52 10 3494 https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/c6b4d9aaacc4d85ab201b4ab3163041c.pdf 70389c574df4b516f41066453783617e PDF Text Text Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish and Their Treatments C.Erkin Koyuncu Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries Mersin University TURKEY ekoyuncu@mersin.edu.tr Erol Tokşen Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries Ege University TURKEY erol.tokşen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of fresh water ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish. Such as, protozoan ectoparasites of aquarium fish (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Ichthyobodo necatrix, Chilodonella cyprini, Oodinium limneticum, Trichodinids); external worms of fish (Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus bullutarudis); external crustaceans (parasitic copepods, Argulus japonicus, Argulus foliaceus, Lernaea cyprinacea).The fish louse Argulus spp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries. Gyrodactylus bullatarudis had caused the mortality in guppy ornamental fish. White Spot Disease (Ichthyophthiriosis) occurs in ornamental fish fry interprise caused the considerable economic loss. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater ornamental fish, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on ornamental fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Introduction Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of freshwater ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases caused by parasites are widespread and cause loses of fish in intensively stocked pond and aguarium. Ectoparasites of freshwater ornamental fish come in all sizes and shapes and inculude single-celled protozoan, and mullticellular trematodes (flatworms), crustaceans and artropods (Roberts 2010). Parasites can infest the outer surface or penetrate the paranchyma of almost any tissue of the host. Fish can serve as an intermediate, paratenic (transport) or definetive host for various stages of parasites. Ectoparasitic infections in freshwater ornamentals fishes are diagnosed by wet mount cytology preparations of skin scrapes, gills biopsies, and by direct observation (macroscopic parasites) (Woo 2006, Roberts 2010). Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish (Tab.1). These parasites, in crowded pools and aquariums, together with increasing water temperature when appropriate conditions are found to cause large losses. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish (Mousavi 2003,Tokşen 2006, Koyuncu 2009). In this review, treatment and control of ectoparasites of freshwater ornamental fish in the recent developments were reviewed. The Study Research Significance In this study, ectoparasite of freshwater ornamental diseases and drug therapy are discussed. Ectoparasite freshwater ornamental that can be used in treatment of diseases and drugs are defined and explained the general features. 683 �Important Fish Ectoparasite Groups Caused Loses in Ornamental Fish In this section, the systematic groups that represent the most important examples are chosen. Protozoa: Protozoans are the most common ectoparasites encountered in ornamental fish. Although some authors consider them harmless, many serious fish losses are caused by protozoan ectoparasites (Krier and Baker 1987 Durborow et al.1998, Scholz 1999, Wildgoose 2001). Protozoans vary in shape and size and live mainly on the gills, fins, and skin of fish. There are a number of protozoan ectoparasites long recognized as causative agents of severe diseases such as flagellates of the genus Oodinium sp, or Ichthyobodo sp. and the cilli protozoan ectoparasites, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Chilodonella sp. Trichodina sp. are some of the most significant pathogens in ornamental fish (Tab. 1). (Durborow 2003). Oodinium sp. is a problem in freshwater ornamental fishes. Most reports of the parasite have been on aquarium fishes.( Lom et.al. 1983). Ichthyobodo sp. - formerly (and still commonly) called Costia. A flagellated protozoal ectoparasite. A normal inhabitant of fish skin. Poor water quality and other stresses (especially crowding) may allow this normally mutualistic parasite to reproduce rapidly and overwhelm the host. Microscopically the protozoa are very small (5-10 microns), move rapidly, and are shaped like small sickles. They may be attached to host tissue or swimming free. Most common in freshwater species of fishes (Joyon et al., 1969). Ichthyophthirius multifiliis - known commonly simply as "Ich." The largest protozoal parasite of fish and one of the most commonly encountered. Trophozoites may reach 1.0 mm in diameter. This interference will be placed into the skin. Protection against other pathogens in patients with low-grade infection destroys the system. Whereas in cases of severe infections can cause death quickly. Excessive growth of cysts on the pool floor and as such is a suitable environment for this group is very high virulence of the parasite infection In particular, in the ornamental fish Ichthyophthiriosis loss caused millions of measured by dollars (Durborow et.al., 1998). Chilodonella sp. - A ciliated protozoan which can cause high morbidity and mortality among freshwater tropical fishes at the wholesale and fish farming levels of the industry. Attacks skin and gills. Easily identified microscopically by its heart-shaped structure and slow circular motion when not crawling on the surface of the fish ( Koyuncu, 2003). Trichodina sp.- A disc-shaped ciliate protozoan found on the skin and gills of many freshwater fish. Circular rows of denticles and a ciliary girdle give this parasite a unique radial symmetry. Probably not harmful when present in small numbers (Ozer et al., 1998). Monogenean Platyhelminthes: Monogeneans are parasitic flatworms or flukes with direct live cycle that infest the external surfaces of almost any species of ornamental fish. The mongeneans have an anterior oral sucker used for feding on mucus and sloughed epithelial cells, while the posterior end has a organ for attaching to host. These parasites cause focal irritation, increased mucus production, and hyperplasia of the epithelial tissues, and open a portal for secondary bacterial and fungal infections. Severe infections can cause erratic swimming behavior, ’flashing’ respiratory activity, scattered hemorrhages with epithelial ulceration and frayed fin. Monogenea species the economic importance of fish in the severe loss causes: Common genera found in ornemantal fish inculude: Dactylogyrus sp. and Gyrodactylus sp. Fancy gold fish are commonly infected with ‘gill’ flukes, Dactylogyrus extensus, while Gyrodactylus katherineri skin flukes infestastion are more often observed in koi. Gyrodactylus bullatarusdis and Gyrodactylus Turnbull are guppy fish flukes (Tab. 1). (Woo 2006, Roberts2010). Arthropoda (Crustacea): Crustasea s play an important role in fish parasites is a group. There are a number of crustacean parasites that infect the skin and gills of tropical and ornamental fish (Tab. 1), Lernaea sp. or ‘ anchor form’ is a copepod crustacean of pond-reared fish, especially gold fish, carp, koi and guupy. The infections larval stage of this particular parasite penetrates the skin of the fish and continues to develop. There is usually an intense focal inflammatory reaction at the site of penetration, which often results in hiperplasia of tissue around the site of parasites development( Roberts , 2010) Ergasilus sp. is a species of another type of copepod parasite. The parasites are most commonly found attached to the gill filaments of many species of pond and ornamental fish. (Robert, 2010) 684 �The ‘fish louse’, Argulus sp. is a common branchiurid crustacean parasite of many species of pond and ornamental fish. This parasite carwls over the surface of the fish and uses its stylet to pierce the outer epithelial cells of the fish and ingest the cell’s contents. There is a severe inflammatory reaction at the site of stylet penetration, sugesstion that a substance is released by the parasite to facilitate feeding. Because of the this feding activity this parasite has also been imlicated in the mechanical transmission of several bacterial, viral and hemoprotozoal diseases (Toksen, 2006, Robert, 2010) The fish louse Argulus sp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries (Woo, 2006). Way of Parasites Size Host Position Location transsimition Protozoa: Flagella Oodinium sp. 12-90 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin Of floating phase skin invasion Icthyobodo sp. 5-18 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin Of floating phase skin invasion Ichthyophthirius multifiliis 50-1000µm (trophozoites) Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin, Epithelial tissues Trichodina sp. 35-60 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and gills Chilodonella sp. 30-80 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and gills Of floating theront invasion Of floating phase skin and gills invasion Of floating phase skin and gills invasion Ciliate Monogenea: Gyrodactylus sp 350-460 µm Dactylogyrus sp. 990-1584 µm Freshwater ornamentals fish Freshwater ornamentals fish Skin and fin Body contact Gills and skin Body contact Arthropoda Lernaea sp. Ergasilus sp. Argulus sp. Freshwater 5-20 mm ornamentals Skin and fin Body contact fish Freshwater 1-2 mm ornamentals Gills Body contact fish Freshwater 8-13 mm ornamentals Skin and fin Body contact fish Table 1. Common Ornamental Fish Ectoparasites 685 �Medicaments Used in Treatment of Freshwater Ornamental Parasites: The applied treatments for diseases are prevention and good health management. However, Chloramines-T Formaldehyde, Potassium permanganate, Acetic acid, Copper sulfate, Malachite green and salt are commonly used to control protozoan fish ectoparasites (Tab. 2). Salt, formaldehyde, and vinegar appeared to be the most effective chemicals to treat protozoan infestation (Stoskopf, 1993, Noga, 2001, Timur et. al ,2003 Kayis et. al,. 2005, Balta et al., 2008, Dörücü et.al., 2008, Kayis et al., 2009). Levamisol, Mebendazole Triclorphon and formalin are commonly used to control treat metazoan parasites (Lasee, 1995, Toksen, 2006). Among the chemicals that are used to treat or prevent parasitic fish diseases in Turkey, Acetic acid, Betadine, Chloramin-T, Copper sulfate, Formalin, Hydrogen peroxide, Malachite green, Levamisol, Mebendazole, Potassium permanganate and salt are authorized by the European Union by the council regulation (EEC) no. 2377/90 of the European Council. In most countries, very few drugs and chemicals have been registered for treatment of food fish. Indeed, many biocides (e.g., malachite green) are banned from use in most countries and severe measures are taken against exporters of fish and shellfish that contain residues. Due to the carcinogenic and genotoxic potentials of malachite green, it has been prohibited for use in the production of consumer fish in the European Union by regulation no. 2377/90 of the European Council. Drugs and chemicals used to treat fish must be safe to the fish and the environment, as well as to human. Used for the control of freshwater ornamental ectoparasites in the market are several chemical substances. These chemicals in general are also used in other hosts. Metabolism of fish is different, the effects of these substances in freshwater ornamenta ectoparasites is weak. Therefore, the fish farms to prevent excessive loss of fish to specific research and development antiparazit compounds are needed. Toltrazuril similar drugs are promising for broad spectra (Tab. 2). (Dörücü et.al , 2008). Antiparasitic agent Chloramin-T* Chemical Dosage;time 7-15 mg/l; 1 h Formaldehyde* 0.167-0.25 mg/l; 1 h 0.25 mg/l; indefinite 250-500 mg/l; 30-60 min 0.5 mg/l 1-2 mg/l; 1-10 min 50 mg/l; 30 min 0.1-0.15 ppm/12-24 h 50 ml/l; 2 h 1 mg/l; 24 h 4ml(1000 ml water) 13.5 ppm for several days 10 ppm for sevaral days 2-5 mg/lt 1h Hydrogen peroxide* Copper sulfate* Acetic acid* Betadine* Malachite green* Levamisol* Mebendazole Toltrazuril Qunine hydrochloride Atebrine Potassium permanganate* Dimilin Triclorphon Ectoparasite Protozoan, monogenetic trematodes External parasites Treatment Bath treatment External parasites External parasites External parasites External parasites External parasites Monogenetic trematodes Monogenetic trematodes Monogenetic trematodes Artropoda ectoparasites Artropoda ectoparasites Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Bath treatment Dip treatment Bath treatment 0.01 mg/lt Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment 0.25-5 ppm for several Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment hours DTHP 2.5 ppm 1hour Artropoda ectoparasites Bath treatment Salt* 3% solution; 15-30 min External parasites Bath treatment 0.5% solution; indefinite * Chemicals authorized by council regulation (EEC) no. 2377/90 of the European Council Table 2. Control and Treatment of Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish 686 �Conclusions Hundreds of fish parasites in their natural environment type has been found infected, although rarely leads to death of fish. In tropical fish culture reduces the number of common parasites, but they do influence is great. Parasites of fish death, loss of appetite, the slowdown in growth, deterioration of reproductive ability, reduce resistance to other pathogens, and cause marketing with unpleasant views. Despite these negative effects on the market for the treatment of fish parasites in a small number of drugs are used. Of this review, the treatment of diseases in tropical fish culture, fish ectoparasites shed light manufacturers believe. References : Balta, F., Kayis S., Altinok I. (2008). External protozoan parasites in three trout species in the eastern Black Sea region of the Turkey: intensity, seasonality, and their treatments: A case study. Bull. Eur.Assoc. Fish Pathol., 28:157-162. Dörücü, M. & Mutlu, N. (2008). Paraziter Balık Hastalıkları ve Đlaçla Tedavileri: A case study. Journal of New World Sciences Academy, Natural and Applied Sciences, 3,(2), 372-380. Durborow, R.M. (2003). Protozoan Parasites. no. 4701., NY: SRAC Publ. Durborow, R. M., Mitchell, A.J., Crosby, M.D 1998. Ich (White Spot Disease). no. 476., NY: SRAC Publ. Joyon, L. & Lom, J. (1969). Etude cytogique, systematique et pathologique Ichthyobodonecator (Henneguy, 1883), Pinto, 1928 (Zooflagelle): A case study. J. Protozool., 16:703-719. Kayis, S., Ozcelep, T., Capkin, E., Altinok, I. (2009). Protozoan and Metazoan Parasites of Cultured Fish in Turkey and their Applied Treatments: A case study The Israeli Journal of Aquaculture – Bamidgeh 61(2), 93-102. Kayis ,S. Balta, F., Yandi, I. Akhan, S. (2005). Costia necatrix ve Ambiphyra spp. ile enfeste olmus lebistes baliklarinda formaldehit uygulamasi: A case study. Turk. J. Aquat. Life, 4:527-529 . Krier, J.P. & Baker, J.R. (1987). Parasitic Protozoa. Allen and Unwin, 241 Australia.(pp.1-153), NY:Academic Pres. Koyuncu, E. & Cengizler, I. (2002). Mersin Bolgesinde yetistiriciligi yapilan Bazi akvaryum baliklari (Poecilidae)’ inda rastlanan protozoan ektoparazitler: A case study. E.U. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 19:293-300. Koyuncu, E. (2009). Parasites of ornamental fish in Turkey: A case study. Bull. Eur. Ass. Fish Pathol. 29 (1), 25-27. Lasee, B.A. (1995). Introduction to Fish Health Management. 2. Edition, La Crosse Fish Health Center, 555 Lester Ave. Onalaska, Wisconsin, (pp.139) NY: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Lom, J. & Schubert, G.(1983). Ultrastructural Study of Piscioodinium pillulares (Schaperclaus, 1954) Lom, 1981. with Special Emphasis on its Attachment to the Fish Host: A case study. Journal of Fish Diseases, 6, 411-428. Lom J. & L. Dykova. (1992). Protozoan Parasites of Fishes. Developments in Aquaculture and Fisheries Science, 26. B.V., Amsterdam. (pp.315), NJ: Elsevier Sci. Publ. Mousavi H.A.E. (2003). Parasites of Ornamental fish in Iran: A case study. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists 23(6), 297-300. Noga, E.J. (2001). Fish Disease, Diagnosis andTreatment. Mosby. 75-138., Ames, IA, (pp.367), NY: Iowa State University Press. Oge, S. (2002). Chemotherapy for Parasites of Freshwater Fish: A case study. J. Turkish Parazitol., 26: 113-118. OIE, (2007). Electronic discoures:The World Organization for Animal Health Service NY: OIE Ozer A. & Erdem, O. (1998). Ectoparasitic Protozoa Fauna of the Common carp (Cyprinus carpio L., 1758) caught in the Sinop region of Turkey: A case study. J. Nat. Hist., 32:441-454. Roberts, H.E. (2010). Fundamentals of Ornamental Fish Health, 1. Edition ed. 28-108pp), USA, NY: Blackwell Publ. Scholz, T. (1999). Parasites in cultured and feral fish: A case study. Vet. Parasitol., 84:317-335. 687 �Stoskopf, M.K. (1993). Fish medicine. NY:W.B.Saunders. Timur, G. & Timur, M. ( 2003). Balik Hastaliklari. I.U. Su Urunleri Yayin no. 5, Istanbul. (pp.538 ). NY: I.U.Su Urunleri Press Toksen, E. (2006). Argulus foliacesus (Crustacea: Branchiura) infestation on oscar, Astronotus ocellatus (Cuvier, 1829) and its treatment :A case study. E.U. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 23:177-179. Wildgoose, HW. (2001). British Small Animal Veterinary Association Manual of Ornamental Fish. 2nd Edition, Gloucester, UK, ( pp.304), NY: BSAVA Woo, P.T.K. (2006). Fish Diseases and Disorders, vol. 1: Protozoan and Metazoan Infections, 2nd ed., Cambridge, NY: CABI Publ. 688 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 617 Title A name given to the resource Ectoparasitic Diseases in Freshwater Ornamental Fish and Their Treatments Author Author Koyuncu, C.Erkin Toksen, Erol Abstract A summary of the resource. Fish parasites and their effects have become increasingly visible during the latest decades inconnection with the development of fresh water ornamental Fish industries troughout the world. Diseases problem including hazards caused by parasitic organisms are the main threat to further increase of the industry. Ectoparasites are the most common and widely distributed of freshwater ornamental Fish. Such as, protozoan ectoparasites of aquarium fish (Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Ichthyobodo necatrix, Chilodonella cyprini, Oodinium limneticum, Trichodinids); external worms of fish (Dactylogyrus extensus, Gyrodactylus bullutarudis); external crustaceans (parasitic copepods, Argulus japonicus, Argulus foliaceus, Lernaea cyprinacea).The fish louse Argulus spp. is now the main problem in cage-cultured freshwater ornamental Fish in the fresh water environment in Europa countries. Gyrodactylus bullatarudis had caused the mortality in guppy ornamental fish. White Spot Disease (Ichthyophthiriosis) occurs in ornamental fish fry interprise caused the considerable economic loss. Ornamental fish were affected heavily by ectoparasites due to the very fine structure of the skin. Ectoparasites causing in ornamental fish only kills the fish but also reduces the market value of fish. The present work aim to the parasitic diseases of freshwater ornamental fish, how they are transmitted, which effects they have on ornamental fish, how they could be diagnosed, and how they could be controlled and treated. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/311c400fc6c3ac9d50c4967d753050d9.pdf c95c742a4febef6f01e4b1c232480c3e PDF Text Text Recent Developments On The Aplication Of Artemia In The Ornamental Fish Culture Edis Koru Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Aquaculture, Bornova-Izmir/Turkey edis.koru@ege.edu.tr Gurel Turkmen Ege University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Aquaculture, Bornova-Izmir/Turkey gurel.turkmen@ege.edu.tr Abstract: Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Improved techniques for marine food-fish larviculture since the early 1980’s have greatly enhanced the growth and survival of freshwater ornamental fish larvae largely through improved technology regarding live food culture and larval rearing practices. Research developments in larviculture and early rearing technology have allowed 90% of currently marketed freshwater ornamental fish to be cultured. However, for marine ornamentals, the reverse is true as only a handful of species is produced via aquaculture technology. A major task in devising a protocol for the artificial propagation of a fish species is the development of a feeding regimen for the larvae. Live feeds are a convenient and often essential food source for the larvae of some cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In such cases, live food organisms provide digestive enzymes that breakdown the food ingested by larvae and can be described as naturally encapsulated bags of nutrients. Two major concerns among aquaculturists are providing organisms appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage and then supplying the large numbers of feed organisms necessary to maintain the larvae. Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. Key words: Artemia, Ornamental Fish, Larvae, Feeding 1. Introduction The ornamental fish sector is a widespread and global component of international trade, fisheries, aquaculture and socio-economic development. Since 1985, the international trade in exports of ornamentals, which usually takes place in the majority of developing countries, followed an increasing trend with an average growth rate of approximately 14% per year. The entire industry has been estimated to be worth around US$15 billion. This vast industry has the potential to contribute to the economic growth of developing countries which may face future challenges regarding environmental safety (Olivotto et al., 2006). Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Currently, approximately 90% of freshwater fish traded in the hobbyist industry are captively cultured. While a majority of aquacultural production worldwide is devoted to food production, ornamental fish production is an important component of the aquaculture industry in several nations. In Singapore, ornamental fish accounts for 40% of their total exports. In the United States, ornamental fish production is the fourth largest sector behind catfish, trout, and salmon. Farms in Florida produce 800 varieties of freshwater fish (Tlusty, 2002). Successful rearing of larval stages of aquatic organisms is a challenge for aquarium hobbyists, an aim and a necessity for the success of the aquaculturist. All these specialists will agree that the primary problem in any type of larval rearing is that of food. Ideally, one would prefer to feed larvae their natural diet, which is characterized by a wide diversity of nutritious live organisms. Live feed is an essential food source for the fry of cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In the freshwater ornamental fish culture, Artemia nauplii are used as the live feed. Two major concerns of aquaculturists are: (i) providing organisms appropriate to the size of the feed to the first feeding stage and (ii) supplying adequate number of feed organisms to ensure higher survival and faster growth (Arulvasu and Munuswamy, 2009). In nature, zooplankton 646 �is one of the primary foods of larval fish. The brine shrimp Artemia is in the phylum Arthropoda, (Crustacea, Anostraca). Artemia spp., are zooplankton, like copepods and Daphnia, which are used as live food in the aquarium trade, and for freswater and marine fish larval culture and crustacean larval culture (Lim et.al., 2001). While the adult form of Artemia is primarily used as a live, frozen, or freeze-dried food in the aquarium trade, the nauplius stage is used exclusively in fish hatchery operations. It was recognized long ago that freshly hatched Artemia nauplii are a high value feed for fish larvae and fry. Because of the size of the nauplius stage, Artemia also represent the only practical food source for the early stages of many fish and crustacean larvae. (Tamaru et al., 2001). In Singapore, the top-exporting country of freshwater ornamental fish in the world, Moina used to be the most common live food organism used in the industry. As Moina is cultured in ponds using pig waste, they are often contaminated with fish pathogens, as well as bacteria of public health concern, such as Salmonella and Vibrio cholera. To minimize the risk of fish being contaminated with the pathogens, more and more freshwater ornamental fish farmers in Singapore have shifted from Moina to the cleaner Artemia nauplii for feeding their fish. (Lim et al,. 2002, 2003). Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. There are more than 50 geographical strains of Artemia. Many commercial harvesters and distributors sell brands of various qualities. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. 1.1. Why is Live Feed Necessary? Fish biologists categories larvae of two types: precocial and altricial. Precocial larvae are those that, when the yolk sac is exhausted, appear as mini-adults, exhibiting fully developed fins and a mature digestive system including a functional stomach. Such fish can ingest and digest formulated diets as a first food and are best exemplified by the salmon and trout raised extensively in hatcheries around the world without the benefit of live food. Altricial larvae are those that, when the yolk sac is exhausted, remain in a relatively undeveloped state. The digestive system is still rudimentary, lacking a stomach, and much of the protein digestion takes place in hindgut epithelial cells (Govoni et al., 1986). Such a digestive system seems (at this point) to be incapable of processing formulated diets in a manner that allows survival and growth of the larvae comparable to those fed on live feed. Altricial larvae therefore appear to require live feed, but there may be other reasons besides the digestibility question. Live feeds are able to swim in the water column and are thus constantly available to the larvae. Formulated diets tend to aggregate on the water surface or, more commonly, sink quickly to the bottom, and are thus normally less available to the larvae than are the live feeds. In addition, the movement of live feed in the water is likely to stimulate larval feeding responses, since evolutionary history has probably adapted them to attack moving prey in nature. Formulated diets are generally capable of moving only in a downward direction, towards the bottom. Finally, live prey, with a thin exoskeleton and high water content, may be more palatable to the larvae once taken into the mouth, compared with the hard, dry formulated diets. This last point is rather critical, especially when considered in light of the fish larva’s absence of feeding appendages; any foods must enter the mouth whole (i.e. the larva’s mouth gape must be of sufficient size for particle ingestion to occur) and they are quickly either accepted or rejected on the basis of palatability (Stottrup and McEvoy, 2003). 2. Artemia Artemia has several characteristics which make it ideal for aquaculture use. It is easy to handle, adaptable to a wide-range of environmental conditions, non-selective as a filter-feeder which can ingest algae, protozoa and bacteria of the correct size (10–50 µm) and is capable of growing at very high densities (Landau et al. 1985; Lèger et al. 1989). Artemia also has a high nutritive value (40–60 percent protein, rich amino acid composition), an unchanging food requirement, high conversion efficiency, short generation time, high fecundity rate and long lifespan. The whole animal (even adult stage) may be consumed without previous processing by many aquaculture organisms. In the food chain the nutritional value of Artemia depends on both the macronutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) it can accumulate from the filtered food. The brine shrimp is considered a continuous, non-selective, obligate phagotrophic filter feeder zooplankton (Fig.1). 647 �Figure 1. Adults Artemia sp. Artemia are extremely euryhaline, withstanding salinities from 3 ppt to 300 ppt. They can even survive short periods of time in freshwater, but cannot reproduce in it. Artemia survive temperatures ranging from 15 to 55 oC. They have two modes of reproduction. Sometimes nauplii (first Artemia swimming stage) hatch in the ovisac of the mother and are born live. However, when the body of water where adult Artemia are living begins to dry up and salinities rise, embryos are encased in a hard capsule, or cyst, so that they are protected and can hatch later when conditions are better. The cyst is 200 to 300 micrometers in diameter, depending upon the strain. Its external layer is a hard, dark brown shell (Fig 2). Dry conditions cause the encysted embryo to enter a dormant state, which allows it to withstand complete drying, temperatures over 100 oC or near absolute zero, high energy radiation, and a variety of organic solvents. The dehydrated cyst can be stored for months or years without loss of hatchability. Figure 2. Artemia Cysts. Only water and oxygen are required to initiate the normal development of the Artemia embryo, but it does help the hatch rate to maintain the temperature above 25 oC and place a light near the eggs. The durable, easily hatched cyst makes Artemia a convenient, constantly accessible source of live feed for the finfish hatchery operator. Artemia cysts are best stored in a tightly sealed container in a cool, dry environment and, if possible, vacuum packed. Within 15 to 20 hours after being placed in seawater at 28 o the shell breaks and the prenauplius in E-1 stage appears (Fig. 3). For the first few hours, the embryo hangs beneath the cyst shell in what is called the umbrella stage. The newly hatched Artemia relies on its yolk sac for nutrients because its mouth and anus are not fully developed. The pre-nauplius E-2 stage is then released as a free-swimming nauplius called an Instar 1 nauplius. In this stage it is brownish orange because of its yolk reserves. It uses specially modified antennae for locomotion and later for food filtering. Approximately 12 hours after hatch it molts into the second larval stage (Instar II) and starts filter feeding on microalgae, bacteria and detritus. The Artemia nauplius can live on yolk and stored re-serves for up to 5 days or through the Instar V stage (Fig. 3), but its caloric and protein content diminish during this time (Briksi et.al., 2008). 648 �Figure 3. Steps in Life Cycle of Artemia 1: Cysts, 2: Breaking stage, 3: Umbrella stage: emerging embryo, 4: Instar I(E-1) newly hatched nauplii (with yolk), 5: Instar II(E-2), 6: Differeatiation (molting) stage, Instar III-IV, 7: Instar VI-VIII, 8: Instar IX-X, Sub-adult stage, 9: Adult stage. As a food source for the larvae, it is imperative that Artemia is of high quality, as nutritionally complete as possible, and maintained in this state until consumed by the larvae. There are four distinct stages involved in Artemia culture. These stages are: (1) decapsulation, (2) hatching, (3) storage, (4) enrichment, (5) harvestin and usage. Artemia also represent a potential vector for disease introduction into the larviculture production system. As such, all Artemia production and storage procedures must be conducted utilizing hygienic production protocols and proper hatchery sanitation procedures. This document provides the background, rationale, and detailed production protocols for all stages of high-quality Artemia culture to developments on the aplication of Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. 2.1. Decapsulation of Artemia Cysts Artemia represent one of the few live feeds that can be cultured in sufficient numbers and are of appropriate size for larva to transition to between daphnia, blood worms and weaning diets. During a portion of their life cycle, Artemia hibernate as a desiccated cyst that is capable of withstanding extreme environmental conditions for long periods of time. Cysts are easily shipped and are thus the form purchased by aquarists. However, Artemia cysts can cause problems during larviculture because: 1. The shell of the cyst is indigestible and may cause intestinal blockage when ingested by larva, 2. Cysts are a potential vector for pathogen introduction to the culture system, 3. Artemia consume high levels of endogenous energy reserves when hatching through the cyst shell, 4. Cysts must be physically separated from the live Artemia after hatching. Decapsulation of Artemia cyst is a process whereby the external shell or chorion is chemically removed from the cyst. This process addresses the concerns noted above and has become standard practice by fish hatcheries looking to produce high quality Artemia. The fry of all the five common ornamental fish species tested (guppy Poecilia reticulata, molly Poecilia sphenops, platy Xiphophorus maculatus, swordtail Xiphophorus helleri and neon tetra Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi) could readily feed on the decapsulated cysts, and their performances in terms of stress resistance, growth and survival are comparable to or better than those fed on Artemia nauplii or Moina. A culture system for production of on-grown Artemia has also been developed specifically for the use in freshwater ornamental fish farms (Lim et al. 2003). 2.1.1. Artemia Decapsulation Procedure and Decapsulation Requirements Artemia cysts: 1 kilogram (kg) Decapsulation vessel: 20 liters (L) Chlorine bleach (NaOCl; 5.5%): 8 L at 2-10 degrees Celsius (°C) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH; 40%): 4 L at 2-10°C Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3 ): 100 g 649 �Harvest bag: 100 micrometer (µm) 2.1.2. Hydration The first step in the decapsulation procedure is Artemia cyst hydration. Hydration of cysts allows for separation of the nauplii from the chorion, facilitating the decapsulation process. For this step, Artemia cysts are placed in either fresh or saltwater at room temperature for approximately one hour, using a concentration of 1 g of cysts per 15 milliliters (ml) of water. It is important during this step to maintain sufficient mixing via aeration to keep cysts well suspended. After one hour of hydration, the water and hydrated cysts should be drained through a 100 µm harvest bag; the concentrated cysts are then placed back into the empty decapsulation vessel. 