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2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Effect Of Capital Movements Liberalisation On Economical
Development: Boundary Test Approach
Mehmet MERCAN
ADÜ. Social Science Institute
mmercan48@hotmail.com
Osman PEKER
Dr., ADÜ. Nazilli ĠĠBF
ottopeker@Yahoo.com
Abstract: In this study, liberalization of capital movements‘ impact on economic growth in
Turkey has been investigated by the approach of the bounds testing. According to the empirical
findings of study, in both long and short-term, capital movements impact on economic growth is
statistically insignificant. This result is far from meeting our theoretical expectations.
Key Words: Turkey, Capital Movement, Libarelization, the Bound Test Approach.
1. Introduction
The view about that financial liberalisation would cause much higher economical development has been
expressed firstly by Mc Kinnon and Show. According to this view known as Mc Kinnon and Show hypothesis in
literature, the maximum rates applied to the deposit rates will cause a decrease in real interest rates in an economy
repressed as financially. Considering the possibility of a decrease in real interest rates to the minus degrees in an
inflationist atmosphere, the house hold could direct its savings to the unproductive investments like real estate, gold
and hard goods instead of financial havings. By limiting the loanable fonds of banking sector, this situation will
cause the credits pass to the preferred sectors and firms without being predicted on the objective criteria instead of
their expected returns and will prevent the use of sources effectively. If the press on the interest rates is removed, it
will be provided to be used the sources in productive areas via trending of savings to the banking sector. As the bank
deposit will expand by this, much more credit possibility for investment will occur and economical growth will
increase.(Mathieson, 1980; Melo ve Tybout, 1986; Dornbush ve Reynoso, 1989).
In international capital flows mutual profits exist for the countries. As the direction of capital flows is
generally from the country that have more capital to the country that have less capital, marginal product of the capital
is in higher rates than the country that has the capital.Thus, the capital is directed to more productive and effective
fields. In this process that means much more production will happen per capital unit, a welfare increase occurs also
in the country giving the capital.(Eichengreen vd., 1998:12; Bacchetta, 1992: 474). When evaluated on this point of
view, for the poor countries capital movements liberalisation can be seen as an economic policy that is necessary to
use for increasing the investment possibilities and decreasing the capital costs. (Fischer, 1998; Summers, 2000).
By the liberalasation of capital movements the market structure in financial sector changes in the direction
of weaking the monopoly power of institutions. As this provides the chance to act in more suitable conditions in
credit markets, it causes an increase on realizable real estates and a decrease on borrowing costs. (Kenen, 1976: 31).
In this process that means the specializing in the financial services, the increasing specialization causes a
development in international economic benefits. (Mathreson ve Suarez, 1992: 41).
However, when the recent developments considered we can see that capital movements gradually act more
independently than real ecenomy. While most of the total transations in currency markets consists of short period
profit making commercial transations, very little part of this is directed to the commercial activities. This transactions
is the main reason for the the weekness in the international currency capital markets. (Verghese, 1985). So in 1980‘s
the foreign capital lost its function in the 1950‘s and in general it tended to speculative short termed portfolio
investments.
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In this term portfolio investments contained most parts of the transations in financial markets. Much growth
in portfolio investments caused some risks to occur in the economies of the countries firstly by decreasing the real
investment possibilities. Especially the possible great fluctuations on the currency rates and financial asset prices
resulted in crises by negatively affecting the macroeconomical balance. Since the capital flows occuring as portfolio
investments can move fast and in a short time,UNCTAD warns for the possible risks. For instance, the determining
factor in capital flows tended to Latin America wasn‘t economic and since it was shaped according the others‘
behaviors, it was speculative. In other words, investment owners behaved speculatively instead of behaving
according to the economical reasons. This increased the prices of real estates while it made the currency of the
country valuable irrationally. With this point of view the Mexican crisis was not a surprise. (Akyüz, 1995: 14).The
Ex post point has revealed that some proofs of Ortodox economy is not realist. Today the countries having much
financial crisis experience especially find it hard to pay their depts. It is anticipated to apply a program for depts in
order not to delay in the system.
In fact Bhagwhati (1998), Rodrik (1998) and Stiglitz (2002), draw attention that capital account
liberalisation doesn‘t improve the growth as it is said; even it may cause crisis. Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999),
Detragiache and Demirguc-Kunt(1998) and Glick and Hutchinson also have expressed the similar views (2001) and
added that financial liberalisation has a tendency in increasing bank and money crisis.According to UNCTAD
(1990) , in a system that has no exchange controls, credit allocation can not be directed to the fields to increase the
effectivity.Because a banking system based on liberal market is less sensible to the persuasion and sources tend to
the short term profits instead of the use for the economical development.
As it is evaluated by the different poinf of views, it is difficult to say that there is an agreement about the
effects of capital movements liberalisations on the econimical growth. Eichengreen and Leblang (2002: 1) point that
it can‘t be estimated weather capital account deficit increases or prevent the growth and in general the proofs are not
enough eventhough many researches are made on the subject.
2. Data And Methods
This survey covers 1998:01 and 2009:09 variables have been used and all variables have been calculated in
percentages. The variable vektör of the survey is: yt=[it, m2t, opent, tkt] y stands for Gross National Product (GNP), i
stands for Treasury domestic borrowing interest rates, m2, stands for Money supply, open stands for
opennes(export+import), tk stands for total capital movement liberalisation All data have been taken from the
website of the Central Bank of Republic of Turkey(electronic data delivery system)( http://evds.tcmb.gov.tr).
In this survey boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran vd.(2001) has been used in order to
study the effect of capital movement liberalisation over economic growth. This method is considered to be more
usable when comperad to cointegration method developed by Engle-Granger. Series have to be stable in the first
differnce in the Engle-Granger and Johansen. Series can be in different stability levels in ARDL method. Another
advantage of boundary test approach is that analysis can be made with only a few data. (Narayan and narayan,
2004:25) More over as the regresive variables included in analysis. The level and regressive values of independed
veriables can be observed on depended variables. In boundary test apprach firstly whether series move together in
long-term is analysized by means of ARDL cointegration method. Ġf there is conĢntegration relationship betwen
series the coefficient and statistic of regression carried out with this serries will be meaningfull and reliable. If
relationship can be pointed out whit be serries lon an short term analysis are held by means of ARDL method.
3. Analysis And Empirical Findings
Before analysis, the certain tests and procedures relation variables used in the study are needed. tk,
open ve y series have seasonal effect. Series were purifed from seosanal effect by means of Moving
Avarage Methods. Stationary of series were tested with Augmented Dickey Fuller: ADF
3.1. ADF Unit Root Test
If time serries is not stable, medyan, variance and covariance changeble in time. Shocks take place in a term
can effect the others and it becomes permanent. The analysis carried out in this case includs fake regression and F
and t statistics loos their meaning (Gujarati, 1999:2.712).
The stability levels of serries and unitroot test have been studied with ADF test.
DF test is carried out based on three regression equation (Dickey and Fuller, 1979).
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Simple situation:
Yt Yt 1 ut
(1)
Intercept:
Yt 0 Yt 1 u
(2)
Trend and intercept:
Yt 0 1 t Yt 1 ut
(3)
As a result of this tests the DF statistic been compared Mac Kinnon crtitical values zero hypotesis is tested
against the lternative hypotesis. Zero hypotesis showes that serries is not stable alternative hypotesis. Ġf error
correction term is autocorrelated equation (3) is regulated as:
m
Y 0 1 t Yt 1 i Yt i u t
(4)
i 1
Here m stands for regression length and stands for difference operator. Regression number depends on
obtaining model without autocorrelation. A test which is carried out this way is called ADF test in short. Tests
results obtained accordingly are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: ADF Test Results Expanded for Dickey-Fuller Variables (ADF)
Variables
ADF Test
Critical Values
Y
-1,06[11]
-3,48
Δy
-7,04[10]
-3,48
İ
-2,14[2]
-3,47
Δi
-9,86[1]
-3,47
m2
-6,02[3]
-4,02
o p en
-3,14[12]
-3,48
Δo p en
-5,69[10]
-3,48
Tk
-3,07[5]
-3,47
Δtk
-10,39[4]
-3,47
Note:The values in [ ] points out teh lag number. By taking the lag lenght which Akaike Lag is the lowest. Mac
Kinnon test values pointed out without trend and intercept test values. In this test were used trend and intercept for
m2 ve open variables, intecept other variables. For first difference of variables(Δ) were used intercept.
3.2. Co-Integration Test
The level values of many macroeconomic variables are not stable. If there is a co-integration relationship
between series in other words if series move together in the long term, a fake regretion trouble will not be faced in an
analysis to be carried out with level values(Pesaran etc, 2001:290;Gujarati 1999). However, the dynamic behaviors
of variables moving together in the long term cause some deviations in the balance equation(Enders, 1996:151).
This is one of the basic characteristic of co-integration variables and plays an important part in the short term
dynamic. The dynamic model appearing along with this process is called error correction model(Enders, 1995: 365).
An unrestricted error correction model is setup so that boundary test approach can be applied. (unrestricted error
correction model: UECM) This model can be applied to our survey as fallows:
m
m
m
i 0
i 0
yt 0 1i yt i 2i i t i 3i m2t i
i 1
m
m
i 0
i 0
4i opent i 5i tk t i 6 yt 1 7 i t 1 8 m2 t 1
9 opent 1 10tk t 1 ut (5)
Here, m; stands for optimum lag length, ∆ stands for difference operator, ut stands for error correction term,
those which are given with other letter abbreviation stands fort he meanings in variable definitions. In this survey
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optimum lag lenght has been determined by means of Akaike Criterion. According to Kamas ve Joyce (1993) there
musn‘t be autocorelation between error terms of model‘s optimum lag length so that the test can give healthy result.
If there is autcorolation in the lag lenght which Akaike Criteria lowest. One has to next lag.
The test result of lag lenght are presented in Table 2. Maksimum lag lenght is 2 since the data in this survey is
monthly.
m
1
2*
3
4
5
6
7
8
AIC
4.86
4,71
4,77
4,80
4,86
4,86
4,91
4,96
LM Test
0,00
0,66
0,66
0,62
0,12
0,32
0,32
0.51
Table 2: The lag length is point out for boundary test
The optiumum lag length determined as a two in the Table 2. In this lag length hasn‘t autocorelation. After
lag length determined it passed testing process cointegration relationship between variables. In boundary
cointegration relationship between values is made by mines of testing ziro hypotesis. (H 0:α4=α5=α6=0) Zero
hypotesis accept or reject is determinated with F test. Calculate value contrasted Table conpered and contrast min
and max value in Pesaran etc. 2001 Table. In the fisrt case if calculated F statistic value lover than min critic value. It
is decided that there is coengration relation between series. In the second case if calculated F statistic value in
between max and min critice value no definite commend can be made. In this case must be tried alternative
coentegration methots. Finaly calculated F statistic value bigger than Table max critic it is decided that there is
cointegration relationship between series.
For testing H0 calculated F statistic value compared with critic value which taken Pesaran etc 2001 in Table
3. This critic values given fort 4 independed variable and mining full %1.
k
Calculated F
Alt Sınır
Üst Sınır
4
6,46
3,74
5,06
Note: k stands for variable number. Critical values are extracted from Table CI (iii) in Pesaran etc.
Tablo 3: Boundary Test Results
It is observed that calculated F statistics is higher than utmost critical value. In this case H0 hypothesis is
denied and it is concluded that there is a co-integration relationship between variables. Since the existence of cointegration relationship between series is remarked, ARDL models started to be estimated to search the long and
short term relationships between variables.
3.3 Long Term Analysis
ARDL model which is used in order to analyse long term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 0
i 0
yt 0 1i yt i 2i i t i 3i m2t i
i 1
r
k
i 0
i 0
4i opent i 5i tk t i ut (6)
Here m, n, p, r ve k is Lag length and determined with AIC. This transaction has been carried out with the
method that Kamas and Joyce(1993) proposed in their causality analyses so as to determine Lag length. Therefore;
first of all, regression according to dependent variables‘ own regressive values is made and the lag length of without
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otecorelation model which gives the lowest AIC value. Then, regression models were formed by keeping the
identified lag length of the dependent variable stable and all possible regressions of foreign direct investment
variable which is the first independent variable and the regressive number of independent variables was found by
taking AIC values into consideration. Optimum regression number was obtained by repeating similar transactions for
other variables. As a result of the transaction carried out, it was decided that ARDL(7.1.1.0.0) was the long term
ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented in Table 4.
AIC
m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7*
8
5,10
5,12
4,75
4,76
4,78
4,78
4,70
4,72
LM Test
0,00
0,00
0,21
0,08
0,00
0,00
0,76
0,39
n
0
1*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
r
0*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
AIC
LM Test
4,65
4,58
4,60
4,61
4,61
4,62
4,64
4,65
4,67
0,72
0,97
0,97
0,97
0,77
0,85
0,84
0,84
0,44
p
0
4,60
0,38
4,58
0,62
1*
4,59
0,47
4,59
0,61
2
4,61
0,39
4,60
0,68
3
4,62
0,38
4,61
0,70
4
4,64
0,33
4,62
0,81
5
4,64
0,37
4,63
0,83
6
4,65
0,24
4,64
0,81
7
4,65
0,97
4,66
0,71
8
4,67
0,97
4,67
0,79
k
0*
4,59
0,62
1
4,60
0,49
2
4,61
0,47
3
4,62
0,50
4
4,64
0,47
5
4,64
0,66
6
4,65
0,66
7
4,66
0,57
8
4,66
0,88
Tablo 4: Determination of Lag Length for Long Term Boundary Test
The estimate results of long term ARDL(7.1.1.0.0) and long term coefficients calculated based on the
results mentioned are available in Table 5.
In Table 5; variables of Money supply, opennes and capital movement coefficient‘s signs accord with our
teoric expects.
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Variables
C
i
m2
open
tk
Diagnosis Tests
R2=0.45
Coefficient
0,3481
0,0259
0,2049
0,0538
0,0005
t-statistic
0,8154
3,4533
1,3995
2,0456
0,7142
2BGAB(2 )=0,51(0.60)
2WDV=0,63(0.90)
2JBN=239,78(0.00)
2RRMKH(2)=0,73(0.48)
2
R =0.39
F ist.=7,71(0,00)
DW=2,00
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values
Tablo 5: The Results of Calculated Long Term Coefficient of ARDL (7.1.1.0.0) Model
Taking the results in Table 5 into consideration, capital movement and money supply can‘t be interpreted so
that Theirs coefficient is meaningless as regards statistic value. Coefficient of interest variables increased positive
unlike our teoric expectations.
3.4 Short Term Analysis
Short term relation between variables again investigated by means of ARDL Error Correction Model based
on boundary test approach. ARDL model which is used in order to analyse short term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 1
i 0
i 0
yt 0 1ECt 1 2i yt i 3i i t i 4i m2t i
r
k
i 0
i 0
5i opent i 6i tkt i ut (7)
Here ECt-1 is error correction terms and it stands for one term lagged of error terms series which it is
obtained from long term relationship. Coefficient for this variable is point out duration of sort term deviation. If
this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long term
balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value.
In this model lag length of veriables determineted just like long term. As a result of the transaction carried out, it
was decided that ARDL(5.1.0.0.0) was the short term ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented in
Table 6.
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AIC
m
1
2
3
4
5*
6
7
8
5,29
4,71
4,71
4,72
4,69
4,70
4,70
4,68
LM Test
0,00
0,05
0,07
0,02
0,29
0,41
0,36
0,00
n
0
1*
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
r
0*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
AIC
LM Test
4,68
4,64
4,65
4,66
4,67
4,69
4,70
4,71
4,73
0,25
0,46
0,43
0,35
0,36
0,30
0,35
0,39
0,42
p
0*
4,65
0,52
4,61
0,48
1
4,66
0,44
4,62
0,50
2
4,65
0,43
4,63
0,60
3
4,69
0,42
4,64
0,15
4
4,69
0,48
4,65
0,65
5
4,71
0,45
4,66
0,66
6
4,69
0,41
4,68
0,63
7
4,71
0,31
4,68
0,70
8
4,73
0,27
4,70
0,67
k
0*
4,63
0,44
1
4,64
0,44
2
4,65
0,47
3
4,66
0,40
4
4,67
0,44
5
4,68
0,43
6
4,69
0,45
7
4,68
0,53
8
4,70
0,34
Table 6: Determination of Lag Length for Short Term Boundary Test
The result of estimated ARDL (5.1.0.0.0) model given in Table 7. Coefficient of ECt-1 (error correction
terms) is -0,72 in Table 7. This coefficient is negative and meaningful like expected. If coefficient‘s signs of error
correction terms is negative, model is convergences to long term balance level.
If this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long
term balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value (Narayan ve
Smyth 2006). Therefore error correction of model is works. Although capital movements impact on economic
growth, like long term effect, is positive and according with theoritical expectation, statistically insignificant.
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Variables
yt-1
yt-2
yt-3
yt-4
yt-5
it
it-1
m2t
opent
tkt
ect-1
C
Diagnosis Tests
R2=0,70
R 2 =0,68
Coefficient
-0,3538
-0,3392
0,0961
-0,1636
-0,1825
-0,0319
0,0509
0,0152
0,0380
0,0002
-0,7274
-0,0587
t-statistic
-2,0340
-1,8955
0,5281
-1,4758
-2,2912
-1,9067
2,9609
0,1873
2,5170
0,4738
-3,6701
-0,2843
2BGAB(2 )=2,56(0,08)
2WDV=0,62(0,89)
2JBN=228,78(0,000)
2RRMKH(2)=0,13(0,87)
DW=1,98
F=26,80(0,00)
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values
Table 7: The Results of ARDL (5.1.0.0.0) Model
Results
In this survey, capital movement impact on economic growth in Turkey has been investigated by using
monthly datum term of 1998:01-2009:09. In survey, boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran has
been obtained cointegration findings between variables and based on this has been formed long and short term
ARDL models
According to obtained ampirical evidence, although in long and short term capital movement impact on
economic growth is positive, meaningless as regards statistic value. Therefore Coefficient of capital movement can‘t
be interpreted.
It is determined that opennes and interest variables positive effected on economic growth in the in long
term. It is observed that effect of interest one term lagged and opennes on economic growth is positive in short term.
In this study the relation between capital movement liberalisation and economic growth meaningless and
this is not according with economic literature.
This may be due to different reasons. Therefore this subject must be with other ampirical studies. So, It is
thought that be made open to the outside of the capital account‘s effect in financial crisis happen Turkey is
important.
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Weekly, XX(18), 797-800.
516
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267
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The Effect Of Capital Movements Liberalisation On Economical Development: Boundary Test Approach
Author
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MERCAN, Mehmet
PEKER, Osman
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this study, liberalization of capital movements‘ impact on economic growth in Turkey has been investigated by the approach of the bounds testing. According to the empirical findings of study, in both long and short-term, capital movements impact on economic growth is statistically insignificant. This result is far from meeting our theoretical expectations.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Relationship Between Economic Growth And Tax Revenue: Bounds
Testing
Mehmet MERCAN
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
mmercan@adu.edu.tr
Ġsmet GÖÇER
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
igocer@adu.edu.tr
ġahin BULUT
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
sbulut@adu.edu.tr
M. Metin DAM
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
metindam@hotmail.com
Abstract : Taxes are one of the most important sources of finance; moreover they are able to have
various impacts on chief indicators of economy. However, taxes may have negative as well as
positive impacts. The relationship between economic growth and tax revenue in Turkish economy
has been studied in this survey. In the survey, the existence of relationship between series and cointegration as well as long and short term links have been studied through ARDL bounds testing
and it was observed that series moved together in the long term.
In the long term analysis, a relationship between indirect and direct taxes with economic growth
has a meaningful and positive relationship. It was found out that direct taxes effect bigger than
indirect taxes.
In the short term analysis, the coefficient of vector error correction model was signed negative and
statistically meaningful. This means that the deviation, which took place in the short term between
series which moved together in the long term, has disappeared and series came close to each other.
Again, both types of taxes in the analysis of short-term growth is positive and statistically
significant influenced, besides in the short term analysis it was observed that indirect taxes effect
bigger than direct taxes.
Key words: Economic Growth, Indirect and direct taxes revenue, Bounds testing.
JEL Sınıflandırması: E62, H21, H27, O49.
1. Introduction
Tax is the transfer of the sources without any provision and under the rules of political force from the
economical deparments of the goverment in order to provide the expenses of the puclic facilities (Temiz, 2008).
Throughout the history countries have provided the income they need to act their basic functions by collecting
taxes.At the same time tax policy is used for the economic and social purposes like allocation for sources through
increasing internal savings,increasing economic growth of the country, providing price stability and controling the
production and consumption level indirectly.
Tax incomes are one of the most essential sources to administer the public facilities.In order to provide
social security services,state investments and the other public expenses the goverment will either collect taxes or get
into the debt. Getting into debt is the last way to prefer for the countries.
Taxes in an economic system may effect the amount of the goods and services produced and the income and
prices of production factors directly or indirectly (Yılmaz, 1996). The taxes which have the capacity to effect directly
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
people‘s decisions to use for the labour, savings,investment and source can be effective on the economic growth via
different channels.Especially for the developing economies analysing the relationship between the taxes that are the
primary source for the public and the growth would contribute to form tax policies and improve some applications
(Gül ve Kenar, 2009).Especially in developing countries today taxation policy which is an instrument for the
financial policy is a very effective financial instrument (Eker vd., 1996:32).
We can categorize the taxes in use today in three groups according to the characters of the event that
caused for their use: The taxes about the incomes including income taxes, corporation taxes,etc;the taxes about
expenses including income taxes based upon expenses,transaction and sale taxes and custom taxes,etc;the taxes
about the propertiess and the transfer of the properties including general property taxes,real estate taxes,capital
taxes,motor vehicle taxes (Temiz,2008).
Also taxes can be categorized in some other forms as in rem-monetary,spesific-advolorem and directindirect taxes (Bulutoğlu,1970). Furthermore it is also common to categorize the taxes in two big classes as direct or
indirect. While analysing the reflection of the taxes on the economic growth in recent studies, especially direct and
indirect identification is used.This identification is also very essential to form good taxation systems.
Direct taxes are the taxes collected from the individuals and the corporations according to their income
level whose tax payer and payer is the same. In these taxes there is no possibility for the tax payers to reflect his tax
obligation to the others. Income taxes that the goverment collect from the factor incomes (interest, fee, profit,
annuity) and taxes on the properties and corporation taxes are the example for the direct taxes (Turan,2008).
On the other hand indirect taxes are the taxes resulted from the use of goods and services.Everybody
using the taxable goods and services pay the tax at the same percentage however income they have.In these taxes the
tax payer and its payer is different. The Value Added Tax and the excies tax are in the group of indirect taxes.
(Temiz,2008).
The situation desired in the taxation policies is to provide most of the tax collection by the direct
taxes.These taxes mostly support the economic growth. However, indirect taxes can contribute to the economic
growth like direct taxes if they are used suitable for economic structure of the country,too. Economic growth
expresses the increase of the real national income in the length of time.In developed or especially developing
countries economic growth has a special importance. There are many theories in this issue.Economic growth theories
are analysed in terms of their factors,qualities and characters that have effects on the economic growth. In this
context economic growth theories mostly major on the matters of capital accumulation,technical improvement and
population increase.In an economy there are two commonly approved approaches about the economic growth rate.
These are Harrod-Domar and Neo-classic Harrod-Domar growth model founded by making Keynesyen balance
model dinamic and based on Keynesyen hypothesis actracted many attentions in the post-war years. Harrod-Domar
model suggests the idea that growth rate is determined by the capital accumulation.In this case it can be possible for
the goverment to realize the target growth rate by intervening the economy via the financial policy instruments or to
remove the possible drifts on the long term growth rate.In this context the government on one hand has a great role
to realize the economic growth with the public expenses,on the other hand it can use the taxation policy as an
instrument for an increase in the total savings quantity of the economy.In this case it will be possible to increase the
public savings,to encourage private investments and to resist against the structural instabilities which are derived
from the economic growth and may cause a danger in growth.(Demircan, 2003).
At the same time indirect taxes can help to reduce the consumption and encourage the savings in the
economy by effecting the relative prices.So an indirect tax on the consumption goods can reduce the expenses on
these goods by increasing the consumption cost and it can help these sources to be directed to the investments.
(Temiz,2008).
In this study the relationship between the indirect and direct tax incomes and the economic growth in
Turkey is analysed with the limit test approach by the help of the annual information between 1924 and 2009
years.In the study,in second section following the introduction part,the sructure of the taxation in Turkey is analysed
and third section including a summary of literature about the subject follows. Method and information set are in the
fourth,analyse and empiric findings are in the fifith section.The study ends with a short conclusion and evaluation
part.
2. Taxation Applications In Turkey
While in developed countries especially rate of the direct taxes are high in tax incomes,in developing
countries indirect taxes are high.In developed countries avarage %26 of total taxes , in developing countries more
than %50 of taxes is composed of indirect taxes. The main reason for that is the application of indirect taxes is easier
in spite of the difficulties in the application of the taxes collected on the income, the individuals are unaware about
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
these taxes and they response less to the tax implementors.The high rate of the indirect taxes in developing countries
is closely related to the economic growth.Since the taxation systems are not exactly efficient in these countries,
indirect taxes are emphasized.(Temiz,2008).
When the improvement of indirect and direct taxes are analysed in Turkey a great and fast change stand out
in the composition of the direct and indirect taxes in total tax incomes especially post-1980. While the indirect tax
rate is %36 in 1980,this rate went up to % 64 when we were in 2009. It can be said that the taxes collected from
goods and services like value added tax and excise tax have an essential role in total tax incomes in the increase of
indirect taxes.
Especially after the economic crisis in 1994 in Turkey the rate of indirect taxes in total taxes increased an
this rate rised until %69.(Graphic 1).After economic crisis and The Marmara Earthquake in 1999 some temporary
taxes became permanent and this was effective on this rise.
While 71 Billion TL of tax (%36)of the total 196 Billion TL of tax collected in 2009 in Turkey is consisted
of direct taxes, the rest of 125 Billions of TL(%64)of tax is consisted of indirect taxes. This shows we are very far
away from the ideal porsion rate between direct and indirect taxes.
Graphic: 1 The Portion of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Tax Incomes in Turkey
80
70
60
50
Direct Dolaysız
Tax
40
Vergi
Dolaylı
İndirect
Tax
30
Vergi
20
10
0
Source: Income Directory Management (GĠB).
1923 1930 1937 1944 1951 1958 1965 1972 1979 1986 1993 2000 2007
One important point is that the rate of the tax incomes of the countries in the rate of gross national product.While this
rate passes %40 in developed countries,it is %20 in developing countries.(Graphic 2). This rate is essential in
showing how much public expenses are financed by the tax incomes and whether the countries need external loans or
not.
