, N. (2004). A Study on the Effects of AKD and Ketone on Paper Sizing and Friction, Appita Journal, 57 (2), 116-119. Hubbe, A. M. (2006). Paper’s Resistance to Wetting-A Review of Internal Sizing Chemicals and Their Effects. BioResources 2 (1), 106-145. 785 �Karademir, A., Hoyland, R.W. (2003). The Sizing Mechanism of AKD and Its Effects on Paper Friction, Appita Journal, 56 (5), 380-384. Karademir, A., Chew, Y.S., Hoyland, R.W. and Xiao, H. (2005). Influence of Fillers on Sizing Efficiency and Hydrolysis of Alkyl Ketene Dimer, The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 83 (3), 603-606. Voutilainen, P. (1996). Competitive Adsorption of Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) on Pulp Fibres and CaCO3 Fillers, 1996 International Paper and Coating Chemistry Symposium, Canadian Pulp & Paper Association, 195-200. Jiang, H. and Deng, Y. (2000). The Effects of Inorganic Salts and Precipitated Calcium Carbonate Filler on the Hydrolysis Kinetics of Alkylketene Dimer, Journal of Pulp and Paper Science, 26 (6), 208-211. Ravnjack, D. Plazl, I. and Moze, A. (2007). Kinetics of Colloidal Alkylketene Dimer Particles Deposition on Pulp Fibers, Colloidal Polymer Science, 285, 907-914. Imamoglu, S., Atik, C and Karademir, A. (2005a) Problems Faced by Recycling Papermills. KAU, Journal of Artvin Forest Faculty, 6 (1-2), 179-190. Imamoglu, S., Karademir, A., Kirci, H. and Pesman, E., (2005b). Performance of Recycled Fibre on the Runnability of Paper Machine. Proceeding of First International Workshop, Novel Technologies in Pulp and Paper Industry Turkey, 28th-29th September 2005, Kahramanmaras, Turkey, 85-97. Karademir, A. (2002). Quantitave Determination of Alkyl Ketene Dimer (AKD) Retention in Paper Made on a Pilot Paper Machine. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 26 (5), 253-260. 786 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 628 Title A name given to the resource Adsorption of Sizing Emulsion on Various Cellulosic Fibres Author Author Karademir, Arif Varlıbas, Hulya Karahan, Selim İmamoğlu, Sami Abstract A summary of the resource. Adsorption of any chemicals over pulp stock during wet-end operations in paper manufacturing is extremely important for effectiveness, waste treatment, close system operation and so on. This paper investigates the adsorption characteristics of AKD emulsions over various pulp blends containing bleached, unbleached fibres and secondary fibres obtained from some waste paper grades. Fibre suspensions with different properties were mixed with various amounts of sizing emulsions under different conditions and the amount of adsorbed sizing agents were monitored by gas chromatography studies. The optimum amount of sizing adsorption needs to be achieved giving higher retention, clear drainage and good water repellent properties. Work is believed to offer some useful information to especially papermills utilising waste papers at neutral or alkaline conditions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/45e3ffb98449797d04b494a887c70bda.pdf 60c6d780d3ce5c9f6331b9378109b0fa PDF Text Text The Effects of Mycorrhizae Applications on Grapevine cv. Kalecik Karasi (Vitis Vinifera L.) Grafted onto Kober 5BB Rootstock Zeki Kara Selçuk University Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture 42003 Konya, Turkey zkara@selcuk.edu.tr Esra Erdoğan Selçuk University Natural and Applied Sciences Institute Department of Horticulture 42003 Konya, TR esraerdogan42@hotmail.com Abstract:Vascular Arbuscular mychorrhizae (AM) are symbiotic microorganisms as a renewable resource and a modern technology-based viticulture practices have been contributing to quality fruit production by supporting vineyard mineral nutrition, water uptake, and increase resistance against plant biotic and abiotic stress. Since wine grapes production is under developing industry in Turkey and has been grown mainly in rural area, and poor soils that is need to support by low cost renewable manner.In this study, the effects of different dosage mixture AM fungi as Biovam applications by dry formulation and Endo Roots by liquid formulation applications in vineyard soil just under plant foliage at 10 years old grapewine cv. Kalecik Karası (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted onto Kober 5BB rootstock at two weeks before full bloom in producer vineyard applications. Biovam and Endo Roots effects were evaluated in labs Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture as fruit set, yield, and fruit quality, and pruning waste weights. As a first growing season results there were significantly differences on fruit set, fruit yield, cluster weights, cluster size, fruit colors due to AM formulations and dosages. On the other hand there were no differences between berry size, berry weights, seed numbers in 100 berries, ⁰Brix, and total acidity of must, shoot length, pruning waste weights between Endo Roots and Biovam applications. Biovam application was hastened five days of harvest in same vegetation period. Introduction Biotechnology is expected to find out a new production model in which more food is produced with fewer inputs and in a sustainable manner. AM fungi possess important attributes to be major players in tomorrow’s agriculture. Some decades have gone by since the beginning of experimental research on AM fungi, but applications derived from this research are still largely limited to the inoculation of plants. After decades of fertilization, in rich countries, soil P levels have increased sometimes to reach threatening levels (Fixen, 2006). We need to produce more food with fewer inputs. The efficiency of nutrient utilization by crop plants can be enhanced using AM fungi. The AM symbiosis is a mutualistic association between the roots of a large number of plant species and a small group of fungi. The main feature of this symbiosis is the exchange of carbohydrates provided by the plant versus mineral nutrients provided by the fungus (Smith & Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1988; Smith & Read, 1997). This exchange is mediated, to a great part if not exclusively, by highly branched fungal structures (arbuscules) within root cortical cells. The observation that approximately 150 species of AM fungi (Morton & Bentivenga, 1994) colonize an estimated 225.000 species of plants (Law & Lewis, 1983) has led to the conclusion that AM fungi have wide host ranges. This situation indicates a high degree of adaptability and integration of the symbiotic process across a wide range of plant species (Smith & Read, 1997). 1 �Deficit irrigation enhances AM colonization of fine roots by mycorrhizal fungi in grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) in an arid climate (Schreiner, 2007) but deficit irrigation reduces fine root growth (Schreiner et al., 2007). AM plants were increased nutrition such as P (Karagiannidis et al., 1995; Karagiannidis et al., 1997; Petgen et al., 1998; Motosugi et al., 2002; Karandashov et al., 2004; Kesba & Al-Sayed, 2005; Caglar & Bayram, 2006; Schreiner et al., 2007; Almaliotis et al. 2008; Kaya, et al., 2009), N, K, B, (Cheng et al., 2008), Cu, S (Karagiannidis et al., 1995; Schreiner, 2007), Zn, Ca, Na, Fe, Al (Mortimer et al., 2005; Cavallazzi et al., 2007), Mn (Karagiannidis & Nikolaou, 1999), leaf chlorophyll concentration (Bavaresco & Fogher, 1992; 1996), plant growth (Petgen et al., 1998), shoot (Karagiannidis et al., 2007; Camprubi et al., 2008) and root dry weight (Bavaresco et al., 2000) in grapes and rootstocks. There was beneficial effects on the rooting and growth by Glomus fungi, especially G. mosseae and G. etunicatum (Zai et al., 2007), and changed root morphology, increased branching of first-order lateral roots of grapevine cuttings in rooting beds (Aguin et al., 2004), and increased lateral root number and consequently total root length (Schellenbaum et al., 1991), and enhance the ex vitro survival of micropropagated plantlets (Lovato et al., 1992; Krishna et al., 2005; Krishna et al., 2006; Cavallazzi et al., 2007), shoot and root mass of micropropagated grape rootstock plantlets (Rai, 2001; Zemke et al., 2003; Carretero et al., 2009), and increased refilling of root C reserves (Mortimer et al., 2005). AM fungi applications affected on hastening of bud sprouting, flowering, berry set and ripening of grape variety Perlette (Usha et al., 2005). There was evidence of AM fungi-mediated N-15 transfer was determined from cover crops to grapevines (Cheng & Baumgartner, 2004). There was up to 20% of plantfixed carbon was transferred to the fungus. Nitrogen transport by hyphae of AM fungi between a tetraploid of Kober 5BB [5BB (4x), Vitis riparia × V. berlandieri] grapevine to cover crop Vulpia myuros was determined (Motosugi & Terashima, 2008). The higher cytokinin concentrations were determined in stressed AM inoculated plants, the rootstocks 1108, 1103P, and 140 Ru (Nikolaou et al., 2003a), and hormonal balance was altered (Smith & Gianinazzi-Pearson, 1988; Hwang et al., 1992), and much more gibberellins biosynthesis determined (Khan et al., 2008). AM plants were higher crop loads (Schreiner, 2003) but the degree of responsiveness varied (Linderman & Davis 2001; Almaliotis et al., 2008). There was decrease heavy metal (Pb and Cd) uptake (Karagiannidis & Nikolaou, 1999), and increased resistance to root pathogens and tolerance to drought stress (Nikolaou et al., 2003b, Valentine et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2008), and induced a defense response against the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita in the grapevine (Li et al., 2006), and inhibits proliferation of some bacterial taxa (Vestergard et al., 2008). In this study, features of mixture AM applications as Biovam and Endo Roots of vineyard on wine grape cv. Kalecik Karası (Vitis vinifera L.) applications on fruit set, and fruit quality, ripening, vegetative development and pruning waste weight. The Study This study was held in University of Selcuk Faculty of Agriculture Department of Horticulture Konya, Turkey. Mixture of AM as Biovam bought from t&j enterprises http://www.tandjenterprises.com include 40 - 100 spore/ml endomycorrhiza and approximately 100 - 500 spore/ml ectomycorrhiza as Athrobacter globiformis, A. chrococcum, A. vinelandii, Bacillius subtillis, Pseudomonas alcaligenes, P. fluorescens, P. pseudoalcaligenes and P. putida and Trichoderma harzianum and T.koningii that has 20.000 alive cell per ml volume (Anonymous, 2009a). Mixture AM as trade mark Endo Roots includes 27.55% mychorrhiza (25% Glomus intraradices, 24% G. mossea, 24% G. aggregatum, 1% G. clarum, 1% G. monosporus, 1% G. deserticola, 1% G. brasilianum, 1% G. etunicatum, 1% Gigaspora margarita), 27.8% Humic acids, 18% Cold Water Kelp Extracts, 12% Ascorbic acid, 6% Amino Acids, 2.5% myoinoositol, 2.5% surfactants, 1.75% Thiamine (vitamin B1, 1% Alfa tocoferol (vitamin E), (Anonymous 2009b). Endo Roots bought from http://www.bioglobal.com.tr as liquid. Soil applications of Biovam and Endo Roots were done in 15 years old wine grape cv. Kalecik Karası grafted onto Kober 5 BB rootstock in a producer vineyard as 0, 5, and 10 ml per plant dosage. The applications as dry and liquid formulation were done in ground 15 cm deep and 10 cm width just below to foliar part and covered by soil and then irrigated by drip system at two weeks before full bloom. Comparative effects on AM applications were evaluated. 2 �Findings The Effects On Fruit Set, Yield, Cluster And Berry Weight The coctail michorhizea applications on winegrape cv Kalecik Karası at two weeks before full bloom significantly effected fruit set by dossage and type of michorhizea by each AM mixture. While the Endo Roots applications sligthly increased fruit set (as average 75.33%), Biovam applications significantly decreased (as 70.93%) fruit set, and it was 70.56% at Control (Table 1). The most effective dossage was E10 application were found 81.21% fruit set, and the most decreasing effet was B10 application that was recored as 53.87% fruit set. While excess dossage was so degrative in Biovam application, by 10 g Endo Root application was found more positive effective. Endo Roots applications almost no effects on yield per vinestock Biovam application decreased about a quarter yields in same vegetation. The highest yield was obtained by E5 application as 12.57 kg, and by Control was 12.13 kg. 10 g Biovam application was found the least yield effect as 6.63 kg /vinestock. Applications Endo Roots average Biovam average Control average 5 g AM average 10 g AM average E0 E5 E10 B0 B5 B10 Fruit set (%) 75.33 70.93 74.56 79.84 64.25 74.56 68.85 74.36 74.56 81.21 53.87 Yield (kg/vinestock) 12.00 a 9.38 b 12.13 a 10.97 a 8.97 b 12.13 ab 12.57 a 11.30 ab 12.13 ab 9.37 b 6.63 c Cluster weight (g) 248.01 a 210.37 b 252.87 a 207.55 a 227.15 a 252.87 a 274.63 a 216.53 ab 252.87 a 140.47 b 237.77 a Berry weight (g) 2.25 2.31 2.32 2.26 2.26 2.32 2.22 2.22 2.32 2.30 2.30 Table 1. The effects of michorhizea applications on fruit set, yield, cluster weight, and berry weight E0: Control Endo Roots, B0: Control Biovam, E5: 5 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B5: 5 g Biovam / vinestock, E10: 10 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B10: 10 g Biovam / vinestock. Average cluster weight of control application was 252.87 g, by 5 g Endo Root applied trial was 274.63 g as maximum, and 5 g Biovam trial was 140.47 g as minimum value. The differences between dosages found significantly. Excessive dosage as 10 g decreased cluster weight at both mychorrhizae brands. The alaysis of variance indicated that the effects of applications on cluster wieghts were found significantly between typ of michorrhizae and dosage (p< 0.05), and typ of michorrhizae x dosage interactions (p< 0.01). The highest berry weight was in Control as 2.32 g, average of Biovam applications was 2.31 g, and average of Endo Roots applications was 2.25 g. The Effects On Cluster And Berry Values Endo Roots applications were promoted cluster length than Biovam applications that were found significantly. The longest cluster was obtained by E5 as 19.97 cm, and the shortest cluster was obtained by B5 as 13.60 cm. The differences between typ of michorrhizae x dosage interactions were also significantly (p< 0.05, Table 2). Applications Endo Roots average Biovam average Cluster length (cm) 17.08 a 15.84 b Cluster width (cm) 11.36 10.47 3 Berry length (mm) 15.21 15.51 Berry (mm) 14.99 14.78 width Seed number in 100 berries 126.11 125.00 �Control average 5 g AM average 10 g AM average E0 E5 E10 B0 B5 B10 15.17 a 16.78 a 17.43 a 15.17 a 19.97 a 16.10 a 15.17 a 13.60 a 18.77 a 11.97 9.93 10.83 11.97 10.63 11.47 11.97 9.23 10.20 15.77 15.17 15.20 15.77 14.87 15.00 15.77 15.37 15.40 14.83 14.78 15.03 14.83 14.83 15.30 14.83 14.73 14.77 122.33 127.17 127.17 122.33 128.00 128.00 122.33 126.33 126.33 Table 2. The effects of michorhizea applications on cluster length, cluster width, berry length, and berry width, and seed number in 100 berries E0: Control Endo Roots, B0: Control Biovam, E5: 5 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B5: 5 g Biovam / vinestock, E10: 10 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B10: 10 g Biovam / vinestock. Cluster width was decreased by Control, Endo Roots, and Biovam applications that were 11.97 cm, 11.36 cm and 10.47 cm respectively. There was no statically significance on cluster width between AM applications. Berry lengths were found between 15.77 mm by Control and 14.87 mm by E5 applications. Berry widths were found between 15.30 mm by E10, and 14.73 mm by B5 applications. The differenced in berry lengths and berry widths were not significantly. The seed number in 100 berries were found between 128 by E5 and E10, and 122.33 by Control applications. There were no staticaly significance among AM effects on the seeds in 100 berries. The Effects on ºBrix and Titration Acidity of Fruit Juice The effects of AM applications on soluble solids of fruit juice were found between 18 ºBrix by B5, B10, and 16.5 ºBrix by E5, E10 applications meanwhile 17.4 ºBrix by Control (Table 3). The range of titration acidity was between 14.48 g/100 ml by E5, E10, and 13.15 g/100 ml by Control applications. There were no statistical difference between AM applications on soluble solids and titration acidity of fruit juice. On the other hand Biovam applications were hastened ripening up to 5 days. Applications ºBrix Endo Roots average Biovam average Control average 5 g AM average 10 g AM average E0 E5 E10 16.80 Titration acidity (g/100 ml) 14.10 17.87 17.40 17.30 17.30 17.40 16.50 16.50 13.97 13.15 14.48 14.48 13.15 14.58 14.58 Table 3. The effects of michorhizea applications on ºBrix and titration acidity of fruit juice E0: Control Endo Roots, B0: Control Biovam, E5: 5 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B5: 5g Biovam / vinestock, E10: 10 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B10: 10 g Biovam / vinestock. 4 �The Effects On Fruit Color AM applications were affected of L (ligth) values as incresed, and Biovam applied plants give more light fruits. The most dark red values obtained by Endo Roots applied plants as a (red) that were staticaly significant but the effects on b (yellow) values were found non significant. Michorrhizae dosage was statisticaly important (p<0.05) on L and a values. Applications Endo Roots average Biovam average Control average L (ligth) 34.844a 33.728b 32.026c a (red) - 1.7400a - 2.7960c - 2.0000b b (yellow) - 5.0700 - 4.8600 - 4.1040 Table 4. The effects of michorhizea applications on fruit color as L (ligth), a (red) ve b (yellow) The Effects On Shooth Growth, And Pruning Waste Weigth There were no staticaly significant difference recorded on the effects of AM applications on shooth length, shooth diameter, and pruning waste weigths. Maximum shoot length was obtained by B5 as 92 cm, and shortest shoots was obtained by E5 as 85.00 cm. Meanwhile heaviest pruning waste was obtained by B5 as 2.03 kg/vinestock, and least pruning waste was obtained by Control as 1.67 kg/ vinestock. Conclusions Applications of Endo Roots and Biovam on winegrape Kalecik Karası were effected fruit set. The most promote effect was obtained by 5 g Biovam per plant application, and least fruit set was obtained by 10 g Biovam application that was decreased fruit set. 5 g Endo Roots application inresed, and 10 g Ende Roots application decreased fruit set. This result could attribute difference between michorrhiza in products, and michorrhizal inoculation level of roots, and allso carbohidrates competition between fruits and AM michorrhiza just after application (Mortimer et al., 2005). Endo Roots applications were increased yield than Biovam applications, and maximum yield was recorded by E5 application as 12.57 kg/vinestock, and leas yield was B10 application as 6.63 kg/vinestock. B10 value was les than Control. This results also attribute michorrhizal infection due to dossage, and competition between plant and michorrizae (Linderman & Davis, 2001, Mortimer et al., 2005). Although the results is been presented in this mauscrit was obtained as same vegetation period was different from Schreiner (2003) Petgen et al., (1998), Karagiannidis et al. (2007) showed that positive correlation between AM colonisation and yield that were the second years results. 5 �Applications Endo Roots average Biovam average Control average 5 g AM average 10 g AM average E0 E5 E10 B0 B5 B10 Shooth length (cm) 89.78 88.56 88.33 88.50 90.67 88.33 85.00 96.00 88.33 92.00 85.33 Shooth diameter Pruning waste (mm) weigth (kg) 0.80 1.68 0.80 1.81 0.80 1.73 0.83 1.85 0.77 1.65 0.80 1.73 0.83 1.67 0.77 1.63 0.80 1.73 0.83 2.03 0.77 1.67 Table 5. The effects of michorhizea applications on shooth length, shooth diameter, and pruning waste weigth E0: Control Endo Roots, B0: Control Biovam, E5: 5 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B5: 5g Biovam / vinestock, E10: 10 g Endo Roots / vinestock, B10: 10 g Biovam / vinestock. AM applications were not effected in same vegetation seed numbers, berry weight, berry size, and ºBrix, shoot length, shoot diameter and pruning waste weights these are same with Karagiannidis et al. (2007), Hastened ripening result was recorded before by Usha et al., (2005), Kara (2009). Fruit color as light and red color increased by AM applications. This affect could be in fruit juice and product from processed fruit juice. On the other hand AM applications would be increased next vegetations (Karagiannidis et al., 2007, Almaliotis et al., 2008). Although Biovam applications were decreased fruit set that was recorded 8 weeks after application, at the and of vegetation period there was no staticaly significat differences between shoot length, shoot diameter and pruning waste weights. This was attributing to mycorrhizal adding plant nutrition and vegetative development after inoculation. Almost same results were by Petgen et al., (1998), Nikolaou et al. 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Effect of AM fungi on the growth and drought resistance of Cabernet Sauvignon cuttings. Journal of Northwest A & F University - Natural Science Edition. 36(11):191-196. Zai, X.M., Qin, P., Wan, S.W., Zhao, F.G., Wang, G., Yan, D.L. & Zhou, J. (2007). Effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the rooting and growth of beach plum (Prunus maritima) cuttings. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology. 82(6):863-866. Zemke, J.M., Pereira, F., Lovato, P.E., da Silva, A.L. (2003). Evaluation of substrates for mycorrhization and weaning of two micropropagated grapevine rootstocks. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira. 38(11):1309–1315. 9 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 319 Title A name given to the resource The Effects of Mycorrhizae Applications on Grapevine cv. Kalecik Karasi (Vitis Vinifera L.) Grafted onto Kober 5BB Rootstock Author Author Kara, Zeki Erdoğan, Esra Abstract A summary of the resource. Vascular Arbuscular mychorrhizae (AM) are symbiotic microorganisms as a renewable resource and a modern technology-based viticulture practices have been contributing to quality fruit production by supporting vineyard mineral nutrition, water uptake, and increase resistance against plant biotic and abiotic stress. Since wine grapes production is under developing industry in Turkey and has been grown mainly in rural area, and poor soils that is need to support by low cost renewable manner.In this study, the effects of different dosage mixture AM fungi as Biovam applications by dry formulation and Endo Roots by liquid formulation applications in vineyard soil just under plant foliage at 10 years old grapewine cv. Kalecik Karası (Vitis vinifera L.) grafted onto Kober 5BB rootstock at two weeks before full bloom in producer vineyard applications. Biovam and Endo Roots effects were evaluated in labs Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture as fruit set, yield, and fruit quality, and pruning waste weights. As a first growing season results there were significantly differences on fruit set, fruit yield, cluster weights, cluster size, fruit colors due to AM formulations and dosages. On the other hand there were no differences between berry size, berry weights, seed numbers in 100 berries, ⁰Brix, and total acidity of must, shoot length, pruning waste weights between Endo Roots and Biovam applications. Biovam application was hastened five days of harvest in same vegetation period. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e749cec198618212977351573d11d7bf.pdf 283b34ac1e3808a9c305c1c4ff475758 PDF Text Text Energy Harvesting from the Biomechanical Movements of Human Body Akın Oğuz Kaptı Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Sakarya, Turkey aokapti@sakarya.edu.tr Yavuz Soydan Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Sakarya, Turkey soydan@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: In this presentation, the subject of biomechanical energy harvesting, and the studies performed in this field are introduced. Currently used lower limb prostheses manufactured with modular components cannot properly provide the expected functions and the needs of daily living activities due to their passive structure. Although substantial effort has been made in the field of developing active prostheses, these devices have not adequately become widespread because of the necessity of carrying large and heavy batteries which must have been charged frequently. Therefore, some studies have been performed in order to generate energy by utilizing the biomechanical movements of the human body, such as a mechanism converting the mechanical energy from the vertical movement of carried suspended-load in backpack to electricity, and an energy harvester mounted at the knee joint which generates electricity, during human walking. To meet a portion of the energy requirement for amputees wearing the active lower limb prosthesis, and for individuals having high electricity demands in rural areas are aimed with the harvested energy. Introduction Many people with lower extremity amputations are using prostheses for restoration of their lost functions. The effective restoration of amputees’ lost functions can be acquired by the use of these prosthetic devices. This is one of the most important factors improving their life quality. Passive prostheses being currently in use do not respond to the needs of daily living activities of many amputees. For example, it is difficult to climb stairs with natural posture and to adjust the stiffness of the knee joint motion during the swing phase. High metabolic energy consumption and insufficient symmetry of the gait are the consequences of non-powered artificial joints. The duplication of the kinematics and dynamics of gait patterns is limited with conventional prostheses. They do not allow knee extension after heel strike at the beginning of the stance phase. The absence of the prosthetic leg’s push-off phase, which is due to the sudden contraction of the shank’s back face muscles at the end of the stance phase, causes the insufficient gait symmetry, shortens the stride length and decreases the gait velocity. In order to remove these disadvantages, it is necessary to add energy producing or storing modules to the system (Kapti, 2007). On the other hand, humans have become increasingly dependent on technology, particularly electronic devices. During the past decade, electronic devices have become more mobile, enabling people to use medical, communication, and global positioning system devices as they move around cities or in the wilderness. At present, all of these devices are powered by batteries, which have a limited energy storage capacity and add considerable weight. Although substantial progress has been made in reducing the power requirements of devices and increasing the power densities of batteries, there has not been a breakthrough in the parallel development of a portable and renewable human-driven energy source. The combination of limited energy and the large weight of batteries poses the most critical problem for individuals, such as field scientists or explorers, having high electricity demands in remote areas and who are already carrying heavy loads. At present, replacement batteries may make up a substantial proportion of the very heavy packs that such users must carry (Rome, 2005). During terrestrial locomotion, the environment does no work on the body and humans do no work on the environment. Almost all of the mechanical work is generated and dissipated inside the body. This makes it exceedingly difficult to capture mechanical energy to drive an electrical energy conversion apparatus, because 725 �the device would need to be either surgically placed within the body or attached to the outside of the body, which would affect the person’s maneuverability and comfort. Therefore, researchers in the field have focused on putting devices in the only accessible location. Although the shoe is the first thing comes to mind, such heelstrike devices have permitted only small levels of electrical energy generation. The primary reason for this limitation is that on a hard surface, essentially no mechanical work is done at the foot-ground contact point, because under normal circumstances the point of vertical force application does not move in the vertical plane. Although one can make the shoe compliant so that the foot moves a small distance because of compression of the sole and heel, this is problematic because increasing compliance leads to declining maneuverability and stability. Although considerable effort has gone into developing exotic energy-generating technologies for shoe devices, the small magnitude of the mechanical energy source remains a limitation (Rome, 2005). In order to help solving mobile human-driven energy problem, some studies for developing energy harvesting device which extracts mechanical energy from the human body movements during daily living activities, and converts it to electricity for powering portable devices were performed in the literature. The studies performed in the field of energy harvesting from the human body movements are mostly been on the regions of back, knee joints, and foot. In this review, after giving one example from the literature for each of these classifications, the applicability of biomechanical energy harvesting approaches in the field of active lower extremity prostheses will be examined. In the Backpack The vertical movement of a heavy load in the backpack carried in gravitational field during walking represents a source of mechanical energy and a potential opportunity to generate substantial levels of electricity. A walking person acts like an inverted pendulum. Due to this movement causing the center of mass of the body move up and down by 4 to 7 cm, a load in a backpack has to go up and down the same vertical distance. In the case of a 36-kg load and a 5-cm vertical load displacement, 18 J of mechanical energy transfer accompanies each step, and this is equivalent to 36 W, at the walking velocity of 2 steps per second. Although this represents a large potential source of mechanical energy, it is also inaccessible if the load is rigidly attached to the body. In order to extract this mechanical energy, Lawrence C. Rome et al. (Rome, 2005) developed the suspended-load backpack device decoupling the load from the body, to allow the differential movement between the load and the body for mechanical energy extraction and ultimately electricity production. In this device interposed between the body and the load (Fig. 1), the pack frame is fixed to the body, but the load is suspended by springs from the frame. During walking, the load is free to ride up and down on bushings constrained to vertical rods. Electricity generation was accomplished by attaching a toothed rack to the load plate, which when moving up and down during walking, meshed with a pinion gear mounted on a geared dc motor, functioning as a generator, rigidly attached to the backpack frame. Figure 1. The suspended-load backpack device (Rome, 2005). 726 �The average electrical power obtained by them was 5.6 W in the trial of 38-kg load and 4.5-cm relative movement of the load, and the number of revolution of 25:1 geared dc motor was reached up to 5000 rpm. Average electrical power increased with walking speed and the weight of the load. The maximum electrical power output obtained on the flat was 7.37 W. The mechanical power harvested by the generator is the product of the average force exerted on the rack, the displacement of the load, and the step frequency. The efficiency of conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy (that is, electrical power output divided by mechanical power input) was nearly constant (30 to 40%). To power portable devices or charge batteries, the alternating polarity of the voltage and current must be rectified. Using circuitry for voltage smoothing, the suspended-load backpack can power multiple devices such as cell phones (Rome, 2005). If generating electricity while wearing the backpack markedly increased metabolic rate, the device would be of limited use. One would expect that because mechanical energy is continuously removed from the system by the generator, the muscles would need to perform additional mechanical work during electricity generation in order to replace it. For instance, the mechanical power input to the generator is 12.15 W while walking at 5.6 km/h and carrying a 29-kg load. Because the maximum efficiency of mechanical power production by human muscle is about 25% (Margarira, 1968), if the body movement was the same, one might anticipate a minimum increase of 48.6 W in metabolic power input. They measured the rate of O2 consumption and CO2 production of participants walking with the backpack. They found that the metabolic rate increase compared to that with the locked backpack was only about 19.1 W, which is much less than would be predicted. These results indicate that electricity can be generated metabolically more cheaply than anticipated (Rome, 2005). The energy-harvesting backpack is novel because it generates useful amounts of electrical power while costing less metabolic energy than would be expected. The saving only applies in comparison to a person already walking with a heavy load. The explanation may lie in the transition between pendulum-like walking steps, when the body’s center of mass is redirected from one pendular arc to the next (Fig. 2). The center of mass is located near the hip joints and undergoes a small U-shaped displacement during this step-to-step transition, which occurs mainly when both legs contact the ground. Force is exerted by, and directed along, each leg, with the leading leg performing negative work on the center of mass and the trailing leg positive work. The leading leg’s force is at such an angle with the direction of center of mass displacement that negative work is unavoidable, if the center of mass is to be redirected to another pendular arc. This negative work is thought to be largely dissipated as an energy loss. An equal magnitude of positive work performed by the trailing leg cancels this loss, as is needed to walk at steady speed (Kuo, 2005). Figure 2. Simple models of an energy-harvesting backpack and its relation to human walking (Kuo, 2005). On the Knee Joint J. M. Donelan et al. (Donelan, 2008) have developed a device that generates electricity during human walking with little extra effort. The general view, the internal structure and the schematic diagram of this device called biomechanical energy harvester are shown in Fig. 3. The device has an aluminum chassis and generator mounted on an orthopedic knee brace, totaling 1.6-kg mass, with one worn on each leg (Fig. 3-A). The chassis contains a gear train that converts low velocity and high torque at the knee into high velocity and low torque for the generator, with a one-way roller clutch that allows for selective engagement of the gear train during knee extension only and no engagement during knee flexion (Fig. 3-B). The schematic diagram shows how a computer-controlled feedback system determines when to generate power using knee-angle feedback, measured with a potentiometer mounted on the input shaft (Fig. 3-C). For electrical power generation over longer durations, it would be desirable to harvest energy from everyday activities such as walking. Unlike conventional humanpowered generators that use positive muscle work, their technology assists muscles in performing negative work. Energy-harvesting performance was tested (see Donelan, 2008) on six male subjects who wore a device on each 727 �leg while walking on a treadmill at 1.5 m/s. For convenient testing, generated electrical power is dissipated with a load resistor rather than being used to charge a battery. The energy harvester mounts at the knee and selectively engages power generation at the end of the swing phase. Test subjects walking with one device on each leg produced an average of 5 W of electricity. They estimated metabolic cost using a standard respirometry system and measured the electrical power output of the generator. In the continuous-generation mode, subjects generated 7.0 ± 0.7 W of electricity with an insignificant 18 ± 24 W increase in metabolic cost over that of the control condition. This electricity is sufficient to power 10 typical cell phones simultaneously. The results demonstrate that substantial electricity could be generated with minimal increase in user effort. Producing substantial electricity with little extra effort makes this method well-suited for charging powered prosthetic limbs and other portable medical devices (Donelan, 2008). Figure 3. Biomechanical energy harvester (Donelan, 2008). (a: the general view of the device, b: the inertial structure of the device, c: the schematic diagram of the device) Under the Sole The ankle normally produces a larger work than any other joint during walking (Winter, 1991). Ankle impairments following amputation, joint fusion or stroke typically reduce ankle work and increase metabolic energy expenditure by at least 20%, comparable to carrying an extra 15 kg load or walking 20% faster. Ankle function might be restored by powering the joint directly, a technique that shows promise (Sawicki, 2008, Au, 2009) but requires large motors and energy sources that are heavy and bulky. Much of the dissipation in normal walking occurs when the body center of mass velocity is redirected at the transition between steps. During each step, the stance leg behaves similarly to an inverted pendulum as it transports the center of mass along an arced path. When the other leg contacts the ground, it flexes slightly and performs dissipative negative work as it redirects the center of mass to the arced path of the next step as part of the step-to-step transition. To walk at steady speed, all dissipation must be recovered by an equal amount of positive work. Total work may theoretically be minimized if the positive work is performed by trailing leg push-off and timed immediately before heel-strike, reducing the change in center of mass velocity performed by the collision. This reduces both the dissipation and the amount of positive work needed to recover loss. Normal ankle push-off appears appropriate for this purpose, performing positive work beginning just before and in nearly equal magnitude to the collision loss. If the collision energy can be successfully recycled, it may therefore be sufficient to supplement an impaired push-off (Collins, 2009). Steven H. Collins and Arthur D. Kuo (Collins, 2009) developed an energy-recycling artificial foot (Fig. 4) that captures collision energy and returns it for push-off. 1.37-kg weighed this device approximates the size and form of a conventional prosthetic foot, but has separate rear-foot and fore-foot components that rotate about an axis at mid-foot. When the heel contacts the ground at the beginning of a stride, the rear-foot component rotates and compresses a coil spring. At maximum compression, the rear-foot is latched by a continuous one-way clutch. Rather than releasing the spring energy spontaneously as in conventional elastic prostheses, our device stores it until sufficient load is detected on the fore-foot. It then releases the fore-foot, and the spring provides push-off as the person begins to unload the trailing leg, with timing similar to normal ankle push-off. A small return spring resets the device during the ensuing swing phase, so that the rear-foot is in position for the next step. All of the energy capture is performed passively, so that the only active elements are a microcontroller and two micro-motors that release the energy-storing spring and reset the mechanism. The device is powered by a small battery at about 0.8 W of electricity. Active control of energy storage and return distinguishes this device 728 �from conventional prosthetic feet with passive elastic elements, which have not been found to significantly reduce the metabolic energy consumption of walking with ankle impairment, while low electrical power requirements distinguish it from other robotic prostheses. Steven H. Collins and Arthur D. Kuo (Collins, 2009) tested the artificial foot on able-bodied human subjects walking with an artificially-immobilized ankle, at a speed of 1.25 m/s. Subjects wore the device on one leg using a prosthesis simulator, a rigid boot that immobilizes the ankle and provides a prosthesis attachment beneath the foot. This allowed direct comparison between normal walking and prosthesis test conditions. Subjects also wore a lift shoe on the other foot to equalize height. The device was compared against a conventional prosthetic foot. Mechanical performance was recorded through motion capture and a force plate-instrumented treadmill. They used motion and force data to estimate the work captured and returned by the device, the work performed by the human leg and device on the center of mass, and the work performed at each biological joint. They also recorded rates of oxygen consumption to estimate metabolic energy expenditure. The conventional prosthesis reduced ankle push-off and increased metabolic expenditure for all subjects. The energy recycling artificial foot captured collision energy and returned it as positive ankle work later in stance phase, resulting in greater push-off and lower metabolic expenditure than with the conventional prosthesis. The rate of increasing of metabolic expenditure was determined as 23.1% for conventional prosthesis, and as 13.8% for the energy recycling artificial foot, and 9.3% improvement was provided (Collins, 2009). Figure 4. Prototype energy recycling device (Collins, 2009). (A: The general view of the device, B: Schematic design, C: The energy recycling sequence) Figure 5. Experimental setup (Collins, 2009). (A: The energy recycling device, conv. prost. and the lift shoe, B: Experimental setup, C: Experimental results) Applications on the Active Prostheses Currently used lower limb prostheses manufactured with modular components cannot properly provide the expected functions and the needs of daily living activities due to their passive structure. In order to contribute to the developments of new kinds of prosthetic system and to remove the insufficient properties of the prostheses, 729 �a force controlled elastic prosthesis mechanism that can be utilized as artificial ankle and knee joints for active lower extremity prostheses was designed and produced as a mechanism consisting of brushless dc-servomotor, ball-nut and screw, elastic component, measuring elements, guide columns, ball bearings and bushes. The force output of the elastic mechanism is calculated by measuring the displacement of the spring with the linear potentiometer. An above-knee prosthesis consisting of this elastic mechanism was also designed and produced. General view of this above-knee prosthesis, and the principle of application on human body are shown in Fig. 6. Although substantial effort has been made in the field of developing active prostheses, these devices have not adequately become widespread because of the necessity of carrying large and heavy batteries which must have been charged frequently. This system has to carry its power generating system consisting motor component and battery set, which is heavy and bulky. Our system consists of the 220 W servomotor and Li-ion battery set. Mobile energy requirement is the most crucial difficulties faced in the externally powered artificial orthopaedic devices. Therefore, in order to solve this difficulty, utilizing the studies mentioned above is proposed [a mechanism converting the mechanical energy from the vertical movement of carried suspended-load in backpack to electricity (see Rome, 2005); an energy harvester mounted at the knee joint which generates electricity (see Donelan, 2008); an energy recycling device (Collins, 2009)]. To meet a portion of the energy requirement for amputees wearing the active lower limb prosthesis, and for individuals having high electricity demands in rural areas are aimed with the harvested energy. Figure 6. General view of the active above-knee prosthesis, and the principle of application on human body (Kapti, 2009). Acknowledgements The work described in this paper is supported by Scientific Research Projects Presidency of Sakarya University. (Project number: 2009-50-01-067) References Au, S.K., Weber, J., Herr, H. (2009). Powered ankle-foot prosthesis improves walking metabolic economy. IEEE Trans. Robot. (25). 51-66. Collins, S. (2008). Controlled Energy Storage and Return in a Prosthetic Foot. Dynamic Walking. T.U.Delft. Collins, S.H., Kuo, A.D. (2009). Recycling Energy to Restore Impaired Ankle Function during Human Walking”, Public Library of Science, 5, (accepted). Donelan, J.M., Li, Q., Naing, V., Hoffer, A., Weber, D.J., Kuo, A.D., (2008) Biomedical Energy Harvesting: Generating Electricity During Walking With Minimal User Effort. Science. 319, 807-810. 730 �Margaria, R. (1968). Positive and negative work performances and their efficiencies in human locomotion. Eur J Appl Physiol (25) 339-351. Kaptı, A.O. (2009). Kuvvet Kontrollü Elastik Aktivatör Tasarımı ve Aktif Kontrollü Alt Ekstremite Protezlerinde Uygulanması, TÜBĐTAK 1001 Projesi-106M468 Proje Sonuç Raporu, (in Turkish). Kaptı, A.O., Cerit, M., Soydan, Y., Özcerit, A.T. (2009). Force Controlled Elastic Actuator for Lower Limb Prostheses. ISB2009, XXII. Congress of Int. Society of Biomechanics, Cape Town. Kaptı, A.O., Cerit, M., Soydan, Y., Özcerit, A.T. (2007). A Preliminary Study on Ankle Simulator Design for Active Lower Extremity Prostheses. JIBEC’07, 1st Jordanian Int. Biomedical Engineering Conference, Amman. Kuo, A.D. (2005). Harvesting Energy by Improving the Economy of Human Walking. Science. 309, 16861687. Rome, L.C., Flynn, L., Goldman, E.M., Yoo, T.D., “Generating Electricity While Walking with Loads”, Science 309, 1725-1728, 2005. Sawicki GS, Ferris DP (2008) Mechanics and energetics of level walking with powered ankle exoskeletons. J Exp Biol 211: 1402-1413. Winter DA (1991) The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological. Waterloo: Waterloo Biomechanics. 731 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 622 Title A name given to the resource Energy Harvesting from the Biomechanical Movements of Human Body Author Author Kaptı, Akın Oğuz Soydan, Yavuz Abstract A summary of the resource. In this presentation, the subject of biomechanical energy harvesting, and the studies performed in this field are introduced. Currently used lower limb prostheses manufactured with modular components cannot properly provide the expected functions and the needs of daily living activities due to their passive structure. Although substantial effort has been made in the field of developing active prostheses, these devices have not adequately become widespread because of the necessity of carrying large and heavy batteries which must have been charged frequently. Therefore, some studies have been performed in order to generate energy by utilizing the biomechanical movements of the human body, such as a mechanism converting the mechanical energy from the vertical movement of carried suspended-load in backpack to electricity, and an energy harvester mounted at the knee joint which generates electricity, during human walking. To meet a portion of the energy requirement for amputees wearing the active lower limb prosthesis, and for individuals having high electricity demands in rural areas are aimed with the harvested energy. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5aa802c5dd8053a721ac1f6c2bb2678b.pdf 5858f8f47850faa5a77de9636f7c9f78 PDF Text Text The Determination of Prolactin Gene Polymorphism Using PCR-RFLP Method within Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo and Brown Swiss Selçuk Kaplan Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey selkaplan@selcuk.edu.tr Saim Boztepe Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya / Turkey sboztepe@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: The objective of this research was to determine the prolactin gene polymorphism within Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed and Brown Swiss cattle by using PCR-RFLP method. Experimental material for this study consists of 45 Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed and 30 Brown Swiss cattle. According to the research evidence, Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed was monomorphic at the exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci. On the other hand, the polymorphism association with exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci detected in Brown Swiss cattle. The allelic frequencies (A, B) in Brown Swiss cattle were 0.82 and 0.18, respectively. The genotype frequencies of AA and AB were 0.63 and 0.37, respectively. The BB genotype was not found in the present study. Keywords: Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo, Brown Swiss, prolactin, polymorphism, PCR-RFLP Introduction Nowadays, molecular methods such as RAPD, RFLP, AFLP, STS, STR, SNP have been increasing in animal breeding. To determine the specific genes concerning with economic characteristics of farm animals; first of all candidate genes involved in those should be studied. Some genes are shown as candidates associated with milk yield and characteristics for marker assist selections (MAS) in dairy cattle. As a matter of fact that prolactin affects not only improving mammary glands, but also initiation and maintenance of lactation. Having all these influences and qualities, it comes foreground among the candidate genes. Prolactin as the first pituitary gland hormone was purified and identified nearly 80 years ago. Prolactin was named as pro–lactin because of the stimulatory effects on lactation and mammary gland development. Prolactin is known to have more than 300 biological activities such as water and electrolyte balance, growth and development, immune and reproductive function (Gregerson, 2006). It has been identified that prolactin is secreted in many different places as neurons, prostate, mammary epithelial, endothelial cells and skin cell (Lastra et al., 2002). The number amino acid of prolactin, which is a hormone structure of polypeptide, changes with regard to the species of the living organisms. For example, while prolactin consists of 197 amino acid in rats and mice; it consists of 199 amino acid in human, sheep, cattle and pigs (Freeman et al., 2000). Prolactin is located on chromosome 23 in cattle and comprised of 5 exons and 4 introns (Dybus et al., 2005). There are many studies in relation to prolactin gene polymorphism. A significant portion of these works is composed of RFLP and SSCP mutations (Brym et al., 2005). As an example of these mutations, Mitra et al., (1995) detected the exon 3 A-G point mutation The aim of this study was to determine the exon 3 prolactin gene polymorphisms both Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed, which is covered the gene resources conservation program for decreasing 168 �numbers in Turkey, and Brown Swiss cattle, which has an important place in the existence of culture breed cattle. Material and Method Material and DNA Isolation Blood samples for DNA isolation for Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed were collected from Amasya, Afyon, Konya and Sivas provinces in Turkey. Brown Swiss blood samples were provided from Konuklar State Farm in Konya province. Genomic DNAs was extracted from blood samples using salting out technique with slightly modifications (Miller, 1998). PCR Amplification Detection of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was carried out according to Mitra et al., (1995). The 156-bp fragment of the exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci was amplified using following primers: forward:5’- CGA GTC CTT ATG AGC TTG ATT CTT -3’, and reverse: 5’- GCC TTC CAG AAG TCG TTT GTT TTC -3’. The PCR was performed in a reaction volume of 15 µl containing approximately 50100 ng of genomic DNA, 1x Buffer (pH: 8.5), 1.5 mM MgCl2 (supplied with the enzyme), 0.27 µM of each primer, 0.25 µM dNTPs and 0.4 units of Taq polymerase (Fermantas) with 9.48 ul sterile distilled water. The PCR application conducted in Thermal Cycler (Techne TC-512). The PCR conditions included initial denaturation step for 2 min at 94°C, followed by 35 cycles with denaturation at 94°C for 45 sec; annealing at 60°C for 45 sec; extention at 72°C for 1 min and final exention for 5 min at 72°C. The amplified DNA fragment of the exon 3 PRL loci was digested at 37°C for overnight with RsaI (5 U/ul, Fermantas). The digestion products were separated on 3% Prona agarose gel (Nu microphor ) in 1x TRIS-borate-EDTA (TBE) buffer. The gel was stained with ethidium bromide and visualized in gel documentation system under UV light by means of transilluminator. Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis was carried out by PopGene Version 1.32 (Yeh et al., 1997). The Chi-square test was used to evaluate whether the population was Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (Düzgüneş et al., 1983). Results and Discussion As a result of this study prolactin gene exon 3 Rsa I digestion in Indigenous Water buffalo and Brown Swiss cattle is shown in Figure 1. The genotype and allele frequencies at PRL-RsaI loci in Brown Swiss cattle are shown in Table 1. Figure 1. Restriction analysis of PRL 156 – bp PCR products digested with Rsa I on 3% Prona agarose gel (Nu microphor ) electrophoresis stained with ethidium bromide. 1 – 2: PCR products, M: 100 bp ladder marker, C: Control, AB: Rsa I digested PCR product ( 156, 82, 74 bp) and AA: Undigested PCR product. 169 �PRL-RsaI loci N Observed 30 Genotypes AA 19 AB 11 BB 0 Allel frequency A B 0.82 0.18 (χ²)1 Genotype frequency AA 0.63 Expected 30 20.172 8.856 0.972 0.67 1 Test of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium; Ns: not significant. (P > 0.05) AB 0.37 BB 0.00 0.30 0.03 1.356293 Ns 0.557 Ns Table 1. The genotype and allele frequencies at exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in Brown Swiss cattle Table 1 shows the allelic frequencies (A, B) in Brown Swiss cattle were 0.82 and 0.18, respectively. The genotype frequencies of AA and AB were 0.63 and 0.37, respectively. The BB genotype was not found in the present study. According to the Chi-square test, the result of Brown Swiss cattle population has emerged in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The recent studies with regard to exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in buffalo breed and cattle are presented in Table 2. Source Alipanah et al., 2007 Skinkytė et al., 2005 Maksymiec et al., 2008 Udina et al., 2001 Dybus et al., 2005 Kumari et al., 2008 Miceikienė et al., 2006 Khatami et al., 2005 Dybus et al., 2005 Kumari et al., 2008 Skinkytė et al., 2005 Öztabak et al., 2008 Miceikienė et al., 2006 Udina et al., 2001 Öztabak et al., 2008 Mitra et al., 1995 Kumari et al., 2008 Kumari et al., 2008 Sacravarty et al., 2008 Mitra et al., 1995 Khatami et al., 2005 Ghasemi et al., 2009 Alipanah et al., 2007 Udina et al., 2001 Khatami et al., 2005 Mitra et al., 1995 Mitra et al., 1995 Ladani et al., 2003 Buffalo Cattle Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Holstein Jersey Jersey Lithuanian Red South Anatolian Red Lithuanian Red Russian Gorbatov Red East Anatolian Red Sahiwal Sahiwal Kankrej Kankrej Holstein Holstein Montbeliarde Red Holstein Russian Aryshire Yoroslav Murrah Nili-Ravi Mehsani 170 N 72 52 720 23 242 223 109 32 185 143 136 40 168 35 40 57 13 26 57 23 32 120 98 46 120 53 19 44 Allele Frequencies (%) A B 0.71 0.79 0.58 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.80 0.98 0.30 0.55 0.87 0.74 0.77 0.91 0.56 0.51 0.88 0.60 0.51 0.80 0.61 0.89 0.79 0.85 0.65 0.93 0.84 0.50 0.29 0.11 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.69 0.45 0.13 0.26 0.23 0.8 0.44 0.49 0.12 0.40 0.49 0.20 0.39 0.11 0.21 0.14 0.35 0.07 0.16 0.50 R AB* α α α α α α α α α α α α α α α α α BB* α α AA* BB* α α α α α �Ladani et al., 2003 Ladani et al., 2003 Average Surti Jaffarabadi 30 23 0.48 0.43 0.73 0.52 0.57 0.27 α α R: The relationship between genotype and milk yield; * Significant relationship between genotype and milk yield; α: Not estimated relationship between genotype and milk yield Table 2. The recent studies with regard to exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in buffalo breed and cattle As it can be seen from Table 2, there is no literature encountered with reference to exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci polymorphism in Brown Swiss cattle. As for the Holstein cattle, which is known as high milk yield over the world, the highest frequency of allele A (0.98) in the analysed population of Holstein cattle reported by Khatami et al., (2005). On the other hand the smallest frequency of allele A (0.58) reported by Maksymiec et al., (2008). In addition, Alipanah et al., (2007) reported that AB genotype breed in Holstein cattle have higher milk yield than AA and BB genotype. In this study, we found exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci polymorphism in 11 of 30 Brown Swiss cattle. The frequencies of exon 3 PRL-RsaI alleles were found as follows; A (0.82), B (0.18) in Brown Swiss cattle. The average frequencies of A and B allele in literature were 0.73 and 0.27, respectively. The frequencies of allele’s exon 3 PRL-RsaI in this study were identical in comparison with literature. As for the genotype frequencies, AA, AB and BB genotypes were found 0.63, 0.37 and 0.00, respectively. According to the results of studies in Table 2, it is clear that the frequency of B allele is quite low. Because of these results, BB genotype is quite low too. Another result of in this study, Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed was monomorphic at the exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci. However, Mitra et al., (1995) reported that the allelic frequency of A was found as 0.93 and 0.84, respectively in Murrah and Nili Ravi buffalo breed. In addition, the study made by Ladani et al., (2003) as to exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in Mehsani, Surti and Jaffarabadi buffalo breed, the frequencies of A allele was found 0.50, 0.48 and 0.43, respectively. As mentioned previously in this study, prolactin gene mutation in exon 3 RsaI digestion site is not observed 45 Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed. This result is identical to the results have been reported by Mitra et al., (1995). These researchers who carried out the study about exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in Murrah, Nili Ravi and Egypt buffalo breed stated that they have observed mutations in Murrah and Nili Ravi buffalo breed, whereas they have not observed any mutation in Egypt buffalo breed. As a result of this study, they have concluded that identified prolactin gene mutations in exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci may vary according to the type of buffalo. Yet, these interestingly enough, mutations couldn’t be detected in some buffalo species. Hence, we thought that couldn’t be found any mutation in exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci in Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed may be a result of this situation. Conclusion At the end of the recent studies, some researchers have emphasized that there is a strict relationship between genotypes and milk yield. Some researchers (Alipanah et al., 2007; Ghasemi et al., 2009 and Sacravarty et al., 2008) claimed that AB genotype in Holstein cattle has higher milk yield than other genotypes. Alipanah et al., (2007) stated that AA genotype cattle has higher milk yield in Montbeliarde cattle. Ghasemi et al., (2009) proposed BB genotype in Kankrej cattle. However, these studies in question have a small place in all of the study. Consequently, in order to have more concrete results and more sound decisions about prolactin gene further investigations should be done due to the fact that prolactin has a significant influence on lactation and mammary gland development. 171 �Acknowledgments This research was supported by a master research project from the Coordinatory of Scientific Research Projects of Selcuk University, Turkey. We thank to Konuklar State Farm for providing blood samples. References Alipanah, M., Kalashnikova, L., & Rodionov, G. (2007). Association of prolactin gene variants with milk production traits in Russian Red Pied cattle. Iranian J. of Bıotech., 5: 3. Brym., P, Kaminski, S, & Wojcik, E, (2005). Nucleotide sequence polymorphism within exon 4 of the bovine prolactin gene and its associations with milk performance traits. J Appl. Genet., 45: 179-185 Dybus, A., Grzesıak, W., Kamıenıeckı, H., Szatkowska, I., Sobek, Z., Błaszczyk, P., Czernıawska-Pıątkowska, E., Zych, S. & Muszyńska, M. (2005). Association of genetic variants of bovine prolactin with milk production traits of Black-and-White and Jersey cattle . Arch. Tierz., Dummerstorf 48: 149-156 . Düzgüneş, O., Kesici, T. & Gürbüz, F. (1983). Đstatistik Metodları. Ankara Üni. Zir. Fak. Yay. No: 229. Freeman, M.E., Kanyicska, B., Lerant, A. & Nagy, G. (2000). Prolactin: structure, function, and regulation of secretion. Physiol Rev., 80: 1523–1631. Ghasemi, N., Zadehrahmani, M., Rahimi, G., & Hafezian, S. H. (2009). Associations between prolactin gene polymorphism and milk production in montebeliard cows. Int. J. of Genet. Molec. Bio., 1: 048-051. Gregerson, K. A. (2006). Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion. In Knobil and Neill’s Physiology of Reproduction (J. D. Neill, Ed). Academic Press, St. Louis. Khatami, S. R., Lazebny, O. Y., Maksimenko, V. F., & Sulimova, G. E. (2005). Association of DNA polymorphisms of the growth hormone and prolactin genes with milk productivity in Yaroslavl and Black-and-White Cattle. Russian J.of Genet., 41: 167-173. Kumari, A. R., Singh, K. M., Soni, K. J., Patel, R. K., Chauhan, J. B., & Rao, K. S. (2008). Genotyping of the polymorphism within exon 3 of prolactin gene in various dairy breeds by PCR RFLP (Brief report). Arch. Tierz. Dummerstorf, 51: 298-299. Maksymiec, K. W., Kmic, M., & Strzalaka, J. (2008). Prolactin gene polymorphisms and somatic cell count in dairy cattle. J. Anim. Vet. Adv, 7: 35-40. Miceikienė, I., Pečiulaitienė, N., Baltrėnaitė., L., Skinkytė., R., & Indriulytė, R. (2006). Association of cattle genetic markers with performance traits. Biologija, 1: 24-29. Miller, S. A., Dukes, D. D. & Polesk, H. F. (1988). A simple salting out procedurefor extracting DNA from human nucleated cells. Nucleid Acids Resarch., 16: 1215. Mitra, A., Schlee, P., Balakrıshnan, C. R., & Pırchner, F. (1995). Polymorphisms at growt-hormone and prolactin loci in Indian cattle and buffalo. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 112: 71-74. Ladani, D. D., Pipalia, D. L., Brahmkshtri, B. P., Rank, D. N., Joshi, C. G., Vataliya, P. H. & Solanki, J. V. (2003). Prolactin genotyping of indian buffalo breeds using Pcr-Rflp. Buffalo J. 2 : 203-208. Lastra, O. V., Jara, L. J., & Espinoza L. R. (2002). Prolactin and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity Reviews, 1: 360–364. Öztabak., K., Un, C., Tesyafe, D., Akıs, I., & Mengi, A. (2008). Genetic polymorphisms of osteopontin (OPN), prolactin (PRL) and pituitary-specific transcript factor-1 (PIT-1) in South Anatolian and East Anatolian Red cattle. Acta Agric. Scand Section, 58: 109-112. Sacravarty, G., Vadodaria, V. P., Joshi, C.G., Brahmksthri, B.P., Shah, R.R., & Solanki, J.V. (2008). Prolactin gene polymorphism and its association with economic traits in Kankrej Cattle. IJDS, 61: 4. 172 �Skinkytė, R., Zwierzchowski, L., Riaubaitė, L., Baltrėnaitė, L., & Miceikienė, I. (2005). Distribution of allele frequencies important to milk productıon traits in Lithuanian Black & White and Lithuanian Red Cattle. Veter. Ir Zootechnıka, 31: 53. Udina, I. G., Turkova, S. O., Kotsyuchenko, M. V., Labedeva, L. A., & Sulimova, G. E. (2001). Polymorphism of bovine prolactin gene: microsatellites, PCR–RFLP. Russ. J. of Genet., 37: 407-411. Yeh, F.C., Rongcai, Y., Boyle, T,, Ye, Z., & Xiyan, J. M., (1997). POPGENE, the user-friendly shareware for population genetic analysis. Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Centre. University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 173 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 362 Title A name given to the resource The Determination of Prolactin Gene Polymorphism Using PCR-RFLP Method within Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo and Brown Swiss Author Author Kaplan, Selçuk Boztepe, Saim Abstract A summary of the resource. The objective of this research was to determine the prolactin gene polymorphism within Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed and Brown Swiss cattle by using PCR-RFLP method. Experimental material for this study consists of 45 Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed and 30 Brown Swiss cattle. According to the research evidence, Indigenous Anatolian Water Buffalo breed was monomorphic at the exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci. On the other hand, the polymorphism association with exon 3 PRL-RsaI loci detected in Brown Swiss cattle. The allelic frequencies (A, B) in Brown Swiss cattle were 0.82 and 0.18, respectively. The genotype frequencies of AA and AB were 0.63 and 0.37, respectively. The BB genotype was not found in the present study. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6a16144a3948b7589acef77e87739d7d.pdf 92bf2173dda40bf1ecbbde3973856c20 PDF Text Text Management of Urban Water Sources and Use and Sustainability of Wastewater Đsmail Hakkı Kalyoncu University of Selcuk, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticultural Science, Konya, Turkey kalyon@selcuk.edu.tr Hasan Kalyoncu University of Süleyman Demirel, Faculty of Science & Arts, Department of Biology, Isparta, Turkey hasankalyoncu@gmail.com Abstract: The usage of fresh water supplies on the surface of globe is serviced for human in two forms to be ground and surface water. 75%, 15% and 10% of that water has been used for agriculture, industry and living, respectively. Geographical structure and climate conditions of region have determined the usage of water. While some regions having so much rain and surface water, some regions have not got enough groundwater because of the distinctive properties of those regions. The service of groundwater for usage is more expensive and risky. The unplanned activities in the closed basins can also increase the risks on the usage of groundwater sources. Beside the importance of water services for cities, the case of the wastewater is also so important. The wastewater of the cities located in closed basin also creates some environmental problems as well as some bigger economical problems. The increase in the amount of waste water has been an important problem as population increases nowadays. Sustainable projects on the economical and lack of these sources of groundwater have stamina importance. It can be suggested that the waterworks of city must be reconstructed in two waterworks one of which is to deliver water for drink and another one must deliver water for use. At this stage, the wastewater must be refined and distilled for reuse for some other resound such as especially water agriculture, etc. The distilled water must also be delivered into fields through suitable pipes for agricultural usage. Therefore, the economical, planned and sustainable water usage will be provided. Keywords: Urban water sources, wastewater, sustainability Introduction Nowadays, providing drinking water and that for usage for cities serviced is quite difficult because of the existence of healthy water sources and water sources being nearer to the crowded places. In some years, the problems of suffering for water can become very important struggling problem. Beside the water has a vital importance for livings, it is also important for some sectors of industry. But, the sources have an arbitrary distribution in location and time, and humanistic and natural activities use up, consume and suppress the natural water sources. The sustainable management of the water sources have became an important issue for demands continuously increasing. In spite of the increase of the knowledge of people about how to use the water, economic criteria and political approaches have intent to use water strategies in all manners. Suppressions on the usage of water sources increase pollution with increasing especially urbanization, increase of population and standard of living, competition for water and, therefore, these become prominent and stronger with changes on the climate and natural conditions (Anonymous, 2010a). The water sources are face to face with very important global problems today. The dearth of water becomes more pronounced and world wide problem; inundation happens in many places on the world; the quality of water becomes worse and worse in time in almost all countries in the world and these problems cause many problems such as economic and social. The most important one of these problems is that the sustainability of life on the ecosystems is being threaded. These problems have introduced that some new approaches are needed on the development and that control and management of water sources are needed. At this stage, the issue becomes the subject of meeting, programmes, conferences and some commissions. In spite of the importance of water as a natural source is globally stated, the problems of “lack and pollution of water” is increasing gradually in Turkey 861 �as it is in the world. It must be well realised that as a source the problem of lack and pollution of water is based on the bad policies and management of water sources in Turkey as it is in the world (Anonymous, 2010b). In some countries, there exist some programs to decrease the loss of water on the urban waterworks and this program also try to re-determine the areas where water being used but some more efforts are needed to get access. For the management of water sources, the approaches have focused on river basin rather than centre, and compact projects have mostly been followed by all people (Anonymous, 2010a). A large amount of the water in Turkey has been polluted or is under the risk of pollution because of fast increase in population, urbanization and industrialization etc. For different ideas (irrigation, agricultural