2.1.3. Decapsulation For decapsulation, pour the chilled sodium hydroxide solution into the decapsulation vessel with hydrated cysts, again making sure there is adequate aeration within the vessel to keep cysts suspended. The chilled bleach should then be added to the cysts to initiate the decapsulation process. Because the chemical reaction during decapsulation is exothermic, it is helpful to begin with chemical solutions chilled to a temperature of 2°C to 10°C. These starting temperatures will prevent the temperature of the chemical solution from exceeding 35°C, which may damage the cysts. As decapsulation progresses, the chorion is chemically removed, resulting in the cysts gradually changing color from brown to grey, then to orange, and finally to bright orange. This bright orange color indicates that the process is complete. (Cyst buoyancy can also be used as an endpoint indicator: when approximately 90 % of cysts sink, the process is complete). The process should take from one to three minutes, but time may differ due to temperature variations. Cysts can easily be damaged by overexposure to the decapsulation solution, adversely affecting the resulting hatch rate. It is imperative to closely monitor the process and standardize it for your particular conditions (Fig. 4). 2.1.4. Decapsulated Cysts Harvest When it is determined that the cysts are adequately decapsulated, add 75 g of sodium thiosulfate to the decapsulation vessel to neutralize the chlorine, then immediately begin to drain cysts into the 100 µm harvest bag. During the harvest process (Fig. 4), rinse with ample amounts of water (fresh or salt) while providing ample aeration via an air stone to keep decapsulated cysts in suspension. When all decapsulated cysts have been collected, the remaining sodium thiosulfate should be added to the harvest bag. Continue rinsing the bag until water runs clear and no presence of chlorine can be detected. 2.1.5 Decapsulated Cysts Storage Decapsulated cysts can be drained of excess water and stored in an airtight container in a refrigerator (+ 4 ºC) for up to 5-6 days. For longer-term storage (two weeks or more), cysts must be dehydrated by placing them in aerated brine (330 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) per liter of water) at the concentration of 1 g of cysts per 20 ml of brine for 24 hours. They can then be drained and placed into a suitable container, topped with fresh brine, and placed in a refrigerator (Fig. 5). 650 �Figure 4. Harvesting Decapsulated Artemia Figure 5. Decapsulated Artemia Cysts Hatching Storage 2.2. Hatching of Artemia Cysts and Hatching Requirements Temperature: 26-30°C pH: 8.0-9.0 Dissolved oxygen: > 4 mg/L Light level: ~2000 lux Salinity: 25-35 parts per thousand (ppt) Hatching density: ≤ 2 g dry cysts/L (up to 5 g/L with supplemental O2) Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3): 0.5 g/L Antifoam (silicone based): 1 ml/100 L Fill a clean, cone-bottomed hatching tank with warm, filtered seawater or fresh water addet 30-35 g salt. If warm seawater is not available, allow enough lead time for water to be warmed to 26°C to 30°C in the hatching tank via submersible heaters. Add 0.5 g of sodium bicarbonate per liter of water in order to maintain the pH between 8.0 and 9.0 throughout the entire hatching process. The use of antimicrobial products such as INVE’s Hatch Controller can be used to help minimize growth of pathogenic bacteria in the hatching tank. The proper stocking density for nondecapsulated cysts is approximately 2-3 g (max. 5 g) per liter. When using decapsulated cysts, approximately 5 g per liter can be stocked. These numbers can be doubled through the use of pure oxygen supplementation, which is needed to maintain dissolved oxygen levels greater than 4-5 milligrams per liter. Attempting to hatch at higher stocking densities can result in physical damage to the nauplii and reduced quality It is important to maintain sufficient aeration at the bottom of the cone to keep cysts suspended. When hatching large volumes of cysts, it is advantageous to use a food-grade antifoam product to minimize excessive foaming in the culture. Hatching times will vary based on strain and age of cysts, temperature and salinity of water, etc. Thus, it is important to minimize variation between hatches for consistency. Generally, Artemia require 18 to 24 hours of incubation to hatch. Decapsulated cysts, however, may be ready to harvest after only 16 hours of incubation. When feeding nauplii directly to fish, timing of the hatch is very important. If nauplii remain in the hatching tank for too long, they will grow too large and their nutritional quality will decrease. Determining the endpoint of the hatch should be made through microscopic observation of the relative numbers of hatched nauplii, prehatched nauplii, and unhatched cysts (Fig 6). Figure 6. Artemia Hatching Cone (pure oxygen injection regulators on wall and wire from submersible heater on front edge of tank) The harvesting procedure varies depending upon whether decapsulated or nondecapsulated cysts were hatched. Harvesting of Artemia nauplii is done after 5 to 10 minutes interruption of the aeration and remove the airstone. Wait approximately 5 minutes for the empty casings to float to the surface of the water. Empty cyst shells float to the surface, while the nauplii concentrate in the lower part of the tank and the unhatched cysts accumulate underneath the nauplii. Since most nauplii are positively phototactic, their concentration can be hastened and increased by shading the upper part of the hatching container with a black plastic sheet so that light reaches the lower part of the container only. Remove the unhatched cysts for the second hatching, after which the nauplii can be collected. A second collection of nauplii may be done 5 to 10 minutes after the first. Newly hatched nauplii should then be collected in the harvest bag and rinsed for at least five minutes. If nauplii have 651 �settled properly, only 75 percent of the water column will need to be drained. While harvesting, check on the relative ratio of nauplii to cysts by transferring a sample to a glass beaker. This will help determine when the harvesting process is finished or if more time is needed to allow Artemia to settle. Remove the unhatched cysts for the second hatching, after which the nauplii can be collected. A second collection of nauplii may be done 5 to 10 minutes after the first. The nauplii are now ready to be fed to your fish, transferred to subsequent enrichment, or placed into cold storage. 2.3. Enrichment of Artemia and Enrichment Requirements Temperature: 25°C pH: 8.0-8.5 Dissolved oxygen: > 4 mg/L Salinity: 20-30 ppt Density: ≤ 300 nauplii/ml DC DHA dosage: 0.6 g/L Enrichment duration: 20-24 hours Before being fed to larvae, Artemia nauplii are usually fed a specialized diet in order to increase their size and nutritional profile. While freshly hatched Artemia nauplii are rich in protein and can serve as a bridge between daphnia, rotifer and enriched Artemia for many species, they are largely void of the beneficial fatty acids required for proper growth and development of most larvae. For the purpose of the following Artemia enrichment procedure, the protocol developed for the use of the INVE product, DC DHA SELCO, will be utilized. Olivotto et al. (2006) studied on growth and metamorhosis larvae of Sunrise Dottyback, Pseudochromis flavivertex. Larvae were divided into different experimental groups and fed on different feeding combinations in order to test the importance of food enrichment on larval survival, growth and metamorphosis timing. A first group (Group A) was fed on enriched Brachionus plicatilis and enriched Artemia nauplii; a second one (Group B) on enriched B. plicatilis and not enriched Artemia nauplii and a third one fed on not enriched live preys (Group C) used as control group. Live prey enrichment was essential for rearing this species. In fact, larvae fed on not enriched live preys did not past day 7. Highest survival rates (39% juveniles) were observed in Group A with respect to Group B (11% juveniles). Moreover, evidences of the importance of enrichment on growth and metamorphosis timing were observed since larvae reared using enriched live preys grew faster and completed metamorphosis earlier than those fed on not enriched Artemia nauplii. The results presented here provide additional evidence of the importance of live prey enrichment in ornamental larval fish rearing. 2.3.1. Artemia Enrichment Procedure There are a number of commercially available Artemia enrichment products. Because these products have different ingredients, nutritional profiles, and enrichment protocols, it is up to hatchery managers to decide which product is most suitable for their conditions and species. Once an enrichment product is chosen, it is important that standardized protocols be developed and strictly followed. Slight changes in temperature or enrichment time, for example, can have significant effects upon the size and nutritional quality of the final product. Preparation of enriched Artemia requires a two-day lead time: one day is required for hatching of Artemia (see Artemia hatching protocol) and a second day for the enrichment process. Having a second, dedicated enrichment tank is necessary to facilitate this process. As with hatching, a cone-bottomed tank is ideal for enrichment and helps to ensure adequate mixing and complete draining during harvest. Prior to stocking, the enrichment tank should be filled with a suitable amount of water, and water-quality parameters (salinity, temperature, and pH) must be adjusted to match the requirements listed above. It is important to begin the enrichment process with healthy, high-quality nauplii. Nauplii that are damaged or sluggish prior to enrichment will result in suboptimal nutrient uptake. Care should be taken to remove hatched cysts (nondecapsulated cysts) or hatching membranes (from decapsulated cysts) as described in the Artemia hatching section. Artemia nauplii should also be rinsed well prior to stocking into the enrichment tank. This is especially important when using an additive such as INVE’s Hatch Controller or antifoam during the hatching process, as ingredients in these products can interfere with enrichment uptake. During enrichment, vigorous aeration should be applied through the bottom of the enrichment vessel, and dissolved oxygen levels should be closely monitored throughout the process (Fig. 7). The use of supplemental oxygen during this stage will likely be necessary to maintain oxygen levels above 4 milligrams per liter. Temperature must also be maintained at 25°C through the use of submersible heaters or ice packs, as dictated by ambient conditions (Delbos, 2009). 652 �Figure 7. Multiple Artemia Enrichment Cones (heavy aeration) 2.4. Harvest and Cold Storage At the end of the enrichment process, the entire volume of water should be drained into a 100-125 µm harvest bag with sufficient aeration to keep enriched Artemia in suspension. Oxygen levels should be closely monitored in the harvest bag. The bag containing the Artemia should be rinsed well for five minutes or until the water runs clear. Thereafter, Artemia should be transferred into a container containing clean water of a known volume, aerated vigorously, and enumerated as discussed above. If Artemia will not be fed to larvae immediately, it should be placed directly into cold storage, as described below. Artemia not fed to larvae or enriched immediately needs to be stored under cold conditions. Cold storage of Artemia dramatically decreases its metabolism, which directly reduces further growth and metabolism of their protein and lipid stores. Artemia should be transferred to a cooler or suitable container and stored at 2°C to 10°C, with adequate aeration to prevent settling (Fig. 8). Under these conditions, Artemia can be concentrated as high as 5,000 per milliliter and stored for up to 24 hours (Delbos, 2009). Figure 8. Cold-Banked Artemia (ice jugs for temperature control and air line for aeration to keep Artemia suspended) 3. Conclusions The ornamental fish producer would have no problem to assign such a small area for setting up the culture system in their aquarium or farms. While the use of a batch culture system instead of a flow-through system would cut down the volume of seawater required for Artemia culture, the use of artificial seawater would enable farms that have no access to seawater to operate the system. To cut down the cost of salts required for 653 �preparation of artificial seawater, the present system, for the first time in commercial Artemia production, used diluted artificial seawater (salinity 30-40 ppt) instead of full strength seawater for the culture. Change of water was not necessary during the 14-16 day culture period. These characteristics made the system suitable for operation in freshwater ornamental fish farms, and would allow existing ornamental fish farmers to integrate the Artemia production system in their farm operation. The present system did not use expensive mechanical and biological water treatment equipment such as bio-filter, mechanical filter, plate separator, sensors etc. and hence the cost of setting up the system was € 90,000-100,000 only. Bioencapsulation to enhance the nutritional quality of on-grown Artemia was conducted only when the Artemia failed to meet the fish requirement. The same applied to all other live food organisms such as rotifers and Artemia nauplii which might also require bioencapsulation due to their nutritional deficiency (Leger and Sorgeloos 1992; Sorgeloos and Leger 1992; Sorgeloos et al. 1995, Sorgeloos et. al., 2001). It was performed by fish farmers just before feeding the Artemia to fish, and not by producer of the organism. Hence the cost of bioencapsulation was not included in the production cost of the Artemia. Nevertheless, the cost of the enrichment media (€ 80-90/kg) used in bioencapsulation was estimated to be € 3-5/kg of on-grown Artemia (in 50 liter of water at 0.6 g/L.). The present Artemia culture system is a cheap alternative to the more sophisticated intensive system used in sectoral aplications. Compared to the complex automated system, the present system is cost effective, simple and easy to set up and operate. As the system occupies only a small land area and uses diluted artificial seawater for culture, the freshwater ornamental farmers will have no problem to integrate Artemia production using the culture system into their farm operation to increase farm profitability. By varying the time of harvesting, farmers may harvest any specific size of on-grown Artemia of up to 5 mm from the culture system to suit the age and size of their fish. The use of the right size of on-grown Artemia for feeding would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation, thereby improving the performance of the fish. These characteristics, coupled with the use of bioencapsulation technique to enhance the quality of the on-grown Artemia, would make the organism an ideal nursery diet for freshwater ornamental fish. The availability of on-grown Artemia and the application of bioencapsulation techniques using the organism are likely to have a positive impact to the ornamental fish industry. The food value of a live food organism for a particular fish species was primarily determined by its size and form. While a small food organism was desirable for fish larvae in term of ingestibility, the use of larger organisms was more beneficial as long as the size of the food organism did not interfere with the ingestion mechanism of the predator (Merchie 1996). Fish would take a long time to attain satiation if fed with smaller live food organism, and this would result in poor growth due to inefficient feeding and waste of energy. The ongrown Artemia in the culture system grew from 0.45 mm at inoculation to an average length of about 5 mm in 12 days. This size range was considered suitable for all sizes of freshwater ornamental fish species of up to 10 cm total length. By varying the harvesting time during the 12-day cycle, it was possible to obtain Artemia of any specific size within the size range for feeding, which would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation. The nutritional quality of on-grown Artemia was comparable or superior to the common food organisms being used by the freshwater ornamental fish industry, such as Artemia nauplii, Moina and bloodworms. The on-grown Artemia was rich in protein (67 %) and low in crude fat (4 %). It was reported to have superior nutritional digestibility and a thin exoskeleton rich in essential amino acids (Leger et al. 1989). The latter was consistent with our amino acids analyses, which showed that the essential amino acids in the ongrown Artemia were comparable to Moina and richer than Artemia nauplii and bloodworms. An important dietary characteristic of live food organism was its composition of essential fatty acids. Watanabe (1987) reviewed the essential fatty acid requirement of freshwater and marine fish and concluded that freshwater species required mainly LLA (linolenic) or LNA (linolenic acid) or both. Although the on-grown Artemia obtained from the present study was deficient in LNA, its LLA was the highest among all the four diets tested. The DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid), which were widely considered as essential for marine organisms (Dhont and Lavens, 1996), were also highest in on-grown Artemia. Due to lack of published data, it was not known whether the levels of LLA, LNA, EPA and DHA in food organisms would be important to freshwater ornamental fish. Recent study on the fatty acid profiles of common feed items used by the industry for maturation such as beef heart and tubifex worms found unusually high ADA (arachidonic acid) levels (Ako et al. 1999). Availability of the on-grown Artemia would offer our farmers and exporters the possibility to apply the bioencapsulation technique to improve their fish performance and quality. In addition, the effective bioencapsulation characteristics of on-grown Artemia also make the organism a useful tool for larval nutrition study on freshwater ornamental fish. The present Artemia culture system is a cheap alternative to the more sophisticated superintensive system. By varying the time of harvesting, aquarists may harvest any specific size of on-grown Artemia of up to 5 mm from the culture system to suit the age and size of their fish. The use of the right size of on-grown Artemia for feeding would ensure a better energy balance in food uptake and assimilation, thereby improving the performance of the fish. These characteristics, coupled with the use of bioencapsulation technique to enhance the quality of the on-grown Artemia, would make the organism an ideal nursery diet for freshwater ornamental fish. The availability of on-grown Artemia and the application of bioencapsulation 654 �techniques using the organism are likely to have a positive impact to the ornamental fish industry. Finally, demonstrated that the commercial production of on-grown Artemia using the present culture system was highly viable for freshwater ornamental fish applications. References Ako, H., Tamaru, C., Asano, L. (1999). Colour, maturation, and palatability feeds. In: Conference Abstracts, AQUARAMA 99 World Conference on Ornamental Fish Aquaculture, 3-6 June 1999, pp. 43. Miller Freeman, Singapore. Arulvasu, C., Munuswamy, N. (2009). Survival, growth and composition of Poecilia latipinna fry fed enriched Artemia nauplii. Current Science, 96(1): 114-119. Briksi, E., Stappen VG., Bossier, P., Sorgeloos, S. (2008). Laboratory production of early hatching Artemia sp. cysts by selection, Aquaculture 282: 19–25. Dhont, J., Lavens, P. (1996). Tank production and use of on-grown Artemia. In: Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Lavens & P. Sorgeloos), pp. (164-195). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 361, FAO, Rome. Delbos, B.C. (2009). Artemia Culture for Intensive Finfish and Crustacean Larviculture, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Publication 600-106, (VSG-09-05), USA. Govoni, J.J., Boehlert, G.W., Watanabe, Y. (1986) The physiology of digestion in fish larvae. Environ. Biol. Fish., 16: 59–77. Landau M., Miyamoto G., Bolis C. (1985). Growth and amino acid composition of Artemia salina (L.1758) fed algae grown in different media (Anostraca). Crustaceana 49: 318–320. Leger P., Bengston D.A., Sorgeloos P. (1989). Analytical variation in the determination of the fatty acid composition of Standard preparations of the brine shrimp Artemia. Aquat. Toxicol. Hazard Assess 12: 413–423. Leger, P., Sorgeloos, P. (1992). Optimized feeding regimes in shrimp hatcheries. In: Marine Shrimp Culture: Principles and Practices (Eds.) Fast A. W. & J. Lester, (pp. 225-244). Elsevier Science Publishers. Lim, L.C., Soh, A., Dhert, P., Sorgeloos, P. (2001). Production and application of on-grown Artemia in freshwater ornamental fish farm, Aquaculture Economics & Management, 5: 3, 211-228. Lim, L.C., Cho, Y.L., Dhert, P., Wong, C.C., Neils, H., Sorgeloos, P. (2002). Use of decapsulated Artemia cysts in Ornamental fish Culture. Aquaculture Research, 33: 575-589. Lim, L.C., Dhert, P., Sorgeloos, P. (2003). Recent developments in the application of live feeds in the freshwater ornamental fish culture. Aquaculture, 227: 319-331. Merchie, G. (1996). Use of nauplii and meta-nauplii. In: Manual on the Production and Use of Live Food for Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Lavens & P. Sorgeloos, (pp. 137-163). FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 361, FAO, Rome. Olivotto, I., Rollo, A., Sulpizio, R., Avella, M., Tosti, L., Carnevali, O. (2006). Breeding and rearing the Sunrise Dottyback Pseudochromis flavivertex: the importance of live prey enrichment during larval development. Aquaculture, 255: 480-487. Sorgeloos, P., Leger, P. (1992). Improved larviculture outputs of marine fish, shrimp and prawn. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 23(4), 251-164. Sorgeloos, P., Dehasque, M., Dhert, P., Lavens, P. (1995). Review of some aspects of marine fish larviculture. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea Marine Scientific Symposium, 201, 138-142. Sorgeloos, P., Dhert, P., Candreva, P. (2001). Use of the brine shrimp, Artemia spp. in marine fish larviculture. Aquaculture, 200: 147–159. Stottrup, G.J., McEvoy, L.A. 2003. Live Feeds in Marine Aquaculture. Blackwell Science Ltd., USA. 318p. Tamaru, C.S., Ako, H. Paguirigan, R., Pang, L. (2001). Enrichment of Artemia for use in Freshwater Ornamental Fish Production. Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture, USA, Publication Number 133, 21p. Tlusty, M. (2002). The benefits and risks of aquacultural production for the aquarium trade. Aquaculture, 205: 203-219. 655 �Watanabe, T. (1987). The use of Artemia in fish and crustacean farming in Japan. In: Artemia Research and its Applications. Vol. 3, Ecology, Culturing, Use in Aquaculture (Eds.) P. Sorgeloos, A. Bengtson, W. Decleir & E. Jaspers, (pp. 372-393). Universa Press, Wetteren, Belgium. 656 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 613 Title A name given to the resource Recent Developments On The Aplication Of Artemia In The Ornamental Fish Culture Author Author Koru, Edis Turkmen, Gurel Abstract A summary of the resource. Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Improved techniques for marine food-fish larviculture since the early 1980’s have greatly enhanced the growth and survival of freshwater ornamental fish larvae largely through improved technology regarding live food culture and larval rearing practices. Research developments in larviculture and early rearing technology have allowed 90% of currently marketed freshwater ornamental fish to be cultured. However, for marine ornamentals, the reverse is true as only a handful of species is produced via aquaculture technology. A major task in devising a protocol for the artificial propagation of a fish species is the development of a feeding regimen for the larvae. Live feeds are a convenient and often essential food source for the larvae of some cultured species, especially those without a fully developed digestive system. In such cases, live food organisms provide digestive enzymes that breakdown the food ingested by larvae and can be described as naturally encapsulated bags of nutrients. Two major concerns among aquaculturists are providing organisms appropriate to the size of the larvae at the first feeding stage and then supplying the large numbers of feed organisms necessary to maintain the larvae. Since no artificial feed formulation is yet available to completely substitute for Artemia, feeding live prey to young fish larvae still remains essential in commercial hatchery operations. This paper reports the recent developments in the applications of Artemia nauplii, decapsulated Artemia cysts and on-grown Artemia in the ornamental fish culture. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ca47367fc12c718a04e52eff8a13b8e4.pdf e6a473dee25303b5378c160659f9991a PDF Text Text Economic Importance and Using Purposes of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) of Türkiye Mustafa Korkmaz Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Erzincan University, Türkiye korkmazmustafa67@yahoo.com.tr Hasan Özçelik Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Süleyman Demirel University, Türkiye ozcelik@fef.sdu.edu.tr Fevzi Özgökçe Faculty of Science and Art, Department of Biology, Erzincan University, Türkiye fozgokce@gmail.com Abstract: Gypsophila L. is the third biggest genus of Caryophyllaceae family in Türkiye. 55 species of the genus have been growing naturally in our country. 33 of them are endemic and total number of the taxa is 55. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is a small genus with 3 species and 1 of them is endemic. It is agreeable that gene center of the both genera is Türkiye. In terms of growing habitats there are large areas in Türkiye. According to importance order East, Central and Southeast Anatolia regions have the biggest number of taxa growing there. Ankyropetalum genus distributed only in the Southeast Anatolia and Mediterranean regions and in their intersection areas of Türkiye. Both of the genera have known as “çöven, çöğen”, halvah root and largened root parts or rhizomes are economically very important. Extracts produced from under parts of the plants known as fire extinguisher, gold polishing, silk and cloth cleaner and softener and crispness giving to halvah. These extracts have often used for making liqueur, preparing herbal cheese and making ice cream. Because of giving flavour, crispness and nice odor they generally preferred in food industry. With different ratios all of the taxa are boron (B) hyperacumulators. For this reason they can be used for destroyed agricultural areas. They can be planted to elevated slopes and hills to control erosion and survive biological diversity. General character of the family is their importance for horticulture. G. paniculata is very important for horticulture industry. In the presentation, some information about economic importance of the plants in the light of our observations and literatures were given. Key Words: Gypsophila, Ankyropetalum, Economy, Flora of Türkiye Introductıon Turkey is known as a gene centre of many economic groups of plants. In Turkey there are 32 genus and around 500 species of Caryophyllaceae family [1-6]. It is reported that the centres of some regions in which the species belonging to the Gypsophila genus are pervasive are Turkey, Caucasian, the North Iraq and the North Iran; that 75 out of 126 Gypsophila species in the world are found in this region and that in Turkey there have been found 55 Gypsophila species in 10 sections [7-8]. In the world Ankyropetalum genus has 4 species, and 3 of which grow in Turkey. The gene centre of both genus is Turkey.[9]. In general, soaproot is the woody roots of some perennial species of the genera Gypsophila L., Saponaria L., and Ankryopetalum Fenzl, belonging to the Caryophyllaceae family. However, Saponaria is not used as soaproot in Türkiye [10]. Turkish Çöven are commonly obtained from Gypsophila graminifolia Bark. G. arrostii Guss. var. nebulosa (Boiss. & Heldr.) Bark., G. eriocalyx Boiss., G. bicolor (Freyn & Sint.) Grossh., G. perfoliata L., G. venusta Fenzl subsp. venusta and Ankyropetalum gypsophiloides Fenzl. [7, 10]. But such species as G. 552 �ruscifolia Boiss. and G. bitlisensis Bark. are less preferred. Since 1800s soaproot has been exported from Anatolia (Turkey). The leading ones are G. bicolor, G. arrostii ve A. gypsophiloides (Radix Gyspohilae) [11-14]. For nearly 30 years the extraction of Çöven from natural flora has been increasingly continueing in the Eastern and South-east Anatolia [10]. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is represented by 3 species in Turkey. One of these is endemic and the others are not widespread. The genus is essentially pervasive in South-west Asia including Turkey. Regarding the phytogeography the genus grows in the South east of Turkey; that is in Iran-Turan and Mediterranen regions [14, 15]. The species belonging to the Ankyropetalum genus which is pervasive in Turkey are A. arsusianum Ky, A. reuteri Boiss.& Hausskn. (endemic) and A. gypsophiloides Fenzl. The genus is found in South-east Anatolia and its neighbour countries in borders [1, 14, 15]. The taxa belonging to the Ankyropetalum and Gypsophila genus and known and used by the public are generally known by the name “Çöven Otu” . As the Ankyropetalum genus’ members look like perennial Gypsophila species and as they are distinguished hardly, they are known by the same name and used for the same purposes. In Europe Gypsophila species are widely known as “Baby’s Breath”. For the word Gypsophila “Soaproot” or “Soapworth” words are used. In Turkey these plants are called “çöven otu, çevgen, dişi çöven, tarla çöveni, helva çöveni, şark çöveni” by the local public. It is reported that the saponins are found in the different parts of the plant in different doses; that they were first obtained by boiled alcohol from the risoms of Saponaria officinalis and that they are called “saponin” [11]. It is reported that as the roots of Soaproot are obtained from various Gypsophila species, the saponin amounts in the roots which are used in the trade differs between (4-)10-20(-25) % [22]. Used as Turkish Soaproot, in the Gypsophila bicolor (Van Çöveni) the saponin amounts have been found to be 20-25 %, in the G. arrostii var. nebulosa (Konya, Beyşehir, Isparta Çöveni) 19-22 %, in the G. perfiolata (Niğde Çöveni) 1519 % and in the G. eriocalyx (Çorum- Yozgat Çöveni) 10-14 % [17]. They have found out that in the G. paniculata the saponins synthesizes only in the roots and then moving through the other parts of the plant and that in dry material there is around 4 % saponin [20]. They report that in the Soaproot originated in Anatolia the amount of raw saponin is 10-25 %; and in their searches on the taxa of G. bicolor, G. perfoliata var. anatolica, G. venusta subsp. venusta, G. eriocalyx and G. arrostii var nebulosa which are pervasive in different parts of Turkey the amounts of saponin are respectively 19.58 %, 14.44 %, 12.65 %, 12.39 % and 11.58 % [20]; and the amounts of protein are respectively 8.01 %, 7.80 %, 8.38 %, 8.15 % and 6.92 % [7]. It is stated that in the roots of G. paniculata with the affect of the enzyme of UDPGlucuronosyltransferase the synthesis of saponin has been increased considerably and that in order to define the activity of this enzyme which has a versatile role in the plants the G. paniculata species would be a good model plant [17]. The Production of Soaproot Extract The roots and risoms of Soaproot ↓ Cut in the form of chips ↓ The first boiling (4-5) ↓ The second boiling ↓ The extract of Soaproot The extract of Soaproot whose production stages and chemical formule have been shown above is composed of sugar, resin and saponin. Saponins are highly moleculer glycosides which has the characteristic of solution in water and which are widely seen in some plants especially in Saponaria. It keeps the plant from germs and fungus and some species of it increases the nutritional value of plant as well as simplifying the digestion [18]. 