Graphic2: The Rate of Tax Incomes in the Rate of Gross National Product (%)
45
40
35
OECD
OECD
Total Toplam
30
OECD Amerika
OECD
OECD
USA Pasifik
25
OECD Avrupa
20
OECD
ABPasific
15
15
Türkiye
10
OECD Europe
5
EU 15
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
0
Turkey
Source: OECD, Revenue Statistics of OECD Member Countries, Paris,2009.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
3. Literature
There is a wide literature on the subject of the effects of the direct and indirect taxes on long term growth.In
accordance with the Neo-classic growth model Solow (1956) supposes that taxation has no effect on long term
growth. Most of the studies in accordance with the Internal growing model result direct and indirect taxes have a
negative effect on the long term growth. It is accepted that indirect taxes have more effects on the gowth than the
direct taxes.
Marsden (1983),wanted to stress that as the tax rates increase it causes low growth. Skinner (1987), reached
a similar result by using the rates of personal and institutional income taxes.
King ve Rebelo (1990), observed about % 2 of decrease in growth per year when tax rates increased %
10.As a result in the study, he stated that in long term income taxes have a decreasing effect on the individual
earnings,on the other hand Mendoza vd. (1997) stated that in theory it can be estimated that the changes in income
taxes affect the investments and the growth but in practise the tax policy and the changes on composition of direct
and indirect taxes is an uneffective instrument to effect the economical growth in long term.
Easterly ve Rebelo (1992) who used an information set about 1970-1988 years for many developing countries
concluded that two measurements about marginal income rates have a negative but unimportant effect on the
individual consumption growth .
Plosser (1992) stated that there is a negative relationship between avarage individual real growing rates and
avarage tax rates on income and profits in OECD countries,while William Easterley ve Sergio Robelo (1993) stated
that this negative relationship disappeared when the begining income stage was checked. Writers also stated that the
countries applying low tax rates was more succesful in reaching a high growing speed than the countries applying
high tax rates.
Roubini and Milesi-Feretti (1994) searched the effects of income taxes in open economy on the economic
growth in accordence with the internal growing models.They especially stressed on the effects of the taxation of the
income on the pysical capital saving decision of private sector and increase of the allocations via individual capital
savings.Writers concluded that allocation and pysical taxes have negative effects on the growth.
In an another study Roubini and Milesi-Feretti (1995) searched the effects of income and consumption taxes
in the process based on the pysical and individual capital savings. The results showed that in general taxation of
factor incomes(individual and pysical capital) had decreasing effects on the growth.The effect of consumption taxes
on the growth is determined to change according to the supply of labour flexibility and consequently free time
preferances.
Razin and Yuen (1995) searched the effects of taxation of capital income on the long term growth in
accordence with the internal growing model which is open to the international capital movements and the population
increase is considered as an internal variable. The results of the study containing G7 countries showed that in the
case of whole capital movement, cuts on the capital taxes would cause a decrease on the individual income rates and
growth.
Engen ve Skinner (1992) who used an information set including 1970-1985 years about 107 countries
stated that both expenses of the state and the taxation have strong and negative effects on the growth,it was estimated
a 1.4 percent point decrease on long term growth by increasing the budget with 10 percent in balance on the expenses
of the state and the taxation,the administritive structure of the tax system was also important on the evaluation of the
effect of the taxation on the production , Ram‘s results were supported by the instrumental variables approach.
Engen ve Skinner (1996) searhed the effects of a general taxation cut under the control of three approach
on the long term growth.These approaches consists of a micro model containing investigation of historical time
series for the USA, a stage regresion analysis, labour supply,investment demand and productivity boost. The result
of the study show that taxation had a mid-staged effect on the long term growth.
Leibfritz and the others (1997) stated that about a 10 percent point increase on the tax rates in the past 35
years could have decreased the OECD annual growth rates about ½ percent point,however this calculation had some
defects to evaluate the effects of taxes on the economy so it was necessary to support these calculations with an
another approach.
Kneller and the others (1999) who studied weather the proofs in OECD countries are coherent with the
estimates of the endogenic growing models anticipating that puclic expenses and the structure of the taxes could
effect the stable growth rate by using an information set including 1970 and 1995 years about 22 OECD countries
reached a fact that non-deforming taxation didn‘t decrease the growth but deforming taxation decreased the growth,
productive state expenses increased the growth but non-productive expenses didn‘t increased the growth.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Anastassiou and Dritsaki (2005)searched for the Greece economy the tax incomes,direct marginal tax rates
and the relationship between savings-income rate and growth rate.In the study to search for the long term realtions
Johansen koentegrasyon method,fort he short term relations Granger causility test was used.The proofs showed the
existence of a long term relation between the variations in the study. In term of short term relations, it was found a
one way casual relation from direct marginal tax rates and tax incomes to the growth.
Durkaya ve Ceylan (2006) analised the realtionship between 1980–2004 years tax incomes and economical
growth with Engle-Granger integration test and casuality test and figured out that there was a double sided realtion
between direct taxes and growth,however there was no realtionship between indirect taxes and the growth. It was
stated that if the tax increases to increase the tax incomes had been made upon the indirect taxes,the negative effect
of the tax increase on the growth would have been decreased. It was also stated that the change of the current tax
items from direct taxes to indirect taxes would make the same effect.
In his study Demircan(2003)stated that there was a close relationship betweeen groth and economy policies
and a growth and development in the country ecenomy was closely related with the income tax decreases. He stated
that to work was important and the tax decreases which increase the production and national income would directly
increase the gross national product rate,and also if there was a politic and economic stability in the state,the changes
to reconstruct in tax conduction and mechanisms for taxing encouragement had positive effects on the growth and
development.Also he stated that the direct taxes taken on expenses were both for providing the equality in taxes and
they affected indirectly economic growth and development in terms of encouraging the savings by reducing the
luxurious consumptions.
4. Data And Methods
This survey covers 1924 and 2009. 3 variables have been used and all variables have been calculated in
percentages. The variable vektör of the survey is: Yt=[DLIt, DSZt]. Y stands for Gross National Product (GNP), DLI
indirect tax income and DSZ direct tax income. All data have been taken from the website of the Directorship of
Income(www.gib.gov.tr).
In this survey boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran vd.(2001) has been used in order to
study the effect of tax revenue over economic growth. This method is considered to be more usable when comperad
to cointegration method developed by Engle-Granger. Series have to be stable in the first differnce in the EngleGranger and Johansen. Series can be in different stability levels in ARDL method. Another advantage of boundary
test approach is that analysis can be made with only a few data. (Narayan and narayan, 2004:25) More over as the
regresive variables included in analysis. The level and regressive values of independed veriables can be observed on
depended variables. In boundary test apprach firstly whether series move together in long-term is analysized by
means of ARDL cointegration method. Ġf there is conĢntegration relationship betwen series the coefficient and
statistic of regression carried out with this serries will be meaningfull and reliable. Ġf relationship can be pointed out
whit be serries lon an short term analysis are held by means of ARDL method.
5. Analysis And Empirical Findings
5.1. ADF Unit Root Test
If time serries is not stable, medyan, variance and covariance changeble in time. Shocks take place in a term
can effect the others and it becomes permanent. The analysis carried out in this case includs fake regression and F
and t statistics loos their meaning (Gujarati, 1999:2.712).
The stability levels of serries and unitroot test have been studied with ADF test.
DF test is carried out based on three regression equation (Dickey and Fuller, 1979).
Simple position:
Yt Yt 1 ut
(1)
Intercept:
Yt 0 Yt 1 u
(2)
Trend and intercept:
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Yt 0 1 t Yt 1 ut
(3)
As a result of this tests the DF statistic been compared Mac Kinnon crtitical values zero hypotesis is tested against
the lternative hypotesis. Zero hypotesis showes that serries is not stable alternative hypotesis. Ġf error correction term
is autocorrelated equation (3) is regulated as:
m
Y 0 1 t Yt 1 i Yt i ut
(4)
i 1
Here m stands for regression length and stands for difference operator. Regression number depends on obtaining
model without autocorrelation. A test which is carried out this way is called ADF test in short. Tests results obtained
accordingly are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: ADF Test Results Expanded for Dickey-Fuller Variables (ADF)
Level Values
1. Difference
Variables
ADF sts..
Mac Kinnon %1
test values
ADF sts.
Mac Kinnon %1
test values
G
-1,83
-3,51
-8,40[2]
-3,51
DLI
-1,78
-3,52
-3,55[10]
-3,52
DSZ
-2,41
-3,51
-9,17[2]
-3,51
Note:The values in [ ] points out teh number. By taking the lenght which Akaike is the lowest. Mac Kinnon test
values pointed out without trend and intercept test values.
In the Table 1 it is observed that all series I(1) when their first differences are taken.
5.2. Co-Integration Test
The level values of many macroeconomic variables are not stable. If there is a co-integration relationship
between series in other words if series move together in the long term, a fake regretion trouble will not be faced in an
analysis to be carried out with level values(Pesaran etc, 2001:290;Gujarati 1999). However, the dynamic behaviors
of variables moving together in the long term cause some deviations in the balance equation(Enders, 1996:151).
This is one of the basic characteristic of co-integration variables and plays an important part in the short term
dynamic. The dynamic model appearing along with this process is called error correction model(Enders, 1995: 365).
An unrestricted error correction model is setup so that boundary test approach can be applied. (unrestricted
error correction model: UECM) This model can be applied to our survey as fallows:
m
m
i 1
i 0
m
Gt 0 1i Gt i 2i DLIt i 3i DSZt i 4Gt 1
i 0
5 DLIt 1 6 DSZt 1 ut
(5)
Here, m; stands for optimum length, ∆ stands for difference operator, ut stands for error correction term,
those which are given with other letter abbreviation stands fort he meanings in variable definitions. In this survey
optimum lenght has been determined by means of Akaike Criterion. According to Kamas ve Joyce (1993)
There musn‘t be restpective connection error terns of optimum laght lend so that the test can give healthy
result. If there is autcorolation in the lag lenght which akaike criteria lowest. One has to next lag.
The test result of lag lenght are presented in table 2. Maksimum lag lenght is 4 since the data in this survey
is annual.
m
1*
2
3
4
Table 2: The lag length is point out for boundary test
AIC
LM Test
8,217
0,69
8,295
0,47
8,246
0,04
8,287
0,19
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The optiumum lag length determined as a one in the table 2.In this lag length hasn‘t aoutocorolation.
After lag length determined it passed testing process cointegration relation ship between variables.
In boundary cointegration relationship between values is made by mines of testing ziro hypotesis.
(H0:α4=α5=α6=0) Zero hypotesis accept or reject is determinated with F test.
Calculate value contrasted table conpered and contrast min and max value in Pesseran etc 2001 table. In the
fisrt case if calculated F statistic value lover than min critic value. It is decided that there is coengration relation
between series. In the second case if calculated F statistic value in between max and min critice value no definite
commend can be made. In this case must be tried alternative cointegration methots. Finaly f calculated F statistic
value bigger than table max critic it is decidet that there is cointegration relationship between serious.
In this study unrestricted error correction model is estimate to lag length and calculated F statistic. Results
given in table 3. For testing H0 calculated F statistic value compared with critic value which taken Pesaran etc 2001
in table 3. This critic values given fort 2 independed variable and mining full %1.
Table 3: Boundary Test Results
k
F Calculated
Min
Max
2
14,20
5,15
6,36
Note: k stands for variable number. Critical values are extracted from Table CI (iii) in Pesaran etc.
It is observed that calculated F statistics is higher than utmost critical value. In this case H0 hypothesis is
denied and it is concluded that there is a co-integration relationship between variables. Since the existence of cointegration relationship between series is remarked, ARDL models started to be estimated to search the long and
short term relationships between variables.
5.3 Long Term Analysis
ARDL model which is used in order to analyse long term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 1
i 0
i 0
Gt 0 1iGt i 2i DLIt i 3i DSZt i ut
(6)
Here m, n, p is length and determined with AIC. This transaction has been carried out with the method that Kamas
and Joyce(1993) proposed in their causality analyses so as to determine length. Therefore; first of all, regression
according to dependent variables‘ own regressive values is made and the length of the whit out autocorelation model
which gives the lowest AIC value. Then, regression models were formed by keeping the identified length of the
dependent variable stable and all possible regressions of foreign direct investment variable which is the first
independent variable and the regressive number of independent variables was found by taking AIC values into
consideration. Optimum regression number was obtained by repeating similar transactions for other variables. As a
result of the transaction carried out, it was decided that ARDL(4,1,4) was the long term ARDL model to be
estimated and results are presented in table 4.
The Lag Length determine for The Long Term Boundary Test
m
AIC
LM
n
AIC
LM
p
AIC
(G)
Test
(DLI)
Test
(DSZ)
0
0
8,710 0,00
0
8,382
1
8,889 0,83
1
8,262
1*
8,600 0,60
2
8,925 0,11
2
8,621 0,94
2
8,286
3
8,900 0,17
3
8,643 0,14
3
8,309
4
8,662 0,23
4*
8,875 0,99
4*
8,244
LM Test
0,00
0,93
0,61
0,01
0,25
The estimate results of long term ARDL(4,1,4) and long term coefficients calculated based on the results mentioned
are available in table 5.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Table 5: The results of Estimated ARDL (4,1,4) Model and The Long Term Coefficients
Variables
Coefficient
t-statistical
c
0.980880
0.400290
Gt-1
-0.003891
-0.027863
Gt-2
-0.092723
-0.723156
Gt-3
-0.004752
-0.042695
Gt-4
-0.122843
-1.233238
DLIt
0.323505
3.733284
DLIt-1
0.131856
1.405338
DSZt
0.276303
4.966621
DSZt-1
0.208335
3.236775
DSZt-2
-0.025281
-0.367004
DSZt-3
0.016428
0.258477
DSZt-4
0.156683
2.534998
The Long Term Coefficient
DLI
0,371963
4,251
DSZ
0,461113
4,094
c
0,801235
0,401
Diagnosis Tests
R2=0.82
2BGAB(2 )=1,588(0.21)
2
2WDV=0,309(0.99)
R =0.79
F ist.=29,58(0,00)
2JBN=24,78(0.00)
DW=1,84
2RRMKH(1)=0,13(0.71)
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values.
Taking the results in table 5 into consideration, both direct and indirect taxes increase economic growth and
affect it statistically meaningfully.
Dolaysız vergilerin büyümeyi, dolaylı vergilerden daha çok arttırdığı görülmektedir.
5.4. Kısa Dönem Analizi
Short term relation between variables again investigated by means of ARDL Error Correction Model based
on boundary test approach. ARDL model which is used in order to analyse short term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 1
i 0
i 0
Gt 0 1ECt 1 2i Gt i 3i DLIt i 2i DSZt i ut (7)
Here ECt-1 is error correction terms and it stands for one term lagged of error terms series which it is
obtained from long term relationship. Coefficient for this variable is point out duration of sort term deviation. If this
sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long term balance
value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value.
In this model lag length of veriables determineted just like long term. As a result of the transaction carried
out, it was decided that ARDL(5.1.0.0.0) was the short term ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented
in Table 6.
Table 6: Determination of Lag Length for short Term Boundary Test
m
AIC
LM
n
AIC
LM
p
AIC
(∆G)
Testi
(∆DLI)
Testi
(∆DSZ)
0
0
8,893 0,28
0
8,633
1
9,002 0,58
1
8,790 0,12
1
8,422
2
8,939 0,33
2
8,428
2*
8,745 0,44
3
8,769 0,05
3
8,413
3*
8,912 0,77
4
8,927 0,31
4
8,783 0,02
4*
8,271
633
LM
Testi
0,05
0,01
0,41
0,003
0,50
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Tablo 6‘da da görüldüğü üzere, tahmin edilecek kısa dönem ARDL modelinin ARDL(3,2,4) modeli olduğu sonucuna
ulaĢılmıĢtır. ARDL(3,2,4) modeli tahmin edilmiĢ ve kısa dönem tahmin sonuçları Tablo 7‘de verilmiĢtir.
Table 7: The Results of ARDL (3.2.4) Model
DeğiĢken
Katsayı
t-istatistiği
c
-0.100249
-0.064078
0.043531
0.212927
Gt-1
-0.030741
-0.191601
Gt-2
0.009492
0.079344
Gt-3
DLIt
0.292074
3.742568
0.100524
0.937896
DLIt-1
-0.033611
-0.398041
DLIt-2
DSZt
0.282694
5.472546
0.227042
2.792811
DSZt-1
-0.018289
-0.187475
DSZt-2
0.038494
0.497487
DSZt-3
DSZt-4
0.187336
3.517646
ECt-1
-0.946504
-3.807904
Tanısal Testler
R2=0,64
2BGAB(2 )=0,94(0,39)
2WDV=0,31(0,99)
R 2 =0,58
DW=1,99
2JBN=24,65(0,00)
F=10,42(0,00)
2RRMKH(1)=4,76(0,03)
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values
Coefficient of ECt-1 (error correction terms) is -0,72 in Table 7. This coefficient is negative and meaningful
like expected. If coefficient‘s signs of error correction terms is negative, model is convergences to long term balance
level.
If this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long
term balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value (Narayan ve
Smyth 2006). Therefore error correction of model is works. Although capital movements impact on economic
growth, like long term effect, is positive and according with theoritical expectation, statistically insignificant.
Tablo 7‘deki sonuçlar incelendiğinde; hata düzeltme teriminin (EC) katsayısı -0,94 ve t istatistiği anlamlı
çıkmıĢtır. Bu katsayı beklenildiği gibi negatif ve istatistikî olarak anlamlıdır. Dolayısıyla modelin hata düzeltme
terimi çalıĢmaktadır. Yani, uzun dönemde birlikte hareket eden seriler arasında kısa dönemde meydana gelen
sapmalar ortadan kalkmakta ve seriler tekrar uzun dönem denge iliĢkisine yaklaĢmaktadırlar. Dolaylı ve dolaysız
vergiler, cari dönemde de gecikmeli dönemlerde de büyümeyi arttırıcı yönde ve istatistikî olarak anlamlı düzeyde
etkilemektedir. Bu sonuçlar beklentilerimize ve iktisat teorisine uygundur. Dolaylı vergilerin büyümeyi dolaysız
vergilerden az da olsa daha çok etkilediği görülmektedir.
Result And Evaluation
In this study, from the declaration of Republic to today‘s Turkey, the link between the tax income and the
economical development is analysis in border test method.
To understand whether tax income varieties have different effect on development, direct indirect taxes were
analysied separately.
In the cooperation analysis, it is seen that there is a co ordination between the direct and indirect income and
economical development. That is, these series have to movement accordingly. So, it is though that the recreation
analysis administered among the series shold give us reasonable results.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
In long term analysis, it is seen that both the direct and indirect tax effect the development positively. In the
result of long term analysis, it is seen that indirect taxes increase the economical development more than the direct
taxes. This result is more suitable for our economical thought and expectations.
In the short term analysis, the extra valve of correcting error term was seen negative and statically
acceptable. This the correction of the model is working. It can be estimated that there is a balance in the long term
series and the mis direction can be compensated in long term values.
The direct and indirect taxes in the monetary term effect the development considerably. These results are
suitable for our economical theory. It is seen that the direct taxes effect the development slightly more than the
indirect taxes. This is little different from our economical literature.
As seen from this study, the taxing policy, one of the most important part of economical policy, if used in a
suitable condition, is one of the major means of development.
In order to see the Country developing in the long term, it should be better to emphasize on the indirect
taxes instead of direct taxes. Because there is on unsuitable part of direct taxes for the economy. To decrease the
V.A.T Value Added Tax in the common consuming goods will enable the low and middle-income society to have
and consume more properties.
This will also decrease tha gap between classes, decrease the clashes among classes. Ġt will also help to
balance the income and increase the welfare of the country.
References
Anastassiou, T. ve Dritsaki, C. (2005), ―Tax Revenues and Economic Growth: An Emprical Investigation for Greece Using
Causality Analysis‖, Journal of Social Sciences 2 s. 99-104.
Bulutoğlu, Kenan (1970); Türk Vergi Sistemi, 3. Baskı, Ġstanbul, s. 341.
Demircan, Esra S. (2003), ―Vergilendirmenin Ekonomik Büyüme ve Kalkınmaya Etkisi‖, Erciyes Üniversitesi Ġktisadi ve Ġdari
Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Sayı: 21, Temmuz- Aralık s.97-116.
Durkaya, M. ve Ceylan, S. (2006),―Vergi Gelirleri ve Ekonomik Büyüme‖, Maliye Dergisi, Sayı: 50 s.79-87.
Dickey, D. and Fuller, W. A. (1979), ―Distribution of the Estimates for Autoregressive Time Series With a Unit Root‖, Journal of
the American Statistical Association , 74 s. 427-431.
Eker, A., Altay, A. ve M. Sakal, (1996), Maliye Politikası, Takav Matbaacılık, Ġzmir.
Enders, W. (1995), Applied Econometric Time Series, 1 rd edition, Wiley, New York.
Enders, W. (1996), Rats Handbook for Econometric Time Series, John Willey and Song Inc.
Engle, R. and Granger, C. W. (1987),―Co-Integration and Error Correction: Represention, estimation and Testing‖,
Econometrica, 55(2) s. 251 – 276.
Engen, Eric M., Jonathan Skinner, (1992) ―Fiscal Policy And Economic Growth,‖ NBER Working Paper No. 4223.
Engen E. M. ve Skinner J. (1996), ―Taxation and Economic Growth‖, NBER Working
<http://www.nber.org/papers/w5826>
Paper No 5826,
Gujarati, D, N. (1999), Basic Econometrics, Mc Graw Hill, Literatür Yayıncılık, 3 rd edition, Ġstanbul.
Gül Ekrem, Kenan BarıĢ(2009), ―AB Ülkeleri ve Türkiye‘de Vergi Gelirleri ile Ekonomik Büyüme ĠliĢkisi: 1980 – 2008‖,
1.Uluslararası Davraz Kongresi, 24-27 Eylül, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Isparta.
Kamas, L. and Joyce, J. P.(1993), ―Money, Income and Prices Under Fixed Exchange Rates: Evidence from Causality Tests and
VARs‖, Journal of Macroeconomics, 15(4) s. 747-768.
King R. G. ve Rebelo S. (1990), ―Pulic Policy and Economic Growth: Devoloping Neoclassical Implications‖, Journal of Political
Economy 98:5, s.126-150.
635
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Kneller, Richard, Michael Bleaney and Norman Gemmell, (1999), ―Growth, Public Policy and the Government Budget
Constraint: Evidence from OECD Countries,‖ Discussion Paper No.98/14.
Leibfritz, W., J. Thornton and A. Bibbee (1997), "Taxation and Economic Performance", OECD Economics Department
Working Papers, No. 176, OECD Publishing.
Mendoza, Enrique G., Gian Milesi- Ferretti, Patrick Asea, (1997),―On the ineffectiveness of tax policy in altering long-run
growth: Harberger‘s superneutrality conjecture‖, Journal of Public Economics.
Narayan, P. and Narayan, S. (2004), ―Estimating Income and Price Elasticities of Imports for Fiji in a Cointegration Framework‖,
Economic Modelling, 22 s.423-438.
Pesaran, M., Shin, Y. and Smith, R. J. (2001), ―Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships‖, Journal of
Applied Econometrics, 16 s.289-326.
Razin A. ve Yuen C. W. (1995), ―Capital Income Taxation and Long Run Growth: New Perspectives‖,
Paper No 5028, <http://www.nber.org/papers/w5028>
NBER
Working
Roubini N. ve Milesi-Feretti G. M. (1994), ―Taxation and Endegenous Growth in Open Economies‖,NBER Working Paper No
4881, <http://www.nber.org/papers/w4881>
Roubini ve Milesi-Feretti G. M. (1995), ―Growth Effect of Income and Consumption Taxes: Positive and Normative Analyses‖,
NBER Working Paper No 5317, <http://www.nber.org/papers/w5317>
Solow, R. M. (1956), ―A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth‖,Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol.70, s. 65-94.
Temiz, Dilek(2008), ―Türkiye'de Vergi Gelirleri ve Ekonomik Büyüme ĠliĢkisi: 1960-2006 Dönemi‖, 2. Ulusal Ġktisat Kongresi,
20-22 ġubat 2008, DEÜ ĠĠBF Ġktisat Bölümü, Ġzmir.
Turan, Taner, (2008), ―Maliye Politikası Araçlarının Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkileri‖,SayıĢtay Dergisi,Sayı:69, NisanHaziran.
Yılmaz, Hakan (1996); "Türkiye'de Vergi Yapısı ve 1980'den Sonra Sektörel Vergi Yüklerinin GeliĢimi" Uzmanlık Tezi - Devlet
Planlama TeĢkilatı Ġktisadi Sektörler ve Koordinasyon Genel Müdürlüğü. Proje, Yatırımları Değerlendirme ve Analiz Dairesi,
Ankara.
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The Relationship Between Economic Growth And Tax Revenue: Bounds Testing
Author
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MERCAN, Mehmet
GÖÇER, İsmet
BULUT, Şahin
DAM, M. Metin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Taxes are one of the most important sources of finance; moreover they are able to have various impacts on chief indicators of economy. However, taxes may have negative as well as positive impacts. The relationship between economic growth and tax revenue in Turkish economy has been studied in this survey. In the survey, the existence of relationship between series and cointegration as well as long and short term links have been studied through ARDL bounds testing and it was observed that series moved together in the long term. In the long term analysis, a relationship between indirect and direct taxes with economic growth has a meaningful and positive relationship. It was found out that direct taxes effect bigger than indirect taxes. In the short term analysis, the coefficient of vector error correction model was signed negative and statistically meaningful. This means that the deviation, which took place in the short term between series which moved together in the long term, has disappeared and series came close to each other. Again, both types of taxes in the analysis of short-term growth is positive and statistically significant influenced, besides in the short term analysis it was observed that indirect taxes effect bigger than direct taxes.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/57be8c6bd9026bdb575bbe286565eeca.pdf
50ce589bba018271bfbea37fe046cfbf
PDF Text
Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The Relationship Between Economic Growth And Tax Revenue: Bounds
Testing
Mehmet MERCAN
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
mmercan@adu.edu.tr
Ġsmet GÖÇER
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
igocer@adu.edu.tr
ġahin BULUT
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
sbulut@adu.edu.tr
M. Metin DAM
Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi
metindam@hotmail.com
Abstract : Taxes are one of the most important sources of finance; moreover they are able to have
various impacts on chief indicators of economy. However, taxes may have negative as well as
positive impacts. The relationship between economic growth and tax revenue in Turkish economy
has been studied in this survey. In the survey, the existence of relationship between series and cointegration as well as long and short term links have been studied through ARDL bounds testing
and it was observed that series moved together in the long term.
In the long term analysis, a relationship between indirect and direct taxes with economic growth
has a meaningful and positive relationship. It was found out that direct taxes effect bigger than
indirect taxes.
In the short term analysis, the coefficient of vector error correction model was signed negative and
statistically meaningful. This means that the deviation, which took place in the short term between
series which moved together in the long term, has disappeared and series came close to each other.
Again, both types of taxes in the analysis of short-term growth is positive and statistically
significant influenced, besides in the short term analysis it was observed that indirect taxes effect
bigger than direct taxes.
Key words: Economic Growth, Indirect and direct taxes revenue, Bounds testing.
JEL Sınıflandırması: E62, H21, H27, O49.
1. Introduction
Tax is the transfer of the sources without any provision and under the rules of political force from the
economical deparments of the goverment in order to provide the expenses of the puclic facilities (Temiz, 2008).