usage etc.), many large watery lands have been dried or are under the risk of being dried. On the other hand, many changes have been made in river basins but the ecological effects of them have not been discussed enough in Turkey. As a result, water sources due to sustainability can be subjected to bad results of these. Continuous observation (living sources in water, pollution, environmental quality, general hydraulic, irritation, water sources, ground water, well problems, providing and purification of water) of water sources and protection taken necessary under collected data due to either preservation or provide the effective sustainability are a human duty for future generations (Anonymous, 2010c). There is no successful organisation on the usage and management of water sources. Neither official nor between offices or reiteration and authority complications between offices or problems on the laws and regulations related to protection and usage of water sources make this issue more complicated. Defects of coordination damps the developments on the sustainability of such an important issue (Anonymous, 2010d). The industrial systems to increase the production of ground or surface water must be enhanced because of the fast urbanization necessities of social-economical development beside the increases on the need of irrigation as a result of the increases on the food because of increase on the population. Development of economic potential related to the fresh and groundwater sources in parallel to the principles of the sustainable development by taking care of the environmental effects is also important to prove development on the sustainability of economic development. For the policies on the management of sustainable water can be applied, the legal and official structures on the production and consumption of water are directly related to coordination between corporations, participator authority, truthfully sharing, education, culture, research and development and suitable choice of technologies. On the other hand, the sectoral weights and sectoral powers of the multinational water companies on the determination of water policies are increased by time as a result of global water politics developed on the management of water services. These processes on which the scenarios of changes in the climate, it is needed that international policies on the water management must be discussed by considering due to the our national benefits and public realities. Beside this, some new corporations, institutions and management policies on the management of the water sources and water services may appear in the process of the entering into the European Union must be investigated by considering the our public and national benefits. At present, a process is going on that international politics and the management of our rivers going through boundaries is being concentrated. Weakening of national control on the water sources and planning put some limitation on the development of these sources which must be considered, investigated and some policies must be produced (Anonymous, 2010b). The construction of industrial systems for decontamination and reuse of the wastewater in urban areas must be constructed. Instead of more decontamination system to be constructed, effective usage of enough number of them must be provided and salvation of such problems must be carried out. Decontamination of wastewater and the usage of decontaminated water for city needs must be provided. Water usage, management and economical and sustainable usage of purified water by stopping the leakages of waterworks will be provided. Urban Water Sources and Their Management 10 %, 15 % and 75 % of 40 billion m3 water used up in a year in Turkey has been used in industry, as drinking water and for irritation in agriculture, respectively. Therefore, the agricultural irrigation must be most important and has to have priority from all others. It is possible that 30-40 %of water used at the present by taking the precautions (Anonymous, 2009e; Kalyoncu et al. 2009a; Kalyoncu et al. 2009b). The situation in the case of foundation, management and usage of water source shows the same problems beside this general situation of the water. Clean water must not unnecessarily be wasted and polluted. Drinking water others used some other reasons must be separated from each other. The water obtained by purification of wastewater must be used in green lands, industry and irrigation of agriculture of urban and if it is possible these needs must not be got from clean water. Clean drinking water must only be used for drinking needs, waterworks for cities must be separated from the water pipe nets of that used for other reasons. Therefore, the problems on providing water for cities from clean/fresh ground or surface water sources will be decreased and clean water will be continued to be used. In this case, the effective use in the real part and sustainability of the clean water sources will be kept. Clean water usage will be left for future generations without bad pollution. Besides, that water will provide healthy water for urban kept alive for years (Anonymous, 2010f). The waste and leakage of water must be minimized by checking often and maintaining water working system. The social opinion must also be constructed on this point. It is believed that 30-40 % of water used for urban will 862 �be saved by preventing loss and leakages. The regulations must be re-arranged for groundwater to be used effectively and efficiently. When regulation and organisations are made about groundwater more expensive and high risky, everybody must be more careful. Instead of conserving the water, it must be used in effectively and efficiently by taking benefits of scientific programs, and sustainability must be put on. The regulations in law must be done for management of natural sources due to the individual basin. In order to solve the problem of the water in our country, it must be taken into account that the solution must be looked on the basis of dynamics, researchers and scientific or political offices and programs in country. Because of authorization coincidence, complication and insufficient coordination, the water is not managed by only one office or regulation in Turkey, the water sources are not efficiently used. The problem is made bigger and bigger in time rather than producing solution. Some local organizations and local management must be considered, employed and the solution must be fastened by defeating authorization complexity in water policy and management. Existing water sources must be enhanced and saved in the quality and amount of water. Government must put a strong discussion platform and develop information flow rate from related public offices, Universities and industrial unions. Some project and some programs must be carried out about the efficient usage of water in agriculture, industry and buildings. The problems mentioned above about water policy especially being not one office to organize all have shown some problems especially on applications. This case causes some applications to appear in the quantity and quality of the water. It is not possible to say that the water is managed efficiently in Turkey. The management of water must be in integrity with other organisations. Because of increasing pollution and limited sources, it is necessary that some research and development units must be constructed in this subject. Coordination experience of public offices and societies in Turkey are very poor about the management of water and water sources. Especially, these problems on the areas of management of water and water sources can clearly be seen. For the solution of this problem, a strong coordination between all relevant public offices or civilian societies must be regulated and the water management must be carried out by only one office. Therefore, there must be only one public office and officer powered and in charge of water management in Turkey and coordination must be organized with other offices dealing with water (Anonymous, 2009d; Anonymous, 2009g; Anonymous, 2009h; Anonymous, 2009ı; Kalyoncu et al., 2009a; Kalyoncu et al., 2009b). The Use and Sustainability of Wastewaters The damages given by very fast and unplanned urbanization to the ecological balance is increasing day by day. The industrial areas located around cities and prodigality consumption by people living in cities badly affect environment. Only applications of natural and organic agriculture carried out on the urban agricultural applications provide the ecological systems to be conserved and sustained. Especially, recycling of urban organic wastes by compost method provides a large benefit. Beside this, the effective usage of unused agricultural areas around cities for the reason of urban agriculture will give benefit of usage these areas for some advantages and make around more beautiful from the environmental point of view. Transforming urban agriculture into “Ecological Agriculture” is very important concept because of a series of reasons. The some health and environmental risks caused by closeness of urban agricultural applications to the cities and drinking water sources must be minimized. Changing to the ecological urban agriculture will remove the risk of pollutions on the soil, water and products which are polluted in traditional agriculture because of some hormones, chemicals and some other damaging artificial materials being used (Anonymous, 2010f). The usage of wastewater by purification is most important issue on the management of wastewater. The waste water purified in cities must be used for irrigation and some other needs apart from as drinking water. This will ensure that the fresh-drinking water will not be used and wasted for such ideas. The usage of such purified water for the reasons as mentioned will make the usage of groundwater and the usage of freshwater for such reason will barely or completely be stopped. Because of that, the pureed water will be transferred into the application areas through some suitable pipes of water, the losses and dissipations of water will be minimised. Controllability and sustainability will be provided. The use of the waste water in cities can be kept using some agricultural applications. The solution of this problem and effective usage of these sources can only be possible if authorities pay enough attention to this problem and effort more energy on that in nationwide (Anonymous, 2010f). Results and Suggestions All policies about the management of water must be on the basis that all people have right to reach and use water sources for public benefits. The right of getting clean water free of charge must be guaranteed for everybody. In order to conserve water richness and relieve water problem for the future, the necessary systems, equipments and methods must be developed. In this point, a view of point must be presented and put forward. 863 �Ownership, management and control of water sources must be held by public authorities and must be kept away from effects of global authorities. They have not certainly to be denationalized. The management and control of water must be kept far from political effects, must be regulated in parallel to that what suits national benefits. National water policy must be regulated and applied including some rivers or river basins which flow along the some parts of border of country. Water and environmental issues must seriously be considered in either legislation or execution. A national water policy must be regulated considering the future of water in short and long terms. An environment and water law relating on the usage and conservation of the water sources must be regulated. An authority putting coordination must be considered rather than a single authority relating water policy. Water and water sources are not an area of only one dimension and profession. The solution to problems appeared for some reasons must be made easier by making related authorities obeying related ministry and eliminating the loopholes in the law. The ministry in charge of agriculture and villages controlling the usage of 75 % of water in country must be put also in charge of management of water nationwide. The number of office and organization authorized on the conservation and usage of water sources must be reduced and coordination between them must be organized. Inventory, usage, consumption and scripts of ground and surface waters in Turkey must be carried out regarding public and participant view of point. Pollution of water by wastewater, solid wastes, agricultural additives and usage of hormones must be prevented and some obligatory regulation must be applied. Especially, the situation and usage of the groundwater must be made to have a sustainable solution. Inventory work on the number of groundwater sources, their properties, capacities, etc. must be presented together with local planning. In some cases, rather than forbid groundwater, the usage of them must be regulated according to most effective and scientific usage due to local properties of region. References Anonymous, (2010a). http://www.greenfacts.org/tr/water-resources/water-resources-foldout-tr.pdf Anonymous, (2010b). http://www.imo.org.tr/supolitikalari Anonymous, (2010c). http://www.sempozyum.gen.tr/menu2.aspid=209 Anonymous, (2010d) http://www.belediyebulteni.com/su-kaynaklari yonetimi_haberi_ 14474.html Anonymous, (2009e). http://www.argeportal.com/haberler/38-makale-ve-raporlar/402-su-acil-ar-ge-istiyor.html Anonymous, (2010f). http://www.kenttarimi.org/nedir.htm Anonymous, (2009g). http://www.e-kutuphane.imo.org.tr/pdf/10962.pdf Anonymous, (2009h). http://www.ekolojistler.org/2007-su-raporu-cevre-muhendisleri-odasi.html Anonymous, (2009ı). http://alternatifsuforumu.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=15&Itemid=34 Kalyoncu, Đ. H., Ersoy, N. & Yılmaz, M., (2009a). In the Scope of Global Climate Change Authorization and Responsibility Areas of Usages of Wather Sources. International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 24-25 April, s. 450-455, AUT, Tiran, Albania. Kalyoncu, Đ. H., Kalyoncu, H., & Aydın, M., (2009b). Planning of Ground Water Basins Against Agricultural Pollution and Construction of Sustainable Living Areas. International Conference on Lakes and Nutrient Loads, 24-25 April, s. 299304, AUT, Tiran, Albania. 864 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 639 Title A name given to the resource Management of Urban Water Sources and Use and Sustainability of Wastewater Author Author Kalyoncu, İsmail Hakkı Kalyoncu, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. The usage of fresh water supplies on the surface of globe is serviced for human in two forms to be ground and surface water. 75%, 15% and 10% of that water has been used for agriculture, industry and living, respectively. Geographical structure and climate conditions of region have determined the usage of water. While some regions having so much rain and surface water, some regions have not got enough groundwater because of the distinctive properties of those regions. The service of groundwater for usage is more expensive and risky. The unplanned activities in the closed basins can also increase the risks on the usage of groundwater sources. Beside the importance of water services for cities, the case of the wastewater is also so important. The wastewater of the cities located in closed basin also creates some environmental problems as well as some bigger economical problems. The increase in the amount of waste water has been an important problem as population increases nowadays. Sustainable projects on the economical and lack of these sources of groundwater have stamina importance. It can be suggested that the waterworks of city must be reconstructed in two waterworks one of which is to deliver water for drink and another one must deliver water for use. At this stage, the wastewater must be refined and distilled for reuse for some other resound such as especially water agriculture, etc. The distilled water must also be delivered into fields through suitable pipes for agricultural usage. Therefore, the economical, planned and sustainable water usage will be provided. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/5bfc207aa1595e229a3dedcc4a1e2424.pdf 5fd8c19b0c8b463aee0fe52e336a3ad8 PDF Text Text The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland Waters and Living Areas Hasan Kalyoncu University of Süleyman Demirel, Faculty of Science & Arts, Department of Biology, Isparta, Turkey hasankalyoncu@gmail.com Đsmail Hakkı Kalyoncu University of Selcuk, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticultural Science, Konya, Turkey kalyon@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Key words: Agricultural activities, pollution, inland waters, sustainability Introduction Drinking water has been less and less for reasons, such as insufficient environmental awareness, fast increasing world population, excessive development of industry and technology. Beside these, pollution of water sources irresponsibly will cause problems unable to be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ). Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al., 2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ). The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997). This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006). The harm given by the improper use with the increase of this improper use of pesticides and chemical 477 �fertilizers will have reached to high levels (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). The production and use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers continue to in crease at present, and it must be taken under control in order to decrease the health and environmental problems (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006). Agricultural Activities And Pesticide Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products (Kambur et al., 2005). It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. Some pesticides reach to aquatic plants and insects through the fact that the medicines in some places where pesticides were used mix into to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or surface waters have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors. The concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bio concentration mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist. Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets for pesticide contaminations since they haw echo physiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967). Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water, is different toxic materials are different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of water quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as nitrogen and phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as materials of feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in aquatic environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008). It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004). The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2 or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous, 2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed, and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Only the types which can tolerate pollution survive. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes (Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes is badly affected by changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to, active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur, 1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent 478 �groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995). Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001). The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process is increased as a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems (Uslu and Türkmen, 1987). Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not enough oxygen and occurrence of anaerobic conditions as a result of an increase of amount of dead plants in the bottom of water are important factors affecting the quality (Muslu, 1985). Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu, 1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). Results And Suggestions The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural areas affect destruction on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in order to completely prevent or minimize the destructive effects. - It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this, biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically. - If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of water. -It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In order for types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them in suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied and sustainable control must be carried out. - The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest management must be developed and then suggested for common use. - Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined. Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments. - On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable. - Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be 479 �transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas. - Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation must be supplied and direct-indirect encouragement must be applied. - More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists, sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. - As a result, harmful materials reaching to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities affect all of livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is unquestionable. But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to aquatic areas coming from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes series destructive effects in health. The fresh and clean water sources have gained more importance because of the changes on the global climate. The environmental pollution must be stopped by protecting aquatic ecosystems. The ecology must be kept to be sustainable and carefully followed. References Akman,Y., Ketenoğlu, O., Evren, H., Kurt, L., Düzenli, S., (2000). Çevre Kirliliği (Çevre Biyolojisi). Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara . Akın, G., Akın, M., (2007). Suyun Önemi, Türkiye’de Su Potansiyeli, Su Havzaları Ve Su Kirliliği. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi; 47, 2 ,105-118s. Alloway, B.J., (1995). Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie Academic & Professional, London. Aguilar, C., Borrull, F., Marce, R. M., (1997). “Determination of Pesticides Đn Environmental Waters by Solid-phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography With Electron-capture and MassSpectrometry Dedection”, Journal of Chromatography, Jan., Vol. 771, pp. 221–231. Anonymous, (2004). Türkiye Çevre Atlası. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Ankara. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002a). Tuzla Çayı’nda (Tercan-Erzincan) yaşayan C. capoeta umbla Heckel, 1843’ nın bazı hematolojik parametreleri (MCV, MCH ve MCHC) üzerine kentsel atıkların etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 17(3): 5-10. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002b). Tuzla Çayı’nda yaşayan C. capoeta’ nın hemoglobin seviyesi, eritrosit ve toplam lökosit sayıları üzerine bir araştırma. Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 33(3): 297-300. Atamanalp, M., Cengiz, M., (2002). Bir sentetik piretroit insektisit (cypermethrin)’ in subletal dozlarının Capoeta capoeta capoeta (Güldenstaedt, 1772)’ da hemoglobin, hematokrit ve sediment seviyeleri üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi. Ege Üniv. Su Ürünleri Derg. 19 (1-2): 169-175. Atamanalp, M., Keleş, M.S., Haliloğlu, H. Đ., Aras, M. S., (2002). The effects of cypermethrin (a synthetic pyrethroid) on some biochemical parameters (Ca, P, Na and TP) of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Turk. J. of Vet. Anim. Sci. 26: 1157-1160. Atamanalp, M., Yanık, T., (2003). Alterations in hematological parameters of rainbow trout, (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to mancozeb. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 27:1213-1217. Atasoy D., Rastgeldi, C., (2006). Şanlıurfada Pestisit Kullanımı GAP V. Mühendislik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı. 26-28 Nisan 2006, Şanlıurfa.1462-1467s. Ceran, Y., (2001). Kimyasal Gübreler ve Sulak Alanlar, Çevre ve Đnsan. T.C. Çevre Bakanlığı Yayın Organı, sayı: 50. 14-19 s. Çelikkale, M. S., (1991). Balık Biyolojisi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Sürmene Deniz Bilimleri ve Teknolojisi Yüksekokulu, Trabzon, s. 250-251. Dağlı, H., (2005). “Đçmesuyu Kalitesi ve Đnsan Sağlığına Etkileri” Bizim Đller. Đller Bankası Aylık Yayın Organı. Sayı 3: 1621s. Dhawan A., Kaur, K., (1996). Toxic effects of synthetic pyrethroids on Cyprinus carpio eggs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 999-1002. 480 �Egemen, Ö., (2006). Çevre ve Su Kirliliği. Ege Üniv., Su ürünleri Fak. Yayınları. No. 42, Đzmir. 120 s. Havıland, William, A., (2002). Kültürel Antropoloji (Çev: Hüsamettin Đnaç, Seda Çiftçi). No: 143. Sosyoloji Serisi: 3. Đstanbul: Kaktüs Yayınları. Heath, A., G., (1987). Water Pollution and Fish Physiology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 201-215. Holcombe, G. W., Benoit, D. A., Leonard, E. N., McKim, J. M., (1976). Long-term effects of lead exposure on three generations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 33:1731-1734. Huber, A., Bach, M., Frede, H.G., (2000). Pollution of Surface Waters With Pesticides Đn Source Đnputs. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 80, 191-204s. Germany: Modeling Non-point Hutchinson, G.E., (1967). A Treatise on Limnology. Vol. Π. John Wiley and Sons. Kalyoncu H., Barlas, M., Ertan, Ö.O., (2009). Aksu Çayı'nın Su Kalitesinin Biotik Đndekslere (Diyatomlara ve Omurgasızlara Göre) ve Fizikokimyasal Parametrelere Göre Đncelenmesi, Organizmaların Su Kalitesi ile Đlişkileri. Türk Bilim Dergisi, 2(1): 46-57. Kumbur, H., Özer, Z., Özsoy, H.D., (2005). Tarım Đlaçlarının (Pestisitlerin) Çevresel Etkileri ve Mersin ili'nde Kullanım Düzeyleri. In: GAP, IV. Tarım Kongresi, 21-23 Eylül 2005, Şanlıurfa, 702-707s. Muslu,Y., (1985). Su Temini ve Çevre Sağlığı. ĐTÜ Matbaası, Cilt III, Đstanbul. Öztürk, Ġ., Tosun, N., (2004). Famoxadone ve Cymoxanil Etkili Maddeli Bir Fungisitin Domates (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Bitkisi Üzerine Fizyolojik Etkisi. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 41: 77–87s. Round, F.E., (1984). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press. Sencar, Ö., Gökmen, S., Yıldırım, A., (1993). Tarımsal Ekoloji. GOP Üni. Ziraat Fak. Ders Notları, Yayın No:l, Tokat. Shakoori, A. R., Iqbal, M. J., Mughal, A. L., Ali, S. S., (1991). Drastic biochemical changes following 48 hours of exposure of Chinese grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, to sublethal doses of mercuric chloride. Proc 1. Symp. Fish & Fisheries, Pakistan.81-98. Shakoori, A. R., Mughal, A. L., Iqbal, M. J., (1996). Effects of sublethal doses of fenvalarate (a synthetic pyrethroid) administered continuously for four weeks on the blood, liver and muscles of a freshwater fish, Ctenopharyngodon idella. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 487-494. Steinbergi, C. E. W., Lorenz, R. and Spieser, O. H. (1995). "Effects of Atrazine on Swimming behaviour of Zebrafish, Brachidanio rerio." Water Research 94: 981-985. Taş. B., (2006). Derbent Baraj Gölü (Samsun) Su Kalitesinin Đncelenmesi. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Ordu Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Biyoloji Bölümü, 52750, Perşembe-Ordu. 15, 61, 6-15s. Turan Z., (2008). Bazı Pestisitlerin (Dıazınon Ve Dıchlorvos) Scenedesmus Acutus (Meyen) Chodat’ In Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Đncelenmesi. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı yl., 26s. Uslu, O., Türkman, A., (1987). Su Kirliliği ve Kontrolü (Water Pollution and Control). T.C. Başbakanlık Çevre Genel Müdürlüğü. Eğitim Yayınları Dizisi 1, Đzmir. Yılmaz, F.,( 2004). Mumcular Barajı (Muğla-Bodrum)’nın Fiziko-Kimyasal Özellikleri. Ekoloji, 13, 50: 10-17s. Varghaa, M., Takàtsc, Z. and Màrialigeti, K., (2005). "Degradation of atrazine in a laboratory scale model system with Danube river sediment." Water Research 481 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 553 Title A name given to the resource The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and Its Effects on Inland Waters and Living Areas Author Author Kalyoncu, Hasan Kalyoncu, İsmail Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way and reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order for this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the use of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthened. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/0c177b35f83c9c542fc2514d3ef22fc6.pdf 4ff23257dd5e83045424fbe9e87b7c2c PDF Text Text The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal Waters And Living Areas Hasan Kalyoncu Süleyman Demirel University, Faculty of Science Art, Department of Biology, Isparta, Türkiye. Ismail Hakkı Kalyoncu Selcuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Garden Plants, Konya, Türkiye. Abstract:Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Introduction Some reasons, such that the environment knowledge of population has not been well developed, the world population has increased very fast, and the industry and technology have developed too fast, cause that the drinking water is decreased in time. Beside these, pollution of water sources irresponsibly will cause problems can not be solved (Haviland, 2002; Dağlı, 2005; Akın, 2007 ). Increasing demand on the food with increasing population makes that the quality and quantity must be increased. As a result of these demand, the usage of fertilizer and pesticide are increased in time (Huber et al., 2000; Causape et al., 2004). The chemicals used agricultural areas are classified in two groups to be fertilizers and pesticides (Alloway, 1995). They are very important issue since they are toxic, decomposition of them is very difficult, and they can be deposited in living organisms and environment (Egemen, 2006). Pesticides and chemical fertilizers are mixed into rivers which are one of the ecosystems mostly affected from environmental pollution (Huber et al., 2000, Causape et al., 2004; Taş, 2006 ). The pollutions caused by agricultural activities are firstly transferred into the rivers and then goes to lakes and seas throughout rivers. It can prevent the development of zoo and phytoplankton which have an important place on the feeding chain of aquatic livings even in the case of the existence of pesticides in trace level in the water (Aguilar et al., 1997). This pollution is badly affecting not only livings living in pollution but also it can reach human through feeding chain (Yılmaz, 2004). It is important to note that the determination of existence of DDT (pesticide) on the penguins, seal and people living in poles where no pesticides have never been used shows the power of circulation of chemicals used in agriculture over the world (Egemen, 2006). The harms given by the improper usage with the increase of this improper usage of pesticides and chemical fertilizers will reach to so high level (Öztürk and Tosun, 2004). At present, as the production and usage of pesticides and chemical fertilizers continue to increase, in order to the health and environmental problems the 641 �production to be decreased, this case must seriously be taken under control (Atasoy and Rastgeldi, 2006). Agricultural Activities And Pesticide Since pesticides remain in nature for so long time without decomposition, they have no selectivity on the selected organisms and collected in some parts of food chain, they can cause destructions of some beneficial kinds and ecological balance and appearing of new kinds presenting resistance to these kind of products (Kambur et al., 2005). It has been well known that pesticides can reach ecosystem of water in several ways. For example, some several medicines can contaminate into water with direct application of pesticides to the buggies during fighting against wild grass in or around the canals of drainage and irrigation or vector insects such as mosquitoes. The medicines in some places where pesticides were used several pesticides reaches to aquatic plants and insects in a way of mixturing these pesticides to river or ground water by rain water. The pesticides mixture into ground or surface waters have limit values for livings according to some structural properties presented in some receptors. The concentrations exceeding these limit values badly effect the life of livings. The first step of bioconsantration mechanisms in aquatic systems is consisted of plankton. An important part of plankton in aquatic habitats consists of algae. Since algae are primary producer, they play a functional role in habitats on which algae exist. Algae which are primary produces in aquatic environment form the base of organic production and they are quite sensitive organisms for physical and chemical changes in an environment where they exist. Algae are key targets for pesticide contaminations since they haw echophysiological similarities (Kambur et al., 2005). The primary production presented by algae forms foundations of whole organic production in aquatic environment. Algae forming the first circle of chain of feeding in waters are organisms which are quite sensitive to the physical and chemical changes in environment where they exist (Round, 1984; Hutchinson, 1967). Sensitivity of algae, which is an important group in either plankton or benthic organisms in fresh water, to different toxic materials is different. Algae have an important role in determination and improvement of water quality and in rehabilitation of waste water. On the other hand, algae remove some elements such as nitrogen and phosphors, existing in quite large amount in aquatic environment, from environment using them as materials of feeding. Because of this, a change in quality and quantity of algae which is primary produces in aquatic environment cause a whole ecosystem to be destroyed (Turan, 2008). It has been understood that fishes are harmfully affected from the low level residues of several pesticides mixed into water in several ways and attitudes of fishes are changed. It has also been reported that babies of some kind of fishes are too sensitive to pesticides. The residues of pesticides even in minimal level, in stagnant waters uses up oxygen in water and destroy the feeding environment for fishes (Anonymous, 2004). The organisms dead by the effects of pesticides are deposited in the bottom of the water by sinking. CO2 or poison gases raised during the decay prevent aquatic organisms coming near to these areas (Anonymous, 2004). Pesticides transferred to aquatic ecosystems presents some different effects on organisms in receptor environments. These effects cause death of fishes, other vertebrates and in invertebrates and algae to be harmed, and also cause disappear from environment. In addition to this, pesticide residues cause chronic toxicity to be developed by food chain and drinking contaminated water (Turan, 2008). As a result of this, biological variety in ecosystems has been affected. Some increases in the pollutants cause some organisms to be increased too much while cause some organisms to be removed from environment or to be annihilated. Some types can only be left which can tolerate pollution. Some damages, which cannot be reversed, appear as a result of destruction of the ecological balance (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). The gills of fishes first met pesticides and, therefore, the most series damages are taken place on that organ (Heath, 1987). On the other hand, it has some harmful effects on haematology depending on kind of fishes (Shakoori et al., 1991; 1996; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002a; Atamanalp and Güneş, 2002b; Atamanalp and Cengiz, 2002; Atamanalp and Yanık, 2003). The specimens taken from liver have shown that some histopatological effects beside some changes on the colour and size (Atamanalp et al., 2002). The osmoregulation event which is very important event in either sea or fresh water fishes are badly affected by changes of permeability of the gills and skin (Heath, 1987). Attitudes of fishes exposed to chemicals present some differentiations from others. Especially some changes on the some staminal attitudes, such as feeding and adaptation, may cause the fish to loss health. The problems on the neural system appear to be problems on the central neural system as well as problems on the working systems of receptors (Heath, 1987). Pollutants have different effects in the each of different stages of pregnancy biology depending on the groups belonging to, active material contained, concentration and kind of fishes (Çelikkale, 1991; Heath, 1987; Dhawan and Kaur, 1996; Holcombe et al., 1976). It is well known that the s-triazine compounds, which comprise Atrazine and Terbuthylazine, are usually termed recalcitrant, and especially the first one, due to its asymmetric substituent groups, is particularly resistant to biodegradation (Varghaa et al. 2005). These two chemicals are furthermore 642 �herbicides which affects the photosynthetic electronic transport, inhibiting the algal growth in aquatic environment (Eullaffroy and Vernet, 2003), the primary level of the food web. In addition Atrazine even at low exposure concentrations (5µg l-1) affected significantly aquatic organisms (Steinbergi et al., 1995). Agricultural Activities And Chemical Fertilizers When we have looked the harmful effects of fertilizers on environment, it has been thought that mostly nitrogen and phosphors containing fertilizers have given harm on the environment; especially it is well known that it causes the water quality in the watery areas are destroyed as a result of that nitrogen and phosphors containing pollutant are transferred into rivers in anyway and then it also causes eutrophication with increases on the amount of nitrogen and phosphors (Ceran, 2001). The amount of nitrate mixed into drinking water and rivers through washing out process are increased as a result of usage fertilizers containing nitrogen in high level (Sencar et al., 1993). The compounds containing nitrogen has several effects in the view of water pollution, and the most harmful effect is known to be that of changing oxygen compositions, eutrophication, hygiene on the obtaining of drinking water and toxicity problems (Uslu and Türkmen, 1987). Approach of phosphor to surface water causes some undesirable effects in aquatic systems as a result of increase in the primary production. Too much increase in green plants and algae in some rich parts in oxygen of water (eutrophication), increase in the blurrily of water, increase in the light input of aquatic macrophytes, not enough oxygen and an increase of amount of some death of plants in the bottom of the water starts anaerobic conditions and reduces the quality of the water are the most important factors on the reduction of the water quality (Muslu, 1985). Phosphor components broken up into orthophosphate by aquatic plants are important compositions of food materials. If too much phosphor is loaded, pH value of water and tampon systems are changed (Muslu, 1985). A layer on the water is produced by decreasing surface tension of the water. This layer reduces the transmission of light and oxygen transfer and effect biological activities destructively (Akman et al., 2000). The load of nitrogen and phosphor existing in the environment put pressure on the aquatic ecosystems. Although phosphor has some feeding properties for algae, the extremely high existence in the environment cause some algae to be removed from environment and some of them to be destroyed. This also results with extremely development of taxa tolerating the increase of feeding salts. This change taken place in aquatic ecosystem is not only effective on algae but also destructively affects other living groups (Kalyoncu et al., 2009). Results And Suggestions The use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides unplanned and in extremely high amount in agricultural areas effect destruct on all ecosystems. Some cases must be considered before the usage of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in order to completely prevention or minimization of the destructive effects. - It must be note that the pesticides used in agriculture must be easily separable in nature. Beside this, biological fighting methods must be taken over instead of pesticides produced synthetically. - If applications of pesticide are un-exceptionally necessary, farmers must be educated and trained to apply enough and to avoid over use. The technical and sustainable production with plants, which is more economical and suitable for ecosystems, must be carried out for especially in areas near basins and sources of water. -It is well known due to the human health and environment that the chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural areas are important source of pollutants and reaches to aquatic system with surface water. In order to types of kinds in the aquatic systems to be protected, attention must be applied for application of them in suitable time and dose. The effects of chemical components applied on the aquatic ecosystems must be studied and sustainable control must be carried out. - The ecological agriculture together with advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. Technical and environmentalist agriculture must be carried out for ecological balance to be saved. Some types suitable against diseases and for dried climate must be produced and mechanical and biological techniques for pest management must be developed and then made suggested for common use. - Instead of too much water, enough water applications must be desired, wild and surface irrigations must be left. System must be turned to pressurized irrigation, irrigation time for plants must be determined. Irrigation policies must be put into the agricultural irrigation programs of governments. - On the other hand, system must be changed from opened system to closed systems. The usage of water and fertilizer applied by farmers must be planned, controlled and sustainable. 643 �- Refinery system for wastewater must be constructed legally in cities. Water and wastewater must be transmitted through different waterworks and leakages from the system must be minimized. Purified water must be used in green areas and urban agricultural areas. - Especially the problem of drainage must be solved by completing the foundation of irrigation. The regulation for price of irrigation must be made in the most suitable manner. Economical and efficient irrigation must be supplied and direct indirect encouragement must be applied. - More advantageous against erosion, desert condition, dried climate, more environmentalists, sustainable advanced agricultural techniques must be applied. - As a result, harmful materials reached to aquatic areas as a result of agricultural activities effects on all of livings from algae to fishes living aquatic areas. The importance of agriculture for humanity is unquestionable. But, the aquatic systems are as important as agricultural areas. The chemicals reaching to aquatic areas coming from agricultural areas returns back to people with usage and drinking waters and causes series destructive effects in health. The fresh and clean water sources have gained more importance because of the changes on the global climate. The environmental pollution must be stopped by protecting aquatic ecosystems. The ecology must be kept to be sustainable and carefully followed. References Akman,Y., Ketenoğlu, O., Evren, H., Kurt, L., Düzenli, S., (2000). Çevre Kirliliği (Çevre Biyolojisi). Palme Yayıncılık, Ankara. Akın, G., Akın, M., (2007). Suyun Önemi, Türkiye’de Su Potansiyeli, Su Havzaları Ve Su Kirliliği. Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi; 47, 2 ,105-118s. Alloway, B.J., (1995). Heavy Metals in Soils. Blackie Academic & Professional, London. Aguilar, C., Borrull, F., Marce, R. M., (1997). “Determination of Pesticides Đn Environmental Waters by Solid-phase Extraction and Gas Chromatography With Electron-capture and MassSpectrometry Dedection”, Journal of Chromatography, Jan., Vol. 771, pp. 221–231. Anonymous, (2004). Türkiye Çevre Atlası. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Ankara. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002a). Tuzla Çayı’nda (Tercan-Erzincan) yaşayan C. capoeta umbla Heckel, 1843’ nın bazı hematolojik parametreleri (MCV, MCH ve MCHC) üzerine kentsel atıkların etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 17(3): 5-10. Atamanalp, M., Güneş, M., (2002b). Tuzla Çayı’nda yaşayan C. capoeta’ nın hemoglobin seviyesi, eritrosit ve toplam lökosit sayıları üzerine bir araştırma. Atatürk Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Dergisi, 33(3): 297-300. Atamanalp, M., Cengiz, M., (2002). Bir sentetik piretroit insektisit (cypermethrin)’ in subletal dozlarının Capoeta capoeta capoeta (Güldenstaedt, 1772)’ da hemoglobin, hematokrit ve sediment seviyeleri üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi. Ege Üniv. Su Ürünleri Derg. 19 (1-2): 169-175. Atamanalp, M., Keleş, M.S., Haliloğlu, H. Đ., Aras, M. S., (2002). The effects of cypermethrin (a synthetic pyrethroid) on some biochemical parameters (Ca, P, Na and TP) of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Turk. J. of Vet. Anim. Sci. 26: 1157-1160. Atamanalp, M., Yanık, T., (2003). Alterations in hematological parameters of rainbow trout, (Oncorhynchus mykiss) exposed to mancozeb. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 27:1213-1217. Atasoy D., Rastgeldi, C., (2006). Şanlıurfada Pestisit Kullanımı GAP V. Mühendislik Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı. 26-28 Nisan 2006, Şanlıurfa.1462-1467s. Ceran, Y., (2001). Kimyasal Gübreler ve Sulak Alanlar, Çevre ve Đnsan. T.C. Çevre Bakanlığı Yayın Organı, sayı: 50. 14-19 s. Çelikkale, M. S., (1991). Balık Biyolojisi, Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi, Sürmene Deniz Bilimleri ve Teknolojisi Yüksekokulu, Trabzon, s. 250-251. Dağlı, H., (2005). “Đçmesuyu Kalitesi ve Đnsan Sağlığına Etkileri” Bizim Đller. Đller Bankası Aylık Yayın Organı. Sayı 3: 1621s. Dhawan A., Kaur, K., (1996). Toxic effects of synthetic pyrethroids on Cyprinus carpio eggs. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 999-1002. 