553 �Where ıs soaproot used? Its usage in the food industry It is known that A. gypsophiloides was formerly exported from Siirt and Batman by caravans and that it is known by such names as “ Helva kökü, Çöven otu, Sabun otu, Helva otu” and that it is especially used in preparing a local food called “Siirt sweet”. A. reuteri is called “çöven” by the local public around Gölbaşı (Adıyaman); it is used for animal feding by mixing with straw and it is said that it was formerly used for the purpose of animal feding [9, 11,12]. In the Eastern Anatolia, the roots of some soaproots are used in preparing a local and origional food kind “herby cheese”. [8, 13-14]. The use of extract of Soaproot is firstly an obligation in making “tahin helvası (halvah)”. Otherwise it is impossible to make the halvah crisp. Apart from halvah, it is utilized for the production of “delight” and “icecream” and also in Thracian region because of its charasteristic of whitening wax and its power to make crisp soaproot is utilized in the “köpük halvah” which has a white and spumy form. Furthermore, in some parts of Turkey while making “hellim cheese” after soaproot is cooked it is added to the brine so that the cheese doesn’t spoil [8, 18, 19]. It is stated that the delight obtained by mixing syrup whitened by soaproot extract with pure delight is called “sultan delight” and that the maximum saponin amount should be 0.1 % [7]. The main reasons of why soaproot is most preferred for the halvah production are those; the saponin in the soaproot whitens the sugar wax, saponin softens the sugar and makes like sponge, and it has a function like emulgator by enabling the sesame oil to mix with sugar. In halvah production the amounts used are respectively 52-65 % tahini, 35-48 % sugar, 0.5 % soaproot [17]. In the production of “köpük halvah” soaproot and sugar are boiled in water and added after it takes the wax form. Soaproot water is used in production of “köpük halvah” which is half-liquid and has a little hard stiffness. When adding soaproot water there are two elements to be taken into consideration; firstly, its amount shouldn’t exceed the avarage level and second, when adding soaproot the pot should be covered. Otherwise the air absorbed leads to overbubbling. When making “köpük halvah” it can be used about 60- 65 % glycose syrup, 30- 35 % water and 0.01 % soaproot water [18]. Some kinds of Gypsophila arrostii var. nebulosa are economically valuable and in Konya and Beyşehir it is called “dişi çöven (female soaproot)” because of its multiplying fast. Roots of the other soaproots known as “erkek çöven (male soaproot)” are not widely used in trade. In their rhizomes there are saponin, resin and sugar. Because they are widely used in production of “tahini halvah” in Turkey and Near East they are called “helvacı çöveni (halvah soaproot)”. In some of our cities and in Cybrus in order that the “hellim cheese” which is boiled and made salted does not spoil, soaproot root is added to its water. In Thracia region a white spumy halvah known as “köpük halvah” is produced by soaproot [20]. Its Usage in The Chemistry and hygiene Industry Soaproots are also used in the manufacturing of Saponin which is a valuable chemical substance [8, 21]. Saponins are components which have pervaded in wide districts, which are in the form of heavy molecular steroidal or triterpenoid glycsides and which have a great biological activity on plants, insects, fungus and microorganisms. Their lower doses helps the plants have roots; however higher doses decreases root growing [7]. As quoted from Çevrimli (1990); it is expressed that because of the negative impacts of alkil and aril sulfanat types of detergants on environmental pollution and human health, the usage of saponin present in G. arrostii as an active surface substance of detergant will be more benefical, the saponin present in the plant will be easily used as an active surface substance in both extinguishers and soap industry, and that in the plant rhizomes there has been found around 18 % saponin [7]. Because it has a good characteristic of bubbling, soaproot is being utilized for soap, shampoo materials or fabric softener in hygiene industry. In the cool water obtained from the soaproot roots boiled, the silky and delicate fabrics and the other fabrics which are otherwise deteriorated are cleaned. Fabrics or clothes are cleaned by being dipped into the cool water obtained and are kept waiting for a few hours without spoiling their colors and brightness. Moreover, in some regions they are used in order to clean the wool obtained from the animals. [8, 18, 19]. The undersoil parts of G. arrostii have been used as a cleaner and a removal of stain since ancient times. [21]. Its Usage In Medicine It is reported that in the antraks vaccine which is against Antraks disease seen among animals and which is produced in Turkey, the saponin amount has been found to be % 0.1- 0.5. It has been found out that saponins 554 �are in the seeds, limbs, leaves, flowers and roots of plants; and that when the plants containing saponin are eaten by animals, the bitter-flavoured saponins have irritated mucosa cells in throat. Such types as G. paniculata and G. arrostii are used as a cough and respiration system diseases deterrent besides being used as a myx remover [7]. Soaproot has some features such as urine remover, exudative and myx remover [18]. As for drug, it has a function in some drugs compound when they are brewed because of its characteristics such as myx and urine remover [19]. Its Antimicrobial Effect It is known that saponin has an antimicrobial effect and it keeps the plants against some insects in soil. Besides this, it is estimated that it has a role of increasing the plant resistance in some parts of plants. It is reported that in the soil in which the plant containing saponin grows there has been found to be saponin in certain amounts and this saponin in the soil has some impacts on some bacteria. It has been found that Aquaspirillum dispar and Aquaspirillum spp. soil bacteria have been in great numbers in the roots of G. paniculata [7]. In the search of Gypsophila species’ antiviral impacts it has been expressed that G. arrostii var. nebulasa, G. bicolor, G. perfoliata and G. eriocalyx species have impacts on V. stomatitis virus, that they have no impact on Parafainfluenza type-1 virus and that the G. bicolor species has effectiveness against the other viruses (Poliovirüs tip-1, Herpes simplex tip-1 ve tip-2, Vesicular stomatitis ve Influenza A ) except 2 Parafainfluenza type-1 virus [7, 22]. Its Usage in Horticulture Gypsophila species are regarded as one of the most important alternatives of product diversification in the sector of flower cutting. G. paniculata species used as fresh and dry cut flower attract attention as being one of the most indispensable elements of arrangement and bouquet in domestic market [7, 8]. It has been reported that in Eurasia continent there have been found to be 125 species of Gypsophila, that the most significant of those to be used as ornamental is G. paniculata; that although the plant is perennial it has been grown annual and that because it cannot enable blossoming in short time and because it has no genetic evolution it is more advantagous to multiply it by cutting. It has been expressed that G. paniculata species has a great importance in the trade of cut flower; that although with the reparation studies the desired plants have been obtained, from these plants whose seeds are cultivated the desired plants will not be able to obtained and that they may have genetic evolution so the plants should be grown with vegetative organs. They have found that in the G. paniculata species which is used in horticulture their harvest should be done when their petals have exceeded 50 % blossoming, the vase lifespan in plants has reached about 55 days with the blossoms of buds in vase and that during 82 days the flower harvest can be done on plants. In Gypsophila paniculata species which is used in horticulture in the flower buds, the flowers should be harvested when they blossomed 30 % and so the vase lifespan increases. They have informed that because in coastal regions of Mediterranen the floral deportation obtained in unit area for the production of G. paniculata will be more it can be advised to cultivate around coastal parts of The Mediterranen Region [7]. Its Usage in Mining As a result of the studies on natural-growing 4 Gypsophila species in the district of boron (B) mine in Eskişehir Kırka; it has been observed that G. sphaerocephala Fenzl ex Tchihat. var. sphaerocephala and G. perfoliata have been the first ones which have a characteristics of a potential boron hyperaccumulator. These species grow successfully in concentrations as high total soil boron (8900 mg/kg-1) and suitable soil boron (277 mg/kg-1). As a result of the analysis conducted, it has been found out that in the upper soil parts of the G. Sphaerocephala it has contained B in extremely high concentrations (in seeds; 2093 ± 199 SD mg / kg-1; in leaves; 3345 ± 341 SD mg / kg-1), but in roots it has contained far less concentrations of B (51 ± 11 SD mg kg1). In the respect of Boron amount this has been followed by G. perfoliata. It has been stated that by growing G. sphaerocephala in the soils which have some signs of high B toxid, vegetative mining can be conducted by hyperaccumulation and the soils containing boron in toxic amounts can be refined by vegetative ways [23]. In this way the agricultural fields in which fertilizers have long been used can be prevented to become barren and during reparation process it will be possible to evaluate the agricultural fields which have become dormant. Its Other Usages Apart from these, the cool water obtained from the boiling of soaproot roots is used in the process of whitening gold and treasuers. Furthermore this solution is used as spray in the structure of film emilsion and 555 �extinguishers. It is known that the rhizomes of perennial soaproot sold to Israel from Isparta are used in the production of extinguishers [7, 8, 21]. Pıckıng, dryıng and storıng the plants Because the subsoil parts of the plants are generally utilized, from just after the precipitation season to the time of plant’s fruit; that is between May- July the plants are picked. The local public utilizes its root when its leaves are on land area or when they are in the time of blossoming; they can distinguish Gypsophila species between others and they can extract its rhizomes by means of such tools as anchor. Because the subsoil parts of the plant are also picked, with an unconscious picking they are endangered. The roots which are picked are cleaned and after washing them, they are dried under sun. In order to dry well and in order to enable some fresh air during this process the rhizomes shouln’t be laid down thick. The subsoil organs are brought in bundles and are stored in suitable, dry and moisture free places [19]. It is reported by Anonim (2006) that in the roots of soaproot plant which can be grown in barren and hillside areas there have been foud to be some dryings because of extreme damp; that it is not suitable to harvest them before four years old; that their trade situation should be considered before harvesting and if necessary the product should be waited in the field; that the roots extracted by fork or tractor plough have dried in 2-3 months and from 2.5 kg raw root about 1 kg dry root has been obtained; and that in one decare of field totally 4000-5000 kg dry roots are extracted [7]. The trade of soaproot and ıts standart There is not a general accepted standart for the roots of soaproot but they can be classified in three different qualities in terms of commercial purposes according to where they grow: those growing in Van-Isparta are of the 1. quality, those obtained from Niğde are of 2. quality and those obtained from Yozgat-Çorum are of 3. quality [19]. In the usage of soaproot in industry, the hemolysis and bubble indexes of them; as for in food industry the bubble indexes are of importance. So, in the quality evaluation these rates should be taken into consideration. Both the bubble and hemolysis indexes of Van (G. bicolor) and Isparta-Beyşehir (G. arrostii) are high. Also their raw saponozite rates are more than the others. Species Hemolysis index Bubble index % Raw saponozit G. bicolor G. arrostii var. nebulosa G. perfoliata var. anatolica G. eriocalyx 6.667- 6.925 5.295- 6.667 9.778-10.000 3.385- 3.659 9.000-10.000 9.600-10.034 4.650 - 5.000 1.800- 2.000 20-25 19-22 15-19 10-14 Table 1. The Analysis of Turkish soaproot [22] Isparta-Beyşehir Gypsophila (G. arrostii) has decreased extremely on the market. There is still Van Soaproot (G. bicolar) on market and is sold as being the first quality. The oldest commercial soaproot is this species, so its population has damaged greatly. But this species has been produced in fields (Atabey Plain) by some farmers. Furthermore, Isparta General Directorate of Forestry cultivated about 15-20 kg seeds 3 years ago in order to be a financial support in the future and to enable the continuation of the species generation for Sütçüler and Aksu villagers. The hemolysis index of Niğde soaproot (G. perfoliata var. anatolica) is high but its bubble index and raw saponozit percentage is low. Despite its features similar to 1. quality, it should be regarded as second quality. Çorum-Yozgat G soaproot (G. eriocalyx) is one type of soaproot having the lowest rates. In these respects it should be regarded as the third quality [22]. They are exported to many countries includin Germany, Egypt, Greece at the outset [19]. Between 1989-1996 the avarege annual export of soaproot root was 140 tonnes. In 1997 it decreased to 93.3 tonnes. Today, every year the avarege export of soaproot root from Turkey is about 90 tonnes. In 2004 80000 dollars have been earned from the soaproot exportation for 85 ton. According to the statistics of 2005 92 tonnes of 556 �soaproot roots were exported from Turkey by taking 66 000 dollars in return. In 2006 despite 153 tonnes exportation the income was 61 000 dollars in an unparallel way [7, 24]. Discussion and advices Six of species growing in Turkey has a high economic value. Besides picking plants in an uncontrollable way from nature, industrialisation and urbanisation, extension of agricultural fields and extreme grazing, tourism, the reparation of barren fields, agricultural struggle and pollution, unconscious forestation and fires are leading factors that threaten the plants in our country [7]. Because many natural plants used in medicine, exported and and used traditionally are constantly being picked from nature, are exported and used in domestic market, they are increasingly disappearing [7]. Soaproot plants have been utilized in medicine, food, hygiene, as ornamentals in parks and gardens, in chemistry industry in order to produce saponin. It has the ability to extinguish the fires, whiten gold, clean silky and delicate fabrics. It also enables cleaning the contaminated soil by removing the boron which is in great amount in our country. They are clened by cultivating G. sphaerocephala and Gypsophila species. Also it is possible to make vegetative mining by boron hypercumulation to the upper surface of the plant on soil. Because they are utilized in many different areas, agriculturalists, food engineers, chemists, pharmacists, landscapists, textile workers and jewellers are all interested in them [7]. In Turkey the general name of Gypsophila, Ankyropetalum ve Saponaria species are “ çöven ”. But some researchers name those whose subsoil parts are economically valuable as “çöven”. Regarding this soaproot is the name of a raw material and is an extract obtained from a plant [9]. Turkish soaproot is widely obtained from 6 Gypsophila (G. graminifolia, G. bicolor, G. arrostii var. nebulosa, G. eriocalyx, G. perfoliata var. anatolica ve G. venusta ) and 1 Ankyropetalum (A. gypsophiloides species. The gene centre of both species is Turkey [9]. Gypsophila species yielding soaproot, their locations and some properties are as below [25]. G. bicolor (Turkish names: Van çöveni, Tarla çöveni): This species is distributed around Van, Bitlis and Artvin provinces. The rhizomes are hard and difficult to break. Saponin content is 20 %-25 %. This value is higher than that in other soaproot yielding plants. This is the most preferred soaproot, also known as the soaproot of the highest quality. G. arrostii var. nebulosa (Turkish name: Beyşehir çöveni, Konya çöveni): Saponin content is 19%-22%. This is also considered to be of good quality.; This species also has a narrow distribution. Halvah makers in Konya especially use this soaproot. G. eriocalyx (Turkish name: Çorum-Yozgat çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Çankırı, Çorum, Eskişehir, Kayseri, Sivas and Yozgat provinces in steppe habitats with gypsum. This is an endemic species. G. perfoliata (Turkish name: Niğde çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Kayseri, Sivas, Erzincan, Konya, Niğde, and Denizli provinces. It is considered to be of 3rd quality. G. venusta subsp. venusta (Turkish name: Konya çöveni): Grows around Ankara, Çankırı, Konya, Gaziantep, Urfa, Sivas, Malatya, and Erzurum provinces in stepe habitats or arable fields, and yield soaproot. G. graminifolia (Turkish name: Başkale çöveni, Dağ çöveni): This local endemic species also grows in Van province, around Başkale. Three species of Ankyropetalum genus grow naturally in Turkey; all of them are endemic. However, only A. gypsophiloides rhizomes are known, with the name “helva (halvah) root” around Siirt province and used as soaproot. A. gypsophilloides (Turkish name: Siirt çöveni, Helvacı çöveni, Helva kökü): This species grows around Şanlıurfa, Mardin, Gaziantep, Batman, and Siirt provinces. Its roots are collected in Siirt and used by local halvah producers. [12]. Because the roots of these plants are generally used, the harvest time is in March-June months and thus because the plants don’t produce seeds they don’t enable seeds for the latter year. These plants which are constantly taken from nature both exported and used in domestic consumption and whose economic value is extremely high, are increasingly disappearing and are on the verge of extinction. This problem becomes more important especially when the plants are endemic. Except for the G. paniculata which is used for cut flower and cultivated, Gypsophila species which are used for exportation and domestic consumption and some of which are endemic are taken directly from natue. This brings the danger of extinction with itself. Although economically important, these plants are a source of biological richness in Turkiye. Most of them are endemic species having narrow distributions. Since they are not cultivated but collected directly from nature, populations of these plants in nature deteriorate, their generations diminish or become extinct, and the balance of nature is disturbed. Since only roots and not the aerial parts are collected destruction is an even more important problem. According to some trading companies cheaper soaproot having better quality is being imported from Afghanistan, and re-exported after the extraction of their juices. This soaproot juice (extract) is 557 �sold to halvah producers in Türkiye. So there is no need to collect soaproot in Turkey anymore. Soaproot has been collected for years due to the high unemployment rate in the region, and the demand. In order to preserve these species and also have regular exports, feasibility studies should be conducted and a determined quantity of a given quality should be cultivated. Soaproot should not only be collected from nature and its cultivation should be scheduled. Decrease in collection due to decreasing demand and soaproot imports from Afghanistan are good news. Soaproot imports may stop some day, but soaproot usage will continue and so we should take necessary precautions. Soaproot collection in Turkey should be stopped or at least alternation should be applied to collection areas. Cultivation of soaproot yielding plants, should be studied and encouraged. Standardised extract of soaproot should be prepared. Soaproot yielding other perennial species and their saponin contents should be determined and new soaproot resources should be identified, and their cultivation and marketing possibilities should be studied. Informtions must be given to our puplic to preserve our biological richness [ 25]. Acknowledgement This study is a part of the project numbered TÜBĐTAK-TBAG 107 T 147, which is supported by TÜBĐTAK, and themed “Revision of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) Genera and Determination of Saponin Level”. We are much obliged to the support provided by this institution. References [1] Davis, P.H., (ed). 1965-1988. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol.:1-10, Edinburgh Univ. Press. [2] Williams, F. N., 1989. Revision of The Forms of The Genus Gypsophila L., Jown Bot. London, 27: 321-329. [3] Chopra, G.L., 1966. Angiosperms (Systematic & Life-Cycle), s: 85. [4] Lawrence, H.M.G.,1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. Cornell University, Newyork, s: 486–488. [5] Huber-Morath, A., 1967. Gypsophila L., Ankyropetalum Fenzl in Davis, P.H.(ed.). Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol: pp. 147-171. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. [6] Güner, A., Özhatay, N., Ekim, T., Başer, K.H.C., 2000. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vol.:11, Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. [7] Đnan, M., 2006. Çukurova Koşullarında Farklı Kökenli Gypsophila L. Türlerinde Kök Verimleri ve Saponin Đçeriklerinin Araştırılması. Çukurova Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tarla Bitkileri A. B. Dalı (Doktora Tezi). [8] Korkmaz, M., 2007. Türkiye’ de Yetişen Tek Yıllık Gypsophila L. (Caryophyllaceae) Taksonları Üzerinde Biyosistematik Çalışmalar, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Isparta, 248 s. (Doktora Tezi). [9] Özçelik, H., Muca, B., 2010. Ankyropetalum fenzl (caryophyllaceae) cinsine ait türlerin türkiye’deki yayılışı ve habitat özellikleri, nobel dergisi( bibad) [10] Kılıç, C.S., Koyuncu, M., Güvenç, A., 2008. Soaproot Yielding Plants of East Anatolia and Their Potential in Nature, Turk. J. Bot. 32(2008) 489- 494. [11] Baytop, T., 1984. Türkiye’de Bitkiler Đle Tedavi, Đstanbul Üniversitesi Yayınları, s: 213-214, Đstanbul. [12] Öztürk, M., Özçelik, H., 1991. Doğu Anadolu’nun Faydalı Bitkileri (Useful Plants of East Anatolia) SĐSKAV Yayınları, Semih Ofset ve Matbaacılık, Ankara. [13] Özçelik, H., Özgökçe, F., 1999. Gypsophila bitlisensis Bark. ve Gypsophila elegans M.Bieb. Üzerinde Morfolojik, Taksonomik ve Ekolojik Araştırmalar, 1st International Symposium on Protection of Natural Environment and Ehrami Karaçam, 23-25th September 1999, Kütahya / Türkiye, 295- 313. [14] Özçelik, H., Özgökçe, F., 1995. Taxonomic Contributions to Genus Gypsophila L.(Caryophyllaceae) from East Anatolia (Turkey), IV th Plant Life in Soutwest and Central Asia (Ed. M.Öztürk, Ö. Seçmen and G.Görk), Ege Univ. Pres, Đzmir, Türkiye, 195- 209. [15] Afifi, F.U., Abu-Irmaileh, B., 2000. Herbal Medicine In Jordan With Special Emphasis on Less Commonly Used Medicinal Herbs, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 72, 101–110. 558 �[16] Boissier, E., 1867. Flora Orientalis, Vol: 1, s: 532-534, Genevae. [17] H´erold, M-C., & Henry M., 2001. UDP-Glucuronosyltransferase activity is correlated to saponin roduction in Gypsophila paniculata root in vitro cultures, Biotechnology Letters, 23: 335–337, Netherlands. [18] Anonim, 2010. www.hammaddeler.com.tr [19] Orman Genel Müdürlüğü, 1991. Ülkemizde Bazı Önemli Orman Tali Ürünlerinin Teşhis ve Tanıtım Kılavuzu, Orman Bakanlığı, Ankara. [20] Battal, H., 2002. A Research on the production of a soapwort extract, Ankara University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences. Department of Food Engineering. Master Thesis. Ankara, Turkey, pp: 44 . [21] Anonymus, 2010. www.bibilgi.com/ÇÖVEN-(ÇÖĞEN)-OTU-(Gypsophila arrostii) [22] Sezik, E., 1982. The Origin and the Quality of the Turkish Soaproots. J. Fac Pharm Ankara 12: 41-54. [23] Babaoğlu, M., Gezgin, S., Topal, A., Sade, B., Dural, H., 2004. Gypsophila sphaerocephala Fenzl ex Tchihat.: A Boron Hyperaccumulator Plant Species That May Phytoremediate Soils with Toxic B Levels, Turk J Bot, 28 (3): 273-278. [24] Anonymus, 2009, Dış Ticaret Đstatistikleri, 2009. [25] Koyuncu, M., Kılıç, C.S., Güvenç, A., 2008. Soaproot Yielding Plants of East Anatolia and Their Potential in 559 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 600 Title A name given to the resource Economic Importance and Using Purposes of Gypsophila L. and Ankyropetalum Fenzl (Caryophyllaceae) of Türkiye Author Author Korkmaz, Mustafa Özçelik, Hasan Özgökçe, Fevzi Abstract A summary of the resource. Gypsophila L. is the third biggest genus of Caryophyllaceae family in Türkiye. 55 species of the genus have been growing naturally in our country. 33 of them are endemic and total number of the taxa is 55. Ankyropetalum Fenzl is a small genus with 3 species and 1 of them is endemic. It is agreeable that gene center of the both genera is Türkiye. In terms of growing habitats there are large areas in Türkiye. According to importance order East, Central and Southeast Anatolia regions have the biggest number of taxa growing there. Ankyropetalum genus distributed only in the Southeast Anatolia and Mediterranean regions and in their intersection areas of Türkiye. Both of the genera have known as “çöven, çöğen”, halvah root and largened root parts or rhizomes are economically very important. Extracts produced from under parts of the plants known as fire extinguisher, gold polishing, silk and cloth cleaner and softener and crispness giving to halvah. These extracts have often used for making liqueur, preparing herbal cheese and making ice cream. Because of giving flavour, crispness and nice odor they generally preferred in food industry. With different ratios all of the taxa are boron (B) hyperacumulators. For this reason they can be used for destroyed agricultural areas. They can be planted to elevated slopes and hills to control erosion and survive biological diversity. General character of the family is their importance for horticulture. G. paniculata is very important for horticulture industry. In the presentation, some information about economic importance of the plants in the light of our observations and literatures were given. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/2024aceb8c92cc21f922a9916e7cccbe.pdf e77af33ab52338543ce72a557c7590ac PDF Text Text Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Some Plants Grown on Serpentine Soils of Mersin, Turkey Nurcan Koleli Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey nkoleli@mersin.edu.tr Aydeniz Demir Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey aydenizdemir@mersin.edu.tr Muzeyyen Eke Mersin University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Environmental Engineering, 33342 Mersin, Turkey muzeyyeneke@hotmail.com Ozlem Cakmak Cukurova University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science, 01330 Adana, Turkey ocakmak@cu.edu.tr Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine hyperaccumulator species growing in Findikpinari-Mersin. The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant to extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. As the geological structure, Mersin-Findikpinari has rocks containing ultramafic and serpentine, but this site is one of the less studied areas. The 26 specimens of total 755 plants identified systematically from Mersin-Findikpınari in between in 1997-2002 were randomly selected and studied whether hyperaccumulator or not. Twenty six plants collected (members of 26 genera and 8 families) from different sampling locations were analyzed for their total As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations using an ICP-MS. A certified reference material (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) was also analyzed to check the accuracy of the used extraction technique. In the present study, Mn content (548 mg kg-1) of Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical Mn value (300-500 mg kg-1) and Ni content (115 mg kg-1) Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridiceae) was higher than the critical Ni value (10-100 mg kg-1) but unfortunately none of the plants studied was hyperaccumulator. Keywords: hyperaccumulator, Findikpinari-Mersin, serpentine, heavy metal Introduction Heavy metal contamination in soil is a global environmental and health safety issue in the world. Remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. Conventional remediation technologies for soils contaminated with heavy metal cations are generally termed as ‘pump and treat’ and ‘dig and dump’ techniques (Chin, 2007). They can be divided into either in situ or ex situ remediation. The conventional technologies used for in situ and ex situ remediation are typically expensive and destructive (Prasad and Freitas, 1999). The environmental impact of such technologies can be very high. For example, soil washing methods may render the soil infertile or spread the contaminant, and excavation methods can produce high waste volumes. Additionally, these remediation methods are often limited to small areas and depend on accessibility to the contaminated site (Chin, 2007). The high cost and environmental concerns of conventional remediation technologies has fuelled the need for alternative remediation method. Phytoremediation is one of alternative remediation technologies (Chaney et al., 1997; Chin, 2007). Phytoremediation is defined as the use of green plants to remove pollutants from the environment or render them harmless (Raskin et al., 1997). The five classes of phytoremediation are outlined below. (i) Rhizofiltration, (ii) Phytostabilisation, (iii) Phytodegradation, (iv) Phytovolatilisation, (v) Phytoextraction (Chin, 2007). The phytoextraction and rhizofiltration technologies are the most useful branches for heavy metal removal from soil and water respectively. The goal of phytoextraction is to reduce heavy metal levels in the soil to acceptable levels within three to ten years (Huang and Cunningham et al., 1996). In order to achieve this goal, plants must be screened and selected for certain attributes. The ideal 499 �plant for phytoextraction would have: (i) a rapid growth rate, even under harsh conditions, (ii) a high shoot biomass (20 metric tons dry mass (DM) ha-1 yr-1) (Huang et al., 1997), and (iii) a capacity to accumulate or tolerate high amounts of metals in shoots; in the case of Pb, 10,000 mg kg-1 (1% DM) (Brooks, 1998). There are three types of metal-tolerant plants which are classified according to their tolerance and accumulation response on soils contaminated with heavy metal cations: (i) excluders - restrict metal uptake into roots except at extreme metal concentrations (ii) indicator plants - metal level accumulated in the shoot is relative to metal levels in soil and (iii) hyperaccumulators – concentrate metals in shoots, regardless of soil metal concentrations (Greger, 1999; Ghosh and Singh, 2005). Metal hyperaccumulator plants comprise species that accumulate (in mg kg1 )>10000 (Mn or Zn), >1000 (Cu, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb) or >100 (Cd) in their shoots (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Wenzel and Jokwer, 1999). Initial phytoextraction research began with hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulesences and Alyssum bertoloni (Keller et al., 2003). Whilst these plants are useful for studying metal tolerance and accumulation mechanisms, their slow growth rate and small biomass may limit their application in phytoremediation (Ebbs and Kochian, 1998). This is because the total amount of metals extracted (a measure of phytoremediation potential) is the product of biomass and tissue concentration (Kayser et al., 2000). Of the over 450 plant species which have been identified as hyperaccumulators, about 75% of their have been Ni hyperaccumulators (Clemens, 2001). These hyperaccumulator plants have attracted the interest of plant and soil scientist because of their role in the development of phytoremediation technologies for the treatment of heavy metal contaminated soils, sediments and water resources (Wenzel et al., 1999; Lombi et al., 2000). For instance, some varieties of Thlaspi and ecotype of Silene vulgaris have been found to be Cd accumulators; Larrea tridendata, a desert inhabitant shrub, accumulates Cu, several wild species of Sutera accumulate Cr, and other cultivated species accumulate Cd, Cr and Cu, maize and ambrosia accumulate Pb (Gardea Torresday et al., 2004). However, researchers all over the world are searching new plant species susceptible to be used in phytoremediation (Gardea Torresday et al., 2004). First, hyperaccumulators are usually specific for one particular metal (Baker and Brooks, 1989), and are adapted to precise climate and soil conditions. Furthermore, they cannot be managed as a conventional crop, have low biomass, and often a short life cycle. Therefore it seems more reasonable to search for non hyperaccumulator plants showing good features for phytoremediation and then transfer biotechnologically traits that make the modified plant even a more powerful tool than natural hyperaccumulators. Over the last few years on heavy metal tolerance and accumulation studies, the genetic modification approach has gained significant momentum. The goal of genetic modification approach is to develop fast growing, high shoot biomass plants with the metal accumulation traits of natural small biomass hyperaccumulators: ‘engineered phytoremediators’ (Ow, 1996). The advantage of this technique is the relatively short space of time and selective targeting of genes for improvement. With genetic engineering, plants can be manipulated to accumulate, translocate and tolerate heavy metals, thus creating the ideal transgenic plant for environmental cleanup in the shortest possible time (Pilon-Smits, 2005; Bennett, 2003; Persans et al., 2001). For instance, genes can be isolated from metal hyperaccumulators and inserted into fast growing high biomass plant species (Persans et al., 2001). It has been suggested that especially phytoextraction would become commercially available if metal removal and tolerance properties of hyperaccumulator plants, such as Thlapsi caerulescens (Brown et al., 1995; Bennett, 2003) or Pteris vittata (Ma et al., 2001), could be transferred into fast growing, high biomass producing crop species. For example, most recently, Cd accumulation was enhanced when a metallothionein gene from Silene vulgaris L. was overexpressed in the high biomass Nicotiana tabacum L. (tobacco) (Gorinova et al., 2006). Ultramafic rocks exposed to heavy tectonic activities usually contain high amounts of serpatine soils in the Earth’s crust. Serpentine areas are generally characterized by high levels of heavy metals such as nickel, cobalt and chromium. The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant of extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. Serpentine soils, "hotspots" of metallophyte endemics are a rich source of toxic trace elements. There are serpentine soils derived from ultramafic rocks in various parts of the world. Serpentinized rocks are distributed all over the world viz., western north America; Newfoundland, Mount Albert in eastern Canada; Lizard peninsula, Wales and Scotland; north-east Cuba; Portugal; Italy; Balkan peninsula; Turkey; topical far east; Central Brazil; New Caledonia; south east Asia; Philippines; Japan; Zimbabwe; eastern Transvaal Loweveld of South Africa, New Zealand; greenstone belts of western Australia (Proctor and Woodell, 1975; Sequeira et al., 1991). Significant exposures of ultramafic rocks and soils are found in many parts of Turkey (Figure 1), although they are not such important features of the geology of the eastern and south-eastern provinces. Notable areas include the central part of the North-west (Kutahya and Balikesir provinces), the South-west between Antalya and Marmaris (Antalya and Mugla provinces), the Amanus Mountains (Hatay and Adana provinces), regions of the eastern Taurus (north and north-east of Mersin) and its extension into the Aladag massif (Nigde and Adana provinces), and numerous areas in a band running generally north-eastwards for several hundred kilometers from near Adana to near Erzincan (Figure 1). Other significant outcrops include several smaller areas near Ankara and in Canakkale province. Soils developed on serpentine rocks cover a large area in Fındıkpınarı (Mersin, Turkey) where there 500 �are a large number of mines (e.g., chromium). Little is known about heavy metal contents of the natural plants grown on Mersin-Findikpinari. Findikpinari is one of the plataeus used as a settlement place and has 1250 m altitude (Orcan et al., 2004). Research area is on the Bolkar Mountains which is an interesting place from the point of endemism (Orcan et al., 2004). The geological structure of the area is formed upper Crataceous ultramorphic and serpentine. Common soil formations distinguished in the area as follows: brown forest soils, reddish Mediterranean soils and brown calcareous soils (Orcan et al., 2004). Koleli et al., (2008) reported that the maximum concentrations of metals in 11 soil samples collected from Mersin-Findikpinari (as dry mass) were 909 mg kg-1 Cr, 3615 mg kg-1 Ni, 246 mg kg-1 Cu, 467 mg kg-1 Zn, 8.2 mg kg-1Cd and 111 mg kg-1 Pb. Koleli et al., (2008) to determine hyperaccumulator species growing in serpentine soils in Findikpinari-Mersin, total 123 plant species (members of 23 genera and 15 families) from 5 different sampling locations were collected and analyzed for their total Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn contents using an ICP-MS. The results indicate that four plants species, mainly Thlaspi elegans Boiss. and Alyssum murale Waldst.