Throughout the history countries have provided the income they need to act their basic functions by collecting
taxes.At the same time tax policy is used for the economic and social purposes like allocation for sources through
increasing internal savings,increasing economic growth of the country, providing price stability and controling the
production and consumption level indirectly.
Tax incomes are one of the most essential sources to administer the public facilities.In order to provide
social security services,state investments and the other public expenses the goverment will either collect taxes or get
into the debt. Getting into debt is the last way to prefer for the countries.
Taxes in an economic system may effect the amount of the goods and services produced and the income and
prices of production factors directly or indirectly (Yılmaz, 1996). The taxes which have the capacity to effect directly
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
people‘s decisions to use for the labour, savings,investment and source can be effective on the economic growth via
different channels.Especially for the developing economies analysing the relationship between the taxes that are the
primary source for the public and the growth would contribute to form tax policies and improve some applications
(Gül ve Kenar, 2009).Especially in developing countries today taxation policy which is an instrument for the
financial policy is a very effective financial instrument (Eker vd., 1996:32).
We can categorize the taxes in use today in three groups according to the characters of the event that
caused for their use: The taxes about the incomes including income taxes, corporation taxes,etc;the taxes about
expenses including income taxes based upon expenses,transaction and sale taxes and custom taxes,etc;the taxes
about the propertiess and the transfer of the properties including general property taxes,real estate taxes,capital
taxes,motor vehicle taxes (Temiz,2008).
Also taxes can be categorized in some other forms as in rem-monetary,spesific-advolorem and directindirect taxes (Bulutoğlu,1970). Furthermore it is also common to categorize the taxes in two big classes as direct or
indirect. While analysing the reflection of the taxes on the economic growth in recent studies, especially direct and
indirect identification is used.This identification is also very essential to form good taxation systems.
Direct taxes are the taxes collected from the individuals and the corporations according to their income
level whose tax payer and payer is the same. In these taxes there is no possibility for the tax payers to reflect his tax
obligation to the others. Income taxes that the goverment collect from the factor incomes (interest, fee, profit,
annuity) and taxes on the properties and corporation taxes are the example for the direct taxes (Turan,2008).
On the other hand indirect taxes are the taxes resulted from the use of goods and services.Everybody
using the taxable goods and services pay the tax at the same percentage however income they have.In these taxes the
tax payer and its payer is different. The Value Added Tax and the excies tax are in the group of indirect taxes.
(Temiz,2008).
The situation desired in the taxation policies is to provide most of the tax collection by the direct
taxes.These taxes mostly support the economic growth. However, indirect taxes can contribute to the economic
growth like direct taxes if they are used suitable for economic structure of the country,too. Economic growth
expresses the increase of the real national income in the length of time.In developed or especially developing
countries economic growth has a special importance. There are many theories in this issue.Economic growth theories
are analysed in terms of their factors,qualities and characters that have effects on the economic growth. In this
context economic growth theories mostly major on the matters of capital accumulation,technical improvement and
population increase.In an economy there are two commonly approved approaches about the economic growth rate.
These are Harrod-Domar and Neo-classic Harrod-Domar growth model founded by making Keynesyen balance
model dinamic and based on Keynesyen hypothesis actracted many attentions in the post-war years. Harrod-Domar
model suggests the idea that growth rate is determined by the capital accumulation.In this case it can be possible for
the goverment to realize the target growth rate by intervening the economy via the financial policy instruments or to
remove the possible drifts on the long term growth rate.In this context the government on one hand has a great role
to realize the economic growth with the public expenses,on the other hand it can use the taxation policy as an
instrument for an increase in the total savings quantity of the economy.In this case it will be possible to increase the
public savings,to encourage private investments and to resist against the structural instabilities which are derived
from the economic growth and may cause a danger in growth.(Demircan, 2003).
At the same time indirect taxes can help to reduce the consumption and encourage the savings in the
economy by effecting the relative prices.So an indirect tax on the consumption goods can reduce the expenses on
these goods by increasing the consumption cost and it can help these sources to be directed to the investments.
(Temiz,2008).
In this study the relationship between the indirect and direct tax incomes and the economic growth in
Turkey is analysed with the limit test approach by the help of the annual information between 1924 and 2009
years.In the study,in second section following the introduction part,the sructure of the taxation in Turkey is analysed
and third section including a summary of literature about the subject follows. Method and information set are in the
fourth,analyse and empiric findings are in the fifith section.The study ends with a short conclusion and evaluation
part.
2. Taxation Applications In Turkey
While in developed countries especially rate of the direct taxes are high in tax incomes,in developing
countries indirect taxes are high.In developed countries avarage %26 of total taxes , in developing countries more
than %50 of taxes is composed of indirect taxes. The main reason for that is the application of indirect taxes is easier
in spite of the difficulties in the application of the taxes collected on the income, the individuals are unaware about
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
these taxes and they response less to the tax implementors.The high rate of the indirect taxes in developing countries
is closely related to the economic growth.Since the taxation systems are not exactly efficient in these countries,
indirect taxes are emphasized.(Temiz,2008).
When the improvement of indirect and direct taxes are analysed in Turkey a great and fast change stand out
in the composition of the direct and indirect taxes in total tax incomes especially post-1980. While the indirect tax
rate is %36 in 1980,this rate went up to % 64 when we were in 2009. It can be said that the taxes collected from
goods and services like value added tax and excise tax have an essential role in total tax incomes in the increase of
indirect taxes.
Especially after the economic crisis in 1994 in Turkey the rate of indirect taxes in total taxes increased an
this rate rised until %69.(Graphic 1).After economic crisis and The Marmara Earthquake in 1999 some temporary
taxes became permanent and this was effective on this rise.
While 71 Billion TL of tax (%36)of the total 196 Billion TL of tax collected in 2009 in Turkey is consisted
of direct taxes, the rest of 125 Billions of TL(%64)of tax is consisted of indirect taxes. This shows we are very far
away from the ideal porsion rate between direct and indirect taxes.
Graphic: 1 The Portion of Direct and Indirect Taxes in Tax Incomes in Turkey
80
70
60
50
Direct Dolaysız
Tax
40
Vergi
Dolaylı
İndirect
Tax
30
Vergi
20
10
0
Source: Income Directory Management (GĠB).
1923 1930 1937 1944 1951 1958 1965 1972 1979 1986 1993 2000 2007
One important point is that the rate of the tax incomes of the countries in the rate of gross national product.While this
rate passes %40 in developed countries,it is %20 in developing countries.(Graphic 2). This rate is essential in
showing how much public expenses are financed by the tax incomes and whether the countries need external loans or
not.
Graphic2: The Rate of Tax Incomes in the Rate of Gross National Product (%)
45
40
35
OECD
OECD
Total Toplam
30
OECD Amerika
OECD
OECD
USA Pasifik
25
OECD Avrupa
20
OECD
ABPasific
15
15
Türkiye
10
OECD Europe
5
EU 15
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
0
Turkey
Source: OECD, Revenue Statistics of OECD Member Countries, Paris,2009.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
3. Literature
There is a wide literature on the subject of the effects of the direct and indirect taxes on long term growth.In
accordance with the Neo-classic growth model Solow (1956) supposes that taxation has no effect on long term
growth. Most of the studies in accordance with the Internal growing model result direct and indirect taxes have a
negative effect on the long term growth. It is accepted that indirect taxes have more effects on the gowth than the
direct taxes.
Marsden (1983),wanted to stress that as the tax rates increase it causes low growth. Skinner (1987), reached
a similar result by using the rates of personal and institutional income taxes.
King ve Rebelo (1990), observed about % 2 of decrease in growth per year when tax rates increased %
10.As a result in the study, he stated that in long term income taxes have a decreasing effect on the individual
earnings,on the other hand Mendoza vd. (1997) stated that in theory it can be estimated that the changes in income
taxes affect the investments and the growth but in practise the tax policy and the changes on composition of direct
and indirect taxes is an uneffective instrument to effect the economical growth in long term.
Easterly ve Rebelo (1992) who used an information set about 1970-1988 years for many developing countries
concluded that two measurements about marginal income rates have a negative but unimportant effect on the
individual consumption growth .
Plosser (1992) stated that there is a negative relationship between avarage individual real growing rates and
avarage tax rates on income and profits in OECD countries,while William Easterley ve Sergio Robelo (1993) stated
that this negative relationship disappeared when the begining income stage was checked. Writers also stated that the
countries applying low tax rates was more succesful in reaching a high growing speed than the countries applying
high tax rates.
Roubini and Milesi-Feretti (1994) searched the effects of income taxes in open economy on the economic
growth in accordence with the internal growing models.They especially stressed on the effects of the taxation of the
income on the pysical capital saving decision of private sector and increase of the allocations via individual capital
savings.Writers concluded that allocation and pysical taxes have negative effects on the growth.
In an another study Roubini and Milesi-Feretti (1995) searched the effects of income and consumption taxes
in the process based on the pysical and individual capital savings. The results showed that in general taxation of
factor incomes(individual and pysical capital) had decreasing effects on the growth.The effect of consumption taxes
on the growth is determined to change according to the supply of labour flexibility and consequently free time
preferances.
Razin and Yuen (1995) searched the effects of taxation of capital income on the long term growth in
accordence with the internal growing model which is open to the international capital movements and the population
increase is considered as an internal variable. The results of the study containing G7 countries showed that in the
case of whole capital movement, cuts on the capital taxes would cause a decrease on the individual income rates and
growth.
Engen ve Skinner (1992) who used an information set including 1970-1985 years about 107 countries
stated that both expenses of the state and the taxation have strong and negative effects on the growth,it was estimated
a 1.4 percent point decrease on long term growth by increasing the budget with 10 percent in balance on the expenses
of the state and the taxation,the administritive structure of the tax system was also important on the evaluation of the
effect of the taxation on the production , Ram‘s results were supported by the instrumental variables approach.
Engen ve Skinner (1996) searhed the effects of a general taxation cut under the control of three approach
on the long term growth.These approaches consists of a micro model containing investigation of historical time
series for the USA, a stage regresion analysis, labour supply,investment demand and productivity boost. The result
of the study show that taxation had a mid-staged effect on the long term growth.
Leibfritz and the others (1997) stated that about a 10 percent point increase on the tax rates in the past 35
years could have decreased the OECD annual growth rates about ½ percent point,however this calculation had some
defects to evaluate the effects of taxes on the economy so it was necessary to support these calculations with an
another approach.
Kneller and the others (1999) who studied weather the proofs in OECD countries are coherent with the
estimates of the endogenic growing models anticipating that puclic expenses and the structure of the taxes could
effect the stable growth rate by using an information set including 1970 and 1995 years about 22 OECD countries
reached a fact that non-deforming taxation didn‘t decrease the growth but deforming taxation decreased the growth,
productive state expenses increased the growth but non-productive expenses didn‘t increased the growth.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Anastassiou and Dritsaki (2005)searched for the Greece economy the tax incomes,direct marginal tax rates
and the relationship between savings-income rate and growth rate.In the study to search for the long term realtions
Johansen koentegrasyon method,fort he short term relations Granger causility test was used.The proofs showed the
existence of a long term relation between the variations in the study. In term of short term relations, it was found a
one way casual relation from direct marginal tax rates and tax incomes to the growth.
Durkaya ve Ceylan (2006) analised the realtionship between 1980–2004 years tax incomes and economical
growth with Engle-Granger integration test and casuality test and figured out that there was a double sided realtion
between direct taxes and growth,however there was no realtionship between indirect taxes and the growth. It was
stated that if the tax increases to increase the tax incomes had been made upon the indirect taxes,the negative effect
of the tax increase on the growth would have been decreased. It was also stated that the change of the current tax
items from direct taxes to indirect taxes would make the same effect.
In his study Demircan(2003)stated that there was a close relationship betweeen groth and economy policies
and a growth and development in the country ecenomy was closely related with the income tax decreases. He stated
that to work was important and the tax decreases which increase the production and national income would directly
increase the gross national product rate,and also if there was a politic and economic stability in the state,the changes
to reconstruct in tax conduction and mechanisms for taxing encouragement had positive effects on the growth and
development.Also he stated that the direct taxes taken on expenses were both for providing the equality in taxes and
they affected indirectly economic growth and development in terms of encouraging the savings by reducing the
luxurious consumptions.
4. Data And Methods
This survey covers 1924 and 2009. 3 variables have been used and all variables have been calculated in
percentages. The variable vektör of the survey is: Yt=[DLIt, DSZt]. Y stands for Gross National Product (GNP), DLI
indirect tax income and DSZ direct tax income. All data have been taken from the website of the Directorship of
Income(www.gib.gov.tr).
In this survey boundary test approach which was developed by Pesaran vd.(2001) has been used in order to
study the effect of tax revenue over economic growth. This method is considered to be more usable when comperad
to cointegration method developed by Engle-Granger. Series have to be stable in the first differnce in the EngleGranger and Johansen. Series can be in different stability levels in ARDL method. Another advantage of boundary
test approach is that analysis can be made with only a few data. (Narayan and narayan, 2004:25) More over as the
regresive variables included in analysis. The level and regressive values of independed veriables can be observed on
depended variables. In boundary test apprach firstly whether series move together in long-term is analysized by
means of ARDL cointegration method. Ġf there is conĢntegration relationship betwen series the coefficient and
statistic of regression carried out with this serries will be meaningfull and reliable. Ġf relationship can be pointed out
whit be serries lon an short term analysis are held by means of ARDL method.
5. Analysis And Empirical Findings
5.1. ADF Unit Root Test
If time serries is not stable, medyan, variance and covariance changeble in time. Shocks take place in a term
can effect the others and it becomes permanent. The analysis carried out in this case includs fake regression and F
and t statistics loos their meaning (Gujarati, 1999:2.712).
The stability levels of serries and unitroot test have been studied with ADF test.
DF test is carried out based on three regression equation (Dickey and Fuller, 1979).
Simple position:
Yt Yt 1 ut
(1)
Intercept:
Yt 0 Yt 1 u
(2)
Trend and intercept:
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Yt 0 1 t Yt 1 ut
(3)
As a result of this tests the DF statistic been compared Mac Kinnon crtitical values zero hypotesis is tested against
the lternative hypotesis. Zero hypotesis showes that serries is not stable alternative hypotesis. Ġf error correction term
is autocorrelated equation (3) is regulated as:
m
Y 0 1 t Yt 1 i Yt i ut
(4)
i 1
Here m stands for regression length and stands for difference operator. Regression number depends on obtaining
model without autocorrelation. A test which is carried out this way is called ADF test in short. Tests results obtained
accordingly are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: ADF Test Results Expanded for Dickey-Fuller Variables (ADF)
Level Values
1. Difference
Variables
ADF sts..
Mac Kinnon %1
test values
ADF sts.
Mac Kinnon %1
test values
G
-1,83
-3,51
-8,40[2]
-3,51
DLI
-1,78
-3,52
-3,55[10]
-3,52
DSZ
-2,41
-3,51
-9,17[2]
-3,51
Note:The values in [ ] points out teh number. By taking the lenght which Akaike is the lowest. Mac Kinnon test
values pointed out without trend and intercept test values.
In the Table 1 it is observed that all series I(1) when their first differences are taken.
5.2. Co-Integration Test
The level values of many macroeconomic variables are not stable. If there is a co-integration relationship
between series in other words if series move together in the long term, a fake regretion trouble will not be faced in an
analysis to be carried out with level values(Pesaran etc, 2001:290;Gujarati 1999). However, the dynamic behaviors
of variables moving together in the long term cause some deviations in the balance equation(Enders, 1996:151).
This is one of the basic characteristic of co-integration variables and plays an important part in the short term
dynamic. The dynamic model appearing along with this process is called error correction model(Enders, 1995: 365).
An unrestricted error correction model is setup so that boundary test approach can be applied. (unrestricted
error correction model: UECM) This model can be applied to our survey as fallows:
m
m
i 1
i 0
m
Gt 0 1i Gt i 2i DLIt i 3i DSZt i 4Gt 1
i 0
5 DLIt 1 6 DSZt 1 ut
(5)
Here, m; stands for optimum length, ∆ stands for difference operator, ut stands for error correction term,
those which are given with other letter abbreviation stands fort he meanings in variable definitions. In this survey
optimum lenght has been determined by means of Akaike Criterion. According to Kamas ve Joyce (1993)
There musn‘t be restpective connection error terns of optimum laght lend so that the test can give healthy
result. If there is autcorolation in the lag lenght which akaike criteria lowest. One has to next lag.
The test result of lag lenght are presented in table 2. Maksimum lag lenght is 4 since the data in this survey
is annual.
m
1*
2
3
4
Table 2: The lag length is point out for boundary test
AIC
LM Test
8,217
0,69
8,295
0,47
8,246
0,04
8,287
0,19
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
The optiumum lag length determined as a one in the table 2.In this lag length hasn‘t aoutocorolation.
After lag length determined it passed testing process cointegration relation ship between variables.
In boundary cointegration relationship between values is made by mines of testing ziro hypotesis.
(H0:α4=α5=α6=0) Zero hypotesis accept or reject is determinated with F test.
Calculate value contrasted table conpered and contrast min and max value in Pesseran etc 2001 table. In the
fisrt case if calculated F statistic value lover than min critic value. It is decided that there is coengration relation
between series. In the second case if calculated F statistic value in between max and min critice value no definite
commend can be made. In this case must be tried alternative cointegration methots. Finaly f calculated F statistic
value bigger than table max critic it is decidet that there is cointegration relationship between serious.
In this study unrestricted error correction model is estimate to lag length and calculated F statistic. Results
given in table 3. For testing H0 calculated F statistic value compared with critic value which taken Pesaran etc 2001
in table 3. This critic values given fort 2 independed variable and mining full %1.
Table 3: Boundary Test Results
k
F Calculated
Min
Max
2
14,20
5,15
6,36
Note: k stands for variable number. Critical values are extracted from Table CI (iii) in Pesaran etc.
It is observed that calculated F statistics is higher than utmost critical value. In this case H0 hypothesis is
denied and it is concluded that there is a co-integration relationship between variables. Since the existence of cointegration relationship between series is remarked, ARDL models started to be estimated to search the long and
short term relationships between variables.
5.3 Long Term Analysis
ARDL model which is used in order to analyse long term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 1
i 0
i 0
Gt 0 1iGt i 2i DLIt i 3i DSZt i ut
(6)
Here m, n, p is length and determined with AIC. This transaction has been carried out with the method that Kamas
and Joyce(1993) proposed in their causality analyses so as to determine length. Therefore; first of all, regression
according to dependent variables‘ own regressive values is made and the length of the whit out autocorelation model
which gives the lowest AIC value. Then, regression models were formed by keeping the identified length of the
dependent variable stable and all possible regressions of foreign direct investment variable which is the first
independent variable and the regressive number of independent variables was found by taking AIC values into
consideration. Optimum regression number was obtained by repeating similar transactions for other variables. As a
result of the transaction carried out, it was decided that ARDL(4,1,4) was the long term ARDL model to be
estimated and results are presented in table 4.
The Lag Length determine for The Long Term Boundary Test
m
AIC
LM
n
AIC
LM
p
AIC
(G)
Test
(DLI)
Test
(DSZ)
0
0
8,710 0,00
0
8,382
1
8,889 0,83
1
8,262
1*
8,600 0,60
2
8,925 0,11
2
8,621 0,94
2
8,286
3
8,900 0,17
3
8,643 0,14
3
8,309
4
8,662 0,23
4*
8,875 0,99
4*
8,244
LM Test
0,00
0,93
0,61
0,01
0,25
The estimate results of long term ARDL(4,1,4) and long term coefficients calculated based on the results mentioned
are available in table 5.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Table 5: The results of Estimated ARDL (4,1,4) Model and The Long Term Coefficients
Variables
Coefficient
t-statistical
c
0.980880
0.400290
Gt-1
-0.003891
-0.027863
Gt-2
-0.092723
-0.723156
Gt-3
-0.004752
-0.042695
Gt-4
-0.122843
-1.233238
DLIt
0.323505
3.733284
DLIt-1
0.131856
1.405338
DSZt
0.276303
4.966621
DSZt-1
0.208335
3.236775
DSZt-2
-0.025281
-0.367004
DSZt-3
0.016428
0.258477
DSZt-4
0.156683
2.534998
The Long Term Coefficient
DLI
0,371963
4,251
DSZ
0,461113
4,094
c
0,801235
0,401
Diagnosis Tests
R2=0.82
2BGAB(2 )=1,588(0.21)
2
2WDV=0,309(0.99)
R =0.79
F ist.=29,58(0,00)
2JBN=24,78(0.00)
DW=1,84
2RRMKH(1)=0,13(0.71)
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values.
Taking the results in table 5 into consideration, both direct and indirect taxes increase economic growth and
affect it statistically meaningfully.
Dolaysız vergilerin büyümeyi, dolaylı vergilerden daha çok arttırdığı görülmektedir.
5.4. Kısa Dönem Analizi
Short term relation between variables again investigated by means of ARDL Error Correction Model based
on boundary test approach. ARDL model which is used in order to analyse short term relations is formulated as:
m
n
p
i 1
i 0
i 0
Gt 0 1ECt 1 2i Gt i 3i DLIt i 2i DSZt i ut (7)
Here ECt-1 is error correction terms and it stands for one term lagged of error terms series which it is
obtained from long term relationship. Coefficient for this variable is point out duration of sort term deviation. If this
sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long term balance
value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value.
In this model lag length of veriables determineted just like long term. As a result of the transaction carried
out, it was decided that ARDL(5.1.0.0.0) was the short term ARDL model to be estimated and results are presented
in Table 6.
Table 6: Determination of Lag Length for short Term Boundary Test
m
AIC
LM
n
AIC
LM
p
AIC
(∆G)
Testi
(∆DLI)
Testi
(∆DSZ)
0
0
8,893 0,28
0
8,633
1
9,002 0,58
1
8,790 0,12
1
8,422
2
8,939 0,33
2
8,428
2*
8,745 0,44
3
8,769 0,05
3
8,413
3*
8,912 0,77
4
8,927 0,31
4
8,783 0,02
4*
8,271
633
LM
Testi
0,05
0,01
0,41
0,003
0,50
�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Tablo 6‘da da görüldüğü üzere, tahmin edilecek kısa dönem ARDL modelinin ARDL(3,2,4) modeli olduğu sonucuna
ulaĢılmıĢtır. ARDL(3,2,4) modeli tahmin edilmiĢ ve kısa dönem tahmin sonuçları Tablo 7‘de verilmiĢtir.
Table 7: The Results of ARDL (3.2.4) Model
DeğiĢken
Katsayı
t-istatistiği
c
-0.100249
-0.064078
0.043531
0.212927
Gt-1
-0.030741
-0.191601
Gt-2
0.009492
0.079344
Gt-3
DLIt
0.292074
3.742568
0.100524
0.937896
DLIt-1
-0.033611
-0.398041
DLIt-2
DSZt
0.282694
5.472546
0.227042
2.792811
DSZt-1
-0.018289
-0.187475
DSZt-2
0.038494
0.497487
DSZt-3
DSZt-4
0.187336
3.517646
ECt-1
-0.946504
-3.807904
Tanısal Testler
R2=0,64
2BGAB(2 )=0,94(0,39)
2WDV=0,31(0,99)
R 2 =0,58
DW=1,99
2JBN=24,65(0,00)
F=10,42(0,00)
2RRMKH(1)=4,76(0,03)
Note: Here, 2BGAB, 2WDV, 2JBN and 2RRMKH are respectively Breusch-Godfrey successive dependence, White
changing variance, Jarque-Bera normality test and Ramsey model establishment error statistics in regression. The
figures in parentheses reflect p-probability values
Coefficient of ECt-1 (error correction terms) is -0,72 in Table 7. This coefficient is negative and meaningful
like expected. If coefficient‘s signs of error correction terms is negative, model is convergences to long term balance
level.
If this sign of coefficient is negative, deviations happen in short term between series is convergences to long
term balance value. If this sign of coefficient is positive, not convergences to long term balance value (Narayan ve
Smyth 2006). Therefore error correction of model is works. Although capital movements impact on economic
growth, like long term effect, is positive and according with theoritical expectation, statistically insignificant.
Tablo 7‘deki sonuçlar incelendiğinde; hata düzeltme teriminin (EC) katsayısı -0,94 ve t istatistiği anlamlı
çıkmıĢtır. Bu katsayı beklenildiği gibi negatif ve istatistikî olarak anlamlıdır. Dolayısıyla modelin hata düzeltme
terimi çalıĢmaktadır. Yani, uzun dönemde birlikte hareket eden seriler arasında kısa dönemde meydana gelen
sapmalar ortadan kalkmakta ve seriler tekrar uzun dönem denge iliĢkisine yaklaĢmaktadırlar. Dolaylı ve dolaysız
vergiler, cari dönemde de gecikmeli dönemlerde de büyümeyi arttırıcı yönde ve istatistikî olarak anlamlı düzeyde
etkilemektedir. Bu sonuçlar beklentilerimize ve iktisat teorisine uygundur. Dolaylı vergilerin büyümeyi dolaysız
vergilerden az da olsa daha çok etkilediği görülmektedir.
Result And Evaluation
In this study, from the declaration of Republic to today‘s Turkey, the link between the tax income and the
economical development is analysis in border test method.
To understand whether tax income varieties have different effect on development, direct indirect taxes were
analysied separately.
In the cooperation analysis, it is seen that there is a co ordination between the direct and indirect income and
economical development. That is, these series have to movement accordingly. So, it is though that the recreation
analysis administered among the series shold give us reasonable results.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
In long term analysis, it is seen that both the direct and indirect tax effect the development positively. In the
result of long term analysis, it is seen that indirect taxes increase the economical development more than the direct
taxes. This result is more suitable for our economical thought and expectations.
In the short term analysis, the extra valve of correcting error term was seen negative and statically
acceptable. This the correction of the model is working. It can be estimated that there is a balance in the long term
series and the mis direction can be compensated in long term values.
The direct and indirect taxes in the monetary term effect the development considerably. These results are
suitable for our economical theory. It is seen that the direct taxes effect the development slightly more than the
indirect taxes. This is little different from our economical literature.
As seen from this study, the taxing policy, one of the most important part of economical policy, if used in a
suitable condition, is one of the major means of development.
In order to see the Country developing in the long term, it should be better to emphasize on the indirect
taxes instead of direct taxes. Because there is on unsuitable part of direct taxes for the economy. To decrease the
V.A.T Value Added Tax in the common consuming goods will enable the low and middle-income society to have
and consume more properties.
This will also decrease tha gap between classes, decrease the clashes among classes. Ġt will also help to
balance the income and increase the welfare of the country.