644 �Egemen, Ö., (2006). Çevre ve Su Kirliliği. Ege Üniv., Su ürünleri Fak. Yayınları. No. 42, Đzmir. 120 s. Havıland, William, A., (2002). Kültürel Antropoloji (Çev: Hüsamettin Đnaç, Seda Çiftçi). No: 143. Sosyoloji Serisi: 3. Đstanbul: Kaktüs Yayınları. Heath, A., G., (1987). Water Pollution and Fish Physiology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 201-215. Holcombe, G. W., Benoit, D. A., Leonard, E. N., McKim, J. M., (1976). Long-term effects of lead exposure on three generations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 33:1731-1734. Huber, A., Bach, M., Frede, H.G., (2000). Pollution of Surface Waters With Pesticides Đn Source Đnputs. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 80, 191-204s. Germany: Modeling Non-point Hutchinson, G.E., (1967). A Treatise on Limnology. Vol. Π. John Wiley and Sons. Kalyoncu H., Barlas, M., Ertan, Ö.O., 2009. Aksu Çayı'nın Su Kalitesinin Biotik Đndekslere (Diyatomlara ve Omurgasızlara Göre) ve Fizikokimyasal Parametrelere Göre Đncelenmesi, Organizmaların Su Kalitesi ile Đlişkileri. Türk Bilim Dergisi, 2(1): 46-57. Kumbur, H., Özer, Z., Özsoy, H.D., (2005). Tarım Đlaçlarının (Pestisitlerin) Çevresel Etkileri ve Mersin ili'nde Kullanım Düzeyleri. In: GAP, IV. Tarım Kongresi, 21-23 Eylül 2005, Şanlıurfa, 702-707s. Muslu,Y., (1985). Su Temini ve Çevre Sağlığı. ĐTÜ Matbaası, Cilt III, Đstanbul. Öztürk, Ġ., Tosun, N., (2004). Famoxadone ve Cymoxanil Etkili Maddeli Bir Fungisitin Domates (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) Bitkisi Üzerine Fizyolojik Etkisi. Ege Üniv. Ziraat Fak. Derg. 41: 77–87s. Round, F.E., (1984). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press. Sencar, Ö., Gökmen, S., Yıldırım, A., (1993). Tarımsal Ekoloji. GOP Üni. Ziraat Fak. Ders Notları, Yayın No:l, Tokat. Shakoori, A. R., Iqbal, M. J., Mughal, A. L., Ali, S. S., (1991). Drastic biochemical changes following 48 hours of exposure of Chinese grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, to sublethal doses of mercuric chloride. Proc 1. Symp. Fish & Fisheries, Pakistan.81-98. Shakoori, A. R., Mughal, A. L., Iqbal, M. J., (1996). Effects of sublethal doses of fenvalarate (a synthetic pyrethroid) administered continuously for four weeks on the blood, liver and muscles of a freshwater fish, Ctenopharyngodon idella. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 57: 487-494. Steinbergi, C. E. W., Lorenz, R. and Spieser, O. H. (1995). "Effects of Atrazine on Swimming behaviour of Zebrafish, Brachidanio rerio." Water Research 94: 981-985. Taş. B., (2006). Derbent Baraj Gölü (Samsun) Su Kalitesinin Đncelenmesi. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Ordu Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Biyoloji Bölümü, 52750, Perşembe-Ordu. 15, 61, 6-15s. Turan Z., (2008). Bazı Pestisitlerin (Dıazınon Ve Dıchlorvos) Scenedesmus Acutus (Meyen) Chodat’ In Gelişimi Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Đncelenmesi. Fırat Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Biyoloji Anabilim Dalı yl., 26s. Uslu, O., Türkman, A., (1987). Su Kirliliği ve Kontrolü (Water Pollution and Control). T.C. Başbakanlık Çevre Genel Müdürlüğü. Eğitim Yayınları Dizisi 1, Đzmir. Yılmaz, F.,( 2004). Mumcular Barajı (Muğla-Bodrum)’nın Fiziko-Kimyasal Özellikleri. Ekoloji, 13, 50: 10-17s. Varghaa, M., Takàtsc, Z. and Màrialigeti, K., (2005). "Degradation of atrazine in a laboratory scale model system with Danube river sediment." Water Research 645 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 612 Title A name given to the resource The Sustainability of Agricultural Activities and its Effects on Internal Waters And Living Areas Author Author Kalyoncu, Hasan Kalyoncu, Ismail Hakkı Abstract A summary of the resource. Residues of some medicals and fertilizers used in agricultural areas can reach to some receptors through some processes such as irrigation and surface waters. These natural receptors are rivers, lakes and seas. The materials coming from agricultural areas have more destructive effects on the lakes and rivers since these are smaller. The most pronounced pollutants coming from agricultural areas to rivers and lakes are pesticides and fertilizers which are known as a source of nitrogen and phosphor. Chemicals in some areas where pesticide were used are mixed into rivers and lakes through that way they reach to water habitats and organisms. On the other hand, this causes to increase organic ratio, eutrophication and for ecological balance to be destroyed. Pathogens are transmitted to surface waters with human and animal wastes and then these contaminated surface waters threat human health. An important amount of pathogens is distributed to receptors through use of wastewaters for irrigation. In order to this negative effects to be removed, in order to save rivers and lakes, wild irrigation must be stopped, the direct approach of wastewaters into the rivers and lakes must be prevented, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides must be controlled, mechanical and biological war must be strengthen. The sustainable ecological living areas can be constructed by taking the water sources and biological kinds under control with these precautions. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6ed881a618f137c075489e2b71ae8925.pdf 9a1001ed8d830ec2683d3555c36c0433 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Managerial and Supervisory Mistakes Leading to Foreseeable Consequence: Global Financial Crisis Niyazi KURNAZ Dumlupinar University- School of Applied Sciences Department of Accounting, Central Campus / Kütahya, Turkey nkurnaz@dumlupinar.edu.tr Hanife TOPAL Instructor, Dumlupinar University-TavĢanlı Vocational Higher School TavĢanlı / Kütahya/Turkey hanifetopal@dumlupinar.edu.tr Mustafa KAYIK Instructor, Dumlupinar University-TavĢanlı Vocational Higher School TavĢanlı / Kütahya/Turkey mkayik@gmail.com Harika ÖZKAN Instructor, Dumlupinar University-Tavşanlı Vocational Higher School Tavşanlı / Kütahya/Turkey harika_ozkan@hotmail.com Abstract: The global financial crisis that began in summer 2007, deepened in 2008 and looks set to run for some time and to have profound effects on the global economy. For the 2007 subprime crisis, we consider that there are also some particular aspects which characterize the actual crisis, like the increased role of financial innovations (the securitization and credit derivatives) and a very important contagion phenomenon which began within the American economy and spread over the global financial markets. The subprime crisis extended at international level, following four main directions: at the root of the crisis lies a fundamental inconsistency between financial globalization – the process of liberalization and deregulation driving the impressive growth of world financial markets – and existing public rules and policies at both domestic and international levels. On the other hand; complex corporate structures managing financial innovation causing excessive risk taking and excessive leverage due to lack of adequate supervision enhanced the global disease. In this paper after discussing the causes of the global financial crisis, we will put forward ways and policies to overcome the ongoing crisis in global level. Keywords: Global financial crisis, financial innovation, financial deregulation, financial liberalization, corporate governance Introduction We have heard the footsteps of coming financial crisis in 2007. The crisis was the consequence of complex interactions between a range of factors. The development of the crisis is quite aptly put in The Economist of April 3rd 2008: First there was disbelief and denial. Then fear. Now comes anger... (Eijffinger, 2008) The anger is of course caused by the failure of financial supervision, which will be scrutinized in detail further in this paper. The onset of the crisis in 2007 followed an extended period of unusually low real interest rates, easy credit conditions, low volatility in financial markets and widespread increases in asset prices that had generated large-scale but hidden vulnerabilities. When these vulnerabilities crystallised in the wake of repeated series of asset write-downs, key financial markets became dysfunctional and the solvency of large parts of the global banking system was challenged 32 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo (BIS, 79th Annual Report, 2009). In 2007 the depressed period has began in a local mortgage segment in financial markets in the US but it spread all over the world in surprisingly short period of time causing general economic recessions in developed nations as well as developing countries. The proximate cause of the crisis is reasonably well understood. It began with the subprime mortgage crisis in the U.S. Sub-prime lending, that is, mortgages given to borrowers who do not meet the credit standard cut-off for government-sponsored enterprises, rose steadily from just below $100 billion in 1996 to around $600 billion in 2006. In 2006, sub-prime lending constituted a whopping 22% of all mortgages issued in the U.S. As was to be expected, this resulted in a rise in the default rates among home loan borrowers, first noted in February 2007 and fully evident by August that year. As this happened and more homes came on the market, prices of homes began to fall. From mid-2006 to mid-2008 house prices in the U.S. fell at the rate of 10% per annum. This in turn meant that lending banks and financial institutions found their asset position weakening, since the values of the foreclosed homes were now less than when the mortgages were signed. Soon these institutions were, in turn, defaulting on their loans. As this fear spread, inter-bank and inter-corporate lending came to a virtual standstill (Basu, 2009, p. 3). This argument may be seen acceptable for most of the people but we should understand how a problematic that occurs in a small part of the market pushes the world‘s financial markets into a vicious circle. The shock on the American real estate market has been a starting point for the financial turbulences at international scale. At the end of 2006, an important number of clues have already announced the international financial markets crisis: depreciation of dollar denominated assets, degradation of banks financial indicators, reserves reduction and mortgage credit problems. Between 1997 and 2006, the houses prices increased with about 124% in the United States. The financial turbulences have begun before the subprime crisis. A first contagion phenomenon related to stock prices drop was signaled in emerging markets in May 2006. A second event of financial turbulences was represented by the Chinese capital market disorder in February 2007. The credit mortgage crisis in the United Stated followed (Albulescu, 2008). This financial crisis which began in industrialized countries quickly spread to emerging market and developing economies. Investors pulled capital from countries, even those with small levels of perceived risk, and caused values of stocks and domestic currencies to plunge. Also, slumping exports and commodity prices have added to the woes and pushed economies world wide either into recession or into a period of slower economic growth (Nanto, 2009). And yet many vulnerabilities were manifest from 2004–2006 in the UK and USA in ways that clearly showed inter-connections (Gills, 2008; Pettifor, 2006). Absolute levels of debt were rising and leverage levels were rising making debt servicing more interest rate sensitive. House prices were rising faster than incomes. The expansionary business models of some banks were increasingly dependent on the renewal of short term debt in wholesale markets. Investment banks and treasury arms of commercial banks were increasingly engaging in proprietary trading. Their role as prime brokers was expanding intra-financial multiplication and fuelling further securitisation and the creation of structured credit products. Speculative investment through other derivatives that were originally intended as insurance (credit default swaps, blended foreign exchange futures etc.) was creating a highly unstable asset class. These were all issues that made tenable the notion that the ongoing dynamics of the financial system were leading to collective qualitative changes. (Morgan, 2009) In summary, there are three basic and important specifications of the crisis. The first and the second reason point out excessive risk-taking and excessive leverage by financial institutions. These reflected an inconsistency between globalization and market governance that created the possibility of originating and trading assets under massive underestimation of their risk characteristics. It is the third feature however that sharply differentiates this from previous crises: the extreme level of opacity regarding the size and incidence of risks in the portfolios held by investors and intermediaries (EEAG Report, 2009). Several layers of securitization of loans and mortgages resulted in a loss of information and created network externalities across interconnected institutions, which made intermediaries and investors increasingly unable to assess how much risk was in their portfolio, eventually causing the illiquidity of markets directly or indirectly exposed to asset backed securities.( EEAG Report, 2009) From another point of view, the belief that markets tend towards equilibrium is directly responsible for the current turmoil; it encouraged the regulators to abandon their responsibility and rely on the market mechanism to correct its own excesses. The idea that prices, although they may take random walks, tend to revert to the mean served as the guiding principle for the synthetic financial instruments and investment practices which are currently unraveling (Soros, 2008, p.97). In addition, Soros argued that the actual source of the current crisis is the asymmetric structure of financial internationalization and financial liberalization. In this article, we will review the origins of the current global financial crisis. Within this framework it reviews recent developments in global financial atmosphere causing distortion and distrust in financial environment worldwide. In what follows, we therefore attempt to locate the origins of the crisis through two main grouping of 33 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo axis: first financial liberalization, competition, excessive risk taking and excessive leverage and second financial innovation, complex corporate structures and lack of adequate supervision. Financial Liberalization, Competition, Excessive Risk Taking and Excessive Leverage It is not surprising that analysts and observers of the financial markets have brought Minsky‘s ideas back from an almost total intellectual exile. The conditions that caused and then helped to develop the current financial crisis in the USA correspond very neatly to Minsky‘s model of financial crises. This cyclical pattern is the endogenous nature of agents‘ risk perception and expectations. The Minskyan cycle can be described as follows. The tranquillity of states of full-employment gradually leads to a diminishing perception of risks and increasingly optimistic expectations about the future. It is also during periods of tranquil expansion that ‗profit-seeking financial institutions invent and reinvent ‗‗new‘‘ forms of money, substitutes for money in portfolios, and financing techniques for various types of activity‘. As financial innovation and optimistic expectations develop, additional demand for goods and assets is created. Asset prices increase, giving rise to additional profit opportunities and thus attracting new investors. This positive feedback characterises the booming phase of the cycle, in which the greater appetite for risk and new financial instruments make the system increasingly fragile. At some point, some event calls agents‘ attention to the high degree of exposure to risk in the system and a phase of financial distress begins (Minsky, 1986, p.199) In its Annual Report for 2006–7 released in June 2007 (technically not an Financial Stability Report, but covering financial stability concerns as part of its remit), the BIS noted that an ―ever increasing number of economic and financial variables have been observed to deviate significantly from what might be deemed traditional norms‖ which might not be sustainable. They highlighted that the world seems ―awash with liquidity‖ with mortgage credit available on unprecedented terms. Low risk free rates and intense competition were seen as underlying a high appetite for risk, but also the misperception of risk due to lack of due diligence in the originate and distribute model – related in turn to principal-agent problems. Concerns were expressed about ―irrational exuberance‖ and risk of overpricing assets, that might turn to undershooting of prices, if liquidity dries up and correlations of asset prices rise as has been seen ―many times in the past‖(Davis, Karim, 2008). As stated very precisely by Jack Boorman (2009), these trends were further complicated by an increasingly integrated global trading and financial system which magnified and accelerated the transmission process; inadequate regulation and supervision of national financial systems and fragmentation of global regulation; weak surveillance by the IMF and other multilateral organisations; and aggravated by weak and uncoordinated policy responses to the initial signs of trouble in the financial system—responses that, as noted subsequently, in many instances did more to shake confidence than to instill a sense that policy was up to the task of dealing with the banking system crisis and the impact on the real economy (Boorman, 2009). Simultaneously, now powerful financial interests pushed for the deregulation and liberalization of world financial markets. This resulted in intensified financial competition over increased household and firm demand for credit that, in turn, fed a wave of financial innovation (from junk bonds, securitization, collateralized debt obligations to credit default swaps). In Minskian fashion, these developments allowed under-consumption to be temporarily averted and furthered over-investment tendencies that spread to developing economies. Continued macroeconomic growth became dependent on a financially fragile debt structure and on consumption propped up by wealth effects induced by asset bubbles. The bubbles were internally generated by increases in endogenous credit facilitated by financial innovation. These bubbles were allowed to persist by competition-induced decreases in inflation that allowed monetary authorities to pursue lower interest rate policies (Goldstein, 2009). Minsky (1987) was one of the few commentators who understood the true potential of securitization. In principle, all mortgages (indeed, most bank assets) could be packaged into a variety of risk classes, with differential pricing to cover risk. Investors could choose the desired risk-return trade-off. Financial institutions would earn fee income for loan origination, for assessing risk, and for servicing the mortgages. Wall Street would place the collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), slicing and dicing to suit the needs of investors. Securitization contributed to an apparent democratization of access to credit as homeownership rates rose to record levels over the coming decades—and it initially appeared that banks and thrifts were insulated from interest rate risk. Minsky (1987) argued that securitization reflected two additional developments. First, it was part and parcel of the globalization of finance, as securitization creates assets freed from national boundaries. As Minsky was fond of pointing out, the unparalleled post-WWII depression-free expansion in the developed world (and even in much of the developing world) has created a global pool of managed money seeking returns. Packaged securities were appealing for global investors trying to achieve the desired proportion of dollardenominated assets. It would be no surprise to Minsky to find that the value of securitized American mortgages 34 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo eventually exceeded the value of the global market for federal government debt. The second development is the relative decline of the importance of banks in favor of ―markets.