& Kit. contained Ni concentrations up to 15693 and 13591 mg kg-1 Ni dry matter, respectively. Similarly, Anthemis cretica L. and Sanicula europaea L. also contained Ni concentrations of 7741 and 4247 mg kg-1 DM, respectively. The collected 755 specimens (52 family, 149 genera and 327 species) in Mersin-Findikpinari were identified by Orcan et. al. (2004) in between 1997-2002. Orcan et al., (2004) reported that the largest family according to number of the species is Fabaceae and the largest genus is Trifolium in this area. Figure 1: Map of Turkey showing areas of ultramafic geology (in black) and of Mersin-Findikpinari (in red) (from Reeves and Adiguzel, 2004) The main objective of this study is to evaluate heavy metal accumulation ability of the different plantspecies grown on Mersin-Findikpinari. The 26 specimens from the 755 specimens collected and identified in between 1997-2002 by Orcan et. al. (2004) in Mersin-Findikpinari The plants were randomly selected to evaluate heavy metal accumulation capacity.. Material and Methods The shoots of identified plants were oven-dried at 70 °C for dry matter amount determination. Dried shoot samples were ground and digested in 2 mL 30% H2O2 and 5 mL 65% HNO3 in sealed vessels of a microwave (MarsXpress) apparatus. Each plant was replicated three times. Arsenic, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations were analyzed using an ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectroscopy, 501 �Agillent 7500ce). Certified reference materials (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) were also analyzed in order to check the accuracy of the extraction technique used in the study. 502 �Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Boraginaceae Caryophyllaceae Iridaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Ranunculaceae Plan t no 689 699 85 2 111 4 141 744 740 758 208 741 739 747 759 72 775 712 720 722 707 728 708 713 5 Collection site Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Cayirbogazi surroundings, waste places, open forest, under forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest Capurgedigi, surroundings, under forest Purcu surroundings, under forest, rocky places Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Devekoyagi surroundings, under forest and open forest Findikpinari-Caglarca village, roadside Cayirbogazi surroundings, under forest, rocky places, waste places Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Capurgedigi surroundings, under forest and open forest Cayirbogazi surroundings, waste places, open forest, under forest Findikpinari, under forest Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places North of the Findikpinari, under forest, rocky slopes Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest, stony places Bozon Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, stony, rocky places Akarca Guzlesi-Findikpinari, roadside, under forest and open forest 503 Table 1: Family, genus, altitude, name of the collected site, and the collection date (from Orcan et. al., 2004) Ranunculus ficaria L. subsp. calthifolius (Reichb.) Arc Cynosurus echinatus L. Festuca pinifolia (Hackel ex Boiss.) Bornm. var. pinifolia Bramus diandrus Roth Festuca jeanpertii (St.- Yves) F. Markgraf subsp. jeanpertii. Briza humilis Bieb. Poa speluncarum Edmondson Aegilops neglecta Req. ex Bertol. Corydalis solida (L.) Swartz subsp. tauricola Cullen & Davis Marrubium astracanicum Jacq.subsp.astracanicum Purunella orientalis Bornm. Prunella vulgaris L. Lamium crinitum Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham. Nepeta nuda L. subsp. nuda Fumaria kralikii Jordan Lamium garganicum L. subsp. reniforme(Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham) R. Mill Name of the plant Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Crupina curipinastrum (Moris) Vis. Anthemis aciphylla Boiss.var. aciphylla Alkanna aucherana A.DC. Silene dichotoma Ehrh. subsp. dichotoma Crocus graveolens Boiss. &Reuter Scutellaria salviifolia Bentham Micromeria carica P. H. Davis Prunella vulgaris L. Altitude, m 1350 1350 1300-1500 1150 900-1150 900-1150 900-1150 1200-1300 1350 1200-1300 1800 1300-1400 1300-1500 1200-1300 1200-1300 1300-1500 1300-1350 1250 1300-1400 1250 1250 1250 900-1150 1250 900-1150 Collection date 14.06.1998 14.06.1998 20.04.2002 14.03.2002 11.05.2002 14.03.2002 11.05.2002 28.06.1998 14.06.1998 09.05.1998 27.06.2002 15.07.1998 31.05.1998 09.05.1998 09.05.1998 20.04.2002 14.03.1999 01.06.1997 18.05.1997 01.06.1997 01.06.1997 01.06.1997 21.06.1997 01.06.1997 14.03.2002 �Findings Research area is on the Bolkar Mountains which is an interesting place from the point of endemism of Turkey. The collected 26 plants from different sampling locations have 26 genera and 8 families. Different 8 families were Asteraceae (3), Boraginaceae (1), Caryophyllaceae (1), Iridaceae (1), Lamiaceae (9), Papaveraceae (2), Poaceae (7) and Ranunculaceae (1). In the identified 755 plant, the largest family according to number of the species is Fabaceae and the largest genus is Trifolium. In the tested 26 plants, the largest family according to number of the species is Poaceae (7). Table 1 shows family, genus, altitude, name of the collected site, altitude and collection date of the tested plant samples. Table 2 shows heavy metal concentrations in shoots of the investigated plant specimens. The highest As (6), Co (10), Cr (46), Mn (548), Se (4) concentrations were Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae). Manganese concentration in Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical concentration (300-500) in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). Fumaria kralikii (Papaveraceae) has higher metal content, except for Cd and Zn, than other plants and higher than normal concentration in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). The highest Ni concentration was 115 mg kg-1 DM for Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridaceae) and this value was higher than the critical concentration (10-100) in plants according to Kabata-Pendias and Pendias (1992). In the future, the identified 755 plants will be studied to evaluate heavy metal accumulation capacity because of the research area is an interesting place from the point of endemism and remediation of contaminated soils is essential for sustainable soil use. New selected metal hyperaccumulator plant may be genetically modify and remediate metal-contaminated soils. But metal hyperaccumulator plants after treatment evaluated as hazardous waste because of the higher concentration of the extracted metals. Therefore, further treatment of this biomass is environmentally necessary. 504 �Scutellaria salviifolia Bentham Micromeria carica P. H. Davis Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Lamiaceae Papaveraceae Papaveraceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Ranunculaceae Asteraceae 9. As 3 1 6 1 2 1 <BD Cd 1 1 1 3 1 1 Co 6 <bd 10 1 2 8 Cr 24 1 46 8 11 31 Cu 29 11 29 18 16 21 Mn 335 47 548 88 235 189 Ni 40 3 67 35 13 115 505 <bd 20 67 4 16 79 <bd <bd <bd <bd 2 3 1 1 1 <bd 3 5 21 126 1 1 <bd 4 11 97 6 Lamium garganicum L. subsp. reniforme(Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham) R. Mill 1 1 <bd 7 17 96 24 Marrubium astracanicum Jacq.subsp.astracanicum Purunella orientalis Bornm. 1 <bd 1 3 16 80 9 Prunella vulgaris L. 1 2 1 5 15 101 7 <bd <bd <bd 2 12 76 24 Lamium crinitum Montbret & Aucher ex Bentham. Nepeta nuda L. subsp. nuda 1 1 <bd 3 12 158 6 Fumaria kralikii Jordan 1 6 6 26 31 247 30 <bd 1 <bd 3 17 9 107 Corydalis solida (L.) Swartz subsp. tauricola Cullen & Davis Briza humilis Bieb. 1 <bd <bd 7 11 76 12 Poa speluncarum Edmondson <bd <bd <bd 2 11 67 4 Aegilops neglecta Req. ex Bertol. <bd 1 <bd 4 6 49 6 <bd <bd <bd 4 18 49 35 Festuca jeanpertii(St.- Yves) F. Markgraf subsp. jeanpertii. Bramus diandrus Roth <bd <bd <bd 3 10 83 6 1 1 9 16 2 133 16 Festuca pinifolia (Hackel ex Boiss.) Bornm. var. pinifolia Cynosurus echinatus L. <bd 1 <bd 2 9 48 9 1 <bd 3 19 24 137 60 Ranunculus ficaria L. subsp. calthifolius (Reichb.) Arc Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist <bd 1 <bd 2 18 34 3 The highest value in plants 6 3 10 46 31 548 115 The lowest value in plants 1 1 1 1 2 3 1 Common concentrations in plants* 0.02-7 0.1-2.4 0.02-1 0.03-14 5-20 20-100 0.02-5 The critical concentration in the plants* 5-20 5-30 15-50 5-30 20-100 300-500 10-100 Hyperaccumulation threshold value 1000 100 1000 1000 1000 10000 1000 Table 2: Heavy metal concentrations of the tested plants (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn), mg kg-1 DM *Kabata-Pendias (1992) Name of the plant Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Crupina curipinastrum (Moris) Vis. Anthemis aciphylla Boiss.var. aciphylla Alkanna aucherana A.DC. Silene dichotoma Ehrh. subsp. dichotoma Crocus graveolens Boiss. &Reuter Family Asteraceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Boraginaceae Caryophyllaceae Iridaceae 13 2 7 22 20 3 17 8 20 35 7 6 9 4 14 18 19 3 9 6 35 2 0.2-20 30-300 1000 Pb 15 15 16 28 9 6 1 <bd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 <bd 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 0.001-2 5-30 1000 Se 3 2 4 1 2 1 112 6 79 52 79 100 207 58 165 144 175 68 106 46 60 45 68 76 92 80 207 6 1-400 100-400 10000 Zn 137 179 84 79 65 104 �Acknowledgement We thank Dr. Nermin Orcan and Dr. Riza Binzet for plant samples. We also thank Dr. Mehmet Arslan for critical reading of the manuscript and helpful comments. References Baker, A.J.M. & Brooks, R.R., (1989). Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate metallic elements-a review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry. Biorecovery 1, 81-126. Bennett, L. E., Burkhead, J. L., Hale, K. L., Terry, N., Pilon, M., & Pilon-Smits, E. A. H., (2003). 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Annual Review of Plant Biology, 56, 15-39, 2005. Prasad, M.N.V., & Freitas, H., (1999). Feasible biotechnologicaland bioremediation strategies for serpentine soils and mine spoils. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology, 2 (1), 35-50. Proctor, J., & Woodell, S.R.J., (1975). The ecology of serpentine soils. Advances in Ecological Research , 9, 256–347. Raskin, I., Smith R. D. & Salt D. E., (1997). Phytoremediation of metals: using plants to remove pollutants from the environment. Current Opinions in Biotechnology, 8, 221-226. Reeves, R.D., & Adıgüzel, N., (2004). Rare Plants and Nickel Accumulators from Turkish Serpentine Soils, with Special Reference to Centaurea Species, Turk J Bot. 28, 147-153. Sequeira, E.M.D. & Pinto da Silva, A.R., (1991). The ecology of serpentinised areas of Northeast Portugal. In: The ecology of areas with serpentinised rocks. A world review. Roberts BA and Proctor J (ed.) Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. pp. 169-197. Wenzel, W.W. & Jockwer, F., (1999). Accumulation of heavy metals in plants grown on mineralised soils of the Austrian Alps. Environmental Pollution, 104,145–155. Wenzel, W.W., Unterbrunner, R., Sommer, P. & Sacco, P. (2003). Chelate-assisted phytoextraction using canola (Brassica napus L.) in outdoors pot and lysimeter experiments. Plant and Soil, 249, 83-96. 507 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 574 Title A name given to the resource Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Some Plants Grown on Serpentine Soils of Mersin, Turkey Author Author Koleli, Nurcan Demir, Aydeniz Eke, Muzeyyen Cakmak, Ozlem Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this study was to determine hyperaccumulator species growing in Findikpinari-Mersin. The soils derived from ultrafamic rocks lead to unusual and sparse associations of flora that are tolerant to extreme environmental conditions such as high heavy metal contents. As the geological structure, Mersin-Findikpinari has rocks containing ultramafic and serpentine, but this site is one of the less studied areas. The 26 specimens of total 755 plants identified systematically from Mersin-Findikpınari in between in 1997-2002 were randomly selected and studied whether hyperaccumulator or not. Twenty six plants collected (members of 26 genera and 8 families) from different sampling locations were analyzed for their total As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se and Zn concentrations using an ICP-MS. A certified reference material (SRM 1573A, SRM 1547) was also analyzed to check the accuracy of the used extraction technique. In the present study, Mn content (548 mg kg-1) of Anthemis aciphylla Boiss. (Asteraceae) was higher than the critical Mn value (300-500 mg kg-1) and Ni content (115 mg kg-1) Crocus graveolens Boiss&Reute (Iridiceae) was higher than the critical Ni value (10-100 mg kg-1) but unfortunately none of the plants studied was hyperaccumulator. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/38b69d8d510b14e5dcbcd47d2b49ff36.pdf be7ea415a530623ffbddf0b0e5f4e3c9 PDF Text Text The Case, Problems and Solution Suggestions of The Greenhousing In Biga Hasan Kocabiyik Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Biga Vocational College hkocabiyik@comu.edu.tr Abstract : The greenhousing activity in Biga firstly started in an area of 500 m2 in 1985. In a review study, it was observed that total green housing area of 52.000 m2 and 42 greenhousing cooperations were reached. Greenhouses in Biga are in the structure of bow roof, with plastic cover and high tunnel cold greenhouses. As the first investment expenses are low and high productivity in a unit area, producers can make much money at a short time. Due to all enterprises are small family cooperations, producers don’t pay to workers. The distribution of productive power is regular in year and all enterprises use dripping irrigation system. Lettuce is cultivated in greenhouses in winter. In spring, summer and autumn cucumber, tomato and bean are cultivated. While some of the produced yields are consumed in Biga and around villages, many parts of the yields are marketed in Bandırma. The big problems in greenhousing cooperations; increasing of entry prices, soil tiring, unconciously manurig and giving pesticides, structural problems, insufficient of technique knowledge, packing and marketing. In this presentation, the present case of greenhousing enterprises in Biga as alternative incoming resource, its mainly problems and its possible solutions will be discussed. Keywords: Biga, Greenhouse, family enterprise, plant production Introduction The first greenhouse in Biga was established in the village of Çeşmealtı in 1985 by a manufacturer. Currenty in Biga 42 manufacturer is engaged in greenhouse and 52 decare greenhouse space and 155 greenhouses are present. These enterprises, 19 of them are in the center of the Biga and other manufacturers are operating in the village. Biga plain, by the presence of 89.000 hectares watered, 640.000 hectares not watered, totally 729.000 hectares farmland is the most important district of Çanakkale from the agricultural aspects (Çavuşgil and et al., 2005: 4). According to the long years of climate data, average rainfall in the region is 765.7 mm and average relative humidity is 74.5%. Annual average temperature is 14.2 0C, the highest temperature and lowest temperature are 39.8 0C and -11.4 0C respectively. (Yavuz and et al., 2004:163) The purpose of this research is the development of Biga on the greenhouse industry, to identify the problems facing in the sector and to bring solutions to these problems. For this purpose, all owners of greenhouse in Biga were discussed and all inventory owned by businesses were prepared. Materials and Methods In this study, all greenhouse enterprises in Biga and village were selected as the main material. A survey comprising 18 questions were asked to business owners for the development of greenhouses and to identify problems in greenhouses in Biga and villages. The data obtained from the sera owners were evaluated through % rates and analyzed under the main heading. 174 �Results In the inventory study, 42 greenhouse owners were interviewed in Biga and surrounding villages, and the inventory information about greenhouse and greenhouse manufacturers were given. Greenhouse Site Selection and Distribution of Greenhouse Enterprises When all the ecological and economic factors that effect the greenhouse site selection taken into consideration, definition of the location of the greenhouse can be made as follows: in autumn, winter and spring months, it has high light intensity, with the winter is mild, good transport facilities, market demand with cheap fuel, constant electricity, good-quality irrigation water and soil with heavy winds closed and qualified workers can be found where appropriate are the places for greenhouse.(Sevgican et al., 1989 : 34). 19 of them in the greenhouse business (45.23%) are in the center of the Biga, 23 of them (54.76%) showed activity in the village. Observations Related to The Manufacturer Experience of manufacturers in the industry ranged with 1 from 23. The average number of years of dealing with greenhouse growers is 8. The educational level is often high school. For nine of them (21.4%) the greenhouse business is a additional work. None of the greenhouse producer did not use credits, incentives, support. New developments in the greenhouse can be examined in three groups: the greenhouse structure improvements, new ways to reduce greenhouse labor and using the greenhouse except growing plants (Yüksel et al., 2000: 233). Although manufacturers are open to innovation of the manufacturers and to search of an alternative open to innovation, they did not participate in activity about agricultural information (conferences, symposia, etc.) in the area. Many manufacturers have no information on modern agricultural practices such as using computer in greenhouses, soilless agriculture, organic agriculture, GAP, EUREPGAP. Many manufacturers do not hold any record of fertilizers, drugs and yield. Hence the best evaluation method for small fragmented land is greenhouse, farmers having small land turned to this sector. Structural Features Greenhouses are classified according to their size, organization forms, temperatures, roof shapes, types of materials used in the skeleton and mask and also mobility status. According to their size greenhouses are separated from big, medium and small greenhouses. If floor area greater than 1000 m2, greenhouse is big greenhouse. If area between 100-1000 m2, greenhouse is medium greenhouse and if area smaller than 100 m2, greenhouse is small greenhouse (Yüksel et al., 2000: 36). Sizes of the greenhouse range in between 50 m2 to 3250 m2. The average size of the greenhouse was found to be 344 m2. Total greenhouse area is 52 000 m2 and average greenhouse area per farm is 1238 m2. 6 greenhouse enterprises (14.28%) have block greenhouses and the other 36 enterprises (85.72%) have individual greenhouses. Because of less snowfall, the block greenhouse was established in villages near the sea. Greenhouses in Biga are usually structured as a spring-roofed, plastic covered high-tunnel shapping and cold. In individual greenhouses, base of greenhouse is thee oak piles and in block greenhouses, base of greenhouse is a concrete pillar. In all skeletal material used in pipes but wooden greenhouses profiles were not found. As greenhouse covering materials in all of the ultraviolet (UV) doped with 3 to 3.5 years in life are using plastic sheeting. Because of lightweight, inexpensive, easily workable, durable, good light transmission plastic was preferred. Depending on the vegetable side elevation varies between 1.75 to 3.00 meters in vegetable greenhouses. As the issue of width and length in the plastic greenhouses was relatively free movement, usually width of 6-9 m and length of 30-60 m are used (Sevgican et al., 1989: 35). It was observed that the width and length of greenhouse changing in a very large extent. The ridge height of greenhouse ranged 2 m and 4 m. The side elevation in greenhouse cultivation is 2 m and also in seedling greenhouse is 1.5 m. In cultivation greenhouse, width is 8.2 m in the 29 companies (69%) and height is 3.5 m in the 35 business (83.3%) were observed. In individual greenhouses, width varies between 6 m and 12 m, and in block greenhouse it varies between 20 m and 50 m. 175 �Ventilation and Moisture Control For propose of natural ventilation is adequate, total area of roof windows should be between 1620 % of the greenhouse floor area and the openings should be set according to environmental conditions (Yüksel et al., 2000: 71). In four greenhouses (2.58%) of examined 155 greenhouses, the roof is ventilated, but ventilation of the roof is not in others. 36 (23.22%) greenhouses were included in the side ventilation, and the remaining 119 greenhouses (76.77%) are not included in the side ventilation. In all of the greenhouse has been equipped with front and back air conditioning, hot summer weather when fully open front and back surfaces have tried to improve the ventilation efficiency. Generally poor ventilation was observed. Mandatory ventilation (ventilator-Extractor) has not been found. Ventilation was not getting control CO2 and humidity but in order to reduce greenhouse temperature. As a result of this, mildiyö and root rot disease was observed to be effective in the greenhouse. Heating & Cooling So the greenhouse effect of sunlight in the summer, especially growing greenhouse inside temperature, outside air temperature may be higher than 50-10 0C. This reduction of assimilation in plants and may lead to arrest. That is gained with assimilation of the plant material, may be less than that lost through respiration (Yüksel et al., 2000: 128). Heating is made in three greenhouses with a total area of 4470 m2 (8.6%). Heating is not to ensure optimum temperature for the plant needed but only to ensure earliness in February and March. Central heating system is used in the two companies, stove is used.one company. Cooling system is not used in any business. Whereas the type of greenhouse warming is too important to be cooled even in winter. Irrigation and Drainage Review of the greenhouse is used all the drip irrigation method. Taken from artesian well water is filtered and purified by passing hidrosiklondan thus prevents clogging of drip breast. Chelate fertilizers are added to the system with fertilizer tanks and soil pesticides are injected into the system. Only one of the greenhouses used in the internal drainage system, both internal and external drainage was not used in others. Supply of Seed-Seedling All greenhouses were used in the hybrid seeds. In recent years, the craftsmanship of local producers as well as less healthy because they are directed to prepare the seedlings were observed. The producers also were grafted on seedlings. Production Pattern 784 m2 areas (1.5%) of review of the greenhouse were grown ornamental plants. In all of the other greenhouse vegetables are grown. Type usually cucumbers in summer and lettuce(curly) -salad in winter were grown. Moreover, purslane, eggplant, beans, peppers and tomatoes are grown by the manufacturer. Fertilizing and Spraying Soil pH values of Biga Plains ranged from 7.49 to 5.85. (Çavuşgil et al. 2005: 17). The cucumber plants that are sensitive to acidity in the structure like the neutral or slightly alkaline soil (Sevgican et al., 1989: 128). Salad grows well in soils with pH = 6.0-7.0 , lettuce grows well in soils with pH = 5.5-7.0 (Aybak et al. 2002: 46). In review, 14 manufacturers (26.9%) analyzed their soil at least once. According to the results of this greenhouse soil pH values were found to vary between 4.5 and 7, the average value was found to be 5.98. 176 �According to the analysis of the Biga Plains soil lime content is very low and many samples were found to contain quantities of lime (Çavuşgil et al. 2005: 18). Greenhouse manufacturers in the investigation they were often used on fertilizer: Before starting the production of cucumber in soil , 10 ton/da of burnt.manure used were found. 15-15-15 compound fertilizer as base fertilizer is used often. Drip irrigation system with ammonium nitrate, urea, potassium nitrate, MAP and humic acids are used. In addition, some manufacturers are using magnesium nitrate and ammonium sulfate fertilizers. Against micro-nutrient deficiency is the use of foliar fertilizers. In greenhouses rest rotation is not applied. Usually removed product immediately the soil has been processed with machines then the floor manure thrown and new products planted. Examined business are to spray once the average 7-8 day. the production of cucumber is commonly used systemic drugs in particular have been identified. Especially, cucumber production commonly used systemic drugs were determined. Because of the hybrid seeds are used to fertilize itself, hormones are not used. However, they are kind of some plant growth by the regulators were used. Some producers are spraying gas engine, some spray back with a portion had been found. Diseases and Pests Cucumber and salads widely grown in greenhouses mostly determined diseases; cucumber angular leaf spot disease (Pseudomonas syringae pv. Lachrymans), cucumber downy mildew (Pseudoperenospora cubensis), the powdery mildew on cucumber and lettuce (Erysiphe cichoracearum), the gray mold disease on cucumber and lettuce ( botrytis cinerea), white mold disease on cucumber and lettuce (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), mildiyö disease in lettuce (Bremia lactucae), such as bacterial and fungal diseases. Most identified harmful pests are red spider (Tetranychus spp.), Leaf lice (Aphis gossypii), leaf gallery beetle (Liriomyza spp.), Green worm (Heliothis armigera), thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Bouche). In the examined greenhouse, soil solarization is not done, and most were not known. Harvesting, packaging and marketing Cucumbers harvested are put into bananas boxes so that the reduced sweating and moisture loss. 15-20 pieces of Salad and lettuce in a big plastic bag were shown to be introduced to the market. The biggest problem in marketing the market could not be a regular supply of goods because the supply / demand balance against the manufacturer of the disruption caused by the instability of the prices that have been identified. Solution Proposals Although it is aimed to enhance the efficiency in production, today's product quality 'and' food security 'phenomenon has gained importance. Due to consumer demand for safe food, production technology has also affected (Tüzel et al., 2004: 17). Biga's greenhouse producers should give up being the small family businesses to be more healthy and more modern facilities for certified products. In the coming years it will become necessary. It will be possible to getting consolidation and institutionalization for small businesses. The most important deficiency in Biga’s greenhouses is ventilation. Therefore length of the greenhouse should be short and planting should not be frequent. Otherwise, due to beig the excess moisture inside, fungal and bacterial diseases are steadily increasing. For an effective ventilation of the greenhouses, length is more than 30 m and the greenhouse should be in the prevailing wind direction. Producers have little information about fertilizers and fertilization, disease, pests, pesticides. Fort his reason, it is recommended to take advice. One of the biggest problem is marketing. To overcome this problem, new markets should find or production planning should be done well. References Aybak, H. Ç. 2002 Salata ve Marul Yetiştiriciliği. Đstanbul: Hasad Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti. (In Turkish) http://www.biga.gov.tr/biga.php?sayfa_id=102&id=24&1=1, 16.07.2008 (In Turkish) 177 �Çavuşgil, V. S., Ekinci, H., Özcan, H., Kavdır, Y., Yiğini, Y., Çolakoğlu, H. 2005 Biga Ovası Tarım Arazilerinin Bitki Besin Elementi Đçerikleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Yayınlanmamış Bilimsel Araştırma Projesi. (In Turkish) Sevgican, A. 1989 Örtüaltı Sebzeciliği. Yalova: TAV Yayınları (In Turkish) Tüzel, Y. 2004 “Türkiye’de seracılığın gelişimi.” V. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu Bildiriler, 21-24 Eylül 2004, Çanakkale. F. C. Kuzucu, C. Öztokat Kuzucu (editör). Çanakkale: Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, 16-18. (In Turkish) Yavuz, M. Y., Altay, H., Erken, O., Çamoğlu, G. 2004 “Organik madde içeriği düşük topraklarda analiz sonuçlarına göre uygulanan gübre dozunun Biga yöresinde yetiştirilen sanayi tipi domateste verim ve kalite parametrelerine etkisi.”V. Sebze Tarımı Sempozyumu Bildiriler, 21-24 Eylül 2004, Çanakkale. F. C. Kuzucu, C. Öztokat Kuzucu (editör). Çanakkale: Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, 162-164. (In Turkish) Yüksel, A.N. 2000 Sera Yapım Tekniği. Đstanbul: Hasad Yayıncılık Ltd. Şti. (In Turkish) 178 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 367 Title A name given to the resource The Case, Problems and Solution Suggestions of The Greenhousing In Biga Author Author Kocabiyik, Hasan Abstract A summary of the resource. The greenhousing activity in Biga firstly started in an area of 500 m2 in 1985. In a review study, it was observed that total green housing area of 52.000 m2 and 42 greenhousing cooperations were reached. Greenhouses in Biga are in the structure of bow roof, with plastic cover and high tunnel cold greenhouses. As the first investment expenses are low and high productivity in a unit area, producers can make much money at a short time. Due to all enterprises are small family cooperations, producers don’t pay to workers. The distribution of productive power is regular in year and all enterprises use dripping irrigation system. Lettuce is cultivated in greenhouses in winter. In spring, summer and autumn cucumber, tomato and bean are cultivated. While some of the produced yields are consumed in Biga and around villages, many parts of the yields are marketed in Bandırma. The big problems in greenhousing cooperations; increasing of entry prices, soil tiring, unconciously manurig and giving pesticides, structural problems, insufficient of technique knowledge, packing and marketing. In this presentation, the present case of greenhousing enterprises in Biga as alternative incoming resource, its mainly problems and its possible solutions will be discussed. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/88f415b31cdd1dd53a6ff7a143eaf0f9.pdf d00733f9a46e03b44d78ea56bf2948a9 PDF Text Text Comparison of Eleven Mathematical Models for describing the first Lactation Curve of Holstein Cattle in Turkey Đsmail Keskin Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey ikeskin@selcuk.edu.tr Nazire Memmedova Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey naziramamedova@yahoo.com Fatma Đlhan Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey fatmailhan@selcuk.edu.tr Birol Dağ Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey bdag@selcuk.edu.tr Fariz Mikailsoy Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, 42075, Konya, Turkey farizm@selcuk.