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245
Title
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The Relationship Between Economic Growth And Tax Revenue: Bounds Testing
Author
Author
MERCAN, Mehmet
GÖÇER, İsmet
BULUT, Şahin
DAM, M. Metin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Taxes are one of the most important sources of finance; moreover they are able to have various impacts on chief indicators of economy. However, taxes may have negative as well as positive impacts. The relationship between economic growth and tax revenue in Turkish economy has been studied in this survey. In the survey, the existence of relationship between series and cointegration as well as long and short term links have been studied through ARDL bounds testing and it was observed that series moved together in the long term. In the long term analysis, a relationship between indirect and direct taxes with economic growth has a meaningful and positive relationship. It was found out that direct taxes effect bigger than indirect taxes. In the short term analysis, the coefficient of vector error correction model was signed negative and statistically meaningful. This means that the deviation, which took place in the short term between series which moved together in the long term, has disappeared and series came close to each other. Again, both types of taxes in the analysis of short-term growth is positive and statistically significant influenced, besides in the short term analysis it was observed that indirect taxes effect bigger than direct taxes.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
How Did British Colonial Education in Africa Becomea Reason for
Decolonization?
Çağrı Tuğrul Mart
Ishik University
tugrulbey@hotmail.com
Alpaslan Toker
International Burch University
atoker@ibu.edu.ba
Abstract: As a by-product of colonization, the colonizing nation implements its own
form of schooling within their colonies. Colonizing governments realize that they
gain strength not necessarily through physical control, but through mental control.
This mental control is implemented through a central intellectual location, the school
system. At the heart of this policy is the paternalist idea that the “backward”
undeveloped inhabitants of the colonized areas need to be educated and brought up to
the level of the superior culture and life-style of the colonizing power. Indigenous
people were made by brainwashing to discard their own cultures and embrace
Western cultures which were supposedly superior, a situation which resulted in a
culture of dependency, mental enslavement and a sense of inferiority. White
supremacy used education for its own sake so colonial education was a deliberate
policy to continue colonial rule. In African British colonies the misusage of education
became a major reason for decolonization.
Key Words: Colonial Education, Superiority, Decolonization
Introduction
One of the areas colonialism affected in Africa was education and language. Two scholars on colonial
education, Gail P. Kelly and Philip G. Altbach, help define the colonialism process as an attempt "to assist in the
consolidation of foreign rule". colonialism is a process that is an attempt to strip the colonized people away from
their indigenous learning structures and draw them toward the structures of the colonizers (Gail, Altbach 1984).
Colonial powers imposed their own education system and language on the local population. Everybody had
to learn the language of colonizers which was associated with modernity, sophistication and social status. In
almost all colonies the language of the colonial power was used as the language of administration. For this
reason, the education system needed to produce people who knew this language well. In many cases people
received their education in the metropolitan state, which offered better educational facilities and more exposure
to the language and culture of the colonial power.
Colonial education was fueled by a widely held belief that the “superior” white race of Europe should bring
civilization to the “less developed” people of color living on other continents. White supremacy manifests in the
social, economic, political, and cultural history of European expansion and the development of the New World.
White supremacy has negatively affected the lives of peoples of African descent throughout the world (Christian
2002: 188). What is worse; from a European point of view, colonial territory was singular: colonized land and
people all fell in the category of “other”. Africans were split up in such a way that those within the same
language groups were separated and forbidden to speak in their own languages. Africans were developing an
interest in Western-style literary education, the colonial government began to realize the necessity of training
Africans for service to the white man (Urch 1971: 250). Later the “superiority” and “inferiority” terms which
were occurred with the imperialist project of colonizers brought about “othering” category. Because they belong
to lower class the indigenous people were referred as “backward”.
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�2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9, 2010 Sarajevo
Colonial Education
Colonizers share the idea that education is important in facilitating the assimilation process. The ultimate
goal of colonial education might be deduced from the following statement by Thomas Babington Macaulay:
We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters
between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indian
in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in
intellect. To that class we may leave it to refine the vernacular dialects
of the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed
from the Western nomenclature, and to render them by degrees fit vehicles
for conveying knowledge to the great mass of the population.
(CPCR 1999: 268)
This colonization process which started with the goal of colonizers’ providing a good education for
colonized people turned into a means of service for white people. White supremacy used education for its own
sake, and colonial education was a deliberate policy to continue colonial rule. African writers and abolitionists
such as Olaudah Equiano, Ottobah Cugano and Phyllis Wheatley, in their very different ways, articulated in print
the desire to be respected as human beings and their work served as rallying points for the antislavery movement.
Ngugi Wa Thiong'o a citizen of the once colonized Kenya, in his article “Decolonizing the Mind” displays
his anger toward the isolationist feelings colonial education causes. He writes:
The process annihilates people’s belief in their names, in their languages, in their
environment, in their heritage of struggle, in their unity, in their capacities and
ultimately in themselves. It makes them see their past as one wasteland of nonachievement and it makes them want to distance themselves from that wasteland. It
makes them want to identify with that which is furthest removed from themselves.
(Thiong’o 1981: 28)
White supremacy manifests in the social, economic, political, and cultural history of European expansion
and the development of the New World. White supremacy has negatively affected the lives of peoples of African
descent throughout the world. The European enslavement based on the economic plantation system led to a
global affront on African humanity. Negative effects of White supremacy and racism are ubiquitous in different
ways. With the birth of the New World, White supremacy was borne and where African descent reside it has left
cultural, and socioeconomic scars. White supremacy and cultural expansion of Europe are inextricably
interwoven from the 15th century to the present (Christian 2002: 180).
African-centered psychologists, such as Bobby Wright and Frances Cress Welsing focused on the
psychology of White supremacy. They attempted to more fully understand the illogical behavior and
inhumanness associated with White racism. Bobby Wright was particularly sincere in his analysis of collective
White European behavior in relation to peoples of color. Wright contended that White European behavior toward
Black people is similar to the psychopath. Welsing writes about the idea of Black inferiority. Both Wright and
Welsing approached White supremacy as a behavioral inadequacy.
Europeans who favored rapid Westernization of the African argued that old African values must be replaced.
The one great hope for progress in Africa, they felt, was the application of European knowledge, experience, and
skill. On the opposite side were colonial officials, educators, and non-educators concerned with the maintenance
of those traditions in African society. This controversy in education policy was especially evident in Kenya.
George Urch states in the article that missionary activity in Kenya dates back to the middle of the nineteenth
century. The forces of western civilization in the appearance of trade and Christian missions had access to the
area under the protection of the British flag (Urch 1971: 253).
Building and operating the railway in Kenya greatly increased the cost of administering the territory; the
British government sought ways to make the railway pay so white settlement began. When the white settlers
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arrived the prestige and power of the European grew. The mission’s educational objective was to expose
Africans to a superior culture. While the Africans were developing an interest in Western-style literary
education, the colonial government began to realize the necessity of training Africans for service to the white
man. The demand for skilled native labor by the white settlers and commercial leaders caused the colonial
administrators to reevaluate the educational program of the missions. The different thought over educational
goals arose between the government and the various mission groups. The conflict caused colonial officials to
realize the necessity of educating indigenous people and the importance of creating an over-all education
forward in a desired direction because a better education by white civilization would elevate the African to a
better standard of living (Urch 1971: 254).
It was apparent to the government that various missionary groups were continuing to use education as a
tool for expanding religious activities and enlarging their own sphere of influence (Urch 1971: 256). The early
1920s brought concern for the people of Africa from outside the world. The development of the “trustee”
concept aroused a strong feeling that colonial governments had a greater responsibility toward their subjects.
There was a growing recognition that the education of the indigenous population was the concern of the
controlling government (Urch 1971: 258). Thus, by 1925 the fundamental problems which faced education in
Kenya throughout the colonial period had been magnified to the point where concern was being shown by both
African and European (Urch 1971: 258). The government continued its criticism of mission education which
displayed more concern for religious training than meeting the social and economic needs of its parishioners; the
missionaries were frustrated when their newly educated students left the tribal compound to seek work in the fast
developing urban area. So the aim of the education by missionaries was to propagate Christianity and White
supremacy tried to use the education for its own sake in Kenya. Colonial government used education to train
Africans for service to the white man.
The missions established schools in Africa long before the British Government took systematic interest in
education. British interest in the control of education policy in Africa in the colonial empire was of short
duration, which started in the early 1920s and waned by the 1950s. In 1950s various territories in Africa assumed
responsibility for the conduct of their own internal affairs as a prelude to independence. But British education
system received a great deal of criticism. Much of the criticism focused on the concept of adaptation and the
education system kept indigenous people in their place. Other criticisms were about the slow pace and scope of
educational development (Whitehead 2005: 444).
Schooling extended to only a minority of children in most colonies and most of that was confined to
primary stage. Colonial administration deliberately neglected education for both political and economic reasons.
British Government was accused of not extending the benefits of European civilization; furthermore, the British
were accused of deliberately pursuing forms of cultural and ideological domination to destroy the cultures of
African people (Whitehead 2005: 447).
The most scholarly critic of British colonial education policy was Trevor Coombe whose study based on
colonial administration’s limiting the provision of secondary education for Africans. As a result he states, when
independence was achieved the supply of educated manpower was utterly inadequate to run the country. In his
doctoral study of education policy in the Gambia J.C.E. Greig claimed that there was no central policy only
general guidelines were worked.
Jason A. McGarvey in his article “Conquest of the Mind” writes about a Tanzanian man who had his
master and Ph.D. degrees. McGarvey in the article writes during colonization process real life experiences of this
Tanzanian man whose name is Semali. Semali says:
Education is slavery of the mind. I was born on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro in
a village called Chaggaland. My people, the Chagga, are an indigenous tribe of
Tanzania. While I was growing up in what was then called Tanganyika, we had
already been under colonization for nearly a century – first by the Germans, and
then the British after the first World War. The colonial school I attended didn't
teach me to be a member of Chagga society. Although I had a certain knowledge
system as a member of the village, I read, wrote, and spoke things at school that
didn't fit into village life. I always wore two different hats. I developed this doubleconsciousness so well that I didn't realize it. In order for the colonizers to exploit
the Chagga for labor they first needed to establish themselves as the authority.
Because authority traditionally rested in the hands of the Chagga elders, the
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colonizers needed to begin dismantling Chagga cultural traditions. The main tool
for doing this was the colonial school. The colonial school was set up to instill the
values and practices of the colonizers on the indigenous people so that the
indigenous people would open up their land and their minds to market economies.
In order to establish control over these economies, the colonizers had to first
establish control over the socialization of the people. As a result, the colonial
schools began socializing the children in ways that conflicted with their traditions.
The children began to lose faith and respect for the elders as authority figures, and
began to see the colonizers as the authority…
(McGarvey 1997: 22)
Colonial Education Became a Reason for Decolonization
Colonizers believed that their whole culture was more highly advanced, and they ignored or swept aside
language and customs of colonized people. Colonialism changes its guise, diversity of forms and methods for the
subjugation of dependent countries, especially in the era of imperialism, when colonialism in its "classic forms"
of direct political rule of one country over another recedes more and more into the background, while other
means for the economic subjugation of weaker countries by industrial powers come to the fore. Native people
were afflicted by the impositions of colonial power and misusage of education by colonizers. Colonization and
colonial education have brought about these issues “superiority”, “inferiority”, “other”, and “backward” and
these terms used for native people led to decolonization.
Decolonization is the act of reversing the process of colonization in other words attaining independence.
Through decolonization process African colonized people granted their independence. Colonizers thought they
were developed and well educated. They thought their level of education and life-style were high so they
referred the colonized people as “the peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions
of the modern world’ and the ‘advanced nations”. These superiority and inferiority issues received some
criticism from the indigenous people. The colonial power credibility was challenged, colonized people began to
lose faith and respect for colonizers because colonizers despised their culture and referred them as “inferior and
backward”. Some local writers such as Chinua Achebe in “Things Fall Apart”, M.G.Vassanji “The In-Between
World of Vikram Lall”, and Austin Clarke in “The Polished Hoe” started to complain or criticize about this
“othering” or “superiority, inferiority” terms.
Conclusion
Colonization is taking control of another nation or territory and colonial education is colonizers’
implementing their own form of schooling within their colonies. Poka Laenui in his study “Indigenous Voices”
defines the process of colonization and colonial education through some steps. Firstly, Denial and Withdrawal:
When a colonial people first come upon an indigenous people, the colonial strangers will immediately look upon
the indigenous as a people without culture, no moral values, nothing of any social value to merit kind comment.
Thus, the colonial people deny the very existence of a culture of any merit among the indigenous people.
Secondly, Destruction/Eradication: The colonizers physically destroy and attempt to eradicate all physical
representations of the symbols of indigenous cultures. This may include the burning of their art, their tablets,
their god images, the destruction of their sacred sites. Thirdly, Denigration/Belittlement/Insult: As colonization
takes a stronger hold, the new systems which are created within indigenous societies, such as churches, colonial
style health delivery systems, and new legal institutions, will all join to denigrate, belittle, and insult any
continuing practice of the indigenous culture (Laenui 1999).
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References
Adhikari, Mohamed. “British Colonialism and Its Opponents” Journal of African History, 42.3 (2001): -523-25
Chris, Bunting. “A Tale of a Language Lost and Then Found” Times Higher Education, 1539 (2002): 23-26
Christian, Mark. “An African-Centered Perspective on White Supremacy” Journal of Black Studies, 33.2
(2002): -179-98
Clive, Whitehead. “The Historiography of British Imperial Education Policy” History of Education, 34.4
(2005): -441-54
Geoffrey, Wheatcroft. “The Anguish of Africa” New Republic, 190.1 (1984): 18-23
Gailey, A. Harry. “The Turning Point in Africa” American Historical Association, 88.2 (1983): -445-47
Goodman, Joyce, and Jane Martin. Gender, Colonialism and Education. London: Routledge Publishing, 2005
Hyam, Ronald. Britain's Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonization,1918-1968.NewYork: Cambridge
University Press, 2007
Johnston, Harry Hamilton. A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races.
New York: BiblioBazaar Publishing, 2009
Kelly, Gail P. and Philip G. Altbach. "The Four Faces of Colonialism."1984 3 Jan. 2010
<http://www.englishmemory.edu/Bahri/Education.html>.
Khanna, Raniana. Colonial Rescriptings Dark Continents: Psychoanalysis and Colonialism. London Duke
University Press, 2003
Omolewa, Micheal. “The History of Colonialism in Africa” Journal of African American History, 94.2 (2009): 248-52
Panikkar, K.N. Colonialism, Culture, And Resistance. London: Oxford University Press, 2006
Pennycook, Alast. English and the Discourses of Colonialism. London: Routledge Publishing, 1998
Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Publishing, 2005
Smith, L.Young, and Nima Poovaya. “Culture, Resistance, Freedom” Publisher Routledge, 36.1 (2007), -133-37
Southard, John. “Colonial Education.” Fall 1997 2 Jan. 2010
<http://www.englishmemory.edu/Bahri/Education.html>.
Susan, Van Zyk. “The Other and Other Others: Post-colonialism, Psychoanalysis and The South African
Question” American Imago, 55.1 (1998), 77-98
Urch, E. George. “Education and Colonialism in Kenya” History of Education Quarterly, 11.3 (1971), -249-64
White, Nicholas. Decolonization: The British Experience Since 1945. London: Longman Publishing, 1999
366
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How Did British Colonial Education in Africa Becomea Reason for Decolonization?
Author
Author
MART, Çağrı Tuğrul
Toker, Alpaslan
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
As a by-product of colonization, the colonizing nation implements its own form of schooling within their colonies. Colonizing governments realize that they gain strength not necessarily through physical control, but through mental control. This mental control is implemented through a central intellectual location, the school system. At the heart of this policy is the paternalist idea that the “backward” undeveloped inhabitants of the colonized areas need to be educated and brought up to the level of the superior culture and life-style of the colonizing power. Indigenous people were made by brainwashing to discard their own cultures and embrace Western cultures which were supposedly superior, a situation which resulted in a culture of dependency, mental enslavement and a sense of inferiority. White supremacy used education for its own sake so colonial education was a deliberate policy to continue colonial rule. In African British colonies the misusage of education became a major reason for decolonization. Key Words: Colonial Education, Superiority, Decolonization
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
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Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
H Social Sciences (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/ce30ab040cbb81176ccb3ec5829d4802.pdf
aa699fba506f4ac37169b34099edcf79
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Text
2nd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, June 8-9 2010, Sarajevo
Comparative Analysis of Bosnia Herzegovina to the Other Former
Yugoslav Federation Countries in the Context of Political and Economic
Perspectives
Hakan M. KĠRĠġ
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey
hakkan@iibf.sdu.edu.tr
Canan ġENTÜRK
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey
canansenturk@iibf.sdu.edu.tr
Hidayet KESKĠN
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey
hunlu@iibf.sdu.edu.tr
Onur SUNGUR
Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta/Turkey
onurs@iibf.sdu.edu.tr
Abstract: A major period of transformation has begun all over the world since 1980s. The
important developments occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also
affected economic field equally. Economic stability and transformation cannot be considered
separately from political stability and transformation. In this context, disintegration of the
Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only political but also
economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia,
Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav
federation. With dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process
started in these countries. This study aims to make a comparative analysis in the context of
macroeconomic indicators on Bosnia – Herzegovina‘s economy with other FYRs‘ economies
that emerged as a result of political transformation.
Introduction
Former Yugoslav Federation countries are one of the most interesting lands in the world. Ethnic,
religious and regional conflicts have shaped the history of these seven countries (Bosnia Herzegovina, Slovenia,
Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro). This study makes an effort to put forward political and
economic scene of these countries. Especially Bosnia Herzegovina is a prominent example for this paper. Within
this context study has two main sections. First political landscape of Bosnia Herzegovina and the other former
Yugoslav Federation Countries are explained their political history and demographic indicators in brief.
Moreover first section contains the subtitle of Bosnia Herzegovina‘s current political and administrative
structures. The second section is interested in the economic indicators of these countries. In this section, firstly,
recent macroeconomic indicators of these countries are given. Then, the economic transformation of these
countries between 2003 and 2009 are analyzed and the effects of global crisis are discussed. The purpose is to
provide updated comparative information on different aspects of the economies in Former Yugoslav Federation
countries. This overview aims to present recent trends and/or actual forecasts of different indicators of economic
development for Former Yugoslav Federation countries.
Political Landscape of Bosnia & Herzegovina and the Other Former Yugoslav
Federation Countries
Political History in Brief
In the history of Western Balkan Countries within the borders of Former Yugoslav Federation, a variety
of common grounds can be seen. The word ―Yugoslavia‖ means ―Southern Slavs‖. Yugoslavia had appeared
with the idea of gathering various national and religious communities with equal rights. The Kingdom of
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Yugoslavia lived between the two World Wars. The Second World War became a turning point for this country.
After the War, the federative structure took the place of the kingdom. Even though it had a socialist character, it
had a different tendency from the Soviet Union. In this period, Yugoslavia took part in Non-Aligned Movement.
Disintegration of Yugoslavia can be viewed depending on deep economic and political crisis. Demand
of independency of Croatia and Slovenia and then Serbia‘s domination desire accelerated this process of
separation. When Croatia and Slovenia declared independence, Yugoslav crisis internationalized. Bosnia
Herzegovina is an unfortunate land because of bloody and unequal battles in 1990s (Kut, 1998: 321 – 324).
Today two new independent countries rise in former Yugoslav lands: Montenegro as an independent
country which is split up Serbia in 2006 and Kosovo which is declare of independence in 2008. Kosovo and
Montenegro are the latest independent countries of the World today. Thus there are seven countries in former
Yugoslav federation territories: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Slovenia, Serbia, Montenegro and
Kosovo.
After the pax Romana Kingdom of Bosnia fought against Hungarians and Serbs. Bosnia was added to
Ottoman Empire at 1463. Ottomans ruled Bosnia till treaty of Berlin in 1878. Austro – Hungarian Empire gained
Bosnian territory owing to Berlin Treaty without any war with Ottoman Empire. Between the years of 1918 –
1941 Bosnia was ruled by Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the invasion of Nazi at World War II Bosnia get
involved in Yugoslav Federation. After the Bosnia War 36, Dayton Agreement at 1995 is the constructive treaty of
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Before this agreement, world public opinion witnessed ethnic based Bosnia war between the years of
1991 to 1995 (Maric, 2006a: 90). Continuing 5 years Bosnia war ended in 1995 with Dayton Peace Agreement
signed among the leader of Bosnia Herzegovina Alija Ġzzetbegovic, the leader of Serbia Slobodan Milosevic and
the leader of Crotia Franjo Tudman.
Arriving West Balkans in 7th Century, Croatians established their kingdom in X. Century. However,
Croatian territory was conquered first by Hungarians in 11 th Century and later in 16th Century by Otoman Empire
with the Mohacs War. Upon the failure of second siege of Vienna, Croatians was conquered this time by AustroHungarian Empire. With the separation of Austro – Hungarian in World War I, Croatians joined to Yugoslavian
Kingdom. After the Nazi occupation in World War II, Croatians, just like their neighbors, joined Yugoslavian
Socialist Federation. In 1991, Croatians declared their independence (Oliver, 2006: 140 – 144).
Figure 1. New Independent Countries in Former Yugoslav Federation Lands
Today Macedonia is the name of both a state and geographical territory. As a geographical territory,
Macedonia, today covers north-west of Greece, south-west of Bulgaria and the Republic of Macedonia.
Therefore, upon the objection of Greece, Macedonia Republic was portrayed as Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia when it was established. Although history of Macedonia dates back to antiquity as a geographical
territory, the history of Macedonian Republic is quite new. Macedonian, Roma, Byzantine and Ottoman Empires
prevailed over the Macedonian territories. Following the World War II, Macedonia, a state depended on
Yugoslav Socialist Federation, declared of independence in 1991 (Plunkett, 2006: 232 - 234).
The word Slovenia stands for ―the country of Slavs‖. Slovenes, just like other Slav communities,
arrived this area around VII. Century. After the Dukedom they founded, the area they settled down became, in a
little while, a part of Holy Roma-Germen Empire. Slovenes, included in the Yugoslav Kingdom with the
separation of Austro-Hungarian Empire after World Was I, joined Yugoslav Federation after Nazi occupation in
World War II and remained dependent on this federation until they declared independence in the beginning of
1991. Slovenia is the only country among the countries separated from the former Yugoslav Federation (Oliver,
2006: 331 – 334).
36
Bosnia Herzegovina is a special foreign policy issue for Turkish politicians and statesmen. Turkey as term president of the Council of
Europe and term president of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, played and important role on Bosnia War. Turkey prepared an
action plan for Bosnia Herzegovina which included diplomatic and military protections. In fact, direct intervention of Turks alone became a
current issue in international diplomacy. Today, a Turkish troop in SFOR serves in Zenica.
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Until the Ottoman reign, Serbians organized as a medieval kingdom. This kingdom dominated from 7 th
Century till 14th Century. Remaining under the reign of Ottomans for five years, Serbians consisted of
communities within the empire and early impressed by nationalist movement. Declaring independency with
Agreement of Berlin in 1878, Serbians was the leading community which founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
after the World War I. Serbia, placed within Yugoslavia Federation following World War II, struggled to
maintain Yugoslav Federal Republic with Karadağ in 1992. However, in 2001 the name Yugoslavia vanished,
and after a little while, the corporation of Serbia and Karadağ came to an end (Maric, 2006b:268 - 270).
While dependent upon Venice Republic, Montenegro came under the reign of Ottomans in 15 th Century.
For Ottoman Empire, Karadağ was quite problematic area. This country, hosting many rebellions, separated
from Ottoman Empire and gained its independence with Berlin Agreement in 1878. One of the countries
constituting Yugoslavia, Karadağ, perpetuated the name of Yugoslavia with Serbia in 1990s, however,
separating from Serbians, Karadağ regained its independence in 2006 (Maric, 2006b: 269 – 270).
Just like Macedonia, bearing the traces of Hun and Slav migrations, Kosovo placed in the confluence of
empires throughout the history. Homaging the Ottomans in such an early year 1389, remained under the domain
of Ottomans till 1912. Serbians, put in a claim for Kosovo in historical period, invaded Kosovo in 1995.
However, this invasion came to an end with the NATO intervention in 1999. The Republic of Kosovo, is the last
independent country of the world. The independency of Kosovo, is a significance improvement in international
politics (Maric, 2006b: 270).
Demographic Indicators
Serbia is the most populated country among Former Yugoslav Federation Countries today. Bosnia
Herzegovina and Croatia are other over- populated countries following Serbia compared to the others in the
region. In contrast, Montenegro is the least populated country.
Bosnia Herzegovina and Montenegro are the most heterogeneous countries ethnically. In Bosnia
Herzegovina, no ethnic group has the supreme size in comparison with the others. In Montenegro Montenegrins
and Serbs constitute two big ethnic groups. When having a look at the other countries, a different situation is
perceived. For example, in Croatia, the 89.6 % of the total population is Croatian, in Slovenia the 83.1 % of the
population is Slovene, in Serbia 82.9 % of the population is Serbs, in Macedonia 64.2 % of the population is
Macedonians. In Kosovo, 88 % of the population is Albanians.
In Bosnia Herzegovina, no religious group dominates the other one. Bosnia Herzegovina which has the
most balanced distribution has the highest Muslim population among the other countries in this study. In
contrast, the majority of the population in Croatia and Slovenia is Catholics. Correspondingly, Orthodox
Christians are mostly in Macedonia, Montenegro and Serbia. A similar scene is viewed in the extensity of the
current languages in the society.
Within the framework of the demographic features, Croatia, Slovenia and Serbia have a more
homogeneous structure. However, Bosnia Herzegovina is considered as the most heterogeneous country.
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Country
Population
Bosnia
Herzegovina
4.613.414
est)
(2009
Croatia
4,489,409
est)
(2009
Macedonia
2,066,718
est)
(2009
Slovenia
2,005,692
est.)
(2009
Serbia
7,379,339
est.)
(2009
Montenegro
672,180 (2009 est.)
Kosovo
1,804,838
est.)
(2009
Ethnic Groups
Religion
Languages
Bosniak 48%, Serb 37.1%,
Croat 14.3%, other 0.6%
(2000)
Croat 89.6%, Serb 4.5%,
other
5.9%
(including
Bosniak,
Hungarian,
Slovene, Czech, and Roma)
(2001 census)
Macedonian
64.2%,
Albanian 25.2%, Turkish
3.9%, Roma (Gypsy) 2.7%,
Serb 1.8%, other 2.2%
(2002 census)
Slovene 83.1%, Serb 2%,
Croat 1.8%, Bosniak 1.1%,
other or unspecified 12%
(2002 census)
Muslim 40%, Orthodox 31%,
Roman Catholic 15%, other
14%
Roman
Catholic
87.8%,
Orthodox
4.4%,
other
Christian 0.4%, Muslim 1.3%,
other and unspecified 0.9%,
none 5.2% (2001 census)
Macedonian Orthodox 64.7%,
Muslim
33.3%,
other
Christian 0.37%, other and
unspecified 1.63% (2002
census)
Catholic 57.8%, Muslim
2.4%, Orthodox 2.3%, other
Christian 0.9%, unaffiliated
3.5%, other or unspecified
23%, none 10.1% (2002
census)
Serbian
Orthodox
85%,
Catholic 5.5%, Protestant
1.1%,
Muslim
3.2%,
unspecified
2.6%,
other,
unknown, or atheist 2.6%
(2002 census)
Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian
Serb 82.9%, Hungarian
3.9%, Romany (Gypsy)
1.4%, Yugoslavs 1.1%,
Bosniaks
1.8%,
Montenegrin 0.9%, other
8% (2002 census)
Montenegrin 43%, Serbian
32%, Bosniak 8%, Albanian
5%, other (Muslims, Croats,
Roma (Gypsy)) 12% (2003
census)
Albanians 88%, Serbs 7%,
other 5% (Bosniak, Gorani,
Roma,
Turk,
Ashkali,
Egyptian)
Orthodox 74.2%, Muslim
17.7%, Catholic 3.5%, other
0.6%, unspecified 3%, atheist
1% (2003 census)
Muslim, Serbian Orthodox,
Roman Catholic
Croatian 96.1%, Serbian 1%,
other and undesignated 2.9%
(including Italian, Hungarian,
Czech, Slovak, and German)
(2001 census)
Macedonian 66.5%, Albanian
25.1%, Turkish 3.5%, Roma
1.9%, Serbian 1.2%, other
1.8% (2002 census)
Slovenian 91.1%, SerboCroatian 4.5%, other or
unspecified
4.4%
(2002
census)
Serbian 88.3% (official),
Hungarian 3.8%, Bosniak
1.8%, Romany (Gypsy) 1.1%,
other 4.1%, unknown 0.9%
(2002 census)
note: Romanian, Hungarian,
Slovak,
Ukrainian,
and
Croatian all official in
Vojvodina
Serbian 63.6%, Montenegrin
(official) 22%, Bosnian 5.5%,
Albanian 5.3%, unspecified
3.7% (2003 census)
Albanian
(official),
Roma
(official), Serbian
Bosnian, Turkish,
Table 1: Demographic Structure of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries
Source: CIA, World Factbook, 2009.