‖ (The bank share of all financial assets fell from around 50% in the 1950s to around 25% in the 1990s.) This was encouraged by the experiment in Monetarism (that decimated the regulated portion of the sector in favor of the relatively unregulated ―markets‖), but it was also by continual erosion of the portion of the financial sphere that had been allocated by rules, regulations, and tradition to banks. The growth of competition on both sides of banking business—checkable deposits at nonblank financial institutions that could pay market interest rates; and rise of the commercial paper market that allowed firms to bypass commercial banks—squeezed the profitability of banking. Minsky (1987) observed that banks appear to require a spread of about 450 basis points between interest rates earned on assets less that paid on liabilities. This covers the normal rate of return on capital, plus the required reserve ―tax‖ imposed on banks (reserves are non-earning assets), and the costs of servicing customers. By contrast, financial markets can operate with much lower spreads precisely because they are exempt from required reserve ratios, regulated capital requirements, and much of the costs of relationship banking. To restore profitability in the aftermath of Monetarism, banks and thrifts would earn fee income for loan origination, but by moving the mortgages off their books they could escape reserve and capital requirements. Investment banks purchased and pooled mortgages, then sold securities to investors. As Minsky (1987) argued, investment banks would pay ratings agencies to bless the securities, and hire economists to develop models to demonstrate that interest earnings would more than compensate for risks. Risk raters and economic modelers essentially served as credit enhancers, certifying that prospective defaults on subprimes would be little different from those on conventional mortgages—so that the subprime-backed securities could receive the investment-grade rating required by insurance and pension funds. Later, other ―credit enhancements‖ were added to the securities, such as large penalties for early payment and buy-back guarantees in the event of capital losses due to unexpectedly high delinquencies and foreclosures—the latter became important when the crisis hit because the risks came right back to banks due to the guarantees. But an additional advantage to the banks of all this lay in the regulatory arbitrage that the collateralised debt obligations provided. Banks were able to expand leverage [the relationship of their assets (the amount lent out) to their equity or capital] in ways that were previously impossible. This expansion of leverage was a significant factor in allowing the investment banks and others to achieve greater pricing power in their trading activities, underpinning their bubble-inducing activities. Clearly, any holding of capital is costly to the banks in the sense that it cannot be lent out at an interest. Yet over the recent past the creation of asset-backed securities of the form discussed above allowed the banks to increase their leverage substantially (Lawson, 2009). Commercial banks appeared to be adequately capitalised, but only because they overestimated the value of on-balance-sheet assets while holding a high percentage of their most vulnerable assets hidden off-balance-sheet. In fact, they were excessively leveraged, as the crisis revealed. Many European banks had leverage ratios of 50 or more before the crisis (Crotty, 2009) One particular dimension of the housing bubble were the subprime loans which were repackaged by the finance sector as particular mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and collaterized debt obligations (CDOs)—ostensibly to better manage risk. Thus excess liquidity was channelled both directly into the purchase of increasingly complex financial instruments (including derivative products) and indirectly by allowing the funding of subprime mortgages which were then repackaged as MBSs and CDOs. When the housing bubble burst it became apparent that the value of MBSs and CDOs had not been accurately reflected on banks‘ balance sheets. Financial instruments had become so complicated that where risk lies had become obscured. When the subprime mortgage market collapsed there was widespread contagion into the global financial system as a whole, as a result of the global distribution of the complex financial instruments and derivative products amongst the globally interconnected financial firms. The ‗toxic‘ combination of an asset price bubble and the way the risks were passed on into the system has been key to making these financial instruments into such financial weapons of mass destruction (O‘Brien, Keith, 2009). When losses on subprimes began to exceed expectations based on historical experience, prices of securities began to fall. Problems spread to other markets, including money market mutual funds and commercial paper markets, and banks became reluctant to lend even for short periods. With big leverage ratios, money managers faced huge losses greatly exceeding their capital, and began to de-leverage by selling, putting more downward pressure on prices. As the subprime market unraveled, fears spread to other asset-backed securities, including commercial real estate loans, and to other bond markets such as that for municipal bonds. Markets recognized that there were systemic problems with the credit ratings assigned by the credit ratings agencies. Further, they realized that if mortgage-backed securities, other asset-backed securities, and muni bonds are riskier than previously believed, then the insurers will have greater than expected losses. Ratings agencies downgraded the credit ratings of the insurers. As the financial position of insurers was questioned, the insurance that guaranteed the assets became worthless—so the 35 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo ratings on bonds and securities were downgraded. In many cases, investment banks had a piece of this action, holding the worst of the securities, and they had promised to take back mortgages or had positions in the insurers—in retrospect, a huge mistake. (Wray, 2009) Financial Innovation, Complex Corporate Structures and Lack of Adequate Supervision Although the visible start of the global financial crises emerged from US subprime market, its deep cause on the financial side is to be found in the flawed institutions and practices of the current financial regime, often referred to as the New Financial Architecture (NFA). ‗New Financial Architecture‘ refers to the integration of modern day financial markets with the era‘s light government regulation. The NFA is based on light regulation of commercial banks, even lighter regulation of investment banks and little, if any, regulation of the ‗shadow banking system‘—hedge and private equity funds and bank-created Special Investment Vehicles (SIVs). Support for lax regulation was reinforced by the central claim of neoclassical financial economics that capital markets price securities correctly with respect to expected risk and return. Reregulation of financial markets will not be effective unless it substantially reduces the perverse incentives that pervade the system. Financial innovation has proceeded to the point where important structured financial products are so complex that they are inherently non-transparent. They cannot be priced correctly, are not sold on markets and are illiquid. According to the Securities Industry and Financial Markets Association (SIFMA), there was $7.4 trillion worth of Mortgage Backed Securities (MBSs) outstanding in the first quarter of 2008, more than double the amount outstanding in 2001. Over $500 billion dollars in Colletarized Debt Obligation (CDOs)1 were issued in both 2006 and 2007, up from $157 billion as recently as 2004 (SIFMA website). The explosion of these securities created large profits at giant financial institutions, but also destroyed the transparency necessary for any semblance of market efficiency. Deregulation allowed financial conglomerates to become so large and complex that neither insiders nor outsiders could accurately evaluate their risk. The Bank for International Settlement told national regulators to allow banks to evaluate their own risk—and thus set their own capital requirements—through a statistical exercise based on historical data called Value at Risk (VAR). Government officials thus ceded to banks, as they had to ratings agencies, crucial aspects of regulatory power (Crotty, 2009) The surge in non-prime mortgage loans was spurred by the confidence of originating banks in their ability to measure default risk accurately by employing standard quantitative models. The risk associated with these underlying securities was subsequently transferred to market investors in the form of residential mortgage-backed securities (RMBS) and their common derivatives such as collateralized debt obligations (CDOs). These complex financial instruments have been differentiated by their riskiness and sold to market investors. They have allowed investors to choose assets with a precise risk profile (Orlowski, 2008, p.11). But the most important factors which contributed to the crisis appearance were the financial innovations (represented by the securitization activity and the credit derivatives), combined with the imperfections of the regulatory and surveillance activities (Albulescu, 2008). Leverage can therefore constitute an effective long-term strategy to increase the value of a portfolio, since it basically entails getting loans with the hope that investment returns will be higher than borrowing costs. But if the economic return on investment is lower than borrowing costs, leverage becomes harmful. It then creates a snowball effect on the balance sheet. In the final analysis and simply put, leveraging is a risk transfer instrument; it is a sword of Damocles with the potential to hurt the risk-taking firm. In the event of bad investment, corporate equity, which normally acts like a safety feature for most firms, becomes useless. In such situations, the only way out is either a buyout by another firm in better financial standing or government intervention or bankruptcy. When used excessively, leveraging can threaten, via domino effect, the stability of a whole sector or industry. That is what happened on Wall Street in September 2008 when Lehman Brothers went bankrupt. Many investors had engaged in leveraging with the goal of boosting rapidly the growth rate of their portfolios. The inaction of regulation agencies and independent rating agencies—that had yielded to the illusions of the effectiveness of monetary policy— 1 In their abbreviated definition, CDOs are structured credit products backed by pools of other assets, with cash flows assigned to varying credit risk tranches: senior AAA-rated, mezzanine AA to BB- rated, and equity (unrated) tranche. Cash flows are going first to the lowest risk tranche. In Exchange for purchasing CDOs, third-party investors receive a claim on the mortgage asset and related cash flows, which becomes collateral in the case of default. Forms of CDOs include: a cash flow CDO where underlying credit risks are bonds or loans held by the issuer, a synthetic CDO with the exposure to risk insured by the credit default swap (CDS), and CDOs-squared where each underlying risk is itself a CDO tranche. 36 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo encouraged the spectacular development of new, complex and minimally regulated financial products. The intensive recourse to increasingly sophisticated innovations as well as the dissemination of financial instruments which with time became incomprehensible to users – including workers of the regulation and rating agencies - cost the international financial system what was supposed to be its most important or precious asset: transparency (Monga, 2009, p.13). Looking at the causes of the global crisis from supervisory and regulatory perspectives, The Basel Committee itself has already indicated, through its Chairman Nout Wellink, that a thorough revision of the risk management and capital adequacy regulations is needed. The Basel committee already proposed raising capital requirements for complex structured credit products, liquidity facilities to support asset-backed commercial paper conduits and credit exposures held due to trading. Additionally, the committee said that standards for liquidity management needed to be strengthened. Another problem about the causes of the crisis is the procyclicality of the capital requirements, which has to be addressed by the Basel Committee. It is evident that the capital requirements should become more anti-cyclical. The risk management models based on Basel II have not passed the stress test of the credit crisis. This was to be expected, as ex post risk (certainly in times of crisis) is not a good proxy for ex ante uncertainty. Several researchers have additionally proposed improvements for risk management and capital planning to make banks more resilient to crises. It has become clear that national central banks and financial supervisors have to be much more involved with risk management in financial institutions. We have seen that CEOs do not understand the risk management models and aim for higher yields and the risks connected to those yields. Regulators have to provide incentives for banks to take into account risks better when searching for higher yields. This does not necessarily have to come from more strict supervision. Because of their strategic interaction with financial institutions, supervisors should use modern game-theoretic concepts like constructive ambiguity and incentive compatibility to realise smarter and more efficient supervision. The credit crisis has showed us that the American system of financial supervision has failed and that the European supervision of banks and insurers also needs significant improvement (Eijffinger, 2008). At the most basic level, the subprime crisis resulted from the tendency of financial normalization and innovation to run ahead of financial regulation. For a long time, deregulation was the order of the day not only outside but also within financial markets, as illustrated by, for example, eliminating the Glass-Steagall Act‘s2 restrictions on mixing investment and commercial banking. However, considering what had happened, the problem was that other (regulatory) policies were not adapted to the new environment (Schneider, Kirchgässner, 2009) In the developed world there has been a long-term transition away from relatively tightly regulated banking toward ―market-based‖ financial institutions. This transformation is most clear in the U.S., which had separated commercial banking (loans and deposits) from investment banking (broader array of financial instruments including equities and securities). Two decades ago there was a lot of discussion of the benefits of the ―universal banking‖ model adopted abroad (Germany, Japan), and there was some movement in the U.S. in that direction. However, of far greater importance was the development of the ―originate to distribute‖ model best represented by securitization, and use of ―off-balance sheet‖ operations. Ironically, the push to increase safety and soundness through creation of international standards as adopted in the Basle agreements actually encouraged these developments—which as we now know greatly increased systemic risk. The failure of private parties to exercise sufficient due diligence was rooted in the failure of government supervisors to challenge decisions made by private accountants and credit-rating organizations. Authorities neglected their duty of examining and publicizing the implications that these decisions might have for safety-net loss exposure. By tolerating a decline in transparency, supervisors made it difficult to recognize and price the risk expansion not only for themselves, but also for the market participants (Caprio, Demirgüç-Kunt and Kane, 2008). The current crisis just as convincingly represents a failure of the Big Government/Neoconservative (or, outside the U.S., what is called neo-liberal) model that promotes deregulation, reduced supervision and oversight, privatization, and consolidation of market power. It replaced the New Deal reforms with self-supervision of markets, with greater reliance on ―personal responsibility‖ as safety nets were shredded, and with monetary and fiscal policy 2 The Banking Act of 1933 was a law that established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) in the United States and introduced banking reforms, some of which were designed to control speculation[1]. It is most commonly known as the Glass– Steagall Act, after its legislative sponsors, Carter Glass and Henry B. Steagall. The first Glass-Steagall Act of 1932 was enacted in an effort to stop deflation, and expanded the Federal Reserve's ability to offer rediscounts on more types of assets, such as government bonds as well as commercial paper[4]. The second Glass–Steagall Act (the Banking Act of 1933) was a reaction to the collapse of a large portion of the American commercial banking system in early 1933. It introduced the separation of bank types according to their business (commercial and investment banking), and it founded the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation for insuring bank deposits. Literature in economics usually refers to this latter act simply as the Glass–Steagall Act, since it had a stronger impact on US banking regulation. (www.wikipedia.org) 37 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo that is biased against maintenance of full employment and adequate growth to generate rising living standards for most Americans (Wray, 2009). One important implication of the recent crisis is the wide-spread calls for reforms of regulation and supervision. The initial reaction to the emerging crisis was one of disbelief: how could the crisis emerge in countries whose supervision of credit risk had been thought to be the best in the world? Indeed, the regulatory standards and protocols of these countries were in the process of being emulated worldwide through the international Basel capital accords. Basel II – which is currently in its implementation stage - grew out of concern that the Basel I accord was unable to address the range of risks in bank activities, as evidenced by the growth of securitization. Basel II is built on three Pillars: (1) minimum regulatory capital requirements for credit risk, operational risk and market risk; (2) the supervisory review process; and (3) market discipline and disclosure. The minimum capital requirements are determined by either external ratings from ratings agencies for smaller banks or by outputs from the larger banks‘ own internal ratings models. Many interpreted the crisis as a vivid example of market failure, evidence that there is no such thing as market discipline, reinforcing calls for stronger regulations through improvements in Basel II accord. But the crisis also spawned a growing argument about the role Basel I accord may have played in causing the crisis. Indeed, it is no secret that Basel I contributed to the growth in securitization by assigning lower capital charges and thus giving incentives to institutions to move their assets into off balance- sheet securitization vehicles. While advocates claimed that Basel II, had it been implemented earlier, could have lessened or prevented the turmoil, critics of the Basel approach to capital regulation pointed out that the crisis has simply reconfirmed fundamental flaws that have been evident in this approach (Demirgüç-Kunt, Servén, 2009, p.25). Possible solutions to overcome the worldwide distress After leaving out the first shock, countries started to search about possible ways to overcome the crisis with least damage and the least cost in the shortest period of time possible. Though fundamental precautions needs to be taken worldwide, nations and authorities have started the job by listing the lessons learned from the crisis and by putting forward relative actions according to problematic areas and issues in financial environment along with the whole economy as well. In the United States, policy proposals to change specific regulations as well as the structure of regulation and supervision at both the domestic and international levels have been coming forth through the legislative process, from the Administration, and from recommendations by international organizations such as the IMF, Bank for International Settlements, and Financial Stability Board (Forum) (Nanto, 2009). Though remedies prepared by countries differs according to every nation due to different focus over the problems and different national financial structures and different needs, fundamentally policies commonly aim to promote robust supervision and regulation of financial firms, establish comprehensive supervision of financial markets, protect consumers and investors from financial abuse, provide the government with the tools it needs to manage financial crises, and to raise international regulatory standards and improve international cooperation. In addition, U.S. authorities proposed international reforms to support U.S. efforts- where policy work is the most intense as the starting point of the crisis and as the most affected country of the crisis, including strengthening the capital framework; improving oversight of global financial markets; coordinating supervision of internationally active firms; and enhancing crisis management tools. As the crisis unfolded, governments have been forced into the role of becoming new owners of distressed financial institutions, guarantors of loans, taking over the risk implicit in poor collateral (with contingent liabilities for the taxpayer), and making regulatory adjustments on the run. With respect to crisis management there are three basic and separable steps required to deal with a banking system solvency crisis. Guarantee liabilities to stop bank runs. All deposits need to be covered to avoid creating runs between covered and noncovered institutions. Secondly, separate the good assets from the bad assets, and get the bad assets off bank balance sheets. One approach to this is like the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) program in its initial form: essentially an ‗asset management‘ approach to buying toxic assets (as was used during the Asia crisis). Thirdly, recapitalize the asset-cleansed banks by finding new equity holders. This can be via selling common shares or preference shares (that provide a higher yield to the owner) to private entities or the government. The latter is not desirable in the longer run, as it can contribute to moral hazard issues and level playing field issues. As the crisis passes, it will be important to focus on sustainable policies for the financial system (Blundell-Wignall, Atkinson and Lee, 2008). Most important, according to Ergungor and Thomson, is that successful crisis resolutions have been characterized by transparency. When officials move to contain a financial crisis, their primary task is to identify which institutions are viable and which assets are good, and conversely which institutions are insolvent and which assets are bad. This triage and full disclosure of associated losses clears the uncertainty surrounding the 38 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo financial institutions and makes it possible for the viable institutions to raise new funds from private investors or from the government if private sources are not available. Second, crisis resolutions have been most successful when they were handled by a politically and financially independent agency. Granting independence to those responsible for containing the crisis and restructuring shields decision makers from political pressures, which mount as institutions are closed and assets are liquidated. The decision to close a financial institution or a business must be an economic, not a political, one. Financial independence is necessary to give credibility to political independence: If a government agency holds the purse strings, it can dictate policy. Independence from changing political environments is also important because it allows for a rapid response to emergent funding needs (as when new losses are discovered in a financial institution). Having to wait for the legislature to appropriate funds in these situations can be impractical. A third practice associated with a successful resolution strategy is the maintenance of market discipline. Without it, note Ergungor and Thomson, the stage is set for future crises. If market discipline is to be effective, investors who assumed greater risks must be credibly exposed to loss; that is, they must suffer the consequences of having ignored or failed to detect signs of trouble. Finally, Ergungor and Thomson observe that containing troubled financial assets and restructuring institutions has typically not been enough to resolve a financial crisis entirely, though doing so positions the system to return to more normal functioning. They find that full crisis resolution must also achieve some restoration of credit flows within the economy. For that to happen, the creditworthiness of borrowers must be restored throughout the economy—a difficult task, given that the economic fallout from a crisis (such as rising unemployment) actually erodes credit quality further. (Ergungor, 2007; Ergungor and Thomson, 2005; Ergungor and Cherny, 2009) Conclusion The subprime mortgage crisis that erupted in the American financial markets in August 2007 caused an unprecedented global recession and generated various and urgent policy responses around the world. It was seen as an opportunity for some communist economists to announce the end of the dominance of free market economy. It was, however, a matter of concern to hear some important people complain about the ―betrayal of globalization‖-who have by and large managed their economies much better in the past twenty years, only to be hit hard by a crisis that originated in the center of the world economy. Financial crises often do expose weaknesses in the underlying incentive frameworks and the regulation and supervision systems that are supposed to reinforce them. But finance is risky business and it is naïve to think that regulation and supervision can – or should- completely eliminate the risk of crises, although they can make crises less frequent and less costly. Neither monetary policy nor capital controls can substitute for well designed prudential regulation. Despite their inherent fragility, financial systems underpin economic