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, eleven standard lactation curve models (Incomplete Gamma (WD), Quadratic (Q), Cubic (C), Linear Hyperbolic Function (LH), Inverse Polynomial Function (IP), Mixed Log (MIL), Exponential (WIL), Dhanoa (DH), Cobby and Le Du (CD), Polynomial Regression (AS) and New Model (NM)) were used to predict a typical dairy cow lactation derived as the average daily milk yield of 105 complete first lactations of HolsteinFriesian cows in one herd. Milk yield controls were made daily in this farm. Total milk yield (TMY) was calculated from observation of daily milk yield. TMY was also predicted by using 11 different models. The total milk yields predicted by the models were very close to each other and the differences between observation of TMY were not found statistically significant (P>0.05). The models were found to be adequate for estimation of milk yield. Determination coefficients (R2) of the models ranged from 67.15 % to 86.68 %. In comparison of the models, the TMY, peak yield (PY), peak time (PT), persistency (P), mean square prediction error (MSPE), approximation error ( ε ), reliability criterion for estimating trustworthiness of the determination coefficient ( σ ), standard error ( θ ) and Durbin-Watson (DW) values were evaluated together. Using the AS, WD and new developed NM models accurately predicted the milk yield of Holstein cows. Key Words: Holstein, Cows, Lactation Curve, Milk Yield, Mathematical Model 246 �Introduction Turkey has 11.3 million head of cattle and 70 % of them are improved cattle and their crossbreeds. The number of milked animals is 4.2 million and approximately 3 million of them are improved cattle and their crossbreeds. The milk obtained from cows is 11.3 million tons and nearly 86 % of the milk production is produced by improved cattle and their crossbreds. But the lactation milk yields is very low (i.e. for native breeds 1.3, for crossbreeds 2.7 and for improved cattle 3.9 tons) (TurkStat, 2007). Producers aim to increase milk yield and decrease cost for a profitable dairy cattle production. Persistency is one of the most important factors which determine milk production cost along the lactation. Milk yield begins with calving and reach to highest level between 40 to 70 days and then continues to decrease along the lactation. With decreasing of daily milk yield, the production cost begins to increase from day to day (Gengler, 1996; Koçak and Ekiz, 2006). A mathematical model of the lactation curve provides summary information about dairy cattle production, which is useful in making management and breeding decisions and in simulating a dairy enterprise (Olori et al., 1999). In order to asses plausible forms of lactation curves, milk yield records collected throughout the whole lactation are required. But most of the small and medium sized dairy farms in Turkey still use classical milking systems. Milk yield is generally recorded monthly in these farms. The lactation curve models enable them to evaluate lactation as a whole. So that the lactation curve shape is determined and unbiased comparison methods among animals with incomplete lactation records for genetic evaluation purposes can be practiced (Keown and van Vleck, 1973). Knowledge of the lactation curve allows prediction of total milk production from partial production measured at several test days early in lactation (Goodal and Sprevak, 1985). Animals with a high milk yield potential can be identified by using this information before the whole lactation is completed. Also, lactation curves can be used for prediction of lifetime milk production from early lactation traits (Dalal et al., 2004), culling, assessing nutritional and health status of animals (Duoduet, 1982; Souvant and Fehr, 1975) and evaluating a suitable time to end milking (Chang et al., 2001). The first mathematical model aimed to describe lactation curves was developed by Brody et al., (1923). It was notified that this model was followed by the models reported out by Sika (1950), Nelder, (1966), Wood (1967), Dave (1971) and Jenkins and Ferrel (1984) (Landete-Castillejos and Gallego, 2000). The Wood model has been used in most lactation curve model studies, because it includes the basic features of lactation curves with only three parameters a, b and c which allow the calculation of average yield, peak yield and peak time, respectively. This has made the Wood model the most widely used function for the description of lactation curves. Most of the alternative models are also based on the Wood model (Cobby and Le Du, 1978; Wilmink, 1987; Papajcsik and Bodero, 1988). However, some mathematical models have been proposed to describe the regular shape of the lactation curve in dairy cows from partial or incomplete data (Neal and Thornley, 1983; Goodal and Sprevak, 1984; Batra, 1986; Morant and Gnanasakthy, 1989; Dijkstra et al., 1997; Olori et al., 1999; Vargas et al., 2000). Also these models provide analysing systemic changes in milk yield caused by environmental factors (Goodall and Sprevak, 1985; Morant and Gnanasakthy, 1989) and determining the milk production characteristics such as persistency (Gengler, 1996), peak yield and time to peak yield (Masselin et al., 1987; Gipson and Grossman, 1990). The objective of this study was to compare the suitability of WD, WIL, MIL, C, Q, DH, IP, CD, LH, AS and NM models to the first lactation data of Holstein cows. Materials and Methods The data of this study was from the first lactation records of 105 Holstein cows raised in a private enterprise in the Karapınar district (37o 42' K, 33o 35' D and 994 m above sea level) of the Konya Province in the Central Anatolia Region of the Turkey. The data were collected from the first lactation records of the cows that gave birth in 2004. They were machine milked twice daily and milking records were started 3th days of lactation. There is a computer-based herd managing program in the enterprise and milk yield controls were made daily. Average lactation length was 312±4.37 days. The experiment was carried out according to guidelines of Selçuk University Faculty of Agriculture located in the Konya Province. In the study, to explain lactation curves, eleven different empirical mathematical models were used together and compared. These models are as follows: (1) Incomplete Gamma (WD), (Wood, 1967): Y( t ) = at b e − ct (2) Quadratic (Q), (Dave, 1971): Y( t ) = a + bt + ct 2 (3) Cubic (C), 247 �Y( t ) = a + bt + ct 2 + dt 3 (4) Exponential (WIL), (Wilmink, 1987): Y( t ) = a + be − kt + ct (Which was fitted with the parameter k fixed at 0.61) (5) Mixed log (MIL), (Guo and Swallve, 1995): Y( t ) = a + bt 1 / 2 + c log t (6) Polynomial Regression (AS), (Ali and Schaeffer, 1987): Y( t ) = a + bt + ct 2 + d log t + e log t 2 (7) Cobby and Le Du (CD), (Cobby and Le Du, 1978): Yt = a − bt − ae − ct (8) Linear Hyperbolic Function (LH), (Bianchini, 1984): Y( t ) = a + bt + c (1 / t ) (9) Inverse Polynomial Function (IP), (Nelder, 1966): Y( t ) = t /(a + bt + ct 2 ) (10) Dhanoa (DH), (Dhanoa, 1981): Yt = at bc e ( − ct ) (11) New developed model (NM): Y( t ) = at b e − ct − d t For all models, Yt is the observed milk yield at day t, a: is linked to milk yield at the beginning of lactation, b: to the ascending phase before peak yield, c: to the decreasing phase after peak yield, d: parameters which characterize the shape of the curve e: is the base of natural logarithm, which were estimated from a nonlinear regression analysis using the Statistica program. The WIL model has a total of four parameters, with k being exponent; following Wilmink (1987) a fixed value of k was used, which was estimated at 0.61 in a preliminary analysis as the best fitting value for the herd mean data. Subsequently the WIL model was considered as a three parameter curve in analysis of individual animals. Persistency (P) was calculated as: k P (%) = ∑ (pi + 1) / pi i =1 k × 100 Where pi is the yield of the record i that starts at peak time and k is the record number from peak time to the end of lactation (Sturtevant, 1986). The parameters obtained were used to calculate the predicted yields in the original equations at above. Residuals, defined as the absolute values of the difference between the predicted yield and real data of daily milk yield, were calculated and then the mean square prediction error (MSPE) for each lactation curve fitted was calculated and averaged for each model (Ruiz et al., 2000). True peak yield (PY) was determined from the test day milk yield means for the 105 cows and true peak time (PT) was determined as the average day on which daily milk yields were at their maximum value. Peak time values of the models were calculated by equalizing the first partial derivations of the functions to zero, and PY values were found for each cow by replacing PT values in the functions. The Durbin-Watson statistics was used as a measure of first order positive autocorrelation to test whether the residuals were randomly distributed (Grossman and Koops, 1988). DW was calculated for each lactation and models. Approximation error was calculated as: ε= 100 n Yi − Y ∑ n i =1 Yi Reliability criterion for estimating trustworthiness of the determination coefficient was calculated as: 248 �θ= R2 n 1 − (R 2 ) 2 Standard error was calculated as: n ∑ (Y i σ= − Y) i =1 n−m The models were compared in respect of their MSPE, correlation between yields and residuals (RESC), 2 R , TMY, peak yield (PY), peak time (PT), persistency (P), ε , θ and σ . Results and Discussion Lactation curve parameters in Holstein cattle were given in Table 1. The parameter a, which expressed the milk yield at beginning was 0.10 in IP model, and ranged from 12.71 to 25.81 among the other models. Estimates of parameter a, were found in this study more higher than estimated for WD, Q, C, LHF and IP models in Brown Swiss cows by Keskin and Tozluca (2004), for Q, C and WIL models in Simmental cows by Çilek and Keskin (2008), for WD, IP and AS models in Holstein-Friesian cows by Olori et al., (1999); but less than estimated for WD, MIL and AS models in Simmental cows by Çilek and Keskin (2008), for WD, MIL, WIL and AS models in Brown Swiss cows by Keskin et al., (2009), for MIL and WIL models by Olori et al., (1999) and very close to value estimated for WIL model in Holstein cows by Dědková and Němcová (2003). Models* Model parameters a ± Sa b ± Sb WD Q 15.34±0.428 22.04±0.419 0.161±0.0081 0.024±0.0038 C 20.53±0.649 AS 12.71±0.474 WIL 24.96±0.477 MIL 13.25±0.483 DH 20.38±0.759 LHF 25.81±0.438 0.062±0.0124 0.640±0.1099 26.064±1.1519 1.886±0.0831 49.468±11.7626 0.034±0.0015 0.032±0.0015 c ± Sc 0.0030±0.00012 0.0002±0.00001 -0.0004±0.00008 2.1894±0.34652 d ± Sd 0.00000054±0.000 0001 6.330±0.5275 e ± Se 1.022±0.1533 0.0307±0.00140 6.2888±0.25894 0.0020±0.00017 17.1840±0.74544 CD 25.44±0.439 18.3727±3.3172 0 IP 0.10±0.012 0.034±0.0009 0.0001±0.00000 5 NM 17.11±0.704 0.145±0.0118 0.0029±0.00013 0.153±0.0587 * : WD: Incomplete Gamma, Q: Quadratic, C: Cubic, LH: Linear Hyperbolic Function, IP: Inverse Polynomial Function, MIL: Mixed Log, WIL: Exponential, DH: Dhanoa, CD: Cobby and Le Du, AS: Polynomial Regression and NM: New Model Table 1. Estimates of the model parameters and their standard errors of eleven models The highest estimate of parameter b was fixed in WD model, but the lowest estimate was fixed in DH model. Estimates of parameter c were ranged from -17.1840 to 18.3727. Estimated lactation curve parameters for this herd were generally different from the previous studies. It may be due to raising in different environmental conditions or a result of management and administration in different ways in terms of milk production. On the other hand it is well known that the Holstein breed is more productive in temperate climatic zones and its milk production capacity may change by geographical regions. 249 �The parameter a expressing milk yield at the beginning and the b parameter indicating the speed of curve increase must be higher and the c parameter meaning the speed of curve decrease must be lower in order to obtain more milk production. The lactation curves of Holstein cows are given in Figures 1. As seen in this figure, fit lines of WD, AS and NM models are very close to the observed values. The total milk yield predicted by different models is very close to observed total milk yield, and the differences between them, were not significant (P>0.05). 250 �MSPE 5.95±0.321 6.11±0.300 5.75±0.712 4.90±0.256 7.04±0.370 5.99±0.329 7.90±0.542 6.57±0.356 6.88±0.370 7.57±0.418 5.67±0.315 RESC -0.13 0.30 0.31 0.00 0.17 -0.17 0.61 0.04 0.13 -0.35 -0.17 Ɛ 14.00 13.71 14.12 12.74 15.33 14.29 15.90 14.95 15.13 15.78 13.93 σ 2.47 2.43 2.55 2.18 2.59 2.39 2.69 2.51 2.57 2.70 2.33 Ɵ 45.52 39.61 41.70 54.36 34.74 44.71 36.90 39.01 36.77 31.69 47.30 DW 0.849 0.776 0.804 0.949 0.716 0.833 0.737 0.775 0.732 0.673 0.877 Table 2. Comparison of the models for estimating total milk yield (TMY), peak yield (PY), time to peak yield (PT), Persistency (P), Correlation between yields and residuals (RESC) and goodness-of-fit statistics (R2 and MSPE values) Goodness of fit statistics Models TMY (l) PY (l) PT (day) P (%) R2 (%) ns bc a ns WD 6407±150 24.50±0.368 72.84±17.20 99.7±0.01 76.17±0.014 Q 6370±148 ns 22.04±0.414d 0.00±0.000d 99.5±0.01 ns 75.23±0.013 20.53±0.649d 0.00±0.000d 99.6±0.03 ns 77.87±0.011 C 6338±145 ns 23.96±0.419c 56.14±3.267a 99.8±0.03 ns 80.65±0.011 AS 6370±148 ns 24.90±0.448bc 10.16±0.15c 99.9±0.05 ns 86.68±0.171 WIL 6370±148 ns 25.29±1.078bc 62.79±10.82a 99.8±0.04 ns 75.25±0.015 MIL 6370±148 ns 24.46±0.358bc -46.17±11.66d 99.6±0.01 ns 63.59±0.025 DH 6372±148 ns 24.71±0.366bc 23.69±0.771c 99.9±0.38 ns 72.22±0.016 LHF 6370±148 ns 25.08±0.395bc 13.40±1.288c 99.8±0.03 ns 69.93±0.019 CD 6364±148 ns IP 6335±147 ns 22.88±0.424b 29.31±1.287bc 99.9±0.02 ns 67.01±0.019 24.65±0.366bc 45.67±2.89ab 99.6±0.03 ns 76.88±0.014 NM 6309±159 ns 28.72±0.422a 69.38±4.85a 99.9±0.03 ns Really 6369±149 ns a, b, c, d : The means within columns with different superscript are significantly different at P<0.01 ns : not significant. �30 25 20 Milk Yield (l) 15 10 5 0 1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 Day of Lactation Data AS WD WL IP LH MIL NM DH Q C CD Figure 1. Shape of lactation curve according to the models Total milk yield (TMY), peak yield (PY), time to peak yield (PT), Persistency (P), Correlation between yields and residuals (RESC) and goodness-of-fit statistics (R2 and MSPE values) of the models are given in Table 2. In this study, the differences between estimated and observed peak yields were found significant (P<0.01). But the differences between Q and C models’ peak yields were not significant and very close predictions obtained with WD, WIL, MIL, DH, LHF, CD, IP and NM models. However the really peak yield was found as 28.72, all models underestimated the peak yield. Generally the curves of real lactation data based on daily milk yields are very fluctuant. But the estimated yields of the models are not fluctuant and also the estimated peak yields do not show sharply increases as seen in real data. On the other hand it is expected that the real lactation data of well managed herds do not fluctuate. The peak time obtained from actual milk yield and the predicted PT from WD, AS and MIL models were very close and the differences between them, were not significant (P>0.05). But, the peak time of DH model was negative and the peak times of Q and C models were estimated to be only zero. It is likely caused by the decreasing curves from the beginning to the end of lactation for DH, Q and C models estimated by present data as seen in Figure 1. Persistency (P) values among all models were very close to each other and the differences between them, were not significant (P>0.05). The P values, were found in this study were higher than values predicted for WD, Q, C, LHF and IP models in Brown Swiss cows by Keskin and Tozluca (2004), for Q, C, WD, MIL, AS and WIL models in Simmental cows by Çilek and Keskin (2008). Higher determination coefficients for the used models show good fitting level of independent variables for explaining dependent variables. For all models R2 value were estimated between 63.59 % and 86.68 %, it was obtained the lowest value in DH (63.59) model, the highest in WIL (86.68) model. The best fitness was obtained with WIL, it was followed by AS, but DH fitted worst. The lowest MSPE values were fixed in AS model, then in WD model. The highest MSPE value was fixed in DH model. The R2 in this study, were lower than R2 values, were notified for WD, Q, C, LHF and IP models in Brown Swiss cows by Keskin and Tozluca (2004), for Q, C, WD, MIL, AS and WIL models in Simmental cows by Çilek and Keskin (2008), for WD, IP, WIL, MIL and AS models in Holstein-Friesian cows by Olori et al., (1999). MSPE values were higher than values, notified for Q, C, WD, MIL, AS and WIL models in Simmental cows by Çilek and Keskin (2008). 252 �The lowest ε values were realized in AS model and it was followed by Q, NM and WD models. The same condition was found for σ values, too. The highest θ values were estimated in AS model, it was followed by NM and WD models. Autocorrelation values for all models were close to zero, indicating positive autocorrelation which may pose problems with statistical inferences about the models. Correlations between the residuals and observed milk yield (RESC) ranged between -0.35 (IP) to 0.61 (DH) for all models. Though estimated residuals generally increased with observed yields, there are a little except for C, Q and DH. High daily yields being most difficult to predict while very low yields also caused problems (Olori et al., 1999). Conclusion The TMY, PY, PT and P values in AS, WD and NM models were found very close to actual values, but MSPE, RESC, ε and σ values were the lowest than actual. The highest R2 and θ values were found in these models. As the result of assessing of TMY, PY, PT, P, R2, MSPE, RESC, ε , σ , θ and DW statistics together, it can be said that the using AS, WD and new developed NM models make possible of predicting milk yields, close to actual values in Holstein cows at first lactation. Acknowledgments This research was funded in part by a grant from the University of Selcuk (BAP), The authors wish to thank the staff of KAR-YEM AŞ, Konya, TURKEY. References Ali, T.E. & Schaeffer, L.R. (1987). Accounting for covariance among across weeks of peak production test day milk yields in dairy cows. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 67: 637-644. Batra, T.R. (1986). Comparison of two mathematical models in fitting lactation curves for pureline and crossline dairy cows. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 66: 405-414. Bianchini, E.S. (1984). Estudo da curva de lactaçao de vacas da raça Gir. Doctoral Thesis. Faculta de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, USP. Brody, S.A., Ragsdale, A.C. & Turner, C.W. (1923). 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Recherche Ovine et Caprine (Paris), 2-4 Dec. 90-107 pp. Sikka, L.C. (1950). A study of lactations as affected by heredity and environment. J. Dairy Res., 17: 231-252. Statistica for Windows PC 5.0, (1995). Stat Soft, Inc. 2325 East 13th Street, U. S. A. Sturtevant, E. L. (1986). Influence of Distance From Calving on Milk Yield. Agri. Exper. Station Pep., 22-23, Geneva. Vargas, B., Koops, W.J., Herroro, M. & Van Arendonk, J.A.M. (2000). Modelling extended lactation of dairy cows. J. Dairy Sci., 83: 1371-1380. 254 �Wilmink, J.B.M. (1987). Adjustment of test day milk, fat and protein yield for age, season and stage of lactation. Livest. Prod. Sci., 16: 335-348. Wood, P.D.P. (1967). Algebraic model of lactation curve in cattle. Nature, Lond. 216: 164-165. 255 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 435 Title A name given to the resource Comparison of Eleven Mathematical Models for describing the first Lactation Curve of Holstein Cattle in Turkey Author Author Keskin, İsmail Memmedova, Nazire İlhan, Fatma Dağ, Birol Mikailsoy, Fariz Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, eleven standard lactation curve models (Incomplete Gamma (WD), Quadratic (Q), Cubic (C), Linear Hyperbolic Function (LH), Inverse Polynomial Function (IP), Mixed Log (MIL), Exponential (WIL), Dhanoa (DH), Cobby and Le Du (CD), Polynomial Regression (AS) and New Model (NM)) were used to predict a typical dairy cow lactation derived as the average daily milk yield of 105 complete first lactations of Holstein- Friesian cows in one herd. Milk yield controls were made daily in this farm. Total milk yield (TMY) was calculated from observation of daily milk yield. TMY was also predicted by using 11 different models. The total milk yields predicted by the models were very close to each other and the differences between observation of TMY were not found statistically significant (P>0.05). The models were found to be adequate for estimation of milk yield. Determination coefficients (R2) of the models ranged from 67.15 % to 86.68 %. In comparison of the models, the TMY, peak yield (PY), peak time (PT), persistency (P), mean square prediction error (MSPE), approximation error ( ε ), reliability criterion for estimating trustworthiness of the determination coefficient (σ ), standard error ( θ ) and Durbin-Watson (DW) values were evaluated together. Using the AS, WD and new developed NM models accurately predicted the milk yield of Holstein cows. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/98774eb11fac5fc3dc8f4a3dcfb203fd.pdf a9107f18a402f2269ce9188200799e9c PDF Text Text Effects of Arbucular Mycorrhizal Fungi Applications On Eggplant Seedling Development Levent Keskin Department of Horticulture, Agricultural Faculty, Selçuk University,TR-42031 Konya, Turkey Mustafa Paksoy Department of Horticulture, Agricultural Faculty, Selçuk University,TR-42031 Konya, Turkey paksoy@selcuk.edu.tr Önder Türkmen Department of Horticulture, Agricultural Faculty, Selçuk University,TR-42031 Konya, Turkey Abstract: The purpose of this research was conducted to determine the effects of arbuscular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi applications (Gigaspora margarita and Glomus intraradices) on seedlings growth parameters of Aydın siyahı, Faselis F1, Fabina F1, Topan, Vezir F1, Kemer, Uzun patlıcan 50896, Uzun patlıcan 50516, Kara patlıcan 50710 and Pala eggplant seedlings grown into the plastic greenhouse in Selçuk University. In results, hypocotil lenght of Aydın siyahı and Kara patlıcan 59710, cothyledone width of Uzun patlıcan 50896, cothyledone length, shoot lenght and diameter of Vezir F1, number of leaves of Aydın siyahı, shoot fresh weight of Topan and Uzun patlıcan 50516, root fresh weight of Topan patlıcan seedlings were found to be higher than the other eggplant cultivars. In the results of AMF applications, hypocotil length, cothiledone width, cothyledone length, shoot length, number of leaves, root fresh weight had been increased by G. margarita applications. Also, G. intraradices applications had been increased the shoot fresh weight. In cultivar x Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi interactions, G. margarita exhibited better results on the hypocotil length of seedlings of Aydın siyahı, cothyledone width of Uzun patlıcan 50896, shoot length and number of leaves of Fabina F1, Kemer and shoot fresh weight of Uzun patlıcan 50516, root fresh weight of Topan. Consequently, it was shown that it is necessary to determine the proper cultivar materials and proper Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi rage interactions to get a better success in seedling development of eggplant. Keywords: Glomus intraradices, Gigaspora margarita, eggplant cultivars, seedling development. Introduction It is a more realistic approach in terms of environmental health and using natural sources to benefit from the vegetable nutrient elements in an effective way instead of fertilizing with easy-taken nutrient elements to the soil. It is a fact that one of the best ways of benefiting from the unit area is evaluating the microorganism activity of soil. One of the microorganism formations that provide a better benefiting of soil for the plant is mycorrhizal. Until now, it was thought that nutrient elements were taken by only roots. Recent researches have shown that beside roots, vegetable nutrient elements are also mostly taken by fungus types which are called mycorrhizal and produce plenty of hyphe (Ortaş et al. 2000). Researchers searched the effects of three different mycorrhizal fungus, G.fasciculatum,G. monospromu and G. mossea, under field conditions by inoculating into tomato, eggplant and pepper seedlings. The parameters that they used to measure the effects of mycorrhizal fungus on vegetable development are; vegetable length, shoot fresh weight, total yield, fruit sizes and leaf length. Shoot fresh weight for eggplant with G. mossea, G. monosporum and G. fasciculatum inoculations showed 47%, 28% and 29% increases, respectively, and total yield of the same plant showed 60%, 43% and 7% increases. The most affective fungus type among the three plant types inoculated to increase the development of the plant is G. mosseae. However, G. fasciculatum is determined as the most effective fungus in the context of root colarisation of eggplant and pepper plants. Mikorizal trials were conducted on a plenty of vegetable types among horticulture. 482 �Carrot (Smith and Read, 1997), tomato (Demir, 1998), pepper (Türkmen et al. 2005) are some of the examples of these studies. The effects of mikorizal fungi on vegetable types can variable. This effect can be summed up in the following way (Ortaş and Akpınar, 2004). Yield and fruit number increased for the eggplant inoculated by AMF, and meaningful differences appeared among the mycorrhizal types in this increase. Especially, it was determined that the spread of Verticillilum disease the eggplant inoculated by G.etinicatunium and G. margarita spore were prevented (Matsubara and et al., 1995). According to Şen (2008), a positive effect was observed through the G.intraradices application on eggplant seedling shoot length, shoot diameter, number of leaves, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root fresh weight and root dry weight. All of these studies represent that mycorrhizal is important for plant nutrition. In this study, the purpose was to determine the effects of mycorrhizal specious (G. intraradices and G. margarita) on seedling development and growing up of the eggplant cultivar. Material and Methods This research was conducted to determine the effects of two Arbucular Mycorrhizal Fungi and ten eggplant genotypes and cultivars in the greenhouse which belongs to Selçuk University Silifke Taşucu Vocational High School. Aydın siyahı, Faselis F1, Fabina F1, Topan, Vezir F1, Kemer, Uzun patlıcan 50896, Uzun patlıcan 50516, Kara patlıcan 50710 and Pala eggplant genotypes and cultivars were used as plant materials. The soil mixture used in the trial was supplied with the mixture of garden soil and torf in the ratio of 1:1. Heat and humidity values were recorded data with microlog regularly. According to these records, maximum temperature, average temperature and minimum temperature were measured 30 and 35 oC, 20 and 26 o C, 16 and 22 oC. Relative humidity was measured between 55% and 56%. The soil mixture to grow seedlings was sterilized at 121 oC in autoclave for two hours. The trial was planned and carried out in the consideration of factorial trial pattern. This researched was designed with the notion of three replications, and in each parcel of the research, there were 10 pots (10 plants) in each plot. Each pot had a 300 ml volume and had no drainage, and pots were filled with soil mixture with was in the ratio of 1:1 soil and torf. The mixture including that had the average 25 spore/g was added in 5 g to each pot in the same dept and at the same time with the seeds. The nutruint solution melted in the pure water was added in 5 ml into each pot only once at the time of sowing. Three seeds were planted into the each pot, and after they grew up, two of them were taken out. Each pot was watered with pure water. Two Arbucular Mycorrhizal Fungi (G. intraradices and G. margarita) were applied in the trial. In the control plants, mycorrhiza was not applied. The date of sowing seed which was the beginning of the research was recorded. Hypocotyl length, cotyledon length, cotyledon width, period of real leaf appearance, shoot length, shoot diameter, number of leaves, shoot fresh weight, root fresh weight were determined. Determined research data were analyzed by Minitab program and means compared by Tukey Test. Results and Discussion The highest hypocotyls length was found out in Aydın siyahı and Kara patlıcan 50710 cultivar (2.89 mm) among the differences of cultivars in Table 1. The lowest hypocotyls lengths among the eggplant cultivars were assessed as Fabina F1 (1.87 mm), Vezir F1 (1.90 mm), and Kemer (1. 95 mm) respectively. When the effects of AMF applications on hypocotyls length were considered, the longest hypocotyls length was found out in G. margarita (2.29 mm) and the shortest hypocotyls length was determined in G. Intraradices (2.23 mm). The hypocotyls length of Aydın siyahı x G. margarita (3.23 mm) interaction was the highest and hypocotyls length of Fabina F1 into G. margarita and G. intraradices was the lowest among to the AMF x eggplant genotypes interactions. Consequently Al-Momany (1987) and Türkmen et al. (2008) have got similar results in their researches. The cotyledon length was observed in Vezir F1 cultivar (24.71 mm), and this was followed by Kara patlıcan (22.77 mm). The shortest cotyledon length was found in Fabina F1 eggplant cultivars. The cotyledon length in G. margarita (22.55 mm) took the first degree (Table 2). Menge and et al. (1978) appeared to support our studies in their research results. While the highest cotyledon width among the eggplant cultivar was observed in Uzun 50896 (11.19 mm) eggplant cultivar, the lowest cotyledon width was in Kemer eggplant (7.57 mm). According to the effects of AMF applications on cotyledon width, the highest cotyledon width was detected in G. margarita applications (8.58 mm), the lowest cotyledon width, on the other hand, was determined in G. intraradices (8.16 mm) (Table 3). Mosse (1981), Harley and Smith (1983) also found similar results with us. When the effects of AMF applications on real leaves appearance duration were taken into consideration, early real leaves appearance duration was determined in the control group (25.48 days). The longest real leaves 483 �appearance period appeared in G. intraradices as 26.59 days. As seen in interaction results, early real leaves appearance was detected in control application with the eggplant cultivar of Aydın siyahı (24.96 days), Uzun patlıcan 50896 (25.16 days), G. margarita Vezir F1 (25.31 days). In the longest G.intraradices application, Aydın siyahı was determined as 27.56 days (Table 4). These findings are in accordance with the literature reports which emphasize that proper cultivars specious interaction must be determined in order to get the purposed result in AMF applications (Türkmen et al., 2008, Menge and et al., 1978). While the highest shoot length among the eggplant cultivars was observed in Vezir F1 eggplant (18.61 cm), the lowest shoot length, on the other hand, was detected in Topan eggplant as 7.75 cm. When the effects of AMF applications on shoot length were taken into consideration, the longest shoot was found out in G. margarita with the length of 12.25 cm, but the shortest shoot length was assessed in the specious of G. intraradices with the length of 10.48 cm (Table 5). In the research of Şen (2008), it was observed that the shoot length of eggplant seedlings were between 13.62 and 11.48 cm. Al-Momany (1987) also found the same results. While the highest shoot diameter among the eggplant cultivars was observed in Vezir F1 eggplant (5.75 mm), the lowest shoot diameter was detected in Kemer cultivar (3.91 mm). If the effects of mycorrhizal specious on shoot diameter are examined, the highest shoot diameter is detected in the control application as 5.27 mm and the lowest shoot diameter is determined in G. intraradices as 4.67 mm (Table 6). Although, Tinker (1980) and Şen (2008) reported that seedling shoot diameters were increased through the AMF applications. According to us, this difference is caused by the differences between the AMF specious and the cultivars. While the most number of leaves was found out in Aydın Siyahı (7.52), the fewest number of leaves was found out in Uzun patlıcan 50516 (7.08). When the effects of AMF applications on the number of leaves were examined, the most number of leaves was determined in G.Margarita (7.64) and the fewest number of leaves was observed in G. intraradices (6.87) (Table 7). Şen (2008) recorded an increase in the number of leaves through the G.intraradices on eggplant seedlings (4.97), but the number of leaves for the eggplant seedlings on which mycorrhizal wasn’t applied, it was found as 3.84. The study results of Harley and Smith (1983) are parallel to our study results. The highest shoot fresh weight among the eggplant cultivars was remarked in Topan (24.45 g) and Uzun Patlıcan 50516 types (24,45), whereas the lowest shoot fresh length was in Fabina F1 (17.94 g) and Faselis F1 (17.93 g). When the effects of mycorrhizal on shoot fresh weight were taken into consideration, the heaviest shoot fresh weight was detected in G. intraradices (22.68 g). The lowest shoot fresh weight was found in the control group (17.60 g) (Table 8). Al-Momany (1987) was discovered that the shoot fresh weight for eggplant increased with inoculations of G.mossea, G.monosporum and G.fasciculatum in the ratios of 47%, 28% and 29%, respectively, and the yield for the same plant increased in the ratios of 60%, 43% and 7%, espectively. Şen (2008) found the increase in terms of shoot fresh weight. While the highest root fresh weight among eggplant cultivar was remarked in Topan genotype (8.80 g), the lowest root fresh weight was determined in Faselis F1 cultivar (3.35 g), Uzun patlıcan 50516 (2.91 g) and Kemer (3.04 g) cultivar. When the effects of mycorrhizal on root fresh weight were examined, the harvest root fresh weight was noted as G. margarita (6.18 g) and the lowest root fresh weight was determined in the G. intraradices group as 4.67 g (Table 9). Şen (2008) obtained the increase in terms of root fresh weight through the application of G. intraradices. Onuğur and Demir (1988) concluded that shoot and root fresh and dried weights increased through the AMF applications. Conclusion In this research, according to eggplant materials, in the context seedling development change parameters, Aydın siyahı and Kara patlıcan 59710 in terms of hypocotyls length, uzun patlıcan 50896 in terms of hypocotyls width, Vezir F1 in terms of hypocotyls l length enght, shoot l length, and shoot diameter, Aydın siyahı in terms of the number of leaves, Topan and Uzun patlıcan 50516 in terms of shoot fresh weight, Topan eggplant in terms of root fresh weight were found to be superior cultivar than the others. It was determined that in the context of AMF applications, through the G. margarita application hypocotyls length, cotyledon width, cotyledon length, shoot length, number of leaves, root fresh weight increased, the G. intraradices application, on the other hand, increased shoot fresh weight. To sum up, it is discovered that it is necessary to determine the proper vegetable materials and proper AMF specious interactions to get a better success in vegetable development of eggplant through AMF applications. 