Political and Administrative Structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Today, Bosnia and Herzegovina is composed of two entities. An entity is similar to a state in the US, or
a province in Canada. The northern, primarily Serb, entity within the country is called the Republic of Srpska,
with its capital in Banja Luka. The Federation is the second entity of the country. This entity has all three ethnic
groups present, and it is formally referred to as the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Both the Republic of
Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are entities within the country, which is itself called
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Phillips, 2004: 13).
International commentators wonder how Bosnia can survive as a multinational structure. Theoretical
discussions on multi-ethnicity have led to a discuss about which institutional arrangement can best accommodate
the various needs of the three main Bosnian communities. The role of international intervention is protecting
multi-ethnicity, building viable and legitimate state institutions. More broadly, furthering and sustaining the
peace process (Belloni, 2007: 3).
With the signing of the Dayton Peace Agrement, rebuilding Bosnia in the aftermath of a long and
bloody war over ethnicity and territory would involve not only reconstituting a deeply divided political
community and building up public institutions almost from scratch, but also simultaneously putting the country
on the path to free-market capitalism and liberal democracy. The central dynamic of Bosnia‘s short post-Dayton
existence, therefore, has been the tension between the country‘s ongoing ethnic struggle and the efforts of the
international community to implement the main pillars of the Dayton agreement. These pillars include the return
of refugees and displaced persons to their pre-war homes, the consolidation of democratic values, institutions,
and practices, the recreation of a climate of relatively tolerant multi-ethnicity, and the creation of a viable market
economy (Donais, 2005: 1-2).
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Figure 2. Bosnia and Herzegovina Political Map
The post-Dayton state-building process has also been deeply affected by the broader ideological
overtones of contemporary global capitalism, with its deep distrust of activist and interventionist government.
Somewhat paradoxically, therefore, the post-war Bosnian state is often simultaneously defined as both underdeveloped and over-intrusive: lacking basic capacities and competencies to exercise effective governance while
continuing to wield inordinate influence over the remains of the Bosnian economy (Donais, 2005: 47).
Bosnia and Herzegovina has three primary religious groups: Orthodox, Catholic, and Islam. Orthodox
Christians have ties to the Serb ethnic group, Catholics to the Croats, and the Muslims are often referred to as
Bosniaks (not to be confused with Bosnians). Surprisingly, each of these ethnic groups has the same ancestral
heritage, just as the now diverse population shares the same Slav ethnic roots. Religious differences and extreme
nationalism offer the most apparent answers to this question. This complex question will be examined in greater
detail in the following chapters, and it is an essential one to explore if one is to understand Bosnia and
Herzegovina and its neighbours in the region (Phillips, 2004: 9).
Macro Economic View of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries
In this section, various macro economic indicators for Former Yugoslav Federation countries are
presented. The purpose is to provide updated comparative information on different aspects of the economies in
Former Yugoslav Federation countries. This overview aims to present recent trends and/or actual forecasts of
different indicators of economic development for Former Yugoslav Federation countries.
Main demographical indicators of the countries Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia,
Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro are presented in Table 2 as follows:
Area(km2)
Population
Density
GDP*
(billion $)
Per
capita
GDP*
HDI Rank
(2007)
BiH
51,129
4,613,414
90,2/km2
Croatia
56,594
4,489,409
81/km2
Kosovo
10,908
1,804,838
220/km2
Macedonia
25,713
2,114,550
82,2/km2
Montenegro
13,812
672,180
50/km2
Serbia
88,361
7,334,935
107,46/km2
Slovenia
20,273
2,054,199
99.6/km2
$29.477
$78.539
$5.352
$18.831
$6.506
$78.506
$55.741
$7,361
$17,703
$2,965
$9,163
$10,393
$10,635
$27,654
76th
45th
-
72th
65th
65th
29th
Table 2. Recent Demographic And Macro-Economic Indicators Of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries
* according to Purchasing Power Standard (PPS)
Source: (CIA, 2009)
According to 2009 figures, total GDP's of these countries (according to PPS) is around $ 273 billion. In
terms of GDP, the richest countries of these seven countries are Croatia and Macedonia. However, when these
two countries, per capita GDP values are examined, it has been seen that Croatia is second and Macedonia is
fifth. Slovenia has $ 27.655 per capita GDP and it is the highest country according to per capita GDP. Kosovo is
located at the end according to GDP and per capita GDP in these seven countries. In addition to this, all
countries, except Slovenia, are entered "high" category in terms of Human Development Index. Slovenia is
entered in the "very high" category in terms of Human Development Index. Kosovo does not have a rank which
is calculated by the UNDP.
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Bosnia and Herzegovina had a developed industrial infrastructure before the war and nearly half the
country's income and employment were being provided by 10 companies. In this year's heavy industry, in
particular metallurgy and chemical industries, constituted an important part of industrial production and the vast
majority of production was oriented to the domestic market. (T.C. Saraybosna Büyükelçiliği, 2008: 9). BosniaHerzegovina was trying to cross a free market economy after gaining independence. However, before realizing
that war has begun in the country. The war which was started in 1992, has done great harm to the country. The
interethnic warfare in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused production to plummet by 80% from 1992 to 1995 and
unemployment to soar. . After end of the war and the provision of political stability, the national economy has
begun to revive with international investments.(DEĠK, 2005: 2). With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered
in 1996-99 at high percentage rates from a low base In terms of real GDP, 29.9% growth in 1997, 28,9% in 1998
and 9,5% in 1999 was achieved.(IMF, 2010). In 1999, The EU proposes the new Stabilisation and Association
Process for five countries of South-Eastern Europe, including Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 2000, Zagreb Summit;
the Stabilisation and Association Process is officially endorsed by the EU and the Western Balkan countries
including Bosnia and Herzegovina. In November 2003, the Commission produces a Feasibility Study assessing
Bosnia and Herzegovina‘s capacity to implement a future Stabilisation and Association Agreement. The study
concludes that negotiations should start once Bosnia and Herzegovina has addressed 16 key priorities (OECD,
2006: 13). These negotiations related to Stabilisation and Association Agreement play an important role in the
country‘s economic policies (DEĠK, 2005: 2). As a result of these efforts, GDP growth exceeded 5% per year
between 2003-2008. Improvement in economic performance between the 2003-2008 years is reflected to growth
and national income figures. However the current account deficit, unemployment and low incomes continue to
be major economic problems. Besides, due in large part to the global economic crisis, GDP fell by about 3% in
2009, exports fell 24%, and unemployment rose above 40% (CIA, 2009).
Bosnia and Herzegovina has suffered a major structural change in economy. On the one hand
institutions which are necessary for the functioning of healthy free-market economy, are established with
technical and financial support and assistance of particularly the European Union and the United States. On the
other hand, country is trying to repair the damage which is caused by war. Bosnia and Herzegovina took many
important steps about correction of the country‘s image against foreign investors and it has been efforts to
increase foreign investment. In May 1999 a new Foreign Investment Law was enacted at the state level. Some
new investments have been made through the progress of privatization (WIIW, 2002: 4). In addition, Foreign
Investment Promotion Agency (FIPA) was established in 1999 for the the development and identifying of trade
and investment relations. FIPA provides data, information, analysis and advice on the business and investment
environment, including the legal framework for foreign direct investment, investment incentives, economic and
business trends (FIPA, 2010). In addition to the establishment of FIPA, various improvements were made in
Bosnia-Herzegovina to improve the investment environments such as 5-year programme for SME development
adopted in Republic of Srpska in 2001, harmonisation of customs tariffs in 2002, adoption of law on Indirect Tax
in 2003, Law on Business Registration in 2004 etc. (OECD, 2006: 18-19).
Basic problem in Bosnia-Herzegovina is that Bosnian state and society couldn‘t enough integrated after
the war which took place between 1992-1995. Normalization of the relationships between ethnic identities takes
time and that causes problems from time to time in the state administration and bureaucracy. Dayton Peace
Agreement has allowed for the legal ethnic division of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The state-wide organizations does
not functioning adequately because of the some articles in the Constitution of Bosnia-Herzegovina. For example,
according to the fourth Article of the Constitution, to take a decision in Bosnia-Herzegovina Parliament, a
certain percentage of MPs from both entities must be approve this decision. For that reason, there are bottlenecks
in Bosnia-Herzegovina's state-level councils. Representatives of different ethnic groups can agree on very few
issues because of this more fundamental reform can not be taken. (TEPAV-EPRI, 2010: 2).
Croatia, according to CIA World Factbook 2009, has a $ 29.477 billion GDP and $7,361 per capita
GDP by 2009. Today, main sectors of Croatia‘s economy are industry, agriculture, forestry, fishing industry and
food, drink, and tobacco production, construction, transport and communication, and trade. Croatia affected
badly from the 1991-1995 war and economy collapsed between this period. The other result of this war was that
Croatia missed the investment potential in Central and Eastern Europe followed the fall of Berlin Wall. Together
with ensuring political stability, positive developments began in the economy of Croatia. Between 2000 and
2007, Croatia's economic fortunes began to improve slowly, with moderate but steady GDP growth between 4%
and 6%. The economic growth mainly led by rapid increase in tourism and credit-driven consumer spending.
Besides, Croatia signed Stabilisation and Association Agreement with the EU in 2001 and submitted formal
application for EU membership in February 2003 (OECD, 2006b: 5). On October 4, 2005, EU accession
negotiations started and Crotia has entered new era. According to the Government of the Republic of Croatia,
EU accession negotiations will have a positive effect on a larger inflow of foreign capital, especially into
greenfield investment projects, which should eventually increase the economic growth and global
competitiveness of the Croatian economy. In Croatia, as in Bosnia-Herzegovina, in terms of primary goals of
economic policy, a special position is given to foreign investments which are very important for the future
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development of the country and further restructuring and modernization of the economy. The particular emphasis
is on creating a favourable business environment harmonized with the business environment prevalent in the
European Union, further development of market economy, stimulation of private investments, promotion of
international competitiveness, and entrepreneurial and market freedom. Since 2002 Trade and Investment
Promotion Agency (TIPA) has been active and its basic activities are directed towards proactive searching,
informing, attracting and realization of qualified investment projects which include production of goods and
services with high added value intended for export, as well as projects which will generate new jobs
(Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2010). Nevertheless, difficult problems still remain, including a high
unemployment rate, a growing trade deficit and uneven regional development. The state retains a large role in
the economy, as privatization efforts often meet stiff public and political resistance. While macroeconomic
stabilization has largely been achieved, structural reforms lag because of deep resistance on the part of the public
and lack of strong support from politicians. Croatia's high foreign debt, anemic export sector, strained state
budget, and over-reliance on tourism revenue will result in higher risk to economic stability over the medium
term (CIA, 2009).
Kosovo, one of the latest independent countries of the World, declared Its independence in 2008.
Today, Kosovo‘s population is 1,804,838 and has $ 5.352 billion GDP. Kosovo has the second largest coal
reserves in Europe (Reuters, 01.10.2009). Besides, Kosovo had the largest exporting company in the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia. However, today, Kosovo is one of the poorest countries in Europe with $ 2.965 per
capita GDP. During the 1990s, economy suffered badly from poor economic policies, international sanctions,
weak access to external trade and finance, and ethnic conflict. After a jump in 2000 and 2001, growth in Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) was negative in 2002. Between 2003 and 2009, Kosovo‘s real GDP growth was
approximately %4 per year. In addition, Kosovo is the only country which has positive GDP growth in 2009
among Former Yugoslav Federation countries (see Table 3 below). Today, the main target of the economic
policy of Kosovo is transition to the free trade system. Kosovo's economy has shown significant progress in
transitioning to a market-based system in recent years. In this context, Kosovo has drafted a legal framework that
ensures the fulfilment of European standards of competitiveness. However, Kosovo is still highly dependent on
the international community and the diaspora for financial and technical assistance. Unemployment, around 40%
of the population, is a significant problem that encourages outward migration and black market activity (CIA,
2009).
At independence in September 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav countries,
producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. An absence of infrastructure, UN
sanctions on the downsized Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo over a dispute about the country's
constitutional name and flag hindered economic growth until 1996. GDP subsequently rose each year through
2000. In the first half of 2001, violent conflict brought the country on the verge of civil war. The conflict has
cost the economy rather dearly. During a civil conflict, the economy shrank 4.5% because of decreased trade,
intermittent border closures, increased deficit spending on security needs, and investor uncertainty. Investments
and especially foreign direct investments slowed down as the risks increased dramatically (WIIW, 2002: 6).
Growth averaged 4% per year during 2003-06 and more than 5% per year during 2007-08. Macedonia has
maintained macroeconomic stability with low inflation, but it has so far lagged the region in attracting foreign
investment and creating jobs, despite making extensive fiscal and business sector reforms (CIA, 2009).
Montenegro severed its economy from federal control and from Serbia during the Milosevic era and
maintained its own central bank, adopted the Deutchmark, then the euro - rather than the Yugoslav dinar - as
official currency, collected customs tariffs, and managed its own budget. The dissolution of the loose political
union between Serbia and Montenegro in 2006 led to separate membership in several international financial
institutions, such as EBRD. On 18 January 2007, Montenegro joined the World Bank and IMF. Montenegro is
pursuing its own membership in the WTO and signed a Stabilization and Association agreement with the
European Union in October 2007. On December 15, 2008, Montenegro submitted an EU membership
application. Unemployment and regional disparities in development are key political and economic problems.
Montenegro has begun to attract foreign direct investment in the tourism sector. The global financial crisis is
likely to have a significant negative impact on the economy, due to the ongoing credit crunch, a decline in the
real estate sector, and a fall in aluminium exports (CIA, 2009).
Slovenia, which, on 1 January 2007, became the first 2004 European Union entrant to adopt the euro, is
a model of economic success and stability for the region. With the highest per capita GDP in Central Europe,
Slovenia has excellent infrastructure, a well-educated work force, and a strategic location between the Balkans
and Western Europe. Structural reforms to improve the business environment have allowed for somewhat greater
foreign participation in Slovenia's economy and have helped to lower unemployment. In March 2004, Slovenia
became the first transition country to graduate from borrower status to donor partner at the World Bank. In
December 2007, Slovenia was invited to begin the accession process for joining the OECD. Despite its economic
success, foreign direct investment (FDI) in Slovenia has lagged behind the region average, and taxes remain
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relatively high. In 2009 the world recession caused the economy to contract - through falling exports and
industrial production - more than 6% and unemployment to rise above 9% (CIA, 2009).
The Serbian economy has grown relatively quickly since a sharp contraction in 1999 brought on by the
war. Serbia has made progress in trade liberalization and enterprise restructuring and privatization, including
telecommunications and small- and medium-size firms. It has made some progress towards EU membership,
signing a Stabilization and Association Agreement with Brussels in May 2008, and with full implementation of
the Interim Trade Agreement with the EU in February 2010. Serbia is also pursuing membership in the World
Trade Organization. Reforms needed to ensure the country's long-term viability have largely stalled since the
onset of the global financial crisis. Serbia is grappling with fallout from crisis, which has led to a sharp drop in
exports to Western Europe and a decline in manufacturing output. Unemployment and limited export earnings
remain ongoing political and economic problems. Serbia signed an augmented $4 billion Stand By Arrangement
with the IMF in May 2009. IMF conditions on Serbia constrain the use of stimulus efforts to revive the economy,
while Serbia's concerns about inflation and exchange rate stability preclude the use of expansionary monetary
policy. Nevertheless, the IMF projects that Serbia's economy will grow by 1.5% in 2010 after a 3% contraction
in 2009 as a recovery in Western Europe takes hold (CIA, 2009).
When growth performance is examined between 2003-2008 years, Montenegro is the first country
according to 6.2% average annual real GDP growth performance. Montenegro has exhibited a growth
performance especially in excess of 10% in 2007. Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia showed 5.5% average annual
growth during this period. Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia and Kosovo showed nearly 4-5% annual growth
performance during the same period. In general evaluation, all the countries achieved 5% annual growth rates
during this period. In the same period, EU-27 has demonstrated 2.1% annual growth rate (Eurostat, 2010).
Bosnia-Herz.
Croatia
Kosovo
Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia
Slovenia
2003
3,5
5,0
5,4
2,8
2,5
2,4
2,8
2004
6,3
4,2
2,6
4,1
4,4
8,3
4,3
2005
4,3
4,2
3,8
4,1
4,2
5,6
4,5
2006
6,2
4,7
3,8
3,9
8,6
5,2
5,8
2007
6,5
5,5
4,0
5,9
10,7
6,9
6,8
2008
5,4
2,4
5,4
4,8
6,9
5,5
3,5
2009
-3,4
-5,8
4,0
-0,7
-7,0
-2,9
-7,3
Table 3. Real GDP Growth
Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 159.
After several years of solid economic growth, the Former Yugoslav Federation countries region has
entered a deep recession and negative growth rates are expected for most countries during 2009. With the effects
of global crisis, the economic downturn experienced throughout the world, is also showed the effects in this
countries. All countries, except Kosovo, showed negative growth performance in 2009. When real GDP growth
figures were examined in 2009, it has been seen that Slovenia is the worst affected country by the crisis.
Slovenia's economy has been shrinking 7.3% in 2009. Then Montenegro is followed Slovenia by 7% economic
growth reduction. Average growth performance of these seven countries was -3.3% in 2009. Excluding Kosovo's
4% growth from this figure, the growth performance of the other six countries is -4.5%. This figure is close to
the EU-27‘s -4.2% reduction rate in 2009 (Eurostat, 2010). In 2010, in line with worldwide expectations, all the
countries should start recovering and some of them should resume a positive growth, albeit much lower than the
figures for 2007 (RCC, 2009). Real GDP growth rates of these countries between 2007-2010 are given in Figure1 as follows:
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Figure 3. Real GDP Growth of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries
Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010
Industrial production has fallen across the region during the first half of 2009, due to a decline in key
export markets and lower lending by local banks (RCC, 2009). As a result of decline in GDP and industrial
production, inflation rates decreased in 2009. However, during 2007 and 2008, inflation rates were high in these
countries due to rising oil, energy and agricultural products‘ prices. Between 2003-2009, the country with the
highest inflation rates is Serbia with approximately 11.25% in average. As the world economy starts expected
recovery in 2010 and beyond, inflationary concerns can however again become an issue in the region (RCC,
2009).
Bosnia-Herz.
Croatia
Kosovo
Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia
Slovenia
2003
0,5
1,8
0,3
1,2
7,5
11,7
5,6
2004
0,3
2,0
-1,1
-0,4
3,1
10,1
3,6
2005
3,6
3,3
-1,4
0,5
3,4
17,3
2,5
2006
6,1
3,2
0,6
3,2
2,1
12,7
2,5
2007
1,5
2,9
4,4
2,3
3,5
6,5
3,6
2008
7,4
6,1
9,4
8,3
9,0
12,4
5,7
2009
-0,4
2,4
-2,4
-0,8
3,6
8,1
0,8
Table 4: Inflation Rates in of Former Yugoslav Federation Countries
Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 165.
Bosnia-Herz.
Croatia
Kosovo
Macedonia
Montenegro
Serbia
Slovenia
2003
-19,4
-5,4
-8,1
-4,1
-6,7
-7,2
-0,8
2004
-16,4
-4,6
-8,3
-8,4
-7,2
-12,1
-2,7
2005
-18,0
-5,7
-7,4
-2,6
-8,5
-8,7
-1,7
2006
-8,4
-6,7
-6,7
-0,9
-24,1
-10,1
-2,5
2007
-12,6
-7,6
-8,8
-7,2
-39,5
-15,6
-4,8
2008
-14,9
-9,2
-16,0
-13,1
-52,4
-17,5
-6,2
2009
-7,5
-5,6
-18,7
-7,3
-27,2
-5,7
-0,3
Table 5:Current Account Balance (% of GDP)
Source: World Economic Outlook, IMF, April 2010, p. 174.
In terms of Current Account (CA) balance, it is seen that all the countries have been running CA deficits
since last seven years (See Table 5 below). Montenegro has the highest CA deficit with -23.6% in average in this
period. Between 2003 and 2005, Montenegro had CA deficit below 10%. However, since 2006, Montenegro‘s
CA deficit has exceeded 10% and has increased rapidly. Bosnia-Herzegovina follows Montenegro with %13,9
CA deficit in average between 2003 and 2009.Slovina has almost reached CA balance with -0.3% CA deficit in
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2009. Due to the economic crisis, the CA deficit is expected to decline for most countries also due to the reduced
import levels and commodity prices (RCC, 2009).
Conclusion
Countries in this study have many problems about political stability because many ethnic and religious
groups live in this region. Especially the era of 1990s was the time of diversity conflict. Undoubtedly the
instability affects the economic structure. This situation is supported by statistical indicators.
A major period of transformation has begun all over the world in 1980s. The important developments
occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also affected economic field equally. Economic
stability and transformation cannot be considered separately from political stability and transformation. In this
context, disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only in
political but also in economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia,
Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav federation. With
dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process started in these countries.
In conclusion, it can be said that the current global economic crisis is taking the toll on Former
Yugoslav Federation countries as well. It is therefore necessary for the governments of the region to attempt to
mitigate to the highest extent possible the impact on the real economy, keep inflation under control, and ensure
macroeconomic and financial system stability. However, the short term measures should not interfere with the
pursuit of long-term reforms that are needed in order to achieve sustained growth (RCC, 2009).
References
BELLONI, R. (2007), State Building and International Intervention in Bosnia‖, Routledge.
Central Intelligence Agency, (2009), The World Factbook Report, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/index.html
DONAIS, T. (2005), The Political Economy of Peacebuilding in Post-Dayton Treaty, Routledge.
Government of the Republic of Croatia, http://www.vlada.hr/en/about_croatia/information/croatian_economy
IMF, (2010), World Economic Outlook-Rebalancing Growth, International Monetary Fund Publication Services, USA.
MARIC, V. (2006a), ―Bosnia Hercegovina‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books.
MARIC, V. (2006B) ―Serbia & Montenegro‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books.
OLIVER, J. (2006), ―Croatia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books.
OLIVER, J. (2006B), ―Slovenia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books.
PHILLIPS, D. (2004), Bosnia & Herzegovina, Chelsea House Publishers, US.
PLUNKETT, R. (2006), ―Macedonia‖, Western Balkans, Lonely Planet Guide Books.
Regional Cooperation Council, (2009), South East Europe Economic Indicators,
http://www.rcc.int/download.php?tip=docs&doc=Selected+economic+indicators_first+half+of+2009_180909.pdf&doc_url=
b8fe37299bb01712fe7e16bf4209c0e4
OECD, (2006), Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Fact Sheet.
TC Saraybosna Büyükelçiliği Ticaret MüĢavirliği (2008), 2007 Yılında Bosna Hersek'in Genel Ekonomik Durumu Ve
Türkiye Ġle Ekonomik-Ticari ĠliĢkileri, Saraybosna.
TEPAV, (2010), Bosna Hersek Açılımının Geleceği.
HUNYA, G. (2002), ―FDI in South-Eastern Europe in the early 2000s‖, The Vienna Institute for International Economic
Studies (WIIW).
311
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184
Title
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Comparative Analysis of Bosnia Herzegovina to the Other Former Yugoslav Federation Countries in the Context of Political and Economic Perspectives
Author
Author
KİRİŞ, Hakan M.
ŞENTÜRK, Canan
KESKİN, Hidayet
SUNGUR, Onur
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A major period of transformation has begun all over the world since 1980s. The important developments occurring in the political field with neoliberal policies have also affected economic field equally. Economic stability and transformation cannot be considered separately from political stability and transformation. In this context, disintegration of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia has led to important developments not only political but also economic fields. Today, there are countries of Bosnia - Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, Croatia, Macedonia, Kosovo and Montenegro in the territory of the former Yugoslav federation. With dissolution of the federation, political and economic transformation process started in these countries. This study aims to make a comparative analysis in the context of macroeconomic indicators on Bosnia – Herzegovina‘s economy with other FYRs‘ economies that emerged as a result of political transformation.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
HB Economic Theory
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/35612543369cc8b164ef117171c3cbfa.pdf
77132c5573e74b611a7f56cd798e0049
PDF Text
Text
Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the
Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars
Sadettin Küçük
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey
kucuksadettin07@hotmail.com
Meliha Temirkaynak
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey
temirkaynak@hotmail.com
Recep Çoşkun
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya-Turkey
recep0768@mynet.com
Hüseyin Namal
Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute, Antalya,Turkey
hus_namal@hotmail.com
Abstract: The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars.
Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana,
Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing
0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study
the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality.
Keywords: Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp, IBA, rooting.
Introduction
Nowadays, the fig cultivation for earliness has expanded significantly in Turkey-Mediterrenean Region
particularly in Antalya province. Therefore, interest in own-rooted fig plants has increase, especially in fig
growing areas. The demand fort his plants has led nurseymen to look for effective means of propagation large
number of plants rapidly and easily.
The production of fig more quicly and cheaply would be considerable commercial value, and growing
cuttings on their own roots could achieve this purpose by eliminating the need for producing rootstock as well as
for budding and grafting. Previous research shown that fig cuttings are characterised by a variable rooting ability
(Pinherio, 1984; Dolgun et al., 2004).
Bench heating, mist, temperature control, growth substance and hormone treatments are always
required to obtain satisfactory rooting (Chalfun et al.,2003).
Material and Methods
In this study, the hardwood cuttings of figs taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz
cultivars.