development. The challenge of financial sector policies is to align private incentives with public interest without taxing or subsidizing private risktaking. Public ownership or too aggressive regulation would simply hamper financial development and growth. But striking this balance is becoming increasingly complex in an ever more integrated and globalized financial system (Demirgüç-Kunt, Servén, 2009). How did this second great colossal muddle arise? In the aftermath of the Great Depression, we redesigned the machine so that we did understand it, well enough at any rate to avoid big disasters. Banks, the piece of the system that malfunctioned so badly in the 1930s, were placed under tight regulation and supported by a strong safety net. Meanwhile, international movements of capital, which played a disruptive role in the 1930s, were also limited. The financial system became a little boring but much safer. Then things got interesting and dangerous again. Growing international capital flows set the stage for devastating currency crises in the 1990s and for a globalized financial crisis in 2008. The growth of the shadow banking system, without any corresponding extension of regulation, set the stage for latter-day bank runs on a massive scale. These runs involved frantic mouse clicks rather than frantic mobs outside locked bank doors, but they were no less devastating. What we're going to have to do, clearly, is relearn the lessons our grandfathers were taught by the Great Depression. I won't try to lay out the details of a new regulatory regime, but the basic principle should be clear: anything that has to be rescued during a financial crisis, because it plays an essential role in the financial mechanism, should be regulated when there isn't a crisis so that it doesn't take excessive risks. Since the 1930s commercial banks have been required to have adequate capital, hold reserves of liquid assets that can be quickly converted into cash, and limit the types of investments they make, all in return for federal guarantees when things go wrong. Now that we've seen a wide range of non-bank institutions create what amounts to a banking crisis, comparable regulation has to be extended to a much larger part of the system. We're also going to have to think hard about how to deal with financial globalization. In the aftermath of the Asian crisis of the 1990s, there were some calls for long-term restrictions on international capital flows, not just temporary controls in times of crisis. For the most part these calls were rejected in favor of a strategy of building up 39 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo large foreign exchange reserves that were supposed to stave off future crises. Now it seems that this strategy didn't work. Exactly what form the next response should take isn't clear, but financial globalization has definitely turned out to be even more dangerous than we realized. (Krugman, 2009, p. 189) The World economy faces with financial crises in certain periods. From time to time those crises become more frequent and from time to time they become seldomly occurring. But we should note that just like the severity and intension of the earthquakes increases when the earthquakes are rare, the damage and cost of the financial crises to the economy increases if it has been a long time after the last event hit the world. Following the financial turmoil of 2007-2008 of which the negative effects still continue, there have been thousands of lessons taken out of the crises. All the lectures are about the policies to overcome the crises and the measures to take in order to prevent the new ones. But since the financial products, financial institutions and financial environment changes rapidly, every new crisis comes up with an unanticipated source. So every time there remains new lessons to learn for the economy. References Albulescu, Claudiu Tiberiu (2008); The Spread of the Capital Market‘s Global Crisis: Does The Countries‘ Industrial Profile Matter?, Journal of Applied Economic Sciences Issue 4 (6)/Volume III /Winter 2008 Basu, Kaushik (2009), A Simple Model of the Financial Crisis of 2007-9 with Implications for the Design of a Stimulus Package, conference on the Micro foundations of Development at the London School of Economics, May 30, 2009; CAE Working Paper #09-11 BIS, 79th Annual Report, (2009) Blundell-Wignall, Adrian; Atkinson, Paul and Lee, Se Hoon (2008), The Current Financial Crisis: Causes and Policy Issues, Financial Market Trends © OECD 2008 Boorman, Jack, (2009), Remarks for the South Asia Forum on the Global Economic and Financial Crisis, Manila, Philippines, March Caprio,G., Demirgüç-Kunt, Aslı and Kane, Edward,(2008), The 2007 Meltdown in Structured Securitization: Searching for Lessons not Scapegoats, Policy Research World Bank Working Paper, # 4756 Crotty, James (2009), Structural causes of the global financial crisis: a critical assessment of the ‗new financial architecture‘, Cambridge Journal of Economics 33, p. 563–580 Davis, E. Philip; Karim, Dilruba (2008), Could Early Warning Systems Have Helped To Predict the Sub-Prime Crisis? National Institute Economic Review 206; 35 Demirgüç-Kunt, Aslı; Servén, Luis (2009), Are All the Sacred Cows Dead? Implications of the Financial Crisis for Macro and Financial Policies, Policy Research Working Paper, # 4807 the World Bank. EEAG European Economic Advisory Group at CESifo, 2009, Report on European Economy 2009, www.cesifo-group.de, Access date: 07.05.2010 Eijffinger, Sylvester C.W. (2008), Crisis management in the European Union, Policy Insight No.27, Centre for Economic Policy Research, December Ergungor, O. Emre (2007), On the Resolution of Financial Crises: The Swedish Experience, Policy Discussion Papers, no 21, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland Ergungor, O. Emre and Thomson, James B. (2005), Systemic Banking Crises, Policy Discussion Papers, no: 9 Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland Ergungor, O. Emre; Cherny, Kent, (2009), Effective Practices in Crisis Resolution and the Case of Sweden, Economic Commentary February, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland. Gills,B.(2008), The Swinging of the Pendulum: the Global Crisis and Beyond, Globalizations, vol.5, no. 4, p.13–22 Goldstein, Jonathan P. (2009) , Heterodox Crisis Theory and the Current Global Financial Crisis, Review of Radical Political Economics; 41; Book Review Essays, p. 560-569 40 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo Krugman, Paul, (2009), The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008, New York, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Lawson, Tony (2009), The Current Economic Crisis: Its Nature and the Course of Academic Economics, Cambridge Journal of Economics 33, p. 759–777 Minsky, H. (1986), Stabilizing an Unstable Economy, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press Minsky, Hyman P. (1987), ―Securitization,‖ Handout Econ 335A, Fall 1987, mimeo, in the Minsky Archive at The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Monga, Celestin (2009), Post-Macroeconomics Reflections on the Crisis and Strategic Directions Ahead, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, # 4986. Morgan, Jamie (2009), The limits of central bank policy: economic crisis and the challenge of effective Solutions, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 33, p.581–608 Nanto, Dick K.(2009), The Global Financial Crisis: Analysis and Policy Implications, Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service O‘Brien, Richard and Keith, Alasdair (2009), The geography of finance: after the storm, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society , 2, p. 245–265 Orlowski, Lucjan T. (2008), Stages of the Ongoing Global Financial Crisis: Is There a Wandering Asset Bubble?, Halle Institute for Economic Research Discussion Paper, No.11 Pettifor, A. (2006), The Coming First World Debt Crisis, London, Palgrave Schneider, Friedrich; Kirchgässner, Gebhard (2009), Financial and world economic crisis: What did economists contribute? Public Choice 140: p. 319–327 Soros, George, (2008), The New Paradigm for Financial Markets, The Credit Crisis of 2008 and What It Means, BBS Public Affairs, NY Wray, L. Randall (2009), Money Manager Capitalism and the Global Financial Crisis, The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College Working Paper, No: 578, New York 41 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 154 Title A name given to the resource Managerial and Supervisory Mistakes Leading to Foreseeable Consequence: Global Financial Crisis Author Author KURNAZ, Niyazi TOPAL, Hanife KAYIK, Mustafa ÖZKAN, Harika Abstract A summary of the resource. The global financial crisis that began in summer 2007, deepened in 2008 and looks set to run for some time and to have profound effects on the global economy. For the 2007 subprime crisis, we consider that there are also some particular aspects which characterize the actual crisis, like the increased role of financial innovations (the securitization and credit derivatives) and a very important contagion phenomenon which began within the American economy and spread over the global financial markets. The subprime crisis extended at international level, following four main directions: at the root of the crisis lies a fundamental inconsistency between financial globalization – the process of liberalization and deregulation driving the impressive growth of world financial markets – and existing public rules and policies at both domestic and international levels. On the other hand; complex corporate structures managing financial innovation causing excessive risk taking and excessive leverage due to lack of adequate supervision enhanced the global disease. In this paper after discussing the causes of the global financial crisis, we will put forward ways and policies to overcome the ongoing crisis in global level. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/52384ce18734c15664424e963aa8ff5a.pdf c018ea1c1be3eb2cdad0a21fd263ad11 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo International Differences In Fınancial Reportıng And Importance Of Harmonizatıon Hilmi KIRLIOĞLU Prof. Dr , Sakarya University, tel: +90 264 2956258 hilmik@sakarya.edu.tr Sema ÜLKÜ Lecturer, Duzce University, tel: +90 380 6817312 semaulku@duzce.edu.tr Abstract:Financial Reporting is reached informations that can be used for making decisions with financial issues by decision makers. Technological developments facilitated to access information but it is not enough. It is more important that financial information can be understood by all relevant. Comparability and transparency requirements in financial reporting and accounting have become more pronounced. Nevertheless, countries‘ financial reporting standards and structures of setting standards have varied. These differences have originated from structures of legal and financial systems, shareholding structure of companies and financial methods. The development of the accountancy profession level is effective on these differences. Harmonization is a process that could reduce differences of accounting practices and accounting regulations. Multinational enterprices have benefitted from harmonization efforts to compare financial reports for providing a competitive advantage. Key Words: Financial Reporting, Harmonization, Accounting Standards Introduction The basic function of accounting is to provide information for internal and external institutions. The institutions analyzing and processing this information, provided by accounting, rapidly achieve success. Rapid development in information technologies, removal of the duties, and decreasing tariffs have accelerated globalization of markets and business firms. Because of the increase in the international investments and multinational enterprises result in financial reports that are prepared through different accounting standarts and rules. Such a situation brings additional costs by money and time. Therefore, the uncertainity increases in international investment actions. Analyzing information to make investment decisions in a global environment is quite important for business success. Harmonizing accounting systems and standards is crucial for ndividuals and institutions in evaluating information provided by the financial statements. Importance Of Financial Reporting Financial reporting, is achieved that the topics which have included financial information that could be used in making decisions by decision makers. The Internet world has lost the concept of time and space their effectiveness and it has allowed to access that the individuals, institutions and organizations, nations or states to each other faster, cheaper and more profoundly. It is much easier than ever before that the economic environment and the financial statement users also needed access to information. But it is not enough that the easy Access to the information alone. It is more important that financial information can be understood by all relevant(Ağca,2003). Comparability and transparency requirements in financial reporting and accounting have become more pronounced. integrated financial reporting standards that responding to this need will increase the efficiency of the global market. Because accounting is an important element of the emerging global market and, it has kept the control of weakening and strengthening the effectiveness of market power. The responsibility for companies, have integration approach that financial reporting regulations which is published for the investors, creditors and auditors. 72 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo The Causes Of Difference In Fınancial Reporting Countries' accounting systems have many reasons to be different. Countries' different histories, traditions and customs, political and economic structures, legal systems differ between countries as a financial accounting and related developments have led to different financial reporting. Causes of differences in accounting systems can be listed like that:  Judicial system  Financial resources  Political and economic developments  Economical crisis  Taxation  Security exchange  National culture  Inflation  Specialization in accounting(Hoyle,2004) The factors that affect the accounting, is contributing to our understanding that the differences and similarities between countries. Do not forget that accounting is a social science and serve the society. Technical and social significance of accounting in order to remain useful, it must respond to the changing needs of society and it must reflect that the country's cultural, economic, legal and social characteristics. A Method For Reduction Of The Financial Reporting Difference: Harmonization Harmonization is a process that could reduce differences of accounting practices and accounting regulations and could compare the financial reports prepared by businesses which is operating in different countries. Standarts reduce the differences between financial reporting and they increase the benefits of the financial reports for user of financial statements. At the same time, standarts are instruments of harmonization to their country. This situation is especially very important for multinational companies. Harmonization standarts take part for solving the problems when the national standarts conflict with each other. There are a lot of factors to make essential the harmonization of international accounting standarts. They are;  The globalization of capital markets  Expansion of multinational corporations  Increasing the efficiency of the independent audit firm  Goal of creating economic union (Bayazıtlı and the others;2006). There are various benefits to canalise the international accounting standarts and harmonization:  They help to provide incremental cost savings in Multinational Companies.  They enhance relevance and comparability comprehensive to cross-border financial reporting  They help spread the High-quality accounting standards and applications to larger areas.  They cause increase the cross-border financing and trading of securities exchanges and the number of registered companies.  They raise to access the multinational corporations to foreign market and they can help increase the rate of recognition by consumers in these markets (Bekçi;2007). Despite these advantages, there are several factors must be taken into account to use the international standarts:  International financial reporting standarts, in countries which use the standarts, are required upgrade the qualifications of accountants and auditors  They must be taken into account on the difficulty of the transition from rules-based accounting to principlebased accounting.  A clear separation of tax legislation, recovery to tax-focused, complexity of international financial reporting standards are the most important factors which can be overcome with education( Aksoy;2005). Not to lag behind developments in the world, to use the same common language with international financial markets, to meet the demands of financial market information effectively and particularly transparency, adapting to the 73 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo principles of corporate governance and the EU in terms, transition to international financial reporting standarts is essential. The Compliance Process Of International Accounting Standards In The World Many studies have been carried for creating a common language in the accounting area and have been able to achieve standardization both at the national level and at the international level. The United Nations Intergovernmental Working Group on Accounting, Accounting Advisory Group of the European Union, The International Organization of Securities Commissions, International Federation of Accountants and International Accounting Standards Board are international organizations who have done important works in this field. In national level, USA, England, Germany, Canada and Japan have done important works for accounting standards(Karabınar,2006). International Accounting Standards Board, who is an conspicuous organization to the process of creating the International Accounting Standarts, have prepared the set of International Financial Reporting Standarts to eliminate different accounting practices around the world. It has aimed that the relevants could study comparable, understandable and responding to the needs of qualified financial figures. In accordance with this purpose, International Accounting Standards Board has included the countries ,which are effective the emergence of accounting standards, and their foundation to the process of creating accounting standards. It works on this point in consultation with all relevants. Also Financial Accounting Standards Board has worked in harmonization of accounting standards. Since 2002, these organizations have started to work together. The aim here is, to harmonize U.S GAAP (United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) and IAS (International Accounting Standards) and will be created to prevent different applications to standards in the future. The Critisism Of Harmonization Harmonization helps investors in making the right decisions. Proponents of harmonization adduce that harmonization is an advantage for investors in order to help determine the potential value of investments and to reduce risk in international diversification. Other hand, there are also some comments against harmonization. The most important of these views is the magnitude of the difference about current accounting practice in different countries(Çankaya,2007). Because of National Accounting Standarts‘ practitioners have difficulty in the application of International Financial Reporting Standards, their disabilities about applying standards, excessive costs of the application, political interests and legal regulations, they except the implementation of standards in national accounting systems. Conclusion Nowadays, The differences between the accounting systems of the countries have directed the accounting researchers to determine what the differences are then to resolve the differences. International Accounting Harmonization is the most remarkable proposal among the suggestions. With harmonizatin, companies with financial reporting standards will be able to access capital markets all over the world. Accounting standards which is internationally accepted, to recude costs in preparing consolidated financial reports will be valid anywhere in the world and aduiting of reports is more easier. The use of international accounting standards allows to evaluate multiple alternative about the financial events to reflect in accounting system. In this way, harmonization will provide a significant advantage about selecting the most appropriate method under the current conditions. References AĞCA, Ahmet (2003), ―Uluslar arasi Muhasebe Standartlarının GeliĢmekte Olan Ülkelerde Uygulanabilirliği ve Kabul GörmüĢlüğü‖, YayınlanmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Anadolu Üniversitesi, SBE, EskiĢehir AKSOY, Tamer (2005), ―Finansal Muhasebe ve Raporlama Standartlarında UyumlaĢtırma ve UMS/UFRS Bazında Küresel Muhasebe Standartları Setine YöneliĢ Eğilimi‖, Mali Çözüm Dergisi, Sayı: 71, Nisan-Haziran, Ġstanbul S: 182–200 74 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo BAYAZITLI, Ercan ve Diğerleri (2006), Türkiye Muhasebe Standartlarına Genel BakıĢ, TESMER, Ankara BEKÇĠ, Ġsmail (2007), ―Muhasebe Meslek Mensuplarının Türkiye Muhasebe Standartları Hakkındaki GörüĢlerinin Değerlendirilmesine Yönelik Bir AraĢtırma‖, Muhasebe ve Denetime BakıĢ Dergisi, Sayı: 22 Mayıs, Ankara S: 27- 40 ÇANKAYA, Fikret (2007), ―Uluslar arası Muhasebe Uyumunun Ölçülmesine Yönelik Bir Uygulama: Rusya, Çin ve Türkiye KarĢılaĢtırması‖, ZKÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt: 3, Sayı: 6, S: 127-148 HOYLE, B. Joe and The Others (2004), Advanced Accounting, Seventh Edition, Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company, New York KARABINAR, Selahattin (2006), ―Muhasebe Ġklimini Küresel Düzeyde Yönlendiren KuruluĢlar‖ Muhasebe ve Finansman Dergisi MUFAD, Sayı: 31 Temmuz, Ġstanbul S: 141- 148 75 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 179 Title A name given to the resource International Differences In Fınancial Reportıng And Importance Of Harmonizatıon Author Author KIRLIOĞLU, Hilmi ÜLKÜ, Sema Abstract A summary of the resource. Financial Reporting is reached informations that can be used for making decisions with financial issues by decision makers. Technological developments facilitated to access information but it is not enough. It is more important that financial information can be understood by all relevant. Comparability and transparency requirements in financial reporting and accounting have become more pronounced. Nevertheless, countries‘ financial reporting standards and structures of setting standards have varied. These differences have originated from structures of legal and financial systems, shareholding structure of companies and financial methods. The development of the accountancy profession level is effective on these differences. Harmonization is a process that could reduce differences of accounting practices and accounting regulations. Multinational enterprices have benefitted from harmonization efforts to compare financial reports for providing a competitive advantage. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed HB Economic Theory