484 �References Al-Momany, A.R. (1987). Effect of Three Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal isolates on growth of tomato, eggplant and pepper in a field soil. Dirasat (Jordon) 14:11, 161-168. Demir, S. (1998). In some cultures plant Vesiküler Arbusküler Mikorrhiza (VAM) formation and development of the plants and their role in resistance. Doctora Thesis, Ege University. Đzmir Harley, J.L., Smith, S,E. (1983). Mycorrhizal Symbiyosis Academic Press. London UK. Matsubara, Y., Harada, T., Yakuwa, T. (1995). Effect of inokulum density of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal spores and addition of carbonized material to bed soil on growth of welshonion seedlings. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultiral Science 64(3): 549-554. Menge, J.A., Johnson, E.L.V., and Platt R.G. (1978). Partial substitution of Mycorrhizal Fungi for phosphorus fertilization in the greenhouse culture of citrus. Soil Science Society of American Journal, 42: 926-930. Mosse, B. (1981). Vesicular- Arbuscular Mycorrhiza research for tropical agriculture research bulletin. Hawaii Instıtute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. 82p. Onoğur, E., Demir, S. (1988). Bazı kültür bitkilerinde Vesicular- Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) oluşumu ve bunun bitki gelişimi ve dayanıklılıktaki rolü üzerinde araştırmalar. TUBITAK Tarım ve Ormancılık Grubu Proje No: TOGTAG 1506. Ortaş, Đ., Kaya, Z., Sarı, N., Gök, M., Çakmak, Đ., Almaca, A., Ergün, B., Ortakcı, D., Köse, Ö., Ercan, S., Bolat, H., (2000). Doğal bir gübre olan mikoriza uygulamasının bitkisel verim ve mineral gübre tasarrufundaki rolü ve mikorizaya bağımlılık duyan kültür bitkilerinin seleksiyonu. DPT Toprak Biyoteknolojisi Araştırma Projesi Kesin Sonuç Raporu (Proje No:96 K 120-580). Adana. Ortaş, Đ., Akpınar, Ç. (2004). Use and Importance of Agriculture Mikoriza. Turkey 3. the National Congress of Agricultural Fertilizer Industry Environment, 861-876, 11-13 October. Tokat Smith, S.E., Read, D.J. (1997). Mycorrhizal Symbiosis. second edition. Combridge Academic Press. Şen, Ö. (2008). Tuz Stresi Altında Yetiştirilen Patlıcan Fidelerinin Gelişimi ve besin elementi Đçerikleri Üzerine Arbuscular Mikorizal Fungus (Glomus intraradices) Uygulamalarının Etkisi. Master Thesis, University Of Selcuk, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept. of Horticulture, Konya Tinker, P.B. (1980). Role of rhizosphere microorganism in phophorous uptake by plants: In the role of phosphorous in Agriculture (Eds, Khosewenek, F,E et al). ASA-CSSA- SSSA, Madison, USA. Türkmen, Ö., Demir, S., Şensoy, S., Dursun, A. (2005). Effects of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus and humic acid on the seedling development and nutrient content of pepper grown under saline soil conditions. Journal of Biological Sci. 5 (5): 568 574. Türkmen, Ö., Şensoy S., Demir, S., Erdinç, C. (2008). Effect of two different AMF species on growth and nutrient content of pepper seedlings grown under moderate salt stres. African Journal of Biotecnology 7(4) : 394-396. Cultivars Fabina F1 Control 1,95±0.010I G. intraradices 1,84±0.032m G. margarita 1,82±0.011m Means 1,87±0.061E Faselis F1 Vezir F1 Pala Kemer Topan Aydın Siyahı Uzun patlıcan 50516 Kara patlıcan 50710 Uzun patlıcan 50896 2,13±0.005gh 1,96±0.005kI 2,04±0.005ı-k 2,02±0.010j-l 2,11±0.015g-ı 2,77±0.011d 2,41±0.011f 2,87±0.011c 2,38±0.068 f 2,01±0.010j-l 2,05±0.005h-j 2,03±0.010j-l 1,80±0.020m 2,05±0.011h-j 2,65±0.010e 2,18±0.026g 2,97±0.010b 2,76±0.020d 2,12±0.340g-ı 1,70±0.052n 2,03±0.005j-l 2,03±0.011j-l 2,02±0.005j-l 3,23±0.041a 2,44±0.020f 2,84±0.020cd 2,67±0.030e 2,09±0.059D 1,90±0.158E 2,03±0.007D 1,95±0.114E 2,06±0.043D 2,89±0.267A 2,34±0.123C 2,89±0.061A 2,60±0.173B Means S x 0.01 2,26±0.324B 2,23±0.393C 0.01354 S (cultivars) = x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.004282 S 2,29±0.473A x 0.01 (cultivars x Mycorrhiza) =0.01354 Table 1. The effects of AMF applications on hypocotyl length of eggplant cultivars (mm). 485 �Cultivars Control G. intraradices Fabina F1 21.07±0.1j-o 17.33±0.9p Faselis F1 20.72±0.3k-o 20.35±0.3m-o Vezir F1 25.47±0.3a 24.49±0.2a-c Pala 22.52±0.1e-h 20.25±0.0no Kemer 21.11±0.0i-o 18.61±0.2p Topan 22.41±0.0f-ı 21.64±0.0h-m Aydın Siyahı 23.08±0.3d-g 21.21±0.0ı-o Uzun patlıcan 50516 21.72±0.0h-l 20.00±0.0o Kara patlıcan 50710 23.06±0.0d-g 22.20±0.6f-j Uzun patlıcan 50896 15.96±0.3q 24.77±0.7ab Means 21.72±2.3B 21.09±2.2C S x 0.01 (cultivars) =0.2008 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.06351 S G. margarita 20.44±0.0l-o 21.58±0.1h-m 24.16±0.0b-d 22.56±0.1e-h 21.46±0.0h-n 23.32±0.0c-f 23.29±0.5c-f 21.81±0.5g-k 23.05±0.5d-g 23.79±0.1b-e 22.55±1.1A x Means 19.61±1.7F 20.88±0.6DE 24.71±0.6A 21.78±1.1B-D 20.40±1.3EF 22.46±0.7BC 22.53±1.0BC 21.18±0.9DE 22.77±0.5B 21.51±4.2CD 0.01 (cultivars x Mycorrhiza) = 0.2008 Table 2. The effects of AMF applications on kolitedon length of eggplant cultivars (mm). Cultivars Control G.intraradices Fabina F1 7.46±0.07n-p 7.11±0.03p Faselis F1 8.61±0.04e-g 7.95±0.06ı-m Vezir F1 9.28±0.06d 9.20±0.02d Pala 8.04±0.01h-l 7.36±0.05n-p Kemer 7.67±0.07l-o 7.25±0.10op Topan 8.07±0.04h-l 7.49±0.06m-p Aydın Siyahı 8.48±0.05e-h 7.40±0.07n-p Uzun patlıcan 50516 8.62±0.25e-g 8.22±0.04g-j Kara patlıcan 50710 8.95±0.04de 8.62±0.07e-g Uzun patlıcan 50896 9.96±0.09c 11.03±0.04b Means 8.51±0.73A 8.16±1.16B S x 0.01 (Cultivars) =0.07348 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.02324 S G. margarita 7.71±0.14k-o 8.42±0.15f-ı 8.860±0.05d-f 7.51±0.076m-p 7.81±0.066l-o 8.34±0.055g-ı 8.17±0.068g-k 8.03±0.104h-l 8.42±0.026f-ı 12.58±0.52a 8.58±1.415A x Means 7.42±0.27G 8.32±0.30CD 9.11±0.19B 7.63±0.31E-G 7.57±0.26FG 7.97±0.38D-F 8.01±0.48DE 8.29±0.29CD 8.66±0.23C 11.19±1.17A 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza)=0.07348 Table 3. The effects of AMF applications on kolitedon width of eggplant cultivars (mm). Cultivars Control G. intraradices Fabina F1 25.75±0.1 c-e 26.40±0.2b-d Faselis F1 25.65±0.2c-e 27.23±0.2ab Vezir F1 25.81±0.0 c-e 26.37±0.0b-d Pala 25.39±0.1de 25.71±0.6c-e Kemer 25.41±0.5de 25.93±0.1c-e Topan 25.42±0.5de 25.93±0.1c-e AydınSiyahı 24.96±0.2e 27.56±0.1a Uzun patlıcan 50516 25.68±0.0cde 27.28±0.0ab Kara patlıcan 50710 25.46±0.0de 25.54±0.0de Uzun patlıcan 50896 25.16±0.0e 27.25±0.0ab Means 25.48±0.3B 26.59±0.7A S x 0.01 (Cultivars) = Ö.D. S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.0499 S x G. margarita 25.68±0.1c-e 25.71±0.1c-e 25.31±0.0e 25.40±0.1e 25.64±0.6c-e 25.64±0.6c-e 25.41±0.6de 25.35±0.0e 25.67±0.2c-e 24.99±0.0e 25.49±0.3B Means 25.94±0.37 26.19±0.79 25.83±0.46 25.50±0.40 25.95±0.53 25.66±0.50 25.97±1.25 26.10±0.88 25.55±0.15 25.80±1.08 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza)=0.1579 Table 4. The period of real leaves appearance in AMF applications of eggplant cultivars. Cultivars Control G.intraradices G. margarita Means Fabina F1 Faselis F1 Vezir F1 Pala Kemer 12.49±0.46 gh 15.29±0.10d 17.42±0.06b 10.71±0.07k 7.71±0.25no 9.47±0.03I 16.44±0.12c 18.06±0.05b 10.93±0.10jk 6.77±0.04pq 9.29±0.03 I 15.68±0.07cd 20.36±0.19a 11.93±0.16hı 8.77±0.13Im 10.41±1.5E 15.80±0.51B 18.61±1.34A 11.19±0.57D 7.75±0.87G Topan 7.33±0.05o-q 6.62±0.11qr 7.50±0.05op 7.15±0.40G 486 �Aydın Siyahı Uzun patlıcan 50516 Kara patlıcan 50710 7.51±0.15op 7.04±0.06o-q 12.67±0.19f-h 8.41±0.03mn 5.90±0.10r 11.63±0.20u Uzun patlıcan 50896 13.06±0.02e-g 10.64±0.32k Means 11.12±3.54B 10.48±3.93C S x 0.01 (Cultivars) = 0.04 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza)=0.12 S x 9.55±0.38L 13.31±0.39ef 13.49±0.61e 8.49±0.91F 8.75±3.46F 12.59±0.87C 12.63±0.07f-h 12.25±3.69A 12.11±1.13C 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza)=0.12 Table 5. The effects of AMF applications on shoot lengths (cm) of eggplant cultivars Cultivars Fabina F1 Faselis F1 Vezir F1 Pala Kemer Topan Aydın Siyahı Uzun patlıcan 50516 Kara patlıcan 50710 Control 4.19±0.02 no 5.42±0.07f-h 5.55±0.10e-g 4.99±0.11ı-k 4.18±0.03no 5.26±0.05g-ı 6.37±0.27a 4.9±0.08k-m 6.26±0.07ab G. intraradices 3.90±0.13op 5.16±0.05h-j 5.69±0.01c-f 4.78±0.02j-l 3.81±0.17op 4.55±0.05l-n 4.69±0.01k-m 3.85±0.12 op 4.60±0.01k-m G. margarita 4.45±0.11l-n 6.07±0.02a-c 6.03±0.02a-d 5.68±0.08d-f 3.74±0.11p 4.68±0.10k-m 4.75±0.04kl 4.35±0.30mn 5.39±0.01f-h Means 4.18±0.25FG 5.55±0.41A-C 5.75±0.21A 5.15±0.41DE 3.91±0.02G 4.84±0.33E 5.27±0.83CD 4.30±0.40F 5.41±0.72B-D Uzun patlıcan 50896 Means 5.88±0.02b-e 5.27±5.281A 5.16±0.03h-j 4.61±0.60 C 6.11±0.03ab 5.13±0.81B 5.71±0.43AB S x 0.01 (Cultivars)=0.06 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.02 S x 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza ) =0.06 Table 6. The effects of AMF applications on shoot diameters (mm) of eggplant cultivars Cultivars Fabina F1 Faselis F1 Vezir F1 Pala Kemer Topan Aydın Siyahı Uzun patlıcan 50516 Kara patlıcan 50710 Control 7.23±0.03j-l 7.40±0.05f-j 6.91±0.01mn 7.31±0.09ı-l 7.35±0.05g-k 7.22±0.02j-l 7.60±0.04d-f 7.11±0.12Im 7.60±0.04d-g G.intraradices 6.62±0.11qp 6.81±0.07no 7.53±0.03d-h 6.91±0.01mn 6.67±0.04op 6.58±0.02p 7.32±0.02h-l 6.56±0.03p 6.92 ±0.02mn Uzun patlıcan 50896 7.46±0.03e-ı 6.74±0.01n-p Means 7.31±0.21B 6.87±0.31C S x 0.01 (Cultivars) =0.03 S x (0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.01 S x G. margarita 7.95±0.13a 7.87±0.06ab 7.50±0.05d-ı 7.66±0.03c-e 7.86±0.03a-c 7.69±0.02b-d 7.66±0.01c-e 7.55±0.05d-g 7.57±0.02d-f Means 7.26±0.58B-D 7.36±0.46AB 7.31±0.30BC 7.29±0.32B-D 7.29±0.51B-D 7.16±0.47C-E 7.52±0.15A 7.08±0.43E 7.36±0.33AB 7.16±0.03kl 7.64±0.22A 7.12±0.31DE 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza)=0.03 Table7. The effects of AMF applications on the number of leaves of eggplant cultivars. Cultivars Fabina F1 Faselis F1 Vezir F1 Pala Kemer Topan Aydın siyahı Uzunpatlıcan50516 Kara patlıcan 50710 Uzun patlıcan 50896 Means Control 16.16±0.125I 15.61±0.061I 20.42±0.094ı 15.68±0.325I 17.39±0.138k 22.38±0.023gh 13.98±0.553n 19.86±0.140ıj 19.28±0.160j 15.20±0.172m 17.60±2.647C G. intraradices 18.17±0.186k 20.57±0.064ı 25.04±0.010d 16.38±0.637I 25.16±0.485cd 24.30±0.110de 23.87±0.107ef 26.07±0.030bc 22.12±0.046h 25.13±0.034d 22.68±3.192A G. margarita 19.51±0.076j 17.62±0.026k 19.23±0.015j 17.48±0.425k 27.02±0.540a 26.67±0.026ab 24.42±0.068de 27.43±0.034a 19.85±0.157u 23.11±0.036fg 22.24±3.824 B Means 17.94±1.466 E 17.93±2.161 E 21.56±2.655 C 16.51±0.889 F 23.19±4.438 B 24.45±1.859A 20.75±5.096 D 24.45±3.496A 20.41±1.306D 21.14±4.544C S x 0.01 (Cultivars) = 0.14 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.04 S x 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza) =0.14 Table 8. The effects of AMF applications on shoot fresh weight in eggplant cultivars 487 �Cultivars Control G. intraradices Fabina F1 7.50±0.02 cd 6.08±0.03ef Faselis F1 3.45±0.06 g-j 3.15±0.03h-j Vezir F1 6.14±0.01ef 4.26±0.01gh Pala 5.66±0.03f 6.51±0.01def Kemer 2.61±0.04jk 2.41±0.03 jk Topan 9.33±0.10ab 6.79±0.01 d-f Aydın Siyahı 6.98±0.02de 3.41±0.06 g-j Uzun patlıcan 50516 2.92±0.07ı-k 1.85±0.17 k Kara patlıcan 50710 7.49±0.01cd 6.24±0.01ef Uzun patlıcan 50896 7.52±0.03cd 6.01±0.03ef Means 5.96±2.19B 4.67±1.79 C S x 0.01 (Cultivars) =1.04 S x 0.01 (Mycorrhiza) =0.06 S G. margarita 4.47±0.02 g 3.45±0.05 g-u 6.14±0.01ef 6.30±0.01ef 4.11±1.31gh 10.29±1.0 a 5.86±0.01ef 3.98±0.02g-ı 8.96±0.05b 8.30±0.02bc 6.18±2.28A x Means 6.01±1.31CD 3.35±0.15F 5.51±0.94DE 6.15±0.38C 3.04±1.03F 8.80±1.65A 5.41±1.58E 2.91±0.92F 7.56±1.17B 7.27±1.01B 0.01 (Cultivars x Mycorrhiza) =0.18 Table 9. The effects of AMF applications on root fresh weight in eggplant cultivars (g). 488 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 568 Title A name given to the resource Effects of Arbucular Mycorrhizal Fungi Applications On Eggplant Seedling Development Author Author Keskin, Levent Paksoy, Mustafa Türkmen, Önder Abstract A summary of the resource. The purpose of this research was conducted to determine the effects of arbuscular Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi applications (Gigaspora margarita and Glomus intraradices) on seedlings growth parameters of Aydın siyahı, Faselis F1, Fabina F1, Topan, Vezir F1, Kemer, Uzun patlıcan 50896, Uzun patlıcan 50516, Kara patlıcan 50710 and Pala eggplant seedlings grown into the plastic greenhouse in Selçuk University. In results, hypocotil lenght of Aydın siyahı and Kara patlıcan 59710, cothyledone width of Uzun patlıcan 50896, cothyledone length, shoot lenght and diameter of Vezir F1, number of leaves of Aydın siyahı, shoot fresh weight of Topan and Uzun patlıcan 50516, root fresh weight of Topan patlıcan seedlings were found to be higher than the other eggplant cultivars. In the results of AMF applications, hypocotil length, cothiledone width, cothyledone length, shoot length, number of leaves, root fresh weight had been increased by G. margarita applications. Also, G. intraradices applications had been increased the shoot fresh weight. In cultivar x Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi interactions, G. margarita exhibited better results on the hypocotil length of seedlings of Aydın siyahı, cothyledone width of Uzun patlıcan 50896, shoot length and number of leaves of Fabina F1, Kemer and shoot fresh weight of Uzun patlıcan 50516, root fresh weight of Topan. Consequently, it was shown that it is necessary to determine the proper cultivar materials and proper Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi rage interactions to get a better success in seedling development of eggplant. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/d8044c5c2dc92dbce73d3267282202cc.pdf 61d23e6ab005cc01916a1a3989ec46d5 PDF Text Text Use of Computer Simulation Technology in Engineering Education Ramazan Kayıkcı Faculty of Technology, Sakarya University, 54187 Sakarya, Turkey rkayikci@sakarya.edu.tr Abstract: The function of the engineering profession is to manipulate materials, energy, and information, in that way creating benefit for humankind. To perform this effectively, engineers must have knowledge of nature that goes beyond plain theory that is traditionally gained in educational laboratories. In recent years, however, the environment of these laboratories has changed. This paper describes the use of simulation technology in engineering education. In particular, the paper considers materials and metallurgical engineering field which involves many high temperature materials processing such as castings and solidification. In this study, an example of use of simulation technique to demonstrate the effects of casting geometry on solidification times of three different geometries in sand casting process been presented. Introduction The overall goal of engineering education is to prepare students to practice engineering and, in particular, to deal with the forces and materials of nature. Thus, from the earliest days of engineering education, instructional laboratories have been an essential part of undergraduate and, in some cases, graduate programs. Indeed, prior to the emphasis on engineering science, it could be said that most engineering instruction took place in the laboratory. As an example, in surveys of the articles published in the Journal of Engineering Education from 1993 to 1997, it was found that only 6.5 percent of the papers used laboratory as a keyword. From 1998 to 2002, the fraction was even lower at 5.2 percent (Wankat 2004). Laboratory instruction has been complicated by the introduction of two phenomena in the past two decades: the digital computer and systems of distance learning, particularly over the Internet. The digital computer has opened new possibilities in the laboratory, including simulation, automated data acquisition, remote control of instruments, and rapid data analysis and presentation. Today, simulation software programs are available that accurately emulate many technical and physical processes. These software programs play an important role in engineering education (Quinn 1993). Simulation is an important feature in engineering systems or any system that involves many processes. For example in electrical engineering, delay lines may be used to simulate propagation delay and phase shift caused by an actual transmission line (Kadlowec et al. 2002). Most engineering simulations entail mathematical modeling and computer assisted investigation. There are many cases, however, where mathematical modeling is not reliable. Simulation of such phenomena as fluid dynamics problems and materials processing often requires both mathematical and physical simulations (Kadlowec et al. 2002). In education, simulation has been used to provide illustrations of phenomena that are not easily visualized, such as electromagnetic fields, laminar flow in pipes, heat transfer through materials, and electron flow in semiconductors or solidification of liquid metal in a mold (Kadlowec et al. 2002). Since simulators essentially execute mathematical equations and since we are able to develop reasonably accurate mathematical models of the physical phenomena we study in engineering laboratories, it is natural that simulators have been used as an adjunct to or even as a substitute for actual laboratory experiments. Simulations can be used as a pre-lab experience to give students some idea of what they will encounter in an actual experiment (Hodge et al. 2001). This can improve laboratory safety by familiarizing students with the equipment before actually using it. It also can result in significant financial savings by reducing the time a student or team needs on real—and expensive— laboratory equipment, thereby reducing the number of laboratory stations required. Simulations are useful for experimental studies of systems that are too large, too expensive, or too dangerous for physical measurement by undergraduate students (Baher 1999, Lee et al. 2001, Svajger and Valencic 2003). 361 �In this study, an example of use of simulation technique to demonstrate the effects of casting geometry on solidification times of three different geometries in sand casting process been presented. The Study The objective of this study is to demonstrate how a simulation technique can be used instead of a real casting laboratory (or a foundry) for technology students in engineering education. The objective is to deliver to the students the effects casting geometries on the cooling and solidification time of liquid steel which allow solidifying in sand molds. The Theoretical Aspect of the Study The theoretical aspects of this study were taken from an engineering textbook (Kalpakjian 1995) which deals with determining the solidification time of sand castings. During the early stage of solidification, a thin solidified skin begins to form at the cool mold walls and, as time passes, the skin thickens. With flat mold walls, this thickness is proportional to the square root of time. Thus doubling the time will make the skin √2=1.41 times, or 41 times thicker. The solidification time is a function of the volume (V) of a casting and its surface area (A), which is defined by Chvorinov’s rule as;  V o lu m e   Solidification time = C   S u rfaceA rea  2 Eqn [1] where C is a constant that reflects mold material, material properties (including latent heat) and temperature. Thus a large sphere solidify and cools to ambient temperature at much slower rate than does a smaller sphere. The reason is that the volume of a sphere is proportional to the cube of its diameter. Similarly, we can show that the molten metal in a cube-shaped mold will solidify faster than in a spherical mold of the same volume. Example: Three pieces being cast have the same volume (1dm3) but different shapes. One is a sphere, one a cube, and the other a cylinder with a height equal to its diameter. We can determine which piece will solidify the fastest and which one the slowest. Solution: The volume is unity, so we have from Eqn 1; 1 Solidificatio time ∞ SurfaceAera ( ) The respective surface areas are; 1 Sphere: 4 V =   π r 3 , r=  3  3 ,   3  4π  Cube: V=a3, 2  3 3 and A = 4 π r = 4 π   = 4 .8 4  4π  2 a = 1, and A = 6a2 = 6 1 2  1  3 and A=2 πr 2 + 2 πr h = 6 πr 2 =  1  3 =5.54 Cylinder: V= πr h = 2 πr , r=  6π     2π   2π  2 3 Thus the respective solidification times t are; Tsphere=0.043C, tcube=0.028C and tcylinder = 0.033 C. Hence the cube-shaped casting will solidify the fastest and the sphere-shaped casting will solidify slowest. Simulation: The above simple example of the effect of casting geometry on the solidification time of three different shapes was computer simulated as follows. The given casting geometries were drawn as 3D solid geometries using a CAD program. Each geometry was dimensioned to poses the required volume of 1 dm3 liquid 362 �metal. The solid geometries were then imported into a 3D casting simulation software. The simulation software used in this study was able to create all the physical environment of a casting laboratuary or a foundry required to solidify liquid alloy in sand mold of three different shapes. A steel alloy (ST1020) was chosen as the casting alloy. Finally to solve required finite difference heat transfer equations the casting geometries were meshed with a 40 mm thick sand mold for each into 1000 000 cubic element. The meshed casting geometries were cut into two pieces from their common symmetrical planes to reduce the computation time as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Isometric view of the meshed casting geometries used as models in simulation (as cut into half from symmetrical planes) a-sphere, b-cylinder and c-cube. Findings Simulations were performed in computer environment. For the sake of simplicity and to model exactly the same phenomena given in above example no running and feeding system was used in the casting model. Figure 2 shows a scene of cooling and progress of solidification for each casting. As seen from Figure 1 advance of solidification is fastest in cube-shaped casting and slowest in the sphere-shaped casting. This is in agreement with the above given results from solution of the example. That is, the engineering students attending this class will virtually see the solidification progress according to the theoretical rule and calculation without any real experimental work in casting laboratory. After the simulation have been completed post simulation evaluations were performed. Solidification time of each casting is plotted to its quarter section of and shown in Figure 3. As seen from the figure the solidification has lasted 14.66 minutes in sphere, which is the longest time as calculated in above example. This is followed by cylinder and cube in exactly the same sequence as calculation. The smallest volume/surface area value was calculated for the cube-shaped casting leading to a smallest solidification time. Results from the simulation have also confirmed that the solidification has completed in 12.04 minutes in cube-shaped casting. It is also in agreement with the results from mathematical calculation. This example illustrate that the casting simulation technology can be useful to illustrate number of things which is difficult to or impossible when done in a real laboratory environment. Thus, in such areas as castings where molten metals and high temperature are often involved to experiment which might be dangerous, difficult and expensive to implement, laboratory can be substituted by simulation. 363 �Figure 2: Cross-sectional view of progress of solidification in the cast parts a-sphere, b-cylinder and c-cube. Figure 3: Plot of solidification times of the castings (qurter sections) a-sphere, b-cylinder and c-cube. Conclusions In this study, an example of use of simulation technique to demonstrate the effects of casting geometry on solidification times of three different geometries in sand casting process been presented. Theoretical background and an example were given to calculate the solidification times of three different geometries as sphere, cube and a cylinder. Result from calculation showed that cube-shaped casting will solidify the fastest and the sphere-shaped the slowest. Computer simulation of the solidification process with 3D CAD data of the geometries was also performed. Results from simulation were in excellent agreement with the result from calculations. This confirmed that casting simulation technology might substitute the casting laboratory in engineering education. This can be even more useful for such experiments where high temperature and expensive experimental set-up involves. Acknowledgement Author thanks to Sakarya University -Turkey for financial support through BAPK. (Project No: 2007-05-06-004). 364 �References Baher, J., “Articulate Virtual Labs in Thermodynamics Education: A Multiple Case Study,” Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 88, No. 4, 1999, pp. 429–434. Hodge, H., Hinton, H.S., and Lightner, M., “Virtual Circuit Laboratory,” Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 90, No. 4, 2001, pp. 507–511. Kadlowec,J., Lockette, P.V., Constans, E., Sukumaran, B., and Cleary, D., “Visual Beams: Tools for Statics and Solid Mechanics,” 32nd ASEE/IEEE Forntiers in Education Conference, Boston Mass., November 6–9, 2002, pp. T4D-7-T4D-10, 2002. Lee, W-J., Gu, J-C., Li, R-J., and Ditasayabutra, P., “A Physical Laboratory for Protective Relay Education,” IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2002, pp. 182–186. Quinn, R. "The E' Introductory Engineering Test, Design and Simulation Laboratory" Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 82, No. 4, October 1993. S.Kalpakjian, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, 3rd Edtn.,Addison-Wesley N.York, 1995. Svajger, J., and Valencic, V., “Discovering Electricity by Computer- Based Experiments,” IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 46, No. 4, 2003, pp. 502–507. Wankat, P.C., “Analysis of the First Ten Years of the Journal of Engineering Education,” Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 93, No. 1, 2004, pp. 13–21. 365 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 529 Title A name given to the resource Use of Computer Simulation Technology in Engineering Education Author Author Kayıkcı, Ramazan Abstract A summary of the resource. The function of the engineering profession is to manipulate materials, energy, and information, in that way creating benefit for humankind. To perform this effectively, engineers must have knowledge of nature that goes beyond plain theory that is traditionally gained in educational laboratories. In recent years, however, the environment of these laboratories has changed. This paper describes the use of simulation technology in engineering education. In particular, the paper considers materials and metallurgical engineering field which involves many high temperature materials processing such as castings and solidification. In this study, an example of use of simulation technique to demonstrate the effects of casting geometry on solidification times of three different geometries in sand casting process been presented. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed Q Science (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/e639a99de17bc70f8957e1552e413e32.pdf 2e03cdd7555c35a17eb91e3a9c627370 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Sustainability and Feasibility of English-medium Instruction at Turkish Universities Asst. Prof. M. Naci Kayaoğlu Faculty of Letters Karadeniz Technical University Turkey naci@ktu.edu.tr Emine Buket Sağlam School of Foreign Languages Karadeniz Technical University Turkey saglambuket@hotmail.com Abstract: More and more often, universities in Turkey are adopting English as a medium of instruction. In some cases English is the medium for entire faculties while in others it is only used in certain departments. One notable signal of this development is the number of universities offering compulsory one year English prep programs that take place before the student matriculates in to their own department or faculty. More than 110 Turkish universities have turned to English as a medium of instruction to varying degrees, investing a huge amount of capital and human resources. While we recognize that learning to speak and write in English in this age of globalization is of great help and necessity in order to be able to compete in a knowledge-based world, the current situation is not without grave concerns. In many ways it runs counter to the effectiveness and quality of higher Education. Based on a cased study, this paper examines sustainability and feasibility of English medium of instruction. Introduction One of the most significant projects carried out by Karadeniz Technical University over the last ten years is the regulation of and the investment in foreign languages (mainly English). That the fourteen departments including the Medical school now have compulsory English prep program for a year and also 30 % of the vocational courses at the departments will be in English indicates that English teaching is a serious endeavor at Karadeniz Technical University. It also indicates that the university hopes the use of English in all the fourteen departments might lead to more effective results on education and training programs. However, it should be noted that when the data was collected there were fourteen departments which had one-year obligatory English prep school. Today, the number of the programs which has one-year obligatory English prep program has reached 24. Now that we have a one year compulsory English prep program with many students and English instructors, the time has come to evaluate the program by examining it from many academic and scientific approaches in hopes of becoming part of the European Union Education programs. Our aim in this examination is to ease the processes of accreditation and free moving system in Europe. It is obligatory to determine the strategies in foreign language teaching and learning under the content of The European Languages Portfolio. Additionally, the implementation of The Language Passport throughout Europe is a motivating factor for reviewing all the foreign language teaching and learning issues in the institution. The policies and the strategies of the Foreign Language should be reconstructed under the light of the scientific data and strong theories which have been offered by the existing literature (Christison & Stoller, 1997). The purpose of this study is therefore to determine the problems and the difficulties in teaching the vocational courses in English at the university level, from the points of the view of the students and the academic staff. Within this framework, several other goals are brought to light as well: (1) To increase the quality and the productivity of the obligatory English prep program, (2) To determine the strategies which will contribute to solve the problems faced during the educational process in which the courses are taught in English in the departments. 195 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Method This study is a case study which reveals the problems and the difficulties in teaching the vocational courses in English in the fourteen departments at a Turkish university from the points of view of the students and the academic staff. The sample of this study consists of 1442 students and 52 academic staff from various departments at Karadeniz Technical University. A questionnaire for the academic staff including four openended questions has been used for data collection. Questionnaire used for the students who studied one year at prep had 20 items in order to evaluate the sustainability and productivity of the English medium in vocational courses. This questionnaire was given to the students studying in their second, third and fourth year of their training. The data from this questionnaire was later compared to those which were obtained from the questionnaire given to English prep school students. Findings The data were obtained from three samplings: (1) from the students at English prep school, (2) from the students who studied one year at prep, (3) from the academic staff who teaches their courses in English at the departments. 1. The data obtained from the students at English prep school: According to Table 1, the participants are composed of the students from 14 departments at Karadeniz Technical University. 4,5% is from Computer Engineering, 5,6% is from Biology, 8,9% is from Electric-Electronic Engineering, 5,3% is from Physics, 4,1% is from the Deck Department, 8,8% is from Civil Engineering, 8,1% is from Geodesy, 6,0% is from Geology, 6,5% is from Public Administration, 7,3% is from Chemistry, 11,4% is from Mechanical Engineering, 9,6% is from Forest Engineering, 7,6% is from the Medical Faculty, and 4,7% is from the International Relations. Departments N % Computer Engineering 36 4,5 Biology 45 5,6 Electric-Electronic 72 8,9 Physics 43 5,3 Deck 33 4,1 Civil Engineering 71 8,8 Geodesy 65 8,1 Geology 48 6,0 Public Administration 52 6,5 Chemistry 59 7,3 Mechanical Engineering 92 11,4 Forest Engineering 77 9,6 Medical Faculty 61 7,6 International Relations 38 4,7 Table 1. The Number of the Departments and the Students Participated in the Study 196 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 2 shows the evaluations of the participants for the speaking courses. According to the data obtained from the questionnaire, 23.3 % of the students state that at prep school English instructors are not wellprepared for the lessons whereas 19.5 % of them have no idea. However, 56.6 % of the students agree that the instructors are well-prepared. For the second item, 53.1% of the students think that the instructors are punctual whereas 21.6% disagree. 