The research was carried out in the “Mist Propagation Unit” at Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research
Institute. Hardwood cuttings were taken to be 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter and planted into the
rooting media. In the research, 0 ppm (control), 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA (Indole 3-butyric acid) doses were
tested. In practice, in the form of sheaves of hardwood cutting, 1-2 cm of the bottom parts were dipped in IBA
solution for a period of 5 seconds and we waited for short time fort he alcohole to release. Then cuttings were
824
�planted in a rooting media (including perlite) by 10x10 cm row and plant spacing (Kalyoncu, 1996; Ersoy et al.
2010).
This experiment was carried out in a randomise block design with 4 replicates. Each replicate consisted
of 20 hardwood cuttings. Analysis of variance and LSD multiple range test (p<0.05) were used to determine
differences in rooting rate (%), root number, maximum root lenght (cm), average root lenght (cm), shoot lenght
(cm) and shoot diameter (mm).
Results and Discussion
All hardwood cuttings were decayed 80 days after planting. Following treatment with IBA, IBA increased
rooting rate. But there were not significant differences between IBA doses on rooting rate. The 1000 ppm IBA
dose gave the highest mean value for rooting rate in all cultivars (Table 1).
Cultivars
Doses
Rooting rate
0
85.00
250
500
1000
82.50
86.25
92.50
Nazareth
LSD%5
Banana
0
100.00
250
500
1000
95.00
97.50
100.00
n.s
LSD%5
Noire de Cromp
0
92.50
250
97.50
500
97.50
1000
100.00
LSD%5
n.s
Morgüz
0
97.50
250
500
1000
97.50
95.00
97.50
LSD%5
Table 1. Effects of IBA doses on rooting rate of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars.
The effect of IBA treatments on root number, maxiumum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght
and shoot diameter are shown in Table 2.
The average root lenght for the treatments of 0, 250 ppm, 500 ppm on Nazareth varieties were observed
as 9.56 cm, 8.68 cm, 5.80 cm and 5.98 cm, respectively. Accordingly, the highest rate was obtained for control
and low concentration of IBA. In Nazareth fig cultivars, sapling quality characters were not positively affected
by IBA treatments (Table 2).
In Banana cultivars, root number, average root lenght and shoot diameter positively affected by IBA
treatments. The highest root number was determined for 1000 ppm IBA treatment (with 36.43). This rate was
found to be 28.05 for control (Table 2).
825
�Cultivars
Doses
Root
number
Max. root
lenght
Average root
lenght
Shoot lenght
Shoot
diameter
0
15. 65
16.78
9.56 A
11.58
7.08 A
250
500
1000
LSD%5
13.98
14.18
12.73
n.s
16.48
12.93
14.40
n.s
8.68 AB
5.80 B
5.98 B
2.93
13.35
9.58
8.60
n.s
4.83 B
4.38 B
5.00 B
1.01
0
28.05 B
17.40 A
8.05 A
17.35 AB
5.73 A
21.85 C
25.70 BC
36.43 A
5.95
17.08 A
13.82 B
16.33 AB
2.78
6.80 AB
5.95 B
7.20 AB
1.91
16.25 B
15.35 B
19.43 A
2.85
5.03 B
4.55 B
5.20 AB
0.67
24.60 B
24.63 B
21.15 B
35.55 A
6.79
14.28
15.30
14.00
13.25
n.s.
5.55 B
8.95 A
5.58 B
6.23 B
2.28
17.18
19.30
16.90
18.20
n.s.
4.75 AB
5.90 A
4.50 B
4.08 B
1.38
13.78 B
13.78
8.26
16.58
6.38
Nazareth
Banana
250
500
1000
LSD%5
Noire de Cromp
0
250
500
1000
LSD%5
Morgüz
0
250
19.86 B
18.60
10.53
14.98
6.50
500
19.65 B
17.98
8.50
16.68
5.05
1000
28.95 A
16.13
8.18
16.48
5.18
LSD%5 8.14
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
n.s.
Table 2. Effects of IBA doses on root number, maximum root lenght, average root lenght, shoot lenght and
shoot diameter of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars.
While Banana cultivar was showed high rooting rate (98.13 %), root number (28.00 roots/sapling),
maximum root lenght (16.62 cm) and shoot lenght (17.89 cm), Nazareth cultivar was showed low rooting rate
(81.56 %), root number (14.13 roots/sapling), maximum root lenght (15.14 cm) and shoot lenght (10.78 cm)
(Table 3).
Cultivars
Nazareth
Banana
Noire de Cromp
Morgüz
LSD%5
Rooting
rate
81.56 B
98.13 A
96.88 B
96.88 B
8.74
Root
number
14.13 C
28.00 A
26.48 A
20.56 B
3.78
Max. root
lenght
15.14 AB
16.62 A
14.21 B
16.16 A
1.86
Average
root leght
7.50 B
7.00 B
6.58 B
8.86 A
1.28
Shoot
lenght
10.78 B
17.89 A
17.09 A
16.17 A
1.99
Shoot
diameter
5.32 AB
5.13 B
4.81 B
5.78 A
0.59
Table 3. Root and shoot quality characteristics of Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars.
In conclusion, root quality were improved in the rooting medium added with IBA compared with
control medium. The best cultivar was found to be Banana in terms of rooting behavior.
826
�References
Chaldun N.N.J, M. Pasqual, P. M. Norberta, L.F. Dutra, J.M. Caval Cante & Alves, 2003. Rooting of fig (Ficus
carica L.) cultivars; cutting time and IBA. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 605, II. International Symposium on fig
(Abstract). Caceres, Spain.
Dolgun O, F.E.Tekintaşi, G. Seferoğlu & N. Şahin, 2204. Sarılop incir çeşidide farlı üretim uygulamalarının
fidan kalitesi üzerine etkileri. ADÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi. 1(1):19-22.
Ersoy N., I.H. Kalyoncu, M. Aydın & M.Yılmaz, 2010. Effects of some humidity and IBA hormone dose
appliations on rooting of M9 apple clonal rootstock softwood top cuttings. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol.
9 (17), p:2510-2514.
Kalyoncu Đ.H., 1996. Konya yöresindeki kızılcık (Cornus mas L.) tiplerinin bazı özellikleri ve farklı nem
ortamlarındaki köklenme durumu üzerine bir araştırma. Selçuk Üniversitesi Tarımsal Yapılar ve Sulama Bölümü.
Doktora tezi (yayınlanmamış), Konya.
Pinherio R.V.R and L.M.De Oliveria, 1974. The influence of fig cutting lenght on striking, rooting and branch
and leaf development, Horticultural Abstract, 44 (3).
827
�
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633
Title
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Determination of Effects of Different IBA Doses on Rooting of the Hardwood Cutings of Some Fig Cultivars
Author
Author
Küçük, Sadettin
Temirkaynak, Meliha
Çoskun, Recep
Namal, Hüseyin
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The aim of study was to determine the effects of different doses of IBA (Indole 3- butyric acid) on the rooting performances of the hardwood cuttings of some fig cultivars. Cuttings 15-20 cm in length and 10-15 mm diameter were taken from Nazareth, Banana, Noire de Cromp and Morgüz cultivars. The cuttings were dipped in to the solution containing 0, 250, 500 and 1000 ppm IBA doses and planted into rooting media. At the end of the study the best IBA doses were determined for rooting rate and quality.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/08925bae4b0764596f03439a30fc2159.pdf
28a06dc441a96fcaff3cf4bc4ad147a3
PDF Text
Text
Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From
Drinking Water
Yüksel Köseoğlu
Fatih University, Department of Physics, Buyukcekmece 34500 Istanbul-TURKEY
Abstract: Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were
produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were
used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product,
respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the
Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most
intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a
superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have
ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These
nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As),
and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using
a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and
found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements
were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results.
Keywords: Superparamagnetism, Ferrite, XRD, VSM, Atomic mass spectroscopy,
Arsenic
Introduction
Nanophase materials with an average grain size in the range of 1 to 50 nm have attracted research
interest for more than a decade since their physical properties are quite different from that of their bulk micronsized counterparts because of the large volume fraction of atoms that occupies the grain boundary area [1-3].
This new class of materials is used in important applications like high frequency transformers, ferrofluids,
pigments in paints and ceramics, biomedical applications like drug delivery system, hyperthermia, NMR, high
density magnetic recording, varistors and dye-sensitized solar cells [4-11]. The surface area of the
nanostructured materials is large as the grain sizes are small. The increase in the interfacial energy due to defects,
dislocations and lattice imperfections leads to changes in various physical properties and hence one can tailor
make the materials with specific properties. Almost 50 % of the atoms reside in the grain boundary area when
the grain size is reduced to less than 10 nm whereas it is only 1-3 % when the grain size is 100 nm [1, 12]. Since
a large fraction of atoms is present at the grain boundaries, the nanocrystalline materials exhibit enhanced
diffusivity.
Arsenic (As) contamination in drinking water is a major health and environmental issue around the
world, especially in the developing countries [13,14]. Removal of arsenic from drinking water is an important
problem for environmental engineering and while there are ways to remove arsenic, thay are expensive and
require extensive hardware and high-pressure pumps that run on electricity. Iron oxide is an interesting sorbent
for the removal of arsenic and other heavy metal contaminants[15,16]. When magnetic iron oxide is made as
nanoparticles, the smaller particle size and high surface area enhances its capacity for As removal [17]. An
external magnetic field can be used to separate the magnetic nanoparticles after sorption.
Here we report the PEG assisted hydrothermal synthesis of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) nanoparticles and
show the potential use of the nanocomposite of superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 for the waste water treatment,
especially for arsenic removal, by magnetic separation, using a small magnetic field. The experiments involved
suspending pure samples of uniform-sized nickel ferrite nanoparticles in water. Once they bind to arsenic, a
magnetic field was used to pull the particles to out of solution, leaving only the purified water. We measured the
tiny particles after they were removed from the water and ruled out the most obvious explanation: the particles
were not clumping together after being tractored by the magnetic field due to surface modification by
polyethylene glycol (PEG). It is also found that the composite can be easily dispersed in water and the magnetic
carbon fluid thus obtained is very stable for few days.
439
�Results and Discussion
FTIR analysis
Two mainbroad metal-oxygen bands are seen in the IR spectra of all spinels, and ferrites in particular. The
highest one, v1, (Fig. 1) generally observed in the range 600-550cm-1, corresponds to intrinsic stretching
vibrations of the metal at the tetrahedral site, Mtetra↔O, whereas the v2-lowest band, usually observed in the
range 450-385cm-1, is assigned to octahedral-metal stretching, Mocta↔O [7,18]. It is known that Ni2+ ions have
octahedral-site preference Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions can occupy both octahedral and tetrahedral sites [19].
Transmittance (a.u.)
NiFe2O4
PEG
4000
3000
2000
1000
-1
Wavenumber (cm )
Fig. 1. FTIR spectra of NiFe2O4, synthesized by PEG-assisted hydrothermal method. Red line shows
the FTIR spectra of PEG.
However, no clear peak due to octahedrally coordinated metal ions has been observed which is expected to
be below 400 cm-1. This may be due to the broadening of this peak attributed to very small particles of spinel
ferrites. The bands observed around 3430 and 1521 cm−1 frequencies are ascribed due to the stretching modes
and H-O-H bending vibration of the free or absorbed water molecules.
XRD analysis
The powder X-ray diffractograms recorded for sample of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is shown in Fig.2. Samples
are considered to be single-phase spinel structure as no extra peaks and no unreacted constituents were observed.
This allows the estimation of average crystallite size and its standart deviation from XRD. The experimental line
profiles, shown in Fig.2, were fitted for 9 peaks (111), (220), (311), (400), (422), (511), (440) (622) and (533)
the calculated average crystallite size, D and standart deviations σ, are presented in Table 3.
440
�40
50
60
533
622
422
400
111
30
440
511
311
220
intensity (a.u.)
20
70
2θ (Degree)
Figure 2: Experimental and theoretically fitted XRD patterns of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles.
The cation distribution in NiFe2O4 can be infered from the X-ray diffraction relative integrated intensity
calculations by using the following formula suggested by Buerger [20]:
2
I hkl = F hkl PL p
where
(1)
F is the structure factor, P the multicipty factor and L p is the Lorenz-polarization factor which
depends only on the Bragg’s diffraction angle
Lp =
θ
1 + cos 2 2θ
sin 2 θ cos 2θ
(2)
Some peaks’ intensity ratios in the XRD pattern of spinel structures were reported as cation distribution
sensitive peaks, such as I 220 / I 400 , I 220 / I 422 and I 422 / I 400 [21,22]. In the calculations (i) all possible cation
arrangments are considered with 0.01 stoichiometric sensitivity that Ni+2 and Fe+3 can site both tetrahedral and
octahedral sites, (ii) the oxygen positional parameter was chosen between 0.3700 and 0.3900, ideal spinel
structures that are 0.3852, 0.3822 and 0.375 respectively [23] and (iii) for the agreement of calculated and
experimental intensity ratios, the difference of calculated and experimental relative intensities for all distribution
cases are considered and the sum of these differences are minimized. Finally the closest calculated data are taken
to be the correct distributions. Note that there should be no need for the thermal correction because of the
spinel’s high melting temperature and hence very small thermo-vibrational effect of spinel on XRD patterns [24].
As a result the experimental lattice constants, chosen oxygen positional parameters, the relative insenties of
experimental and calculated XRD peaks, and their corresponding cation distribution results are listed in Table 1.
The occupancy of Fe+3 ions on A site is greater than 0.78 and in all substance the Fe+3 ions dominate in Td sub
lattice.
Lattice
Parameter
a
(A)
Oxygen
Positional
Parameter
u
8.36
0.3750
I220/I400
I422/I400
Cation Distribution
(Ni0.22Fe0.78)
[Ni0.78Fe1.22]
Obs.
Cal.
Obs.
Cal.
1.25
1.23
0.41
0.45
Table 1: The values of XRD cation distribution in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles.
441
�In the spinel structure the cations on different sub lattites ( A and B sites) have oppositely aligned magnetic
moments according to the Neel’s ferrimagnetic theory [55]. So the magnetic moment per formula unit in
µ B (Bohr magneton) is
n B ( x) = M B ( x) − M A ( x)
where
(4.4)
M B and M A are B and A site magnetic moment in µ B . The magnetic moment per formula unit is
calculated by cation distribution results of XRD and Neel’s theory with ionic magnetic moment of 5 µ B and
2 µ B for Fe+3 and Ni+2 , respectively [23]. The results are summarized in Table 2. The calculated
agreed well with experimentally obtained values, confirming a collinear magnetic structure.
n B values
.
Cation Distribution
(XRD)
(Ni0.22Fe0.78) [Ni0.78Fe1.22]
Saturation Magnetization
Ms (emu/g)
(VSM)
40.93
Magneton number nB(μB)
Obs.
Cal.
(VSM)
(XRD)
2.16
2.20
Table 2: The magnetic moment per unit formula from XRD and VSM for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles
TEM
( XRD- Profile Fit)
VSM (LN Langevien Fit)
DTEM ( σ )
Av. Size (Geo.StD)
15 (0.23)
DXRD ( σ)
Av. Size (StD.)
14.1 (5.0)
Dm(σ
σ m)
Av. Size (Geo .StD.)
13.9 (0.58)
Table 3: The obtained particle sizes or size distributions of Ni Fe2O4 nanoparticles.
TEM analysis
The TEM micrograph and particle size distribution of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by by
hydrothermal method using PEG 400 are given in Fig. 3. During synthesis, temperature was increased to 150 0C
and samples were kept for 21h in the owen. A good crystallinity can be attributed to the heat during synthesis
process. 150 particles are counted in NiFe2O4 nanoparticles and particle size has been determined as 15 nm from
the size distribution from Fig.3 (b) which agrees with the result of XRD measurement (14.1 nm).
442
�25
% counts
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Pa r t i c l e s i z e ( n m )
(a)
(b)
Figure 3 (a) The TEM micrograph of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by using PEG 400, (b) particle size
distribution.
VSM analysis
By using Quantum Design Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (QD-VSM), the magnetic characterizations of
NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were performed. In detail, the magnetization of Ni-ferrites were studied as a function of
external field between ±5 kOe and as a function of temperature (between T=10 K and the room temperature).
Magnetic hysteresis curves were then analyzed for temperature dependency of the samples’ magnetization under
zero field cooling-ZFC and field cooling-FC.
The magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 is
analized at room and 10 K temperature in Fig. 4 and 5.
Magnetization (emu/g)
40
T=305 K
20
0
-20
-40
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
Magnetic Field (Oe)
Figure 4 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
at room temperature.
443
�It is observed that the room temperature M-H curve of NiFe2O4 powders does not show a hysteresis in Fig.
4. The value of magnetization sharply increases with the external magnetic field strength. M-H curve has an s
shape at low field region and the high field side of the curve is almost linear with the external field. However, a
saturation state of magnetization has not been reeached yet in the presence of a relatively strong magnetic field
of even 10 kOe, which is consistent with the previous studies [25,26]. A saturation magnetization of 40.93 emu/g
is obtained for the room temperature measurement.
It is known that fine particles are easy to activate thermally and overcome magnetic anisotropy. Particles
lost their hysteresis property above blocking temperature and magnetic moments follow the same direction with
applied magnetic field. So that the magnetic moments do not have any remanent magnetization and a hysteresis
loop to observe coercive field.
80
60
T=10 K
Magnetization (emu/g)
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-10000
-5000
0
5000
10000
Magnetic Field (Oe)
Figure 5 Magnetic field vs magnetization curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
as fuel at 10K temperature.
The M-H curve of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles denoted that coercive field and saturation magnetization increased
at 10 K temperature in Fig. 5. Coercive field is measured as 132 Oe which is higher than 305K value. And
saturation magnetization reached 65.35 emu/g because of the magnetic exchange energy. The width of hysteresis
terminates around 50 emu/g values, after that a line follows a continuous shape by increasing applied field. An
increasing trend in saturation magnetization is also observed in the high magnetic field regime.
444
�Magnetizatization (emu/g)
18
12
190 K
6
100 Oe
ZFC-FC
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Temperature (K)
Figure 6 Magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400
as fuel.
The magnetization vs temperature curve of NiFe2O4 synthesized by hydrothermal method using PEG 400 as
fuel has been obtained in Fig. 6. The magnetization of the NiFe2O4 sample increases by decreasing temperature
in FC (field cooling) measurement. The magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles at 10 K temperature is measured
as 15 emu/g in FC process which means the magnetization direction of each particle is frozen in the field
direction. The ZFC magnetization exhibits a maximum around a critical temperature which is blocking
temperature TB. Both curves, only joins at around 220 K temperature only and then diverges. Here, the blocking
temperature (TB) of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is determined as 190 K as seen in Fig. 6. After ZFC process,
magnetization of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles is measured as 4 emu/g which denotes that the magnetic moments did
not align at 10 K temperature.
Arsenic Removal
The NiFe2O4 nanoparticles covered with PEG can be easily dispersed in water and the dispersion is found to
be stable for a long time. Similarly, the nanocomposite can be easily separated using a laboratory permanent
magnet and again redispersed. This shows that the PEG is strongly attached to the surface of the Ni-ferrite
nanoparticles. To demonstrate the application of the Ni-ferrite nanocomposite for arsenic removal by magnetic
separation, the nanocomposite is used for the removal of arsenic in drinking water. The photographs in Figure 7
(a) show this behavior very clearly. This shows the efficiency of the nanocomposite for arsenic removal after
adsorption on nickel ferrite by magnetic separation.
100
B
Removal efficiency (%)
80
60
40
20
0
1
2
3
4
Cycles
445
5
6
7
�Figure 7 The separation of NiFe2O4 nanoparticles from solution by a magnet (A) and removal efficiencies of
arsenic during adsorption-desorption cycles for NiFe2O4 nanoparticles (B)
The graph of removal efficiency of arsenic as a function of time for various amounts of the
nanocomposite used are shown in Figure 8. 94% removal is observed within few minutes when 0.5 g/L of the
nanocomposite is used for 25 mg/L arsenic solution. The amount adsorbed is calculated using the relation, qe =
(Ci−Cf)V /m, where Ci and Cf are the initial and final concentrations of arsenic, respectively, in mg/L, and m is
mass of the nanoparticles in mg/L. The value of qe is calculated as 18 mg/g. Similar high adsorption capacity for
drimaren red dye and other contaminants is reported for iron oxide/commercial AC composite [27]. qe of 11.9
mg/g of Fe3O4/carbon nanotube nanocomposite is reported very recently for methylene blue (MB) removal [28].
100
90
Removal efficiency (%)
80
70
60
50
0.20g
0.3g
0.5g
40
30
20
10
0
-10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Time (min)
Figure 8 Removal efficiency of arcenic from water as a function of time using different amounts of NiFe2O4
nanoparticles.
Conclusion
Thus, the present study shows that superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were successfully synthesized by
using PEG assisted hydrothermal method and arsenic strongly attached to these nanoparticles. The magnetic
fluid obtained by dispersion of the nanoparticles in water is relatively stable and this dispersion is very efficient
for the removal of arsenic from contaminated water by adsorption on magnetic nanoparticles and a subsequent
simple magnetic separation process. Also, these nanoparticles can be used repeatedly to remove arsenic from
drinking water.
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M.R. Anantharaman, S. Jagatheesan, S. Sindhu, K.A. Malini, A. Narayanasamy, C.N. Chinnasamy, K. Philip, K.
Vasudevan, Int. J. Plast. Rubb. Process. Appl. 27 (1998) 77–81.
[20]
M.G. Buerger, Crystal Structure Analysis, Wiley interscience, New York, 1960.
[21]
H. Ohnishi, T. Teranishi, J.Phys. Soc Jpn, 6 (1969) 36.
[22]
S.Singhal, K.Chandra, Jour. Sol. Stat. Chem. , 180 (2007) 296-300.
[23] Wohlfarth, Ferromagnetic materials Vol 3 North holland Publishing Company 1982 p196.
[24] Qiang-min Wei, Jian-bao Li, Yong-jun Chen, Yong-shen Han, Material Chemistry and Physics, 74 (2002), 340-343.
[25]
F. Li, H.Wang, L.Wang, J.Wang, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 309 (2007), 295.
[26]
R.N. Bhowmik, R. Ranganathan, J. Magn. Magn. Mater., 248 (2002), 101.
[27] L. C. A. Oliveira, R. V. R. A. Rios, J. D. Fabris, V. Garg, K. Sapag, and R. M. Lago, Carbon 40 (2002) 2177
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J.-L. Gong, B. Wang, G.-M. Zenga, C.-P. Yang, C.-G. Niu, Q.-Y. Niu, W.-J. Zhou, and Y. Liang, J. Hazardous Mater.
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�
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543
Title
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Superparamagnetic NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles to Remove Arsenic From Drinking Water
Author
Author
Köseoğlu, Yüksel
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
Superparamagnetic nanoparticles of nickel ferrite (NiFe2O4) were produced by PEG assisted hydrothermal method. XRD, FT-IR, TEM and VSM were used for the structural, morphological, and magnetic investigation of the product, respectively. Average particle size of the nanoparticles was estimated by the Scherrer equation using the full-width at half maximum (FWHM) of the most intense XRD peak and found as 14 nm. While the nanoparticles indicate a superparamagnetic behavior above the blocking temperature of 72 K, they have ferromagnetic behavior at temperatures lower than the blocking temperature. These nanoparticles were dispersed into drinking water contaminated with arsenic (As), and once they bind to arsenic, they have been removed from the water solution using a strong magnet. The results were measured by Atomic Mass Spectrometry and found that these nanoparticles had removed 90 % of the arsenic. The measurements were repeated several times with the same sample and get almost the same results.
Date
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2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/6d5787d8e760deea3b763187bde865a5.pdf
1555a714af1c49b8b757e939a29ed6f5
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Text
Investigation of Temperature Parameter on the Sinterability of Magnesia
Bengü Köknal
Dokuz Eylul University, Mining Eng., Mineral Processing Dep., Buca, Izmir, Turkey
bengukoknal@hotmail.com
Turan Batar
Dokuz Eylul University, Mining Eng., Mineral Processing Dep., Buca, Izmir, Turkey
turan.batar@deu.edu.tr
Akın Altun
Dokuz Eylul University, Metallurgical & Materials Eng. Dept., Buca, Izmir, Turkey
akin.altun@deu.edu.tr
Abstract: A sintering procedure in constant heraus muffle furnace was carried out at an
interval of 1600-1900 oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5 oC min-1 cooling rate to improve the
grain growth of magnesia. The effects of temperature on the grain growth and microstructural
examination of samples were investigated by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).
The average grain size was also determined separately by an intercept measurement method.
According to the findings, crystal size and bulk density were enhanced significantly as a
linear relationship with the increasing temperature. For the samples sintered at 1900 oC, a
maximum average grain growth (~100 µm ) has been obtained. In this paper, the effects of
temperature on the crystal size and bulk density of the treated magnesia and its marketability
were evaluated.
Key words: Sintering, grain size, bulk density, purchasability
Introduction
Grain size, impurities, porosity, sintering temperature and practice shape play an important role in
controlling many physical, mechanical and chemical properties of magnesia-based bricks (Kingery, 1984, Itatani,
Nomura, Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986, Rice, 1972). It is known that porosity can alter or eliminate the appearance
of grain-size control of strength (Itatani, Nomura, Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986). As grains grow, grain boundaries
sweep past many pores, which are then within the grains not at grain boundaries. This commonly results in an
additional regular pore shape, which may well decrease stress concentrations.
The size of the MgO crystals within the magnesia grains is critically an important factor in controlling
the resistance to corrosive attack of basic bricks (Aksel, Rand, Riley, Warren, 2002). When the size of the
crystals increases, a corresponding decline occurs in crystal surface area and open porosity (Aksel, Rand, Riley,
Warren, 2002). Furthermore, as the mean MgO grain size increases, the wear rate as a result of corrosive slag
attack decreases (Lee, Rainforth, 1994). Magnesia-based refractories with a large grain size (>100 mm) are used
comprehensively where the corrosion resistance is required. On the contrary, a high thermal shock resistance in
fused magnesia grain requires a fine crystal size and a compromise may be required in applications where
thermal shock resistance is important (Williams, Taylor, Soady, 1990) Critical microstructural factors affecting
properties and performance of a brick are basically density, grain size, impurities and CaO/SiO2 ratios (Aksel,
Rand, Riley, Warren, 2002).
Currently, researchers focused on the improvement in the resistance of corrosive attack of sintered
magnesite with the greatest grain growth. As the grain size increases, the penetration of slag through the grain
boundaries can be minimised. The enlargement in grain size leads to a high resistance to fracture and corrosion.
To reach the optimum grain size increases the quality and performance of the refractory material, leading to an
economical benefit and longer service life for industrial applications in terms of corrosion and thermal shock
resistance.
In this study, under optimum test conditions in the literature (Marechal, 1991) such as constant dwelling
time (19 min) and the cooling rate (5 oC min-1), crystal size and bulk density is separately determined according
to rising temperature. The role of temperature on the enlargement of grain size and bulk density were also
508
�evaluated by SEM analysis. Furthermore, Crystal size and bulk density, which have a pronounced effect on
quality and purchasability, are investigated It is considered that this paper will provide a platform to improve
understanding of relationships between microstructure and those parameters, affecting grain size of the sintered
magnesite significantly.