65% of the students agree that the teachers explain lessons well. However, 21.6 disagree. For the fourth item, 69.1% of the students think that the instructors encourage every student to participate in the lesson. 72.4 of the participants consider that their teachers respect their personality. As for the sixth item, 76.9% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to speak in English in the class. 68.8% of them think that the instructors tolerate their mistakes. 50.4% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to join the lesson. 58.1% of them think that the instructors support them during the preparation of their projects. As for the projects prepared during the academic year, 73.4% of the participants think that the projects in the first term are useful. 55.9% of the students consider the projects in the second term are beneficial. For 67.2% of the participants, the materials are beneficial. ITEMS INSTRUCTORS; 1. are well-prepared for the lessons 2. are always punctual 3. explain lessons well 4. encourage every student to participate the lesson 5. respect our personality 6. encourage us to speak in English in the class 7. tolerate our mistakes 8. encourage us to join the lesson 9. support us during the preparation of our projects Items Instructors; 10. given projects (first term) 11. given projects (second term) 12. Materials used STRONGL Y DISAGRE E 12,8 14,3 11,7 7,8 DISAGRE E NO IDEA AGRE E STRONG LY AGREE MISSI NG 10,5 13,9 9,9 6,5 19,5 17,2 12,4 15,5 31,9 25,4 30,8 38,6 24,7 27,7 34,2 30,5 1,6 1,5 1,0 1,3 6,6 6,7 3,7 5,3 15,3 8,9 31,1 28,3 41,3 48,6 2,0 2,3 7,6 19,9 14,0 5,3 11,2 10,3 17,4 17,7 16,0 30,6 21,6 23,7 38,2 28,8 34,4 0,9 0,8 1,6 quite useless 8,6 17,7 12,7 useless normal useful Missing 4,8 8,2 6,6 11,0 16,4 12,7 28,2 20,8 26,1 very useful 45,2 35,4 41,1 2,1 1,5 1,0 Table 2. The data obtained from the Speaking courses Table 3 illustrates the evaluations of the participants for the reading courses. According to Table 3, 23.5 % of the students state that at prep school English instructors for the reading courses are not well-prepared for the lessons whereas 20.2 % of them have no idea. However, 55.8 % of the students agree that the instructors are well-prepared. For the second item, 52.6% of the students think that the instructors are punctual whereas 26.6% disagree. 67.6% of the students agree that the teachers explain lessons well. However, 16.5 disagree. For the fourth item, 67.5% of the students think that the instructors encourage every student to participate in the lesson. 75.8 of the participants consider that their teachers respect their personality. As for the sixth item, 81.5% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to speak in English in the class. 70.8% of them think that the instructors tolerate their mistakes. 51.4% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to join the lesson. 53.1% of them think that the instructors support them during the preparation of their projects. As for the projects prepared during the academic year for the reading courses, 71.6% of the participants think that the projects in the first term are useful. 62.8% of the students consider the projects in the second term are beneficial. For 71.9% of the participants, the materials are beneficial. 197 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo ITEMS INSTRUCTORS; 1. are well-prepared for the lessons 2. are always punctual 3. explain lessons well 4. encourage every student to participate the lesson 5. respect our personality 6. encourage us to speak in English in the class 7. tolerate our mistakes 8. encourage us to join the lesson 9. support us during the preparation of our projects Items 10. given projects (first term) 11. given projects (second term) 12. Materials used STRONG LY DISAGR EE 10,9 12,2 8,1 5,8 4,0 5,3 5,6 13,8 13,2 quite useless 5,5 9,1 8,6 DISAGR EE NO IDEA AGR EE STRONG MISSIN LY G AGREE 12,6 14,4 8,4 10,0 4,0 4,4 7,0 12,0 13,0 useless 20,2 19,7 14,9 15,7 13,2 6,4 15,6 21,5 19,8 normal 29,8 23,5 29,5 37,1 30,3 28,8 31,8 22,8 25,3 useful 6,0 9,1 6,0 15,6 17,6 12,5 32,3 26,4 27,5 26,0 29,1 38,1 30,4 45,5 52,7 39,0 28,6 27,8 very useful 39,3 36,4 44,4 0,5 1,1 1,0 0,8 3,0 2,3 1,0 1,3 0,8 Missing 1,3 1,4 1,0 Table 3. The data obtained from the Reading courses Table 4 illustrates the evaluations of the participants for the grammar courses. According to Table 4, 64.7 % of the students state that at prep school English instructors for the grammar courses are well-prepared for the lessons whereas 17.5 % of them have no idea. For the second item, 69.5% of the students think that the instructors are punctual. 80.5% of the students agree that the teachers explain lessons well. However, 16.5 disagree. For the fourth item, 59.2% of the students think that the instructors encourage every student to participate in the lesson. 57.9 of the participants consider that their teachers respect their personality. As for the sixth item, 86.6% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to speak in English in the class. 71.1% of them think that the instructors tolerate their mistakes. 66.8% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to join the lesson. 63.8% of them think that the instructors support them during the preparation of their projects. As for the projects prepared during the academic year for the reading courses, 79.5% of the participants think that the projects in the first term are useful. 76.9% of the students consider the projects in the second term are beneficial. For 80.5% of the participants, the materials are beneficial. ITEMS INSTRUCTORS; STRON GLY DISAG REE DISAGR EE NO IDEA AGR EE STRON GLY AGREE MISSING 1. are well-prepared for the lessons 2. are always punctual 3. explain lessons well 4. encourage every student to participate the lesson 5. respect our personality 6. encourage us to speak in English in the class 7. tolerate our mistakes 8. encourage us to join the lesson 9. support us during the preparation of our projects 7,3 6,8 4,5 13,2 9,3 7,7 4,7 11,0 17,5 143,7 8,8 15,6 29,2 28,7 28,7 30,4 35,5 40,8 51,8 28,8 1,1 1,3 1,3 1,0 3,8 2,1 2,9 1,7 13,0 7,4 28,5 29,5 29,4 57,1 2,4 97,8 6,8 6,8 6,3 6,7 6,0 9,3 14,4 19,1 19,8 29,9 25,9 28,8 41,2 40,9 35,0 1,1 1,3 0,1 Items quite useless useless normal useful very useful Missing 10. given projects (first term) 11. given projects (second term) 12. Materials used 3,6 4,5 4,6 3,1 5,5 2,9 12,1 11,7 10,8 32,1 25,0 29,0 47,4 51,9 51,5 1,5 1,6 1,3 Table 4. The data obtained from the Grammar courses 198 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 5 illustrates the evaluations of the participants for the writing courses. According to Table 5, 32.7 % of the students state that at prep school English instructors for the writing courses are well-prepared for the lessons whereas 20.6 % of them have no idea. However, 35.9 % of the students agree that the instructors are not well-prepared. For the second item, 46.8% of the students think that the instructors are punctual whereas 33.7% disagree. 61.3% of the students agree that the teachers explain lessons well. For the fourth item, 59.1% of the students think that the instructors encourage every student to participate in the lesson. 65.6 of the participants consider that their teachers respect their personality. As for the sixth item, 87.3% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to speak in English in the class. 60.9% of them think that the instructors tolerate their mistakes. 45.3% of the participants consider the instructors encourage them to join the lesson. 44.7% of them think that the instructors support them during the preparation of their projects. As for the projects prepared during the academic year for the reading courses, 63.3% of the participants think that the projects in the first term are useful. 68.1% of the students consider the projects in the second term are beneficial. For 68.6% of the participants, the materials are beneficial. ITEMS INSTRUCTORS; 1. are well-prepared for the lessons 2. are always punctual 3. explain lessons well 4. encourage every student to participate the lesson 5. respect our personality 6. encourage us to speak in English in the class 7. tolerate our mistakes 8. encourage us to join the lesson 9. support us during the preparation of our projects Items 10. given projects (first term) 11. given projects (second term) 12. Materials used STRON GLY DISAG REE 20,8 19,4 13,1 9,9 7,5 4,2 8,7 18,2 19,4 quite useless 9,0 14,0 12,0 DISAG REE NO IDEA AGR EE STRON GLY AGREE MISS ING 15,1 14,3 9,2 9,3 5,3 5,6 8,9 11,1 14,0 20,6 18,0 15,5 19,4 18,9 9,9 20,1 24,0 20,7 23,4 23,5 27,0 34,5 26,4 29,9 28,2 20,7 23,6 19,3 23,3 34,3 25,6 39,2 48,4 32,7 24,6 21,1 0,8 1,5 0,9 1,3 2,7 2,0 1,4 1,4 1,1 useless normal useful 9,3 8,2 4,9 16,6 17,9 13,5 28,1 22,8 27,3 very useful 35,2 35,3 41,3 Missi ng 1,7 1,7 1,1 Table 5. The data obtained from the Writing courses The data obtained from the students who studied one year at prep:The following are the tables illustrating the results of the study conducted at Karadeniz Technical University in 2008-2009 academic years. Table 6 shows which departments participated in the study. Table 7 informs us about the age of the students who participated in the study. 199 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo NAVAL ARCHITECT URE F 36 % 5,9 MARITIME TRANSPORTA TION DEC K 123 20,1 5 0,8 ELECRICA LELECTRO NIC 129 21,0 CIVIL ENGINEERI NG 125 20,4 GEOMATIC S ENGINEERI NG 33 5,4 MECHANIC AL ENGINEERI NG 162 26,4 Table 6. The student frequencies by percentages according to the departments Table 7: Age Percentages In Table 8, 72,9% of the students agreed that English prep school is necessary for them. 85,1% stated they have vocational courses in English at their department. 82,6% said not all the courses should in English at their department. 37,4% circled “yes” for item 4, which is “Are at least 2 courses in English at your department?”. For item 5, which is whether the vocational courses should be completely in English, only 54,5% said “yes”. 52,6% of the students think it is advantageous to have their courses related to your branch in English in their work life in the future. 20,6% state that the instructors speak in English all through the lesson. 69,8% state they do not have enough reference books suitable for the vocational courses in English. After the English prep school, 65,7% think their English level has shown regression. ITEMS Q1. Is prep school necessary for your department? Q2. Are you having vocational courses in English at your department? Q3. Should all the courses be in English at your department? Q4. Should at least 2 courses be in English at your department? Q5. Should the vocational courses be completely in English? AGE F % 18 4 0,7 19 36 6,0 20 100 16,5 21 177 29,3 22 145 24,0 23 77 12,7 YES (%) 72,9 85,1 17,3 37,4 54,5 24 48 7,9 Q6. Do you think it is advantageous to have your courses related to your branch in English in your work life in the future? Q7. Does the instructor speak in English all through the lesson? Q8. Do you have enough reference books suitable for the vocational courses in English? Q9. After the prep school, do you think your English level has shown regression? 25 13 2,1 26 4 0,7 NO (%) 27,1 14,9 82,6 62,6 45,5 27 1 0,2 52,6 47,4 20,6 30,2 79,4 69,8 65,7 34,4 Table 8. The student questionnaire for the items 1-9 according to “yes” “no” percentages According to the results of the questionnaire, 36,8% of the participants state they are sometimes given homework in English whereas 36,7% claim that they are never. While 10,2% state that they are always using English books as references for their courses, 38,6 say they never. 30,3% find the instructors are never sufficient in English whereas 25,7% say they sometimes are. 25,8% always find the courses in English are comprehensible while 17,7% think they never are. The results of the items 10, 11, 12, and 13 are illustrated in Table 9. 200 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo ITEMS NEVER SOMETI MES OFTEN USUAL LY ALWAY S Q10. Are you being given homework in English related to your field? Q11. Are you using English books as references for your courses? Q12. Do you think the instructors are sufficient in English while teaching? Q13. Do you have difficulty in comprehending the courses in English? 36,7 36,8 15,6 7,1 3,8 38,6 24,4 15,6 11,3 10,2 30,3 25,7 20,9 14,0 9,0 17,7 18,4 19,3 18,7 25,8 Table 9. The student questionnaire for the items 10-13 according to adverbs of frequency percentages Table 10 contains the questionnaire items 14, 15, and 16. As for item 14, which is “What is the percentage of the talk in English in the lessons done by the instructors?”, 32.5% of the students think that 7090% of the talk is in English whereas 12,3% state 10-30% of the talk is in English. For item 15, which is “What is the percentage of the talk in English in the lessons done by the students?” 2,2% of the students think that 7090% of the talk is in English whereas 75,5% state 10-30% of the talk done by the students is in English ITEMS 10-30% 30-50% 50-70% 70-90% Q14. What is the percentage of the talk in English in the lessons done by the instructors? Q15. What is the percentage of the talk in English in the lessons done by the students? Q16. What is the percentage of the talk in English in the lessons? 12,3 9,8 15,7 32,5 90100% 29,8 75,5 15,7 6,1 2,2 0,5 20,8 23,4 27,9 23,2 4,6 Table 10. The student questionnaire for the items 14-16 according to the scale of percentages In Table 11, the answer to the question “What is the productivity of the lessons in English?” is “normal” for the 33,2% of the students, “productive” for the 8.9% of the students, and “poor” for the 57.9% of the students. ITEMS VERY PRODUCT NORMA POOR VER PRODUCT IVE L Y IVE POO R Q17. What is the productivity of the lessons 1,3 7,6 33,2 32,7 25,2 in English? Table 11. The student questionnaire for the item 17 The data obtained from the academic staffs who teach their courses in English at the departments. Table 12 contains the questionnaire items 1, 2, 3, and 4, which is given to the instructors who teach their courses (at the department) in English. According to the table, 92,2% of the instructors agree that prep school is necessary for their department. 74,5% agree that there are enough reference books in the library related to their department. 40,8% agree it is necessary to teach the courses in English at the departments. 80% state that there are enough materials to use in the courses in English. ITEMS Q1. Is prep school necessary for your department? Q2. Are there enough reference books in the library related to your department? Q3. Is it necessary to teach the courses in English? Q4. Do you lack materials in the courses while teaching? 201 YES 92,2 74,5 NO 7,8 25,5 40,8 20 59,2 80 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Table 12. The instructor questionnaire for items 1-4 according to “yes” “no” percentages According to Table 13, for item 5, 62% of the instructors state that their students are “sometimes” able to use their English efficiently in the courses at their department. 29,4% “always” suggest their students they use reference books in English in their field courses. 43,1% state that their students are sometimes able to prepare their papers in English whereas 27,5% think the students never can. Additionally, 41,2% think that their students are “sometimes” able to understand what they read in English in their field. ITEMS NEVER 8 SOMETIM OFTEN ES 62 14 USUAL LY 12 ALWA YS 4 Q5. After studying English at Prep school, are your students able to use their English efficiently in the courses at your department? Q6. Do you suggest your students they use reference books in English in their field courses? Q7. Are your students able to prepare their papers in English? Q8. Are your students able to understand what they read in English in their field? 4 17,6 23,5 25,5 29,4 27,5 43,1 17,6 7,8 3,9 23,5 41,2 19,6 13,7 2 Table 13. The instructor questionnaire for the items 10-13 according to adverbs of frequency percentages According to Table 14, the instructors have 47.1% difficulty in Speaking during the lessons. This is followed by Writing and Reading. Q9. WHICH SKILLS BOTHER YOU TEACHING TO YOUR STUDENTS? Reading, Speaking, Writing Reading, Speaking Writing Writing, Speaking Speaking None of them MOST WHILE F % 7 13.7 1 4 8 24 5 Table 14. The instructor questionnaire for the item 9 2.0 7.8 15.7 47.1 9.8 As for the evaluation of the productivity of the courses in English, 50% find the courses in English “normal” and “productive” whereas 50% find them “poor” and “very poor”. As for the “teachability” of the courses scheduled in English at Karadeniz Technical University, 50% find them “normal” and 33,3% find them “bad”. These findings are illustrated in Table 15. ITEMS Q10. How do you evaluate the productivity of the courses taught in English? Items Q11. How do you evaluate the “teachability” of the courses scheduled in English at our university? PRODUC TIVE 6 NORM PO AL OR 44 46 VERY POOR 4 Good Normal Bad Very bad 14,6 50,0 33,3 2,1 Table 15. The instructor questionnaire for the items 10-11 Discussion This study sought to better understand how feasible and effective to adopt English as a medium of instruction in the departments or faculties at Karadeniz Technical University after having one-year English prep 202 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo program. Thus, it would be easier to determine more effective and productive foreign language policy, mainly English. With the help of this policy, the university would add a global etiquette to its local identity. The analysis of the descriptive statistics showed that great amount of the students and teachers consider English prep school is necessary for their departments. This finding indicates that prep school is a necessity at the departments included in the study. However, for using English as a medium of instruction, 60% of the teachers showed objection. Likewise, 82.5% of the students disagreed that in all vocational courses English should be used as a medium of instruction. Similarly, 62.6% of the participants’ (students) answer was “no” to the question “Should at least 2 courses be in English at your department?”. These findings might be interpreted as both instructors and the students do not want English to be used as a medium of instruction. 52.6% of the students consider it is advantageous to have their courses related to their branch in English in their work life in the future. This might indicate that although it is not in a high percentage, many students consider that having courses in English can be advantageous in their future life. However, it has been observed that there is a controversy between this finding and the students’ responses to the questions “Should at least 2 courses be in English at your department?”, “Should all the courses be in English at your department?”, and “Should at least 2 courses be in English at your department?” since 62.6% and 82.5% of the students said “no”. “Does the instructor speak in English all through the lesson?” is another question which was responded with a “no” by 80% of the students. This can be explained by a response which was given to the question whether their English level has shown regression during their four-year education. That is 65.7% of the students responded this question as “yes”. From this finding, it might be interpreted that these students might show a regression in their foreign language knowledge. This can be supported by the data that 43.2% of the instructors consider their students can “sometimes” prepare their papers in English. Additionally, only 41.2% of the instructors think that the students might comprehend what they read in their major in English. As for the reference books in English, although 80% of the instructors state that they have enough of them, 70% of the students state that they lack reference books at their departments. This finding can be interpreted as the instructors show not enough effort and guidance for the students to reach these sources. The findings from the data also show that instructors do not force their students to use their knowledge in English. This can be supported by the answer “sometimes” of 62% of the instructors to the question whether the students use English after prep school in their major. The difficulty that the instructors have in the courses is mostly in verbal expressions, in other words speaking (47.1%). This finding can be explained by the respond which the instructors gave to one of the open-ended questions. The instructors claim that the students cannot comprehend what they read and listen. Besides the instructors add that the students cannot efficiently use their prep English after they have started to study their major. Both the students and the instructors do not specifically wish their courses to be English. The reason for this might be the perspective of the teachers and the students who do not favor the use of English in their major. 59% of the instructors are not in favor of using English as a medium of instruction in their courses. This might directly be affecting the view students have. As a result, it is known that in the courses with the students who consider their English has shown regression after prep and who cannot reach reference books in English, which has a salient role in their studies, 46% of the instructors evaluate the feasibility and the productivity as inefficient. At the university base, 33% of the instructors graded it as “bad”, and 50% graded it as “normal”. As for the evaluation of the students about the feasibility and productivity of the courses in English, 33% find the courses ineffective. Giving the importance to the quality of education and having universal values, Karadeniz Technical University has recently restructured its foreign language policies and priorities. It should be noted that today 24 departments have one-year English prep school. In order to maintain the success of an English prep program for the 24 departments, the administration of KTÜ has offered 30% of the courses in English. Some of the postgraduate courses at the university are also using English as a medium of instruction. The students who studied English prep for a year were previously claimed that they were not able to utilize the language efficiently after they had matriculated in to their own faculty or departments. The reasons for that might be the lack of motivation of these students. Most of them do not internalize their major and 47.4% of them consider learning English is advantageous. Also, the lack of sustainability of using English as a medium of instruction can be explained by the views of the instructors. That is, although 92% of the instructors agree that there should be a prep program for their departments, 59% consider that using English as a medium of instruction is unnecessary. The study can be summarized in a chart as follows: 203 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The Administrative Policy at KTÜ Having 30% of the courses in English The number of the departments which has English prep program increased from 14 to 24 Materials used Writing S. (82%) Reading S. (84%) Speaking S. (80%) Grammar S. (91%) The Feasibilty and the Sustainability of English as a Medium of Instruction at University Level Reference Books Instructor (80%) S. (30%) (+) (+) English Prep School (+) Field Courses in English (-) (+) (-) (-) Ideas Instructor (92.2%) S. (%73%) Ideas Instructor(%18) S. (27%) Ideas Instructor (41%) S. (17%) Ideas Instructor(59%) S. (83%) Productivity Instructor (50%) (-/+) S. (58%) (-) According to the chart, most of the instructors have negative ideas about teaching the field courses in English. This is thought to affect feasibility and the productivity of the courses in English. Likewise 83% of the students disagree that the courses should be in English. Also, the students in the survey consider they lack enough materials in English in their field whereas 80% of the instructors state that there are enough of materials. Additionally, there is a controversy between the ideas of both students and teachers about studying English prep and using English in their field courses. At the prep level, the majority of the students and the instructors agree that there should be an English prep program for their departments, both disagree in continuing studying their major in English. The lack of motivation, the idea that it is not necessary to learn English in their major, and lack of prediction that they might need English in their future life might be some of the reasons which affect the feasibility and the sustainability of using English at a university level as a medium of instruction. Conclusion All in all, considering the priorities and the foreign language policies of the administrative staff at KTÜ, it is possible to say that the administration gives importance to foreign language teaching at KTÜ, mainly English. However, it should be noted that for a better applicability, feasibility, and sustainability of using English as a medium of instruction, human sources, realities of the departments, conscious of the students about learning a foreign language, and the perspectives of the academic staff should be taken into consideration. Reference Christison, M.A., Stoller, F. L. (1997). A Handbook for Language Program Administrators, Burlingame, CA: Alta Book Center. 204 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 456 Title A name given to the resource Sustainability and Feasibility of English-medium Instruction at Turkish Universities Author Author Kayaoğlu, M. Naci Sağlam, Emine Buket Abstract A summary of the resource. More and more often, universities in Turkey are adopting English as a medium of instruction. In some cases English is the medium for entire faculties while in others it is only used in certain departments. One notable signal of this development is the number of universities offering compulsory one year English prep programs that take place before the student matriculates in to their own department or faculty. More than 110 Turkish universities have turned to English as a medium of instruction to varying degrees, investing a huge amount of capital and human resources. While we recognize that learning to speak and write in English in this age of globalization is of great help and necessity in order to be able to compete in a knowledge-based world, the current situation is not without grave concerns. In many ways it runs counter to the effectiveness and quality of higher Education. Based on a cased study, this paper examines sustainability and feasibility of English medium of instruction. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General) https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/78a91c50da55af3eb7257fc0613d7574.pdf 504eab41c5ac19e5f04cca5a5c816a63 PDF Text Text 2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo An Education Structuring Model in Vocational and Technical Education with The Orijins of Young Lecturers: Kaman Vocational School Prof.Dr. Ali Đhsan Karayiğit Ahi Evran University, Kaman Vocational School, Kaman, Kırşehir/Turkey aikarayigit@ahievran.edu.tr Assist.Prof.Dr. Latif Onur Uğur Ahi Evran University, Kaman Vocational School, Kaman, Kırşehir/Turkey lougur@ahievran.edu.tr Abstract: In this study, it is discussed that a breakthrough approach to education with young faculty members in vocational technical education. Kaman Vocational School which was connected another university before, connected Kırşehir Ahi Evran University with a decision received in its foundation date in 2006. Continuing its tarining activities given 160 students three departments, two permanent faculty members and the others coming from nearby provinces; Kaman Vocational School has gained acceleration with a department at four years, students over 1700 and 48 faculty members and the radical decisions given by university management. Not only physical growth but while improving the quality of education with seminars, conferences, technical tours, modern laboratories, important scientific progress achieved by numerous scientific articles and reports, papers, original and alternative textbooks. Under European Union (EU) projects, it was participated with lots of faculty members and students to eight different countries and projects; the social integration increased with the EU higher education and youth arrangements. Successes in sporting activities held within the Vocational School and the university; higher artistic levels in light music, folk music, rock music concerts, theatres, musical and poetry nights prepared by student groups; publishing students’ works that take a degree and honorable mention in story and poetry writing competitions are all provided with the contributions of young and dynamic academic staff. Among over 550 Vocational School in Turkey, Kaman Vocational School that catches on the tops in a short time, constituted a sample training model. In the study, in this model and the role of young teaching staff and the added value they provide within this model is discussed with the help of related data. Key Words: Vocational and Technical Education, Vocational School, Education Model, Education Technology, Human Resources, Young Faculty Members. Introduction Kırşehir Faculty of Education which is considered to be the beginning of Ahi Evran University was opened as Male Teacher’s Training School in 1961 and was transformed into an Institution of Education in 1974-1975 academic -year. In 1982, it was transformed into a (two- year) College of Education and became affiliated to the Gazi Faculty of Eduction of the University of Gazi. In 1988 , the education period was increased to four years and in 1992 it became the Kırşehir Faculty of Education in accordance with the Law numbered 3837. Kaman Vocational School of Higher Education (Kaman MYO) started its education life within the body of University of Hacettepe as per the decree of General Staff dated 23rd January, 1998 and numbered 8 and was affiliated to the University of Gazi in accordance with the protocol signed between University of Gazi and University of Hacettepe as per the decree of General Staff dated 4th April, 2003 and numbered 39. Kaman MYO was later affiliated to the newly established University of Ahi Evran as per the law dated 1st March, 2006 and numbered 5467. There are still 5 Faculties, 3 Colleges, 4 Vocational Schools of Higher Education, and 3 Institutes. University of Ahi Evran still continues to its activities with its experienced staff who are devoted to the principles and revolutions of Ataturk, with its current physical conditions and with the excitement of being a newly established university. In 1913 Kaman became a township centre and had a municipality. It became a district on September 1, 1944. It became affiliated to Ankara in 1954 when Kırşehir became a district itself. It again became affiliated to 252 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Kırşehir after three years when Kırşehir received the status of a province again. According to the archeological excavations , Kaman and its round has been a settlement place since B.C. 3000. Industry has been also improving in Kaman whose main source of living is agriculture and husbandry . The three local papers in Kaman (Kaman Akhaber, Yesil Kaman and Kaman Postası) are weekly issued. A Cultural Centre Building with its well-equipped, 500 people capacity conference hall and a Public Library with lots of books and reading halls are present for the service of all level-students and guests. Although the population of Kaman is 22,000 people, the level of education is very high and it has a very high schooling level which is even much higher than the average in Turkey. The high schools which are generally the main source of the students of Kaman MYO and which are located in the town centre are Kaman Anatolian High School , Kaman Anatolian Teacher’s Training High School, Kaman Anatolian Trade Vocational High School , Imam Hatip High School, Vocational School for Girls, Kaman High School and Kaman Medicine Vocational High School . Thanks to the quality of its education, Kaman is rapidly improving to be a training base and the role of Kaman MYO in this is crucial. The historical Kalehoyuk, Archaeology Museum, Japon Botanic Garden, Hirfanlı Dam and HEP, Ostrich Farm, Closed sports centre, Atletism Stadium, Swimming Pool, Water Sports Centre, mausoleum of the great minstrel Dadaloglu, Walnut tree gardens are some of the touristy, cultural and sporty facilities in Kaman or its round. Kaman MYO started giving education within the body of University of Hacettepe in the academic year of 1998-1999 . The programmes of Food Technology, Construction, Marble Processing and Drilling were opened within the Department of Technical Programmes during the period of foundation. Furthermore, new students have been accepted to the Department of Computer Technologies and Programming within the scope of Ministry of National Education (MEB) - Higher Education Council (YOK) Project of Improving the Vocational Schools of Higher Education since 2002-2003. The school continued its academic life by being transferred into the body of University of Gazi in accordance with the protocol signed between University of Gazi and University of Hacettepe in 2003. Halls of residence with a high capacity which can meet the accommodation needs of both female and male students have been built in Kaman by Credit and Dormitories Institution (YURTKUR) and the facilities of food, studies, internet connection and cafeterias are available in these residence halls. After graduation, it is possible for the students to be transferred to the faculties of four-year education through the External Transfer Exam. The course language is Turkish . In the academic year which will start in September, 2010, the departments at Kaman MYO and their quotas are listed in Table 1. Programmes Computer Programming Computer Programming (E . E . ) Office Services and Executive Assistance Office Services and Executive Assistance (E . E . ) Technology of Natural Building Stones Electricity Electricity (E . E . ) Electronic Correspondence Technologies Electronic Correspondence Technologies (E . E . ) Technology of Electronics Food Technology Food Technology (E . E . ) Mapping and Cadastre Mapping and Cadastre (E . E . ) Construction Technologies Construction Technologies (E . E . ) Control and Automation Technologies Control and Automation Technologies (E . E . ) Machining Accountancy and Taxing Applications Accountancy and Taxing Applications (E . E . ) Marketing Drilling Technologies Drilling Technologies (E . E . ) * E . E . = Evening Education Quotas 120 120 80 40 40 40 40 80 40 40 100 100 80 60 60 60 40 40 40 40 40 40 80 40 Table 1 : Kaman MYO, Programmes and the Quotas for 2010 (Source: www://osym . gov . tr). 253 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo According to the foregoing data, the total quota is 1460 and in the event that all the quotas are full, the total number of the students will be nearly 2200 and will be almost 3000 a year later. Literature Review A group of people who come together to achieve a goal forms the organizations. To achieve the goals of the organizations is possible through the management activities. It goes without saying that the goals can be effectively and productively achieved thanks to the existence of the human factor. Akyol (2008) The success of the human resources applications carried out in education organizations directly affect the quality, motivation and performance of the instructors which, as a result, plays an important role in forming the future of the society by directly affecting the quality of the individuals educated. Akyol (2008) The human resources management, in the broadest term, can be defined as a strategic and consistent approach which is developed in order to manage the most important entity of an organization; that is the employees. The human resources management is the management of all activities made in order to acquire and improve a high work force in and organization , ensure and keep their motivation high. Barutçugil (2004) The instructors at school are in a dynamic structure which is continuously changing, innovating, and improving. In the difficult process of becoming an information society, the movements towards a change based on information has also changed the expectations of people from the education. Today, the traditional way of education is insufficient; planning radical changes and transformations in the education policies, their goals, and the structure and functions of the education organizations and in education programmes have become an urgent need. Arslan and Eraslan (2003). The function of the education system and realization of its functions as required are only possible with an organization with a sufficient capacity and quality. Balcı (2000) Within the scope of the human resources management practices to be carried out in the education institutions, it should be first determined what kind of people and skills are required for the management of the school in an effective way and the conduct of the training activities in a successful way. The required human resources should be selected carefully and an effective method should be developed in order to carry out this selection successfully. The activities made at school should be analyzed, the content of the work, the requirement for them, and the order of operations should be determined in this respect. New systems should be created in order to increase the performance of the personnel at school. The professional future of personnel should be planned, thus their professional improvement should be guided. The human resources that the school has in it should be used in the fields where they can be successful, that is the right person should do the right thing. The personnel should continuously be ensured to improve themselves. In order for the human resources at school to be managed in an effective way, the school should keep in touch with other schools and institutions and should have information about their human resources as well. New plans should be made to meet the need for a human force for the future and the personnel should be educated for the needs of the future. Erdoğan (2003) The most important factor which leads the way to the success or failure of an education organization is the determination of the instructors in the right way, in the right time and with the right qualifications and the selection of the most useful one among them is individually an important issue. Therefore, finding, selecting and placing an employee which is a dynamic function of the human resources management, which is the employment is the hardest but the most important function of the process. Akyol (2008) The most general and suitable definition for career can be summarized as this: “Career is the experience gained and the series of attitudes and behaviours about activities that a person has acquired all his life”. The process to achieve the goals that individuals determined in their professional or social lives and the experiences which came along through the programmes they applied in this process play an important role in terms of structuring their career. insankaynaklari.com (2008). Career development is the collection of all activities that individuals made in order to achieve their career goals all their lives. Barutçugil (2004) According to the results of a survey conducted among the instructors, although their needs and expectations are different, these common facts play an important role in motivation and job satisfaction. Ataklı (1996): • A good and fair salary • Good working conditions • Promotion and improvement opportunities • Appraisal of success • A job guarantee • Understanding of personal problems • The nature of the job as interesting and meaningful. 254 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo The key factor in increasing the motivation of the instructors is to ensure the efficacy at school . The school management should lead the instructors to cooperation and to increase the quality of the education in their departments or classes. Increasing the responsibility for education, decreasing the loss of a job, developing objective standards and encouraging groups are the main fields that are required for being successful. The school managements should create a bond between the super-units and subunits. Emmanuel (1998) Method (The Structure of the Model Created) Within the scope of the human resource practices to be realized in the education organizations , it has been determined what kind of people and skills are required in order to manage the Kaman MYO effectively and carry out the educational activities successfully and thus the main philosophy has been formed . In order to apply for the exam of being an instructor at a Vocational School of Higher Education in Turkey , one needs to finish a four year degree with a higher score than the average , and to work in his/her field for at least two years or to do a master’s degree programme . In addition, one is required to receive a score over a minimum passing score from the Academic Personnel Master’s Degree Exam (ALES) and to have a good score from the foreign language exams that are conducted with a centralized system. The candidates who can meet these requirements are subject to a written exam and an interview and then they are employed. In the process of recruitment , in addition to the requirements for being an instructor , the applicants are told that the ones who want to make an academic career will be preferred , and therefore they will have an off day in a week for their master’s degree or doctorate’s degree studies , and the ones who finish their doctorate’s studies will be an instructor (as an associate professor) as practicable as possible . As we believe that “Only going into the classroom and teaching” is obsolete even at secondary education institutions , we have paid attention to choose the applicants who may do academic studies , participate in social and group activities , and hence contribute to the vision of Kaman MYO . In order to realize our aims , it is considered that the most productive choice is to combine the efforts of an experienced academic staff that is devoted to the vision of Kaman MYO and has high academic values with the efforts of a junior personnel who can achieve high motivation by learning the goals and thus a good training structure has been planned for the junior staff . Since Kaman MYO is affiliated to a state university, the charges are determined as per the public regulations. As good working conditions are required for the highly qualified staff employment, lodgings are provided for most of our academicians who come out of Kaman. New office furniture, telephone and internet connections have been supplied in their offices which are clean and spacious; ring services are also available from the lodgings to the school buildings. The rewarding of the instructors has been paid great attention. All the instructors have been guaranteed that they will have their jobs on condition that they improve themselves scientifically and educationally. All kinds of academic studies either in Turkey or abroad have been supported. The new instructors have also been informed that their personal problems will be tried to be overcome in Kaman MYO where we try to build close relationships. We state that the relationship between the academicians and the students is warm but the factor of respect shall never be forgotten. We also state that Kaman MYO is a model school and is known as mentioned in its vision and will have a wide range of products which is highly prestigious and preferred. Therefore, the instructors who will contribute to the provision of these products will be also highly respected and demanded. This great target has been internalized by all staff, and the academic and administrative studies have continued and will continue until late at nights. New systems have been created for increasing the performances of the young instructors, their professional futures have been planned, and therefore their improvements in their careers have been guided. The current human resources have been led to activities where they can use and improve their skills. The personnel should always be ensured that they will improve themselves. Other institutions and schools have been contacted and cooperative opportunities have been created. Plans for meeting the human force which is required for the future have been made; the academic staff has been trained for the future needs. The ages, and the rates of finishing master’s and doctorate’s degree of the academic staff of Kaman MYO are listed in Table 2. 255 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo No Age MS PhD 52 OK OK 55 OK OK 35 OK 44 OK OK 42 OK OK 34 OK OK 27 OK 28 OK 28 OK 27 OK 29 OK 26 OK 25 OK 30 OK 26 OK 33 OK 29 OK 29 OK OK 28 OK OK 27 OK OK 29 OK OK 28 OK 31 OK 29 OK 30 OK 33 OK 28 OK 33 OK 32 OK 30 OK 26 OK 26 OK 29 OK 33 OK 27 OK 32 OK 27 OK 28 OK 33 OK 40 Ali Đhsan KARAYĐĞĐT Orhan ÇAKIRER Engin YÜKSEL Ebubekir KILIÇ Latif Onur UĞUR Zeynel BAŞIBÜYÜK Ahmet AKSOY Kadir Can BURÇAK Muhammed ARSLAN Mustafa KILIÇ Mehmet Fatih TEFEK Serdar KORKMAZ Đlknur BEKEM Emel Elif YARDIMCI Yasemin TAŞKIRDI Sertan AYTAÇ Göktürk ÖZTÜRK Gökhan ÖZEN Serap YALÇIN Berna ÖZALP ÖZEN Ediz Sadık KANBĐR Engin EKDUR Faih BALLI Yasin KAPLAN Emre ĐNCE Gökhan HEPYÖRÜK Şekip Esat HAYBER Barış Gürcan HAKANOĞLU Bekir YURDUGÜZEL Serkan KESER Mücella ÖZBAY Ali ÖZTÜRK Gökhan EKĐNCĐOĞLU Halil Özcan ÖZDEMĐR Fatih KESKĐNKILIÇ Başar ALTUNTAŞ Mustafa Halid KARAARSLAN Öznur ŞAKLAK Ramazan LEYLEK Murat AVAN 39 OK 41 Mehmet GÜCÜYETMEZ 30 OK 42 Nilüfer KAMAN M . Akif ALKAYA Ceyda ZERENAY Yasin YAYLAR Suzan ERTÜRK Filiz GEMĐCĐ Tuğba AKKOYUN Total Average 28 OK 44 OK 24 OK 27 OK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 43 44 45 46 47 48 Name , Family Name 31 OK 28 OK 28 OK OK OK OK OK OK 1497 31 . 2 Table 2 : Education and Ages of the academic staff of Kaman MYO. According to these data, there aren’t any academicians who did not do their master’s degree and the average age level (together with the instructors) is 31.2 . Creation of a free working environment where all kinds of positive efforts put forth by the young instructors in the educational, cultural, arts, sport and social fields, is supported . 256 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Applications and Acquisitions Some of the applications made in approach origin in the method section and some of the improvements and acquisitions have been listed as follows: Kaman MYO Total Quality Management System Kaman MYO has created and certified a Total Quality Management System since 2007. The system which is dynamically improving with the detection and development efforts made every year and which is applied in a wide range of fields can be found in many different departments of a great number of universities in Turkey. The vision of Kaman MYO is: “To be a vocational school of higher education which is a leader in Turkey and which is known all over the world”. Its mission is: “To train the technicians whose level of knowledge and skills is very high, who received a modern education, who are required in both public and private sector in the market needs, and who can fulfil their duties at a demanded quality level and on time”. See (Fig. 1) Figure 1: Certificates of Total Quality Management System. Publications: Handouts, posters, articles, reports, books Over the last 3 years, the academicians at Kaman MYO have had 7 papers that are browsed at Science Situation Index, 9 international congress notices, 36 articles in national scientific journals with referees, 8 national congress poster notices, 4 national sector reports and three scientific course books published. The instructors of Kaman MYO Construction Programme have prepared a book which has been published by Turkish Technicians Association and which is based on “The Profession of Civil Technician and Training of Civil Technicians” as a precedent in Turkey; and they have been given a letter of appreciation for their efforts by the Turkish Technicians Association . Courses, seminars, conferences, and interviews outside Kaman MYO The academicians at Kaman MYO have given training courses through conferences and seminars at the Ankara, Kayseri and Eskisehir branches of Chamber of Civil Engineers, at the central office of Turkish Contractors Association (TMB), at the central office of Turkish Employers’ Association of Construction Industries (INTES). They have also held conferences at Cicekdagi MYO University of Ahi Evran and at Ministry of Justice Kaman Prison. Courses, seminars, conferences, and interviews at Kaman MYO 257 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo In addition to the training courses in the fields of AutoCad , Net Cad , DGS Mathematics , Total Quality Management , MS Project and planning , a great number of seminars , conferences , and interviews were organized with the participation of experts in the sectors , public servants and the managers of professional unions . Among these comes the Branch Manger of Building Control by Ministry of Housing, Chairman of Ankara Project Management Association, Chairman of Union of Building Control Institutions, and the members of the Executive Committee of Turkish Technicians Association. Theatre Club, Novel Club In addition to the stage plays that the Theatre and Novel Clubs at Kaman MYO have in Kaman, they have successfully performed 4 different plays and poem concerts with 6 different themes and contents at Performance Hall of University of Ahi Evran, Mucur MYO, Cicekdagi MYO, Kirsehir Governorship, Kirsehir Prison and Kaman Prison many times. See (Fig. 2) Figure 2: Views from different performances, news from newspapers atc. Performances of Turkish Folk Music Club, Rock Music Club, Folk Dances Club After the regular concerts the Turkish Folk Music and Rock Music groups which were established in 2009 give in Kaman, they were asked to take the stage in the Spring Festivals and Graduation Ceremonies of University of Ahi Evran and they also passed the elections for the Rock Music Festival to be held among all universities in Turkey and a competition organized by a national music television. The Folk Dances Club performed waltz as well as the Azerbaijani and Caucasian dances. Celebration programmes of the national days With the performances of the art groups at Kaman MYO have so far presented and will present Kaman MYO at the celebration programmes for the national days/festivals (such as 18th March , 19th May , 23rd April 29th October) prepared within the body of Kaman MYO and University of Ahi Evran , Kaman Governorship , Kirsehir Governorship and Kirsehir Municipality . Scientific, cultural and social expeditions abroad Academicians and students at Kaman MYO have participated to represent Turkey and the University of Ahi Evran in academic, cultural and social activities held in Italy, Poland, Slovakia, Austria, Belgium and Netherlands for the last two years and have contributed to the cultural integration activities. Furthermore, the 258 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo academicians of Kaman MYO made speeches about disarmament, decreasing the drug abuse, and nuclear wastes at Headquarters of the European Union. Technical Excursions in Turkey A great number of vocational and technical excursions have been organized to a lot of production plants, industrial plants, administrative centres, application units and fairs at local and international level so that the students have been given the opportunity to learn more about the fields they are studying and the production stages and to meet the experts in the professional sector practices. Among the places which have been visited so far comes Hirfanlı Hydroelectricity Plant , Kaman-Ankara Divided Highway Constructions, Karabuk Iron and Steel Plant , Kayseri Organized Industrial Site, Tuyap Istanbul Electronics Fair, Ankara Construction Fair, Izmir Natural Stones Fair, Production Plants of Milk, Meat and Oil, Cement factories, Ready Mixed Concrete Plants, and numerous construction sites. See (Fig. 3) Figure 3: Technical Excursions. Social and cultural excursions Excursions based on architectural history of Safranbolu Historical Houses, on culture of Nevsehir Hacibektas Veli Mausoleum and on history of Kaman Archaeological Museum; trips to near touristy and natural places have been held on holidays. MYO and MYO Student congresses/ symposiums For the first time in Turkey, two Kaman MYO students presented their notices which they had previously prepared with their instructors in front of more than 600 scientists at an international symposium, and this was on the news both on television and in the newspapers and Mayor of Kaman and the District Governor of Kaman received the notices of appraisal from Kirsehir Governor and District Governor of Izmir Seferihisar where one of the students reside. These two students at Kaman MYO also made presentations at the MYO congress which was held in Inegol, Bursa in 2009. Ten of the abstract presentations which they had prepared with their instructors were accepted for the National MYO Students Congress to be held in Duzce in November, 2010 which is the first of these congresses. The contributions of the instructors who take part in the organization of these congresses and symposiums as well as the science councils and who spend their time with their students so that they can improve themselves and produce on scientific and social fields at an international level are of great importance . Laboratories The laboratories which are required by the departments giving technical training and they are still being improved. Among these comes the Microbiological Food, Chemical Food, Natural Structural Stones, Construction Material, Concrete, Electronics and Correspondence, Printed Circuit, PLC, Electronic laboratories. See (Fig. 4) 259 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Figure 4: Different laboratories. School buildings, Structure of Cultural Centre, new TOKĐ building Kaman MYO, which continued its educational activities in an old building which used to be a pensioner house until two years ago, in line with its growth in the number of departments, instructors and students, had a new school building of 12 classrooms in February, 2008 and had a bigger building of 24 classrooms (TOKI Building) in April, 2010 as a result of giving the first building back to the Ministry of National Education and still continues its activities in these buildings . In addition to these buildings, thanks to the protocol signed, the operation rights of the Kaman Culture Centre were transferred to Kaman MYO. See (Fig. 5) Figure 5: School buildings. News in the newspapers (at local and national levels) The local press makes significant contributions to Kaman MYO and makes news on the local, national and international success, social, cultural, artistic and sports activities of Kaman MYO. This news takes part in the press of Kirsehir and national press. Columns at local newspapers The academicians at Kaman MYO continue their activities in order to open up the horizon of people in Kaman and Kirsehir, widen their scope of perspective and increase their intellectual level. Various academicians write literature critics on the column titled “Why should we read, and what should we read?” by taking turns and try to increase the level of reading habits and quality of critics. E-student newspaper On the Kaman MYO web site, an e-student newspaper, named “Sesimiz (Our Voice)” which includes the news and columns of students and the interviews with their instructors is published on a monthly basis. Academic studies about Kaman The instructors of Kaman MYO make and publish scientific researches not only in their fields of expertise but also local elections , production of walnuts and milk , housing constructions of the construction firms and their marketing activities , relationships between the Kaman public and Kaman MYO . These 260 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo activities receive great attention and support by both Kaman and Kirsehir community, Kirsehir governorship, Municipality and Chamber of Commerce, and the fields of study can be broadened. Publication of scientific journal (Ahi Evran University, Journal of Vocational Sciences) Kaman MYO is trying to complete the works related to the publication of a refereed, periodical, and scientific journal (Ahi Evran University, Journal of Vocational Sciences) which will be published within the body of Kaman MYO and it will soon be published . Therefore a dynamic platform which the publications both from Turkey and from all over the world will be met on can be formed, the developments and researches particularly from Vocational Technical Training will be contributed. Competitions for Poems and Stories, books issued Competitions for writing and reading poems and writing stories are organized open to the participation of all students of Kaman MYO, the creators of the works which are placed are awarded with a ceremony and their works are issued in books. Therefore, we try to improve the cultural and artistic capabilities of our students and try to eternalize their works by publishing them. Sports activities In addition to the football, basketball and volleyball matches organized within the body of Kaman MYO every year, the students take part in the championships held among the faculties, Vocational Schools of Higher Education and Vocational Schools within the body of University of Ahi Evran. Protocols signed with the industry The protocols signed with the industrial firms are for the aim of contributing to the internship and employment of students. All of the students of department of drilling works are ready even while they are studying; and the training places of the students of the departments of construction, food and computing programmes and employment of some of them will be realized based on the agreements made. We still continue our efforts to make new protocols with different industrial firms for the other departments. Construction of a Hotel and the University Campus; Technical consultancy services and concrete tests The Construction Programme within the body of Kaman MYO, thanks to both its modern laboratories and the experience and knowledge of its academicians, gives technical consultancy service in the construction of a five star thermal hotel whose construction is still being made in Kirsehir as well as conducts and reports a great number of tests –foremost among these comes the concrete tests- within the scope of the construction of the Ahi Evran University Campus which is still being carried out in Kirsehir. In addition it gives consultancy in the planning and control of construction projects. Establishment of a Graduate Supervision System Efforts to set up a graduate supervision system within Kaman MYO is still being made with great speed; a new vice-director is going to be appointed and a new computer software is going to be prepared in this respect . 261 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo Getting the experts in Kaman and near towns to give lectures Kaman MYO is also benefitting from the knowledge and experience of the experts in technical and administrative fields. Professional pragmatics and administrators give lectures for a term in different programmes. That the students know more about their sectors and the qualities they are required to have is aimed. This has also become very prestigious among the professionals in Kaman and Kirsehir and the demand for giving lectures has continuously increasing. Kaman MYO’s role in the administration of the township of Kaman The academicians of Kaman MYO take part in various councils in the administration of Kaman. In addition to their roles in education, they continue to give support to the local administrations. Some of these councils are Human Rights Council, Public Education Commission, Kaman Strategic Planning Council, etc. Library Kaman MYO, which has a big library, is continuously improving this library where both the academicians and the students can benefit from national and international publications. With an agreement made with the Kaman Central Library, all the students have become a member of this library and benefit from this library and its good conditions for their studies and social activities . See (Fig. 6) Figure 6: Library Teaching Foreign Languages The official foreign language which is being taught at state universities in Turkey is the English language. However, other than English, Kaman MYO is providing German, Russian and Japanese classes and courses either within the curriculum or additional courses. The students are aimed to be versatile and know the values of different cultures. Students’ opinions As a result of the polls carried out about equipments, education, social facilities, personal development, etc. , a vast majority of the students expressed that they are satisfied with their school, instructors and the level of the education they are receiving. The number of students who responded to the question whether they would like to study at a different Vocational school of higher education does not exceed 5% of the total number of students. Since the age gap between the instructors and the students is not very big, the students express that they are happy with their brother-sister relationship they have with their instructors and with their instructors’ efforts. Supporters Deputies of province of Kirsehir , Kirsehir Governorship , Kaman Municipality , Kaman District Governorship, Rectorship of University of Ahi Evran, Ministry of National Education (MEB), local press, Kaman Chamber of Commerce and benefactors support the development of Kaman MYO and contribute its becoming well-equipped, construction of new residence halls , improvement of social and cultural facilities with great satisfaction . Results and Evaluation While the quality of the education is being improved through not only the physical development but also the seminars, conferences and technical excursions organized, and the modern laboratories established, a great number of scientific articles, notices, scientific reports, original and supplementary course books produced contributed to the scientific development of the school. Within the scope of the European Union grant projects, numerous instructors and students participated in eight different countries and projects, and social integration has been increased thanks to the EU higher education and youth projects. The success gained in the sports activities within the vocational school of higher education and the university , the soft music , folk music and rock music 262 �2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo concerts prepared by the student groups , high artistic values at theatre plays , musicals , and poem concerts , publication of the works of the students who were placed and got an honourable mention in the story and poem writing competitions, have all been realized thanks to the young and dynamic academic staff . Kaman MYO, which is at the top of the list among the 550 vocational schools of higher education in Turkey in a short period of time, has created a good education model. In order to achieve its goal “to be a leader in Turkey and widely known in the world”, the combination of an experienced academic staff that is devoted to the vision of Kaman MYO and has high academic values with the efforts of a junior personnel whose career goals have been clarified is deemed to be the best choice, in addition to the training of the junior staff together with the aforementioned acquisitions, we believe that the choice made and applications conducted are suitable. All kinds of achievements we made are thanks to the great efforts and devoted approach of the young academic staff. That this brings positive results to Kaman MYO as a model is well appreciated. Undoubtedly, all the achievements we have made so far have an important role but they are not sufficient for our goal. The progress we have made should be improved with the development efforts. It is expected that the development of this model with a sustainable sense of quality and taking it into account in the structuring to be carried out by other higher education institutions will have positive contributions to the global vocational and technical training efforts. References Akyol, B. (2008). The Effect Of Human Resources Functıons On Teacher Performance In Schools, Ms Thesis, Insitude of Social Sciences, Đstanbul, Yeditepe University, (in Turkish) Barutçugil, Đ. (2004). Strategic Human Resource Management, Kariyer Pulishing, Đstanbul, p.32. Arslan, M., Eraslan, L. (2003). New Education Paradigm and Necessity of the Conversion in Turkish Education System, The National Education Magazine, http://yayim.meb.gov.tr/dergiler/160/arslan-eraslan.htm, 160. Balcı, A. (2000). Organization and Management of Turkish Education System in New Millenium, Journal of Educational Management in Theory and Practice, Ankara, 24(6), p.495-508. Erdoğan, Đ. (2003). School Management and Instructional Leadership, 4. Edition, Sistem, Đstanbul, p. 114-115. Individuals and Career Management Concept, (2008). www.insankaynaklari.com Ataklı, A. N. (1996). Importance of Personel Qualities and Motivations to work in Lecturers, Contemporary Education Review, 221, s. 23-26. Emmanuel N.C. (1998). How Community College Administrators Can Improve Teaching Effectiveness, Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 22, s.1-6. 263 � Dublin Core The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/. Extent The size or duration of the resource. 705 Title A name given to the resource An Education Structuring Model in Vocational and Technical Education with The Orijins of Young Lecturers: Kaman Vocational School Author Author Karayiğit, Ali İhsan Uğur, Latif Onur Abstract A summary of the resource. In this study, it is discussed that a breakthrough approach to education with young faculty members in vocational technical education. Kaman Vocational School which was connected another university before, connected Kırsehir Ahi Evran University with a decision received in its foundation date in 2006. Continuing its tarining activities given 160 students three departments, two permanent faculty members and the others coming from nearby provinces; Kaman Vocational School has gained acceleration with a department at four years, students over 1700 and 48 faculty members and the radical decisions given by university management. Not only physical growth but while improving the quality of education with seminars, conferences, technical tours, modern laboratories, important scientific progress achieved by numerous scientific articles and reports, papers, original and alternative textbooks. Under European Union (EU) projects, it was participated with lots of faculty members and students to eight different countries and projects; the social integration increased with the EU higher education and youth arrangements. Successes in sporting activities held within the Vocational School and the university; higher artistic levels in light music, folk music, rock music concerts, theatres, musical and poetry nights prepared by student groups; publishing students’ works that take a degree and honorable mention in story and poetry writing competitions are all provided with the contributions of young and dynamic academic staff. Among over 550 Vocational School in Turkey, Kaman Vocational School that catches on the tops in a short time, constituted a sample training model. In the study, in this model and the role of young teaching staff and the added value they provide within this model is discussed with the help of related data. Date A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource 2010-06 Keywords Keywords. Conference or Workshop Item PeerReviewed H Social Sciences (General)