Experimental procedures
The magnesite concentrate was provided from Kümas Magnesite Mine Inc, Kütahya. The representative
sample was crushed and classified into -5 +3 mm particle size. Mineralogical characterization by X-ray
diffraction spectrometry evidenced MgO while main additional minerals were Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO and Al2O3.
Quantitative chemical analysis of the elements by emission spectroscopy technique revealed that MgO content is
48, 53 % [Table 1].
MgO, %
SiO2, %
CaO, %
Fe2O3, %
Al2O3, %
LOI*, %
49.56
0.30
1.10
0.30
0,04
48,70
*LOI: loss on ignition Table 1. Chemical analysis of magnesite concentrate
A sintering procedure close to industrial situation was performed in the constant heraus muffle furnace
at interval 1600-1900oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5oC min-1 cooling rate 7. Sintered samples were placed in
polyethylene moulds by a mixture of epoxy resin and hardener. Surfaces of samples were ground using
progressively finer SiC papers. The polishing of specimens for SEM was carried out using a “Metcom Forcipol
1V” grinder polisher. Chemical etching was then carried out in a HNO3 and CH3OH (3:2) diluted solution at
room temperature for ~25 min (Aksel, Kasap, Sesver, 2005). Microstructural examination of the regarding
samples was carried out using JEOL JSM-6060 SEM. Grain sizes of polished and chemically etched surfaces
were then measured from photographs taken in SEM, using an intersecting grain numbers method (Clinton, Freer,
1987). Similar results were achieved by standard lines mean method (Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008). Average
grain size was determined from intercept measurements on the observed plane, by using the following formula:
−
D = (n * l ) ( Z * M )
(1)
−
where D is the average grain size, n number of lines, l intersecting grain numbers and M is the magnification
unit, taken over 2000 grains and measured on the plane of polish. Supposing for the grain size variables, in order
to identify an average grain size, were that the structure consisted of nontextured, equiaxed grains of ordinary
polyhedral shape. All the values calculated for each sample were the average value of ~300 measurements of
seven SEM micrographs. According to those values, the improvement in grain growth was investigated for each
sample based on the effect of temperature. After sintering, bulk density values were measured using the standard
water immersion method (Mendelson, 1969). The rise in sintering temperature to 1900oC for 19 min, using
cooling rate of 5 oC min-1, resulted in maximum grain growth (~100 µm ).
Microstructure of sinter magnesia
Sintering process was carried out in the range temperatures of 1900 and 1600 oC. At 1900 oC, crystal
grains formation ranging from large and coarse to fine have been observed [Fig 1a]. Maximum and minimum
crystal sizes have ranged from 20 to 200 µm and average size has also been calculated as approximately
100 µm utilizing intersection method. At the duration of sintering process, many particles up to 200 µm were
,
formed by the combination of 2 or 3 grains. Though crystal size is differential at 1850 oC, relatively steady and
homogenous distribution is observed. Locked particles, more than one grain, in range of 120 µm have also been
seen [Fig 1b]. Crystal forming at 1800 oC sintering temperature show a more homogenous distribution compared
to ones formed at 1850 oC.
509
�a
b
c
d
e
f
Fig 1. SEM micrographs of sintered magnesia at various temperatures (a: 1900 oC, b: 1850 oC, c: 1800 oC, d:
1700 oC, e: 1650 oC, f: 1600 oC)
Associated particles of 120
µm
size are also observed at this temperature. Despite the homogenous distribution,
µm . The average crystal size was calculated as 53 µm [Fig 1c]. At
µm . The average size was calculated as 31 µm . Fewer blocked
between 42-25
there are many finer particles around 17
1700 oC, crystal size varies
particles have been observed in this group of tests [Fig 1d]. Maximum and minimum crystal size varies between
35-12
µm
at temperature of 1650 oC. The average size was calculated as 23
µm
[Fig 1e]. At 1600 oC, sintering
temperature maximum, minimum and average crystal sizes were determined as 32, 10 and 17
[Fig 1f].
µm
respectively
Result and Discussion
It is known that density and crystal contact surface area increase with the increase in the crystal size of
sintered magnesia. Refractory materials produced from high quality magnesia have high resistance to acid,
moisture and loads at high temperatures (BS 7134, 1989). Product quality is directly affected by crystal size and
510
�bulk density, therefore a small increase in those values can be considered as a big step as far as purchasability is
concerned. Therefore, crystal size of magnesia, density, MgO and silica content are important parameters.
Magnesia-based refractories with a large grain size (>100 mm) are used extensively where the corrosion
resistance is required. In contrast, a high thermal shock resistance in fused magnesia grain requires a fine crystal
size and a compromise may be required in applications where thermal shock resistance is important.
In this study, the changes in the crystal size and cast density of magnesia as a function of temperature
and the effect of these changes on the purchasability of magnesia were investigated. According to the findings of
the study, which are in agreement with the literature (Marechal, 1991, Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008,
Mendelson, 1969, Erdoğan, Yıldız, 1995, Hara, Kusunose, Kenmochi, 1986), crystal size and cast density of
magnesia increase with temperature [Fig 2]. Under identical cooling conditions (5 oC min-1), the temperature
dependent increase in the crystal size is clearly linear.
110
3,7
Crystal Size
Specific Gravity
100
3,6
90
)3
3,5
80
70
3,4
60
3,3
50
40
3,2
Specific Gravity (g/cm
Crystal Size (microns)
30
3,1
20
10
1550
1600
1650
1700
1750
Temperature (
1800
O
1850
1900
3,0
1950
C)
Fig 2. The change in crystal size and density with temperature
The literature shows that density and crystal contact surface area show a parallel increase with crystal
size (Köknal, Eyüboğlu, Özmen, 2008). As the particles grow in size, the resulting porosity increase causes an
improvement in the resistance of the refractory material to acid and moisture (Kingery, 1984, Itatani, Nomura,
Kishioka, Kinoshita, 1986, Rice, 1972). These additional beneficial properties, in turn, raise the saleability of the
product. Saleability shows a small improvement with particle size and density; increases with every increase in
density, but remains constant after a particle size of 150 microns [Fig 3].
70
60
50
40
30
Purchase Probability (%)
20
Crystal Size (microns)
10
78
100
125
150
Density (g/cm
3,39
3,41
3,43
3
200
)
3,45
3,47
Fig 3. The effect of parameters affecting quality of refractories on purchasability 15
511
�The quality perception of magnesia has changed with the advances in the refractory materials
technology. For example, a magnesia product with a density of 3.36 g/cm3 was considered high quality; today’s
specifications expect a density of 3.47 g/cm3. Considering these facts, it is expected that magnesia products
manufactured at temperatures above 1850 oC should have a strong place in the market.
Conclusion
A high quality sinter magnesia should have a number of specifications such as low B and SiO2, coarse
crystal size, ideal CaO/SiO2 ratio (~1.86) and high bulk density (>3.40 gcm-3). Magnesia product like this can be
easily sold in the market. Under optimum test conditions in the literature such as constant dwelling time (19 min)
and the cooling rate (5 oC min-1), crystal size and bulk density is separately determined according to rising
temperature. Saleability of each product is separately evaluated. The results obtained are summarized;
1. The rise in the sintering temperature up to ~1600 oC improved the densification and gave rise to
maximum enhancement in grain size. The values of 17 µm and 3.03 gcm-3 at 1600 oC have risen to
100 µm and 3.57 gcm-3 respectively at 1900 oC.
2.
3.
4.
As values of 80 µm , ≥ 3.40 gcm-3, specified for good quality magnesia in the literature, are taken into
account 1850 oC temperature is just about sufficient. At this temperature the bulk density is within the
acceptable limits however the crystal size remains below the saleability limit. At lower temperatures
(such as 1800 oC), quality magnesia of required bulk density is obtained. On the other hand needed
crystal size can not acquired.
At 1900 oC temperature, saleable quality magnesia (100 µm > 78 µm , 3.57 gcm-3> 3.40 gcm-3) could
be obtained
According to experiment results, the temperature was subsequently found to be major parameter
improving grain growth and specific gravity of magnesite substantially.
References
Aksel C, Kasap F & Sesver A, Investigation of parameters affecting grain growth of sintered magnesite
refractories Ceramics International, 31 (2005) 121–127.
Aksel C, Rand B, Riley, F L & Warren P D, Mechanical properties of magnesia–spinel composites, J. Eur.
Ceram. Soc. 22 (5) (2002) 745–754.
Batar T, Kemal M, Erdoğan N & Yavuz A S, Refrakter Üretiminde Kullanılacak Yüksek Kalitedeki
Magnezyanın Seçimi ve Pazarlama Koşullarını Belirleyen Özellikler, Geosound, No 40, 2002.
BS 7134, Methods for determination of density and porosity, British Standard Testing of Engineering Ceramics,
Part 1, Section 1. 2, 1989.
Clinton D J & Freer R (Ed.), A Guide to Polishing and Etching of Technical and Engineering Ceramics, The
Institute of Ceramics, Middlesex, UK, 1987.
Erdoğan N & Yıldız R, Magnezit ve Bazik Refrakter Malzeme Teknolojisi, Book, Kütahya, Turkey, 1995.
Hara K, Kusunose H & Kenmochi I, Tokunaga, Study for improvement of spinel bricks, Taikabutsu Overseas 8
(1) (1986) 31–32.
Itatani K, Nomura M, Kishioka A & Kinoshita M, Sinterability of various high-purity magnesium oxide
powders, J. Mater. Sci. 21(1986) 1429–1435.
Kingery W D, Structure and Properties of MgO and Al2O3 Ceramics, Advances in Ceramics, vol. 10, The
American Ceramic Society, Inc., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA, 1984.
Köknal B, Eyüboğlu A K & Özmen T, Sinter magnezyanın mikroyapı incelemeleri, DEU Eng., Fac., Graduate
Thesis, Izmir, Turkey, 2008.
512
�Lee W E & Rainforth W M., Ceramic Microstructures Property Control by Processing, Chapman & Hall, UK,
1994.
Marechal P, Thermal shock resistance of electrofused magnesia grains, Bull. Am. Ceram. Soc. 70 (11) (1991)
1780–1782.
Mendelson M I, Average grain size in polycrystalline ceramics, J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 52 (1969) 443–446.
Rice R W, Strength/grain-size effects in ceramics, Proc. Br. Ceram. Soc. 20 (1972) 205–257.
Van der Ven, A & Kimman, J H M., Billiton Refracteries B.V., A.E. Veendam, Netherlands.
Williams P, Taylor D & Soady, J S, Proceedings of Conference on Refractories for the Steel Industry,
Commission of European Community, Elsevier, 1990.
513
�
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579
Title
A name given to the resource
Investigation of Temperature Parameter on the Sinterability of Magnesia
Author
Author
Köknal, Bengü
Batar, Turan
Altun, Akın
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
A sintering procedure in constant heraus muffle furnace was carried out at an interval of 1600-1900 oC for 50 min dwelling time and 5 oC min-1 cooling rate to improve the grain growth of magnesia. The effects of temperature on the grain growth and microstructural examination of samples were investigated by using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The average grain size was also determined separately by an intercept measurement method. According to the findings, crystal size and bulk density were enhanced significantly as a linear relationship with the increasing temperature. For the samples sintered at 1900 oC, a maximum average grain growth (~100μm) has been obtained. In this paper, the effects of temperature on the crystal size and bulk density of the treated magnesia and its marketability were evaluated.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
-
https://omeka.ibu.edu.ba/files/original/70b0541d5c450b1edeb8d57e57943a31.pdf
3eae881f3b17506b4dd2ddbf4230b904
PDF Text
Text
Effects Of Different Packaging Applications On Fruit Quality Of
Apricots
Fatih Cem Kuzucu
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture
Fatihcem2005@hotmail.com
Arzu Önder
Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University
Agriculture Faculty, Department of Horticulture
arzuonder@hotmail.com
Abstract : In this research it is aimed to determine the avaliblity of different
packaging materials for Roxana, Hungarian Best and Bebeco apricot cultivars
stored in modified atmosphere conditions. For this aim, after harvesting,
apricots were packed with LDPE and PVC packaging materials and some
apricots stored with none application called as control. Packed apricots was put
in cold storage in 0°C and 95% relative humidity for 30 days. After storage,
weight loss, fruit firmness, fruit skin colour, soluble solid content, titretable
acidity, total sugars and taste were determined.
According to the data after 30 day of storage, LDPE and PVC apllications were
found to improve not only all the quality parameters but also storage
qualifications of the apricot fruits.
Keywords : Apricot, postharvest, fruit quality
Introduction
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) is a Chinese originated stone fruit with climacteric characteristic.
Although it is a hot mild climate fruit, it has a large production area over the world (Anonymous, 2008a).
Apricot has a significant role with regard to human health; contain nine different sugars, eighteen free
amino acid, high amounts of vitamin A, beta-carotene and high levels of potassium and iron elements
(Anonymous, 2008b). Fresh fruits are available in Turkish markets from mid-May to end of August
(Özçağıran at. al., 2005). Since stone fruits are prone to spoilage, apricot has a short post-harvest life under
normal temperatures (Chambroy, 1993).
Crisosto et al. (1996) investigated fruit base color, amount of total soluble solids (TSS) and fruit
firmness (FF) and found TSS rates of >10%, amount of titratable acids (TA) as (0,7-1,0 g/100g) FF values
as (0,9-1,4 kg) for fresh fruits ready to be harvested. Researchers also stated proper storage temperatures as
(-0,5)–(0)°C and relative humidity as %90-95.
Most of the world apricot production is consumed as fresh fruit. However, drying and processing
are also available alternatives for apricot since it has a short period of harvest and fresh fruits are prone to
spoilage in short time. About 20-25% of world production is dried. The remaining parts left from fresh or
dried fruits are processed (Sobutay, 2003).
2006
Turkey
Pakistan
Iran
Uzbekstan
2007
2008
557.572
240.192
280.000
230.000
460.182
177.266
280.000
235.637
133
716.415
325.779
280.000
265.000
�Italy
Algeria
Japan
Morocca
Syria
221.994
167.017
119.700
129.440
98.538
214.573
116.438
120.600
105.234
112.738
205.493
145.000
120.600
113.216
112.738
Table 1. Apricot Production Values (ton)
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) production is very common in Çanakkale Kepez region and
production areas are increasing both in the region and the province. However, various problems exist in
marketing and reaching to desired production potentials due to very short storage durations and easy
spoilage of the fruits.
Turkey is the leading country in apricot production with 250-300 thousand tons of production.
Province of Malatya meets almost 50% of Turkish apricot production. Neighboring province Elazığ is also
another center for apricot production. Significant amount of apricots known as Malatya apricot actually
come from Baskil town of Elazığ. About 90% of apricot produced in Malatya is dried and almost 90-95%
of dried fruits is exported ( Anonymous, 2007a and Sobutay, 2003).
Areas of utilization and levels of consumption should be increased both inside and outside of the
country since it has several significant health functions. Therefore, apricot products should be diversified.
Currently available products are fruit juices, jam and marmalades, jelly, ice-cream, delight, cookies,
chewing gums, dried pulp and etc (Sobutay, 2003).
Although geographically distributed all around the world, apricot has larger areas of production
around Mediterranean, Europe, Middle Asia, America and Africa continents.
There are 7 apricot regions in Turkey with almost 20-25% of world production. These regions
are:
Malatya: Produces almost half of the country production and about all production is dried.
Hacıhaliloğlu, Çöloğlu, Đsmailağa, Hasanbey, Şekerpare, Alyanak, Kabaaşı, Yeğen, Tokaloğlu, Çataloğlu,
Hacıkız, Soğancı, Paşa mişmişi, Mahmudun eriği, Kurukabuk and Turfanda are the important varieties of
the region.
Elazığ-Erzincan: Produces for export. Tokaloğlu, Mahmud’un Eriği are important varieties of
the region.
Kars-Iğdır: Produces for domestic markets, varieties are juicy and pulpy. Aprikoz (Şalak ) and
early Ağerik are the important varieties of the region.
Mut-Đskenderun( Mediterranean): Produces mostly for domestic markets and partially for
export. Tokaloğlu, Sahıt, Septik, Lutgani, Hırmanlıdırağı and Tekeler are important varieties of the region.
Sakarya-Bilecik ( Marmara ): Produces for domestic markets, fresh consumption and partially
industry. Karacabey, Mektep, Ethembey, Đmrahor, Tokaloğlu (Yalova ) and Çekirge are important varieties
of the region.
Aegean: Produces for fresh consumption. Yerli Đzmir, Proyma, Çiğli, Tokaloğlu (Đzmir),
Malatya and Şam are important varieties of the region.
Central Anatolia: Produces for fresh consumption and industry. Slight sulphurization is
performed in Ürgüp, Konya and Gürün. Wild apricot production is also carried out in the region to be used
in fruit juice industry. Boğaz, Đri bitirgen, Şekerpare altız and Tokaloğlu are important varieties of the
region (Sobutay, 2003).
Modification of ambient atmosphere is carried out in two ways as ‘passive’ and ‘active’ in
modified atmosphere packing (MAP). Passive modification is applied for fruit and vegetable like
respirating products and active modification is applied for every kind of products (Üçüncü, 2000).
Providence of balanced gas composition in passive modification is a slow process. It is not
always possible to succeed in control of O2 ve CO2 concentrations. However, providence of balanced gas
composition can be supplied in short time with interventions in active modification (Floros, 1990).
Atmosphere composition and variation of this composition in passive modification method
depend on respiration rates and characteristics of packaging materials. The material to be used for
packaging should be able to provide a balance between O2 consumed by the product and oxygen passed
through the material. Similar balance should also be supplied between CO2 produced by the products and
134
�CO2 passed through the material. The critical issue here is to provide the desired atmosphere composition
for the product without any damage caused by O2 or CO2 (Geeson, 1984).
When the modified atmosphere is combined with proper temperatures, it will provide following
benefits to reduce the loses during post-harvest processing and preservation of horticultural crops and fruits
(Debney et al. 1980, Kader 1985):
•
Provide supports for biochemical and physiological changes by slowing respiration,
ethylene production, changes in product compounds and softening and slows down the repining.
•
O2 levels of around 8% and CO2 levels of more than 1% reduce the ethylene sensitivity of
the fruits.
•
Reduces the physiological damages like chilling damages, punctuations and some other
storage spoilages.
•
Modified atmosphere has direct or indirect impacts over post-harvest pathogens and
consequent spoilages. Some applications may reduce spoilages. For instance, increased CO2 levels (1015%) may significantly prevent Botrytis spoilage over strawberry, cherry and some other fruits.
•
It is a useful method to control pests over some products.
Pala at. al. (1993), investigated effects of modified atmosphere (MA) on post-harvest life and
quality of apricots. Fruits were brought to laboratory 12 hours after the harvest, cooled to 3,2°C with water,
packed and stored. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) with 50µ thickness was used as packaging material.
Packed products were divided into two groups; one group was exposed to passive and the other to active
modification (%3 O2, %3 CO2). Quality parameters like form of fruits, pH, total soluble solids, titratable
acidity, color, weight loss and sensual evaluations were measured. Measurements were made once in a
week for six weeks. They found lower shelf lives for control fruits than MA applied fruits. Passive
modification with 50µ thick LDPE at 0°C for 6 weeks was selected as the best post-harvest preservation
practice.
Berger et al. (1990) investigated the impacts of MA over cherries. Researchers harvested Bing
and Lambert varieties as light red (75-100% colored) and dark red (100% colored). Closed packs provided
22 days preservation of cherries at 0 °C. They found that MA didn’t have any negative impacts on taste
and provided 2 days extra shelf life in addition to preservation period.
Herregods (1992) preserved cherries under MA conditions for 20 days and observed that
increasing CO2 levels in packages prevented mold development. While mold development was 7% in
control fruits, it was 3,7% with 30µ LDPE, 1,2% with 50µ LDPE and 0% with 70µ LDPE.
Similarly, Ağaoğlu at. Al. (1992) investigated the effects of different packaging materials on
cold storage of some plum varieties. Perforated and non-perforated polyethylene, perforated and nonperforated polypropylene were used as packaging material for “Stanley” and “d’Agen” plum varieties.
Fruits were stored at -1 °C’ with 80-90% relative humidity and quality parameters were measured once in
every two weeks. They observed decreased fruit firmness and increased weight loss. Package material had
an effect on weight loss. Effect of package material varied based on the variety of plums but provided
better results than control treatments. Researchers recommended non-perforated polyethylene package as
the best material.
Özkurt (1993) studied MA preservation of J.H.Hale peach, Stanley plum, Early Burlat cherry
varieties with limited post-harvest duration. MA was created with PE (35µ), PP(12µ) and PVC (80µ)
package materials. It was observed that preservation duration extended from 2-6 to 6 weeks for peaches,
from 2-6 weeks to 6-7 weeks for plums and from 2 weeks to 4-5 weeks for cherries. Also, all three fruit
varieties preserved their harvest freshness throughout the storage duration.
Similar studies were carried out during the years 2003 and 2004 for Hayward variety of kiwifruit
by using 3 different package type (consumer package, classical package, and modified package) to preserve
the quality of the products and to extend the duration of preservation. Packed fruits were stored at 0 oC
temperature and 90–95% relative humidity. A decrease was observed in weight loss with modified package.
However, weight loss increased with classical package. Fruit peel thickness, fruit firmness, vitamin C and
titratable acid levels generally decreased during cold storage. Soluble solids increased during the
preservation period. Effects of package types on fruit peel thickness were not found to be significant.
Fungal spoilage elements were higher in fruits with modified package than the others. Fungal spoilage
decreased in consumer package. Color brightening in green color of fruit pulp and red color of fruit peel
were observed at the end of storage duration. Taste characteristics of fruits decreased during the storage. It
was concluded that Hayward variety kiwifruits could be preserved for 6 months in modified package and 5
months in consumer and classical package (Namdar, 2005).
135
�In another study, 6 month cold storage and 15 days shelf life of Hicaznar pomegranate variety
were investigated. Fruits were covered with stretch film (12µ) and MAP (8µ). Packaging provided better
preservation than control treatments. Considering visual quality and fungal spoilages, it was concluded that
fruits with MAP application could be stored for 1 year 3 months and fruits with stretch film application
could be stored for 1 year 4 months (Bayram, 2007).
A similar study was carried out to determine the effects of modified atmosphere packages
(MAP) in extending the storage life of Hicaznar variety. Fruits were harvested at the best proper time and
divided into three groups. The first group fruits were put into classical plastic. Second group fruits were
wrapped with easily supplied Xtend®. The third group fruits were stored as control treatment without any
wrapping. All fruits were stored at 6oC temperature and 90-92% relative humidity. Weight lose, amounts of
fruit juice, titratable acid, TSS, peel thickness and peel color parameters were measured at every 45 days.
Beside them, fungal spoilages, physiological spoilages, changes in CO2 and O2 densities of packages were
also recorded. It was concluded that MAP packages extended the storage duration of Hicaznar variety,
decreased the weight loss and slowed down the peel thickening (Gözlekci et al., 2005).
A research was carried out for Hayward variety kiwifruits stored at 0°C temperature and 90–95%
relative humidity. Fruits were put into small and medium polyethylene (PE) bags with different thicknesses
and bags were closed up. Polyethylene bags used under modified atmosphere conditions reduced weight
loss, spoilage and fruit firmness and preserved taste and quality of fruits for 6 months ( Manopoloulou et al.
1997).
Zutkhi ve Ben-Arie (1990) stored Fuyu variety of persimmon fruits under modified atmosphere
conditions. Fruits packed with 0,06 and 0,08 mm polyethylene and stored at 0°C. The fruits with maximum
storage duration of 6 weeks were able to preserve their quality for 18 weeks under MA.
In this study, different packaging materials were used and different Passive MAP applications
were carried out to extend the storage duration of “Hungarian Best”, “Bebeco” and “Roxana” apricot
varieties and the best practice was tried to be determined. These varieties are produced at ‘Apricot
Adaptation Parcels’ of Dardanos campus of ÇOMÜ Agricultural Faculty. They are highly adaptive to
region and high market value both in Turkish and world markets. Results of this research will also be
significant for fruits similar to apricot (peach, nectarine, plum) and results will also be directly used by
local producers in practice and will provide economical gains for local economy.
Material and method
Material
Apricot fruits of this research were supplied from 7 year old fruit trees at ‘Apricot Adaptation
Parcels’ of Dardanos campus of ÇOMÜ Agricultural Faculty. Tree spacing at these parcels is 5x5 m.
Varieties of “Roxana”, “Bebeco” and “Hungarian Best” were used as plant material in this study. Harvest
dates were 1st of July for “Hungarian Best”, 26th of June for “Bebeco” and 28th of June for “Roxana”.
Method
Randomized block design with three factors were used for experiments and 20 fruits were used
in each replication. Data were statistically analyzed by using two-ways variance analysis and LSD test with
5% significance level. Minitab 15 statistical software was used for statistical analysis.
Post-Harvest Modified Atmosphere Package (MAP) applications were implemented for fruits of
3 different varieties. Following modified atmosphere applications were implemented over MAP applied
groups respectively;
1. Modified atmosphere packaging application with low density polyethylene (LDPE) based
Xtend supplied by Stepac Co.
2. Modified atmosphere packaging application with stretch film based Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
supplied by Rotopak Co.
Changes in fruit base color were determined by Minolta CR400 color measurement device;
changes in fruit flesh firmness were determined by “Effe- gi” type hand penetrometer; changes in total
soluble solids were determined by ”Atago Pal 1” digital refractometer; changes in titratable acid amounts
were determined by “Đnolab pH 720” pH meter. Total sugar was determined in accordance with Ross
(1959) dinitrophenol method. Sensory parameter of taste was evaluated out by 5 people testing team taking
the appearance, aroma, sourness, and taste into consideration. Weight loss values were determined by
136
�weighing “Sartorius” 0,01 g sensitive balance. MAP gas composition measurements were carried out daily
by “PBI Gas Dansensor”.
Results and Discussion
Fruit Skin Color ( °h)
Fruit skin colors were found to be significant with regard to cultivars. The lowest value was
obtained from Roxana, it was followed by Hungarian best and Bebeco, and they all placed statistically in
the same group. Effects of storage duration and package applications provided non-significant differences
over fruit skin color.
Cultivar
Hungarian Best
Bebeco
Roxana
Treatment
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Storage Time Mean.
LSD (0,05)
Significiant degree
Storage Time (Day)
0
30
1,3973
1,3275
1,3973
1,3425
1,3973
1,3799
1,5159
1,4736
1,5159
1,4984
1,5159
1,4979
0,1214
0,0950
0,1214
0,3278
0,1214
0,1104
1,0115
1,0059
NS
Cultivar
Mean
Treatment
Mean
Control
1,3736 b
0,9884
PVC
1,5029 a
1,0339
LDPE
0,1495 c
1,0038
0,06533
*
NS
Table 2. Changes in fruit skin color of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana stored within different package
materials.
LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: NS
Fruit Firmness (FF-Kg)
Fruit firmness of control fruits and fruits with PVC package were lower than the others and they
were placed in the same group. The best results were obtained from fruits with LDPE package.
Cultivar
Treatment
Storege Time (Day)
0
30
Control
1,0197 d
0,4930 f
Hungarian Best
PVC
1,0197 d
0,6003 e
LDPE
1,0197 d
0,6564 e
Control
1,8969 a
1,4298 c
Bebeco
PVC
1,8969 a
1,3131 c
LDPE
1,8969 a
1,5055 bc
Control
1,9683 a
0,5295 e
Roxana
PVC
1,9683 a
0,4862 e
LDPE
1,9683 a
1,6518 b
Storage Time Mean.
1,6283 a
0,9628 b
LSD (0,05)
0,06767
Significiant degree
*
LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,2030
Cultivar
Mean.
Treatment
Mean
Control
0,8015 c
1,2229 b
PVC
1,6565 a
1,2141 b
LDPE
1,4288 b
1,4498 a
0,08288
*
0,08288
*
Table 3. Changes in FF values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot varieties stored within
different package materials (kg)
137
�The highest softening was obtained from Hungarian best variety and PVC and LDPE packaging
materials were able to preserve fruit firmness the best. This may be considered as a reaction against
packaging material under the effects of variety characteristics. A general decrease was observed in fruit
firmness of all treatments at the end of 30 days storage. It was seen that LDPE application yielded best
results with regard to fruit firmness preservation.
Total Soluble Solids (TSS, %)
The highest TSS values were obtained from control treatment, TSS values of fruits with PVC and
LDPE packaging material were lower than control fruits and they were placed statistically in the same
group. Lower TSS values of PVC and LDPE indicate that these materials were good for preservation of
these fruits.
Cultivar
Treatment
Storage Time (Day)
0
30
Control
11,987 de
14,242 a
Hungarian Best
PVC
11,987 de
12,383 cd
LDPE
11,987 de
13,040 b
Control
10,710 hi
12,865 bc
Bebeco
PVC
10,710 hi
11,260 fg
LDPE
10,710 hi
11,220 fgh
Control
10,413 i
11,601 ef
Roxana
PVC
10,413 i
11,065 gh
LDPE
10,413 i
11,297 fg
Storage Time Mean
11,037 b
12,108 a
LSD (0,05)
0,1704
Significiant Degree
*
LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,2030
Cultivar
Mean
Treatment
Mean.
Control
12,604 a
11,970 a
PVC
11,246 b
11,303 b
LDPE
10,867 c
11,445 b
0,2087
*
0,2087
*
Table 4. Changes in TSS values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot varieties stored within
different package materials (%)
The highest value was obtained from Hungarian Best variety and it was followed by Bebeco and
Roxana and they all were placed statistically in the same group. An increase was observed in TSS values
after 30 days of storage with regard to initial values. The highest increase was observed in Hungarian Best
variety. Varieties of Bebeco and Roxana had slight increases in TSS rates and they were better than
Hungarian Best variety with regard to TSS.
Increases were observed in TSS values after 30 days storage duration. LDPE and PVC had lower
values than control treatment. However, fruits of control treatment with the best averages of TSS were not
found to be biochemically in good state and it was thought that collapse in fruit increased the TSS values.
8. TITRATABLE ACIDITY (TA %G)
Based on fruit analysis and statistical analysis, the lowest TA values were obtained from PVC
packaging material and it was followed by control treatment and LDPE material. Control treatment and
PVC were placed in the same statistical group.
Cultivar
Hungarian Best
Bebeco
Roxana
Treatment
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Storage Time (Day)
0
30
1,5144 a
1,1377 c
1,5144 a
1,1993 c
1,5144 a
1,3918 b
1,1095 cd
0,9802 e
1,1095 cd
0,9760 e
1,1095 cd
1,0242 de
1,5161 a
0,9824 e
1,5161 a
1,1424 c
1,5161 a
1,4387 ab
138
Cultivar
Mean.
Treatment
Mean
Control
1,3787 a
1,2334 b
PVC
1,0515 b
1,2163 b
LDPE
1,3520 a
1,3325 a
�Storage Time Mean
1,3800 a
LSD (0,05)
0,03119
Significiant Degree
*
LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: 0,09357
1,1414 b
0,03820
*
0,03820
*
Table 5. Changes in TA values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored within
different package materials (% g)
With regard to varieties, the lowest value was obtained from Bebeco and it was followed by
Roxana and Hungarian Best varieties. A decrease was observed in TA value after 30 days storage. Taking
tasting values into consideration, it was concluded that LDPE and PVC provided positive results with
regard to fruit aroma and biochemical activity. Again, higher averages in control treatment reflect the
metabolism of collapsing fruit.
Total Sugars (g/100g)
With regard to total sugar, variety, application, time-application and time-variety interactions
were found to be significant. Hungarian Best had the lowest total sugar value with 1,46 g/100g. Total sugar
value of Roxana was 2,53 g/100g and Bebeco had the highest total sugar value with 3,15 g/100g
LS D(0,05)Uygulama* S üre:1,870
40
35
Top.Şeker
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
S üre(gün)
Uygulama
0
30
0
Kontrol
30
0
PVC
30
LDPE
LSD(0,05)Çeşit*Süre: 1,870
45
40
Top.Şeker
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Süre(gün)
Çeşit
0
30
Hung.Best
0
30
Bebeco
0
30
Roxana
Figure 1. Changes in total sugar contents of of Hungarian Best, Bebeco ve Roxana apricot varieties stored
within different package materials with regard to time-application and time-variety interactions
(%g).
With regard to applications, fruits of control treatment had the lowest total sugar value with 2,16
g/100g. Fruits of PVC and LDPE package material had higher total sugar values than fruits of control
treatment. The highest value was observed in LDPE material with 2,59 g/100g. Total sugar value of fruits
packed with PVC material was 2,39 g/100g.
With regard to time-application, initial value of all treatments before storage was 3,84 g/100g.
This value decreased to 0,49 g/100g in fruits of control treatment after 30 days of storage and this was a
significant difference. The value of fruits packed with PVC material decreased to 0,94 g/100g. The
139
�difference was lower in fruits packed with LDPE material than the other treatments and it was 1,.34 g/100g
after 30 days of storage.
Tasting Test (scale of 1-5)
Ratings of a jury composed of 5 people and statistical evaluations indicated significance of
application, variety, and time-application interaction.
Cultivar
Hungarian Best
Bebeco
Roxana
Treatment
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Control
PVC
LDPE
Storage Time Mean
LSD (0,05)
Significiant Degree
LSD (0,05) Cultivar*Treatment*Time: NS
Storage Time(Day)
0
30
2,9333
3,4667
2,9333
3,7333
2,9333
4,0000
3,1333
2,7333
3,1333
3,2667
3,1333
3,7333
3,1333
2,6667
3,1333
3,3333
3,1333
3,7333
3,0667b
3,4074a
0,06859
*
Cultivar Mean
Treatment
Mean.
Control
3,3333a
3,0111c
PVC
3,1889b
3,2556b
LDPE
3,1889b
3,4444a
0,08401
*
0,08401
*
Table 6. Changes in tasting test ratings of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored
within different package materials (scale of 1-5)
With regard to varieties, Hungarian Best had the highest value and varieties of Bebeco and
Roxana had the same values. Bebeco and Roxana were placed in the same group and Hungarian Best was
placed in a different group. With regard to applications, fruits of LDPE material had the highest value and it
was followed by PVC and control treatment. They all placed in different groups. The best results were
obtained from LDPE packaging material. An increase was observed in taste values after 30 days of storage.
Weight Loss (g)
With regard to varieties, Bebeco had the highest weight loss. Hungarian Best and Roxana had
lower weight loss values than Bebeco and they were placed in the same statistical group. With regard to
applications, fruits of control treatment had the highest weight loss values than fruits of PVC and LDPE
packaging materials. Weight loss of PVC and LDPE packed fruits were very close to each other and they
were placed in the same group.
Hungarian Best
Bebeco
Control
7,070 b
14,565 a
PVC
0.608 b
0,728 c
LDPE
0,704 c
0,662 c
Mean
2,7939 b
5,3183 a
LSD
0,5135
Roxana
7,325 b
0,614 c
0,469 c
2,8029 b
Mean
9,6532 a
0,6503b
0,6116b
LSD
0,5135
Significiant Degree
*
*
(LSD 0,05)Cultivar * Trearment : 0,8894
Table 7. Changes in weight loss values of Hungarian Best, Bebeco and Roxana apricot cultivars stored
within different package materials (g)
MAP Gas Composition (%)
Daily MAP gas composition measurements were carried out by “PBI Gas Dansensor” and they were
presented graphically as O2 % and CO2 % in Figure 2.
140
�Figure 2. Changes in MAP gas compostion of Hungarian Best, Bebeco, Roxana apricot cultivars.
141
�Conclusion and Recommendations
Packaging materials applied for apricots in this study yielded positive results with regard to
investigated quality parameters. The differences especially in fruit skin color, fruit taste and fruit firmness
provided by packaging materials compared to control treatment were remarkable. Consumers directly look
for these quality parameters. On the other hand, weight loss can be prevented by packing fruits with LDPE
and PVC materials. This is an important parameter for profitability of the producer. With regard to TSS,
TA and total sugar values, packaging applications yielded positive results. These packaging applications
can be considered as a preferable application to provide longer durations of storage and consequently
supplying to markets at higher prices and increasing the profitability.
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Title
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Effects Of Different Packaging Applications On Fruit Quality Of Apricots
Author
Author
Kuzucu, Fatih Cem
Önder, Arzu
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
In this research it is aimed to determine the avaliblity of different packaging materials for Roxana, Hungarian Best and Bebeco apricot cultivars stored in modified atmosphere conditions. For this aim, after harvesting, apricots were packed with LDPE and PVC packaging materials and some apricots stored with none application called as control. Packed apricots was put in cold storage in 0°C and 95% relative humidity for 30 days. After storage, weight loss, fruit firmness, fruit skin colour, soluble solid content, titretable acidity, total sugars and taste were determined. According to the data after 30 day of storage, LDPE and PVC apllications were found to improve not only all the quality parameters but also storage qualifications of the apricot fruits.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)
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Text
Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development
Mirsad Kulović,
Tennessee Department of Transportation
Nashville, TN 37243, USA
m.kulovic@hotmail.com
Abstract: The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy
sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration,
not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On
one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the
society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing
problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic
jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the
transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation
systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation
sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic
efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability
include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology,
pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with
importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable
transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe.
Key words: Transportation, Sustainable Development, Practices, Strategies
Introduction
Sustainability, in general, is creating a balance between the economy, social needs and environment.
Transportation, as a core component supporting the interactions between economy, social activities and
environment should be balanced. Virtually all human activities have an impact on our environment, and
transportation is no exception. While transportation is crucial to our economy and our personal lives, as a
sector it is also a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Today’s transportation is facing the
most significant issue – climate change. The reality of climate change is broadly accepted by international
recognized scientific organization and governments. Racing global temperatures pose two major challenges for
the transportation community: (1) preservation of transportation systems by minimizing affect of climate
change and (2) reduction of greenhouse gases emissions produced by transportation systems. The
transportation sector accounts for more than two thirds oil consumption and transportation vehicles emit 28%
of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Since 1990 transportation sector emissions have grown more in absolute
terms than any other sector. Forecasts of emissions, or estimates of future emissions, assist with the
development of policies and actions that can be taken to establish reduction goals and reduce GHG emissions
over the long term. While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for
strategies that help to limit the growth in travel demand. Sustainable development of transportation requires
consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On
one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society; while on
the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources
consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the
sustainable development of the transportation.
Transportation Sustainability
The concept of sustainability can be defined through three major points: social equity, economic
efficiency and environmental responsibility (Figure 1). Social equity relates to conditions favoring a
distribution of resources among the people upon comparative levels of their productivity. This should not be
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�confused with welfare programs because welfare is not equity, but redistribution. Economic efficiency relates
to higher levels of economic efficiency in terms of resource and labor usage. Economic efficiency focuses on
competitiveness, flexibility in production and providing goods and services that supply a market demand.
Environmental responsibility assumes using natural capital (the sum of nature’s resources) at a rate at which
they can be replenished naturally. This includes the supply of resources (food, water, energy, etc.) and
numerous forms of wastes. The existing problems in the respects of social equity, economic efficiency and
resources consuming (the land, energy, etc.) are the key to realize the sustainable development of the
transportation. The transportation infrastructure, mode of transportation and logistics systems are the major
areas of transportation sustainability concentration which would contribute to the sustainability in general.
Table 1 summarizes the key issues that should be balanced and integrated.
The next an important question is: how to evaluate presented transportation sustainability issues?
Sustainable transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. There is currently
no standard set of transportation sustainability indicators. It would be very desirable to develop standardized
baseline indicators of transportation sustainability.
The quantity of oil consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission are directly related and they
have influence on all three categories of transportation sustainability issues. The basic information on oil
consumption and GHG emission are presented in the following paragraphs.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
SOCIAL
EQUITY
ECONOMIC
EFFICIENCY
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESPONSIBILITY
SUSTAINABLE TRANSPORTATION
MODE
INFRASTRUCTURE
LOGISTICS
Figure 1: Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation Relationship
Social Equity
Economic Efficiency
Inequity of Impact
Mobility of Disadvantaged
Human Health Impact
Community Cohesion
Traffic Congestion
Mobility Barriers
Crash Damages
Transportation Facility
Costs
User Transportation Costs
Depletion of Non-renewable
Resources
Community Livability
Aesthetics
Environmental
Responsibility
Air Pollution
Climate Change
Habitat Loss
Water Pollution
Hydrologic Impacts
Noise Pollution
Table 1: Transportation Sustainability Issues (Source: Victoria Transport Policy Institute)
Oil Consumption
The industrialized countries are the largest consumers of oil, but until 1998 had not been the most important
growth markets for some years. The countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD), for instance, account for almost 2/3 of worldwide daily oil consumption. In contrast, however, oil
demand in the OECD grew by some 11 percent over the 1991-97 periods, while demand outside the OECD
(excluding the Former Soviet Union) grew by 35 percent. The Former Soviet Union presents a special case. The
collapse of the Russian economy that accompanied the collapse of Communism led to a decline in oil
consumption of more than 50 percent over the 1991-98 periods. The developed economies use oil much more
intensively than the developing economies. The United States and Canada stand almost alone in their
consumption of oil per capita. For instance, oil consumption in the United States equals 10.8 liters per day per
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�capita. The difference is this country transportation sector, with its dependence on private vehicles to travel
relatively long distances. Oil consumption in the rest of the OECD equals 5.3 liters per day per capita. Outside
of the OECD, oil consumption equals 0.76 liters per day per capita. Table 2 shows consumption of oil per day
per capita in the USA, European Union and some European Countries with the rank of those countries in total oil
consumption per day among 213 world’s countries.
Country
Oil Consumption
per
Day per Capita
[Liters/Day/Capita]
Total Oil
Consumption per
Day
[Liters/Day In
Millions]
Rank in Total Oil
Consumption per
Day
USA
10.8
3288
1
European Union
4.6
2288
2
Germany
4.7
390
7
Croatia
3.6
16
76
Serbia and
Montenegro
1.3
13.5
82
Slovenia
4.3
8.6
94
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
1.1
4.4
111
Macedonia
1.7
3.4
119
Table 2: Oil Consumption (Source: Energy Statistics, Oil Consumption, Nation Master.com)
Regionally, the largest consuming area remains North America (dominated by the United States), followed by
Asia (with Japan the largest consumer), Europe (where consumption is more evenly spread among the nations),
and then the other regions. Asia was the region with the fastest demand growth until the 1998 economic crisis in
East Asia. The region's economic upheaval is a central reason for the oil price collapse of 1998. The United
States and Canada use oil more for transportation than for heat and power, but the opposite pattern holds for
most of the rest of the world: most regions use more oil for heat and power than for transportation. As a result,
global demand for oil is highest in the Northern Hemisphere's cold months. There is a swing of 3-4 million
barrels per day (some 5 percent) between the 4th quarter of the year, when demand is highest, to the 3rd quarter,
when it is lowest. Demand for crude oil is derived from the demand for the finished and intermediate products
that can be made from it. In the short-term, however, demand for crude oil may be mismatched with the
underlying demand for petroleum products. This misalignment occurs routinely as a result of stock changes: the
need to build stocks to meet seasonal demand, for instance, or the desire to reduce stocks of crude oil for
economic reasons. In the longer term, blending non-petroleum additives into petroleum products (such as
ethanol or other oxygenating agents into gasoline) can also reduce crude oil demand relative to demand for
finished products.
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�Greenhouse Gas Emission
Based on current GHG emission reporting guidelines, the transportation sector directly accounted for about 28
percent of total U.S. GHG emissions in 2006, making it the second largest source of GHG emissions, behind
only electricity generation (33 percent). Nearly 97 percent of transportation GHG emissions came through direct
combustion of fossil fuels, with the remainder due to carbon dioxide (CO2) from electricity (for rail) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) emitted from vehicle air conditioners and refrigerated transport. Transportation is the
largest end-use sector emitting CO2, the most prevalent greenhouse gas. Estimates of GHG emissions do not
include additional "lifecycle" emissions related to transportation, such as the extraction and refining of fuel and
the manufacture of vehicles, which are also a significant source of domestic and international GHG emissions.
Figure 1 shows Greenhouse Gas emission in the USA.
Residential
5%
Electricity
Generation
33%
Transportation
Commercial
6%
Agriculture
8%
Industry
20%
28%
Figure 1: Greenhouse Gas Emissions in USA
Sustainable Transportation Practices and Strategies
A number of practices and strategies are being carried out in many countries in Europe and United
States. Some of those practices which found to be effective are listed and described in the following paragraphs.
Land Use Strategies
The decisions related to land use have significant impact on transportation and vice versa. The number and
purpose of trips generated by certain type of land use would influence size and spatial distribution of
transportation infrastructure and different mode of transportation. The most beneficial land use strategy is people
living close to work, shopping centers and basic services. Providing public transportation and space for walking
and biking are the next best actions. Defining urban growth boundaries, minimum density development and
comprehensive planning are effective land use strategies that reinforce sustainable transportation. The policy of
the state, region or municipality should be development of transportation plan that implement the goals
previously adopted by the state, region or municipality. The objective of this policy is to provide the needed
level of mobility while minimize number of trips taken by automobile. It is anticipated that adequate
transportation demand management would reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the USA by 6% by 2020 and 15
% by 2040. The land use strategies could be summarized in the following four practical development actions:
compact development, mixed use development, higher development densities and transit, pedestrian, bike
friendly development. Current transportation planning practices tend to favor road automobile-oriented
investments and designs over alternatives. Transportation planning practices often evaluate transportation
primarily in terms of vehicle movement, which skews decisions toward automobile improvements at the expense
of other forms of access. Transportation professionals should shift their focus from only on level of service for
motor vehicles or road users to the users of other travel modes.Technology
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�The new technologies offer many opportunities to improve efficiency of goods and passenger transportation and
ability to access information. Application of Intelligent transportation systems in many areas of transportation
field already broth significant benefits. The gas-electric hybrid vehicles are widely available on the market.
Hybrid vehicles, which combine an internal combustion engine with a battery-powered motor, are significantly
more fuel efficient than regular gasoline powered vehicles. For example the 2008 Toyota Prius hybrid has a
combined city/highway fuel economy of 5.1 liter per 100 kilometers, while non-hybrid Toyota Corolla, which is
comparable in size, is rated at 8.8 liters per 100 kilometers in city and 6.8 liters per 100 kilometers on highway.
The ‘plug-in –hybrids” are designed to operate mainly as limited range electric vehicles, with a small gasoline
engine to extend range and recharge batteries if needed. They are expected to reach the fuel economy of 2.4 liters
per 100 kilometers. The electricity consumed from the grid is not included in this measure. This technology is
still several years from widespread deployment as the battery systems that operate the vehicles are extremely
expensive and not yet sufficiently reliable for commercial use. An alternative fuel, most generally defined, is any
fuel other than the traditional selections, gasoline and diesel, used to produce energy or power. The emissions
impact and energy output provided by alternative fuels varies, depending on the fuel source. Examples of
alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, electricity, propane, compressed natural gas, and hydrogen.
Transportation Planning Strategy
While technological change is essential to reducing GHG emissions there is also a role for strategies that help to
limit the growth in travel demand. Transportation planning strategies can be implemented through the
transportation planning process and are usually initiated by transportation agencies. These include Travel
Demand Management (TDM), transit investment, changes in land-use patterns and bicycle/pedestrian projects.
The vehicle-kilometer traveled (VKT) has grown much faster than population growth for the past several
decades, but appears to have slowed considerably in the past two years, perhaps in response to sharply rising fuel
prices and global economic crisis. There are many factors that can affect the future growth rate of VKT. Among
most important factors are economic trends and demographic forces, which are largely beyond the influence of
government policies. Expanding transit services and other alternatives to single-occupant vehicle travel and
encouraging land use that minimize the number and length of auto trips can significantly help to reduce GHG
emission. An average private vehicle emission rate is about 0.3 kg of CO2 per kilometer. An automobile driven
by single person 20 kilometers round trip to work will emit 6 kg of CO2. Thus, savings by using existing public
transportation services would be about 6kg of CO2 per day. Over the course of a year an individual could
potentially reduce their CO2 emissions by more than 1440 kg (assuming 240 days of transit travel per year). The
possible opportunity to reduce growth in VKT is providing incentives and logistical support for telecommuting.
Telecommuting, which has been doubled in the 1980-2000 period, is likely to be highly cost-effective strategy
for reducing GHG emissions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not sustainable. Therefore sustainable
transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel behavior) to increase transportation
system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency.
Transportation Systems Operations Strategies
Transportation systems operations strategies are designed to reduce vehicle delay, improve traffic flow, and
avoid unnecessary emissions. These include incident management, traveler information, and freeway
management. Traffic congestion contributes to GHG emissions because vehicle engines operate les efficiently
and therefore produce higher emissions per kilometer when they are driven at low speeds in stop-and-go traffic.
The optimal speed for motor vehicles with internal combustion engines is about 70 km/h. At lower speeds, CO2
emissions per kilometer are several times higher than at 70 km/h. At higher speeds, CO2 emissions per kilometer
increase as well, but somewhat less sharply.
Pricing Strategies
The significant component of GHG emissions, as much as 22 percent, results from inefficient operation of motor
vehicles. These inefficiencies could result from factors beyond the driver’s control, such as traffic congestion,
and also could reflect a driver’s own behavior, such as high speed driving, vehicle maintenance, and tire
pressures. The concept of road pricing has received increased attention primarily as a means of managing
congestion and generating additional funding for transportation. If implemented on a broad scale road pricing
system could change driver behavior. Driver education and other policies could help to promote more efficient
vehicle operations, which would help reduce GHG emissions. Pricing strategies are recognized as efficient for
congestion reduction. The methods vary from toll roads to peak period congestion pricing. Congestion pricing
836
�charges the owner or operator of a motor vehicle a fee for using certain roadways during periods of high
congestion. The way in which congestion pricing is implemented depends upon type of technology selected and
the type of pricing preferred by policymakers. Increase fuel cost can help promote alternative modes of
transportation and investments. Transportation Research Board (TRB) estimates that increasing fuel prices by a
rate of 3 percent per year would result in a 20 percent in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent reduction by
2040. Also TRB estimates that a 1.5 percent annual increase in average new vehicle fuel efficiency would result
[1]
in a 15 to 20 percent reduction in global warming by 2020 and 35 percent by 2040. Distance-based car
insurance and distance-based car registration fees convert insurance and registration fees to a variable cost
related to annual kilometers driven. This would reduce driving by about 9 percent and would reduce travel
during peak hours motivated by consumer savings resulting from the lower, off-peak charges.
Education, Community and Consumers Involvement
The sustainability considerations are affecting people’s travel patterns and involve changes in citizen behavior
and community design. In order for sustainability to be effectively achieved, citizens need to be informed and
educated. Transportation demand management involves educating individuals and communities about changing
travel behavior, including shifts in travel time, route, mode and destination. An efficient market must provide
consumers with a variety of options from which they can choose the combination of quantity, quality and price
that best suits their needs. Consumers must also have accurate information about their options. Only with viable
options can consumer decisions reflect their true preferences. The value of some types of consumer
transportation options is widely recognized. For example, many people argue that competition in vehicle
manufacturing, fuel production and distribution, and airline services tends to increase efficiency and service
quality in these markets. However, there is less recognition of the importance of competition between modes.
For example, transit service improvements can benefit both motorists and non-motorists if it allows some
motorists to shift and therefore reduces congestion and dependency on petroleum producing monopolies.
Improving other modes, such as walking, cycling and ridesharing, can have similar benefits, both to people who
change modes, and so benefit directly from having diverse options to choose from, and those who benefit
indirectly trough reduced congestion and increased market competition.
Conclusions
Transportation is a core component of sustainable socioeconomic systems development. Planning for
sustainability requires changing the way we think about transportation and solve its problems. Transportation is
one of largest contributors of greenhouse gas emissions and a major contributor to global warming. A balance
between economic, social and ecological objectives is necessary. Improving vehicle gas consumption efficiency
and reducing number of trips by private automobile are two most beneficial actions. However, these actions
require manufacturer innovations/supplier offerings and development of new, more efficient modes of
transportation. Improved travel choices supported by pricing incentives, technological innovations, intelligent
transportation system implementation and better integration of land use and transportation planning provide
basic framework for sustainable transportation policy and actions. A high level of motor vehicle travel is not
sustainable. Therefore, sustainable transportation requires mobility management (strategies that change travel
behavior) to increase transportation system efficiency rather than just vehicle efficiency. Sustainable
transportation indicators are an important tool for better transportation planning. It would be very desirable to
develop standardized baseline indicators of transportation sustainability.
References
E. Deakin, (2001-2003), Sustainable Development and Sustainable Transportation: Strategies for Economic Prosperity,
Environmental Quality and Equity, Working Paper.
Primer on Transportation and Climate Change (2008), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO), Washington D.C.
Sustainable Development, Wikipedia, www.wikipedia.org
The Future of Sustainability: Re-thinking Environment and Development in 21st Century (2006) Report of the IUCN
Renowned Thinkers Meeting.
Transport and Sustainability, www.people.hofstra.edu
837
�
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635
Title
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Transportation Practices and Strategies for Sustainable Development
Author
Author
Kulović, Mirsad
Abstract
A summary of the resource.
The transportation as a system is an important component of social and economy sustainable development. Sustainable development of transportation requires consideration, not only its own economic results, but also positive and negative effects of transportation. On one hand, the transportation has promoted the economic development and the progress of the society while on the other hand it has also brought a lot of negative effects. The existing problems in the respects of resources consuming (the land, energy), air pollution, noise, traffic jam, traffic accident, etc. are the key to realize the sustainable development of the transportation. In order to effectively reduce the adverse impact of existing transportation systems new development patterns must be adopted. Overall, the concept of transportation sustainability should be defined through three major factors: social equity, economic efficiency and environmental responsibility. Strategies for transportation sustainability include demand management, operation management, improvements of vehicle technology, pricing policy and integrated land use and transportation planning. This paper deals with importance of transportation for sustainable development and presents some sustainable transportation practices and strategies in the United States and Europe.
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2010-06
Keywords
Keywords.
Conference or Workshop Item
PeerReviewed
Q Science (General)